Book.. ; GoipghtS? COElfRIGHT DEPOSIT. ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY BY DANIEL C. KNOWLTON, Ph.D. HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY, CENTRAL HIGH SCHOOL NEWARK, NEW JERSEY AND SAMUEL B. HOWE, A.M. ACTING HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL SCIENCE, SOUTH SIDE HIGH SCHOOL, NEWARK, NEW JERSEY LONGMANS, GREEN AND CO. FOURTH AVENUE & 3OTH STREET, NEW YORK PRAIRIE AVENUE & 25TH STREET, CHICAGO I917 Essentials in European History Series Essentials in Early European History Essentials in Modern European History M/iy 28 1917 COPYRIGHT, 191 7, BY LONGMANS, GREEN AND CO. ©CI.A462713 PREFACE An understanding of contemporary Europe is largely de- pendent upon an appreciation of two lines of development which have their origin back in the early years of the eigh- teenth century. The one gave rise to modern methods of carrying on business and industry ; the other gave us a new conception of the relation of government and the governed. In other words, to form a proper estimate of existing conditions in Europe we must follow step by step the revolutionary changes in commerce and industry and the tremendous ad- vance of democracy which have in a special manner charac- terized the history of the past century and a quarter. The effort of the authors of the present volume has been to present in bold relief these particular phases of modern life, mindful at the same time of the necessity of maintaining throughout a proper perspective. This task becomes increas- ingly difficult as we approach our own day. The march of events, however, has been so rapid that correspondingly more space has been devoted to contemporary history than to the earlier epochs. An effort has been made throughout the volume to emphasize only the sahent points in European prog- ress and to present them in a form attractive to high school students, showing the interrelation of these facts and empha- sizing especially their bearing upon the two aspects of the history of Europe to which reference has already been made. Those teachers who favor placing special emphasis upon the development of England in presenting the history of Europe will, we trust, find sufficient material for their purpose in the accompanying pages. The authors, however, have sought to avoid giving undue prominence to EngHsh development, reaUz- ing that other states on the continent have played no inconsid- erable part in world progress. Their object has been rather to give the high school student just that residuum of facts and iv PREFACE impressions about Europe, as a whole, which should be the possession of every well-informed man of affairs. The volume does not represent in any sense a compromise between Euro- pean and English history. It follows very closely the outlines prepared for the History Teachers Magazine a few years ago by Dr. A. M. Wolf son of the Julia Richman High School, New York City, in association with one of the authors of the present volume. These outhnes represented an attempt to put in definite syllabus form the ideas of the framers of the report of the Committee of Five. This syllabus has been carefully tested out in the class room, and the present volume has been prepared in harmony with these experiences. The authors trust it will serve to crystallize the divergent views as to what should be taught in the secondary school in the field of contemporary history and will also give an added impetus to instruction of a broader and more cosmopolitan character. In this event it will have served a most useful purpose and will amply repay the time and effort expended. The authors' thanks and appreciation are due to Professor George Mathew Dutcher of Wesleyan University and to Mr. H. F. Biddle of the Plainfield, New Jersey High School, for critical reading of the proofs, to Mr. J. C. Ware of the South Side High School, Newark, New Jersey, for help in securing illustrations, and to Mrs. J. M. Bensing of the North Plainfield, New Jersey Schools for assistance with the collateral reading references. The authors wish to acknowledge their indebtedness for the following illustrations: to the Avery Library of Columbia University, for several of the illustrations; to Stevens Insti- tute, for ''John Stevens's Locomotive;" to the Pennsylvania Railroad Company for ''The Modern Locomotive;" to Mr. Cornelius Vanderbilt and to the New York Times, for "Le Bourget 30th October, 1870" by Detaille; to // Progresso, for "The Victor Emmanuel Monument;" and to the New York Telephone Company, for "The Telephone Exchange, Old and Modern." CONTENTS CHAPTER ONE SOCIAL AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS IN EUROPE IN THE EARLY EIGHTEENTH CENTURY p^Qj. 1. Introduction i 2. The establishment of constitutional government in England . . 2 3. The party system 4 4. England in 1740 5 5. The establishment of the power of the monarch in France ... 8 6. Rise of Russia and decay of Sweden 16 7. Rise of Prussia 20 8. The passing of Holland 21 9. The decay and attempted reviv^al of Spain 22 10. The great states about 1740 23 11. The reform movement 23 12. The philosophers and economists 24 13. Their influence: the age of enlightened despotism 25 CHAPTER TWO INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL CONDITIONS IN EUROPE IN THE EARLY EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 14. The guild system 32 15. Government interference with and regulation of industry ... 34 16. Changes in the guild system 35 17. The domestic system and the germination of the modern factory 36 18. Domestic trade: its nature and importance 38 19. Trade routes and transportation facilities 40 20. Banking facilities 42 21. The stock exchange 44 22. Rise and development of the trading company 44 23. The Portuguese as traders and colonists 47 24. The Spanish colonial empire : the policy of the Spanish rulers . 48 25. The Dutch as traders 40 26. The mercantile system 50 27. The new science of political economy: its relation to trade and industry 53 V vi CONTENTS CHAPTER THREE THE RIVAL COLONIAL AND COMMERCIAL POWERS AND THE COMMERCIAL WARS OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY PAGE 28. The older world powers and their decay 57 29. The expansion of England and France 58 30. The rivalry between England and France 62 31. The War of the Spanish Succession and its effects upon colonial and commercial development 63 32. The War of the Austrian Succession 66 2;^. Colonial interests involved 68 34. The French and Indian War 70 35. CHve in India 72 36. The Seven Years' War 74 37. Attempts of England to modify her colonial policy 75 38. The opposition in America 80 39. The American Revolution 83 CHAPTER FOUR THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND THE END OF THE OLD ORDER IN FRANCE 40. The old order and the reform movement in France 90 41. Class privileges 90 42. Feudal survivals 91 43. Financial mismanagement 92 44. The system of taxation 93 45. Economic burdens 96 46. Organization of the government 96 47. The administration of justice . 97 48. Condition of the common people 97 49. Agitation under Louis XV 98 50. Louis XVI and his efforts at reform 99 51. Necker and the summoning of the States General loi 52. Formation of the National Constituent Assembly 104 53. Interference of Paris: Fall of the Bastille 107 54. The end of the old order no 55. Removal of the government to Paris m 56. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Constitution of 1791 113 57. The civil constitution of the clergy and the flight of the king . . 116 CHAPTER FIVE THE FRENCH REPUBLIC AND THE STRUGGLE WITH EUROPE 58. Decline of the monarchy 122 59. Rise of clubs and parties 123 CONTENTS vii PAGE 60. Opposition of the king to the assembly and the outbreak of war 1 26 61. The abolition of royalty and its consequences 127 62. The Convention and the declaration of the republic 131 63. The crisis of 1793 and formation of the Committee of Public Safety .^ 135 64. Work of the Committee of Public Safety 136 65. Dictatorship of Robespierre and his overthrow 140 66. The reestablishment of constitutional government 144 67. The dismemberment of Poland 146 CHAPTER SIX THE NAPOLEONIC ERA 68. The government and the army in 1795 149 69. Training and personality of Bonaparte 150 70. Bonaparte in Italy: Campaign of 1796-7 154 71. Bonaparte in Egypt 156 72. Establishment of Bonaparte's power in France 159 73. The work of peace 162 74. The establishment of Bonaparte's power in Italy 165 75. Bonaparte and England 166 76. Extension of Napoleon's power over central Europe 168 77. Napoleon's power at its height 171 78. The influence of the Napoleonic regime 174 79. The nationalist reaction against Napoleon 176 80. The Moscow campaign and the War of Liberation 179 81. The Hundred Days and Waterloo 181 82. The Congress of Vienna and the reconstruction of Europe ... 182 CHAPTER SEVEN THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 83. The old manorial system of agriculture and its defects .... 190 84. Improvements in methods of tillage 192 85. The revolution in agriculture 194 86. The nature of the industrial revolution 195 87. The revolution in the manufacture of textiles 196 88. Improvements in the iron industry and in pottery 200 89. The steam engine and its application to industry 201 90. The revolution in transportation 203 91. The factory system and its effects 206 92. The effects of the industrial revolution 209 93. Growth of socialism 213 94. The industrial revolution on the continent 215 viii CONTENTS CHAPTER EIGHT METTERNICH AND THE STRUGGLE FOR CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT P^qE 95. Metternich and the reaction in Europe 219 96. The Tory reaction in England 222 97. Metternich and the Holy Alliance 225 98. Struggle for constitutional government 226 99. Unrest in Germany and the doctrine of intervention 229 100. The July revolution and its effects 231 loi. The revolution of 1848 in France 235 102. The revolution of 1848 in Germany 237 103. The revolution of 1848 in Austria 240 104. The revolutionary movement in Italy 242 105. Results of the revolution of 1848 244 106. Recognition of the rights of the people in England 245 107. The reform measures of 1832-3 247 108. Other social reforms 250 CHAPTER NINE THE ASCENDANCY OF NAPOLEON AND THE NATIONALIST WARS, 1848-1871 109. Character and aims of Louis Napoleon 256 no. The Second Republic and its problems 258 111. The formation of the Second Empire 260 112. The new empire and Europe: The Crimean War 262 113. Mazzini and Cavour and the struggle for Italian unity .... 265 114. The completion of Italian unity 267 115. The rise of Prussian leadership in Germany 273 116. Bismarck and the reform of the army 276 117. The Seven Weeks' War and the exclusion of Austria from Germany 278 118. Intrigues and enterprises of Napoleon III 281 119. Outbreak of the Franco-German War 282 120. The close of the war and the formation of the German Empire . 287 CHAPTER TEN THE EXPANSION OF EUROPE INTO ASIA AND AFRICA THE NEAR EAST AND AFRICA 121. Conditions favorable to the spread of European influence in Asia and in Africa 295 122. European rivalries and the growth of Imperialism 302 123. The nature and origin of the Near Eastern Question 303 124. The War for Greek independence 305 125. The struggle between Turkey and Egypt 307 CONTENTS ix PAGE 126. Russia and the Crimean War 308 127. The Russo-Turkish War and the Congress of Berlin 310 128. The emergence of the Balkan states, 1878-1908 312 129. The Turkish revolution and its consequences 315 130. The opening up of Africa by the missionaries and explorers . . 317 131. England and France in Egypt 320 132. France, Germany and Italy in Africa" 321 133. The extension of EngUsh influence in South Africa 324 CHAPTER ELEVEN THE EXPANSION OF EUROPE INTO ASIA AND AFRICA (Continued) THE FAR EAST AND THE EUROPEAN WAR OF I914 134. Origin of the Far Eastern question 326 135. The awakening of Japan 331 136. China and its civilization 333 137. Chino-Japanese War, 1894-5, and its effects 336 138. The conflict between Russia and Japan 339 139. Japan as a great power 341 140. The great colonial powers of the present day 344 141. The influence of expansion upon the European situation: the European War of 1914 349 CHAPTER TWELVE , THE ADVANCE OF DEMOCRACY 142. The domestic problems of individual states in 1870: their origin and nature 359 143. The preponderance of Germany in Europe: maintenance of the monarchical principle 363 144. Bismarck's domestic policy 367 145. The reign of William H 368 146. The maintenance of autocracy in Russia 370 147. Nicholas II and the struggle for representative government . . 374 148. The Third Republic in France 376 149. The spread of constitutional government and the extension of the suffrage 381 150. The Irish question and the reform of Parliament 384 151. The separation of Church and State in Europe 393 152. The spread of socialism and the increase of social legislation . . 395 153. Intellectual and scientific progress in Europe 398 Appendix I. Important Events in European History 407 Appendix II. General Bibliography 411 Appendix III. A Synchronological Chart Showing the Rulers of the Principal European States from 1688 to 1916 417 Index 421 LIST OF MAPS AND PLANS PAGE Sweden and Russia at the Time of Peter the Great 17 The Portuguese Colonial Empire about 1550 46 Spain's Colonial Empire about 1550 49 The Colonial Empire of Holland about 1650 51 European Powers in the East about 1700 60 Western Europe at Outbreak of War of Spanish Succession. {Colored) facing 62 Western Europe at the Close of War of Spanish Succession. {Colored) facing 6s French Colonial Empire from the 17th to the Early 19th Centuries. . 71 India before Clive. {Colored) facing 72 India in 1785. {Colored) facing 72 Growth of Brandenburg-Prussia 74 The World (1772). {Colored) facing 82 British Colonial Empire in 1783 85 Plan of Revolutionary Paris 109 France in 1789 114 France in 1 791 115 Europe in 1 789. {Colored) facing 178 Europe in 181 2. {Colored) facing 178 Industrial England, 1 700-1 750 211 Industrial England since 1750 • 211- Industrial Map of Europe. {Colored) '.facing 215 Europe in 1815. {Colored) facing 219 Distribution of Races in Austria-Hungary 223 Austrian Possessions in 1848 223 Italy in 1815 269 Italy, Showing Dates of Unification 269 German Empire, Showing Dates of Unification 290 Ottoman Empire in 1878 313 Ottoman Empire after the Balkan Wars 313 Africa in 1884. {Colored) facing 318 Africa in 1914. {Colored) facing 318 The Far East in 18 15. {Colored) facing 326 The Far East in 1914. {Colored) facing 326 Territorial Possessions of Great Britain, 19 14 346 Territorial Possessions of France, 1914 347 Territorial Possessions of Germany, 1914 347 Territorial Possessions of Portugal, 1914 348 Territorial Possessions of Holland, 1914 348 Territorial Possessions of the United States, 1914 348 The Great World War, 1914- 351 World Colonies and Dependencies, 1914. {Colored) between 358, 359 Europe in 1914. {Colored) facing 398 X MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY CHAPTER I SOCIAL AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS IN EUROPE IN THE EARLY EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 1. Introduction. — With the opening of the eighteenth cen- tury the history of Europe centres largely about two countries whose beginnings carry us back into the early Middle Ages, France and England. Germany, or the Holy Roman Empire' as The Holy it was officially known, had sunk back into a position of insig- ^°"^*° Empire nificance. The religious wars, which closed with the Treaties of Westphalia in 1648, had left her so weak politically and so exhausted economically that she had ceased to play any con- siderable part in European affairs. It was no longer necessary for Europe to reckon with Spain, or to fear the weight of her influence. This was because of the disasters which had accom- panied the efforts of Philip II to stem the tide of Protestantism, especially his supreme move, the sending of the Spanish Armada The Spanish (1588). Although France, like Germany, had been torn asun- Armada der by a series of religious struggles, known as the Huguenot Wars (1562-1598), she was fortunate in having at her com- mand a succession of great men like Henry IV, Richelieu, and Mazarin, who not only healed the wounds occasioned by this France long struggle but created by their labors a state so strong as immediately to play a leading part in shaping the history of all western Europe. The period in her history from 1661 to 1 715 marks the reign of one of her greatest kings, Louis XIV, ^®"*s XIV who practically dominated his age and was the representative 2 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY ruler of the latter half of the seventeenth century. In the Middle Ages the Holy Roman Empire had been the centre of interest; then the rising states of France and England. They dropped out of sight for a time as the result of the long and bitter warfare which began in the reign of the English king, Edward III, and with the Reriaissance period Spain became the great European state; with the end of the eighteenth century, however, France and England came into their own again and Spain sank into insignificance. 2. The Establishment of Constitutional Government in England. — England at the beginning of the eighteenth cen- tury began to stand for certain lines of development; the same thing may also be said of France. In England the people had been recognized as the real source of authority, enjoying an amount of liberty unknown upon the continent of Europe. They had been admitted to an important share in the govern- ment and were conspicuous for their share in the management of their own affairs. It had been a long struggle. The Stuart kings who came to the throne at the very opening of the seven- teenth century (1603) tried to rule as absolute monarchs and were so unmindful of the rights of the people that the second king of that line, Charles I, plunged England into the Great The Great Civil War. He was striving to establish his right to rule Eng- land without a parliament, denying to the people any partici- pation in the government through their representatives. Even though for the moment England was ruled by the Rump Par- liament, his execution estabhshed the right of the people to a voice in their government. When his son, Charles II, was restored to the throne in 1660, the right of the people to share with the King in the government was clearly recognized, as the Declaration of Breda, which outlined the conditions of the The Restoration Restoration, provided for the settlement by parliament of such vexed questions as the relation between church and state, and the rights and privileges to be accorded to those who had supported the Puritan cause. Charles II found it neces- SOCIAL AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS 3 sary first to select a single man and later a group of men to act as intermediaries between himself and parliament, that he might work in harmony with their wishes. He found these in men like the Earl of Clarendon and the Earl of Danby and in the little group known as the Cabal. In the latter is to be seen the beginnings of the modern cabinet. His successor, James II, however, undertook to rule England as tyrannically as had his father, Charles I, before him, but not by dismissing parliament. He assumed the right to dispense with such laws as interfered with his freedom of ac- tion, suspending the operation of others when they came in conflict with his authority. His object seems to have been to make England Catholic. His subjects, however, rose in rebellion and he fled the country, taking refuge at the court of Louis XIV in France. This was the Revolution of 1688. Parliament Revolution of issued an invitation to his Protestant daughter Mary and her ^^^^ husband William of Orange to come over from Holland and rule England, and in drawing up the terms upon which the new sovereigns should rule the country they established the idea or principle firmly in England that parliament was not alone equal to the king and a partner with him in the management of affairs, but that it was really his superior; that from it he derived all his power and authority. This great document was known as the Bill of Rights. This, with the Toleration Act of The bui of 1689, practically removed for all time the question of re- '^ ligion from English politics as a paramount issue. The former provided in one of its clauses that the ruler must be a member of the Church of England; the Toleration Act gave to every The Toleration Protestant, other than Unitarians, the right to worship God according to the dictates of his own conscience. Catholics were excluded from the provisions of the act, as were also the Jews. It was long after this before they were permitted to hold political office and were allowed the right to worship as they pleased. With one exception, that of Prussia, England stood alone among the nations of Europe in the recognition of the princi- 4 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY pie of toleration. It is interesting to note that this principle was also recognized at a very early date in certain of our The Act of American colonies. The Act of Settlement (1701), which may Settlement g^jg^ ^^ considered as one of the direct consequences of the Revolution of 1688, made provision for a Protestant succes- sion by recognizing the Electress of Hanover as next in suc- cession to the branch of Stuarts represented by William and Mary and Anne. 3. The Party System. — ^ At the opening of the eighteenth century England was ruled by parties. These were known as Whigs and Tories. The party system of government, which is so familiar in America to-day, developed in England very slowly and had its origin in the reign of Charles II (i 660-1 685). The king had tried to show favor to the Catholics by a Decla- The Declaration ration of Indulgence, removing some of the restrictions which of Indulgence j^^^ 1^^^^^ placed upou them. The result was a great outburst and Exclusion ^ ^ _ " ^ Bill of opposition from the Protestant element in parliament and throughout the country, who even went so far as to try to exclude from the throne the king's brother, who was known to be a devout Catholic. A bill was introduced called the Exclusion Bill, and the supporters of the bill were known as Petitioners; its opponents as Abhorrers. The struggle ex- tended to the country at large, and the two parties into which the people divided gradually came to be known as Whigs and The Whigs Torics, designations attached to the Petitioners and Abhorrers as nicknames. By the close of the reign of James II, England was divided between these two parties, and the invitation sent to William and Mary in 1688 was signed by their recognized leaders. When William tried to secure the passage through parliament of such measures as he desired, he found it necessary to consult with the leaders of the majority party. At first he tried to use the leaders of both parties, but as the Whigs were in the majority at the time he was forced to narrow his choice to the single party and formed what was known as The Whig Junto ^he Whig Junto. This marked the beginning of what is SOCIAL AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS 5 called cabinet government.^ Any measure which the king de- sired must first meet with the approval of this group of min- isters, who then made it their business to see that it met with favorable action at the hands of the party in parliament. They stood between the king and parliament and were in the course of time looked up to by the country as the real heads of the government. George I did not trouble himself to consult with each member of his cabinet; he preferred to deal with one of their number, who could act as their spokesman, and so the office of prime minister arose. It should also be added that The Prime this king did not care to attend the meetings of the cabinet, as he understood very little of what happened there, because of his ignorance of the language ; and this arrangement, whereby all business was transacted through a single repre- sentative of their number, seemed to answer every need. Wal- pole was the first great prime minister (1721-1742), but he Waipoie brought the office and the party system into some disrepute by his unblushing corruption. He cynically remarked of a group in the House of Commons, "Every man has his price," and secured and maintained his leadership and that of his party in the House of Commons by buying votes, conferring titles, bestowing commissions in the army and navy, and utilizing the various expedients at his command to secure the necessary number of votes for his legislation. 4. England in 1740. — The English system of party gov- ernment, which was the only government of its kind in Europe, was thoroughly established by 1740. It could be looked upon as essentially democratic in character, i.e., based upon the idea that the people were the centre and source of all power. When we come to examine the two parties which ruled the country at this time, we find that these did not draw their membership from the entire male population. In the first place there were great numbers who were excluded from voting and holding Voting office by the provisions of the Toleration Act and such meas- ^ See Sec. 2 on the Cabal. Representation 6 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY ures as the Test and Corporation Acts passed in the reign of Charles 11. Then again the system of representation, which had been fixed long before this time, provided only for the representation of certain communities. The conditions of voting were fixed at the same time as the representation and varied according to the particular district which returned mem- An Eighteenth-century Election In this spirited engraving by Hogarth, the great cartoonist and satirist of the eighteenth century, is shown the method of "PolKng the Vote" at an Enghsh election. Voting was by word of mouth, and every opportunity for intimidation and fraud existed. This was one of the abuses corrected by law during the nineteenth century. bers to the House of Commons. In consequence of these ar- rangements only the wealthy mercantile and commercial classes in the towns and cities and the squires, or country gentlemen with considerable estates in the rural districts, enjoyed the right either to elect members of parliament or to offer themselves as candidates for election to the lower house. These classes, then, ruled England through their respective parties. The Whigs were SOCIAL AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS 7 powerful in the urban communities; the Tories in the country districts. In general the Tories could be found supporting Party Platforms the king and royal authority; they were the conservative ele- ment in the community. The Whigs, on the other hand, were a more aggressive, radical body, inclined to protest against any unusual exercise of authority on the part of the king or of his ministers. They were keenly interested in the expansion of England's trade and in the development of her commerce. The Tories naturally represented the agricultural interests of the country. The gradual increase in the control of parties may be seen by examining the reigns of the English rulers from the ac- cession of WilHam and Mary through the reign of George I (1688-1727). In Anne's reign the queen, though opposed to the Whigs, was powerless to prevent the war of the Spanish Succession or to bring it to a close. Although war was declared by the Tories the struggle was essentially a Whig affair, waged to further their commercial interests. The Whigs soon ousted Power of the Tories, directing the course of events from 1705 to 17 10. ^^^^^^^ The Tories finally succeeded in getting the upper hand and concluded a treaty of peace, but quickly lost their advantage when George I came to the throne, and his reign marked the beginning of a long period of Whig domination. The English government then was in the hands of a king whose power, in the course of events, had been largely transferred to a prime minister, although all business was still transacted in the king's name; a cabinet, drawn from the same party as the prime minister and largely subject to his control and leadership ; and a parliament consisting of two houses but dominated largely by the lower house, in which a constant struggle was being waged between Whigs and Tories. Neither the cabinet nor prime Relation of minister were recognized by law. This very important part of Cabinet to King the governmental machinery developed as the result of the needs and circumstances of the hour and never received the official sanction of parliament. Then, as now, the king ruled 8 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Power of Parliament Struggle with Louis XIV Influence of France but did not govern. The sovereign was expected to sign every bill which had received the approval of the ministry and both houses of parliament. Parliament, as has been already shown, was not a truly representative body, but was the instrument for furthering the interests of the country gentry, or the well-to-do trading classes of the towns. In the course of time the king simply selected the leader of the party in power in the House .of Commons as prime minister, and he in turn selected the members of his cabinet. To each of these was usually intrusted an important department of government, e.g., foreign affairs, finance, the army, navy. No less important than these political changes, which created a government more liberal than any on the continent, was the long struggle with Louis XIV, which began back in the reign of Charles II and closed in 1 713. This forms a part of the struggle for commercial supremacy between the great states of Europe and will be described in detail in that connection.^ By it England won an enviable place among the nations of Europe. She clearly demonstrated her superiority over the French upon the sea and thereby placed herself well in the lead com- mercially. She also did much to safeguard the independence of the smaller states of Europe and to prevent the building up of a great French empire out of their territories and Spain's vast possessions. 5. The Establishment of the Power of the Monarch in France. — Throughout the latter part of the 17th century it was France who had been acknowledged as leader among the great states of Europe. In almost every particular she presented a marked contrast to her neighbor across the Channel. Henry IV, Richelieu, Mazarin, and Louis XIV had labored to exalt the monarch rather than the people to the highest place in the government and had succeeded so well that the French monarch could boast with much of truth, "I am the state." The reign of Louis XIV marked the most brilliant period in French his- 1 See Chapter in. SOCIAL AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS Louis XIV 10 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Power of the King tory. Not only was France feared by her neighbors, but her achievements in art and in Hterature, and likewise her institu- tions, were widely imitated. The king was not only the centre and source of all authority, but he was also the generous patron of artists and writers. The luxury and splendor which he en- couraged made France the home of beautiful tapestries, fine furniture, and stately architecture. The ruler was fond of lik- The Gallery or Battles at Versailles The Palace at Versailles was the royal residence of Louis XIV and his two successors, and now is a great national museum. The most imposing room in this wonderful structure is the Gallery of Battles. The floor, inlaid with woods of various colors, is beautifully polished. The roof is of glass and costly gilding sustained by marble columns in front of each of which, on handsome pedestals, are portrait busts of noted generals of France. The glory of the hall is its collection of historical paintings representing the battle-fields of France, especially the many victories of Napoleon. ening himself to the rising sun with the whole world basking in his beneficent rays. Louis XIV placed the capstone upon the French governmental system, finally concentrating in his own person every function of government that really counted, — leg- islative, executive, and judicial. No detail of government was too trifling for his personal attention; everything must come SOCIAL AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS Examples of Bourbon Magnificence These palace interiors with their luxurious furnishings belong to the period of Louis XIV and Louis XV. The furniture has been named for these monarchs. 12 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY The Court The Church Revocation of the Edict of Nantes under the king's eye; every important document must bear his signature. The court of Louis XIV was the most brilHant in all Europe. After building for himself a splendid palace at Versailles, he attracted thither all the great nobles of the realm, making it a prime requisite for political advancement that they should grace his court by their presence. When on one occasion a nobleman was recommended to him for an appointment, he made answer, *'I have not seen him at my court." Court functions of one sort or another took up the time of nobles who otherwise might have been plotting against the government on their estates or have formed the centre of various disaffected groups of subjects. The king elevated the most trivial service rendered to his person into the most important of state ceremonials, and there was great rivalry among his courtiers to perform the most menial services, such as to be present when he arose or retired, holding perhaps some one of his garments. To amuse this court King Louis encouraged the writing of some of the finest French plays. Versailles furnished one continuous round of pleasure and gayety for its inhabitants. The best of French art was lavished upon its decorations; its glories were heralded abroad; and it soon became the ambition of the petty princehngs of Europe to imitate its splendor and magnificence. It was not only the political system which was completely under the thumb of the king. The same held true of the church. There was no thought of toleration in France. On the contrary, the king became more intolerant with the passage of time, and in 1685, after a series of persecutions known as the dragonnades, he wiped from the statute books of his realm the last vestige of the Edict of Nantes, with its guarantees to the Huguenots of the right to worship as they pleased. The king's one thought seems to have been to leave France a unit as to its religion as he had labored to make it a unit as to its govern- ment. This was a decided step backward in every particular. Its immediate result was to lose to France many of her best SOCIAL AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS 13 14 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY citizens. Some fled to America; others were welcomed in Eng- land, in Holland, and in parts of Germany. By this time a great gulf had become fixed between the classes in France. Three main divisions are readily distinguished, the clergy, the nobility, and the third estate. The nobles owed their position either to birth (the noblesse de Vepee) or service (the no- blesse de la robe). Although there were some members of the hereditary nobility who were in close touch with the people, the great lords, who held the highest positions in the government, were far removed from all contact with the people at large on account of the life which they led at Versailles. They were not even in touch with the occupants of their great estates, as they seldom visited these and left their management in the hands of overseers. Many of the nobility lived on the incomes derived from pensions granted them by the king and were an economic burden upon society. A great barrier separated the nobility from the third estate. This class took its name from the fact that it was represented in one of the three houses (or estates) of the French Estates General, which corresponded roughly to the Eng- lish parliament. This body, however, had seldom come together; its last session was in 1614. The third estate, or bourgeoisie, as it was sometimes called, was composed of well-to-do business men, bankers, lawyers, doctors and the like, many of whom filled the subordinate administrative positions in the govern- ment, which were very numerous on account of its bureaucratic nature. The name third estate was also appHed to all who were not members of the nobility or clergy and it therefore included the peasants, who constituted nearly nine tenths of the entire population and had no representation in the Estates General. The majority of these were without political rights and pos- sessed of no civil standing. Then, too, there were the artisans and workers, — about a tenth of the population. Some of the latter were to be found among the slum dwellers of Paris and the great cities and their lot was wretched beyond description. Although the clergy formed the first estate in the Estates SOCIAL AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS 15 General, their position is best understood by considering their relation to the nobility and the common people. They were composed of the higher and lower clergy. The higher clergy The Clergy were recruited from the younger sons of noble families, who were given high positions in the church which carried with them large revenues. The actual duties were in many cases performed by the lower clergy, who were recruited from the common people. These were the cures or parish priests, who eked out a precari- ous living upon their meagre salaries. The higher clergy in many cases frequented the court to the neglect of the spiritual and material welfare of those committed to their charge. France owed her commanding position in Europe in part to the perfection of her army. The French armies of the time of The Army Louis XIV were the finest in Europe and were commanded by a group of brilliant generals. Louvois and Vauban, the one a LouvoIs war minister, the other a great engineer and student of defence, ^^^ vauban helped to make France the great mihtary power of the time, and their work was widely copied. The art and literature of Europe were long dominated by French ideals. The age of Louis XIV gave birth to such writers Literature as Moliere, the famous writer of comedy; Racine, the great writer of tragedy; Boileau, the critic; La Fontaine, the Aesop of his day; the brilliant letter writer, Madame de Sevigne; and many others whose works became models for the rest of Europe. French art, with representatives like Claude Lorrain, the land- Art scape artist; Le Brun, the well-known decorator of the palace of Versailles; and Mansard, whose name has been attached to a peculiar type of roof, also exercised its magic power over Europe. "In literature," says Macaulay, "France gave laws to the en- tire world." This sort of supremacy to some extent compen- sated her for a gradual loss of her political power, for with the death of Louis XIV France passed into a period far less glorious and marked by many more failures than had been true of the age of Le Grand Monarque. Louis himself had failed largely because of England's opposition. Although still counted a 1 6 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY power of the first rank France politically was gradually giving way to England and to other powers on the continent. 6. Rise of Russia and Decay of Sweden. — The age which had witnessed the glories of the personal rule of Louis XIV saw Peter the Great Studying Ship-building In 1697 Peter the Great visited the countries of western Europe to study their institutions. Here he is seen examining the model of a ship. After studying ship-building he returned to Russia and created a fleet. the gradual rise of two new states in eastern Europe, Russia Peter the Great and Prussia. Russia was largely the creation of Peter the Great, who, yielding to the spell of western methods of govern- ment and western habits of thinking, tried to transform his Oriental country into an Occidental. It was a gigantic task which he undertook, but he at least succeeded in one thing, and SOCIAL AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS 1 8 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY that was in making Russia from this time forward a factor to be reckoned with in any movement on the continent of Europe. In his young manhood, partly as the result of travel, Peter came in contact with natives of Germany, Holland, and England and Moscow A view of modern Moscow from the Temple of Our Saviour. so was not influenced to any great extent by French ideals, but the tremendous influence which France continued to exer- cise after the death of Louis XIV was felt in Russia in the reigns of his immediate successors and is another proof of the greatness of the period of Louis XIV. At the accession of Peter the Great (1682) Russia was the most backward of countries, re- sembHng in much of its life, customs, and organization, the SOCIAL AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS 19 Chinese Empire at the close of the last century. Peter was a believer* in the absolutist idea of government, and in order to build up a powerful monarchy he found it necessary to restrict the power of the nobles, as had been done in France in the days of Richelieu and Mazarin. No detail of life was too trivial for the watchful eye of the Tsar, as the ruler of Russia was called; and we find him even prescribing the cut of the clothes of his people and forbidding the wearing of beards, in order that they might in outward appearance at least resemble their western neighbors. The tremendous energy which marked everything Founding of which he undertook is illustrated in the building of St. Peters- p^^^'os'^^ burg, or Petrograd, as it is now called. He was desirous of building himself a new capital and selected as a site the marshy district lying along the Neva River. It was an almost super- human task to erect the beautiful city which commemorates his name. His success is attested by its broad streets and fine monuments. In the building of it he hoped to realize the more quickly his dominant ambition of westernizing his people by cutting them off from those associations which suggested their barbarous past, for Moscow had long been the capital of the empire. Peter also set himself to the task of reorganizing the The Army Russian army on western Hues and creating a navy. This ^^ ^*^ latter effort was beset with great difficulties, as the Russians had a dread of the water and Russia had no port which was free from ice for any great part of the year. Peter the Great reasoned that to make Russia a western nation his country must have an outlet toward the west upon the Baltic, by which she would be in direct contact with civiHzed Europe. In his efforts to effect this result, which he regarded as one of the most important in connection with his westernizing policies, he had a great rival to overcome in the person of the ruler of Sweden, Charles XII, whose one ambition seems to Charles xn have been to rival the miHtary exploits of Alexander the °^ Sweden Great. A desperate struggle ensued between the two, in which, though beaten at the outset, the persistence of the Tsar 20 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Acquisitions of Russia finally triumphed, and he was ceded a large area, including the provinces of Livonia, Esthonia, and Ingria, all* border- ing upon the Baltic. From this time forward Sweden steadily lost ground and ceased to exercise any real influence upon her neighbors. It was also a part of the plan of Peter the Great to secure for Russia her present water front upon the Black Sea, but he was unable to make much headway against the Turks, who blocked his path. Peter the Great turned over to his successors a state of the absolutist type, strong enough and enterprising enough from thenceforth to play an important part in the solution of all questions of moment which might arise in the west. Russia had already cast an envious eye upon Poland, blocking as it did the most direct route into the heart of western Europe. Poland was not only weak in its organization, but was torn asunder by internal strife. 7. Rise of Prussia. — The other eastern state now and henceforth to be reckoned with was Prussia. This state was gradually beaten into shape by the efforts of the ancestors of the dynasty which rules modern Germany. One of the Electors of the Holy Roman Empire, the Elector of Brandenburg, had been cefied the territory known as Prussia (1618), and in 1701, for certain services rendered the Emperor, had been permitted to assume the title of King in Prussia. The first of these kings was Frederick I, who imitated Louis XIV in maintaining a luxu- rious court. His successor, Frederick William, however, prac- tised the most rigid economy and accumulated a considerable treasure for those days. This he left to his son at his death in 1740, along with a well-equipped army, which had been his chief joy and pride. He had earned the title of the Drill Sergeant of Europe and delighted in tall, soldierly-looking recruits for his army. As the army was composed of volunteers, recruiting was not confined to Prussia alone. He is said to have scoured Europe in order to fill the ranks of his regiment of giants with creditable material. The army became the mainstay of the Prus- ^ SOCIAL AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS 2i sian government, the rulers trusting through it to make an im- pression upon their neighbors and to satisfy their ambitions for a larger and more powerful kingdom. Obligatory military ser- vice was introduced in 1733, and all recruits were subjected to a rigid discipline. The Prussian system of training demanded that each man move with machine-like precision as part of a great organization. "The soldiers were taught to load their guns in twelve movements. When a battalion fired, one ought to see but one flash and hear but one report." As the officers were drawn from the ranks of the nobility, there was but httle chance of promotion for the common soldier. The officers, however, were hkewise subjected to thorough drill and disciphne, and the Prussian army became in time the model for many of its neighbors. The Prussian government furnished a good illustration of an Absolutism administrative system of the absolutist type. Like Peter the Qoyg^gnt Great, Frederick William claimed the right to regulate every- thing. The ruler, however, did not permit the whole burden of government to be borne by the peasant, but subjected the nobility of the land as well to the burden of taxation. The interest of the governed was uppermost in the mind of the ruler, but the measures enacted by the royal despot must at times have appeared harsh and unjust. 8. The Passing of Holland. — On the western fringe of con- tinental Europe lay a small state which in the preceding century and a half had occasioned no little stir in the world at large. This collection of provinces was known as the Protestant Netherlands, or Holland, and its independence had been tardily recognized when the Treaties of Westphalia were signed in 1648. Long before this time it had begun to send out its explorers and traders. Following in the track of the Portuguese, Dutch Trading the Dutch had laid hands upon many of the eastern possessions P^^*t'°°s of Portugal, as the grasp of the mother country grew weaker and weaker. The colonial empire which Dutch enterprise created extended at one time from New Netherlands and Brazil in the 22 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY The Navigation Acts Designs of Louis XIV upon Spain Cardinal Alberonl Western hemisphere to the shores of India, the Malay peninsula, and the East Indies in the far East. The hold of Holland weakened in turn, and by the middle of the eighteenth century her influence among the states of Europe had practically ceased; at the same time she had lost much of her trade and territory. This was in part the result of hostile English legislation by which her rivals across the Channel strove with Navigation Acts and the like to wrest from the Dutch the coveted trade and territory. When legislation did not succeed they resorted to force, eventu- ally destroying the Dutch power on the sea, notably in the reign of Charles II, when New Netherlands was captured (1664). 9. The Decay and Attempted Revival of Spain. — Spain, which had once been the terror of England and the Protestant west, had long ceased to trouble Europe, and throughout the seventeenth century had been blundering along, trying half- heartedly to retrieve the mistakes of her past. In the period of Louis XIV, Spain's territorial possessions had been at the same time the goal and stumbling block of the ambitions of Le Grand Monarque. Jealousy and fear on the part of his neighbors, however, robbed him of much of the spoil which he counted as rightfully his. Philip V, a member of the House of Bourbon and a grandson of Louis XIV, was placed upon the Spanish throne as the result of the War of the Spanish Succession, and in any European difficulty from this time for- ward it was to be expected that Spain would be found on the side of France (sec. 32). With the coming into power of Cardinal Alberoni (1713- 17 19), Spain was once more thrust into prominence, and it looked for the moment as though she might shape somewhat the destinies of Europe, particularly those of Italy. Alberoni was an Italian by birth who had attained his position of eminence by practising in turn the arts of actor, jester, and chef, and had finally brought about the marriage of the king of Spain to an Italian princess. His ambition was to restore to Spain some of her former power and greatness and to drive Austria from SOCIAL AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS 23 Italy. Although somewhat successful in lifting his adopted country from her sloth, corruption, and superstition, his care- fully laid plans came to naught. Thus, although Spain seemed to be ''coming back" to take a prominent place among her neighbors, it soon bec9,me apparent that this position was not to be maintained. 10. The Great States about 1740. — In the middle of the The Great eighteenth century, then, the immediate future of Europe Powers and seemed to lie in the hands of England, France, Russia, and Prussia. The Holy Roman Empire as a political organization counted for comparatively little in the great movements of the eighteenth century. This could not be said of Austria, whose rulers had so long borne the empty title of Emperor. The activities of such aggressive sovereigns as Maria Theresa and Joseph II have much to do with European progress. Each of the four great powers, however, had its peculiar weakness. In England it was the temporary dearth of far-sighted men to secure and maintain for her the position which she had won by her long struggle with Louis XIV. French civilization, rather than the French rulers, gave France her prestige. Finally, Prussia and Russia had much to do before they could claim the rank 'and place of great European powers. 11. The Reform Movement. — A series of changes now began to manifest themselves which heralded the dawn of a new era. This reform movement, as it might be called, started with a change along intellectual lines. No great change in government, no great shifting of power from one great state to another, but has had its origin in the mind of an individual or a group of individuals. The influence of ideas upon the current of a country's history Nature of the is illustrated in Shakespeare, where he makes Caesar say of Movement Cassius, ''He thinks too much: such men are dangerous" (Julius Caesar, Act I, Sc. 2). It was the thinking class whom the great Roman had feared in his plans to control the Roman world. Europe now began to look at some things differently 24 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY — to see them in a new light. The rulers and people of Europe The Old Ideas in the century just passed had entertained peculiar ideas of gov- ernment and religion, ideas quite foreign to those of the masses today. Even their ideas of how trade and commerce should be carried on were very crude from the standpoint of our methods of conducting business. These were now beginning to change and become more like those of today. The educated, thinking classes — the literary men — were responsible for these changes. As France had been a centre of intellectual activity (sec. 5) in the age of Louis XIV, it is natural to look for the origin of the movement there. The real source of these new Origin of the ideas, however, was not in France but in England, as England New Ideas j^g^^j jj^ Certain lines, notably in religion and in government, advanced much farther than the other states of Europe. We find Englishmen beginning to describe their peculiar form of government and to express their ideas about government, especially as to the rights of individuals and the meaning of liberty. Their experiences in trade and commerce, too, led them to conceive new ideas as to the meaning of trade and commerce to a nation and to form new plans for advancing these. Intol- erance in religion and absolutism in government characterized almost every other state in Europe. The reign of Louis XIV illustrates these conditions and shows how firmly rooted were these ideas. 12. The Philosophers and Economists. — The men who first gave vigorous expression to these new ideas were known as philosophers and economists. Of the rise of the new science of economics, or political economy, something will be said later. In England, as has been pointed out, the idea of divine right and reHgious intolerance had already been dealt a severe blow in the Great Civil War and in the Revolution of 1688. John John Locke Locke now appeared (1632-1704) to justify these changes in his Letters on Tolerance and particularly in his writings on government. He maintained that the government ''has been formed through a contract between the citizens constituting the SOCIAL AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS 25 nation; they have made a covenant with each other for their common good advantage." There was no place in a govern- ment Hke this for an absolute monarch. On the other hand, there was the possibility of enjoying a maximum amount of personal liberty. Under the successors of Louis XIV these ideas found their way into France and began to be taken up and discussed by the intellectual classes there, who were grow- ing weary of the inefficiency and intolerance which cursed their own land. Voltaire (1694-1778) and Montesquieu (1689-1755), two of the greatest writers of this time, visited England Voitaire and resided there for a time. The former, in his Letters on the English and in his Philosophical Dictionary, attacked the abuses of his time and stirred the thinking class mightily by his criticisms. He made the church with its emphasis upon form and ceremony, its persecutions and inquisitions, the special object of his attacks. Montesquieu was a great admirer of Montesquieu the English system of government and, in his Spirit of the Laws, gave his countrymen a fairly accurate description of the Eng- Ush system. These two great pioneers were followed in the next generation by a group of brilliant pamphleteers, novelists, and essayists, who criticised right and left and demanded the reform of existing evils. Rousseau (171 2-1 778) was one of the Rousseau most influential of these, embodying in story form his idea that government should be so constituted as to afford the widest possible liberty of action to the individual. This was the novel Emile. Diderot (17 13-1784) conceived the idea of a Dictionary, or Encyclopaedia, which should embody the sum total of human knowledge, and with the help of a brilliant group of writers produced a series of volumes filled with cutting criticisms and suggested reforms. 13. Their Influence : The Age of Enlightened Despotism. — The brilliant, interesting style of these writers, and the various forms in which they put forth their ideas, in satires, romances, letters, etc., gave them a wide hearing, not only in France but throughout those parts of Europe in which France had come to 26 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY The Enlight- ened Despot Abuses of the Time be SO much admired and imitated. Certain of these ideas commended themselves to some of the rulers and statesmen of the time, who sought to put them into practice. This effort gave rise to the so-called Age of Enlightened Despotism. At first sight it would seem, curiously enough from our modern point of view, that in many cases the most despotic rulers were among those who most eagerly accepted these new ideas. Although they regarded themselves as absolute masters in their respective countries, they came to take a higher and more exalted view of their position as rulers. This did not mean that they had any higher ideals of serving their fellow men. They saw rather an opportunity of breaking some of the fetters which the church had imposed upon them, or again a chance to im- prove upon their administrative machinery. The state was all in all to them; their subjects were merely pawns on a chessboard to be moved about at will. They were first ser- vants of the state, owing a duty to govern it along lines which made for its greater strength and efficiency. They brooked no opposition to their plans, and seldom if ever took their subjects into their confidence. They treated them rather as children who did not know what was for their best interest. In many states, where the monarch himself was not gripped by this new conception of government, great ministers were to be found who accepted these ideas and were guided by them. There existed in almost every state on the continent survivals of feudalism, cumbrous and inefficient systems of law, crude methods of administering justice, inadequate school faciUties, various restrictions upon the writing and printing of books and newspapers; in short, innumerable outworn devices for curbing the liberty and development of mankind upon the poHtical, intellectual, moral, and even economic side, which blocked all true progress. The activities of a single ruler will illustrate the work attempted in this period, beginning with about 1740. The experiences of Joseph II, ruler of Austria (i 765-1 790), might be SOCIAL AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS ^7 taken as typical of those of his fellow-workers, and the list of reforming rulers and ministers would include Frederick the Great of Prussia, Catherine II of Russia, and less known but interesting exponents of these ideas in Spain, Denmark, Portugal, and in the small states of Italy. Frederick the Great once said of Joseph II, ''He always took the second step before he had taken the first." Some authori- ties maintain that he sincerely loved his people, but he rushed into one project after the other for their improvement without allowing time for his subjects to recover from the bewilderment and consternation with which they beheld the disappearance of many of their cherished ideals and customs. He sup- pressed those religious orders which he considered a burden upon his people; reformed the educational system, taking from the church its monopoly of edu- cation; abolished the death pendlty, save for offences against the state; abolished serfdom in many of his provinces; and sought to unify his great empire as to taxation and adminis- tration. Much of his work, however, died with him. He made the great mistake of trying "to hustle" his people, such as that against which Kipling later warned his own countrymen in their plans for India. Not only were serfdom and slavery abohshed, as in Denmark and Portugal; the laws codified, as in Prussia and in Russia; universities founded, cities erected, freedom of the press encour- aged, road-making and harbor improvement undertaken, but these reforming rulers and administrators labored zealously to curtail the power of the church by depriving the Jesuits of Catherine The Great Joseph II of Austria and his Reforms Catherine II The Bureaucracy A Preparation for Modem Life 28 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY many of their powers and privileges and by dealing a final blow at the nefarious system of the Inquisition. Catherine II and Frederick II prided themselves on the friendship of the leading French advocates of these reforms and maintained a voluminous correspondence with the learned men of the time. In 1771 Catherine II sent the German philosopher Grimm the following report of her accomplishments: Governments set up according to the new form 29 Towns established and built 144 Conventions and treaties concluded 30 Victories won 78 Memorable edicts bearing upon law or establishment ... 88 Edicts for the relief of the people 123 Total 492 1 Two important results of this manifold activity are to be noted. Much of the work done was premature and did not endure. The rulers who became the centre and source of these under- takings were of necessity forced to organize their governments on the bureaucratic model, that is, to employ men to carry out their undertakings. These in turn, because of the amount of detail involved by their tasks, had to maintain a host of clerks and build up a complicated machine loaded down with a vast amount of red tape. By their efforts, however, these reforming rulers prepared the way for the final great change from mediaeval conditions of living to our modern ways of doing things. In fact Europe stood upon the threshold of modern development, as will be more clearly seen when we examine the great eco- nomic changes which began to sweep these countries. SUGGESTIVE TOPICS AND QUESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY I. Comment upon the description of the Holy Roman Empire, that it was neither "Holy, Roman, nor an Empire." 2. Give the terms of the Declaration of Breda. 3. Explain the origin of the terms "petitioners" and "abhorrers." 4. Describe what was done to strengthen the French ^ Quoted in Seignobos, Contemporary Civilization, p. 82. SOCIAL AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS 29 monarchy by Henry IV, Richelieu, and Mazarin. 5. What were the "dragon- nades? " 6. Under what circumstances had previous meetings of the Estates General been held? 7. Give a brief characterizing statement of the work of the artists and authors mentioned in this section. 8. Describe Peter the Great's visit to Western European countries, and estimate its effects on his later career. 9. Review the history of the rise of the Dutch Republic. 10. Describe the loss of New Netherlands by Holland. 11. Give brief character sketches of Locke, Voltaire, Montesquieu, and Rousseau. 12. Give instances of the policy of Frederick the Great and Catherine the Great as benevolent despots. 13. How did these rulers prepare the way for the final change from mediaeval to modern conditions? 14. Discuss the beginnings of reform in the punishment of crime. Collateral Reading I. The Establishment of Constitutional Government in England. 1. The state of England in 1685. (Macaulay) Tuell and Hatch, Readings in English History, pp. 286-309. 2. The England of Queen Anne. (Morris) Ihid., pp. 335-44. 3. The Stuart restoration. Larson, Short History of England, pp. 374-96. 4. The Whig revolution. Ibid., pp. 397-415. Hayes, Modern Europe, Vol. I, pp. 286-90. 5. England and Louis XIV. Larson, pp. 416-36. 6. The rule of the Whigs. Ibid., pp. 437-54. 7. Walpole and his system. Beard, English Historians (Morley), pp. 466-77. 11. The Establishment of the Power of the Monarchy in France. 1. France before Louis XIV. Robinson and Beard, Development of Modem Europe, Vol. I, pp. 4-6. Hayes, Vol. I, pp. 235-8. 2. Louis XIV. Robinson and Beard, Vol. I, pp. 6-10. 3. Reforms of Colbert. Ibid., pp. 10-3. Johnson, Enlightened Despot, pp. 13-9. Hayes, Vol. I, pp. 238-40. 4. Europe and Louis XIV. Robinson and Beard, Vol. I, pp. 14-33. Hayes, Vol. I, pp. 242-8. HI. The Rise of Russia and Prussia until the Death of Frederick THE Great. 1 . Peter the Great plans to make Russia a European power. Rob- inson and Beard, Vol. I, pp. 50-5. Seignobos, Contemporary Civilization, pp. 17-28. Hayes, Vol. I, pp. 369-79. 2. Rise of Prussia. Robnson and Beard, Vol. I, pp. 55-60. 3. Frederick the Great and Maria Theresa. Ibid., pp. 60-8. 4. Germany as it was in 1740. Priest, Germany since 1740, pp. i-io. 5. Frederick and Germany in time of peace. Ibid., pp. 23-34. 6. The rise of the Prussian monarchy. Henderson, Short History of Germany, Vol. II, pp. 1-43. 30 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY IV. The. Philosophers and Economists. I Voltaire, Diderot, Montesquieu, Rousseau, Beccaria, Turgot, Adam Smith. Robinson and Beard, Vol. I, pp. 167-83. Hayes, Vol. I, pp. 419-21. 2. Voltaire. Lowell, Eve of the French Revolution, pp. 51-70. 3. Montesquieu. Ibid., pp. 126-54. 4. The Encyclopaedia. Ibid., pp. 243-61. 5. Rousseau. Ibid., pp. 274-322. Hayes, Vol. I, pp. 422-5. V. The Age of Enlightened Despotism. 1. The reforms of Frederick XL Robinson and Beard, Vol. I, pp. 184-7. Hayes, Vol. I, pp. 441-3. 2. Catherine II. Hayes, Vol. I, p. 443. Robinson and Beard, Vol. I, pp. 187-8. 3. Joseph II. Ibid., pp. 189-90. Seignobos, pp. 76-80; Johnson, Chapter X. Hayes, Vol. I, pp. 445-8. 4. Pombal in Portugal. Seignobos, pp. 83-6. Source Studies 1. The Declaration of Breda. Cheyney, Readings in English History, PP- 505-7- 2. The Bill of Rights. Ibid., pp. 545-7; Hill, Liberty Documents, Chapter IX. 3. Richelieu and his pohcy. Robinson, Readings in European History, Vol. II, pp. 268-72. 4. Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. Ibid., pp. 287-93. 5. Peter the Great and his poHcy. Robinson and Beard, Readings m Modern European History, Vol. I, pp. 57-63. 6. Bossuet's work on kingship. Ibid., pp. 5-8. 7. Saint Simon's portrait of Louis XIV. Ibid., pp. 8-10. 8. Comments of Frederick the Great on various petitions. Ibid., pp. 205-8. 9. Voltaire on Francis Bacon. 76 jc?., pp. 179-82. 10. Montesquieu's theory of the state. /&? 5' p p se s^ D H rr"i sis ^3 W> p 2.CL3 p t« p j^ 3 !? 3-S2. fD p g- 3 p p _ o> o O-p -^P P P 2 3 (^ S^ 2 p W^'S. P 2-^ p cr 3 m If g3 C/0CA)t-H(-5 O P o P ^^ 3 n(^3 P g O-p llli D.CW ^ " hr)Crq f-»- do ?T- 3 Wa" g'p 3 iipi!.r ' p n ?p" 3 p p <§ g3 IK ?i ffi ^ S3 3 ;i p c 3033 3-^3- 3'p;^ .3 p 3 r* a.2 Wn^ 0*00 U.'-i^ C =" «,2.P'_P S.r^2 7 Q "I p C-O CLO-CB T" 3.ffi5'C/^>W ►- ^- n n D-3 O p (W 3 p "•ZTf^ ??3^2 = 2 3 g < fo 7 O-f P D- .0.3 62 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY > 30. The Rivalry between England and France. — When William of Orange was called to the English throne in 1688, War of the Great Britain became involved in a war between Louis XIV % Palatinate ^^^ ^j^^ Netherlands, and thus began a struggle for supremacy, not only in Europe, but also in the forests of North America, upon the plains of India, upon the high seas and, in short, wherever the rival nations came into contact. The opening phase of the great struggle — called the War of the Palati- nate because the French invaded that region at the outset — was indecisive. (See chart of wars, page 61.) The chief im- portance of this war lies in the fact that it was a forecast of the greater struggle to come. A peace was no sooner concluded (the Treaty of Ryswick) than William III began to make prep- arations for a renewal of the struggle. This was precipitated by the death of Charles II of Spain in 1700. He had left his possessions by will to the grandson of Louis XIV of France, who had an hereditary claim to the crown. (See chart, page 418.) There were other claims, however, and Causes for War several efforts had been made to adjust these and avert if pos- be^veenFr^ce ^^^^q a general European war. Only a year before his death a partition of the Spanish possessions had been agreed upon be- tween Louis and William, to which the Spanish king was not a party, whereby Spain was to be given to the Archduke Charles of Austria. This treaty was broken by Louis XIV in 1700, when he recognized Philip as the King of Spain. William feared that the accession of Louis XIV's grandson to the throne of Spain would mean the practical joining of the kingdoms of France and Spain. The following year, when Louis XIV vio- lated the recently signed Treaty of Ryswick by recognizing James Edward Stuart as the rightful king of England upon the death of his father, the exiled James II, the English parliament The Grand declared war. A Grand Alliance was formed between England, AUiance Austria, and the Dutch Republic which had as its objects: (i) the restoration to the Dutch of the fortresses in Belgium seized by Louis XIV; (2) the transfer to the Austrian claimant of the RIVAL COLONIAL AND COMMERCIAL POWERS 63 Spanish possessions in Italy; (3) the prevention of the union of France and Spain, thus preserving the balance of power; and finally (4) the maintenance upon the English throne of the new dynasty. In addition to these primary and dynastic causes, powerful colonial influences were behind the struggle. In 1690, while the War of the Palatinate was being waged in Europe, the French, supported by their Indian allies, had made a raid upon the little town of Schenectady in the Mohawk Valley, and the terrors of Indian atrocities filled the minds of the English colonists with a spirit of vengeance. Other French and Indian Indian Raids attacks were made during the next few years upon the border settlements of the English in New England, in pursuance of the policy of the French Governor-general of Canada, Count Frontenac, to keep the English restricted to the territory already held by them in order to prevent them from developing the interior of the country and thus approaching the French posses- sions. In 1690, Massachusetts organized a small fleet under the command of Sir WilHam Phipps and captured the fortress of Port Royal in Acadia, or Nova Scotia. Encouraged by this success, Phipps with a larger force later attempted to take Quebec, but without success. The news came to Boston that the French government was planning a combined land and sea attack on New England, and measures of defence were planned. The Treaty of Ryswick, however, gave a breathing spell. As by this compact Port Royal was restored to the French and the outrages by the Indians continued, the colonists were eager for a renewal of the war even before the campaign opened in Europe. 31. The War of the Spanish Succession and its Effects upon Colonial and Commercial Development. — Although Wil- liam III of England died just as the war was starting, and his sister-in-law Anne became queen, his true successor was the Duke of Marlborough, who welded together the allied armies The Duke of of the English, Dutch, Austrians, and of several of the minor * *^ °^°^^ German states. At the outset the French king had the advan- 64 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Blenheim and Ramillies Malplaquet tage in that he held the border fortresses in the Spanish Neth- erlands, and in that an alliance with the Elector of Bavaria enabled him to prevent for a time the junction of the allied armies. In 1704 Marlborough made a brilliant march from the lower Rhine to the upper Danube, effected a junction with Prince Eugene, the Austrian com- mander, routed the French at Blenheim (1704), and swept them out of Germany. Two years later another victory at Ramillies drove the French from the Spanish Netherlands, while Prince Eugene routed them from Italy. The victorious allies demanded as a price of peace that King Louis join them against his grandson, but the aged monarch drew back. ''If I must wage war," said he, "I would rather wage it against my enemies than against my children." He sent another army against the allies, but it was half-starved and poorly equipped, and although his men fought with desperation they were de- feated at Malplaquet. In 1 711, at the death of the Emperor Joseph, the Archduke Charles succeeded to the imperial title. England now perceived that further efforts to gain for him the throne of Spain, if successful, would as seriously disturb the balance of power as to acquiesce in the succession of Philip V. Furthermore, it was discovered that Marlborough had been enriching himself at the expense of the army, and a change of ministry in England found the English people ready for peace at any price. In America, Port Royal, the chief town of Acadia, had been recaptured by the colonial troops. Acadia, or Nova Scotia, as the EngHsh renamed it, included not only the peninsula now so called, but also the territory as far west as Maine and north The Duke of Marlborough RIVAL COLONIAL AND COMMERCIAL POWERS 6^ to the St. Lawrence. In the Peace of Utrecht, signed in 17 13 between England and France, Acadia, Newfoundland, and the Hudson Bay fur-trading territory were definitely given to Eng- land. The original object of the war was not mentioned, ex- cept in the proviso that the thrones of Spain and France should Gibraltar An unusual view of the great rock at Gibraltar. Above the town, which nestles at the foot of the rock, towers the great natural fortress. Peace of Utrecht never be united, and by Philip's renouncing all right of succes- sion to the throne of France. He ceded Minorca and Gibraltar to England^ two commanding strategic points in the Mediter- ranean. Louis XIV recognized Anne's right to the throne of England. An accompanying treaty between England and Spain gave the former the monopoly of the slave trade with the Span- Assiento Treaty ish colonies in America and the right to send one ship annually to trade at the Isthmus of Panama. It was at the time of this war that the Methuen Treaty between England and Portugal gave England the commercial dictatorship over that country. 66 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Accession of George I The Family Compact between France and Spain The increase of colonial empire as a result of this war greatly encouraged English commerce, for both France and the Nether- lands were exhausted by the war on their frontiers, and the Dutch were no longer able to compete with the English on the seas. England was now the one great sea-power in Europe. The naval operations of this war and of the preceding strug- gle had demonstrated beyond a doubt her naval power. On the other hand, France had lost the prestige in European affairs which had been hers for over half a century as a result of the statesmanship of Richelieu, Mazarin, Colbert, and Louis XIV. A year after the close of the war Queen Anne died, and George, the Elector of Hanover^ quietly took the English throne, notwithstanding an unsuccess- ful attempt upon the part of James Edward to regain the throne of his father. At the very time of this rising, Louis Frederick the Great -vrTTr j- j j j j XIV died and was succeeded by his greatgrandson, Louis XV. The advisers of Louis XV and the English prime minister, Walpole (sec. 37), favored peace, and for this reason the final settlement of the struggle for mastery was postponed for a quarter of a century. 32. War of the Austrian Succession. — The Assiento Treaty, in its permission to the English to send one ship annually to the Isthmus of Panama, was a remote cause of the next great gen- eral European war in that it led to friction between England and Spain, whose destinies were now closely bound up with those of France on account of the league of offence and defence en- tered into by Spain and France in 1733, an understanding which foreshadowed the famous Family Compact of the Bourbons of RIVAL COLONIAL AND COMMERCIAL POWERS ^-j 1 761. The English traders took advantage of the Assiento Treaty in the following manner. After the one ship of 500 tons' burden permitted by the treaty had sailed into Porto Bello and discharged her cargo, at night smaller boats which had lain hidden by day, sailed in and reloaded it, thus enabling much more than the cargo intended by the treaty to be landed. British smuggling in Spanish colonial ports was rife, and when the Spanish officials cap- tured any of these smugglers they took summary vengeance upon them. One case of such punishment was brought to the attention of the House of Commons and aroused a desire for vengeance in the hearts of Englishmen and led to a dec- laration of war against Spain in 1739. This war, called the War of Jenkins's Ear from the act of barbarism which began it, dragged on for several years and finally was merged with a general European war that arose from the territorial ambitions of Frederick the Great of Prussia and from the question of who Ambitions should succeed as ruler over the possessions of the Emperor ^^ Grea"'and Charles VI, who died in 1740. In spite of the fact that Charles, their Effects by the so-called Pragamatic Sanction, had induced the various °° ^^^ European rulers to recognize his daughter, Maria Theresa, as heir to his Hapsburg possessions, she was not allowed to ascend the throne without a severe struggle. Frederick II, who had come to the Prussian throne five months before, at Charles's death rejected his father's promise to the late em- peror and threw an army into the Austrian province of Silesia, which he speedily conquered and annexed. France entered the Maria Theresa, Archduchess of Austria and Queen of Hungary War of Jenkins's Ear ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Clive and Dupleix in India The Austrian Succession War in India war against Maria Theresa, on behalf of the Elector Charles of Bavaria, who was chosen emperor in 1742, while England, fear- ing the loss of her Hanoverian possessions if Frederick became too powerful, declared war against France and Prussia in 1744.^ 33. Colonial Interests Involved. — Our main interest in this war lies more in the colonial interests involved than in the tangle of European diplomacy, war, and treaty which a,ccompanied it. In India and in America the struggles between the English and French were destined to produce far- reaching results. One of the clerks of the East India Company's factory at Madras was Robert Clive, the son of a poor English landholder, who because of his incorrigibi- lity had been shipped off to far-away India to be straightened out in the school of expe- rience. His first years there were wretched, and, tormented by home-sickness and poverty, he twice attempted suicide. When the war of the Austrian Succession began, the French attempted to drive the English out of India. Madras was captured and destroyed, and Clive narrowly escaped being carried prisoner with his fellow-clerks to Pondicherry,' a French post over a hundred miles south on the sea-coast, of which Dupleix was governor. The French were still in possession of Madras when the European war ended, and although this con- quest was returned to the English, the war could hardly be said ^ During this war occurred the batde of Dettingen, in which George II participated. This was the last occasion in which an Enghsh monarch actually was present on the field of battle until the European war of our own day. In 1745 Charles Edward, the son of James Edward, made a more strenuous effort than tliat of his father to regain the throne for the Stuarts, but he was easily defeated and driven into exile on the continent. A Prussian Gren- adier The father of Fred- erick the Great de- lighted in collecting tall soldiers from all parts of Europe for his splendid army. RIVAL COLONIAL AND COMMERCIAL POWERS 69 to have ended in India, for Dupleix now conceived the plan of building up a great French colonial empire and began to put his plan into operation by a series of intrigues with the native princes, which cost the EngUsh a tremendous struggle in the next decade. Bombay It is difficult to recognize in this modern city the ancient Parsee capital of India, Bombay. In the far west, too, along the borders of Canada where the French faced the EngUsh in Nova Scotia, in the New England colonies, and in New York, there were ceaseless hostilities. These took the form of raids across the frontier and Indian outrages, which were little affected by formal declarations of war or peace between the parent countries. The only important 70 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY The War of the Austrian Succession in America The Treaty of Peace and Its Results Beginnings of French and Indian War military enterprise in America in the period of the Austrian Succession War, was the capture of the strongly fortified French post of Louisbourg on Cape Breton Island by a force composed chiefly of Massachusetts men under the command of Governor Shirley and Colonel William Pepperell. The return of this fortress, so dearly bought by the colonials, in the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, which in 1 748 closed the European hostilities, was one of the remote causes of the War for American Independence. The colonists could not see why the English returned to the French this stronghold whence piratical expedi- tions had harried the coasts of all New England. Yet England regained her factory of Madras, and this seemed at the time of greater importance to her than Louisbourg. Frederick retained Silesia; but with the exception of some cessions to the little state of Sardinia, all territory gained during the war was restored to its former owners by this treaty. Thus three important issues were left for future settlement: the enmity between Maria Theresa and Frederick the Great; the struggle for commercial and political mastery in India; and the clashing interests of France and England in America. 34. The French and Indian War. — France laid claim to the interior of the American continent west of the Alleghanies, and the governor of Canada ordered all Englishmen driven from the valleys of the Ohio and Mississippi. The Ohio Company was organized to colonize west of the Alleghanies, and its traders and settlers challenged the French to drive them out. Accord- ingly a French force of 1200 men, far outnumbering the few English settlers, was sent into this region, and important strongholds, among them Fort Duquesne, were established along the Great Lakes and the Ohio River and its branches, notwith- standing the efforts of George Washington to block them. Unsuccessful in the fall of 1753 in his mission to the French commander, Washington returned in the spring of 1754 with a small body of men to the vicinity of Fort Duquesne and won a skirmish at Great Meadows, but was forced to surrender RIVAL COLONIAL AND COMMERCIAL POWERS 71 72 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY The Progress of the War Capture and Defence of Arcot at Fort Necessity. In a short time troops were on their way from Europe, and at last the French and Indian War had begun in earnest. The first period of this war was one of disaster for the English. A force under General Braddock and Washington was crushed while attempting to capture Fort Duquesne, and Montcalm gained Oswego and Fort William Henry for the French. The causes for French success may be found in the lack of unity in the British possessions in America, which manifested itself in jealous quarrels between the colonies, and in the failure of the colonial troops to cooperate heartily with the British officers. But the memory of the first disasters of the war was blotted out by the victories that followed after William Pitt became the head of the English government in 1757. He adopted a defi- nite, aggressive policy. More and better troops were sent to the colonies under able officers, and officers holding colonial com- missions were accorded the same consideration as those in the regular army. Louisbourg, Fort Duquesne, Niagara, Quebec, and Montreal were successively captured, and by 1760 French dominion in North America had been destroyed. 35. Clive in India. — Meanwhile important events had been transpiring in Asia. The Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle had returned Madras to the English in 1748, but in the same year Dupleix, the French governor, was granted full control over the Circars (see map opposite) by the native prince of that region as a reward for the assistance which he had rendered in securing for him his crown. As the English had aided his unsuccessful rival, matters looked dark for them. In the war which followed, Clive, the clerk in the East India Company's . factory in Madras, showed his genius and power of leadership in the capture and defence of Arcot — an exploit that '^marked the turning point of the for- tunes of the English in India." His contact with Dupleix had impressed him with three important truths: first, that native armies were unable to resist the disciplined troops of Europe; that European discipline could easily be imparted to natives; INDIA in 1785 I I British Dominions □ Mahratta and other Native States 70 Longitude East 75 trom Greenwich SO Calicut^j \ponc(ioherry I I British fl^ Colombo.^ Ijl I [ Portuguese I^lflAN OCEAN CHin^lten'ie RIVAL COLONIAL AND COMMERCIAL POWERS 73 and finally that in Asiatic warfare the true way to victory is to attack boldly and without hesitation. In 1753 he returned to England , having saved southeastern India from Dupleix, who was recalled to France in disgrace a year later. Sent back in 1755 as governor of Fort St. David near Madras, Clive soon found an opportunity for even greater service. Siraj-ud-daula, the native governor of Bengal, in all probability inspired by the French, suddenly attacked and captured Calcutta after a feeble resistance. He confined the 146 Eng- lish prisoners taken in a cell measuring only eigh- teen feet square, where they sweltered in agony for a whole night. When morning came and the prison was opened, only twenty-three were living. When the news of this outrage reached Clive, he hastened from Madras to Bengal, and with a tiny army of 1000 Englishmen and 2000 sepoys inflicted a decisive defeat upon Siraj-ud-daula's army of 50,000 at Plassey (1757). This victory placed a large part of Bengal in the hands of the British. Three years later the French in the region of Madras were finally thwarted in all their plans of extending their power Robert Clive Robert, Lord Clive, here appears as the successful military governor and man of affairs whom Pitt hailed as "a heaven- born general. ' ' Three j^ears after Plassey, CUve returned to England with a great fortune, entered the House of Commons, and was raised to the peerage. During the years 1765 to 1767 Clive was sent back to India to introduce reforms, but he made many enemies and on his next return to England he had to face a par- liamentary inquiry as to his administra- tion. Disappointed and ill, he committed suicide. The Black Hole of Calcutta Plassey 74 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Wandewash Causes of Seven Years' War at the battle of Wandewash, and the following year the English forces captured Pondicherry. Thus almost at the same time was ended the English-French struggle for supremacy in North America and in India. 36. The Seven Years' War. — Thus far we have neglected the European background of this tremendous colonial struggle. Maria Theresa had never forgiven Frederick the Great for his seizure of Silesia, although his title to that province was es- AUiance between France and Austria Growth of Brandenburg — Prussia tabHshed by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. The position of Austria in Europe was strengthened by a secret treaty of alliance with France. This was an event of tremendous significance in that it immediately detached France from the number of her enemies and bound her closely to Austria. But it also divided the strength and energy of France at a time when the prose- cution of the struggle in Asia and America was at its height. This alliance was strengthened by the addition of Russia, whose empress was easily persuaded to take up arms against Prussia because of her hatred for its ruler. As England was at this time contending for colonial supremacy with France, she became Prussia's only ally and aided Frederick with grants of RIVAL COLONIAL AND COMMERCIAL POWERS -j^ William Pitt, Earl of Chatham money until the death of George II in 1760. When WilHam Pitt Policy of was called upon to direct the war he realized that the question ^*^"*™ ^'" of colonial supremacy would be settled as much upon the plains of Europe as in the forests of America, so he gave Frederick the Great all the assistance in his power. For several years Frederick maintained a desperate struggle against odds, but the death of the Empress Elizabeth in 1762 brought Peter III, a great admirer of Frederick, to the Rus- sian throne, and he promptly made peace with Prussia. France now was stripped of her colonies and weary of the war. Accordingly the treaties of Paris and Hubertsburg (1763) put an end to this gigantic struggle. By the former compact England received Florida from Spain Treaty of in return for Cuba, which she had captured during the war, and was confirmed in her title to Canada, Nova Scotia, and Cape Breton Island. She also regained Minorca in the Mediter- ranean, which had been captured during the war. France ceded Louisiana to Spain and regained Pondicherry and other posts in India which she had lost during the war, but was never able to regain her lost supremacy in the East. Thus ended France's eighteenth-century dream of colonial empire. 37. Attempts of England to Modify her Colonial Policy. — The situation in America during the War of the Austrian Suc- cession and at the opening of the Seven Years' War brought home to English administrators as never before the weaknesses of their colonial system. The accession of the Hanoverian rulers, and the development of party government under Walpole and his successors, had permitted a neglect of the colonies which not only tended to weaken the hold of the mother coun- try upon them but placed them at the mercy of England's Paris Colonial Cessions 76 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Reasons for Change in Colonial Policy The Mercantile System in Theory The Molasses Act, 1733 Restrictions on Manxrfacturing enemies in time of war. It was largely the necessity of uniting the forces of these oversea dominions against the encroachments of the French that prompted a more vigorous policy than had thus far been pursued. When the great struggle was over the situation seemed to demand that the American colonies should not only repay a part of the expenditure of the millions of pounds sterling which had been spent in establishing British dominion in America, but that they should help bear the burden of the new plans of defence which experience had shown to be so necessary. In theory the colonies had all along been regulated according to the principles laid down by the advocates of the mercantile system. Laws had been passed and regulations made in har- mony with these ideas. The Navigation Act of 1660 restricted colonial commerce to vessels built in English ship-yards and manned with crews of which at least three fourths were English subjects. Its object was to encourage the ship-building industry as well as to deprive the Dutch of their supremacy in the carry- ing trade. A second act passed in 1663 forbade the direct European importation by the colonies of goods of nations other than England. Such goods might be ordered through British merchants at an increased cost. A third law (1672) required the exportation of certain "enumerated articles," such as tobacco and rice, only by w^ay of England. Then again there was the Molasses Act (1733), which laid almost prohibitive duties upon molasses coming into the English colonies from Spanish or French possessions. Its purpose was to give the English planters in Jamaica a monopoly over the supply for New England's rum industry; but the New Eng- enders smuggled molasses in defiance of the act and the attempts to enforce it only increased the irritation felt against the mother country. Colonial manufacturing labored under the discouragement of laws to prevent all industries which might compete with those of England. Hat-making, woolen-weaving, and the manufacture of iron were among the industries which suffered by the restrictions. RIVAL COLONIAL AND COMMERCIAL POWERS 77 These restrictions, however, were not excessive as viewed through the eyes of European statesmen of the time. The colony was expected to be of assistance to the mother country in furnishing a market for her manufactures. While the colonial policies of Spain and France choked out all healthful colonial development, England's policy limited her colonies only in certain directions. To administer these laws properly there had been created as Board of Trade early as the Stuart period a standing committee of the British Privy Council known as the Board of Trade. This Board re- ceived regular reports from colonial governors concerning the revenues of the colonies, the actions of their legislatures, and the state of agriculture and trade. It had the power to order the governors to veto offensive legislation by the colonial as- semblies. Besides this body there was a Secretary of State who gave attention to various colonial matters. A certain harmony of action was secured through the maintenance of agents in London by many of the colonies, who acted much as our consuls do. Furthermore, admiralty courts had been established in Amer- Admiralty ica to enforce the laws against smuggling and to assist in carrying out those trade regulations which were enacted in the interests of British commerce. The government possessed an even more effective method of control — in theory at least — in the charters granted to the separate colonies and in the power to appoint colonial governors. It was claimed by many English administrators that these charters could be withdrawn or Colonial annulled at will. By this means and through the officials ^ ^^^ appointed by the crown, it was always possible for the home government to make its power felt. "Having thrived on England's neglect of them," to quote Colonel Barre in the House of Commons, the colonists readily took offence as the hand of the mother country began to weigh more heavily upon them. All the necessary laws and machinery were at hand for con- 78 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY The Mercantile System in F>ractice trolling the colonies in the interest of the mother country, but they were either ignored or enforced in a desultory and hap- hazard fashion. The Whigs, or merchant class, controlled the government throughout the first half of the eighteenth century. So long as they were able to maintain their power at home and times were prosperous and markets were available for the exports of England, no one worried much about the ''far flung" Empire. It seemed more important in Walpole's time to maintain the Hanoverian dynasty against the efforts of the exiled Stuarts to overthrow it than to insist upon prerogative, or to engage in a struggle over principle. English ministers were more engrossed in plans for attaining party success than in measures of imperial defence, or in binding these scattered territories more closely to the mother country. Then too, times were good and they did not propose to worry about colonial matters. So long as the Tory minority commanded good prices for their agricultural products, they too wasted little time or thought over colonial or imperial problems. But bitter experience, as has already been pointed out, gradu- ally emphasized the necessity of an abandonment of the motto which had guided Walpole and the statesmen of his generation "to let sleeping dogs lie." The colonies began to be aware of this in the period between 1750 and 1770. One of the earliest evidences of the change was the more stringent enforcement of the laws against smuggling. However, this policy was never fully carried out. Custom-houses for the collection of the tariffs on specified goods were not established until there was a profit- able trade in these goods, and then the customs officers con- nived with the colonial merchants in the practice of smuggling the goods into the country. There had been times when the home government realized the importance of uniformity in the handling of the colonies and the desirability of administrative unity. James II had sent Sir Edmund Andros over to effect this, but his short tenure of office soon terminated the experiment. Each colony continued RIVAL COLONIAL AND COMMERCIAL POWERS 79 to be treated as a separate unit, and there was little accom- plished in the direction of consolidation or unification. The situation was complicated by the aims and policies of George III, the new ruler of England, who had ascended the throne three years before the close of the Seven Years' War. He dishked the cabinet government which had developed in England during the reigns of the first two Georges, for he wished to rule as well as reign. From babyhood his mother had urged upon him the motto, " George, be king! " and he determined to destroy the power of the ministry and be a king indeed, as was the French monarch. Poorly educated, narrow- minded, unable to grasp the difficult problems pre- sented by the colonial sit- uation, he nevertheless possessed industry and a power in politi- cal intrigue. In justice to this man, whom the Americans for- merly painted as a tyrant of the worst possible type, it must be said that in his personal character he excelled most of the states- men of his time. To attain the power which he coveted he entered the political arena and by open bribery, or by more stealthy flattery and an appeal to self-interest, surrounded him- self with a group of men called the " king's friends." He was now in a position to act as his own prime minister, as this group was powerful enough to give his measures a majority in parlia- ment. He did not dispense with the office of prime minister, however, but those who filled it were gradually reduced to the ^&^ 1 ^ ^mM iW M w^ "■ * ^Sk i ft I-. i M$i Wi^ ti King George III of England Alms and Character of George m 8o ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Measures of Grenville Stamp Act Congress position of the king's agents. He became responsible for their acts, as had not been true in the case of his royal predecessors. 38. The Opposition in America. — In 1763 George Grenville was made prime minister, and in 1764, with the support of his royal master, he ''adopted a series of measures relating to the American Colonies w^hich produced the first of a series of explosions that led to the Revolutionary War and the consequent dismemberment of the British Empire." ^ He believed that the colonies should be taxed to make up the deficit caused by the French and Indian War; that a force should be maintained in the colonies for their defence; and that the entire colonial administration should be remodelled in the interest of uni- formity and of efiiciency. Accordingly, resolutions w^ere offered in parliament, declaring it to be the policy of the government to impose a stamp tax, and in 1765 such an act was passed. A new Sugar Act was passed, reducing the former prohibitive rates on molasses imported from the West Indies, but imposing new duties upon coffee, pimento, white sugar, and indigo from the Spanish and French West Indies, and upon wine from the Madeiras and the Azores — a measure which, if enforced, would bring ruin to many a New England merchant and trader. A measure was also enacted authorizing the despatch of 10,000 soldiers to America and providing that one third of the cost of their main- tenance should be paid by the proceeds of the revenue laws in force in America. The colonists, while protesting in the famous Stamp Act Congress against England's attempt to impose internal taxes, such as the Stamp Act, acknowledged the right of parHament to regulate external taxation. Yet smuggUng continued on such a scale that the government decided to put an end to it. The protest against the Stamp Act found an approving voice in parliament. William Pitt, now the Earl of Chatham, came from a sick-bed to argue moderation and reason in the treatment of the colonies, and the act was repealed. In 1766 Townshend became the leading figure lin the cabi- ^ See Cross, England, pp. 746 ff. RIVAL COLONIAL AND COMMERCIAL POWERS 8 1 net. He was in hearty accord with Grenville's colonial policy The Townshend and at once proposed a series of restrictive measures which are ^'^^^ known by his name. He undertook to defray the expenses of maintaining troops in America by external taxes. Port duties were therefore levied on tea, glass, paper, and red and white lead. A Board of Commissioners was established at Boston to try cases of smuggling, and Writs of Assistance ^ were specifi- Writs of cally legalized for use in obtaining evidence for such trials. At ^^^'s****<=® the same time, in order to punish the New York Assembly for disobedience in the matter of furnishing supplies to the British troops quartered on that colony, Townshend secured the passage of a law suspending the law-making power of the Assembly until it should have followed instructions concerning supplies. Townshend died suddenly in 1767, but his policy was not relaxed. The colonies were united in their hostility to the Townshend measures. Prominent merchants in Boston, New York, and other important towns formed agreements to import none of the taxed goods until the act should be repealed. The women Non-inter- formed societies called ''Daughters of Liberty" and pledged ^^^g^g^^jg^jg themselves to use only " made-in- America " goods. Samuel Adams, a prominent brewer of Boston, prepared for the Massa- chusetts Assembly a set of resolutions addressed to the ministry, a petition to George III, and a letter to be circulated in the Petitions to various colonial assemblies. The government ordered the gov- ^"siand ernors to prevent the assemblies from meeting, and troops were stationed in Boston in 1768. The spirit of revolt flamed out in the colonies. British revenue officers were mobbed while attempting to collect duties, or as they tried to seize smug- glers. Soldiers and citizens rioted in the streets of Boston, and five colonists were killed. When the government seemed in- clined to withdraw from its position and repealed all the duties 1 These writs were in effect warrants signed by the Court, giving the officers of customs the right to search private houses when suspected of containing smuggled goods. 82 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY except that on tea, ships bringing tea were captured by daring Americans and their cargoes dumped overboard or boldly car- ried ashore to be sold without one penny of taxation. Attempts to unify the American colonies by means of con- gresses had been made for nearly a century. At the time of the War of the Palatinate and of the last French and Indian War, congresses had been held to consider means of defence against Indian raids and to lay plans for a more effective union. The Stamp Act Congress (1765), to which reference has already been made, brought together representatives from nine colonies in New York. Committees were appointed in the Massachusetts towns, and later in most of the colonies, to correspond with other towns in order to keep them informed concerning the latest actions of the British and to make plans for united resistance. The First Thesc brought forth in 1774 the first truly continental con- Continental ^ ' ' ^ -^ . Congress grcss, for twclvc colomcs were represented m it. This congress drew up a statement of the position of Americans concerning representation and taxation, petitioned the king for reforms, and appealed to the people of the province of Quebec to unite with them. Before they adjourned they provided for a second meeting in 1775. United action by the colonies at this time was hastened by five acts of parliament passed in 1774, which, because of their oppressive character, are known as the Five Oppressive or Intolerable Acts. These The Intolerable were (i) The Boston Port Act, closing Boston harbor and compelling all commerce to reach Boston from the Port of Salem; (2) The Regulating Act, setting aside the self- governing features of the Massachusetts charter; (3) The Transportation Act, providing that all government officers charged with crime might be transported to another colony or to Britain for trial; (4) The Quartering Act, billeting soldiers on the in- habitants of Boston; and (5) The Quebec Act, adding the re- gion north of the Ohio and east of the Mississippi to the province of Quebec, thus virtually nullifying all land grants in the northern colonial charters. Acts RIVAL COLONIAL AND COMMERCIAL POWERS 83 War had already begun when the members of the second The second continental congress assembled at Philadelphia in May, 1775, ^°'^*"^®°*** and there was need for action. It accordingly arranged for financing the war by borrowing money and issuing continental currency, 'and authorized the formation of a continental army and navy. The following year the tide had set in toward inde- pendence in response to the bitter and insulting reception of all colonial petitions by the king and because of his employment against the colonies of several thousand mercenary soldiers, from Hesse in Germany. Thomas Paine, a young Eng- Thomas Paine hshman, somewhat discredited at home because of his reli- gious and social ideas and but recently landed in America, pubKshed in January, 1776, a brief treatise called Common Sense, urging independence. In June Richard Henry Lee proposed a resolution ''that these colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states, and they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political connection between them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved." July 4, Declaration of 1776, saw the passage of the Declaration of Independence, i°tatives at Versailles, now formed themselves into companies The National for the protection of their persons and property against the ^""^ dual danger of the king and the court on the one hand and of the disorderly mob element on the other. The government of Paris was overthrown and placed in the hands of those men who had been selected to choose the city representatives to the third estate. Bailly, one of the deputies, was elected mayor and La Fayette was made commander of the new mill- La Fayette tary force, now known as the National Guard (July 17). Mean- while, on the 14th, the Parisian populace, assisted by the Fall of the Bastille 1 08 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY soldiers, stormed and captured the royal fortress command- ing the city and known as the Bastille, released the prisoners confined there, and razed the structure to the ground. By this act public opinion, which had already been making itself heard, Demolition of the Bastille Disorder in the Provinces expressed itself in no uncertain language. The Bastille was everywhere looked upon as the symbol of absolutism and op- pression, and its fall assured the representatives of the third estate that they were not standing alone in their opposition to king and court. The news of the fall of the Bastille was everywhere greeted with the wildest enthusiasm. The people in the provinces followed the example of Paris and attacked the local symbols of THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 109 no ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY oppression — in some cases tlie chateaux of the lords, in others, the custom-houses — and spread terror and consternation throughout the country. National Guards were organized to preserve order. Wherever the city governments showed them- selves inefficient or unsympathetic with the movement, they were reorganized and placed in the hands of the bourgeoisie. The nobles now began to leave the country, fearing that the sudden turn of affairs might precipitate greater disorders. When the news of the fall of the Bastille was communicated to the king, he exclaimed, "Why, this is a revolt!" "No, your Majesty," was the reply, "it is revolution." The city of Paris had indeed saved the situation and made possible the revolu- tion by saving the Assembly from possible dissolution and enabling it to undertake with boldness the work to which it had already committed itself. 54. The End of the Old Order. — The immediate effect of these events upon the National Assembly was the abolition of The Abolition privilege. The news of the various uprisings in the provinces of Privilege convinced some of the members that the time had arrived for some action on their part which would relieve the situation. On the night of the 4th of August the Viscount de Noailles declared that, as the rights of the nobles, "odious survivals of feudalism," were primarily responsible for the crisis, there was but one remedy which would apply to the situation and that was their entire abolition. His proposal met with an immediate response. In a delirium of enthusiasm, in a night session lasting far into the early morning hours, the deputies voted the suppression of all feudal privileges, feudal justice, the right to hunt, the feudal dues, the restrictions imposed by the guilds; in short they swept away every barrier which made for social inequaUty. They had in reality wrought in six hours a great social revo- lution. The very haste with which they accomplished this re- sult gave rise to much distress and disorder. The severing in one night of ties which had bound the whole social structure together for generations was an act so violent in its disrupt- THE FRENCH REVOLUTION III ing power that it encouraged further outbursts of violence and acts of reprisal. 55. Removal of the Government to Paris. — The king's actions, or failure to act, were still grounds for suspicion and gave rise to the greatest uncertainty. October had come, and al- though the decrees just de- scribed had received the royal sanction, they had not been promulgated, nor had any relief measures been en- acted to meet the financial crisis. Additional troops had arrived at Versailles, and the rumor had gone forth that at a banquet ten- dered to some of their number, speeches had been delivered which were hostile to the Assembly. It was also asserted that the new revolutionary tricolor had been trampled under foot and the white cockade of the Bourbons had been sub- stituted. These conditions, combined with a continued scarcity of bread, aroused the Paris mob anew to an expression of its power. On the 5th of October a crowd of from seven to eight March of thousand women, armed with a variety of weapons and drag- Jo%^s^nes ging cannon, set out on the road to Versailles, demanding bread. They looked to the government — as has been so often the case before and since — to satisfy their physical needs, insisting that the king and queen were "the baker and the baker's wife" and their son, '' the little cook boy." La Fayette was advised of the movement and fearing for the safety of the royal family, placed himself at the head of the National Guard and followed them. The Bed of Marie Antoinette The gorgeousness of the furnishings of Versailles is illustrated by this pic- ture of the bed of Marie Antoinette. 112 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY The mob invaded the palace and encamped there over night, and in the morning some of their number burst into the queen's apartments, killing members of her bodyguard. The queen had been warned in t'me, however, and escaped their wrath. La Removal of the King and Queen to Paris Fayette, by persuading the king to show himself on a balcony, finally succeeded in calming their excited passions, and the king consented to remove to Paris, where the starving city could have the benefit of ''baker and little cook boy." Still surrounded by the mob, the royal family slowly made their way by coach to Paris, and about two weeks later, on the 19th of October, the Assembly followed them. The Paris mob had won a great vic- tory in that they now had both king and Assembly at their THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 1 13 mercy. From the very outset Paris had been the centre of radi- cal journahstic activity, and its citizens had tried by various means to bring influence to bear upon the Assembly, packing the galleries and shouting their approval or disapproval of the proposals under discussion. The distance, however, which separated the capital from the city had made it somewhat diffi- cult for them to sway the Assembly by these means. From this time forward it was comparatively easy to make the dep- uties feel the pressure of public opinion as represented by the people of Paris. Had this public opinion been moulded by the moderate or conservative elements, some of its results might not have been so disastrous, but the radical leaders were rapidly getting the upper hand and constituting themselves on every occasion the spokesmen of the nation. ''Let the Assembly look out for itself," said one of them, ''we will set fire to Paris and deluge it in blood rather than be deprived of our rights." The abolition of privilege completed, the Assembly began to wrestle with the other problems before them. To relieve the financial pressure, the church lands were confiscated and large quantities of paper money, or as signals, were issued upon these ^^sue of as security. The Assembly was not at all careful to place ^^^^^^ ^ about the issue the safeguards demanded in such cases, and it was not long before the assignats began to fall in value. Such an arrangement, therefore, was far from permanent. The finan- cial problem still called loudly for a satisfactory solution. 56. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Consti- tution of 1 79 1. — The task of drawing up a constitution for the country was one which required much thought and labor. The most notable portion of the document, when completed, was the preamble, which was known as the Declaration of the Rights of Man. Under the influence of our American Revolution the As- influence of sembly set forth for the first time in clear-cut fashion the rights Revoi^woT'^ which are generally accepted today as the basis of every free government. These principles have been called the "Evangel of Modern Times" and maintain as the essential rights of man, 114 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY " Active " and " Passive " Citizens Legislative Assembly liberty, private property, personal security, and resistance to op- pression. The document calls to mind many of the provisions in the American Bill of Rights — the first ten amendments to our Constitution. France in 1789, Showing the Provinces The constitution itself failed to recognize one of the most important of these rights, that of absolute equality between citizens, as the right to share in the government rested upon a property qualification, and citizens were 'classified either as "active" or "passive," according to the power which was con- ferred upon them to share in the government. Even the active citizens did not participate directly in the elections but chose electors to act for them. These in turn must satisfy still higher qualifications as to fortune. A legislative assembly was created into whose hands was intrusted the main business of governing THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 115 the country. The king was shorn of most of his power, enjoying only a suspensive veto over the laws passed by the legislature. He was to be known as King of the French instead of King of Ministry France and was to be assisted in governing by a group of min- France est 1 791, Showing the Departments isters. These, like the EngHsh cabinet, could not be chosen from the members of the Assembly. The judges were to be elected instead of receiving their offices by purchase or through birth as in the old days. For purposes of local administration France was systematically divided into departments, these again Local into districts, the districts into cantons, and the cantons into communes. Each of these divisions elected its officials and each was more or less of a law unto itself, i.e., a separate and distinct organization. In this way was created a decentralized system of administration in sharp contrast to the highly centralized Government Ii6 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY bureaucratic monarchy. The entire taxing system was re- modelled and a more equitable system established. The constitution was lamentably weak. The National Assembly had gone to extremes in its separation of the executive and law-making departments of the government and had The Civil Constitution of the Clergy The clergy are represented as affixing their signatures to the Civil Con- stitution of the Clergy. Weaknesses of the Constitution reduced royalty to a mere figure-head. Its failure to recognize the principle of manhood suffrage excited the wrath of the lower classes and prepared the way for the overthrow at the hands of the mob element of this essentially bourgeois government. 57. The Civil Constitution of the Clergy and the Flight of the King. — In July, 1790, the National Assembly drew up a document, known as the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, which thoroughly reorganized the church. The same principles were applied to the church as to the civil government, reducing the THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 117 number of officials and providing for their election at the hands Nature of the Civil Constitution of quaUfied electors. These arrangements, in providing for a *^® ^*^*^ French church almost independent of Rome, dealt a severe blow at the Pope. Louis XVI was too good a Catholic not to be shocked at these changes. He gave his consent to the new plan, but unwillingly. The situation was daily becoming more and more intolerable, and he began to make preparations to leave the country and bring force to bear from the outside upon his rebellious subjects. He looked to his brother-in-law, the Emperor Leopold of Opposition Austria, to extricate him from his dilemma, and the latter had al- ° ® °*^ ready begun to mobilize troops near the French frontier. Mira- beau was not entirely pleased with the trend of affairs. He counted much upon the establishment of a governmental system similar to that in England, but the Assembly had rejected one of his most cherished projects, that of a cabinet to cooperate with the king. He had counselled the king to leave Paris, take refuge in one of the provinces, and there rouse the people against the capital, which was rapidly dominating the work of the Assembly. The king, however, rejected this advice. Instead he made preparations to cross the frontier and bring foreign troops into France to. restore his vanished power. This was in June, 1791. Mirabeau had died the preceding April and the Assembly was now preparing to put its work into final shape. Such an attempt to free himself from the difficulties which he faced was a clear indication of the king's real attitude toward the work which had been accomplished. His success would prob- ably nullify all the work of the Assembly; his failure could only spell ruin for the House of Bourbon. In disguise, the royal Flight to family made its way as far as the little town of Varennes, only ^^'^®^"®^ a few miles from the frontier, but the king had been recog- nized en route as he stopped for a change of horses and could proceed no further. Escorted by a committee of the As- sembly the royal family was brought back to Paris. From this time forth they were virtually prisoners; by this act the Il8 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY monarch had started the revolution upon a new series of de- velopments which were to alter its entire character. On Sep- tember 3d the king signed the final revision of the Constitution. When the Assembly adjourned on September 30, 1 791, it could look back upon a long list of accomphshments. It had virtually brought to an end the ancien regime, had dealt the absolute monarchy its death blow, and had organized a comparatively The Revolution simple administrative machine to replace the cumbersome omp e e system which had given rise to so much dissatisfaction and abuse of power. Apparently, the revolution was complete. SUGGESTIVE TOPICS AND QUESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY I. Compare the social, political, and religious conditions in England and France at the opening of the French Revolution. 2. Compare the attitude of the French people toward IcUres-de-cachd with the feeling in America against Writs of Assistance. 3. Summarize the suggestions for reforms made in the cahiers. 4. Explain the process by which the Estates General became the National Assembly. 5. Give a characterization of Louis XVI; Marie Antoinette; Mirabeau; La Fayette; Necker. 6. Why did the de- struction of the Bastille mark the beginning of a new era? 7. Compare the Declaration of the Rights of Man with the Enghsh Bill of Rights. 8. Com- pare the constitution of the reformed French monarchy with that of England at the same time. 9. Sum up the changes effected by the Civil Constitu- tion of the Clergy. 10. Distinguish between the assignats and the mandats. Collateral Reading I. The Ancien Regime in France. LoweU, The Eve of the French Revolution. 1. The king and the administration, pp. 4-10. 2. Louis XVI and his court, pp. 11-24. 3. The clergy, pp. 25-39. 4. The nobihty, pp. 70-82. 5. The law courts, pp. 103-118. 6. Taxation, pp. 207-29. 7. Finance, pp. 230-42. Robinson and Beard, Development of Modern Europe, Vol. I, pp. 203-17. Seignobos, Contemporary Civilization, pp. 92-106. MaUet, The French Revolution, pp. 5-27. Gardiner, The French Revolution, pp. 1-17. Rose, The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era, pp. 1-29. Stephens, Revolutionary Europe, pp. i-io. Johnston, The French Revolution, pp. 1-24. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 119 Morris, The French Revolution, pp. 1-18. Plunket, The Fall of the Old Order, pp. 46-64. Mathews, French Revo- lution, pp. 1-72. Hayes, Modern Europe, Vol. I, pp. 449-56. II. Characters of the French Revolution. First Part. 1. Voltaire. Lowell, pp. 51-69. Johnston, pp. 16-18, 20-1. Sei- gnobos, pp. 68-70. Mallet, pp. 32-3. Plunket, pp. 65-8. 2. Montesquieu. Robinson and Beard, Vol. I, pp. 175-6. Mallet, pp. 31-2. 3. Rousseau. Lowell, pp. 274-321. Mallet, pp. 36-41. Belloc, pp. 31-8. Robinson and Beard, Vol. I, pp. 176-7. Plunket, pp. 68-71. 4. The encyclopaedists. Lowell, pp. 243-60. Seignobos, pp. 72- 73. Mallet, pp. 33-6. 5. Louis XVI. Belloc, The French Revolution, pp. 41-48. Johns- ton, pp. 35-6. 6. Marie Antoinette. Belloc, pp. 48-56. Johnston, pp. 36-7. 7. Mirabeau. Belloc, pp. 56-63. Johnston, pp. 50, 55, 58-59, 89, 95, 98-100, 114-5. Morris, pp. 48-9. Stephens, pp. 73-6, 98-9. Mallet, pp. 118-28. 8. La Fayette. Belloc, pp. 64-7. Johnston, pp. 71-4. Mallet, pp. 1 16-8. 9. Turgot. Robinson and Beard, Vol. I, pp. 218-22. Rose, pp. 31-33. 10. Necker. Johnston, pp. 37-8, 46-59. MaUet, pp. 46-47, 114-5. 11. Calonne. Johnston, pp. 37-43. Robinson and Beard, Vol. I, pp. 222-5. III. The States General. Johnston, pp. 35-55. Robinson and Beard, Vol. I, pp. 224-33. Sei- gnobos, pp. 1 10-13. Rose, pp. 30-8. Belloc, pp. 89-102. Mathews, pp. 106-20. IV. Beginnings of Violence. Johnston, pp. 61-9, 83-8. Belloc, pp. 98-106. Rose, pp. 40-2, 47-8. Seignobos, pp. 115-7. Mathews, pp. 125-37. Hayes, Vol. I, pp. 474-8. V. The National Assembly and its Reforms. Robinson and Beard, Vol. I, pp. 237-47. Johnston, pp. 89-104. Belloc, pp. 107-12. Mallet, pp. 71-97. Seignobos, pp. 117- 126. Jeffery, pp. 9-14. Mathews, pp. 138-65. Hayes, Vol. I, pp. 479-86. Source Studies 1. The ancien regime. Robinson and Beard, Readings, Vol. I, pp. 225-6. 2. Protests of a French court against lettres-de-cachet. Ibid., pp. 227-9. 3. Condition of the French people at the opening of the revolution. Ihid., pp. 229-34. Library of Original Sources, Vol. VII, pp. 374-90. 4. Turgot on accepting office. Ibid., pp. 390-4. 5. Typical cahiers. Ibid., pp. 398-411. Robinson and Beard, Vol. I, pp. 248-51. 120 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY 6. Opening of the Estates General. Ihid., pp. 251-2. 7. The tennis-court oath. Fling, Source Problems on the French Revo- lution, pp. 3-63. 8. The rneeting of the National Assembly. Ihid., pp. 67-159. Robinson and Beard, Vol. I, pp. 252-5. 9. What is the third estate? (Sieyes) Original Sources, Vol. VII, pp. 294-8. 10. The insurrection of October, 1789. Fling, pp. 163-248. 11. Mirabeau's advice to the king. Robinson and Beard, Vol. I, pp. 262-7. Original Sources, Vol. VII, pp. 417-28. 12. The decree abolishing the Feudal System. 76iJ., pp. 411-4. Robinson and Beard, Vol. I, pp. 256-9. 13. Declaration of the rights of man. Ihid., pp. 260-2. Original Sources, Vol. VII, pp. 415-7- 14. Civil constitution of the clergy. Robinson and Beard, Vol. I, pp. 273-7. 15. The assembly reviews its work. Ihid., pp. 268-73. Suggestions for Map Work I. On an outline map of France show the division into provinces in 1789; the region of the great salt tax; the regions of the Roman and of the Feudal Law. 2. Draw a plan of the city of Paris to illustrate the events of the Revo- lution mentioned in the chapter. 3. Draw a map to illustrate the changes made by the National Assembly. 4. On an outline map of Europe show the territorial arrangements at the opening of the French Revolution. Map References Shepherd, Historical Atlas. Holt. Ecclesiastical map of France, 1789- 1802, p. 148. France in 1791, p. 148. Plan of Versailles, 1789, p. 149. Plan of Paris, 1789, p. 149. Central Europe about 1786, p. 134. Europe about 1740, p. 130. Dow, Atlas of European History. Holt. France from the Reformation to the Revolution, p. 30. France on the eve of the French Revolution, p. 20. Europe on the eve of the French Revolution, p. 24. France during the Revolution, p. 25. Muir, School Atlas of Modern History. Holt. Paris at the time of the French Revolution, p. 13. Gardiner, Atlas of English History. Longmans. France in provinces, 1769-89, p. 49. Central Europe, 1789, p. 51. Robertson-Bartholomew, Historical Atlas of Modern Europe. Oxford Press. The Mediterranean in 1789, No. 5. France, 1789, No. 7. Belgium and Holland, 1789, No. 10. Germany, 1789, No. 11. Switzerland, 1789, No. 15. Italy, 1789, No. 16. Austria-Hungary to 1789, No. 19. Austria- Hungary, 1 789-1815, No. 20. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION I2l Bibliography Belloc. The French Revolution. Holt. Fling. Source Problems on the French Revolution. Harper. Gardiner. The French Revolution. Longmans. Hayes. The Political and Social History of Modern Europe. Volume I. Macmillan. Jefifery. New Europe, lySg-iSSg. Houghton Mifflin. Johnston. The French Revolution. Holt. Library of Original Sources. Vol. VII. University Research Extension Co. LoweU. The Eve of the French Revolution. Houghton Mifflin. Mallet. The French Revolution. Scribner. Mathews. The French Revolution. Longmans. Morris. The French Revolution. Scribner. Plunket. The Fall of the Old Order, 1763-1815. Oxford University Press. Robinson and Beard. Development of Modern Europe. Vol. I. Ginn. Robinson and Beard. Readings in Modern European History. Vol. I. Ginn. Rose. The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era. Putnam. Seignobos. Contemporary Civilization. Scribner. Stephens. Revolutionary Europe. Rivingtons. CHAPTER V THE FRENCH REPUBLIC AND THE STRUGGLE WITH EUROPE 58. Decline of the Monarchy. — Already symptoms were not lacking that the days of the monarchy in France were num- bered. Although the National Assembly had shown itself no friend of democracy in the modern sense, on the other hand, the conduct of king and court had done much, to bring into disrepute Effect of the the monarchic idea, even among its friends and admirers. His FH ht onhe attempt to flee the country, abandoning by so doing many of his King friends and supporters to the fury and uncertainties of possible foreign war and of domestic violence, forfeited much of the respect and loyalty which still dominated so many of his subjects. Epithets such as " Beast! " " Coward! " and the like, were on the lips of thousands of Frenchmen. The queen also came in for a large amount of abuse, as she was looked upon as the real author of the plot. Scarcely a month had passed after this event before there was a clear indication of the rising tide in favor of the complete Massacre of the overthrow of the monarchy. This took the form of a meeting ChampdeMars ^^ pj-^test on the Champ de Mars, July 17, 1791, for the sig- nature of a petition against the continuance of the monarchy. The National Guard was called out to maintain order; the troops came to blows with the mob; and several lives were lost. The supporters of the movement and all friends of de- mocracy had received a setback. The impression which re- mained among the masses was one of bitterness towards the Assembly and the monarchy. The bourgeoisie were more than ever convinced by the actions of the mob upon this occasion THE FRENCH REPUBLIC 123 that their own safety could only be secured by maintaining the existing arrangements. The outbreak of foreign war changed everything. Ever since Emigration of the fall of the Bastille the nobles had been leaving the country, ^^^ ^°^^®^ and after the flight to Varennes they began to pour across the frontier in greater numbers. They were now looking for an opportunity to regain their lost power. With this end in view they had been intriguing with certain of the German princes, with the Emperor Leopold, and with the king of Prussia. Attitude of the Many of these rulers saw in the progress of the revolution in ^™p'^.®' France a menace to their own authority and were, therefore, and Russia impressed with the urgency of making common cause with the discredited French king and queen. The Empress Catherine of Russia, believing the time ripe for the seizure of a part or all of the tottering kingdom of Poland,^ was delighted to see the gaze of her rivals, Austria and Prussia, directed toward the west, so that she might have a free hand in the east. To this end she threw her influence on the side of the emigres, as the exiled French nobles were called, to embroil Austria and Prussia in a war with France. The Emperor Leopold and King Frederick Wilham of Prussia finally reached a partial understanding as to the situation in France and signed the Declaration of Pillnitz Declaration (August 27, 1791), in which they proclaimed to Europe their °* P'^i^itz intention of safeguarding the interests of the imperiled king and queen of France, provided all the sovereigns of Europe were disposed to act with them. 59. Rise of Clubs and Parties. — Meanwhile the new Legis- lative Assembly had met. The National Assembly, with a mis- directed show of patriotism, had made it impossible for any of their number to sit in the new Legislative Assembly. Party lines which had developed in the first assembly began to be more sharply drawn in this new body. The removal of the National Assembly to Paris in October, 1789, had been marked by the formation of a strong pohtical club, known as the Jacobin Club The jacobins ^ See map opposite page 178. Jacobinism 124 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY from its place of meeting. At the outset this had consisted of those deputies who were especially desirous of giving France a constitutional government. This was clearly indicated by their official name, the Society of the Friends of the Constitution. They met to discuss the various measures proposed in the Danton Marat MiRABEAU Robespierre Assembly and admitted to their membership men of letters, lawyers, and wealthy bourgeois. Societies began to be formed throughout the country on the same model as the Jacobin Club at the capital. Even before the meeting of the Legislative Assembly, these had affiliated with the parent society, and Jacobinism, as their teachings were called, had become a well- recognized political creed. These clubs undoubtedly rendered a great service to the country at large by informing and instruct- ing the thinking classes and by welding them together for con- certed action. Many friends of popular rights had been sorely THE FRENCH REPUBLIC 125 disappointed in the new constitution on account of its aristo- cratic character. One of these, a young lawyer named Danton, had therefore formed the Club of the Cordeliers, The members The CordeUers of this organization had taken the initiative in the affair of the Champ de Mars and were now biding the time when, supported by the workers and the rabble of the poorer quarters of the city, they might rally all citizens to the watchword of liberty and equality. Their influence in the Assembly at this time was comparatively slight. When the Legislative Assembly opened its sessions on Octo- ber 1, 1 79 1, all the deputies were a unit in their desire to maintain the constitution; all stood shoulder to shoulder in their distrust of the king. The question which began to divide them and give rise to a new party line-up was, What attitude should they take in view of the king's apparent disloyalty to the work so recently accompHshed? The resulting differences of opinion helped to bring into existence other political clubs and separated the Legislative Assembly into three well-defined parties. The conservative deputies were members of the club known as the * Feuillants and wished to maintain the king as president of a The Feuuiants hereditary republic. They became more royalistic in their sympathies with the passage of time. Their influence, however, was never decisive and they gradually lost ground and passed into oblivion. The Jacobin element divided its adherence be- tween the leaders of a group of deputies known as the Giron- dists from the province of the Gironde in the southwest of France, and another group, afterwards known as the Mountain from the seats which they occupied in the Convention which later replaced the Legislative Assembly. The Girondists ulti- The Girondists mately favored the estabhshment of a repubHc, but not until the constitutional monarchy had been proved impossible by the failure of the king to work according to its spirit. The Mountain, the most radical element of all, gradually came to The Mountain be known as the mouthpiece of the democratic aspirations of the masses. It looked to the Paris mob for support in the 126 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY overthrow of the existing government and labored for the estabHshment of a repubUc, grasping at whatever means offered themselves. The influence of the American Revolution may be traced in this division. In certain quarters, at least, the re- publican idea had taken firm root. The questions to be an- swered were. What sort of a republic should be estabhshed? Who were to be its real rulers? 60. Opposition of the King to the Assembly and the Out- break of War. — The massing of hostile nobles on the frontiers — the king's brothers among them — and the knowledge that there were many traitors within the country, prompted the Assembly to pass three measures. Two of these were directed against the dangers threatening them upon the frontier; the other sought to remove the lurking danger within. Many of the priests, known THE FRENCH REPUBLIC 127 as the non-juring clergy, had refused to swear allegiance to the The Non-juring Civil Constitution of the Clergy and were stirring up trouble ^^"^^ in various parts of the country. By the first of these measures they were required to take the oath of allegiance within eight ' days under the penalty of forfeiting their Hvings and of being treated as "suspects." ^ The emigres were also declared to be traitors to their country and were ordered to cease mobilizing on the frontier under penalty of the confiscation of their aban- doned properties. Finally, the Count of Provence, the elder of the king's brothers, was ordered to return to France within two months or to forfeit his claims to the throne. When these decrees were submitted to King Louis he refused to sign them. The King's On the other hand, he sent letters to his brothers ordering them ^®*°®^ to return to France and professed to the Assembly his willingness to make war upon the German princes for encouraging these hostile demonstrations on the frontier. This attitude did not satisfy the people. They saw in his vetoes evidence enough of his sympathy with their enemies and a refusal to proceed against them. The Jacobins and Girondists, Attitude however, were anxious for war, as they saw in a declaration of war, °^ ^""®L -^ ' towards War and a successful campaign against their foes without, the guaran- tee of the revolutionary measures within. They had already be- gun to be carried away by the magnificent idea of spreading broadcast throughout Europe the joyful tidings of liberty and equality. Even the Feuillants approved of a vigorous foreign war, as by this means they expected the king to vindicate himself and at the same time give added strength to the monarchic idea. War was therefore declared on April 20, 1792, not upon the Holy Declaration Roman Empire, but upon Austria. The proclamation was di-- °^ ^^^ rected against Francis II, '^King of Bohemia and Hungary." 61. The Abolition of Royalty and its Consequences. — Un- fortunately for King Louis the struggle opened badly for France. • ^ A name given to all who were opposed to the changes which the Revolution had brought with it. Such a charge often meant arrest, con- fiscation of property, and possible death. 28 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Invasion of the Tuileries, June 20, 1792 Manifesto of the Duke of Brunswick An utter lack of preparation resulted in reverses serious enough to arouse the people of Paris to a fever of apprehension and alarm. The Assembly felt the necessity of passing new measures to safeguard the country, but the king was unwise enough to veto them. Suspicion of the king's motives and intentions increased, and, as an immediate consequence, the people pre- pared for a great demonstration and protest. On the 20th of June, therefore, the Paris rabble overran the palace of the Tuileries and marched in procession before the king, who courageously took up a conspicuous position in the palace while the mob filed before him. The Jacobins were undoubtedly behind the movement. They sought by these means to terrify the king and to secure his assent to the measures which they desired. If such was their purpose, it failed entirely. Instead a strong sentiment of loyalty to the monarch was aroused, especially throughout the provinces, where such proceedings on the part of the Paris populace were strongly resented as high- handed and presumptuous and an insult to the nation. The provinces did not wish Paris to speak for the country at large. Two circumstances, however, nullified these impressions and deprived the king of the advantages which might otherwise have been his. The one was the entry of Prussia into the war early in July, and the other, the publication two weeks later in the city of Paris of the Manifesto of the Duke of Brunswick. The latter especially sealed the fate of the monarchy. The Duke of Brunswick had been intrusted with the leadership of the invading Prussian army. With the assistance of some of the emigrant nobles he drew up an insulting proclamation, threatening with the direst punishment all who should resist his army and promising to visit upon Paris military execution and annihilation if any harm came to the king or queen. ''Had Austria and Prussia deliberately planned to aid the Girondists and Jacobins in destroying the French monarchy, they could have done nothing more suited to that end." The answer to this direct challenge was the attack upon the THE FRENCH REPUBLIC 129 Tuileries on the loth of August and the September Massacres, less than a month later. Thousands of Frenchmen from all parts of the country had been gathering at Paris to celebrate the anniversary of the '^ Federation." This was a solemn Anniversary meeting of delegates from all parts of France who had first eration" sworn allegiance to the new order of things on July 14, 1790. Among the delegates on this occasion was a group from Mar- seilles, who entered Paris singing the song which had just been composed by Rouget de ITsle, thereafter known as the Mar- seillaise. These strangers, in conjunction with the Parisian populace and with Danton as the moving spirit, overthrew the existing government of Paris. The bells were then rung and the people were called to arms. On the morning of the loth Revolution of of August they attacked the Tuileries, which was defended by ^"S"^* ^°*^ a few regiments of Swiss guards. Contradictory orders, issued either by the king or upon his authority, gave the attack the semblance of a massacre. The royal family fled for refuge to the hall where the Assembly was in session, and there the deputies decreed the calling of a Convention to reorganize the Calling of the government upon a more democratic basis. They suspended Convention the king as executive head of the government, but left his ultimate fate in the hands of the new assembly so soon to . meet. They also named a provisional executive council, with Danton as its chief member. From this time forth, for months to come, the municipal government of Paris largely directed the course of the Revolution. The radical element of Paris had come into its own. Early in September this element gave a more startling proof of their power. The onward advance of the Prussians con- tinued unchecked and the opposing forces melted away before them. France was totally unprepared for war. Her troops Military had been demoralized by the rapid course of events and by the ^^*"**'°° loss of so many officers, all of whom had been recruited from the nobility. The new government had failed thus far to make adequate provision for a standing army free from the suspicion 130 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Desertion of La Fayette Longwy and Verdun Marat Massacre of Prisoners Effects of disloyalty. The people, however, attributed the failures which marked the opening campaigns to the disloyalty and treason of king, court, and nobles. There can be little doubt that they were doing all in their power to aid the advancing foe. The attack upon the Tuileries had been followed by the whole- sale arrest of many nobles accused of conspiring with the invaders to overthrow the republic. On August 14 came the news of La Fayette's effort to turn his army against Paris, fol- lowed by his desertion (Aug. 19th) ; and on the same day the Prussian army entered Lorraine. Four days later it took Longwy and on the 30th invested Verdun. This was the last obstacle to be overcome in their march upon Paris, and it was generally known that Paris could not hold out for more than two days. Beside themselves with excitement as the result of this series of disasters, the people of Paris rushed to arms at the call of the city government and the cry, ''The father- land in danger!" It needed but the merest suggestion from a vehement journalist named Marat to precipitate the so-called September Massacres. He pointed out the folly of marching off to the front and leaving traitors in their rear who, sword in hand, only awaited the word to rise against the people, restore the king to his own, and wreak a bloody vengeance upon his enemies. For four days and nights groups of executioners made the rounds of the prisons in which the nobles were confined and, setting up a sort of drum head court, condemned to death and immediate execution hundreds of individuals suspected of treason towards the republic. These included old men, priests, and women. A wave of horror not only swept over France but over all Europe. The Legislative Assembly, which had not yet given way to the Convention, disclaimed all responsibility for these actions, but it undoubtedly contained many members who approved of them. Such acts horrified the Girondists. They blamed the Mountain for these developments, and from this time forward they became more and more hostile to each other. Two weeks after this wholesale clearance of the prisons, THE FRENCH REPUBLIC 13 1 the Assembly adjourned, and the very same day came the news of the check of the Prussian advance at Valmy by the French victory armies under Dumouriez and Kellerman (September 20, 1792). 62. The Convention and the Declaration of the Republic. — The task which confronted the Convention which had now met was first of all to give France a new form of government based of Valmy Marat Speaking before the National Assembly Marat had practised as a physician in London, and enjoyed some little reputation as a scientist because of his attacks on Sir Isaac Newton and Voltaire. His newspaper Ami du Peiiple breathed his doctrine of suspicion. After the flight of the king, Marat made a speech before the Assembly openly advocating the appointment of a dictator with power to execute all suspected persons. upon democratic lines. To do this it was necessary to dispose Republic of the king. The first act of the deputies was to abolish royalty ^^^^^^ as an institution and to declare France a republic. Almost from the beginning of its meetings, the Revolution began to take on a serious aspect. The Convention itself began to be torn by Party strife bitter party strife, a condition which was reflected in the events 32 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Paris vs. the Provinces Trial of Louis XVI upon the frontier and which brought France face to face with utter annihilation. The Girondists had already broken with the Mountain. They began to see that they had loosed forces which, if not properly controlled, would plunge the country into the greatest of catastrophes. They had all the distrust peculiar to the prosperous middle classes of the unpropertied working class and resented the idea of dictation by armed mobs. The Mountain, which was composed essentially of men of action, with a clearly defined purpose before it, now made common cause with the masses and did not hesitate to employ any means by which its ends might be realized. Paris was looked upon as the real heart of France, and the Mountain desired that the entire country should ratify all the actions of its capital. It was essentially the question of the part which Paris should play in the Revolution which divided the Convention. The Girondists represented the provinces and were hostile to the newly organ- ized Paris Commune in which Danton exercised such tremendous influence. By this time two other leaders of the Mountain had appeared, Marat and a young lawyer named Robespierre, and the Girondists feared, and perhaps with reason, that the entire work of the Revolution would be undone through the estab- lishment of a triumvirate composed of these two and Danton, with the latter as the driving force. Ever since the king had been deprived of his office, there had been a growing demand that he be confronted with the charge of treason so frequently brought against him. The outcry increased when it became known that considerable corres- pondence between the king and the emigrant nobles had been discovered in the palace of the Tuileries. The Convention therefore resolved itself into a court, and for a month its sessions were devoted to sifting and weighing the evidence against Citizen Capet, or Louis Capet, as the king was now called. In spite of the eloquent pleadings of the lawyer for the defence, the king was finally found guilty of conspiracy by an over- whelming vote and was condemned to die. The execution took THE FRENCH REPUBLIC 133 CONVENTION N.-VriONALK. DEFENSE D E L O U I S,. Ttononcjd k la I^arre de U Convention frAferTr DE L/IMPRBIERIE NATIONALi:. The Defence of Louis XVI The title page of the speech of the advocate appointed to defend the king. The queen, Marie Antoinette, has written across the page in Latin and in French, "Some one had to die for the people." His Execution Effects upon Europe Effects upon France Treason of Dumouriez Fall of the Girondists 134 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY place on the present Place de la Concorde, where the guillotine had been set up. Louis XVI throughout his whole career never showed himself more of a king than at the trial and upon the scaffold. The news of the trial and execution of Louis XVI came as a great shock to states which had hitherto been more or less sympathetic towards the Revolution. This was especially true of England. Royalty in Europe was profoundly stirred, and the immediate result was a hostile combination of practically all western Europe against France. Nothing daunted by this attitude, the Convention boldly took the initiative and de- clared war upon the rulers of England, Spain, Holland, and the Holy Roman Empire. France now found herself entirely surrounded by enemies, and, to make matters worse, serious opposition had developed at home. The entire district of the Vendee in western France, which had always been intensely roy- alist and was already disaffected, now arose in insurrection, and many of the larger cities of the provinces made the death of the king a pretext for declaring war upon the Convention. Dumou- riez, the only general who had thus far displayed any genius for fighting, now proclaimed his hostility to the Convention and prepared to lead his troops against them. His soldiers, how- ever, refused to follow him, and he fled to Holland for safety. Unfortunately for France the Convention was so divided at this moment that it too became a great battleground. The two great parties which had done so much to shape the course of the Revolution now clinched in a life and death struggle for supremacy. It was a battle of Titans, but the issue was not long in doubt. The Mountain triumphed by summoning to their aid the people of Paris. By force of arms they placed under arrest twenty-nine of the leading Girondist deputies. Some fled to their provinces for safety and there began to or- ganize armed resistance to the high-handed acts of a body and of a city which, in their opinion, claimed falsely to be act- ing in the interests of the whole nation. THE FRENCH REPUBLIC 135 Hastily the remaining members now prepared the new constitution, — the task for which they had been originally summoned. This was known as the Constitution of the Year I, The Constuu- i.e. of the first year of the RepubUc, from which they had now y°" °j *^® agreed to date events in the future. Its chief merit lay in its recognition of the principle of manhood suffrage — a recognition which counted for little at the time, as this government soon gave way to the arbitrary rule of the Convention and of the Committee of Public Safety. 63. The Crisis of 1793 and the Formation of the Committee of Public Safety. — Matters had now come to a critical pass. Although the revolutionary armies at Valmy the preceding September and at Jemappes two months later had displayed the greatest enthusiasm and had achieved the impossible by stemming and beating back the great tide of invasion, no provision had yet been made for organizing and beating into Need of Army shape the very crude instruments with which these victories had Reorganization been attained. The French armies now proved entirely inade- quate to meet the new danger. The armies of Spain advanced through the Pyrenees; the Austrians took Conde and Valen- ciennes; the French fell back before the Prussians in Alsace. Then, too, the foes of the Convention swarmed within the country. It was no time for putting into operation a govern- ment which was even more decentralized than that of 1791. The nation not only faced a foreign war of great magnitude .without, but civil strife within. These conditions explain the extreme measures which marked the year 1793, which has been justly regarded as the great turning-point in the entire Revolution. The situation called for the strongest possible executive body. This was found in the Committee of Public Safety, twelve men The Committee chosen by the Convention from their own number to handle all °^ ^^^^^ Safety problems of administration and to decide upon a proper course of action. The government was ''more arbitrary, more absolute, more highly centralized than had ever been the absolute mon- 136 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY archy," even under a Richelieu or a Louis XIV. The leading Its Organization members of this Committee, who were chosen for a month at a time, but might be reelected indefinitely, were Carnot, to whom were intrusted matters pertaining to the army, Barere, Robes- pierre, and Saint- Just. A Revolutionary Tribunal became sub- ject to their authority, under their direction looked after all prosecutions of suspects, and set itself to work to rid the land of all traitors. The work of the Committee was greatly furthered by the cooperation of the revolutionary committees which were estabHshed in the various cities and by the Jacobin organization with its numerous branches throughout the country. The most effective agency at their command was the group of Deputies ''deputies on mission," as they were called, who were assigned on Mission ^^ ^^le different armies and to the various cities and depart- ments into which the country was divided to see to it that the commands of the Committee were obeyed. Death became the penalty not alone for disobedience but for failure. 64. Work of the Committee of Public Safety. — The Com- mittee of Public Safety prosecuted its work with vigor. Its highly centralized form of organization made it a most effec- tive instrument in securing order at home and in winning vic- tories abroad. France was virtually placed under a miUtary government ; martial law reigned supreme. One of the earliest Conscription measures of the government was to decree a general conscrip- tion, — a "levy in mass" as it was called — by which a half million or more men were called to the defence of the im- War Taxes periled country. It also placed a heavy war tax of 1,000,000 francs upon the well-to-do, passed stringent laws against sus- pects, and sought to safeguard the people against the rise in prices consequent upon a state of war by the "Law of the Maximum," which forbade the selhng of grain and flour at a higher price than that fixed by each commune. The most effective method, however, which the government employed to Reign of Terror handle the domestic problem was ''terror." The "Law of the Suspects" proclaimed as traitors not only those who sought in THE FRENCH REPUBLIC 137 any way to deprive the people of the Hberty which they had so dearly won, but those who were doing nothing to safeguard it. Wholesale arrests followed its enactment, and every day saw not one or two but whole batches of victims handed over to the guillotine. Among these were the queen, Marie Antoinette, Bailly, the former mayor of Paris, the Duke of Orleans, cousin of the late king, and many Girondists. From April 6, 1793, to July 27, 1794, when terror was the deliberate policy of the government, 2596 persons were executed in the city of Paris alone. The example set by the Revolutionary Tribunal at the capital was followed in the provinces. It is estimated that 12,000 persons were condemned to death, among whom were about 4000 peasants and 3000 from the working class. In the city of Lyons the victims were shot; at Nantes they were drowned by hundreds in the river Loire without even the sem- blance of a trial. So many victims perished here that the water was contaminated and the authorities forbade the eating of fish. By such rigorous measures the government restored order throughout the length and breadth of France. Their activities were equally effective in the conduct of the war. Carnot reorganized the demoralized troops, placed capable Services of generals over them, provided for their equipment and sub- ^*^°°* sistence, and, in short, brought order out of the chaos and con- fusion which had prevailed up to this time in the military arm of the government. Europe has seldom witnessed such a trans- formation in a fighting force. The task before Carnot was to utilize to the advantage of the nation the tremendous enthusiasm and the patriotism so characteristic of the rank and file of these armies and to give it an effective means of expressing itself upon the battlefield. The spirit of sacrifice which had taken posses- Spirit of sion of so many of the soldiers is illustrated by the following *^® Soldiers extract from a letter written by a corporal to his peasant mother: ''When I see you sorrowing over my lot, it pains me more than all the evils which I experience and draws tears from my eyes. Rejoice instead! Either you will see me returning covered with 38 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Military Successes Conquests of the French Armies The Revolutionary Propaganda and its Reception glory or you will have a son worthy of the name of French citizen who will know how to die in defence of his country. When our fatherland calls upon us to defend it we should fly to the rescue as I would hurry to a good meal. Our lives, our possessions, our faculties, are not our own; they belong to the nation, to our country. We are here under conditions which savor only of death, but I await it with calmness of spirit." The success which crowned the efforts of Carnot are attested by the title ''Organizer of Victory," which was later bestowed upon him by a zealous defender of his acts. Within a few months after his entry into the great committee, the French armies had entirely expelled the Austrians and Prussians; had recovered the great cities of Lyons and Toulon, which had been in open revolt against the government; and had overwhelmed the Vendean armies upon several bloody battlefields, reducing at last this disaffected province to submission to the acts of the central government. This same amazing energy and driving power were soon rewarded by a series of victories on the frontiers. The eleven armies which had been placed in the field not only drove the invaders from French soil but reconquered Belgium and occu- pied the great cities of Cologne and Coblenz. All this was accomplished by the end of 1794 — a veritable annus mira- bilis in French history. Even before the Committee of Public Safety was estabhshed, the armies of France had carried the gospel of liberty and equality beyond the French borders and it had there found a ready acceptance. Back in 1792 the Girondists, conceiving it as their mission to champion the cause of the downtrodden and op- pressed of every land, had proclaimed their willingness to assist their neighbors in throwing off the heavy burdens under which they suffered. This same purpose also animated the Convention, which promised "Succor and fraternity to all peoples who shall desire to receive their liberty." In 1792 the seed had already been planted by French armies operating in Belgium, in parts of THE FRENCH REPUBLIC 139 Germany, and in northwestern Italy. These armies had been forced to retire, however, before much had been accompHshed. The French patriots seized upon this new opportunity with an even greater enthusiasm and began again to overrun the Rhen- ish provinces and Belgium, proclaiming loudly the welcome tidings. More unworthy motives, however, soon came to the fore. The Convention decreed that in every country occupied by the French armies the feudal rights, the nobility, and all existing privileges should be abolished and that the "properties belonging to the prince, to his satellites, and to the religious and secular communities should be placed under the safe-keeping of the French Republic." This act virtually amounted to confiscation. The war was taking on a new character, changing It was no longer a mere crusade in the cause of liberty, the*Wa/'^° but a war of conquest. Side by side with this change was to be noted a revival of the ideal of Louis XIV, to establish the Ocean, the Rhine, the Alps and the Pyrenees as the boundaries of their beloved France. To attain this result, several annexations of territory must be effected, and with such ambitions coming to the front, the European struggle became a war of aggression. This change was appreciated in England, which a century Attitude and more before had championed the cause of its weaker con- tinental neighbors against the aggressive policies of Louis XIV. The occupation of Belgium in 1793 and especially the possession of the city of Antwerp brought the power of France to the very doors of England. The occupation of Antwerp, they declared, was equivalent to pointing a loaded pistol "at the heart of England." To anticipate any designs which France might have upon England itself, the younger Pitt, who was then prime minister, undertook to form a continental coalition against France. In this he succeeded so well that by April, The First 1793, three powers, Austria, Prussia, and England, had pledged each other to wage a war of extermination upon France, and each was to seek its reward in a portion of French territory. Thus the struggle for territory on the part of France was and Fears of England Coalition 140 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Factions in the Government: Danton Hebert Robespierre and his Ideas matched by a corresponding defensive struggle on the part of her adversaries. 65. Dictatorship of Robespierre and his Overthrow. — With this change of fortune upon the frontier and the gradual restora- tion of order within, went changes in the government. Danton, who more than any other single person had been responsible for the radical measures which had been adopted in this crisis and who had from the very beginning looked upon these arrange- ments as merely temporary in character, now expected that the attainment of a semblance of order at home and of victory abroad would be followed by more moderate counsels. He had seized upon an extreme remedy to meet a desperate situation. He was not a member of the Committee ; in fact he had refused to accept a position upon it, but his influence with its members was fully as great as though he had been one of their number. He found many supporters in the position which he now took, that the time was ripe for less strenuous measures. The methods which the government had employed — the arrests, the hurried trials, and the speedy execution of the enemies of the state — had encouraged the more radical elements in the Convention and in the Committee to demand measures of a more blood- thirsty character. These they urged under the guise of a pa- triotism which did not always harmonize with their real sentiments. Hebert was the leader of this faction, which had its representatives among the officials of the Paris Commune. For a time the Hebertists, as they were called, shaped to a certain extent the course of events both in the capital and in parts of the provinces. Between these two rival factions stood Robespierre. Robes.- pierre has been called one of the enigmas of the French Revolu- tion, and various diverse opinions of his motives and conduct have been expressed by historians. He was of the puritan type, honest and sincere, but saturated through and through with the ideas of Rousseau. His purpose seems to have been to put these ideas into practice and to remodel France along dem- THE FRENCH REPUBLIC 141 ocratic and rationalistic lines. His one thought was to purify the country, — to apply the same sort of a process which the gold refiner applies as he strives to separate the pure metal from the dross. He did not hesitate, therefore, to employ any means which in his mind would further by ever so little the attain- ment of his end. Simplicity of life, simplicity of governmental organization, a return to nature a la Rousseau, were the essence of his state-craft. He had for some time past borne the sur- His strong name of "The Incorruptible," such was his reputation for po^^Y^*^ honesty. He could not be charged with profiting in a mer- cenary way by the power which he wielded. His great weak- ness seems to have been his love of popular applause. He was always willing to act as the spokesman of the Committee, and in this way came to be the best known of its members. This failing may explain the prominence which he enjoyed and the habit which the people formed of attributing to him, and to him alone, measures with which he probably had little to do. The Hebertists and Dantonists, as the friends of Dan ton were The Hebertists called, both stood in the way of the attainment of Robespierre's ideals. It was only for a brief interval that the Hebertists, working through the Paris Commune, had the upper hand. The church was the special object of their attack. They closed the churches, stilled all the church bells as undemocratic, repudiated and rejected Christianity, and in its place instituted the Worship of Reason. On November 10, 1793, the city of Paris celebrated amid great rejoicing the inauguration of the new cult by a great procession and a service in Notre Dame at which an opera dancer was solemnly installed upon the high altar as the personi- fication of the Goddess of Reason. The '^ service" degenerated into a veritable orgy and shocked the great masses of people, who revolted at such a travesty upon religion. Robespierre, with the support of the Convention, was soon Overthrow of able to undermine the influence of Hebert and his friends, and they were brought before the Tribunal and condemned to death as enemies of the state. Their influence in the Paris and the Wor- ship of Reason Hebertists 142 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Overthrow of Danton and his Followers Commune was also broken. The government of the city was now placed in the hands of the friends of Robespierre, who was no less hostile to Danton and the ideas which he represented. It was a more difficult matter to compass the downfall of the Great Commoner. The unexpected happened, however, and Danton, who had labored so long and so zealously in the interests of his country, gave up his life with several of his friends, as so many others had done, to purify France and to launch it upon its new future. Robespierre was now the undisputed master. A desire to dictate the course of the Revolution rather than the mere love of power seems to have shaped his actions. One of his first steps was to establish by a decree of the Convention the worship of the Supreme Being, as a protest against the atheism of the Hebertists. Robespierre was convinced that in order to be permanent a state must be grounded in religion, but, like Voltaire and Rousseau, he rejected the established church as narrow and bigoted and hostile to the reign of virtue which he was striving to inaugurate. The number of victims claimed by the guillotine increased rather than diminished in the pursuit of his aims, and such was his command over the Committee and the Con- vention that he secured the passage of a law by the Convention which provided that any of its members could be tried and condemned by the Revolutionary Tribunal without their action or approval. All that the Tribunal required to rid the country of any one objectionable to Robespierre or his associates was ** moral proof." The accused was deprived both of witnesses and defenders; in other words this law legalized assassination. This act more than any other precipitated his downfall. No one knew where the blow was likely to fall, and there were many men in the Convention who were well aware that their patriotism would not bear careful scrutiny or investigation. A conspiracy was formed and a decree was passed by the Convention accusing Robespierre of trying to play the role of another Cromwell. He was rescued by his friends and adherents, however, before he THE FRENCH REPUBLIC 143 could be brought before the Tribunal for trial, and for the moment Paris was on the verge of a bloody struggle for suprem- acy between the Convention and the Robespierrists. Robes- pierre hesitated, however, to precipitate an open insurrection. The slight resistance offered by his immediate followers was KOBESPIERRE ArRESTED BY OrDER OF THE CONVENTION speedily broken down, and he was hurried off to the guillotine, where he, too, paid the penalty for his devotion to the cause of Revolution. With his death the Terror may be said to have End of come to an end. That he furnished the inspiration of many of *^® Terror its bloodiest acts is shown by the death-toll of 1376 persons from the enactment of the law on the loth of June to his fall on July 27, 1794. One hundred and fifty persons were executed in the two days of the 8th and 9th of July alone. The trials and executions did not entirely cease with his death, as might have 144 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Discontent Constitution of Year III Napoleon and the Attack upon the Convention been expected. The months that followed were marked by reactionary measures in which the promoters of the bloodshed of the preceding months expiated in their turn upon the guillo- tine their crime of having exhibited too great a zeal in the cause of the Revolution. 66. The Reestablishment of Constitutional Government. — The interval between Robespierre's downfall and the establish- ment of the Directory was one of great uncertainty. Royalist movements threatened to sweep away all the results which had thus far been attained at so great a cost of blood and treasure. The abolition of the Law of the Maximum and a scarcity of food bred discontent among the masses, and this expressed itself in insurrectionary movements. The Convention, however, remained true to its republican principles and maintained in all its essential features the system which had replaced the ancien regime. Its members, recognizing the weaknesses and inade- quacy of the Constitution of the Year I, applied themselves to the work of framing -a new government which should preserve all that was best of the benefits conferred by the Revolution, and, in spite of obstacles within the assembly and adverse sentiment without, gave to the countfy for its ratification the Constitution of the Year III. The proposed government was again based upon a property qualification — which had been abolished in 1792 — and in consequence there was great disssatisfaction with these pro- visions among the masses. The Convention sought to prevent the return to power of the royalists by a decree requiring that two thirds of the newly elected deputies should be chosen from their own number. A strong executive was provided for in the arrangement for five directors to be chosen by the legis- lature. The result was a vigorous effort on the part of the royalists to overthrow the constitution and disband the Con- vention. This was frustrated by a force of four thousand men under Napoleon Bonaparte, a young man of 26, who held at bay and dispersed four times that number on Oct. 5, 1795. THE FRENCH REPUBLIC 145 Three weeks later the Convention declared its work finished and dispersed with the cry, ''Long live the Republic!" France owed much to this body of earnest men, who now Achievements adjourned to make way for the new government. From its jf *^® membership had been selected the great Committee of Public Safety. Without their support, however, much of the work of the Committee would have failed. The Committee was their creation, their agent, carrying out measures for which they made themselves responsible. Within the short period of its existence The the Convention had given France a new system of weights and ^^*'"i^ System . ./ o and Calendar measures, — the metric system of today — had put into opera- tion a new calendar, known as the revolutionary calendar, which was later repudiated; had laid the foundations of the present French educational system ; and prepared the way for the codi- fication and simplification of the law by Napoleon Bonaparte a few years later. There was no problem too difficult for their intelligence. Thus we find them striving to bring order out of the tangled finances and blazing the way for the financiers of today. Their greatest achievement was undoubtedly the preservation of their country in its hour of danger. To them rather than to the Great Committee alone should be given the credit for bringing France safely through one of the darkest hours in her history. Already treaties of peace had been signed with Holland, Peace Prussia, and Spain (the Treaty of the Hague and the Trea- pjj^^ssfa^"^'''^' ties of Basel). This meant the breaking up of the coalition and Spain formed by England in 1793. By the terms of these agree- ments the Rhine and the Pyrenees were recognized as the frontiers of France, thereby estabhshing the principle for which Louis XIV had contended a century before. Belgium was thus recognized as French territory. England and Austria were still factors to be reckoned with, but the attention of the latter at this time was drawn to the dismemberment of Po- land, and for the moment Austria exerted little pressure upon France itself. 146 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY 67. The Dismemberment of Poland. — This period wit- nessed the final act in one of the most disgraceful episodes which history records, the extinction of Polish nationality by the division of Polish territory among Russia, Prussia, and Austria. It was not only Poland's misfortune to stand in the path of their ambitions but to show lamentable weakness in the face of the danger which threatened the country. Reference has already been made to the designs of Russia upon this great land mass in the days of Peter the Great. It has been pointed out how the efforts to carry out their fell purpose helped to determine the attitude of these European states towards the overthrow of the French monarchy. The first partition of Poland, which was based upon a treaty, was consummated in 1772; the second in 1793; and the final partition in 1795. A glance at the map (opposite page 178) will serve to indicate just how far each nation profited thereby. Russia perhaps secured the lion's share. Thus within the brief period which had elapsed since the fateful year 1789, important territorial changes had taken place not alone in western Europe but in the east as well. SUGGESTIVE TOPICS AND QUESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY I. Distinguish between the peaceful and the violent stages of the French Revolution. 2. What was the effect of the flight to Varennes upon the country at large? 3. Give a brief characterization of each of the leaders of the new republican party. 4. Compare the Champ de Mars with the Boston Massacre. 5. Distinguish between the National and the Legislative Assembly. 6. Describe some of the French newspapers of the time. 7. Contrast the views of the Jacobins and the Girondists. 8. How did the Assembly lose the confidence of the common people? 9. Comment upon the terms "Madame Veto" and "sanscullotes." 10. What was the origin of the "Marseillaise"? 11. How did the Convention propose to revolu- tionize Europe? 12. Compare the execution of Louis XVI with that of Charles I of England in respect to legality of procedure and justification. 13. Compare the situation in Europe in March, 1793, with that of August, 1914. 14. Comment upon these terms: "guillotine," "reign of terror," " revolutionary tribunal," " Committee of Public Safety," " law of suspects," "the Mountain," 15. Give an account of the rise, pohcy, and downfall of Robespierre. 16. Give an account of the three partitions of Poland. THE FRENCH REPUBLIC 147 Collateral Reading I. Characters of the French Revolution. Second Part. 1. Marat. iBelloc, French Revolution, pp. 76-8. Mallet, French Revolution, pp. 109-11. Johnston, The French Revolu- tion, pp. 106-7, 188-9. Mathews, The French Revolution, pp. 144-6, 209-10. 2. Dan ton. Belloc, pp. 70-4. Johnston, pp. 120-4, i44~56, 1 71-7, 186-8, 202-8. Mallet, pp. 175-8, 238-40, 247-8. Mathews, pp. 185-6. Hayes, Modern Europe, Vol. I, pp. 492-3- 3. Carnot. Belloc, pp. 74-6. Mallet, pp. 147-9, 248-60. 4. Robespierre. Belloc, pp. 79-85. Mallet, pp. 147-9, 248-60. Johnston, pp. 202-21. Plunket, Fall of the Old Order, pp. 111-8. Mathews, pp. 186-7, 252-65. Hayes, Vol. I, P- 493- 5. Hebert. Mallet, p. 231. Johnston, pp. 180-1, 190-7, 202-7. 6. Saint- Just. Mallet, pp. 245-6. Johnston, pp. 205-21. 7. Sieyes. Mallet, p. 102. Robinson and Beard, Development of Modern Europe, Vol. I, pp. 229-30. 8. Dumouriez. Belloc, pp. 67-9. Mallet, pp. 167-71, 180-1, 194-5- II. The Decline of the Monarchy. Johnston, pp. 105-69. Robinson and Beard, Vol. I, pp. 249-64. Mallet, pp. 98-177. Belloc, pp. 107-30. Morris, The French Revolution, pp. 36-74. Rose, The Revolutionary and Napo- leonic Era, pp. 43-72. Hayes, Vol. I, pp. 499-503. III. The Convention and the Reign of Terror. Johnston, pp. 170-238. Belloc, pp. 123-45. Morris, pp. 75-142. Rose, pp. 71-92. Mallet, pp. 182-260. Gardiner, The French Revolution, pp. 156-220. Stephens, Revolutionary Europe, pp. 124-47. Plunket, pp. 103-20. Jeffery, New Europe, pp. 22-32. Mathews, pp. 224-33. Hayes, Vol. I, pp. 502-12. Source Studies 1. The flight of the king to Varennes. Fling, Source Problems on the French Revolution, pp. 251-325. Robinson and Beard, Readings, Vol. I, pp. 278-80. 2. Marat attacks the royahsts. Ibid., pp. 2S1-2. 3. The Declaration of Pillnitz. Ibid., pp. 282-3. 4. Opinion of a royalist on the work of the Assembly. Ibid:, pp. 283-5. 5. Origin of the Jacobin club. Ibid., pp. 285-7. Library of Original Sources. Volume VII, pp. 428-30. 6. Letter of Louis XVI to the King of Prussia. Ibid., pp. 287-8. 7. French Assembly declares war on Austria. Ibid., pp. 289-90. 8. Decree against the non-juring clergy. Ibid., pp. 291-2. 148 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY 9. Proclamation of the Duke of Brunswick. Ibid., pp. 292-4. 10. Debate during the first session of the Convention. Ibid., 295-8. 11. Proclamation of the Convention to the nations, 1792. Ibid., pp. 298-9. 12. Views of Saint- Just. Ibid., pp. 300-2. 13. Views of Desmoulins. /6i£?., pp. 303-8. 14. Extracts from Burke's views on the French Revolution. Cheyney, Readings, pp. 647-50. Suggestions for Map Work I. Show the changes in central Europe produced by the French Revolution. 2. On an outline map of Europe show the countries with which the French Republic was at war. 3. Show the ecclesiastical divi- sions of France, 1 789-1802. Map References Shepherd, Historical Atlas. Holt. Typical German states before and since the French Revolution, p. 142. Ecclesiastical Map of France, 1789- 1802, p. 148. Dow, Atlas of European History. Holt. Germany in the eighteenth century, p. 22. Muir, School Atlas of Modern History. Holt. Middle Eastern Europe, 1795, p. 22. Gardiner, Atlas of English History. Longmans. The Austrian Nether- lands, 1792, p. 52. Bibliography The bibliography for this chapter is identical with that of Chapter IV, omitting Lowell and Seignobos. Cheyney. Readings in English History. Ginn. CHAPTER VI THE NAPOLEONIC ERA 68. The Government and the Army in 1795. — With the ratification of the new government, known as the Directory, and the signing of the Treaties of Basel and the Hague, it might have been expected that normal conditions would once more prevail in France. The government, though republican in form, also partook largely of the character of an oligarchy, as great power had been conferred upon the five men who were at the head of affairs. However admirable this form of government Weaknesses may have appeared upon paper, in practice it soon proved 2j. *^® itself wofully inefficient and incompetent. By this time the French people were beginning to weary of so many changes in such rapid succession, with all the uncertainty and disorder with which they were accompanied. When the control over the Committee of Public Safety passed into the hands of Robes- pierre, it had looked for the moment as though the Bourbon system was about to be reestablished, but with this difference, that the supreme control was vested in a disciple of Rousseau rather than in a representative of the ancien regime. The career of Robespierre had demonstrated how easy it was for a single individual with a well-defined purpose and possessed of a moderate amount of political genius, to absorb into his own hands all the powers of the government. The great task which the French people had set themselves of restoring their country by force of arms to its former posi- tion of grandeur and power among the nations of Europe offered a golden opportunity to the successful miUtary leader for playing at the same time an equally successful political role. 150 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Influence of the Army Carnot had built up a splendid military machine. The royal aristocratic army of the Bourbons was a thing of the past. Promotions were now made on merit for services actually ren- dered, and the private with ability might soon find himself at the head of great armies. It was essentially the day of the young man. Youthful enthusiasm combined with ability soon won both recognition and promotion. Among the generals who had already won reputations upon the battlefield, there was scarcely a man over forty. The more disturbed and uncertain the future, the greater the demand for successful military leaders, and the easier it was for some one of these to make himself the political master. Caesar had become emperor, and Cromwell had been named Protector under similar circumstances; our own Wash- ington was urged to accept the crown as ruler of these United States. Events were now shaping themselves in France towards the same end, and the man who was to profit thereby was Napoleon Bonaparte. The Directory gave him his opportunity. 69. Training and Personality of Bonaparte. — Napoleon Bonaparte was a French subject born on the island of Corsica in 1769. He just escaped being born a citizen of the Genoese republic, as Corsica had been annexed to France only the year before. By nationality, therefore, he was not a Frenchman but an Italian, and throughout his entire career showed many of the characteristics of the people of that peninsula. His was not an imposing figure; he was too short, his head was much too large for his body, and he stood with legs stretched far apart. All in all, physically he was a rather insignificant specimen of hu- manity. It was his face and eyes, the carriage of the head, the Characteristics high forehead, the aquiline nose, and the features which seemed chiselled in marble that impressed the beholder. There was about the man such an air of quiet determination, such an at- mosphere of pent-up activity, as marked him for a natural leader among his fellows. He was a marvel of energy and had a capacity for hard work and for long hours possessed by few. It is said that he seldom slept for more than five hours out of the twenty- Nationality THE NAPOLEONIC ERA 151 Napoleon I Napoleon the Great, Emperor of the French, in his coronation robes. 152 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Education At Toulon Relations with the Convention Bonaparte and the Revolution four and that he would often rise in the middle of the night and summon his secretaries about him. He was a master of detail, readily singling out the essentials from the non-essentials. He was a strange combination of dreamer and practical man of affairs; he would build what appeared to be the wildest castles in the air and then deliberately proceed to realize them. At the age of ten he was sent over to France to be educated in the military school of Brienne, where he showed a very unsocial spirit in his contact with his comrades, but displayed a special aptitude for mathematics — a clear indication of the natural bent of his mind. After he had completed his course he was appointed to the artillery branch of the service and first won recognition at the siege of Toulon in 1 793 . The Enghsh fleet had been admitted to the harbor by traitors within the city, and backed by the forces within the city they were holding out against the armies of the Convention. Bonaparte saw the weak point in the city's defences and, by planting a battery upon one of the hills commanding the harbor, forced the English fleet to retire. He also earned the gratitude of the Convention by dispers- ing the forces which were launched against it on October 4~5j 1795- I^ short, his services had been such as to augur well for his future success as a military leader, but he had not as yet attracted general attention, nor was he in any sense a political figure. Bonaparte had not shown himself particularly interested or active in the dramatic changes which marked the early days of the Revolution. He had preferred to watch and wait, biding the time when his talents might find their proper field of expression. Between 1784 and 1789 he had read widely, devouring the works of the philosophers and reformers and accepting many of their principles as a part of his political creed. He sympa- thized but Httle, however, with the aspirations or demands of the masses, or with those leaders who catered to their interests. He believed in law and order and in system, leaning in his politi- cal opinions toward the views of the middle classes. THE NAPOLEONIC ERA Bonaparte at Toulon Bonaparte is represented as charging impetuously up the heights back of roulon on which the British were stationed and driving them ignominiously from the field. In this action he was wounded in the leg by a British bayonet, as shown in the picture. He called this wound his "Baptism of Blood.'' Note the uniforms of the soldiers. 154 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Marriage 70. Bonapartc in Italy : Campaign of 1796-7. — His marriage with josep ine .^ ^^^^ ^.^-^ Josephine de Beauharnais, a beautiful Creole of the island of Martinique and the widow of one of the victims of the Terror, secured for him the favor of Barras, one of the most influential of the Directors, and contributed not a little to his appointment in 1796 as general of the Army of Italy. The Directory was now planning a decisive blow at Austria and Sardinia, who had joined forces against France and were still hostile to the Republic. The Directors, acting in part upon the advice of Bonaparte, planned to attack Austria both in Appointment Germany and in Italy, and in the spring of 1796 Bonaparte to the Army ^^^^ Command of the motley force known as the Army of of Italy -^ -' Italy — a command which, in the words of a contemporary, was "to open for him the doors of immortaHty." Crossing the Apennines, by the brilliancy of his strategy he quickly prevented the Austrians and Sardinians from joining forces upon the plains of Lombardy. Defeating each in turn, he Peace of soon forced his enemies to sign the Peace of Campo Formio, Campo Formio ^^ which Austria recognized the Ligurian and Cisalpine re- publics which Bonaparte had created and renounced her claims upon Belgium and the lands lying west of the Rhine to France. As partial compensation for these losses, the terri- tory of the recently conquered Venetian Republic was ceded to Austria. This campaign established Bonaparte's reputation as a great military leader. He had taken a small, ragged, ill-equipped Military genius forcc of 37,ooo men and by brilliant manoeuvres had destroyed of Bonaparte ypQj^ their own ground five Austrian armies, not one of which numbered less than 45,000 men and which were commanded by some of the best generals in Europe. This campaign — a series of moves consisting of 18 battles and 65 skirmishes — is justly accounted "one of the classic pieces of the military art," and is therefore worthy of careful study. Bonaparte had done more, however, than to secure for himself a military reputation. He had come down into northern Italy THE NAPOLEONIC ERA 155 The Young Bonaparte Napoleon Bonaparte is here represented as quelling an insurrection in Paris under the Directory. 156 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Bonaparte as the Champion of Liberty Creation of Republics Bonaparte's Opportunity posing as the champion of these peoples who were staggering under the yoke of Austria, proclaiming as his real purpose the restoration of all Italy to its former position of glory and honor among the nations. Divided as the land was into small states and principalities, with an outsider, Austria, dominating every- thing and stifling every effort towards union and independence, the message which he brought fell upon receptive ears and aroused the greatest hopes and expectations among all ItaHan pa- triots. The creation of the Cisalpine and Ligurian republics out of a portion of the captured territories was a sort of pledge of what they might expect in the future, and the Italian people saw in this step the dawn of a new era for a land which had so long served merely as a. great battleground for the rest of Europe. But Bonaparte had accomplished even more. From this time forward the French people began to look to him as the coming leader about whom they could rally in a crisis. It was not alone his conduct of the campaign, but his administration of the conquered country, which marked him as a man of great ability. He now began to voice the ambition which stimulated him to action. He had already fixed his eye upon the distant goal. "Do you think, " he said in conversation with some of his intimate friends, "that I triumph in Italy to make the greatness of the lawyers of the Directory?" Throughout all these under- takings in Italy he constantly kept his finger upon the pulse of France, realizing that the time was not far distant when he would be called upon to declare his real purpose, but knowing full well, to quote his own words, that the "pear was not yet ripe." He still posed as a champion and as a supporter of the existing order in France and despatched one of his subordinates to Paris in September, 1797, when royahst movements threat- ened the overthrow of the Directory. 71. Bonaparte in Egypt. — There was only one nation still in arms against France. That was England. When Bonaparte laid down his command in Italy and was ready to return to France he found himself in a rather embarrassing position. No THE NAPOLEONIC ERA "^51 sufficient pretext was at hand for another change in the gov- ernment, and any one who attempted such a move was fore- doomed to failure. The Directors, while they feared Bonaparte, did not know how to safeguard themselves against him or what to do with him. They therefore welcomed his proposal that he be intrusted with a force which should deliver a telling blow at England's power in the Mediterranean. Such an expedition Bonaparte in Egypt The figure of Bonaparte is seen plodding resolutely on ahead of his troops over the sands of Egypt in the Egyptian campaign, fitted in well with Bonaparte's schemes. Not only did the proj- ect open up great possibilities in the acquisition of additional Aims of honor and glory, but it afforded him a pretext for absenting o"*?^''*® himself for the time being from affairs at the capital. He was undoubtedly fascinated by the idea of repeating Alexander's exploits in the East. He proposed to land a force in Egypt and, having won a foothold there, to strike at England's supremacy in India. If all went well he might carve out for himself a great eastern empire which should rival that of the great Macedonian. He accordingly set sail with a large fleet and a picked force of 35,000 soldiers, and, landing at Alexandria, soon occupied 158 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Battle of the Pyramids Battle of the Nile Invasion of Syria Zurich, 1799 Bonaparte's Return Cairo, fighting several battles with the Mamelukes, who were the real rulers of the land. One of these was fought within the shadow of the Pyramids. ''Forty centuries are looking down upon you," was his exhortation to his soldiers as he drew them up in battle order. The first setback to the expedition was the loss of the fleet. The English government, realizing the danger that threatened its power in the Mediterranean and possibly in India, had ordered the fleet under Admiral Nelson to in- tercept the French expedition. Nelson failed in this, but the first day of August, 1798, he finally came upon the French fleet at anchor in Aboukir Bay at the mouth of the Nile. By a series of manoeuvres he placed the French ships at the disadvantage of being outnumbered two to one, and in the battle which fol- lowed he destroyed all but four vessels. Two of these were ships of the line and the others frigates. The Battle of the Nile, or of Aboukir Bay, as it is sometimes called, bottled up the French army in Egypt, cutting off entirely Bonaparte's com- munications with France. Nothing daunted, he invaded Syria, and upon ground made famous by the crusaders centuries be- fore won several battles, but was repulsed at Acre and forced to retire into Egypt again. He showed remarkable skill in handling his now weakened forces and won a great name for himself among the Turks. Soon after his return to Egypt he learned from some English newspapers which fell into his hands that matters were pro- gressing unfavorably at home; that war had broken out again between France and Austria; and that all his Italian conquests had been lost. Although the tide of battle began to turn in favor of the Directory by the victory of Zurich in September, 1799, this body had already fallen into such disrepute that some change of government was imminent. The time seemed most opportune for his return if he were to take advantage of the situation. Abandoning his army in Egypt and accompanied by only a few of his most trusted generals, Bonaparte with great difficulty succeeded in escaping the patrol of English ships and THE NAPOLEONIC ERA 159 in making his way back to France, where he was received with the wildest enthusiasm. His countrymen, knowing of nothing but his successes, Uttle reaUzed that his Egyptian expedition The End of had entirely failed in its main purpose and that it was only a ^^ ^mon*° matter of time when the abandoned army, like water, would be entirely absorbed by the sands of the Egyptian deserts. How- ever, even though the French did not take over Egypt in this campaign, they left their mark upon it. Bonaparte had taken with him prominent engineers, archaeologists, and scientists, and the expedition in many ways partook of the nature of a modern exploring expedition. These men studied the monuments, study of Egypt the history, the institutions, and the resources of the country, ^^./^j.. For the first time Europe was given a knowledge of the past and an interest in the present of this cradle of ancient civilization which has been the foundation for all later study and interest. It was a Frenchman, Champollion, who deciphered the Rosetta Stone, which was discovered at this time, and by so doing made it possible for scholars to read the hieroglyphics and marvel at the achievements of the long-forgotten Pharaohs. 72. Establishment of Bonaparte's Power in France. — Bona- parte had returned at a time most favorable for the furtherance of his ambitions. All eyes were now turned to him as the instrument for extricating France from her present troubles and restoring peace and prosperity to the distracted country. In his absence matters had gone from bad to worse. The country was bankrupt; the roads infested with brigands; the govern- ment utterly discredited and despised; and graft reigned inefficiency and supreme. The efforts of the American representatives to secure thTiJireTtor ° a treaty of friendship with the new government showed up in starthng fashion the corruption which honeycombed the ad- ministration and brought our country to the verge of war with its former ally. The American representatives were not only unable to get a hearing with the directors, but it was also inti- mated by certain men who acted as go-betweens in the nego- tiations that they could neither look for a favorable reception 6o ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Overthrow of the Directory nor a satisfactory conclusion to their mission without first advancing large sums of money to members of the French government. This prompted one of our diplomats to ex- claim: "Millions for defence, but not one cent for tribute." President Adams laid bare the negotiations in a message to Congress substituting for the names of these agents the letters X, Y, Z, and the episode is usually known as the X, Y, Z affair. Bonaparte showed his political sagacity by sounding the feelings of the different factions and leaders before committing himself to any line of action. The presence of his brother in one of the law-making bodies and the cooperation of Sieyes, an unscrupulous politician and one of the Directors, enabled him to plan and execute successfully the overthrow of the Directory and the formation of a new government known as the Consulate, a name taken from the pages of Roman history. By force and intrigue they executed the coup d'etat of the i8th Bru- maire ^ as it was called, by which they placed themselves in entire control of the state. This coup d'etat, or quickly executed move against the existing order, was the first of a series of such steps in the history of France. Under Bonaparte's influence a complicated constitution was now drawn up which divided the legislative power between four bodies: one to propose the laws; another to discuss them; one to vote upon them; and finally a Senate to determine their consti- tutionality. The real power was lodged in the hands of three The Consulate consuls, of whom Bonaparte was named first consul, his col- leagues counting for little more than figure-heads. In all but name Bonaparte was now master of France. He had made himself necessary, almost indispensable, to his countrymen, and they gladly placed themselves under his orders. They believed him to be all that he claimed himself to be, "a true child of the Revolution." He was, therefore, the proper person to com- 1 Brumaire was the second month of the republican calendar. The date according to our calendar is November 9, 1799. THE NAPOLEONIC ERA [6l plete its work. The true situation was probably appreciated only by the few, as the new Constitution of the Year VIII was submitted to the vote of the people and was approved by a large majority. This device, which Bonaparte employed upon The Coup d'Etat of the i8th Brumaire Bonaparte entered the Councils, escorted by soldiers; the Ancients listened to him quietly; but the Five Hundred in tumult proposed to declare him and his followers outlaws; and after a stormy scene the deputies were driven from the hall by the grenadiers. other occasions of a similar character, was known as the pie- hiscite (another term smacking of the days of the Roman re- pubHc), and by it the people were allowed to vote yes or no, without comment, upon propositions carefully prepared before- hand by those in authority. It might have been termed a The Plebiscite of the Consulate into the Empire 162 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY form of referendum had the proposals originated with the rep- resentatives of the people themselves. Transformation Bonaparte had not been in power long before he submitted to the people the question as to whether the term of the first consul should not be for life. Still later he submitted his final proposal, that he be created Emperor of the French people. Each of these changes involved modifications in the existing government, but not one of these was serious enough to give rise to any dis- turbance of the existing order. When Bonaparte undertook to set France in order in 1799, many of the royalists had misin- terpreted his purpose. They had expected him to play the role of another Monk, using his sword to bring back the exiled Bourbons as Monk had used his to restore the exiled Stuarts. They were soon undeceived. His ideal seems to have been the inauguration of a form of benevolent despotism for France with himself as the despot. There were probably many reasons which prompted Bonaparte to the final step by which he made himself Emperor, not -the least of which was his far-reaching ambition, especially his desire for glory and his delight in the working out of big problems. He looked upon himself as a second Charlemagne, who was destined to confer upon all western Europe the benefits of the French Revolution, even as the great hero of the Middle Ages had conferred upon it the blessings of peace and unity. 73. The Work of Peace. — Bonaparte saw the need of a speedy and satisfactory solution of several domestic problems which had long torn France asunder and had proved serious ob- stacles to the realization of that peace and prosperity which, in deference to the people's demands, he was so anxious to estab- lish. Although he regarded himself as entirely outside the do- main of religion and morals, time and again he declared that no state could be permanent that was not grounded upon an estab- hshed church. He sought to put an end to the strife between the clergy and the government by opening negotiations with the Pope for a settlement of these controversies. Bonaparte was by THE NAPOLEONIC ERA 163 no means desirous of restoring the church to a position where it might prove a possible rival to his own authority. Accord- ingly, he secured the assent of the Pope to the Concordat of 1801, The Concordat an arrangement under which church and state worked together, not always harmoniously, it is true, until its repeal in 1905. The Catholic Church renounced its claims upon the lands which had been wrested from it ten years before and was again recognized as the state church. No church dignitaries were to be appointed without the consent of Bonaparte, who retained in his own hands the power of nomination. The gov- ernment recognized the jurisdiction and headship of the Pope over the French church, but the church in France retained its essentially national character. By a series of " organic articles " which Bonaparte added to the Concordat, the pubHcation of papal bulls and the holding of councils were forbidden without the authority of the government. There were other problems of domestic administration pressing for solution. Bonaparte completed the work of reorganizing the system of local government under which so much of disorder and turmoil had been possible, replacing the older governing Administrative bodies with a series of officials to whom were assigned well- Reforms defined areas to administer. The lower officials answered to others of higher rank placed over them, all authority finally centring in the head of the state. It was in reality an applica- tion of the principle of military organization to the civil govern- ment. The preservation of the essential features of this system to our own day attests its success. Bonaparte completed much of the work begun by the Con- vention. In a remarkably short time he had systematized the Law laws of France and drawn up various codes, the most important being the Civil Code. The work was so well done that it forms the basis of the French legal system of today. The influence of these changes may be traced in the legal codes of several other European States. He also put the finishing touches upon the French educational system by the creation of the 1 64 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Education The Legion of Honor Public Works The Bank of France Schemes for Colonial Empire Louisiana University of France, by which all the public schools of the empire were made a part of one great organization and were directed in all their work by the central government. These changes were also a part of the enduring work of the Napo- leonic era. Bonaparte also established the Legion of Honor, an organiza- tion through which those serving the state in any capacity might receive recognition from the government for work of conspicuous merit. It served, too, as did so many of Bonaparte's arrange- ments, to bind the people the more closely to himself and made it appear that he alone was the great source of honor and ad- vancement. In various ways Bonaparte encouraged trade and industry. He won the support of the peasants and the small landholders by placing them in secure possession of their lands. The titles to these had been none too secure as the result of the many changes through which the country had passed. He also under- took great public works, such as beautifying Paris by monuments and parks and the construction of beautiful avenues. He built •great roads along natural highways and improved others which had fallen into disuse or had been neglected. He established the Bank of France as a means of maintaining the credit of the country and of furthering international trading operations. This institution was modelled upon the famous Bank of England. To his credit must be placed the final successful solution of the financial problems which had taxed the resources of a Necker and a Calonne and a score of other financiers and had been fear- fully complicated by the issues of great quantities of assignats. His plans for restoring to the French people the prestige which had once been theirs as a great colonial power are of special interest, not alone for the breadth of view which they illustrate but for their bearing upon the future of North and South America. He forced Spain to transfer the Louisiana territory to France with a view to developing its vast resources and mak- ing it a great outlet for French industry and French enterprise. THE NAPOLEONIC ERA 165 But the course of events in Europe, particularly the outbreak of war with England in 1803, prompted him to abandon these grandiose schemes and he transferred the title to the United States for $15,000,000, as the possession of this sum at the time outweighed any considerations of the future value of the terri- tory as a French colony. In pursuance of the ambitions of the French people he pressed the campaign for the reconquest of the island of Hayti, which had rebelled under the leadership of Hayti one of the greatest representatives of the negro race, Toussaint rOuverture. He realized when too late the fearful cost of the enterprise, thousands of the best troops of France perishing through the ravages of the deadly cHmate and at the hands of the infuriated negro population. Favored by projects which de- manded the conqueror's entire energies at home, the island soon recovered its independence, setting up the tirst negro republic in the new world. 74. The Establishment of Bonaparte's Power in Italy. — Most of the work just described was completed within the inter- val between Bonaparte's arrival in France in 1799 and May, 1803. Upon becoming First Consul he felt it to be his task to recover once more the territories which he had won in his memo- rable Italian campaign of 1796-7. As has already been noted (sec. 71), the tide had begun to turn in favor of the armies The Second of the Directory even before Bonaparte had landed upon French canTp^i— soil. By his great victory of Marengo in Italy and Moreau's victory of Hohenlinden in Germany, he dealt such a blow to Marengo and the combination known as the Second Coahtion (England, Ho^®'^^*"^*®^ Russia, Austria, Turkey, and Naples), which had been formed in his absence, that Austria was glad to sign a treaty of peace, and England, laying aside her arms for the first time after almost ten years of continuous fighting, soon afterwards signed the Treaty of Amiens. The Marengo campaign in Italy was a masterpiece of military strategy. Bonaparte struck successive blows at his enemies when they least expected it and showed himself the greatest general in Europe. By the treaty with 1 66 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Results Power of Bonaparte in Italy Peace of Amiens Austria (Peace of Luneville, 1801), Italy was practically placed under French domination. The Cisalpine republic was reestab- lished, but was soon transformed into the Italian repubhc under the presidency of Bonaparte; Austria recognized the Helvetic republic, which had been formed in Switzerland un- der French auspices a few years before, and the Ba- tavian republic, which had been created in the same fashion out of Holland. The French also established themselves in the fortresses of the Kingdom of Naples and consequently held sway throughout the length and breadth of the peninsula. This reestabhshment of the power of France in Italy marks the beginning of a series of changes which made Bonaparte master and dictator of Europe. 75. Bonaparte and Eng- land. — When, exhausted by the strain of war, Eng- land signed the Treaty of Amiens, her far-sighted statesmen recognized that they had merely concluded a tem- porary peace. Bonaparte was prompted to lay aside hostili- ties for the time being, that he might the better prepare for the struggle which he knew could not be long delayed or deferred. The power of France had grown too great for the security of England. The situation might be compared with that which prevailed in Europe in the days of Louis XIV. No sooner was The Passage of the Alps Bonaparte crossing the Alps by the Great Saint Bernard Pass on his second Italian campaign in 1800. His men are dragging the cannon over some of the dif- ficult places to the music of a band sta- tioned by the road. THE NAPOLEONIC ERA 167 the treaty signed than the EngHsh began to suspect the First Consul of bad faith, and they therefore refused to carry out one of the conditions imposed by the treaty, namely the surrender of the island of Malta. Bonaparte also showed himself very sensitive to the comments which appeared in the English news- papers. With the strained relations which existed it was not a difficult matter to bring about an open rupture. The English Dissatisfaction merchants and manufacturers undoubtedly welcomed the peace ^"^ *^^ ^^^^^ in the hope that it would mean new markets for their wares in France and the French dependencies, but in this they were doomed to disappointment, as Bonaparte showed no desire of opening up France to English merchandise. His policy was rather the opposite, to surround her with a Chinese wall of exclusion so far as trade regulations were concerned. It has been often said, and with much truth, that it was England's persistent hostihty that brought about the destruction of all Bonaparte's schemes and effected his final downfall. The English people certainly exhibited in a remarkable manner the bull-dog tenacity characteristic of the Anglo-Saxon in the long struggle which now opened in 1803 and which was only to close Renewal upon the battle-field of Waterloo in 181 5 after weary years of ^^ hostilities fighting. In this phase of the war and in the earlier struggles with the French repubhc, the island empire was forced to meet every kind of an attack. The efforts which the French had already launched against her through Ireland in 1796 and through Egypt in 1798 had proved unsuccessful. Bonaparte now tried or rather planned a direct invasion. He began massing troops at Boulogne and gathering transports pre- The Camp paratory to conveying them across the Channel. The Channel, ^* Boulogne although narrow, is a choppy bit of water and exceedingly diffi- cult to cross even in time of peace. Bonaparte felt that he must have command of the Channel long enough to land his troops, and with this end in view he planned a series of manoeuvres with the joint French and Spanish fleets. These plans, how- ever, came to naught, and in 1805 the EngHsh fleet under Lord 68 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Trafalgar, 1805 Nelson encountered the combined fleets off Cape Trafalgar on the Spanish coast. In the battle which followed almost the entire French fleet was destroyed. England was now more than ever mistress of the seas, but the battle of Trafalgar was Nelson's last exploit, as he was killed in the ac- tion. It was on the eve of this battle that Nelson issued the famous order to his men, ''England expects every man to do his duty." Before treating the further progress of this duel with England, it is necessary to note the assumption of the impe- rial title by the First Consul. Directly follow- ing the Peace of Amiens, it was proposed to extend his consulship for life. This proposal was submitted to a popular vote and three million and a half favored it, while only eight thousand were unfavorable. The gov- ernment was made more absolute. About this time plots against Napoleon's life were discovered, and in the face of a new European war, it was considered necessary to show the confidence which France felt in him by bestowing upon him a higher title than any he had hitherto borne. Accordingly, in 1804, the title of Napoleon I, Emperor of the French, was conferred upon him. From this time on he was known as Napoleon. His coronation was very spectacular. 76. Extension of Napoleon's Power over Central Europe. — Developments upon the continent had already modified Napo- Nelson Nelson in his cabin on H. M. S. Vic- tory before the battle of Trafalgar. From the painting by Orchard. THE NAPOLEONIC ERA 169 Icon's plan of invading England. The Tsar had joined with Austria against Napoleon, and England had promised substantial financial assistance. Although it was understood that Prussia would join the alliance, she failed to act with them. Napoleon The Coronation of Napoleon Napoleon is here shown taking the crown from the hands of the Pope and placing it upon his own head, thus declaring himself above the power of the Church. had been negotiating with her ruler and had purchased his neutrality with the bait of George Ill's Electorate of Hanover. This combination of Russia, England, and Austria was known Formation as the Third Coalition against France and had been brought xhird^ Coalition about largely through the labors of William Pitt the Younger, 1 70 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY the English prime minister, who expected great things from it. The Austrians placed two armies in the field and counted upon reenforcements from Russia before they should come to blows with Napoleon. The latter acted with characteristic prompt- ness and energy, and before the Austrians and Russians were able to join forces he inflicted a severe defeat upon the Austrians at Ulm. Two months later he encountered the combined forces uim with such success at Austerlitz (1805) that the Emperor Francis an uster itz j-^^j^j^jy begged for an interview with the victor to arrange terms of peace. Austerlitz has been called the finest battle in history — a model combat. It was a decisive victory, and Austria was completely overthrown. Pitt was so disappointed over the outcome of his efforts that he is said to have exclaimed "Roll up the map of Europe; it will not be wanted these ten years." He did not long survive the shock, as he died in January, 1806. Napoleon was given a free hand to make any arrange- ments which he .might choose for central Europe. He now as-~ Reorganization sumed the rolc of a modern Charlemagne. Within the next six °^i^^u"^°^ months he had made four kings; had transferred Hanover to and Changes " ' in Italy Prussia; had cut down the states of Germany from three hun- dred and sixty to eighty- two; had aboHshed the Holy Roman Empire altogether; and had formed out of the states along the Rhine a confederation under his presidency (The Confederation of the Rhine). By the terms of the Treaty of Pressburg which Austria signed with Napoleon, valuable territories on the Ad- riatic were ceded to France. By these cessions Austria lost control of the routes to the Adriatic, to Italy, and down the valley of the Rhine. Napoleon conferred the title of king upon the Electors of Bavaria and of Wurtemberg for '' the attachment which they had displayed to the Emperor"; transformed the Batavian republic into the Kingdom of Holland, making his brother Louis its ruler; and seized the kingdom of Naples, be- stowing the crown upon his brother Joseph. Napoleon's mastery of Europe, however, was speedily chal- THE NAPOLEONIC ERA 171 lenged, and before the year 1806 had passed a Fourth CoaHtion The Fourth was formed against him consisting this time of England, Prussia, ^°^^'**°° and Russia. The king of Prussia, Frederick William III, had shown throughout this period an indecision and a vacillation which had made him an uncertain factor to be reckoned with. Napoleon had handled him so skilfully that he was in danger of being completely isolated and of being forced to act alone in his dealings with France. He had held off from participation in the Attitude of Austrian campaign. Napoleon, however, had shown himself ^^^^^^^ in reality so antagonistic to Prussian interests that Frederick William at last decided that the interests of Prussia demanded war with Napoleon. Prussia had reasons enough for placing obstacles in the path of Napoleon, but the hesitation of her ruler led to her undoing. Napoleon again proved himself a master of the art of war, and in the two battles of Auerstaedt and Jena (1806) inflicted upon the Prussians such a terrible defeat that within a month after the campaign had opened there was not a vestige remaining of the great Prussian army which had gone out jena'and the against him. Jena was a terrible blow to the military prestige so long enjoyed by Prussia. The king showed himself a cowardly poltroon, taking refuge in the one province remaining to him and writing to one of his ministers to see to it that Napoleon was well taken care of in such of the royal palaces as he should choose for his residence, and requesting that he make the necessary drafts upon the Prussian treasury to meet the expense. Napoleon made a triumphal entry into Berlin and exacted an oath from all the officials and functionaries of the kingdom to "contribute with all their forces for the execution of the measures which should be prescribed to them for the service of the French army and not to enter into any correspondence or communication with their enemies." They one and all sought to outdo each other in their show of submission and weakness. 77. Napoleon's Power at its Height. — Napoleon now pressed Napoleon on against the Russians, but found in them a much more stub- ^°^ Russia born foe. Although he claimed the battle of Eylau as a victory Eyiau Humiliation of Prussia 72 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Friedland Meeting at Tilsit Completion of the Reorganization of Germany because the Russian army retired from the field, — a move which Napoleon himself seriously contemplated but which the Russian general was the first actually to execute, — nothing was gained by the combat. The battle was fought in a blinding snowstorm and was one of the bloodiest of the Napoleonic epoch. One fifth of the forces engaged were either killed or wounded. Napoleon did not resume military operations against the Rus- sians until the spring, and in June, 1807, won such a decisive victory at Friedland that the Tsar sued for peace. The two emperors, the one of the East and the other of the West, arranged a meeting on a raft at Tilsit in the river Niemen on June 16, 1807. The King of Prussia was not admitted to their delibera- tions, but it was he who paid the expenses of the war, for by the terms to which they agreed he was deprived of his new acquisition Hanover and, in addition, of all territories which he possessed upon the left bank of the Elbe and all that Prussia had taken from Poland in the second and third partitions of that unfortunate country. These terms were granted him. Napoleon intimated, "out of consideration for His Majesty the Emperor of all theRus- sias." The two emperors were apparently very much attracted to each other. Each set out to win the confidence of the other and succeeded so well that the Tsar recognized all that Napoleon had done in the West and Napoleon in turn assured his new friend that he should have a perfectly free hand in the East. The Tsar was to offer England his mediation and attack her on his ally's behalf if she did not accept it; while, on the other hand. Napoleon was to render the Tsar a like service, offering the Turks, who were at war with Russia, his mediation. In the event of their refusal he promised to attack them and to dismember their empire. Napoleon now completed the changes which he had set on foot in Germany by forming the kingdom of Westphalia out of the lands taken from Prussia, intrusting it to his brother Jerome, and by conferring upon the Elector of Saxony the title of King, intrusting to him the Grand Duchy of Warsaw which he had formed from Prussian Poland. THE NAPOLEONIC ERA 173 174 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Extent of Napoleon's Power Napoleon's Designs upon Spain Weakness of Spain Attitude of the French People towards Napoleon The Treaty of Tilsit marks the height of Napoleon's power. With the possible exception of Spain, his influence was supreme from the Straits of Gibraltar in the West to the dominions of the Turk in the East, and from the Mediterranean to the Baltic. Although Spain had been planning an attack upon Napoleon in 1806, the outcome of the Jena campaign dampened somewhat her martial ardor and these plans were speedily abandoned. Napoleon had already determined upon the ruin of the Spanish Bourbons, for he had learned of Spain's proposed defection from correspondence found in the Prussian capital. He had not as yet set about to accomplish it. His power, however, was recognized throughout the peninsula even though it had not yet fallen under his transforming hand. His disposal of Louisiana in 1803 is a clear indication of the subservient role which Spain had been playing for some time past under her weak ruler, Charles IV. The one great power which still refused to acknowledge his sway was England, and Napoleon now set himself to the great task of securing its overthrow. He had not only France to draw upon, with all its wealth and re- sources, but Europe as well. 78. The Influence of the Napoleonic Regime. — The influ- ence of the Napoleonic regime, as it might be called, now began to show itself both upon France and upon Europe. Napoleon had time and again remarked at the outset of his career that what the French people wanted was glory. He had insisted that the love of glory was with Frenchmen a sixth sense. He had played upon this string so persistently that by 1807 his hearers were beginning to weary somewhat of the strain. In his earlier campaigns he had done much to restore France to her position of honor and respect among the nations, but it was no longer possible to see in the manifold schemes of Napoleon the Emperor the advantage of the French nation. The bitter warfare which he waged with England, which became the more bitter with every passing year, Vv^as regarded by many as highly detrimental to the best interests of France. England had THE NAPOLEONIC ERA 175 already entered upon that great industrial era in her history which made her the workshop of Europe (sec. 86 ff.) and her control of the seas made it difficult for the French people to secure many of the articles from the East and from America to which they had so long been accustomed. With the passage of time the feelitig became stronger that Napoleon's enterprises were dictated with an eye primarily to the glory and advance- ment of a single man rather than to that of the French nation which he pretended to serve. On the other hand, in spite of the splendid services which Napoleon had rendered France in completing and rounding out the work begun in the days of the Revolution, there was now to be detected in much that he did a strain of absolu-tism, a Growth of desire to bend the people to his will. Liberty of the press and ^^^oiutism of speech had entirely disappeared. Reverence for the emperor was not only taught in the schools but formed a part of the catechism of the state church. A thoroughly centralized bureau- cratic administration had replaced the more democratic forms of government which had existed in the early days of the Rev- olution, and, with the increased importance attached to the court and to the services rendered to the person of the em- peror, all individual initiative seemed at an end. The plans which Napoleon sought to carry out from this time forward emphasized more than ever the great change which had taken place in his relations to the French people. Although Napoleon by his supremacy in Europe had been Europe able to confer upon some of the most backward communities ^^^ Napoleon many of the blessings of the Revolution and a law, order, and system entirely foreign to them under their exiled rulers and administrators, here again he ignored altogether the wishes of the governed and failed on almost every occasion to take them into his confidence. His attitude was very much like that of the benevolent despot of the earlier period, but there was this marked difference — the administrators whom he placed over the conquered or annexed territories were in most cases for- 76 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Attempts to crush England The Berlin Decree Orders in Council Milan Decree eigners, aliens to the people over whom they were set to govern. In spite, therefore, of the benefits which he conferred of good laws, good roads, an efficient police, and the like, the great empire which he had reared rested in reality upon a foundation of sand likely at any moment to collapse into a mighty ruin. 79. The Nationalist Reaction Against Napoleon. — It was not the rulers of Europe, not primarily the persistent opposition of England, which brought Napoleon's power to an end, but the people themselves, whose wishes he failed to consult and whose opposition in an evil day he finally aroused. He brought this hornet's nest about his ears in the supreme effort which he now put forth to crush England. This scheme had begun to take shape in 1806, but it was really launched in all its vigor after he had secured the cooperation of the Tsar Alexander in that mem- orable interview on the Russian frontier in June, 1807. The plan was to sap England's strength by cutting off her commercial intercourse with the rest of the world and particularly her traffic with Europe. Napoleon now had the continent sufficiently under his control to feel that he could effectively close all its ports to English merchandise and to English vessels. While in Berlin, just after the Jena campaign, he issued the Berlin Decree, proclaiming all the ports of England in a state of block- ade, forbidding trade in English and colonial wares and exclud- ing from French and allied ports any ship that had touched at those of Great Britain. This marked the beginning of the so- called continental blockade or continental system. England immediately retaliated with Orders in Council, forbidding all neutrals to trade between France and her allies or between ports that observed the Berlin Decree. Napoleon came back at England in the Milan Decree, by which any neutral vessel obeying this order should be regarded as denationalized and be treated as an English vessel. The United States was the worst sufferer by these orders, and the trade of New England was well- nigh ruined in the commercial warfare which followed. The right of search, which was exercised most rigorously by England THE NAPOLEONIC ERA 177 in the period which followed, and her control of the sea, which Right of search. enabled her to enforce her decrees, finally brought the United andWarofi8i2 States to the point of war with England, the War of 181 2. It was not England which became the worst sufferer in this contest for mastery, but rather France and Europe. The situation had been bad enough before, as it had been exceedingly difficult to procure the necessities which only England and America could supply. Prices now began to soar even higher as a result of the blockade, and France was so hard put to it to secure the necessary cloth and colonial products that Napoleon relaxed somewhat the rigors of the blockade by issuing licenses to a favored few to bring in some of the more needed articles. With the twofold object of securing a firmer control of Spain and Portugal for the enforcement of these decrees and of extend- ing his direct control over western Europe by a system of depend- ent kingdoms. Napoleon undertook through craft and force to displace the Bourbons from the Spanish throne and to annex Portugal (1808). His ambition to extend his sway and to enlarge the empire over which he ruled seemed to know no bounds. ''I Napoleon's may find the Pillars of Hercules in Spain, but I shall not find u^^erLi the limits of my power, " was his remark on one occasion. The Monarchy attempt to accomplish these two objects opened the way for his downfall. His efforts to cut off Portuguese trade with England and annex the country met with some success at the outset. The same was true of Spain. The Portuguese royal family fled to Portugal their American possessions in Brazil; the Spanish Bourbons were forced to abdicate, and their title was conferred upon Napoleon's brother Joseph. These were but temporary suc- cesses. The English government saw the wisdom of making common cause with the Spanish and Portuguese and began throwing armies into the peninsula and supplying officers and money to the native population, who showed everywhere the bitterest hostility to the effort to establish French rule. The Resistance French armies were speedily forced out of Portugal. In Spain °* ^^^^ the struggle was much more protracted, lasting almost to the 1 78 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY end of the Napoleonic period. The new king of Spain, however, soon abandoned his unwilHng subjects. Although Napoleon had set on foot there reforms such as the abolition of the Inqui- sition and the equalization of taxation, removing burdens which rested most heavily upon the common people, they showed no gratitude to their would-be benefactor, but, encouraged by their priests, set on foot guerilla warfare throughout the length and breadth of the land. Favored by the rugged nature of the country, they made it impossible for the French armies to secure any permanent foothold or effect any true conquest. Some of the best soldiers of the Empire were sacrificed in the vain effort to subdue the land and retain its allegiance. Although Napoleon never really abandoned the enterprise and even undertook in person a campaign in Spain, all his efforts failed to achieve any permanent result. The tide had already turned and his power The Peninsular was gradually slipping away. This long-drawn-out campaign ^^^ was known as the Peninsular War.. England sent over some of her very best generals, among them Sir Arthur Wellesley, after- ward known as the Duke of Wellington. Step by step he over- came the almost insurmountable obstacles placed in his path by his own '' incompetent government and by jealous, exacting, and slipshod allies." Although Austria had already been beaten by Napoleon in three campaigns, in the spring of 1809 her emperor again deter- mined to try issues with Napoleon, seeking to recover the power The Revolt and territory which had been ruthlessly taken from him. Devel- 01 Austria -^ . opments in Spain, especially the stubbornness of the resistance there, prompted him to the step. Then, too, a new spirit had appeared in Austria, the spirit of national opposition. The struggle with Napoleon was no longer an affair of the ruler but of the people themselves, who began to feel the shame and dis- grace of foreign control. At Aspern Napoleon was again vic- torious, but this time the Austrians acquitted themselves so well that Europe began to think that Napoleon had finally met his match. Their hopes were speedily dashed to the ground seven THE NAPOLEONIC ERA 179 weeks later in the battle of Wagram. It was no such decisive Wagram conflict as Austerlitz, but Austria made peace, and when, in fur- therance of his ambitions for a Napoleonic dynasty, Napoleon asked the hand of the Archduchess Marie Louise, the Emperor, her father, dared not say him nay. The battle of Wagram, there- fore seemed to confirm the impression that Napoleon's hold upon Europe was permanent. Before marrying this Austrian princess, Napoleon's Napoleon had secured a divorce from the Empress Josephine, ^y'J^^"'^ and the episode of his parting with Josephine is perhaps the most and Marriage pathetic in his entire career. A son was born to the emperor in 181 1, who was forthwith crowned King of Rome and was desig- nated as the heir to the throne. All Napoleon's hopes seemed about to be realized. He had not yet grasped the true signifi- cance of the situation in the peninsula. Later in life he acknowl- edged that it was the Spanish situation which destroyed him. ("It was the Spanish ulcer which ruined me.") 80. The Moscow Campaign and the War of Liberation. — There had been for some time signs of disaffection on the part of the Tsar. Napoleon had felt it necessary in the Congress of Erfurt (1808) to go over some of their differences just before the Austrian campaign in order to hold him to his alliance. The Tsar Hostility of felt the pressure of the Continental System and began to see *^® ^^^'^ that Russia was playing into the hands of Napoleon rather than conserving her own interests. He had looked with manifest dis- approval upon Napoleon's creation of the Grand Duchy of War- saw in 1807 and was fearful of the results for Russian Poland of the hopes which Napoleon had held out to the Pohsh nation. Finally in 181 2 the break came. Napoleon had long felt its > inevitableness, but he thought himself ready to meet it. Gather- ing together a vast host which included the veteran forces which had served him so splendidly in his earlier campaigns, he planned an invasion of Russia which should be carried out with all the swiftness and decisiveness of his campaigns in Italy, in Germany, and in Austria. He failed, however, to recognize the fact that he was now face to face with a veritable giant, so loosely l8o ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY The Invasion of Russia Retreat from Moscow The Reawakening of Prussia and Germany organized that any blow which he might deal in one part of its frame would scarcely be felt beyond the immediate surface with which he came in contact. With his superb army of half a mil- lion men he crossed the Russian frontier and marched straight on to Moscow. The Russian armies refused battle, faUing back before him and laying waste the country as they retreated. Napoleon finally reached his goal, but found that his success had counted for but little. The Russians not only evacuated the city but set it on fire. After spending some time in fruitless negotiations and finding no way open to him to bring the Rus- sians to terms, as the winter was now coming on, Napoleon decided to retreat. It was already October and 700 miles had to be covered before the French army would find itself again upon friendly soil. The Russian winter was soon upon them in all its severity. Then began one of the worst and most disas- trous retreats in history. Harassed by the Cossack cavalry, benumbed and freezing with the cold, passing through a country already ravaged by hostile armies, only a remnant of his forces finally found their way back across the frontier. Meanwhile Napoleon's former enemies in the West had not been idle. The Prussian ministers. Stein and Scharnhorst, were statesmen of a different stripe from their faint-hearted master, and they had been busy preparing their country for a moment like this, when they might engage in battle with Napoleon upon a footing of equality. A new spirit had laid hold of the Prussian people. They now began to rebel against the requisitions made upon them and upon their land by their conquerors. Their spirit was shared by the German peoples farther west. The yoke of the conqueror had for some time borne heavily upon them, and the apathy which they had shown heretofore over the changes in their rulers was now replaced by eager preparations for their expulsion. This is the period made famous by such outbursts of patriotic ardor as the poems of Arndt and inspiring hymns like "W^hat is the Ger- man's Fatherland?" Patriotic societies, such as the Burschen- THE NAPOLEONIC ERA l8l schaft, were formed by the students in the universities, who pledged themselves to die for king and fatherland. Napo- leon's hour had now struck. Western Europe arose under its rulers as one man, and Napoleon soon after his return from Russia found himself confronted by the armies of Austria, Prussia, Spain, and England. Thus began the so-called War of Liberation. With his characteristic energy he immediately took the field, but he had no such troops in these new levies as had followed him into the heart of Russia. Nor was Napoleon the same energetic, resourceful commander as of yore. He showed more irresolution and less of that cool calculation which had secured for him his former successes. Although he was successful in some of the minor battles which now followed, he met with an overwhelming defeat upon the battlefield of Leipsic. This was Leipsic, known as the ''battle of the nations, " and one of the results was o^^the^rtlons" the carrying of the war into French territory. For the first time in many years invading armies camped upon French soil. Napoleon put forth superhuman efforts to stem the tide, but he was finally forced to sign his abdication at Fontainebleau Abdication and was assigned the island of Elba as his principality with the °^ Napoleon title of Emperor and an annual income of 2,000,000 francs. The exiled Bourbons were immediately restored in the person of a younger brother of the dead Louis XVI, who took the title of Louis XVIII. A general European Congress was also called Congress of to straighten out the various tangles resulting from Napoleon's ^*®°^ transformation of Europe (The Congress of Vienna). 81. The Hundred Days and Waterloo. — Napoleon was not content to settle down in his new sovereignty. Discontent in France and reports of a lack of harmony between the states represented at Vienna seemed to present the opportunity for which he was waiting. On Feb. 25, 181 5, he made his escape to France, and from the moment of his landing he was received with the same wild enthusiasm which had marked his return from Egypt years before. A force of soldiers sent out to capture 1 82 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Waterloo Exile to St. Helena Napoleon's him threw down their arms at the sight of the Little Corporal, Eib^" ^""^ ^s ^^ "^^^ affectionately called, and followed in his train. The peasant population also accorded him a warm welcome. King Louis XVIII fled at the news of his reception, and again Europe took up arms against its former master. The struggle was waged upon the plains of Belgium, and there the issue was decided. Napoleon's army engaged the forces of the English and Prussians under the command of Wellington and Bliicher at Waterloo. The battle raged from noon until late in the evening. The timely arrival of the Prussian army upon the battle-field where the English forces had long and bravely borne the shock of the French attack turned the tide of battle, and Napoleon left Waterloo a defeated and van- quished man. He had played his last card and lost. He threw . himself upon the generosity of the English, thinking perhaps to find a refuge in that land of exiles. He was condemned instead to life imprisonment upon the island of St. Helena, and there he worried out his remaining years, dying on the 5th of May, 1821. 82. The Congress of Vienna and the Reconstruction of Europe. — Meanwhile the nations which had defeated Napoleon, in the persons of their rulers and representatives, were wrestling in the Congress at Vienna with the problems involved in the reconstruction of Europe. The dominant powers wxre England, Russia, Austria, and Prussia. France also had her representative there in the person of Talleyrand, probably the most able diplo- mat of his time. He had already seen many years of service under various masters, including Napoleon himself. Several Objects sought objects wcrc sought in the arrangements which were made. The first was to thoroughly curb France and to hold her in check by strengthening the states upon her northern frontiers. This was accomplished by uniting Holland and Belgium into a single state and by estabhshing Prussia again in the control of her Rhenish provinces. The boundaries of France were reduced to those which she possessed before the outbreak of the Revolu- The Great Powers Boundaries of France THE NAPOLEONIC ERA 183 tion. Great difficulties were encountered in adjusting the claims of Prussia and Austria. In settling their differences the boundaries of the two states were somewhat changed from what they had been in 1789. The Prussian territories Arrangements were more consolidated and Austria was given more of an ^'^^ Germany On the Way to St. Helena This picture shows Napoleon on the English ship Bellerophon on his way to St. Helena, where he was banished by the English government in 181 5. outlet upon the Adriatic. The various states of Germany were brought together in a loose confederation under the leader- ship of Austria and Prussia, and Italy was again restored to approximately the condition in which it had been at the outbreak of the Revolution. Like Germany, it was merely "a geograph- ical expression." The hopes of a united country which had Italy been aroused in the breasts of German patriots were cruelly shattered. The Italians had already experienced keen disap- pointment when Napoleon, at the outset of his career, had 1 84 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Norway and Sweden Colonial Changes Dissatisfaction with the Work of the Congress failed to fulfill their expectations of a united kingdom. These arrangements therefore did not come home to them with the same force as was the case with the people of Germany. The two Scandinavian states of Norway and Sweden were united under the king of Sweden, a step comparable to that taken with Holland and Belgium, but not carried out with the same ob- ject. Norway had been taken from Denmark as the penalty for the latter's loyalty to Napoleon and was united with Sweden to compensate the Northern kingdom for the loss of Finland. England received or was confirmed in the possession of certain colonial territories which had been seized in the long struggle with France, notably Malta, the Ionian Islands, Cape Colony, Ceylon, British Guiana, and the Isle de France. Her gains seemed quite inadequate to the sacrifices which she had made, but are to be explained partly by the crusade in England against the slave trade, which had so gripped the people that the English representatives were instructed to secure certain agree- ments from the states of Europe directed against this nefarious trafiic. The arrangements made at Vienna were a disappointment to those who had contributed most to the overthrow of Napoleon — the people themselves. Entirely ignored were the aspirations of the nations themselves or the liberal ideas which had been spread broadcast throughout Europe as the result of the French Revolution. The supreme thought in the minds of the actors at Vienna was to place Europe back where it had been before it was inoculated with the terrible germ of revolution. The era which opened marked therefore a decided reaction from the progress which had been so characteristic of the preceding years. The territorial arrangements of the Congress, however, proved far more lasting than their efforts to efface the remem- brance of the glorious days when liberty and equality had been the watchword of all western Europe. With the exception of the formation of the kingdom of Italy and the German Empire, and the separation of Belgium and Holland, it has been only THE NAPOLEONIC ERA 185 1 86 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY within our own day that these territorial arrangements have been seriously modified. SUGGESTIVE TOPICS AND QUESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY I. Describe Bonaparte's life before the Revolution. 2. Give an account of his services to the Convention at Toulon and at Paris. 3. Make a careful study of Bonaparte's campaign in Italy in 1796; in 1800. 4. State and discuss the terms of the Treaty of Campo Formio. 5 . Give an account of his Egyptian and Syrian campaigns. 6. Describe the events connected with the coup d'etat of the i8th Brumaire. 7. Describe the constitution of the Consulate. 8. Discuss the execution of the Due d'Enghien. 9. Describe the naval operations which led to the battle of Trafalgar. 10. Describe the campaign of Austerlitz. 11. Discuss Napoleon's policy from 1806 to 1808. 12. Discuss the second marriage of Napoleon. 13. Describe the War of Liberation in Germany. 14. Describe the resistance of Spain. 15. Describe Napoleon's life on St, Helena. Collateral Reading I, Napoleon's Life before the French Revolution. Johnston, Napoleon, pp. i-ii. Fournier (Bourne), Napoleon, PP- i~37- Fisher, Napoleon, pp. 7-22. Rose, Life of Napo- leon I, Vol. I, pp. 1-39. II. His Services at Toulon and at Paris. Johnston, pp. 14-25. Fournier, pp. 38-60. Fisher, pp. 22-8. Rose, Vol. I, pp. 40-69. III. Josephine. Fournier, pp. 60-71. IV. The Italian Campaign. Plunket, , Fall of the Old Order, pp. 128-35. Johnston, pp. 27-39. Fournier, pp. 72-108. Fisher, pp. 28-56. Rose, Vol. I, pp. 70-127. Jefifery, The New Europe, pp. 49-52. V. Campo Formio. Johnston, pp. 41-7. Fournier, pp. 108-10. Rose, Vol. I, pp. 128-58. VI. Egyptian and Syrian Campaigns. Johnston, pp. 47-57. Fouriyer, pp. 1 11-53. Fisher, pp. 56-72. Rose, Vol. I, pp. 159-97. Plunket, pp. 14 1-3. VII. The Coup d'Etat and the Consulate. Johnston, pp. 59-78. Fournier, pp. 154-88. Fisher, pp. 73-97. Rose, Vol. I, pp. 198-220, 245-78. Plunket, pp. 148-61. VIII. Marengo, Luneville, and Amiens. Johnston, pp. 79-87, 111-12. Fournier, pp. 188-220. Fisher, pp. 97-1 1 1. Rose, Vol. I, pp. 221-44, 306-28. Jeffery, pp. 57-61. THE NAPOLEONIC ERA 187 IX. The First Empire and its Organization. Johnston, pp. 88-111. Fournier, pp. 221-82. Fisher, pp. 119- 25, 153-68. Rose, Vol. I, pp. 279-305, 329-56, 412-44. X. War of 1805. Johnston, pp. 11 1-29. Fournier, pp. 283-324. Fisher, pp. 119- 46. Rose, Vol. I, pp. 445-68; Vol. II, pp. 1-72. Jeflfery, pp. 92-8. XI. War with Prussia and Russia; Tilsit. Johnston, pp. 130-47- Fournier, pp. 325-90. Fisher, pp. 146-53. Rose, Vol. II, pp. 73-94, 99-145. XII. The Continental System. Cambridge Modern History, Vol. IX, Napoleon, pp. 361-89. XIII. The Empire at its Height. Fournier, pp. 493-535- Fisher, pp. 153-68. Rose, Vol. II, pp. 192-212. XIV. Campaign in Russia. Johnston, pp. 174-87- Fournier, pp. 536-79. Rose, Vol. II, pp. 213-45. Plunket, pp. 202-6. Jeffery, pp. 131-6. XV. The German War of Liberation. Johnston, pp. 189-95. Fournier, pp. 580-642. Rose, Vol. II, PP- 303-38. Jeffery, pp. 136-41. XVI. Waterloo. Johnston, pp. 223-34. Fournier, pp. 694-720. Rose, Vol. II, pp. 417-71. Fisher, pp. 217-38. Plunket, pp. 216-30. Jeffery, pp. 145-7. XVII. St. Helena and the Close of Napoleon's Life. Johnston, pp. 234-7. Fournier, pp. 721-43. Rose, Vol. II, pp. 472-529. Source Studies 1. How Napoleon learned French. Robinson and Beard, Readings in Modern European History, Vol. I, p. 309. 2. Napoleon's insight into character. Ibid., pp. 310-2. 3. The ItaKan campaign. Ibid., p^. 7,12-6. 4. Treaty of Campo Formio. Ibid., pp. 316-8. 5. Egyptian campaign. Ibid., pp. 318-21. Colby, Selections from the Sources of Enghsh History, pp. 281-3. 6. The Coup d'Etat. Robinson and Beard, Vol. I, pp. 322-3. 7. Napoleon's manners and traits. Ibid., pp. 324-6. 8. Marengo. Ibid., pp. 326-8. 9. Treaty of LuneviUe. Ibid., pp. 329-32. 10. Internal affairs in France in 1804. Ibid., pp. 334-7. 11. Trafalgar. Tuell and Hatch, Readings in Enghsh History, pp. 366-9. 12. Nelson. Cheyney, Readings in Enghsh History, pp. 655-7. 13. Destruction of the Holy Roman Empire. Robinson and Beard, Vol. I, pp. 340-5. 1 88 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY 14. Continental system. Ibid., pp. 345-50. Colby, pp. 289-92. 15. Napoleon's ideal of empire. Robinson and Beard, Vol. I, pp. 351-2, 355-6. 16. Reforms in Prussia. Ibid., pp. 361-5. 17. Peninsular campaign. Colby, pp. 292-5. 18. Abdication of Napoleon. Robinson and Beard, Vol. I, pp. 366-7. 19. Wellington. Cheyney, pp. 657-61. 20. English feeling toward Napoleon after Waterloo. Ibid., pp. 660-2. Colby, pp. 296-8. 21. Napoleon in exile. Robinson and Beard, Vol. I, pp. 368-71. 22. Louis Napoleon's view of Napoleon I's ideals. Robinson and Beard, Vol. II, pp. 84-7. Suggestions for Map Work I. On an outline map of central Europe show the territorial arrange- ments in Italy before Napoleon's conquests, and the campaigns of 1 796-1 805; 2. Show Napoleon's campaign in Egypt and Syria. 3. Show the treaty adjustments of the Treaty of Campo Formio. 4. Show the territorial arrange- ments of the Peace of Luneville. 5. On an outline map of Europe show Napoleon's empire at its widest extent. 6. Show the territorial arrange- ments after the downfall of Napoleon. Map References Shepherd, Historical Atlas. Holt. Napoleon's campaigns in Egypt, p. 150. Napoleon's campaigns in northern Italy, p. 150. Germany and Italy in 1803, p. 151. Germany and Italy in 1806, p. 151. Treaty adjustments of 1811-12, p. 152. Principal seats of war, 1788-1815, p. 153. Napoleon's campaign in Russia, p. 153. Central Europe in 181 2, pp. 154-5. Europe in 1812, p. 154. India and South Africa, 1801-12: Treaty adjustments, p. 152. The Waterloo campaign, p. 156. Treaty adjustments, 1814-5, p. 157. Dow, Atlas of European History. Holt. Italy, 1798-99, p. 25. Europe in 1810, p. 26. Germany in 1803, p. 26. Germany in 1806, p. 26. Ger- many from 1807 to 1809, p. 26 ^ Italy in 1806, p. 26 ^ Europe after the settlements of 1815, p. 27. Muir, School Atlas. Holt. The battle-fields of northern Italy, p. xvi. Plan of the battle of the Nile, p. xxiii. Plan of the battle of Austerlitz, p. xii. British naval wars (Trafalgar), p. 48; p. xxiv. Plan of the battle of Jena, p. xiii. Europe under Napoleon, 1810, p. 9. Plan of the battle of Leipzig,' p. xiii. Plan of the battle of Waterloo, p. xiv. Europe in 181 5, p. 10. GsLTdiner, Atlas of English History. Longmans. North Italy and Swit- zerland, 1796-1805, p. 53. India, 1804, p. 54. Central Europe to illustrate Napoleon's campaigns, p. 55. Peninsular War, p. 56. Central and Western Europe, April 1812, p. 57. Napoleon's Russian campaign, 1812, p. 58. Cen- tral and Western Europe, 181 5, p. 59. Battle of the Nile, p. 82. Battle of THE NAPOLEONIC ERA 189 Trafalgar, p. 84. The Waterloo Campaign, p. '85. The battle of Waterloo (two maps), 86-7. Robertson-Bartholomew, Historical Atlas of Modern Europe. Oxford Press. France, 1810, No. 8. Germany, 1810, No. 12. Prussia, 1807, No. 14. Italy, 1810, No. 16. Ottoman Empire and the Balkans, 1789-1815, N0.22. The Baltic, 1 789-1914, No. 31. Bibliography Cambridge Modern History. Volume IX, Napoleon. Macmillan. Channing. (The American Nation Series.) The Jeffersonian System. Harper. Cheyney. Readings in English History. Ginn. Colby. Selections from the Sources of English History. Longmans. Cross. History of England and Greater Britain. Macmillan. Day. History of Commerce. Longmans. Fisher. Napoleon. Holt. Fournier. (Bourne) Napoleon. Holt. Fyffe. History of Modern Europe. Holt. Grant. A History of Europe. Longmans. Hannay. The Navy and Sea Power. Holt. HassaU. The Making of the British Empire. Scribner. Hayes. The Social and Political History of Modern Europe. Volume I. Macmillan. Henderson. A Short History of Germany. Two volumes in one. Macmillan. Howard. The German Empire. Macmillan. Jeffery. New Europe, lySg-iSSg. Houghton Mifflin. Johnston. Napoleon. Holt. Plunket. Fall of the Old Order. Oxford University Press. Priest. Germany since 1740. Ginn. Robinson and Beard. Readitigs in Modern European History. Volume I. and II. Ginn. Rose. The Life of Napoleon I. Two volumes in one. Macmillan. Rose. The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era. Putnam. Seignobos. History of Contemporary Civilization. Scribner. Stephens. Revolutionary Europe. Rivingtons. TraiU. Social England. Volume V, Section II, pp. 497-514, 703-715. Putnam. Tuell and Hatch. Readings in English History. Ginn. Van Bergen. The Story of Russia. American Book Company. Webster. General History of Commerce. Ginn. The Open- field System Gradual Breakdown of the Manorial System: Enclosures CHAPTER VII THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 83. The Old Manorial System of Agriculture and its Defects. — While the continent of Europe was being trans- formed both socially and politically under the influences of the French Revolution, changes no less radical were taking place in England. At one and the same time agriculture and industry were undergoing changes which in the course of time were to produce a deep impress upon the life of Europe. Before the eighteenth century, agricultural methods had changed but little since the middle ages, when the lands of western European countries were divided into the great manors, or estates, on which the peasant cultivated the fields for the lords of the manor. This method of farming was known as the open-field system. The manor was divided into strips of land, each, roughly speak- ing, the amount that a team could plough in a day. These strips were divided one from another by narrow grass paths called balks. At first each field was cultivated every year, but, as this exhausted the soil, a system was adopted by which two fields were cultivated in any one year and one field lay fallow. The manors themselves, however, had disappeared in many instances. This was essentially the case in England, where the feudal system disappeared much earlier than upon the continent. One of the principal causes for the breakdown of the manorial system in England was the growth of enclosures. As early as the 13th century, the lords began the practice of enclosing, for private hunting preserves, and later for sheep pastures, all pastures and woods not actually in use by their tenants. Un- scrupulous landlords often seized fair fields from their peasant THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 191 cultivators and evicted the latter. Others consolidated their holdings by exchanging those strips that lay far from the manor house for those that lay nearby. Nearly all these enclosures were used as sheep pastures. Towards the close of the fif- teenth century a new kind of enclosure was in progress by which ambitious farmers sought to improve the arable land. In these cases " convertible industry," as it was called, took the place of the old threefold rotation of crops. Under this system "pasture land was broken up at intervals by the plough and converted into arable, while the existing arable was rested as pasture." The growth of enclosures during the fifteenth, sixteenth, and Conditions seventeenth centuries was steady. At the beginning of the ** *^® Opening eighteenth century it is estimated that two fifths of the arable Eighteenth land of England was enclosed and that about half of the total ^^^^^^ area was cultivated. The remainder was still spread out in open fields, or in swamp land or thicket. On these a large number of people dragged out a miserable existence by living on the produce of a few cows or sheep. The lack of hedges or fences in these open fields was detrimental to the crops, which were too often exposed to the full sweep of destructive winds. Barley was still the chief grain pro- duced, but oats, wheat, and rye were also staple crops. "^ •- '"* <=* ^ ^^^^^^^ Crops No little hemip and flax were 11., Farm Implements of the i8th grown, and when the seven- Century teenth century closed a be- ginning had been made in the cultivation of potatoes, clover, and turnips. There was already foreshadowed that greater knowledge of animal raising which characterized the agricul- Farm tural revolution of the eighteenth century. The farm laborer i^^pI^™^'^*^ had a few implements which were better than his predecessor 192 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY under serfdom had known, among them the wheel plough, drills for sowing, and a cart with very high wheels. Other imple- ments in use were sickles, scythes, pitchforks, rakes, flails, and spades. 84. Improvements in Methods of Tillage. — In 1733 there was published in England an epoch-making book on Husbandry jethro TuU or agriculture, written by Jethro TulL It is said that he so far lost patience with his hired help that he set about devising ways and means of dispensing with their services and replacing them with various labor-saving devices. Be that as it may, his suggestions and improvements were so well received that he has been given the credit of having improved agriculture more than any other one person. Realizing that vegetables grew better if the ground was thoroughly pulverized before and after planting the seed, he devised a system of drilling the seed in rows far enough apart to permit of cultivation between them The Horse Hoe with a horsc hoe or cultivating plough. To further this system of and Drui planting he invented a drill, or planting machine, which sowed a field more uniformly than the old method of hand-scattering, at the same time using less seed to the acre. Tull's severe criticism of the laziness and lack of responsibility shown by the landlords of his day undoubtedly was one of the causes of the change which took place in the eighteenth century by which farming became the fashion for gentlemen. Another was the interest shown by the Whigs in agriculture in the eighteenth century. This interest influenced profoundly the political de- velopment of England in the century when the future history of English-speaking peoples everywhere was being shaped. " Turnip " In the same decade Charles Townshend, a brother-in-law of Walpole, retired from politics to his farm in Norfolk and began the study of scientific agriculture, with such far-reaching effects upon that branch of industry in England, that Arthur Young, another Englishman of a generation later, could say "Half the County of Norfolk within the memory of man yielded nothing but sheep feed, whereas those very tracts of land are now covered Townshend THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 193 with as fine barley and rye as any in the world, and great quanti- ties of wheat besides." His two interests were the field cultiva- tion of turnips and an improved rotation of crops. He was so enthusiastic about the former that he was nicknamed "Turnip Townshend." He started the Norfolk, or four-course system of rotation of crops, alternating roots, grasses, and grains, such as Rotation turnips, barley, clover and rye grass, and wheat; encouraged ° ^°^^ the use of fertiHzers in the soil; and adopted Tull's system of drilling and horse hoeing turnips. Other landlords followed his example, which resulted in a complete revolution in agricul- tural crops, methods, and implements. According to Arthur Young, the principal improvements in Arthur Young agriculture in the first half of the eighteenth century were a bet- ter knowledge of the rotation of crops in order to increase the fertility of the soil and to prevent its exhaustion; the use of covered drains and the irrigation of meadows; the use of arti- ficial as well as an increased use of natural fertilizers; the intro- duction of new food crops, as rye, beans, turnips and potatoes; and the invention of such useful implements as the drill, the horse hoe, and better harness. In 1793 Young was made Secretary of the newly formed Board of Agriculture, which had been established by the younger Pitt, and his investiga- tions and writings did much to further the progress of this industry. Side by side with an improvement in agricultural products improvements there went on an important series of investigations into the sheep Breeding production of finer specimens of animals. Robert Bakewell (172 5- 179 5) did more to improve live-stock than any other man. Robert He rejected the accepted theory that the blood must be varied ^^^^^^ by the mixture of breeds. Just as Luther Burbank today in our own country has produced some wonderful fruits and flowers by experimenting with the process of reproduction, so Bakewell mated the best and sturdiest animals, those possessing to the fullest degree the qualities he wished to reproduce and intensify in their offspring, even though closely related. In this way he 194 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY produced the Leicester breed of sheep, which in fifty years spread over every part of the civilized world and doubled the amount Sheep of mutton on the tables of Englishmen. This breed is described as having a clean-cut head, broad and flat back, barrel-shaped body, thin feet, flesh fat, fine-grained, and well-flavored, heavy and soft wool, and nearly double the weight of the varieties of his day. Bake well also improved the famous longhorn breed The Longhorns of COWS of the Midlands. The new longhorn breed was a very heavy animal and a good beef producer, but died out after a time because it did not produce as much milk as other varieties. Bakewell's principles are still accepted as sound in animal breed- ing and have led to the production of the various "thorough- bred " stocks of animals. Coke of 85. The Revolution in Agriculture. — About the time of the American Revolution, Coke of Holkham began his work on an estate where, as old Lady Townshend remarked, ''All you will see will be one blade of grass and two rabbits fighting for that." By adopting the methods of TuU and Townshend and by dis- covering the principle that some grass seeds were better adapted for certain kinds of soil than other kinds, he raised larger crops and made many pieces of what had hitherto been waste land into rich pastures. He was largely responsible for the increased production of potatoes and for the improvement and increase in the varieties of grass seeds. Following in the footsteps of Bakewell, he also improved several species of animals. Through his efforts 2,000,000 acres of waste land in England were brought under the plough, and no other man was so instrumental in rendering England self-supporting during the terrible era of war. Consolidation The improved methods of farming gave a great stimulus to ma arms ^^^ consolidation of small farms into large estates and to the enclosure of what had formerly been waste land, but which was now rendered productive. We have seen that these improve- ments were largely the work of rich land-owners, such as Tull, Townshend, Bakewell, and Coke. Over 3,500,000 acres were enclosed during the eighteenth century. Agriculture became THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 195 "capitalistic," that is, large amounts of capital and land were required for its successful operation. This led to the extinction of the yeoman or small farmer, who had been the backbone of Disappearance Enghsh society in former centuries. The classes of the agricul- °*"^®o™^° tural population became sharply differentiated into landlords, tenants, and laborers. The first held great estates, consisting of numerous small farms which had been consolidated. The tenants rented these farms of the landlord and employed laborers to cultivate them. England became a great agricultural nation and thus was self-supporting during the long and terrible wars of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. By the middle of the eighteenth century the landlords were the dominant force in parliament, and by placing duties on the importation of foreign corn and bounties on the export of Enghsh, they safeguarded the interests of the agriculturist. " Farming be- came the reigning taste of the day." George III delighted in the title of Farmer George and wrote on agriculture. 86. The Nature of the Industrial Revolution. — Closely con- Relation nected with these changes in agriculture was the so-called J*®*^^®" , ^ ^ ^ the Revolution Industrial Revolution. The one was really dependent upon in Agriculture the other, as a greater industrial population called for a larger food *^^j *^,** supply, and improved farm machinery made possible larger and better crops to meet this need. We have seen that the original The Domestic system of manufacture, in which the workman owned the raw ^^ ^^ material and carried through all the processes of his trade, had been changed by the introduction of the clothiers or merchant clothiers (sec. 17), who assembled a number of workmen in some one locality and supervised their work. Yet the distinc- tive feature of manufacturing before the invention of time- and labor-saving machines was that all the workers were obliged to do a certain amount of farming in the cultivation of their home plots of ground. According to Defoe (sec. 17), the workmen Advantages of under the domestic system led fairly happy lives. Commer- g^^gtf^™^^"*^ cial panics were almost unknown; work was regular; the market was steady; closer and more friendly relations prevailed between 196 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Spinning by Distaff and Spindle employer and employee than are usually found today; and, while there was less total wealth in the country and hence fewer of the luxuries and conveniences which we now have, in the eighteenth century the wealth was more evenly divided among all classes. The current of Hfe moved slower; people did things more leisurely. All this was changed by the Indus- trial Revolution, the name which has been given to the tremendous changes wrought by new inventions and im- proved processes, the use of steam power, the perfection of the means of transportation, and the factory system, which now replaced this do- mestic system with its peculiar ad- vantages. There is neither time nor space to study the inventions in all fields of industry which revolution- ized production and influenced his- tory quite as fundamentally as the work of the statesmen and warriors of the same era. 87. The Revolution in the Manu- facture of Textiles. — The changes in the manufacture of textiles will illustrate what the industrial revolu- tion meant in improved methods and a better product. The dawn of in- vention in this line found men mak- ing cloth substantially as it had been made from the most primitive times. The earliest device for spinning was the distaff and spindle. The Spinning Wheel About the time of Queen Elizabeth, the spinning wheel was introduced into general use in England. At first, this device for spinning was very much like the one shown in this illustration. The spin- ner, seated in front, held in his lap a "bat" or roll of wool, which had previously been "carded" or combed out so that the fibres lay in the same direction. He then twisted the end fibres on to the spin- dle (s). Next he turned the wheel (ic) with his hand. The string or belt (b, b) caused the spindle to revolve as the wheel turned, winding up the "roving" or twisted fibres. With his other hand, the spinner twisted the fibres out of the "bat" to form the "roving." In the eighteenth century, a foot treadle to turn the wheel and another spindle were added, thus en- abling the spinner to twist two threads, one with each hand. THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 197 A great step in advance had been made in very early times through the invention of the spinning wheel, in which the spin- dle was rotated by a wheel, turned by hand or by a foot treadle. But with this machine the spinning process remained station- ary until about 1764, when James Hargreaves invented a machine known as the spinning jenny, in which Hargreaves's Spinning Jenny James Hargreaves and the Spin- ning Jenny the wheel rotated a number of spindles simultaneously. Thus by the same operator at first eight and, after improvements had been made in the machine, eighty threads could be spun at the same time. In 1769 Richard Arkwright, an Enghsh barber, patented a Arkwright's machine containing two sets of rollers placed somewhat apart ^^^^' ^^^^^ from each other. One set of rollers was rotated at a higher speed than the other, and as the woollen fibre, or roving, was drawn through both sets of rollers, in passing through the swifter pair it was stretched out to the requi- site fineness. Arkwright applied water power to drive his machine and thus made it profitable to collect together a number of spin- ning machines in one build- ing or factory, where that power could be more eco- nomically used to drive them all. In this manner he became the founder of the factory system of industry. Arkwright's ma- chine was improved by combining its essential features with Hargreaves's spindle machine, or jenny. This invention, known Arkwright's Spinning Fraaie 198 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Crompton's Mule Older Method of Weaving Crompton's Mule as the "mule," was invented by Crompton in 1779, and super- seded Arkwright's device. The enormously increased production of thread was made imperative because of im- provements in the process of weaving. Until 1733 cloth had been woven in much the same manner as the little rugs are woven everywhere today by the children in our elemen- tary schools in their courses in manual training. The process of interlacing the cross-threads, or weft, between the threads of the warp was accomplished slowly, with the shuttle or needle held in the hand of the operator. In the year men- Kay's Shuttle tioned a North of England weaver named Kay devised an attachment to the loom in which the shuttle was driven back and forth through the warp by means of a lever controlled by the operator. This flying shuttle enormously in- creased the speed of the weaving Whitney's Cotton Gin In this first model of the cotton gin, note the cyl- Drocess and so fur- i^^^^ studded with nails; the teeth against which "^ these nails impinge. The power was applied by nished a demand the crank. for a greater sup- ply of thread. This demand turned the minds of Hargreaves, Arwkright, and Crompton toward the improvement of spin- THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 199 Power Loom Eli Whitney's Cotton Gin ning, as described above. As inventions in the field of spinning multiplied, the production of yarn soon outdistanced the capacity of the hand-looms until 1785, when a clergyman named Edmund Cartwright patented a loom whose action was Cartwright's entirely automatic and driven by power. Up to this time the production of cotton cloth in England was meagre, owing to the high cost of preparing cotton-wool for spinning. In the cotton plant the fibres are matted around the seeds, and but five pounds of the raw cotton could be laboriously cleaned of the seeds in a day by a workman. In 1792 Eli Whitney, a Con- necticut school teacher, while visiting in Georgia invented a machine, which he named an engine, or gin, for shredding the fibres loose from the seed% This increased by two hundred per cent the production of the raw material for cotton cloth, and America now took the lead as the cotton-producing country. Prior to this time, most of the cotton cloth used in Europe had been very expensive, as it was necessary to import it from India, whence the name calicao, or calico, from the city of Calicut. French artisans had colored the calico with designs inked on by hand with wooden blocks. Before treating the cloth thus, it was necessary to bleach it by spreading it out on the grass, or at least exposing it to the sun's rays, for several months. It was now discovered that Use of chlorine would bleach the fabric in a few days and that the ^^^^^^^^ Eli Whitney Eli Whitney, the inventor of the cotton gin, a Yale graduate, spent some time on a cotton plantation on the Savannah River, where he in- vented the cotton gin. He later re- moved to New Haven and engaged in the manufacture of fire-arms. 200 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Printing by Machinery Charcoal Smelting Use of Coal Smeaton's Blast Furnace Process in Steel Manufacture : Darby cloth could be printed by running it through inked rollers, an invention which was prophetic of our great newspaper presses of today. For all these reasons the production of woollen and cotton fabrics was enormously increased. 88. Improvements in the Iron Industry and in Pottery. — The iron industry was revolutionized in a similar manner. Before the use of coal, iron smelting was accomplished by heating it with charcoal under the blast from a large bellows worked by hand. To smelt a ton of iron required two loads of charcoal. As each load of charcoal called for two tons of wood to produce it, the smelting industry was limited by the wood supply and was carried on at small forges chiefly in the south of England. Coal had been mined for hundreds of years, but the process of smelting by coal did not become available until 1750. In 1760 Smeaton invented the blast furnace, in which air is forced into the fire by a cylindrical blower, instead of by the clumsy bellows, and in 1790 steam power, another cause of this industrial transformation, was ajiplied to drive the blast. In this interval the production of iron was quadrupled, and a process was invented for working the iron into bars by the use of rollers instead of forge hammers. Wrought iron is tougher than cast iron because the carbon and other impurities found in the latter have been burned off, but it lacks the hardness which makes it capable of cutting and shaping nearly every other known material. The discovery of such a material, at once able to cut and shape itself as well, was an important step in the progress of civilization. This material, steel, was known and valued for centuries before it became possible to produce it in sufficient quantities for commercial purposes. Steel was first made by heating wrought iron in contact with charcoal until it had absorbed about one per cent of carbon. This proc- ess was first attempted on a commercial scale by Darby, who threw bags of nearly pure carbon into the molten iron and stirred the mass until the iron absorbed the carbon and steel THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 201 was produced. It was not until the nineteenth century, how- ever, that by the Bessemer, and later the Siemens-Martin, processes steel could be produced at such a low cost that it became the foundation metal for a multitude of operations. About the middle of the eighteenth century a great impetus was also given the china and earthenware trade. This may be credited in large measure to Josiah Wedgwood, who was the creator of English pot- tery as a fine art. He greatly refined the mate- rial used and invented a beautiful cream-colored porcelain, which was called Queen's Ware after Queen Charlotte, who aided the inventor and made his .ware popular. Factories sprang up in other parts of England, and to this day England has maintained the lead- ership in certain forms of china and earthenware. 89. The Steam Engine and its Application to Industry. — The discov- DlAGRAM OF NeWCOMEN'S EnGINE Steam was admitted to the cylinder through a valve in the boiler, and the piston was forced up. Then the steam valve was shut and a jet of cold water was admitted to the cylinder through another valve, con- densing the steam and creating a vacuum. Consequently the piston was forced down by the pressure of the atmosphere. The up and down motion of the piston raised and lowered the pivoted beam, which in turn raised and lowered the pump. ery that steam will act as a motive power has been claimed by many people, but the practical application of steam to a machine which furnished motive power was not made until the close of the seventeenth century (1698). By the condensa- tion of steam in a closed chamber, a vacuum was produced whose force was used to raise water from one level to another. Josiah Wedgwood Queen's Ware 202 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY This method was employed to rid mines of water. In 1705 Newcomen Newcomen improved upon this device and thereby gave a greater impetus to the mining industry. He made provision for attaching the upper portion of the piston to one end of a pivoted beam, at the other end of which was the piston of a pump. The up and down movement of the piston of the cyl- inder gave a corre- sponding down and up movement to that of the pump. (See diagram p. 201.) The next advance was made by James Watt's Engine Instead of leavine one end of the cylinder Watt, whose inven- tions mark a new era in the development of steam power. Exam- ining Newcomen's en- gine, he was impressed with the great waste caused by the neces- sity of cooling the cylinder after every upward stroke in or- DiAGRAM OF Watt's Engine Instead of leaving one end of the cylinder open, as Newcomen had done, in order that the pressure of the atmosphere might push down the piston head, Watt closed both ends of the cylinder. By means of a pair of steam and exhaust valves at each end of the cylinder, steam was automatically admitted first into one end of the cylinder and then into the other, thus moving the piston up and down. He further added the throttle valve /, for regulat- ing the rate of admission of steam, and the re- volving balls, or governor g, to control the speed of the engine, thus making it entirely automatic and insuring the regularity of its motion. der to condense the steam, and set to work to remedy this. Other important improvements made by Watt were the gover- nor and the throttle valve. (See diagram.) Thus was evolved the modern steam engine, with all its essential parts. Ark- wright and other pioneers in the application of power to the THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 203 textile industries speedily realized the advantages of this new- power producer and introduced the steam engine into their fac- tories. By the opening of the nineteenth century the steam engine had come into its own as the king of the industrial world. 90. The Revolution in Transportation. — With the progress of invention in the industrial arts and the consequent growth of commerce, a strong demand was felt for improvements in methods of transportation. In England, as well as on the con- tinent of Europe, roads were in a wretched condition until the closing years of the eighteenth century. Then, chiefly because of the new methods of road construction introduced by Telford Telford and Macadam, a great advance was made. The Telford road was named after Thomas Telford, a Scottish civil engineer (17 57-1834), and consists of a pavement of stone blocks placed on a road bed and covered with one or more layers of broken stone. Telford constructed more than 1000 miles of these roads. Road- and He is famous also for his bridge over the Severn and for the bridge-building Caledonian Canal. He built over 1200 bridges, the Ellesmere Canal connecting the Severn, Dee, and Mersey Rivers, and improved many harbors. His method of road-making was largely superseded by that of John Macadam (1756-1836), another Scotchman, who spent thirteen years of his life as a New York business man. After his return to Scotland he interested himself in the subject of road- making with such success that in 1827 he was voted $48,000 by parliament and appointed surveyor-general of roads. His method of road-making is familiar to all. The macadamized Macadamized road consists of layers of broken stone graded down from a fine binder on the surface to a lowest layer of two-inch stone next to the earth below grade. Canals for commercial purposes had been constructed as far back as the time of the Roman occupation of Britain; but the development of canals in Great Britain was left until this same period. The credit belongs to James Brindley (1716-1772), a Roads 204 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY James Brindiey Derbyshire engineer. His first canal was built in 1761 between Canal-building Worsley and Manchester, and during his lifetime he built or planned 365 miles of canals. These canals lowered the cost of transportation at least seventy per cent in the regions served by them, and as a result a steady supply of raw material was assured to manufacturers, an abun- dant food supply to their laborers, and better fa- cilities for marketing the products of the factory. The credit for first ap- plying steam to trans- portation belongs to America. The steam engine had hardly been applied as a motive power in manufacturing before Oliver Evans, an American inventor, at- tempted to drive wag- ons and boats by steam; and John Fitch ran a steamboat on the Delaware in 1788 at the surprising speed of eight miles an hour. The first to make the steam boat a commercial success was Robert Fulton, who in 1807 sailed the Clermont from New York to Albany, a distance of one hundred and fifty miles, in thirty hours. The Clermont was one hundred and thirty feet in length and was driven by paddle wheels at the sides. The Ocean Spread of this method of transportation was very rapid, and Transportation ^j^^j^jn ^i few years the era of steam transportation on water The steamboat A Clipper Ship Clipper built ship of the first half of the 19th century. Compare the graceful lines of this ship with the awkward construction of the ships of earlier centuries. See Chapter II. THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 205 had fairly begun. This new method was quickly adopted in England, which had far outdistanced this country in its de- velopment of industry. The ocean-going ships of the eighteenth century were of the clumsy, slow build used for the East India trade. It was not until the first half of the nineteenth century that the clipper type of sailing vessel was developed. Al- though the steamboat had been developed in the opening years of the nineteenth century, it was used chiefly on the inland waterways and for coastwise traffic, until the construction of iron-hulled steamers after 1838. By 1850 only about 25 per cent of ocean commerce was carried in iron steamships. The father of the steam locomotive was an Englishman, George Stephenson (i 781 -1848). He constructed the first suc- cessful locomotive in 18 14. It was used to haul coal nine miles from the mine to tide water. When a railroad was projected between Liverpool and Manchester, Stephenson was placed in charge, and the railroad was opened in 1830 with the complete triumph of his locomotive. Rocket, which, to the surprise even of its inventor, made a speed of thirty miles an hour. The greater efficiency of the locomotive of our own day is due to two factors : improvements in the machine itself and improve-, ments in the road bed. The locomotive has greatly increased in size. The first locomotives were hardly larger than hand cars and had boilers about the size of a large barrel. All are familiar with the A Modern Steel Steamship Stephenson and the Locomotive 2o6 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Railroads huge locomotives which now drive the express trains. The first railroads were constructed with wooden rails. These were improved by the addition of iron straps on their upper sur- face. Then came iron, and later steel rails, which have made First Trip of the DeWitt Clinton This locomotive, which ran between Albany and Schenectady, was similar to the engines built by Stephenson. Note that the first coaches were actually the vehicles formerly drawn by horses. This type of coach is still represented in the compartment coaches of Europe. The American coach, with a central aisle and doors at the end instead of at the side of the coach, gradually evolved on this side of the ocean and in a modified form is gradually super- seding the older t}T)e in Europe. possible the great locomotives, tremendous trains, and the rapidity of modern railroad transportation. 91. The Factory System and its Effects. — Perhaps the most important of the changes which form a part of the industrial revolution was the establishment of the factory system. The THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 207 Stevens's Locomotive and The Modern Locomotive John Stevens was the next American after Fulton to develop the steam engine. The upper picture shows his locomotive running over a circular experimental track on his estate. In sharp contrast to the earliest locomotives is the huge compound loco- motive of today. factory system v^as the result of a new combination of power and men. At the opening of the period of warfare between England and France which closed with the downfall of Napoleon, England was mainly an agricultural nation. Englishmen spun and wove in their cottages. At the close of the war they were employed in great buildings called factories and were the servants of Production 208 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY machinery which was run by steam or water power. Because it was cheaper to operate factories where a supply of coal could be cheaply procured, industry was centred chiefly in the north of England, where the principal coal fields were to be found. Here, gathered together in large buildings, were persons of every age and both sexes, with no care for their comfort, health, or decency. The machines made to lessen the amount of hand labor eventually greatly extended it. If the laborer could not adapt himself to new methods, they deprived him of all means of livelihood. Riots were of ordinary occur- rence in which the less adaptable workmen sought to destroy these "iron men," as they termed the machines, the profit of whose operation went almost entirely into the pockets of their employers. Large Scale The effccts of the introduction of the factory system upon the life of the modern world are both numerous and far reaching. Among the most striking are the development of large scale production and the division of labor. Large scale production required large amounts of capital, thus stimulating the growth of a capitalistic class, men with means enough to organize these great factories. They in turn often took the larger portion of the wealth produced by their employees, leaving the latter but a bare living wage. Their tremendous profits were used in part to develop the factory system still further, so that England was able to clothe Europe when the Napoleonic wars were paralyzing the industries of the continent. In the growth of factories it was speedily discovered that a minute division of labor was not only necessary but highly profitable. By this is meant the specialization of the workmen in some particular opera- tion; for example, in the making of a pair of shoes, one work- man cuts out the soles, another the heels, another the uppers, another sews the uppers to the soles, and another performs some other step in the manufacture. The results are that each workman becomes very skilful in his own process. THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 209 much time is saved, and in consequence the production is vastly increased. In the course of time it became evident that the interests of Separation of the employer differed from those of his employees. In order to *{ Va^ul^*^ increase the profits the employer had to keep down expenses, and Labor which often meant lowering wages. Before the coming of the factory, when the workman became dissatisfied with one em- ployer he was more free to find employment for his hands with some other master workman. But now the ownership of the machinery by the employer placed the workman almost entirely at his mercy. It is true that he might seek employment with some other owner of machinery, but it was evidently so much to the advantage of the factory owners to keep wages low that Wages the workman received little encouragement from other owners. This stirred up a feeling of hostihty between capital and labor which has lasted until the present time.^ The wealthy men of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries had been merchants rather than manufacturers. With the coming of the factory, the wealthy employer gained a new social prominence and political position, which he used to secure legislation favoring his class at the expense of the other classes in English society. 92. The Effects of the Industrial Revolution. — It has been noted before that as a result of the abundance of the fuel supply great manufacturing towns began to spring up in the north of England. These attracted laborers from all parts of England. Formerly the mass of the population had been in the south; Redistribution after this time, the balance changed so decisively that new and po*„*ation serious problems of representation in parliament appeared. Many of the old towns decayed, yet they possessed the same Political Effects representation in and continued to send the same number of representatives to the House of Commons until the passage of the Reform Bill of 1832 (sec. 107), while the thriving new cities in the north had no representation at all. In 1760 a contemporary writer said that he found among the ^ Some of these effects will be found discussed at length in Chapter XII. 210 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Degradation of the Working Class Increase of Poverty Employment of Women and Children EvUs of ChUd Labor country weavers "not a beggar or idle person." The total wealth of the country was small, but there was general comfort. While the introduction of the factory increased the total wealth of the country tremendously, poverty increased at almost the same tremendous rate. While the population increased seventy per cent, the cost of poor relief increased five hundred and thirty per cent. This heavy burden was not alone due to the increase of poverty but to wasteful methods of poor relief. The substitution of machinery for hand labor tended to the employment of large numbers of women and children in the factories. Not much physical strength was required to operate the new machinery, and women and children were often more dexterous than men. Above all, their services were cheaper. As a result domestic life was disorganized. A contemporary says, "The females are wholly uninstructed in domestic affairs requisite to make them frugal wives and mothers "; and in their homes he found "filth, rags, and poverty." When the factories started it was considered a disgrace for children to work in them. The term "factory girl" was the most insulting that could be applied to a young woman, and after she had been employed in a factory she could never find employment elsewhere. Not until wages were reduced to a starvation level, would the work- men consent to the employment of their wives and children. The factory owners, therefore, had pauper children apprenticed to them and treated them most inhumanly. Children were driven at their work until they gave out through exhaustion. They were worked sixteen hours at a stretch, by night and by day. "In stench, in heated rooms, amid the constant whirling of a thousand wheels, little fingers and little feet were kept in ceaseless action, forced into unnatural activity by blows from the heavy hands and feet of the merciless overseer and the infliction of bodily pain by instruments of punishment invented by the sharpened ingenuity of insatiable selfishness." To prevent their running away, irons were riveted upon their ankles, and they were fed on the coarsest food and put to sleep in relays in beds THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 21 I 212 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Instability of Trade Supply and Demand The Old System of Trade Regulation Beginnings of Free Trade Trade- unionism which were never cool. Undoubtedly these evils were more prevalent in the smaller than in the better organized and larger factories. Under the domestic system of industry when luxuries were only slightly used and when the amount of manufactured goods necessary could be easily ascertained, there were no periods of under-consumption. Hence trade was fairly stable. With in- creased facilities for production, manufacturers often produced more than the temporary demand would justify with the hope of extending their trade in foreign countries. As this was a period of general European war, this hope suffered greatly at times in its fulfilment. The manufacturers found an oversupply on their hands and were forced to shut down their factories at irregular intervals, throwing thousands out of work and causing added social distress. It was the growth of the factory system which finally brought to an end the old system of trade regulation in England. Under the mercantile poHcy, laws had been passed to regulate the maritime trade, to stimulate industry by means of protective tariffs, and to encourage agriculture by the so-called Corn Laws. The latter had practically discouraged the importation of grain by means of prohibitive duties, while at the same time the expor- tation of grain was rewarded with bounties. The arguments of Adam Smith (sec. 27) for a relaxation of this system of governmental control in favor of a laissez-faire policy bore fruit in the modification of the Navigation Acts and the reduc- tion of duties on many imported raw materials and manu- factured goods. This free trade poUcy was initiated by Huskisson in 1823. A new problem was presented for governmental solution in the growth of trade unions. Combinations of workmen for the purpose of presenting a united demand upon their employers had been formed many times in the world's history. We find in the records of the past concerted action by means of strikes as far back as the building of the pyramids. Up to the nineteenth THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 213 century, because parliament was representative only of the in- fluential and wealthy classes, English law had been hostile to unions of laborers. In 1800 parliament passed a drastic law declaring illegal ''all agreements between workmen for obtain- ing advances of wages, reductions of hours of labor, or any other changes in the conditions of work." Under the terms of this law many workmen were prosecuted and imprisoned. Yet unions were formed in spite of the law, and finally in 1825 parliament passed laws permitting laborers to combine and to attempt to better their lot. The courts, however, remained the strongholds of the manufacturers and condemned the unions as conspiracies in restraint of trade until 1871, when parliament expressly declared that such restraints of trade should no longer be re- garded as criminal. This is the basic law concerning labor unions. By the act of 1875 it was declared that no act com- mitted by a union could be punished as a crime unless, if committed by an individual, the act were criminal. 93. Growth of Socialism. — Another significant .result of the introduction of the factory system was the spread of socialistic doctrines. Influenced by the teachings of Adam Smith, Eng- TheLaissez- land, and in turn the rest of the modern world, had first adopted ^^^® ^°"^^ the theory that the government should adopt a "hands-off" poHcy toward industry^ This was very satisfactory to the individualist, one who thinks that every man is the sole judge of what is best for him and should be allowed to succeed or fail in business as a result of his own efforts and intelligence. On ' the other hand, even while England was becoming a free trade nation, she acknowledged that a certain amount of control must be exercised over conditions in the factories. In fact there was a constant and a growing demand on the part of the people that the government control economic conditions. Some leaders and thinkers even went further and argued that the government should own and operate all industries. These people were called socialists and were regarded by some as The Socialists earnest workers after the betterment of the world, by others 214 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY The Communists Fourier Saint Simon Owen Fabianism as dangerous agitators seeking to undermine the very founda- tions of society. The early socialists pointed out that there is a wide gulf between the rich and the poor and that the inequahties of wealth and happiness were constantly becoming greater. They hoped to educate the minds of men of all classes so that a better system of distributing the good things of this hfe would be peacefully adopted. Among these peaceful socialists were several subordi- nate groups. The Christian socialists argued that the founder of their religion taught the brotherhood of all mankind and that it was a religious duty to further any plan which might promote this end. Others, called Communists, wished all property to be divided and held in common for the benefit of all mankind. Indeed, many people of today confuse all socialistic doctrine with the views of this small group of socialists. Charles Fourier, a Frenchman, believed that each man should have whatever he needed. To ensure this he proposed the formation of groups of persons, c-alled phalanxes, with 1800 in each group. Each phalanx was to own all buildings and means of production neces- sary for its maintenance. His ideas were carried to America, and the Brook Farm Colony was formed by several noted New Englanders to put in practice this theory, but it proved a failure. Another Frenchman, Saint Simon, believed that the state should control production and give to each man in proportion to the actual labor performed. A great English manufacturer, Robert Owen, was inclined to favor the cooperative ideas of Fourier and spent several years in an active promotion of this idea, both in England and America. One form of socialism which became popular in England was known as Fabian socialism, so called from the hesitating Roman general Fabius, who advocated a policy of delay in the war against Hannibal. Its adherents believe in making haste slowly and look to the government to cooperate with them in the attainment of their aims by favorable legislation. The revolutionary forms of socialism developed much later and will be considered in their proper connection. THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 215 94. The Industrial Revolution on the Continent. — Thus far the course of the Industrial Revolution has been followed as it affected England. It remains to summarize briefly its course upon the continent. It was not until the period that followed the downfall of Napoleon that France passed from the domestic in France to the factory system. The change was characterized by the same social convulsion that we have observed in England. All the evils of the movement, viz., excessive hours of labor, woman and child labor, dangerous labor conditions, and greed upon the part of the employers, were no less in evidence in France than across the Channel. Remedial legislation was exasperat- ingly slow in coming, and a French law forbade workmen to form unions for the purpose of bettering their condition. It is not strange that the laborers of France often showed their hostil- ity to a government which permitted their exploitation. The rising of the silk weavers of Lyons in 1831 is an illustration. Earning the pitiful wage of eighteen cents for a day of fifteen to sixteen hours, they emblazoned upon their banner the motto, ''We will live by working or die fighting." During the era of Metternich (1815-1848), Austria-Hungary in Austria- experienced the industrial revolution. The evils common to this Hungary social upheaval caused workmen out of employment to drift to Vienna, Prague, and Budapest and there to constitute a dangerous and desperate city mob, embittered against the government and ready to join in revolutionary movements. Austria and Ger- many remained behind France and England in their industrial development. Germany, with her large agricultural interests in Germany and few large cities, did not feel the pressure of the demand for a change in manufacturing methods until after the ideal of German unity had been implanted in German hearts. Since 1866 Germany's industrial development has increased by leaps and bounds, until today she is the admiration and the despair of rival nations. Russia, situated farther away from progressive industrial in Russia countries of western Europe and, even more than Germany, 2i6 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY exclusively an agricultural country of the most primitive meth- ods, did not feel the effects of the industrial revolution until the last quarter of the nineteenth century, and it was not until the twentieth century that she caught up in any sense with her In Japan western neighbors. The most startling change is to be observed in the island empire of Japan, which has emerged from a feudal and industrially primitive stage into the light of modern civiliza- tion almost within the present generation. From the foregoing it will be seen that the change from the domestic to the factory system has been developing from the time of its origin in Eng- land in the eighteenth century to the present day with an ever- increasing momentum, spreading in waves of progress from its original home to the farthest quarters of the globe. We can neither prophepy the end of this remarkable social development, nor, in our wildest dreams, form an adequate estimate of its future possibilities for mankind. SUGGESTIVE TOPICS AND QUESTIONS FOR FURTHER REFERENCE I. Describe the manorial system of agriculture. 2. Review the condi- tion of the agricultural laborer from feudal times to the eighteenth century. 3. Discuss the evils of the open-field system. 4. What were the farming implements in use at the opening of the eighteenth century? 5. What were the characteristics of agriculture in the eighteenth century? 6. Give an account of the work of Arthur Young. 7. Discuss the condition of the roads of England during this century. 8. Discuss the work of Coke of Holkham. 9. Describe the agricultural conditions during the period from 1793 to 1815, and show how they influenced the outcome of events. 10. Describe the construction and operation of each of the following inventions: (a) the "spinning jenny"; (b) the "mule"; (c) the "flying shuttle"; (d) the cotton gin; (e) the blast furnace; (/) Watt's steam engine. 11. Compare the methods of road construction introduced by Telford and Macadam with those employed by modern road builders. 12. Describe the first steamboat and compare its construction, capacity, and speed with modern river boats like those which ply on the Hudson. 13. Describe the early locomotives and compare their construction, appearance, tractile capacity, and speed with modern locomotives. 14. Discuss the industrial, social, and poUtical effects of the introduction of the factory system. 15. Discuss the advantages of the division of labor. 16. Discuss the present status of the problems of child and woman labor. 17. Discuss the theories of Adam Smith, Fourier, THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 217 Saint Simon, the Brook Farm community, and Robert Owen. 18. Show that the term " industrial revolution " involves a much broader social change than the word " industrial" implies. Collateral Re.^ding I. The Eve of the Industrial Revolution. Cunningham, Growth of EngHsh Industry and Commerce, Vol. II, pp. 500-15. Gibbins, Industry in England, pp. 143-56. Toyn- bee, The Industrial Revolution, pp. 38-72. Cheyney, Industrial and Social History of England, pp. 185-9. 11. The Agricultural Revolution. Cunningham, Vol. II, pp. 540-62. Curtler, A Short History of English Agriculture, pp. 148-9, 152-5, 163-78, 190-4, 214-7, 220-8. Cheyney, pp. 183-5, 216-20. Webster, General History of Commerce, pp. 21 1-4. Larson, Short History of England, pp. 504-6. Tickner, Social and Industrial History of England, pp. 499-509, 541-8. Hayes, Modern Europe, Volume I, pp. 395-9. Fordham, English Rural Life, pp. 111-17, III. Mining and Transportation. Cunningham, Vol. II, pp. 526-40, 811-6. Day, A History of Commerce, pp. 290-301, 302-14. Cheyney, pp. 214-6. Tickner, pp. 518-29. IV. The Industrial Revolution and the Factory System. Cunningham, Vol. II, pp. 609-57. Gibbins, pp. 156-97. Toynbee, pp. 85-93. Cheyney, pp. 203-13, 224-8, 235-9. Webster, pp. 215-21. Larson, pp. 499-504. Day, pp. 280-9. Hawkes- worth, The Last Century in Europe, pp. 16-23. Tickner, pp. 510-8, 530-40, 564-75. Hayes, Vol. II, pp. 77-82. V. Robert Owen and the Humanitarian Movement. Cunningham, Vol. II, pp. 745-810. Robinson and Beard, Vol. II, pp. 206-13, 395. Cheyney, pp. 244-60. Source Studies 1. Arthur Young on the conditions in agriculture. Cheyney, Readings in English History, pp. 610-2. 2. Hargreaves's invention of the spinning jenny. Robinson and Beard, Readings in Modern European History, Vol. II, pp. 45-9. 3. Account of Crompton's life. Ibid., pp. 49-52. 4. Cartwright's narrative concerning the invention of the power loom. Ihid., pp. 52-3. 5. The steam engine. Ihid., pp. 58-62. Colby, Sources in English His- tory, pp. 268-70. Work of James Watt. Cheyney, pp. 614-5. 6. Fulton's account of the first steamboat. Robinson and Beard, Vol. II, pp. 406-8. 7. The factory system. Ihid., pp. 62-7. 2l8 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY 8. The mercantile theory. Library of Original Sources, Vol. VI (Mun), pp. 157-63. Ibid. (Adam Smith), pp. 399-409. 9. The basis of property is labor. Ibid. (Locke), pp. 164-71. 10. The rate of wages in 1795. Colby, pp. 278-81. 11. Louis Blanc's labor program. Robinson and Beard, Vol. II, pp. 76-8. Suggestions for Map Work 1. On outhne maps of England compare the geographical distribution of population before and after the industrial revolution. Show the coal and iron fields. Locate the principal manufacturing towns. Show the location of the principal industries. Show the districts in which manufacturing was carried on jointly with agriculture in 1750. Show the principal canals and waterways. 2. On a map of the world show the principal lines of railroads and steam- ships. Map References Shepherd, Historical Atlas. Holt. Industrial England since 1750, p. 162. Trade routes, p. 179, M.MiT, School Atlas of Modern History. Holt. England before the indus- trial revolution, p. 36. England after the industrial revolution, p. 36. Gardiner, Atlas of English History. Longmans. Industries of the British Isles, p. 64. Bibliography Cheyney. Introduction to the Industrial and Social History of England. Macmillan. Cheyney. Readings in English History. Ginn. Colby. Selected Sources in English History. Longmans. Cunningham. Growth of English Industry and Commerce, Volume II. Cambridge University Press. Curtler. A Short History of English Agriculture. Oxford University Press. Day. A History of Commerce. Longmans. Fordham. English Rural Life. Scribners. Gibbins. Industry in England. Scribners. Hawkesworth. The Last Century in Europe. Longmans. Hayes, The Political and Social History of Modern Europe. Volumes I and II. Macmillan. Larson. Short History of England. Holt. Library of Original Sources. Volume VI. University Research Extension Co. Robinson and Beard. Development of Modern Europe. Volume II. Ginn. Robinson and Beard. Readings in Modern European History. Volume IE Ginn. Tickner. Social and Industrial History of England. Longmans. Toynbee. The Industrial Revolution. Longmans. Webster. General History of Commerce. Ginn. • CHAPTER VIII METTERNICH AND THE STRUGGLE FOR CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT 95. Metternich and the Reaction in Europe. — It has al- ready been pointed out how entirely the Congress of Vienna ignored the wishes of the peoples living within the states whose boundaries they sought to determine. One of the most promi- nent and influential members of the Congress was the Austrian Chancellor, Prince Metternich. He referred to himself as " the man of what was." He claimed, with perhaps little reason, the credit for the final settlements which were reached of the many perplexing problems confronting the statesmen of Europe on that occasion. His attitude towards the resettlement of Europe was typical of the reactionary forces which now sought to regain their sway. He had a horror of anything which sa- vored of government by the people and sought to establish once Character and for all the domination of the forces of absolutism and ^f^/*™^ of Metternich reaction. He was by conviction an extreme conservative, abso- lutely rejecting, individually and collectively, all the changes which had followed in the wake of the French Revolution. He proposed to establish Europe upon so firm a basis that another upheaval, such as had characterized the closing years of the eighteenth century, would be impossible. All the exiled monarchs were therefore restored — tyrants though they were in many instances — and royal descent alone was accepted as the condition entitling a man to rule a country. This was known as the principle of legitimacy. The various experiments which Legitimacy France had tried with different constitutions, oligarchic, aristo- cratic, or popular, were utterly ignored. Like the rulers whom he 220 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Prince Metternich The master of European politics from 1 815 to 1848. STRUGGLE FOR CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT 221 had helped to reestabUsh, he "had learned nothing and forgotten nothing." When the monarchy was reestablished in France by the resto- Louis xviii ration of the old Bourbon line, the new ruler, Louis XVIII, in- ^° ^g^^^ ^'^^^^ augurated his reign by granting a constitution known as the Charter of 1814. While this recognized in a measure the power of the people, the conditions under which it was proclaimed and its very name of charter were evidence enough to the French people that this was not a government resting upon the will of the majority but a gracious grant of such powers as it pleased- the monarch to bestow upon his loyal subjects. That France had gained by the Revolution was indicated by the abandonment for the moment of all efforts to restore the ancien regime with all its contradictions, exactions, and tyranny. Peace and pros- perity were what the French people were now seeking — an opportunity to recover from the stress and strain of the eventful period which had just closed. They could not, however, forget the lessons inculcated by the Revolution nor those great ideals of liberty and equality which had been the lodestar of so many Frenchmen during the past quarter century. For this reason Relation France was jealously watched by her neighbors, who feared °^ ^'"a^^c® the contagion of her example and a new outburst of her enthusi- asm. The path of her rulers was destined to be a thorny one if they trespassed too far upon the rights of a once sovereign people, and in the great upheavals within her borders are to be seen for some time to come the time Hmits of the great epochs which marked the history of Europe. The return of the exiled Bourbon rulers to Spain and to the The Kingdom of Naples and of the petty rulers to the small states f/theBourbons of Italy illustrates the conditions which prevailed throughout in Spain the greater part of Europe after 181 5. These rulers, with great ^^^ Naples unanimity and accord, immediately wiped out every vestige of the great reforms which French rule had inaugurated within their domains, and the epoch which was now ushered in is one of the darkest in their history. Their zeal in bringing back the 222 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Abolition of Reforms The Situation in Central Europe The German Confederation The Situation in Austria old conditions knew no bounds, as is illustrated by the monarch who ordered the uprooting in his botanical gardens of all plants bearing French names. Although the three hundred odd states which Napoleon had found in Germany in the eighteenth century were not restored, nevertheless that dream of a fatherland, united and strong, which had been the inspiration of those young men who had taken up arms in the War of Liberation (sec. 80) had van- ished so completely that it seemed like a beautiful mirage in the desert. The new German Confederation was so organized that it did not hold out a single ray of hope to German patriots that it would ever become the nucleus of a powerful German empire. It was composed of all the German states, and the rulers followed the example of the rulers of the South of Europe by restoring many a mediaeval custom and practice which had been characteristic of the past. The great wave of regeneration which had swept Germany for the first time since the days of the Thirty Years' War had apparently spent itself vainly upon the rocks, and the day of her advent among the nations of Europe as their equal was indefinitely postponed. Within the Austrian possessions reaction naturally reigned supreme. The ruler sought to bring back the practices of a bygone generation. From his capital, Vienna, came the orders which determined the course of action of much of the rest of Europe. In the various parts of this conglomerate Empire, with its mixture of creeds and races, the same conditions pre- vailed as in the states whose policies Vienna sought to dictate. The one great advantage which the Congress of Vienna had conferred upon Austria was the consolidation of her dominions, as may be seen by a glance at the map. 96. The Tory Reaction in England. — Even in England the epoch which followed the defeat of Napoleon was marked by reactionary measures and efforts on the part of the ruling class to dominate the situation. The strain of the struggle with Napo- leon was now felt as never before, and the ruling class, although STRUGGLE FOR CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT 223 ^^V emce [->:j Germans r"l Magyars 'I "^ '^ J ^ |— CZ3 Rumanians \ '^ .-%f and Servians ^gffl Rutlienians \^ ^ EM3 Czechs ^ -^ IIMIII Slovaks □ Poles ni Slovene Italians DISTRIBUTION OF RACES IN AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 'itude 10 East Longitude 16 East from 20 Greenwich 224 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY pretending to advocate a more liberal and a more democratic form of government than that which prevailed upon the conti- nent, sought not only to maintain themselves in power but to take an unfair advantage of their position. The price of grain, or of corn as it was called, had been high throughout the war, as was to be expected under the conditions which prevailed. The majority in parliament, which was recruited from the country squires, the merchants, and the great manufacturers, failed to The Corn Laws modify materially the notorious corn laws which had been enacted in the interests of the Enghsh grain producers, but sought instead to bolster up these prices even after the war had closed. Under these laws no foreign supply of grain could be sold in England unless English grain was seUing at a certain price in the market. This price the law definitely fixed. The change from farming to industry in certain parts of England, and from the domestic system of industry to the factory system during this period of European upheaval, aggravated the misery and wretchedness of the masses, who had not as yet adjusted themselves to these transformations. The burden of taxation was heavy, as England had piled up a tremendous debt, and with the high prices demanded for foodstuffs thousands were on the verge of want and starvation. As has so often been the case, the masses looked to the govern- ment to alleviate their distress and recognized perhaps as never before the political inequalities which separated the industrial classes from their rulers and employers. The government was in a measure responsible for some of this wretchedness, and in its denial of representation to populous districts the majority thought they detected the root of all the ills which threatened them. Monster meetings were held in the manufacturing towns; petitions were circulated; and protests began to flood the coun- try against the injustices from which the masses suffered. These meetings were not always orderly; in some cases there was The rioting. The soldiers were called upon to disperse one of these MassacTe*^^ gatherings in Manchester, and in a clash between the soldiers Heavy Taxation STRUGGLE FOR CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT 225 and the mob several lives were sacrificed. The government, which had little or no sympathy with these longings of the masses, immediately took alarm. Parliament suspended the writ of habeas corpus and passed the Six Acts prohibiting The six Acts assemblies, restricting the publication of many of the attacks upon the government, and in other ways preventing an expres- sion of the discontent which had been so clearly manifested. 97. Metternich and the Holy Alliance. — It was a cardinal principle with Metternich and with the reactionaries whom he represented not alone to undo the work of the Revolution, but to maintain the conditions which have just been described. Curiously enough, the sentimentahsm bf the Tsar of Russia was influence of used by Metternich to help accomplish this result. The Tsar *^® '^^" had granted a fairly liberal constitution to that larger Poland to which he had fallen heir by the agreements concluded at Vienna. Although his attitude was much the same as that of the benevolent despot, he was prompted to grant these con- cessions out of a certain sympathy for the national aspirations of this portion of his great empire and a conviction as to his respon- sibilities as a Christian for the welfare of the subjects with whom he had been intrusted. When the sentimental Lord of the Russias proposed to the practical-minded Metternich a Holy Alliance whose aims should be "to adopt no other rule of con- duct than the precepts of Christianity, the precepts of justice, charity and peace," and in high sounding phrases sought to commit the nations involved to a course of conduct based upon the great principles of Christianity, Metternich welcomed the project most enthusiastically, believing that he could make it serve the particular object which was uppermost in his mind — the domination of Europe. The alliance was therefore concluded between Russia, Austria, and Prussia (Sep. 26, 181 5), and al- though, to quote the words of Metternich, the program was ''mere verbiage," it became a very real force in Europe for the next generation. Almost a century later, in 1898, Europe was similarly startled and astonished by a proposal which seemed 226 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY equally out of harmony with the course of Russian development — the calling of the first peace conference at the Hague. Almost all the nations gave their adherence to the Holy Alliance; some out of respect for the Tsar, others in the belief that it really did not commit them to anything. More effective, however, than this grandiose scheme was another alliance concluded Novem- The Quadruple ber 20, 1815. This was the Quadruple Alliance, composed of the same three countries which formed the nucleus of the Holy Alli- ance, but including England. This combination rather than the Holy Alliance became the real arbiter of Europe in the epoch which followed. England, however, would not lend her aid to the repressive measures which Metternich sought to put into operation, and the Quadruple Alliance became confused with the Holy Alliance. The three members of the former, whose ideas harmonized, proceeded to enforce treaties signed by the four powers, and became known as the Holy Alliance because Metternich pretended to be acting in accordance with the Tsar's original program for the Holy Alliance. These four great powers had bound themselves to preserve the arrangements made at the Congress of Vienna and to come together from time to time to consider any questions of international importance which might arise in the future. This so-called "concert of the powers" sought to maintain the "concert of Europe." Metter- nich, as has already been indicated, dominated the three great continental states, and almost from the beginning his ideas were Intervention out of harmony with those of England. "Intervention" was the watchword of these three powers of the Holy Alliance, and with Metternich as its watchdog this combination of great powers exercised a careful scrutiny into the internal developments of each state, detecting in every change the symptoms of a revo- lution which might sweep all Europe and produce other ka- leidoscopic changes, and endeavoring to repress all such manifestations. 98. Struggle for Constitutional Government. — The next thirty years were marked by vigorous protests against the Met- STRUGGLE FOR CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT 227 ternich system in various parts of Europe and by attempts to secure the recognition of the principle that the governed are en- titled to a share in the government — a recognition which should take the form of the grant of a constitution. There were also protests in many quarters against the failure to recognize the principle of nationality. Nationalities were ignored to the same The Principle extent as marked the Napoleonic regime, and the union of Bel- °* Nationality gium and Holland, the joining together of Norway and Sweden, the rule of Austria in Italy, the failure to interfere with the Turkish control of the Christian states in the Balkans, the formation of the German Confederation, and many other cir- cumstances of a similar character, gave rise to bitter heart- burnings and caused Europe to seethe with discontent. From time to time the molten mass below burst its barriers and spread consternation among the conservative element which was straining every nerve to suppress it. Three important movements mark the period: that of 1820-22, that of 1830, and that of 1848. Each represents a vigorous protest, each more vigorous than the one before it, until 1848 is reached, a date marking a general upheaval in which the edifice so skilfully reared by Metternich began to tumble about his ears. In spite of these disturbances of '20, The Revo- '30, and '48, which have been styled revolutions, after they issrind ms were all over the general condition of Europe remained much as it was in 181 5. It was a period of bitter disappointment, a time of hopes entertained only to be blasted. With the excep- tion of France and England, conservatism seemed triumphant everywhere, and every effort of democracy to secure recognition seemed foredoomed to failure. Individual trenches had been taken, but the citadel was still unconquered. The Revolution of 1820-22 was confined largely to the ex- The Revoiu tremities of Europe, to the Latin South, and began in Spain and Portugal. In Spain King Ferdinand's tyranny had be- Portugal come unbearable, and this fact, combined with successful move- ments for independence in the Spanish colonies in South and tions of 1820 in Spain and 228 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY The " Constitu- tion of 1812 " The Wars for Independence in the Spanish Colonies Central America, gave the signal for an uprising at home. The Spanish soldiers, who had been mobilized at one of the ports preparatory to setting sail to recover these colonies, raised the standard of revolt with a demand for "the Constitution of 1 812," a liberal form of government which had been drawn up in the course of the expulsion of the French from the penin- sula, but which had been with- drawn with the restoration of Ferdinand VII. A mob sur- rounded the palace at Madrid and forced the king to take the oath to the constitution. The disturbances in Span- ish America date back to the days of Napoleon's domination when the hold of Spain upon her American colonies, none too strong at best, was seriously weakened. During this period these peoples took advantage of the disorder at home and declared their independence of the mother country. Bolivar was the great hero in South America, but he had his imi- tators throughout the entire territory under the Spanish flag. The Central American states declared their indepen- dence and joined to form the Bolivar General Simon Bolivar was born of good parentage and was educated in Madrid, Spain. He visited Paris during the closing da3^s of the French Revolution and doubtless received from Napoleon the inspiration to great military exploits. On his re- turn to Venezuela in 1809 he soon joined the revolutionary movement and became the greatest general and statesman South America has yet pro- duced. He freed Venezuela, Colom- bia, Peru and Upper Peru (renamed in his honor Bolivia), and Ecuador from Spanish rule, and all the states of South and Central America bene- fited by his work. Republic of the United States of Central America. In Mexico the standard of rebellion was set up under Hidalgo (1810). Iturbide achieved the final ex- pulsion of the Spaniards, only to set himself up as emperor. STRUGGLE FOR CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT 229 He was overthrown however, and in 1822 the repubHc was established. One after the other these colonies succeeded in overturning completely the rule of the mother country. Fol- lowing the example of Spain, Portugal also demanded and ob- tained a liberal constitution from her ruler in 1822. In the same year her colony of Brazil was proclaimed an independent Empire under Dom Pedro I. The people of the south of Italy, stimulated perhaps by the The Uprisings news of these revolts and driven to exasperation by the tyranny and^oreece of another Ferdinand, took up arms in the Kingdom of Naples and forced their ruler to grant them the same constitution which was demanded by the Spaniards. There were also disturbances in distant Greece, which had long groaned under the yoke of the infidel Turk. The progress of the movement there is a phase of the near Eastern question and will be considered later. 99. Unrest in Germany and the Doctrine of Intervention. — Meanwhile, although Northern and Central Europe made no appeal to the sword, certain developments in Germany seemed to augur inauspiciously for the preservation of the arrangements made at Vienna. Great political activity was shown among the young men in the universities. Patriotic societies, such as the Burschenschaft, had been formed during the War of Liberation (sec. 80), and many of these now set themselves to the task of keeping alive and strengthening those aspirations for union which had met with such a sad f ate in 1 8 1 5 . A meeting of representatives of these societies from all over Germany was held on the Wartburg in 181 7 to commemorate the 300th anni- The Wartburg versary of the Reformation. In the celebration which followed c®^®*""*"*"^ patriotic speeches were delivered; some of the reactionary litera- ture of the time was burned ; and in general a spirit of hostility was shown to the existing order. The university professors had all along shown themselves most outspoken against the condi- tions which prevailed in Germany, and when, in March 181 9, a zealous student named Sand murdered Kotzebue, an agent of Murder the Tsar appointed to watch for symptoms of unrest and report °^ ^lotzebue 230 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY The Carlsbad Decrees Congresses of Laibach and Verona Opposition to the Holy Alliance George Canning and the Origin of the Monroe Doctrine them to his august master, it seemed to Metternich and to his supporters that the time had come for vigorous action. Intervention seemed the best method of handling all these situations. Metternich called a meeting of the King of Prussia and interested princes of Germany at Carlsbad in August, 1819, and persuaded them that their own safety demanded strong measures against this freedom of thought and expression so rife among their subjects. They agreed, therefore, to the Carlsbad Decrees, which committed them to the enforcement of a strict censorship over the press and a close supervision of the uni- versities. Metternich had scarcely finished with this business when the revolutions broke out in Spain and Naples, and to deal with these situations he called his confederates together in congresses which met at Troppau, then at Laibach, and later at Verona. Upon the petition of the King of Naples, who repented of his compliance with the demands of his subjects now that assistance seemed near, the Congress of Laibach despatched Austrian troops to restore the old order in the Italian peninsula. At Verona arrangements were made for . sending a French force into Spain to help the other Ferdinand. As a result, condi- tions worse if anything than those known in 181 5 marked the years which immediately followed. The idea of intervention, which was one of the cardinal prin- ciples of the Metternich system, — the right to interfere in the domestic affairs of another state — had already experienced a severe setback. It was a part of the plan of the states which made up the Holy Alliance to recover for Spain her lost territories in America, but England and the United States helped to frus- trate this move. England had all along been lukewarm toward the schemes of the Holy Alliance. The actual break came when George Canning became foreign minister. He was one of Eng- land's foremost statesmen and dared to proclaim to the world the rights of nations and England's opposition to any form of intervention. He declared that " the independence of the STRUGGLE FOR CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT 231 Spanish colonies was an accomplished fact " and in 1824 signed a commercial treaty with the Argentine Confederation and the following year despatched charges d'affaires to the Spanish American republics. In 1824 President Monroe, pos- sibly at the suggestion of Canning, proclaimed to the world the doctrine since known by his name — that the Americas were "henceforth not to be considered subjects for future colonization by any European powers"; that the United States would regard as an unfriendly act any effort either then or in the distant future to alter the existing arrangements. Spain was too weak to act upon her own behalf, and this clear state- ment of the attitude of the United States saved the newly created republics from European intervention. The outspoken hostility of England showed unmistakably also the difficulty of maintaining ''the concert of Europe" by a "concert of the powers." 100. The July Revolution and its Effects. — Meanwhile matters had been going from bad to worse in France, the mother of revolution and the source of so many of the ideas which were fermenting in the minds of liberals all over Europe. The Royahsts opposed Louis XVIII in all his efforts to recognize, be it ever so shghtly, the work of the Revolution. He was finally forced to bow to the reactionary platform of the party known as the Ultras or Ultra Royalists, led by his younger brother, the The ultra Count of Artois, who was the next heir to the throne. Al- ^^^^^^^^^ though the charter was not withdrawn in his reign, it began to be enforced in a narrowly restrictive sense through the power wielded by the Ultras. They sought the restoration of the ancien regime, and, when their leader ascended the throne in 1824 as Charles X, the outlook was dark indeed for the sup- Reign of porters of the charter and the friends of democracy. France ^^^^^®^ ^ seemed no longer a beacon Hght to the nations of Europe when in 1823 French troops were sent to suppress the Revolution in Spain. Although the government machinery was fast falling under the control of King Charles and his supporters, a vigorous 232 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY The July Ordinances Accession of IfOUis Philippe The Orleans or Bourgeois Monarchy opposition to his measures manifested itself outside the walls of the legislative chamber in the attacks of the journalists. Such a spirit of unrest developed that the king in July, 1830, issued a series of ordinances by which the charter was seriously modified and the franchise narrowly restricted and regulated. These "July Ordinances" also fettered the free- dom of the press by new and severe regulations. This action was the signal for a vigorous protest on the part of the journalists, which was followed by an uprising of the people of Paris. Charles X, despairing of his ability to retain the crown, finally decided to abdicate and fled with his family to England. In this turn of events La Fayette again came to the fore and helped to establish a government. Although there were demands for a restoration of the Republic, voiced princi- pally by the working classes, the leaders, who came from the middle class or bourgeoisie, were fearful of the consequences of such a radical step and wanted the Duke of Orleans to be their ruler. That the people were still under the influence of the French Revolution was apparent in a proclamation which appeared pointing out how the Duke of Orleans ''had carried the tricolor under fire at Valmy and at Jemappes and had been devoted to the Revolutionary cause." Declaring that the charter would now be a reality, he was proclaimed king withi the title of Louis Philippe. Possibly mindful of the Revolution of 1688 in Eng- land, a parliamentary body had first gone over the charter, making needed changes, and had submitted it to the new ruler for his adherence. By this act it became a veritable constitution and the new reign ushered in a period of parliamentary rule comparable in many respects to that which marked the reign of Wifliam and Mary in England. Louis Philippe was a kinsman of the Bourbons, but he rejected any claim which he might have to the succession by his title of King of the French instead of King of France. His accession began the rule of the Orleans dynasty. The part played by the middle classes in the estab- STRUGGLE FOR CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT 233 lishment of this Orleans monarchy caused the name of bour- geois to be attached to it, and Louis Phihppe prided himself upon being a bourgeois king. The July Revolution was the signal for movements in other Spread of the parts of Europe, notably in Belgium, Poland, and Italy. J"iy Revolution Louis Philippe Entering Paris after the Revolution of 1830 Portions of the barricades erected by the mob for street fighting may be seen to the right. Outside of Belgium these movements were everywhere marked by failure, and the demands for constitutional government were speedily stifled. In Belgium the people succeeded in bringing Revolution about its separation from Holland and the establishment of a parliamentary government under the rule of Leopold I. This of 1830 in Belgium 234 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY result was not attained without a struggle. The action of France and England in recognizing the new arrangements assured its permanence (Conference of London, 1830). The northern and central portions of the Italian peninsula were ■^"^/mKmJKHIBIIKKlKIB •C' "■ "~'ZZ^Wm C^^^^- ■ D-BBijI^^^ B .'; \^ liin The Return from St. Helena King Louis Philippe entered into negotiations with England and secured the return of Napoleon's body to Paris, where it now rests beneath the dome of the Hotel des Invalides in a magnificent sarcophagus. This picture portrays the passage of the casket down the Champs Elysees in Paris. shaken by revolutionary movements in 1830, but Austrian interference speedily put an end to all hopes" of the realization of a new order. The Polish Revolution was marked by a heroism which only made the outcome all the more sad for all friends of Polish nationahty. For a long time secret societies Revolution in France STRUGGLE FOR CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT 235 had been planning for a more complete autonomy. The watchword now was "Let us imitate the Parisians; let us do like France." "AH or nothing" was the cry. But they were no match for the resources of the Tsar, and the constitution granted by Tsar Alexander was suppressed. "There was no longer either kingdom or army; the work of Alexander and that of Constantine were alike annulled." 101. The Revolution of 1848 in France. — By this time The industrial those economic changes which were peculiar to the history of the British Isles between 1750 and 181 5, and which have been called the Industrial Revolution, had already made their appearance upon the continent. Both as First Consul and as Emperor, Napoleon had shown an interest in the remarkable development of industry across the channel as the result of the new inven- tions and improved processes and had sought to encourage manufacturing at home. Many of these efforts, however, had been sacrificed in the interests of his vigorous foreign policy, and it was not until after his overthrow that France began to turn to industry. By 1830 the working classes were beginning to feel their power and to realize, as had the English working- men before them, their political inferiority. This feeling was largely the result of their exploitation at the hands of the capi- talist or employing classes. Their wages were low and their em- ployers seemed to be getting the lion's share of the fruits of their toil. Their ancient trade guilds had been broken up by laws enacted during the French Revolution and they were now denied the right to organize, which was another handicap in dealing with their emxployers. Even before the accession of Louis Philippe, socialism had appeared holding out a program of betterment for the worker. The various reform programs suggested had little effect in uniting the workers, who were becoming more numerous and more dissatisfied as time passed. All this was changed ideas of about 1840 with the appearance of Louis Blanc. He insisted ^°"^^ ^^^'^^ that the state must be " the banker of the poor " and that the gov- ernment should furnish the necessary money for the workers 236 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY by the establishment in each industry of social workshops where the laborers should direct their own labor and in addition to their wages should share in the proceeds. The advent of Louis Blanc marked the formation of the SociaHst Party, which came to play an important part in the revolution of 1848. Causes of The revolutionary movement of 1848, if it did not actually *^*i848°^""°° begin in France, received its impetus largely from developments there. In spite of the honesty of the bourgeois king, Louis The Bourgeois Philippe, who has been pictured as standing before the shop onarc y windows of Paris with an umbrella tucked under his arm, the government of France was conducted in the interests of the minority. It was a parliamentary government, but it very much resembled the government of England in 181 5 in its fail- ure to represent the masses. The introduction of steam and the accompanying revolution in transportation which followed the use of the steamboat and the railroad still further aggravated the lot of the wage earner as industry developed by leaps and bounds. The SociaHst Party became increasingly active. Side by side with this element was to be found a republican party, advocating a more direct participation of the masses in the affairs of the government. The attitude of the French king resem- bled that of George III of England, as he sought to impose his own ideas upon the country by a clever manipulation of the party system. Both king and ministers ignored the various demands for reform which were daily becoming more and more insistent. A typical illustration of this attitude is to Guizot be seen in the* career of Guizot, Louis Philippe's greatest minister, who labored earnestly to block all change and pre- serve the constitution as it had been drawn up in 1830. Al- though above bribery and corruption himself, he showed little hesitation in employing means of this sort to maintain him- self in power. Votes were secured for government measures by a judicious distribution of offices and favors, so that the way seemed absolutely closed to peaceful reform. Things might have gone on in this way indefinitely had it not been for STRUGGLE FOR CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT 237 the interference of the government with certain banquets at which the grievances of the people were being aired by enter- prising journahsts and reformers. For some time back there had seemed to be Uttle about the government to commend it to Frenchmen, and when it sought to interfere with a compara- tively innocent means of voicing the existing unrest, it drove its critics to more aggressive forms of action. When the minister. The therefore, forbade the holding of a larger banquet than usual, ^*° ^ S' ^ElHgliMflto^^ P^T^^^dj^H^H^I ■is C* > i^ k ML 1^'^^ i h c^ C ^^^^r^^^tei^^^BK p D ^^^« s^^^^^B^S k^^^B^<^^^ i'^ i!/^ '^^sR B. ^^^ ^m f^^^yg ^^H^R w^^# >^ i>J. ■ n ^^Kk ^mBP^^^^I ^^^H[olj^# &^^^ #^ ir ^^^jm^ ^./^ 1 U C/2 ^^^I^Hbl ^(KW^ • iW^i/x ^--^^ ^ m H 5 2^3 IwHIfc f' L ►n M I^^^B^^^SK^^^I Jl n ■^H n^^^ g fe A/ J ^^^K^ K r^- 0- H ^^^^^^^HPHmM^S ^^ 05 W ^^^KH^^^^HSit^9\ c IE ^■i hBH^h^ww /I^P'^^il^'^^^'^ # ^^^^^^^U^^^^^H ^S^^^^He ^ ^& %^ v_,^ £3 ^^^^^^^^^^^H I^B^^^I^n, * ^^ y^^ P l^^^l^^l ^^^Ik ^' / ^^^^^ ^ 1 ' 4 f^^^^ ^^^ ^ j^ [ / 1 I^^^H ^B|>/mBI ■ ^r ^ffl| 3 ^^^^1 L ^^^^^ ^ i ^^^^^^^^1 ^^^HHli^^H^''' ^ 1 ft 1 1 i^ 272 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY " The Prisoner himsclf up in his palacc of the Vatican where he has continued ^^ to maintain a court befitting his claims as a temporal ruler, receiving and sending representatives to those Catholic courts of Europe who continue to recognize his claims to princely author- itv. The King of Italy was careful not to alienate his CathoHc The \'aticax This unusual view of the Vatican Palace at Rome, the papal residence, is taken from the roof of St. Peter's Cathedral, which is nearby. The Vatican is the largest palace in the world, and contains the famous Vatican Library with its priceless collections of manuscripts, Christian antiquities, and jewels; museums with some of the greatest statuary and paintings in the world; and the exquisitely beautiful Sistine Chapel, on the walls and ceilings of which are the greatest works of art of all time. subjects by forcing the pope to recognize an established fact. The Italian parliament, to compensate the pope for his loss of revenue, has set aside a large annual grant for the maintenance of the successor of St. Peter in a state worthy of his position as the head of a great church. These moneys the pope has stead- THE ASCENDANCY OF NAPOLEON III 273 fastly refused to accept, and to this day the occupants of the papal chair have hved and died within the sacred precincts of the Vatican palace and its grounds. Some of the problems before the new kingdom have already The been suggested. Besides this hostility between church and state ^nTprM^ and the divided allegiance it encouraged, which communicated of the itself to the political parties, there were such questions as ^^^a^"^**"™ taxation, education, and the maintenance of a proper position in Europe. Sardinia had not completed this task without piling up a certain legacy for its future leaders. The kingdom had been set up in part by force, and it seemed a wise policy to continue to maintain a large standing army. This involved additional taxation. The people of the peninsula had been misgoverned so long and so little attention had been paid to their welfare that poverty, ignorance, and crime were rampant, especially in the South. It was almost as big a task to create an enlightened progressive state out of this chaos as to evolve a pohtical union out of the geographical expression of 181 5. The Form of form of government which was devised to meet these tasks was °^ermnent simply an expansion of the constitution granted to Sardinia in 1849 and resembled the English governmental system, providing for a parliament of two houses, a cabinet and a prime minister responsible to the law-making authority, and a kingship heredi- tary in the House of Savoy. The privilege of voting was restricted — perhaps wisely — to those possessed of certain educational qualifications, and seats in parliament were filled by an indirect method of choosing delegates. The Anglo-Saxon party system was unknown, but this does not mean that there were no parties. The word "party" had a different meaning. It is applied in Italy, as in so many of the other states of Europe, to certain groups. Like the glass in a kaleidoscope, they combine first in one way and then in another and lack permanency of existence and a continuous policy. 115. The Rise of Prussian Leadership in Germany. — While the events just named were taking place, Germany 274 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY was undergoing an equally important transformation. Napo- leon III again proved himself an important if albeit an unwill- ing factor in the creation of modern Germany. The aspirations The Failure of German patriots had been dealt a severe blow in 1848 if Geraan ^^^^* ■^^^^' ^ movement originating with the people them- and its Lessons selvcs was apparently foredoomed to failure. One lesson taught at this time was that either Prussia or Austria must undertake the task of uniting Germany if there was to be a united nation, assuming, of course, that they could not work together to achieve this result. The map itself emphasizes this fact, with the east and the west controlled by Prussia, which stretched like a great dumb-bell across the territory included within the Confederation, and with the great Austrian mass thrusting itself int6 the very heart of Germany. It seemed most unlikely that the forty states would willingly give up any of their privileges or prerogatives. The strongest pressure must be exerted from without upon these petty principalities and kingdoms to effect a merging of their separate sovereign- ties into one powerful organism. They had already seen the advantages of union upon the economic side in the formation The and extension of the Zollverein or Customs Union which was ZoUverein launched by Prussia back in the early part of the century. Up to the time of its formation, trade between the different states had been almost as difficult to carry on as was the case between the different parts of France in the days before the French Revolution. One by one the states of the Confedera- tion of 181 5 had been admitted to this union, all but Austria, who was not wanted on any condition. The jealousy between Austria and Prussia had by this time become most acute. The humiliation of Olmiitz had given Austria the whip hand, and in the meetings of the Confederation her representatives assumed a conscious air of superiority. As president of the Confederation she dictated such terms as Prussia's pleased her to the other representatives around the council Darkest Hour ^^|^|g j^ ^^^g ^^^ ^f Prussia's darkest hours; but with the acces- THE ASCENDANCY OF NAPOLEON III 275 sion of William I and the coming into power of Otto von Bis- marck the dawn began to break. Both William I and Bismarck were of one mind as to the future of Prussia and the task which lay before her. The conditions just described and the increas- ing possibility of a general European conflict involving the great states of Europe, so apparent in 1859 (sec. 113), showed the necessity of a strong army and of military prestige. When William I came to the throne he was a man of over sixty, waiiam i called to take up a great task in what seemed to be the very evening of life, not knowing at what moment death might call him to lay it down. He was possessed of a vigorous con- stitution, however, and contrary to his own expectations and those of his people, it was given him to pass another quarter- century and more in the service of his country — the most important period of his entire life. He was a soldier by train- ing, having seen service as far back as the War of Liberation (sec. 80), and he believed in the army. He was not a clever man, nor a great statesman; he was honest, straightforward, and possessed of a large measure of common sense. To his ministers he gave his entire support, although often doubting the wisdom of their measures. He presented a great contrast to the man whom he called to his side in 1862 to be the pilot of the fortunes of the HohenzoUerns. Bismarck had begun his Bismarck political career as the friend of Austria. After serving as a delegate in the meetings of the Confederation, his eyes had been opened and he became her confirmed enemy. Besides, he was convinced that there was only one way to make Prussia the leader of Germany, and that was by force. He belonged to the class which in England was known as the country squires. His was a big figure, with a massive head, from which shone piercing eyes crowned by shaggy eyebrows. He was a master of duplicity, and yet with all his lies and subter- fuges he combined a certain frankness and sincerity which was even more deceptive than his falsehoods. Although deeply religious, he took care not to let his piety interfere with his 276 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Beginnings of Prussian Militarism j Struggle with the Legislature " Blood and Iron diplomacy, and presents, therefore, a curious combination upon which it is difi&cult to pass judgment. Brutal and over- bearing when master of the situation, he was inchned to give utterance to harsh, biting, epigrammatic statements when brought face to face with his adversaries. He was possessed of one aim, and that aim was never contaminated by personal or sordid motives. In this respect he was a true patriot, being willing to bear the brunt of all criticism and opposition for the sake of the country whose interests he served. 116. Bismarck and the Reform of the Army. — Bismarck was called to the king's side at a critical moment in Prussia's existence. William I had set himself to the task of reorganizing the army and of enforcing the custom of universal service which had been instituted fifty years before in the effort to expel Napoleon. Although the law provided for three years of service, it was only possible with the moneys available to provide for two. Many were escaping the burden altogether, as there were not enough regiments organized to receive the recruits. William I immediately enlarged these regiments, thereby increas- ing the number of recruits from 40,000 to 60,000, and restored the three years of service. His plans were opposed by the Prus- sian Assembly, which objected to the financial burden involved. Then ensued a struggle between the king and the legislature, comparable in some respects to that between Charles I and his parliament, and it seemed as though one or the other must yield or a revolution ensue. Finally, in 1862, the legislature, i.e. the lower house, where the opposition centred, absolutely refused to sanction any further expenditures for the army. The king was on the point of abdicating when he was persuaded to call to his assistance Otto von Bismarck. The king and the new minister soon came to an understanding, and for the next four years Bismarck bullied and threatened and browbeat the opponents of the king's plans, maintaining them successfully against all opposition. The budget was framed and taxes col- lected without the sanction of the lower house, king and minister THE ASCENDANCY OF NAPOLEON III 277 taking refuge behind the wording of the constitution, which was twisted to suit their plans. The newly created army was soon needed, as trouble arose The Danish between Denmark and the Confederation over the provinces ^" of Schleswig and Holstein. The difficulty was with reference to the possession of these two provinces — a question which had already disturbed the peace not alone of Germany but of all Europe. The rival claims and conflicting interests at stake are difficult of analysis. The English statesman. Lord Palmerston, The Schieswig- once said there were only three persons who ever understood the holstein Schleswig-Holstein question. One was dead, the second went mad, and the third was himself, and he had forgotten what it was all about. In the reopening of this problem in 1863, Bismarck saw not alone an opportunity of using the newly created army, but the possibihty of a final reckoning with Austria and ulti- mately the addition of some valuable seacoast to the Prussian dominions. The king of Denmark, in asserting his claims to the provinces, both of which were largely German in race, lan- guage, and culture, found himself in a position where right seemed to be on the side of his opponents. Prussia was anxious to settle the question by force, and Austria felt obliged to share with her the leadership of the enterprise, as it was a matter of great interest to the Confederation as a whole. It would not do for her to seem to give way to Prussia. War fol- lowed in 1864, and in a brief campaign the Danes were severely beaten, notwithstanding their heroic defence against over- whelming odds. They were finally forced to conclude a treaty by which the two provinces were turned over to the two victors. Then arose the problem of their administration. An agreement The Convention was drawn up between Austria and Prussia known as the Con- °* ^^^^^^^ vention of Gastein. By its terms, it would seem that Bismarck deliberately planned to make of the situation an occasion for a break with Austria. At any rate, Austria certainly played into his hands and gave him just the opportunity which he was seeking. 278 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY 117. The Seven Weeks* War and the Exclusion of Austria from Germany. — This assignment of one province to Austria and the other to Prussia created a very real difficulty for Austria, as her province of Holstein was far removed from the seat of government and, had the truth been known, she would probably Causes of havc been glad to be rid of it. That Bismarck was seeking to * ® " embarrass Austria and provoke her indignation seems to be shown by the conclusion at this time of a commercial treaty between the Zollverein and the Italian kingdom. When Austria showed her resentment by countenancing certain claims to the two duchies which were put forth by a native prince, the way was prepared for an open break. Austria's act was popular in Germany but was contrary to the Treaty of Gastein. Austria, however, declared the treaty at an end and appealed to the Diet of the German Confederation to sustain her in this action against Prussia. When the diet ordered the mobilization of troops, the Prussian envoy declared Prussia to be no longer bound by the terms of the Confederation and laid before the members proposals for a new union which should exclude Austria and accept Prussia instead as the head of the organi- zation. This invitation was spurned by many of the states, and war followed. Prussia not only faced Austria but almost all of Germany, as powerful states like Hanover lined up with Attitude Austria. Bismarck had already forestalled the possibiHty of European interference. The greatest source of danger was from France, because of her ambitious ruler, who had long sought to regulate not only French affairs but those of Europe as well. An alliance with Italy had been secured by the promise of Venetia, and, in an interview at Biarritz, Bis- marck secured the friendly neutrality of Napoleon III, prob- ably inspiring him with the hope that this attitude would be rewarded either by some cession of territory or by a similar benevolent neutrality when he should undertake to carry out some of those schemes which had long been fermenting in his brain. Napoleon III met his match as an intriguer in his deal- THE ASCENDANCY OF NAPOLEON III 279 ings with the great Chancellor and was cleverly outwitted, as the future was to show. The armies of Prussia were so skilfully handled under the The Humbling masterly guidance of the great strategist, Von Moltke, that the °^ Austria struggle which Napoleon III had hoped would last for at least two years, or until both were exhausted, was terminated inside ' of seven weeks. Forces were first despatched against Prussia's foes in north Germany, and a concentration of the Prussian forces on the plains of Bohemia made easy the defeat of Austria's great army of 250,000. This battle, which is known Sadowa as Sadowa or Koniggratz, was, up to this time, one of the ' greatest conflicts in history in the number of forces engaged. The Austrians lost 40,000 in dead, wounded, and prisoners. Its results were decisive, as negotiations were immediately opened for peace, notwithstanding the success of the Austrians against the Italians on land at Custozza and at sea in the battle of Lissa. Bismarck was careful not to offend Austria unduly in the terms which he offered, as he foresaw that he might sorely need her friendship in the near future. He did not, therefore, ask for any cession of Austrian territory except Venetia, and was content with the annexation to Prussia of Schleswig and Holstein, Hanover, Hesse-Homburg, Hesse- Cassel, Nassau, and Frankfort, and with the incorporation of the remaining states of northern Germany in the new con- The North federation known as the North German Confederation, which ^®T^° .. ' Confederation was formed under Prussian leadership. Austria was excluded from this or any future arrangement. The Confederation was composed of twenty-two states, i.e. of all the German states except those of the South, viz., the kingdoms of Bavaria and Wurtemberg, and the Grand Duchy of Baden. It was a federal union, as all the states retained control of their internal affairs. The government was com- posed of a Reichstag elected by universal suffrage, a Bundes- rath, or federal council representing the governments of the separate states and an hereditary president, the King of 28o ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Prussia, assisted by a chancellor. Provision was made for a powerful army, organized on the Prussian model and placed under Prussian leadership. By the organization of the North German Confederation, Bismarck had perfected the mihtary union of Germany. It now remained for him to realize a poHtical union. The exclusion of Austria from Germany was followed immedi- ately by an attempt of the former to set her own house in order. Ever since the Revolution of 1848 there had been unrest in the Austrian territories. For ten years after the revolution reaction had reigned supreme and the German element alone had received recognition. This condition could not last, as a strong nation- alistic feeling was shown by the Magyar element in Hungary. While the government was experimenting first with a federal and then with a centralized system of administration, the Seven Weeks' War broke out. The close of the war (1867) saw the settlement of the relations between Austria and the Kingdom The Ausgieich of Hungary by the Ausgleich or Compromise. By these ar- or Compromise j-angemcnts Austria and Hungary each formed entirely inde- pendent kingdoms with Francis Joseph as the ruler over the two. The crown was to be hereditary in the Hapsburg family. Each kingdom was to have its separate organization consisting of a ministry and a diet or legislature composed of two houses. Provision was made for a common ministry composed of three ministers, of foreign affairs, of war, and of finance. In addi- tion to this group of ministers, delegations elected by the Hungarian diet and the Austrian parliament met twice a year to consider matters of common interest to both realms, such as relations with outside states, and especially to pass upon the budget submitted by the common ministry. Each The Dual monarchy was also to have its own postal system. The two Monarchy interlocked kingdoms were known thenceforth as the dual monarchy. Although the principle of nationaHty was not fully recognized, a long step was taken in that direction. The em- peror issued a new constitutional law in December of this THE ASCENDANCY OF NAPOLEON III 281 same year (1867), proclaiming equal rights for all the nation- alities composing the empire and guaranteeing to each the right to maintain and cultivate its own language. 118. Intrigues and Enterprises of Napoleon III. — There was still south Germany to be won before Bismarck's work was complete. In the recent conflict these states had adhered to Austria and were little inclined to follow the lead of Prussia. Bismarck's opportunity to complete his task came as the result of the activities of Napoleon III. The disappointment of the latter that the war had terminated so quickly was keen, but his vanity had been flattered by the fact that he had been called in as mediator and that Venice had been turned over to him to be transferred to Italy. He now looked to Bismarck for the reward of his neutrality — for the little trinkgeld, as his enemies called it, which his services seemed to demand. All of his suggestions for an increase of French territory at the expense of the neighbors upon his northern frontier were not only flouted but were revealed to the intended victims, and the emperor soon found himself an object of suspicion in every quarter. So great was the fear which these overtures aroused AUiance among the south German states that they secretly alUed them- Qg^"^ states selves with Prussia in the event of a war breaking out between with Prussia them and France. The war cloud was fast forming between France and Prussia. Napoleon III had not only been thwarted in his ambitions to profit by the misfortunes of his neighbors and to extend the frontiers of his empire to the Rhine, but had suffered a severe reverse in the new world. As early as i860 he had conceived the idea of reviving a great Latin empire in the Western hemisphere, where French influence should predominate. The opportunity came with a revolution in Mexico. The successful Napoleon m leader brought upon himself European intervention by repudiat- ^ Mexico ing certain debts owed by the Mexican government to its foreign creditors, among whom were France and Spain. Napoleon III suggested an expedition to bring the Mexicans to terms, and his 282 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Interference of the United States proposal was accepted and an army despatched in 1861. But when his alUes saw that the recovery of these moneys was merely a pretext to shape the future of Mexico, they quickly abandoned the enterprise. Napoleon thereupon sent larger forces and proposed to one of the factions in Mexico the accept- ance as their emperor of the Archduke Maximihan, the brother of the ruler of Austria and one time governor of northern Italy. He hoped by this suggestion to win the support of Austria and to square himself with the Pope and the orthodox Catholics, whose support he had lost by his attitude towards Italy. Vari- ous circumstances combined to bring about the failure of the project. Too great a distance intervened between Mexico and the base of operations, and unfortunately for his plans the United States, which up to this time had been preoccupied with the Civil War, now interfered (1865) and, invoking the Monroe Doctrine, adopted a threatening attitude toward Napoleon. He was therefore obliged to abandon his candidate, and the Emperor Maximihan, now forced to depend upon his own in- adequate resources, soon fell into the hands of a hostile fac- tion and was condemned to death and shot. The news of this failure was a serious blow to the prestige of the emperor, not alone in Europe but in France as well. He now felt it to be imperative to strike some blow in Europe which should coun- teract the effects of this catastrophe and give his dynasty in France a new lease of life. The most popular move he could make was against Prussia, which indeed, if unchecked, threatened soon to possess herself of the commanding position which he had sought to secure for France. 119. Outbreak of the Franco-German War. — An opportu- nity soon presented itself in the effort to fill the Spanish throne, cL*?l.fi!f"*^^ which had become vacant through a revolution. Bismarck is said to have suggested as a candidate Leopold of Hohenzollern, a distant relative of the Prussian king, with the ulterior purpose of stirring up strife with France. Whatever his part may have been, this candidacy, aroused great opposition in France. "If The Question of the Spa Succession THE ASCENDANCY OF NAPOLEON III 283 284 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Trickery of Bismarck Interview at Ems Prussia is permitted to install a proconsul upon our frontiers, if the news is not false," declared one writer, ''we are 38,000,000 prisoners." A protest was immediately lodged with the king of Prussia, as the head of the Hohenzollern family. He was asked to use his influence to secure the withdrawal of the candidacy of his relative. As the result of these efforts and the friendly intervention of England, Austria and Russia, Leopold refused to allow his name to be considered. By this time the temper of the French people had been aroused to fever heat, and a strong war feeling showed itself, particularly among the members of the legislature. The war party was not satisfied with the act of the king of Prussia in the renunciation of the prince but wished assurances from him that his relative would not be put forward as a candidate at any time in the future. Bismarck saw in the situation an excellent ground for war and probably did all in his power to bring matters to a crisis. This was not difficult, as the French Minister, Gramont, and the Empress Eugenie, supported by the war party, were utterly devoid of prudence and seemed bent on but one decision, an appeal to arms. Acting upon instructions from his government the French ambassador Benedetti sought an interview with the king of Prussia at Ems, where he was sojourning for his health, to secure from the Prussian ruler a complete dis- avowal of any interest in this candidacy, present, past, or future. The interview was twisted by the press of France and of Germany, with the aid of Bismarck, into an insult to Prussia on the one hand, and to France, on the other. The French government, as perhaps Bismarck had expected, declared war first, and with this move the carefully laid plans of Moltke and Bismarck were put into immediate execution. The Franco-German War of 1870-71, like its predecessor, the Seven Weeks' War, was a conflict waged on scientific principles. The forces were moved by the aid of the railroad and telegraph like pawns upon a chess board, dependence being placed upon massing the forces where they would deal the most effective THE ASCENDANCY OF NAPOLEON III 285 blows. The story goes that Moltke, upon hearing the news Preparedness of the declaration of war, drew from a cabinet a series of docu- °^ Prussia ments in which every step in the mobilization had been care- fully worked out and that these plans were carried out almost to the letter by the Prussian staff. The mobilization of the French forces stands out in sharp contrast with the foresight and preparedness shown in Prussia. Although the French leaders had boasted of their readiness, ''even to the last button," and had pointed with pride and confidence to their achievements upon the battlefields of Magenta and Solferino, events soon revealed the demoraliza- tion which prevailed and the political corruption which every- where undermined the entire military organization. Com- manders were without maps of the localities in which they were to operate; soldiers were without equipment; officers were without the armies which they were supposed to lead. Too much confidence was also placed in the supposed weakness of their adversaries. From almost the very outset of the struggle the advantages were all on the side of Prussia. The southern states of Germany supported her most loyally, and Napoleon was not only disappointed here, but found himself entirely isolated in the struggle, without a friend in Europe. Bis- marck's plans had been carefully laid; nowhere was there a move among the other European nations to intervene in behalf of France. Gen. von Moltke Gen. von Moltke was the military- genius who planned the strategy of the Franco- German War. Demoralization of the French Isolation of France 286 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY The Campaigns The battle-fields of the war were upon French soil, as the French attempt to invade Germany came to nothing. Directed as they w^re by a single brain, the Prussian armies cooperated with each other most successfully, whereas the French forces, lacking this, were outgeneralled and beaten upon every impor- Napoleon III AND Bismarck In sharp contrast to the splendor of the court scene shown on page 263 is this scene showing the broken Emperor Napoleon III after the battle of Sedan, discussing the terms of his surrender with the haughty Bismarck. tant battle-field. A great force under Bazaine was shut up in Metz, and Napoleon himself, with another great force under MacMahon, was surrounded and forced to give battle under most unfavorable circumstances at Sedan. Then followed one of the most decisive defeats in history, in which the French army finally surrendered to forces led by King William himself. Napoleon was taken prisoner, and when the news of the disaster reached Paris his deposition was decreed and a republic pro- claimed. The battle of Sedan saw the second empire pass out of THE ASCENDANCY OF NAPOLEON III 287 existence. After his release Napoleon spent the rest of his days Fail of the in England. The large force shut up in the great fortress of ^^'°"^ ^'^^^'^ Metz was practically betrayed by its commander and disgrace- fully surrendered. The final operations of the war centred Bismarck's Peace Terms Bismarck lays down the terms of the conqueror before the representatives of the French nation. At the right Thiers is stricken with humihation at the tremendous price which France must pay for her unpreparedness. In the background Favre has risen from his chair as if to protest against the humihating terms. Bismarck is scornfully indifferent to their distress. about the city of Paris, which was subjected to one of the severest sieges in its history. 120. The Close of the War and the Formation of the German Empire. — The proclamation of the republic had been followed by the organization of a Government of National Defence. The outcome of the struggle now rested largely in the hands of 288 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY THE ASCENDANCY OF NAPOLEON III 289 Thiers and Gambetta. The former sought to secure aid, Establishment but without success, from the various courts of Europe; Gam- xhird Republic betta escaped from Paris in a balloon and sought to arouse the provinces and to organize new armies for the relief of the capital. The odds, however, were too great to be overcome. It is true that armies were raised, but they were often ill-equipped and imperfectly drilled. Although they displayed great valor they were no match for the splendid military machine created by the genius and foresight of their antagonists. Alsace and Lor- raine had been entirely lost in the opening campaigns ; the invest- ment of Paris was more and more complete, so that food became siege of Paris scarce and the hardships of the siege were sorely felt. Negotia- tions were opened for peace. Although the Government of National Defence had declared that they would not cede one inch of French soil, they were forced to accept the harsh terms imposed by their conquerors — the cession of Alsace and Lor- Terms of Peace raine with the great fortresses of Metz and Strasburg, which maintained an open door into French territory, and the payment within three years of what appeared in those days to be a huge war indemnity, $1,000,000,000. The terms were signed by the officials of the newly created Establishment German Empire, which received its finishing touches while the oennan Empire siege of Paris was still in progress. Bismarck cleverly prevailed upon some of the south German princes to invite King William of Prussia to be the ruler of united Germany, and amid great acclamations he was proclaimed German Emperor at a mag- nificent ceremony in the hall of mirrors of the palace at Ver- sailles. The form of government adopted for the North German Confederation in 1867 became the basis of the govern- ment of the new German Empire. Had the step now taken depended upon King William of Prussia alone, it is doubtful if he would have taken it at all, as he had more than once hesitated in crises of this sort. The Iron Chancellor, however, was at his Triumph elbow and overcame by clever management any scruples which p Bismarck's he might have had. Long days and nights he had labored to 290 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY THE ASCENDANCY OF NAPOLEON III 291 bring the opportunity to pass and he did not propose to let the prize sHp through his fingers. The pohcy of blood and iron had triumphed. The success of the work the future was to demonstrate. SUGGESTIVE TOPICS AND QUESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY I. Describe the February revolution. 2. Explain why the socialists were temporarily in control and what results followed. 3, Show how the capi- tahsts regained control of the government. 4. Explain the electoral law of May, 1850. 5. Describe the reestablishment of the, empire. 6. Compare the coHp-d'etat of Napoleon I with that of Louis Napoleon. 7. Show the des- potic character of Napoleon Ill's government. 8. Prove the prosperity of France under his rule. 9. What was Metternich's estimate of the February revolution in France? 10. Summarize the history of Switzerland from 1814 to 1848. II. Discuss the problem of nationahty in Austria-Hungary. 12. Give a biographical sketch of Kossuth. 13. Give an account of the March revolution in Vienna. 14. What became of Metternich? 15. De- scribe the reforms in Hungary. 16. What reforms were demanded by Lom- bardy-Venetia? 17. Describe the meeting of the national assembly at Frankfort. 18. Give an account of the failure of the revolution in Bohemia and Austria. 19. Give an account of the beginning of the reign of Francis Joseph. 20. Comment upon the statement, "You Magyars are only an island in an ocean of Slavs." 21. Describe the republican movements in Italy, 1848-9. 22. Show how the king of Prussia thwarted the attempts of the Prussian people to obtain a constitutional government. 23. Give biographical sketches of the following: Mazzini, Pius IX, Victor Emmanuel II, Cavour, Garibaldi. 24. Compare Cavour's foreign policy with that of Italy today. 25. Discuss Napoleon Hi's role in ItaUan unification. 26. How was the creation of united Italy related to the creation of the modern German empire? 27. Describe the Itahan constitution. 28. What is the present relation between the kingdom of Italy and the Pope? 29. Explain how economic conditions paved the way for poHtical union in Germany. 30. Was Bismarck responsible for the European War of 1914? 31. De- scribe the Schleswig-Holstein affair. 32. What were the two aims in forming the North German Confederation? 33. Give an account of the Maxi- milian episode. 34. Show the bearing of each of the following on the Franco-German war: the question of the Spanish candidature, the Ems despatch, the desire of Prussia for leadership in Germany. 35. Discuss the terms of the treaty ending this war in the light of the European War of 1914. Collateral Reading I. The Second Republic and the Founding of the Second Empire. Hazen, Europe since 1815, pp. 187-214. Robinson and Beard, De- velopment of Modern Europe, Vol. II, pp. 59-71. Fyffe, History 292 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY of Modern Europe, pp. 809-23. Andrews, Historical Develop- ment of Modern Europe, Vol. I, pp. 320-62; Vol. II, pp. 1-41. Jane, Metternich to Bismarck, pp. 156-62, 184-9. Hawkesworth, The Last Century in Europe, pp. 206-11, 253-61. Hayes, Mod- ern Europe. Vol. II, pp. 150-63. 11. Cavour and the Creation of the Kingdom of Italy. Jeffery, The New Europe, pp. 270-83. Ogg, Governments of Europe, pp. 353-98. Hazen, pp. 215-39. Robinson and Beard, Vol. II, pp. 84-6, 90-8. Fyffe, pp. 715-8, 738-9, 742-7, 770-81, 866- 908. Andrews, Vol. II, pp. 91-145. Seignobos, Contemporary CiviHzation, pp. 269-81. Stillman, Union of Italy, 1815-95. Cesaresco, Cavour, pp. 73-220. Hayes, Vol. II, pp. 163-75. III. Bismarck and German Unity. Hazen, pp. 240-71. Robinson and Beard, Vol. II, pp. 79-80, 86-9, 109-18. Priest, Germany since 1740, pp. 91-113. Henderson, Short History of Germany, Vol. II, pp. 348-410. Seignobos, pp. 281-99. Ogg, pp. 193-204. Hawkesworth, pp. 308-28. Jane, pp. 208-29. Headlam, Bismarck, pp. 162-314. Hayes, Vol. II, pp. 180-206. IV. The Franco-German War. Hazen, pp. 285-302. Robinson and Beard, Vol. II, pp. 118-23. Jeffery, pp. 324-43. Priest, pp. 113-9. Henderson, Vol. II, pp. 411-50. Jane, pp. 230-52. Hawkesworth, pp. 329-46. Head- lam, pp. 315-76. Hayes, Vol. II, pp. 175-80, 198-201. V. Spain and Portugal in the Nineteenth Century. Clarke, Modern Spain, 1815-98. Hazen, pp. 564-78. Ogg, pp. 603-46. Gooch, History of Our Time, pp. 65-81. VI. The Scandinavian States. Hazen, pp. 592-600. Ogg, pp. 553-601. VII. The Low Countries. Hazen, pp. 579-83- Ogg, pp. 517-51. Source Studies 1. Louis Blanc's version of the workshop experiment of 1848. Robinson and Beard, Readings in Modern European History, Vol. II, pp. 82-4. 2. Dr. Evans's characterization of Napoleon III. Ihid., pp. 92-4. 3. Signs of revolt in Venetia and Lombardy, 1848. Ibid., pp. 96-7. 4. Decree estabHshing the Roman repubhc, 1849. Ihid., pp. 98-9. 5. Kossuth's address to the people of the United States. Ihid., pp. 103-8. 6. Mazzini's instructions to the members of Young Italy. Ihid., pp. 1 15-8. 7. Cavour's views. Ihid., pp. 118-9. 8. Napoleon III justifies his intervention in Italy. /6fi., pp. 122-3. 9. Garibaldi describes his work in Sicily and Naples. Ihid., pp. 126-8, 10. Pope Pius IX on the unification of Italy. Ihid., p. 130. 11. A review of the economic situation in Italy, 1906. Ihid., pp. 138-41. 12. Bismarck's views on the crisis in Prussia. Ihid., pp. 142-4. THE ASCENDANCY OF NAPOLEON III 293 13. King William explains to his people the cause of the war with Austria. Ibid., pp. 144-6. (Compare with William IPs explanation of the Great War of 1914.) 14. Bismarck and the Austro-Prussian War. Ibid., pp. 146-50. 15. Bismarck and the Franco-German War. Ibid., pp. 158-61. 16. Proclamation of the German empire at Versailles. Ibid., pp. 163-5. 17. Basis of the constitution of Austria-Hungary. Ibid., pp. 165-8. 18. The Austrian election of 1906. Ibid., pp. 171-4. 19. The undemocratic government of Hungary. Ibid., pp. 174-5. 20. Bismarck on cabinet government. Ibid., pp. 176-7. Suggestions for Map Work I. On an outhne map of eastern Europe show the territorial divisions at the time of the Crimean War. 2. On an outline map of Italy show the vari- ous steps in the process of unification. 3. Show the North German Confed- eration; illustrate the Schleswig-Holstein affair and the Austro-Prussian War. 4. On a map of western Europe show the campaigns of the Franco- German War. 5. Draw a map of the Empire of Austria-Hungary, show its political divisions, and indicate the problems of nationality. Map References Shepherd, Historical Atlas. Holt. Rise of the German customs union before 1834, p. 160. The customs union since 1834, p. 160. The North German Federation and German Empire, 1866-71, p. 161. Unification of Germany, 1815-71, p. 161. The unification of Italy, 1815-70, p. 161. South- western Crimea, 1854, p. 164. Distribution of races in Austria-Hungary, p. 168. Dow, Atlas of European History. Holt. The German Confederation, 1815-66, p. 28. North German Confederation and German Empire, p. 28. Development of the German customs union, p. 28 ^ Italy since 1815, p. 29. Muir, School Atlas of Modern History. Holt. The growth of Prussia in the nineteenth century, p. 20. Growth of the Hapsburg dominions, p. 21. Gardiner, Atlas of English History. Longmans. Southeastern Europe, 1856, p. 60. Robertson-Bartholomew, Historical Atlas of Modern Europe. Oxford Press. France, 1814-1914, No. 9. Germany, 1815-1914, No. 13. Prussia, 1815-1914, No. 14. Italy, 1815-1914, No. 17. Austria-Hungary, 1815- 1914, No. 21. Poland, 1815-1914, No. 28. Bibliography Andrews. Historical Development of Modern Europe. Two volumes in one. Putnam. Cesaresco. Cavour. Macmillan. Clarke. Modern Spain, 1815-1898. Cambridge University Press. Fyffe. History of Modern Europe. Holt. 294 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Gooch. History of Our Time. Holt. Hawkesworth. The Last Century in Europe. Longmans. Hayes. The Political and Social History of Modern Europe. Volume II. Macmillan. Hazen. Europe since 1815. Holt. Headlam. Bismarck and the Foundation of the German Empire. Putnam. Henderson. A Short History of Germany. Two volumes in one. Macmillan, Jane. Metternich to Bismarck, 1815-1878. Oxford University Press. Jeffery. The New Europe, lySg-iSSg. Houghton. Ogg. The Governments of Europe. Macmillan. Priest. Germany since 1740. Ginn. Robinson and Beard. Development of Modern Europe. Volume 11. Ginn. Robinson and Beard. Readings in Modern European History. Volume 11. Ginn. Seignobos. Contemporary Civilization. Scribner. Stillman. The Union of Italy. Cambridge University Press. CHAPTER X THE EXPANSION OF EUROPE IN ASU AND IN AFRICA The Near East and Africa 121. Conditions Favorable to the Spread of European Influence in Asia and in Africa. — The states of Europe had long shown an interest in colonial enterprise and in the opening up . of new lands across distant seas. Their activities in the new world and in the great empire of India form one of the most important aspects of the history of modern times. As late as the middle of the nineteenth century there were still great areas of the earth's surface comparatively untouched and all but unknown. The years which followed the advent among the nations of the two new states of Germany and Italy witnessed a renewal of colonial activity and a keen interest in the vast con- tinents of Asia and Africa. This interest not only resulted in the spread of European civilization to the uttermost parts of the earth, but widened so tremendously the bounds of European history that it has merged itself with world history. The ex- Merging planation of this latest phase of a movement which dates back ^. ^"'"^p^^" to the sixteenth century is to be found in part in the great andWorid strides in the means of transportation and communication and ^^^^^^^ in commerce and industry which mark the period since 1870. The transforming force of the industrial revolution in England The in the eighteenth century has already been described in some ^ent of' Trans- detail. Wonderful changes followed the improvements in the portation and of means of transportation through the introduction of steam, the ^^^^ ^ building of roads, and the opening of canals. Even greater miracles in the annihilation of space and the saving of time 296 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Roads Railroads Improvements mark the later periods, especially the epoch which opened about 1870. The possibihties of the steamship, the railroad, the telegraph, and the canal were realized as never before in the history of man, and the improvements of the past half century have been of such a nature as to revolutionize these agents and accomplish results which have fallen very little short of the marvellous. Much perhaps still remains to be learned about road con- struction, but road-building has everywhere been carried forward with greater zeal, making accessible the most remote corners of the earth. An illustration of this is the great highway which France has begun, extending far out into the wastes of Sahara. The great roads of France and Germany, which may be compared to the great arteries which gave life and unity to the Roman Empire, are matters of warrantable pride to the people of those countries. In the field of railroad construction, all the great transcontinental lines, with the exception of the Union Pacific in our own country (opened in 1869), have been built since 1870. Among the most important of these are the trans-Siberian, completed in 1899, and the Cape to Cairo line, which lacks but the link across Central Africa from El-Obeid in the Sudan to Ehzabethville in the Belgian Congo. Besides these there are several great lines in the process of construction, such as the Bagdad railroad and the trans-Sahara. Steel has replaced wood in the construction of rolling stock; the block signal system has added materially to both safety and speed in the movement of trains; and the Pullman car has made travel- ling almost as comfortable as a sojourn in a luxurious drawing- room. The engines have been enlarged and improved until now we have great giants capable at one and the same time of pulling tremendous loads and of maintaining a high rate of speed. A recent invention is the electric locomotive, which promises to effect even greater changes. There has also been a marked increase in car capacity and train load, thus reduc- ing freight charges. Government ownership, or stricter govern- EXPANSION OF EUROPE IN ASIA AND AFRICA 297 mental control, has gone hand in hand with the perfecting of railway mechanism and a better organization of railway traffic, increase Every country has increased its railroad mileage with each °^^^«*ge decade. The total European mileage increased from about 65,600 miles in 1870 to 195,000 miles in 1909. In 1880 there were only 584 miles of railroad in Africa; in 1909 there were 19,207 miles. The smallness of the earth and the ease with which it can now be girdled may be illustrated by a com- parison of the globe trotting record of a quarter century ago with that of 1913. In 1890 Miss Nelly Bly encircled the globe in 72 days; while in 1913 Joseph Mears made the journey in less than half the time. The importance of the railroad in the European War of 19 14 cannot be overestimated. To a greater degree than in any preceding struggle the fortunes of "war have hinged upon the possession of adequate railway facilities. The advance in marine transportation has been no less Ocean remarkable than the growth of the railroad and the extension ^^^^8^"°^ of roads. With the single exception of the ''Great Eastern," which made her maiden trip in i860, the largest ships of the period before 1880 were less than one half the size of the ocean Titans of today, and the rapid growth of steamship lines has amazed the sceptics who doubted the success of this method of transportation. Carlyle wrote, on the occasion of the launching of the "Great Western," which was the first steam vessel to cross the Atlantic entirely under its own steam (1838), "It was proved by calculus that steamers could never get across from the farthest point of Ireland to the nearest of Newfoundland; impelling force, resisting force, maximum here, minimum there, by law of nature, and geometric demonstration; — what could be done? The ' Great Western ' could weigh anchor from Bris- tol Port; that could be done. The Great Western bounding safely through the gullets of the Hudson, threw her cable out on the capstan of New York, and left our still moist paper demonstration to dry itself at leisure." Of the present trans- 298 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY atlantic steamship lines the oldest is the Cunard started in 1840. In the next two decades the Hamburg- American and North Ger- man Lloyd began to compete with the English firm. Today there are forty or more great steamship companies throughout the world, and the ships are larger, swifter, and safer than any- thing dreamed of by the pioneers in this enterprise. The Entrance to the Suez Canal at Port Said In 1 84 1 de Lesseps studied the isthmus and planned to interest the Khedive in the construction of this canal to connect the Mediterranean and Red Seas. The canal was begun in 1859 and completed in ten years at a cost of $100,000,000. The stock of this undertaking is now worth about $150,- 000,000, and it brings in over $5,000,000 annual revenue. Compare with these figures the following concerning our own Panama Canal. It was begun in 1904 and completed in 1915 at a cost of about $375,000,000. It is owned by the United States government, so there is no stock value, but the net earnings for the first ten and a half months were about $230,000. Ocean navigation has been greatly benefited by the opening of great ship canals. The Suez Canal, opened in 1869, connects the Mediterranean with the Red Sea and thus provides a shorter route from Europe to the Far East than the older route around the Cape of Good Hope. The Panama Canal unites the waters of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and its advantages are obvious. The Kaiser Wilhelm or Kiel Canal, between the Baltic and North Seas (completed in 1895), is of great strategic and EXPANSION OF EUROPE IN ASIA AND AFRICA 299 J Hi, INVOLUTION OF THE TELEPHONE EXCHANGE In these two pictures of the development of the telephone, one notes not only the greater complexity and systemization of the modern exchange, but also that women have taken the place of men as operators. commercial importance to Germany. With many other lesser water-ways they bind the world more closely together and are aiding in the extension of European civilization over the whole world. The operation and advancement of land and sea transporta- tion have been aided tremendously by the invention of the The Telegraph telephone, the telegraph, the marine telegraph or cable, and 300 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Wireless Telegraphy Cables Wireless Telephone Modern Business and the Desire for Markets especially of the wireless telegraph. While formerly the ocean held terrors for all seafarers, and the man embarking on a long voyage felt as if he were gambling with the elements, today he is almost as safe on shipboard as in his own home. All ocean liners carry wireless outfits, and if any accident peculiar to the sea happens to the ship as a result of storm, fire, icebergs, or collision with another vessel, S. O. S., the wireless call for help, will bring several ships to the rescue. The telegraph on land permits a speedier and safer operation of trains, the rapid transaction of business, and a prompt coordination of governmental activities in time of national need, such as war or other disasters. The cable, or submarine telegraph line, enables the transmission of messages carried by the electric current through an insulated cable under sea and ocean. In the fall of 191 5 wireless telephonic messages were transmitted from Arlington, Va., to the Pacific coast, and stray messages were picked up by operators in Hawaii. As one telephone expert says, the time may soon come when one can drop a coin in the slot of a telephone in New York City and talk with a friend on the Place de I'Gpera, Paris. Many, if not all, of these improvements have received a great impetus since 1870 from the rapidly expanding industry and commerce of the world. On the other hand, commerce and industry have in turn prompted the perfecting of these distance-defying devices of man. The modern organization of business favors in a peculiar manner the spread of western ideas throughout the world. Commerce and manufacturing are now conducted on a large scale, a circumstance which has relieved industry from most of its hazard, instability, and wastefulness, and has given to it greater certainty, regularity, and economy. As the output of these great industrial enterprises has increased, there has come the demand for more markets and for a greater supply of raw materials. The older centres of civilization having failed to satisfy these demands, the nations concerned have reached out EXPANSION OF EUROPE IN ASIA AND AFRICA 301 into the hitherto unexploited continents. Commerce could not be carried on with these distant fields were it not for the perfec- tion of banking and credit facilities, the further extension and use Banking and of which have been characteristic of the past half century. The Credit Faculties merchant of Liverpool, for example, trades with the merchant of Capetown, in Africa, and is paid by a draft on London. Such a relation may explain in part the desire of a nation to maintain its sway in a remote corner of the world, or at least to create conditions there which will facilitate rather than handicap its expanding trade relations. A greater sensitiveness of trade has, therefore, resulted. Conditions in Europe influence and are influenced by conditions in Africa, in Asia, or in South America. For this reason it has seemed to the European powers almost a matter of self-preservation to secure or to maintain dominion over the farthest corners of the globe. Thus the rivalry for commercial supremacy between nations like Great Britain and Germany has at times threatened to change the map of distant continents. The increase of population at home, which followed in the Over- wake of the industrial revolution, often led to economic distress. P^P^Jftio^ . . and Emigration The prospect of obtammg an easier livmg in the new trade col- onies, coupled with the desire for change and adventure, main- tained a more or less steady flow of emigration from Europe to distant lands across the seas. In some cases the mother country viewed with alarm this loss of her sturdy sons and sought some outlet for this surplus population where they might stifl remain under the same flag. These efforts may be iUustrated by the colonial activities of Germany and Italy. The spread of religious teaching has always accompanied Rise and colonial endeavor and in some cases actually preceded it. The Mi's^g^on^* *^^ Protestant and Catholic missionary movements, which had Movement their origin back in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, have had much to do with the interest of Europe in Asia and Africa in our day. The course of political events in those con- tinents has been greatly influenced by the work of missionaries, 302 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY who in many instances acted as explorers and as empire builders. Men like Robert Morrison, the pioneer Protestant missionary in China, have had no little influence upon the awakening of China. The name of David Livingstone, a Scotch missionary, will always be associated with the opening up of Africa. Medical missionaries also have been invaluable in the work of spreading European civihzation; and education and industrial training have gone hand in hand with religious teaching. 122. European Rivalries and the Growth of Imperialism. — It is only within the past half century that Europe has begun to place a high value upon colonial activity. The older ideal of na- tionahsm, which statesmen labored for centuries to set before the people as the goal of their highest endeavor, began about 1870 to be supplanted by a larger ideal, that of imperialism. In its earliest developments this showed itself in a greater sensitiveness to injuries or insults sustained by the citizens of a country. It was soon coupled, in the case of aggressive nationalities, with the ambition to get for themselves a larger "place in the sun"; to obtain control over as much of the earth's surface as possible; and to be the creators and administrators of a great far flung empire. This incentive for acquiring colonies became the stronger as it became clearer that no considerable transfers of territory were to be expected in Europe. A new force was now added to the various incentives which had heretofore prompted the formation of international alliances, the desire to obtain through united effort sufficient strength to hold together colonial empires in distant lands. In 1881 Italy was angered at the seizure by France of Tunis, the region of ancient Carthage and the hoped-for seat of future Italian colonial expansion. Already thousands of Italian colonists had begun the development of that portion of northern Africa. Accordingly, in 1882, Italy joined the alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary, which had been formed some years before to resist among other things Russian aggressions in the EXPANSION OF EUROPE IN ASIA AND AFRICA 303 Balkan states. The accession of Italy transformed a Dual Alliance already existing between Germany and Austria into the Triple Alliance, which lasted until 1915 (sec. 143). This alignment of the central European powers made necessary a new alliance to offset its influence. Signs of its coming were not lacking. In 1904 France and England came to an agreement concerning their hitherto conflicting interests in Africa. The following year, at a conference of the European powers at Algeg:iras in Spain, England disclosed her intention of support- ing France, if need be, against Germany. In 1907 a treaty between England and Russia rounded out a new triple league, which is called the Triple Entente — entente implying an under- The Triple standing rather than a definite promise of aid, as does the word ^"*®°*® alliance. The Great European War, however, saw this Entente promptly converted into an alliance in every sense of the word. In 1 9 14 Italy refused to join her Teutonic allies on the ground that her alliance with them demanded her aid only in event of their fighting a defensive war, whereas the present war was one of aggression, and 191 5 saw the end of the Triple Alliance. Italy formally joined the Entente and invaded Austria-Hungary. Although African and Asiatic interests were perhaps not entirely responsible for these combinations of powerful states, they have had no small part in creating them and in keeping them in existence. 123. The Nature and Origin of the Near Eastern Ques- tion. — The new and awakened interest in Asia and in Africa which marks the period since 1S70 was due, as has been shown, to a variety of causes. It early manifested itself in a series of suc- cessful efforts to reclaim a large part of Europe from the sway of an Asiatic people, who had long menaced its institutions and culture. These were the Turks, who had captured Constanti- Beginnings nople in 1453 and for the following two centuries had hovered £^^5^^°"°"^'^ like a black cloud over southeastern Europe. The selfishness and jealousies of so-called Christian nations had had much to do with the continued presence of the Turks upon European soil, 304 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY and even in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries they placed many an obstacle in the path of the solution of what came to be known as the Near Eastern Question. The European dominions of Turkey had reached their widest extent in the days of Louis XIV. With the opening of the eighteenth century, however, the Ottoman Empire began to shrink. A century ago the shrinking process began to proceed with greater rapidity, owing to the weakness of the Ottoman rulers and to the sense of nationality aroused in their European subjects by the stimulat- The ottoman ing influences of the French Revolution. In 1815, however, mpire in ^j^^ Turkish empire in Europe was still a fair-sized one. It in- cluded all the present territories of Greece, Bulgaria, Roumania, Serbia, Bosnia, Herzegovina, a part of Montenegro, and Albania. These lands were inhabited by various races, but the pre- The Race dominant race was that of the Slavs, among whom were to be found the Serbs, Bulgars,^ and Croats, cousins to the Russians and Poles. It was therefore natural for the Russian government to sympathize with the Serbs and other kindred folk in their desire for independence from the Moslem yoke. It also accorded with the traditional aim of the Tsars to get control of Constanti- nople, the original seat of authority of the head of the Greek Church, and to reestablish the Byzantine Empire under Russian Pansiavism control. Russian agents everywhere in the Sultan's dominions were early at work, urging their fellow Slavs to revolt from Turkish rule and to enter upon a movement to unite all the Slavs under one leadership. This movement in its later phases has been called Pansiavism. England's Although England was not the territorial neighbor of Turkey, Near^Easr ^ ^ ^^^ ^^^^ Commercial interests made the Balkan or Near Eastern question one of supreme interest. As early as the reign of Eliza- beth, the Company of Merchants of the Levant had begun to develop trade with the possessions of the Sultan in the ^Egean 1 Although Mongolian in origin, the admixture of Slavs and the fact that they have been subjected to Slavonic influences seem to justify their classification as a Slav people. EXPANSION OF EUROPE IN ASIA AND AFRICA 305 Sea and in Asia Minor. The settlement of the Near Eastern Question would materially affect these existing trade relations. When England secured a foothold in India there were addi- tional reasons for her interest in the Near East because of the trade routes which passed through the Turkish dominions. The Sultan of Turkey was also Caliph or religious head of all Mohammedans throughout the world, and a large part of the population of India had accepted the dogma that there was but one God and Mohammed was his Prophet. Austria, Austria's besides being h^rseh an empire with a large Slavic element, ^"t®^®^*^ had borne the brunt of the attack of the invading Turks since the fifteenth century and, now that the tide was receding, hoped to gain new territorities ; yet she was fearful of Russia's power to arouse the Slavs of her own dominions against her. France had been the traditional ally of Turkey since the day when by attacking Vienna, the Sultan had aided France in her war with Austria. France also regarded herself as the protector of the France's Roman Catholic subjects of the Sultan, just as Russia was the defender of Greek Catholicism. With such a conflict of interests beween the great powers of Europe, no one nation could at- tempt to solve the riddle of the Turk without fear of what the other nations might do. Very little headway was made in the solution of the Near Eastern question down to the close of the Franco-German War. Whatever results -were attained in the recovery of part of Christian Europe from the sway of the Infidel centre about the Greek War for Independence, the career of Mehemet Ali in Egypt, and the Crimean War. A beginning had thus been made in the solution of the Near Eastern problem. 124. The War for Greek Independence. — While Napoleon was riding to his fall in 18 14, a secret organization, known as the ''Friendly Society," was being organized by Greek patriots. This society had as its aim the liberation of the Greeks from Turkish rule. Under the leadership of Prince Alexander Ypsi- YpsUanti lanti, a member of the family of Greek governors placed over 3o6 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Revolution of 1821 The Greek Republic Byron Mehemet Ali Foreign Intervention Navarino the Roumanians by the Turkish government, the standard of revolt was raised in the Danubian provinces by a small army of young Greeks. Although this revolution speedily failed, the idea of revolution was not so easily banished from the minds of the Greek patriots. In the spring of 182 1 a universal uprising was launched against the Turkish garrisons, and by summer the whole country south of the Malian and Ambracian gulfs, except the stronger fortresses, was in the hands of the patriots. The work of organizing a provisional government went on slowly, but by the following spring a constitution had been adopted; Corinth had been chosen as the capital of the new state; and the blue and white flag had been raised over its citadel. A Turkish invasion was checked by the generals of the young republiK By 1823, however, so much friction had arisen between the various factions that it was evident that the Greeks would not endure the rule of one of their own countrymen. It was at this time that the great English poet Byron came to Greece to share in the work of liberation. Civil war arose between the factions, and in 1825 the Sultan summoned his vassal Mehemet Ah, the pasha or governor of Egypt, to help suppress the revolution. With the coming of Mehemet's son Ibrahim to the Morea, the district formerly known as the Peloponnesus, the second stage of the War for Independence began. The Turkish-Egyptian armies were uniformly successful, even the Acropolis of Athens falling again into Ottoman hands. In despair the Greeks looked to the great powers for support and elected as president Count Capo dTstria, a Greek statesman who had long been in the service of the Tsar. In July, 1827, Great Britain, Russia, and France signed in London a treaty, pledging immediate intervention on ■behalf of the Greeks. This was a direct blow at the aims and purposes of the Holy Alliance and was contrary to the wishes of Prince Metternich. The effects of this step were soon ap- parent. The Turkish and Egyptian fleets were nearly annihi- lated at the battle of Navarino; a French army drove the Turks out of the Morea; and in the north the Turks were defeated in EXPANSION OF EUROPE IN ASIA AND AFRICA 307 Boeotia and forced to withdraw. The War for Independence Establishment was ended. Capo d'Istria now attempted to rule Greece with °J Greece*^*^°™ a firm hand in order to prevent a repetition of the civil strife, but was assassinated because of his severity in handhng the situation. The powers then proposed Prince Otho of Bavaria as king of Greece, and in 1833 he began his reign. A Glimpse of Two Continents In this view, showing a part of the city of Constantinople, one sees both Europe and Asia and the narrow waters of the Bosphorus. 125. The Struggle between Turkey and Egypt. — Mehemet Ali of Egypt, to whom reference has already been made, was more interested in constructive reforms in his own country than in the reconquest of the Greeks. One of the ablest men of his day, he wished to extend the reforms which he had made in Egypt over all the Ottoman dominions. He sought to restore to the empire of the Turks some of its former prestige and power. When his efforts to carry out his plans were thwarted at Con- stantinople by jealous rivals, he began a war on his sovereign. In this war he had the moral support of France, for it was with Policy of Mehemet Ali 308 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Interference of Russia Humbling of Mehemet Ali Causes French assistance that most of his reforms had been introduced into Egypt. His successful armies swept over Asia Minor and even threatened Constantinople. This success did not accord with the plans of Europe for Turkey and when the Sultan appealed to Russia, a Russian army was landed to oppose Mehemet, who, however, compelled the Sultan to recognize him as ruler of Syria and adjacent territories as well as of Egypt. As the price of Russian aid, Turkey agreed to close the Dardanelles to the warships of all nations, thus placing in the hands of Russia peculiar opportunities for intervention in Turkish affairs. Six years later the Sultan reopened the war against Mehemet, but was again defeated. England, Austria, and Prussia intervened on behalf of the Sultan, attacked Mehemet Ali in Syria, and compelled him to submit. His Asiatic possessions were taken from him, but Egypt was given back as a hereditary province under nominal Turkish suzerainty.^ The allies entered into a treaty guaranteeing the integrity of the Turkish Empire, thus postponing the day when the fate of the Turkish Empire would be finally determined. 126. Russia and the Crimean War. ^ — Russia evidently looked upon this treaty as merely "a, scrap of paper," for within the next ten years the Tsar Nicholas I proposed to England the division of the Ottoman Empire. England was to receive Egypt and Crete, while he was to have most of Turkey in Eu- rope, including Constantinople.^ Upon the refusal of England to be a party to the plan, he sought another excuse for an attack on Turkey, namely, his championship of the Greek Catholics. Just at this time a quarrel had broken out between the Greek and Roman Catholics at the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem. Each demanded exclusive rights in performing religious services there 1 This suzerainty was ended in 1914 when Egypt became formally a British Protectorate (see page 321). 2 See sec. 112. 3 The Tsar remarked at this time to the British ambassador, referring to the condition of Turkey: ''We have on our hands a sick man — a very sick man; it will be a great misfortune if one of these days he should slip away from us, especially before all necessary arrangements were made.^' EXPANSION OF EUROPE IN ASIA AND AFRICA 309 and appealed to the Turkish government. On historic grounds, dating as far back as the Crusades, the Roman CathoHc rehgious orders had the weight of the argument in their favor. The Turkish government, however, in its anxiety not to offend either Napoleon III or Nicholas I, who stood behind the two churches, interpreted these rights in a different way to each of the states concerned. The negotiations were so handled by the British representative at Constantinople that the Tsar finally sent an ultimatum to the Turkish government, de- manding a Russian protectorate over the entire Greek Catholic Church. This was in effect a demand for as great a power over the internal affairs of the Turkish Empire as had ever been claimed by a Gregory VII or In*iocent III in mediaeval Europe, and neither Turkey nor the powers of Western Europe, whose protegee she had become, were willing to grant the de- mand. The Emperor Napoleon III of France, moreover, had a personal grievance against Russia in that the Tsar had not accorded full recognition to his assumption of the imperial title besides being the recognized protector of Roman Catholic in- terests in Palestine. The Tsar did not expect European intervention, however, and began a ''crusade" against Turkey. Diplomatic notes were exchanged between the great powers of Europe, all to no avail, and in the year 1854 Russia found herself confronted by an allied army of Turkey, Great Britain, France, and Sardinia. The allies invaded the Crimean Peninsula, in southern Russia, thus giving the war its name, and compelled the recall of the Russian troops from the Turkish frontier for the defence of Russia. During the conflict the warlike Nicholas I died and was suc- ceeded by the more liberal Alexander II (sec. 146). The Peace The Peace of Paris in i8s6 took from Russia the protectorate over the °^ ^^^^^ *°** the Near East- Danubian principalities, Wallachia and Moldavia, which were em Question afterwards united to form the principality of Roumania under Turkish suzerainty. Russia furtherrnore lost her right to keep a fleet on the Black Sea. This war had several important 310 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY The Macedonian Outrages Participation of the Balkan States Treaty of San Stefano The Congress of Berlin results. It placed the buffer state of Roumania between Rus- sia and Turkey; it won added recognition to the plea for inde- pendence made by the subject peoples of the Balkan peninsula; and besides proved an important factor in the movement for the liberation of Italy (sec. 113). 127. The Russo-Turkish War and the Congress of Berlin. — The next great upheaval in the Near East came with the Russo- Turkish War of 1877-78. All the preceding developments were insignificant in comparison with the consequences which fol- lowed in its train. The Tsar Alexander II did not relinquish the hope of his ancestors of gaining land at the expense of Turkey. During the Franco-German War he took advantage of the pre- occupation of Western Europe by reasserting Russia's right to maintain warships on the Black Sea. Soon after this event came the longed-for opportunity of reopening the Eastern Question. The cruelties practised upon the Christians of the lower Danubian valley by the Turks, with the intent of terroriz- ing them into submission, excited the horror of Europe, especially of Great Britain. Judging that the western powers would not repeat the Crimean War on behalf of a government which was outraging every humane principle, Russia declared war and invaded Turkey. The Roumanian prince, who chafed at the nominal suzerainty which Turkey exercised over his lands, threw in his lot with Russia; the fiery Slavs of Serbia and Mon- tenegro also arose in rebellion; and Greece was ready to enter the contest in order to share in the spoils. For a time it seemed as if the death-knell of Turkey in Europe had been sounded, but the fear that the Russians might create a great vassal Balkan state was again raising up defenders for Turkey. While this tide of opposition to Russian hopes was rising, a treaty was signed between Russia and Turkey at San Stefano which was wholly favorable to the former. (See map, page 313.) The Tsar had the cup to his lips, but the powers dashed it to earth by calling a general European Congress at Berlin for the summer of 1878. This was one of the most important steps EXPANSION OF EUROPF IN ASIA AND AFRICA 311 312 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY taken towards the solution of the Near Eastern Question in modern times. All the great powers were represented by their chief statesmen, prime ministers, foreign secretaries, and am- bassadors. Bismarck was chosen as President of the Congress. None of the small states most interested in the decisions of the conference were permitted to share in these decisions. In many- respects it was as reactionary as the Congress of Vienna, and at its doors, in no small measure, may be laid the responsibility for the European War of 1914. The great Turkish vassal state of Bulgaria, created by the Treaty of San Stefano, was cut to pieces. Bulgaria, which it was feared would be a satellite of Russia, was divided into two parts: that to the south to be known for a few years as Eastern Roumelia and to be under Turkish control; and another to the north, the Principality of Bulgaria, which was also to be dependent upon Turkey. Macedonia was restored to Turkey; Roumania, Serbia, and Montenegro were made independent states. Bosnia and Herzegovina were turned over to the administration of Austria, although nominally under Turkish control until 1908. Rou- mania was robbed of a northern province by Russia, and Bul- garia was shorn of her northeastern territory to compensate Roumania. 128. The Emergence of the Balkan States, 1878-1908. — For the next thirty years the history of the Balkan region is com- paratively uninteresting. It is marked by the gradual consoli- dation of the separate states and the gradual disappearance of Turkish control in many cases where the great powers had still Bulgaria bolstered up its shadowy dominion. The Congress of Berlin left the organization of the new government of Bulgaria to the Russians. They promptly produced a constitution which was apparently very democratic, but the ruler had as strong a check over the people as the people had over the ruler. Russia intended to retain control over the government. The framer of this constitution had not reckoned on one possibility which came to pass — namely, cooperation between people and ruler. EXPANSION OF EUROPE IN ASIA AND AFRICA 313 ^/ V ' X w x.iCi ^' BLACK S£ 314 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY StambuloS Serbia Roumanla Greece Prince Alexander of Battenberg, a nephew of the Tsar, was chosen ruler of Bulgaria and, six years later, of Eastern Rou- melia as well. Russia tried vainly to prevent him from assuming control of the latter, but the sympathy of England was for Alexander, and Russia acquiesced. Russian interference in Bulgaria was responsible in part for the abdication of Alexander in 1886, and in the following year Ferdinand, grandson of Louis Philippe, accepted the throne. Stephen Stambuloff, an inn- keeper's son who had risen to the position of prime minister, was the real ruler of the country until his dismissal in 1894. He was anti-Russian in his sympathies and was supported in this attitude by the people. His overthrow resulted in a closer union for the time being between the governments of Bulgaria and Russia, but Ferdinand's ambition to become the dominant Balkan ruler led him to continue the anti-Russian movement. Prince Milan of Serbia, who had assumed the title of king in 1882, felt the need of aggressive measures to make his dynasty popular. Accordingly he showed a resentment at the absorption of Roumelia by Alexander's principality, and in 1885 a short war followed between Serbia and Bulgaria, in which Serbia was defeated. Austria intervened and prevented Bulgaria from making any territorial gains, but the war gave her great prestige and insured to her the possession of Roumelia. Roumania was proclaimed a kingdom in 1881. Her govern- ment is a constitutional monarchy. While her principal industry is agriculture, she has in recent years developed manufacturing and commerce to a higher point than that reached by any of the other Balkan states. Otho ruled the Greeks for nearly thirty years (1833-62). The capital was transferred to Athens, the ancient wonder city of Hellas, and the little kingdom began a slow national develop- ment. Her boundaries were very unsatisfactory, as Thessaly with its Greek population was retained by Turkey. There were many internal troubles, legacies of the unsettled conditions under Turkish rule, brigandage had to be suppressed, and the country EXPANSION OF EUROPE IN ASIA AND AFRICA 315 was heavily in debt. At first the government was an absolute monarchy. In 1844 Otho granted the demand for a parliament, but the people were dissatisfied with his weak foreign policy as well as with his absolute tendencies, and in 1862 drove him from the throne. George I, a son of Christian IX of Denmark, suc- ceeded him. England ceded the Ionian Isles to Greece the following year (1864) and forced the Sultan in 1881 to cede Thessaly. In 1897 an in- surrection in Crete against Turkish rule gave Greece a pretext for war, but as she was poorly prepared and failed to get aid from the other Balkan states, she was de- feated. Crete, however, was temporarily given home rule under the governorship of Prince George of Greece, although nominally under Turkish rule and finally was annexed to Greece in 19 13. 129. The Turkish Revolu- tion and its Consequences. — In the summer of 1908 the Eastern Question reached a most acute stage. The Young Turks, a secret liberal party of progressive Turks who desired to inject new life into the Otto- man Empire and thought to attain this by moulding their gov- ernment upon constitutional lines like those of the great powers of Western Europe, conducted a swift and bloodless revolution in Constantinople. Having won over the army chiefs to their plans, they demanded from the Sultan, Abdul Hamid II, the res- toration of a constitution which had been granted in the crisis of 1876 but had never been put in operation. Emperor Francis The Graeco- Turkish War, 1897 TsAR Ferdinand of Bulgaria He threw in the lot of his country with the Teutonic allies in the Euro- pean War of 1914. He is a grandson of Louis Philippe and is immensely wealthy. He is also one of the shrewdest statesmen of the present time. Crete The Young Turks 3l6 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria- Hungary Independence of Bulgaria The Turkish Revolution Completed The Turco- Italian and Balkan Wars Joseph announced the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina to the empire of Austria-Hungary, a step which eventually had much to do with precipitating the European War of 1914, and almost at the same time Prince Ferdinand of Bulgaria pro- claimed the independence of Bulgaria from Turkish rule and took the title of Tsar. The people of Crete announced their union with Greece, and for a time it looked dangerously like a general European war. Germany and Austria-Hungary adopted a warlike attitude as they justified these breaches of the Treaty of Berlin. To add to the confusion, in April, 1909, the Turkish army broke into mutiny against the Young Turk movement, and several leaders lost their lives. But the Young Turks rallied, took Constantinople, deposed Abdul Hamid, and placed his brother Mohammed V on the throne. The new Sultan proved to be a puppet in the hands of the reforming party, which was exactly what they desired. The new government found its task a difficult one. It was one thing to set up a government and another thing to make this government satis- factory to all portions of the empire. Scarcely had several revolts been suppressed when Turkey was forced to confront a foreign enemy. A desire for conquest had seized hold of Italy, and her eyes were turned to the Turkish possession of Tripoli. War broke out in 191 1. Turkey was no match for Italy, and Tripoli became the Italian province of Libya. Before the treaty was signed ending the Libyan War, Turkey had entered upon a life and death struggle. The Balkan states had, strangely enough, succeeded in patching up their differences and had organized a league composed of Serbia, Greece, Montenegro, and Bulgaria. They now launched themselves upon the Turkish territories in Europe. The armies speedily crushed the Turkish defences and, when the powers intervened to prevent the capture of Constantinople, all that remained to Turkey was the Gallipoli peninsula and the narrow strip of land which stretches along the Sea of Marmora and the Bosphorus. The victors, however, quarrelled over the spoils, EXPANSION OF EUROPE IN ASIA AND AFRICA 317 and Serbia and Greece combined against Bulgaria, and in a War between theBa AUies brief campaign known as the Second Balkan War forced the t^®^^^^'*" latter to give them the lion's share of the territory gained from Turkey. This second war was to the advantage of Turkey, for Bulgaria was forced to leave in Turkish hands the important city of Adrianople, which she had won after a long and difficult siege in the first war. Turkey in Europe was, therefore, saved from complete annihilation, although reduced to a mere shadow of her former glory. Serbia and Greece were the chief gainers, but Bulgaria and Montenegro each gained territory. Because of the interference of the powers, a new state, called Albania, Albania was created out of the territory on the western coast and placed under the rule of a German prince. He was soon forced to flee, however, and the fate of the new principality still hangs in the balance.^ The Near Eastern Question has not yet been solved. The The Near European War of 19 14 has opened up new possibilities. The al- Qu^Jg^^ and liance of Turkey and Bulgaria with the central powers, the the European drive through Serbia in the autumn of 191 5, the participation ^^^^^9^^ of Roumania, in 191 6, and the military operations about the Persian Gulf and the Suez Canal, will all play their part in creating a new situation in the Near East. 130. The Opening Up of Africa by the Missionaries and Explorers. — It has already been pointed out how the prob- lems presented by the Near East involved from time to time the neighboring continent of Africa. While these events were transpiring in Asia Minor and in the Balkan region this vast domain was being apportioned among the powers of Western Europe. This partitioning process followed close upon the heels of the activities of the missionaries and explorers. Previous to the middle of the nineteenth century Africa was all but unknown and was rightfully named the "dark con- The "Dark tinent." Except for the work of France in Algeria between Continent" ^ For territorial arrangement of the Balkan States, see map opposite p. 398. 3i8 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY David Livingstone Henry M. Stanley Speke Baker Remnants of Older Colonial Empires in Africa 1830 and 1847 and the growth of British dominion in the Cape Colony, near the struggling young Boer republics of the Transvaal and the Orange Free State, the nations of Europe had shown but little interest in the development of Africa. To about the middle of the nineteenth century such efforts as had been put forth towards ascertaining the nature of the country and its resources had been confined to northern and northwestern Africa. The heart of the dark continent was laid open principally through the work of David Livingstone. Between 1840 and 1856 this prince of explorers opened up the region of the Zambesi and crossed Africa from ocean to ocean. His work as an explorer and missionary attracted the attention of Europe. On one of his expeditions the world was without news of him for so long that a searching party was sent out by the New York Herald under the leadership of Henry M. Stanley, a newspaper correspondent born in Wales. Livingstone died in 1873 in the very heart of the Dark Con- tinent and his body was taken home to England and buried in Britain's Hall of Fame, Westminster Abbey. Stanley re- turned to Africa to explore the Congo, and his journeys through "Darkest Africa" did much to change the map of the interior of the continent from blank spaces to rivers, lakes, and mountains. Meanwhile, a renewed interest in the sources of the Nile had led Speke, an English explorer, in 1858, to the discovery of the great lake just at the equator, which he named Victoria Nyanza, in honor of England's queen. A few years later another Englishman named Baker discovered another source in a second lake, which he named Albert Nyanza in honor of the Prince Consort. When the advance of Europe into Africa began, there were still some remnants of the colonial empires of the Portuguese, Spanish, and Dutch. These lay along the Eastern and Western coasts and in South Africa. But the two most energetic powers up to 1873 were France and England. France began her pro- tectorate over Tunis in 1881, and England her "occupation" of EXPANSION OF EUROPE IN ASIA AND AFRICA 319 Egypt the following year. A wild rush for territory followed. Between 1884 and 1890 Germany, Italy, and Belgium joined with the powers already possessing a foothold in a series of treaties setting forth their respective claims. One of the earliest and most interesting appropriations of The Formation territory during this period was the creation of the Congo Free Fre?\tate^° State. Livingstone had directed the attention of Europe to the horrors of the slave trade, as carried on by the Arabs in the region of the Congo and the Zambesi, and through his explo- rations had aroused an interest particularly in Equatorial Africa. It was his explorations rather than his campaign for humanity that attracted the attention, among others, of Leopold II, King of the Belgians, through whose efforts an International The Association was formed for the ostensible object of the explora- A°s^oTiation* tion and civilization of central Africa (1876), and Stanley was given an opportunity to prove his ability as a pro-consul in the Congo region. The International Association, however, fell largely under the influence of Leopold, and the activities of Belgium in the Congo prompted other nations to make claims in this region. Accordingly a conference of the great powers of Conference of Europe and the United States was held in Berlin in 1884. This marked an epoch in Europe's relations with the Dark Continent, as it was followed by other conferences and treaties which sought to delimit clearly each country's interest upon African soil. This particular conference established the Congo Free State, The Congo an independent state, occupying most of that river's basin, and it was ordered that all nations should have equal opportunities of trade within it. Leopold now unmasked himself, and it became evident that he had engineered the whole deal for his own personal profit. He allowed his agents to commit unspeak- The Congo able cruelties against the natives in order to terrify them into Atrocities bringing in great quantities of rubber and other African products for his own enrichment. In 1885 he notified the powers that he had assumed the sovereignty of the Congo State. Its union with Belgium was merely a personal one, both being under the same 320 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Withdrawal of France The Loss and Recovery of the Sudan sovereign. His autocratic rule and intolerable cruelties were so criticised by all the other nations that in 1908 the Belgian gov- ernment converted the Congo Free State into a Belgian colony, subject to the rule of the parliament. 131. England and France in Egypt. — Meanwhile England and France were extending their control over Egypt. The fifth ruler of Egypt in the family of Mehemet Ali was an ex- travagant man by the name of Ismail. During his reign the Suez Canal was constructed. This was only one of his many enterprises, some of which were of the most spendthrift char- acter. So lavish was he in his expenditures that the public debt of Egypt rose from $15,000,000 to nearly $450,000,000 within a little over a decade. In 1875 Great Britain acquired for a comparatively small sum the Khedive's^ shares in the Suez Canal Company, owing to his financial needs. Both France and England continued to make loans to the Egyptian government until they felt forced to institute a dual control over Egypt to safeguard these interests. Ismail resented this interference with his country, but was forced to abdicate in 1879 in favor of his son Tewfik, who proved more compliant with the wishes of Great Britain. But a spirit of ''Egypt for the Egyptians" seized possession of the Khedive's army. Under the leadership of Arabl Pasha, a revolt spread against foreign control, which soon got beyond the power of Tewfik to suppress. In order to preserve the financial interests of Europeans in Egypt, military intervention was necessary. At this juncture France refused to cooperate and England under- took the task alone. This act terminated France's active con- nection with Egypt. In a few months the revolt was suppressed and Arabi was exiled to Ceylon (1882). England now assumed the role of "adviser" to the Khedive, but quickly let him un- derstand that this meant that she was his guardian as well. This relationship brought with it a serious responsibility. There had arisen in the Sudan, a province long misruled by ^ The official title of the ruler of Egypt. EXPANSION OF EUROPE IN ASIA AND AFRICA 321 Egypt, a revolt half religious and half political. A leader called the Mahdi proclaimed a religious war against all foreigners as The Mahdi; well as against the Egyptian government. General Gordon, Q^^lTn^f who had shown great ability in dealing with half-civilized peoples in China, and as governor-general of the Sudan from 1872 to 1880, was sent by the British government to deal with the Mahdi, and was reappointed governor-general of the Sudan by the Khedive. He reached Khartum and was there besieged by the Mahdist forces. An expedition was sent out by the British government to rescue him, but it reached Khartum when it was too late, as the city had fallen into the hands of the Mahdi two days before, and Gordon had met his death in de- fending it against them. For ten years England abandoned the Sudan until 1896, when General Kitchener, as commander- in-chief of the Egyptian army, undertook to recover the prov- ince. Building a railroad as he marched southward in a slow but sure campaign, he completely subdued the dervishes, as the followers of the Mahdi were called, winning a decisive victory at Omdurman (1898). For this he received his title, Kitchener Kitchener of Khartum. The Sudan was held as a joint Egyptian and °^ ^^^uin British province. Since 1883 England, through her represent- atives, particularly Lord Cromer, has done much to build up Lord Cromer Egypt and to improve the condition of the lower classes, es- pecially the downtrodden fellaheen, as the peasants are called. When Turkey joined the side of the Teutonic nations in the European War of 1914, Great Britain deposed the reigning Khedive on the ground that he was too friendly with the Ottoman Empire and installed a relative of the deposed ruler as Sultan under a British protectorate. 132. France, Germany, and Italy in Africa. — France lost one The Extension colonial empire in the eighteenth century as a result of the poJe^'^'^^ Seven Years' War. This did not discourage her statesmen from in Africa attempting to conquer another. The reign of Louis Philippe saw the conquest of Algeria, one of the Barbary States, and at the Algeria opening of the century nominally a part of the Turkish Empire. Tunis 322 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Since the Franco-German War these efforts have been more pronounced. With a secure foothold in North Africa, she has endeavored to extend her territories to the east, west, and south. Although Tunis was desired by Italy, the influence of France was the stronger, and in 1881 a treaty with the ruler of that state Morocco Algiers Algiers, the capital of the French province in Africa of the same name, rises from the seashore up the sides of a precipitous hill in the form of an equilateral triangle. The streets are regular, spacious, and elegant, quite Parisian in appearance. The harbor is strongly fortified and can contain forty warships and three hundred trading vessels. It is the most impor- tant seaport on that part of the Mediterranean coast. brought it under French rule. The palmy days of the Roman empire seem to have come again to these portions of North Africa. Railroads have been promoted, harbors built, agri- culture encouraged, cities Europeanized, and everywhere evi- dences of prosperity and progress are apparent. Since 1904 France and Spain have divided Morocco, that portion lying opposite to Spain belonging to her sphere of influence. The EXPANSION OF EUROPE IN ASIA AND AFRICA 323 island of Madagascar off the eastern coast of Africa in the Indian Ocean, the fifth largest island in the world, was con- Madagascar quered by the French and annexed in 1896. This island, to which they had long laid claim, is larger in area than France herself and is rich in minerals and in tropical products. In western Africa France has large areas under her rule. Most of this territory has been secured since 1878 (see map opposite page 318). Senegal, part of the Guinea Coast, Dahomey, the Ivory coast, the Upper Niger Valley, and a region north of the Congo are subject to her. Through her control of the Saharan oases, which were secured by a series of conflicts with the na- tives, she has established her sovereignty in a region eight times the size of France. If she completes the projected trans- Saharan railroad, she will possess a key to the commerce of central Africa. By the occupation of Djibouti near the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb, France maintains an entrance to the Red Sea and safeguards her route to Madagascar and Indo- China. Two new members of the European family soon became itaiy and Ger- actively interested in the fate of African territory. Italy was ""^^^ ^"^ ^^"'* the first upon the scene. We have already noted how she con- quered Libya from Turkey in 191 2. Thirty years before this date she began operations upon the shores of the Red Sea and seized important ports. This caused hostile relations with the native state of Abyssinia, resulting in 1896 in the overwhelming defeat of a small Italian army. Italy has since confined her efforts in that part of Africa to building up her colony of Eritrea on the Red Sea and to estabhshing a protectorate over a part of eastern Africa called Somaliland. With many misgivings and much hesitation, Germany began her career as a ruler in Africa in 1884. By means of treaties with negro chiefs, and by forcible annexations with the consent of other European powers, Germany has acquired Togoland, Kamerun, and Southwest Africa on the west, and German East Africa on the east coast. These territories are rich in mineral wealth and 324 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Beginnings of English Influence The Boers Cecil Rhodes commercial possibilities. No story of the last quarter century of the history of Africa would be complete without mention of the work of individual Germans as geographical explorers and scientists. 133. The Extension of English Influence in South Africa. — England's empire in South Africa began with the seizure of Dutch possessions at the Cape of Good Hope during the Napole- onic Wars. At the Peace of Vienna her title to the colony was confirmed, and English- men straightway began to emi- grate thither. The new forms of government introduced by the English, the use of English as the sole legal language, and finally the abolition of slavery in 1833, all combined to irri- tate the Boers, the name given to the descendants of the origi- nal Dutch settlers. In 1836 they began to emigrate to the north, to Natal, the Orange River country, and the Trans- vaal or South African Republic. With the appearance of Cecil Rhodes, an Englishman who had amassed an enormous for- tune in the gold and diamond mines of South Africa, England began to extend her power. He was one of Great Britain's empire builders. He not only took steps to acquire new territory north of the Zambesi River but projected a transcontinental railroad from Capetown to Cairo to unite the British possessions in northern and southern Africa. He was successful in adding Rhodesia, but found his path northwards blocked by German acquisitions. His aim Cecil Rhodp:s Cecil John Rhodes was Prime Min- ister of Cape Colony 1890-94. He died in 1902 and left the bulk of his vast wealth for the puqaose of edu- cating at Oxford University young men of ability from every important British colony and from every state of the United States. EXPANSION OF EUROPE IN ASIA AND AFRICA 325 seems to have been to weld all these South African territories into a single state, including the Transvaal. Gold was discovered in the mountains of the Transvaal in 1886, and with this began a great influx of foreigners, especially of Englishmen. The Boers did not want these ''Uitlanders," The Boer War or foreigners, and began a systematic policy of discrimination against them. The Transvaal government required them to pay heavy taxes and oppressed them in other ways. In 1895, under the leadership of Dr. Jameson, the governor of Rhodesia, a raid Jameson's was made by the Uitlanders with the avowed intention of over- throwing the Boer government. The revolt was suppressed and the guilty men turned over to England for punishment. The fact that they received trivial sentences and that Cecil Rhodes, the arch-conspirator against the Boers, was shielded by the Eng- lish government, increased the irritation felt by the Boers. Finally Great Britain demanded nothing short of the right of citizenship for the Uitlanders. To this the Transvaal govern- ment would not accede, and war began in 1899. After three years of bitter warfare. Great Britain annexed the Boer republics. Annexation The work of reconstruction began immediately, and the Boer Republics British government adopted a singularly enlightened policy in regard to the Boers. In 1909 a new Dominion of the British Empire was created, known as the South African Union, con- south African sisting of the four colonies of Natal, Cape of Good Hope, Trans- ^°^°*^ vaal, and Orange Free State. The parliament consists of a Senate of 40 members and an Assembly of 130 members. The Governor-General is appointed by the crown. The British cabinet system is followed. Both Dutch and English are the official languages, and the high officers of the government are selected from the leaders of both peoples. North of this dominion stretches the territory of Rhodesia, which will ulti- mately form a part of the South African Union. For Suggestive Topics and Questions for Further Study, Collateral Reading, Source Studies, Suggestions for Map Work, Map References, and Bibliography, see close of Chapter XI, page 353. CHAPTER XI THE EXPANSION OF EUROPE IN ASIA AND AFRICA (Continued) The Far East and the European War of 1914 134. Origin of the Far Eastern Question. — The century- long contact between Asia and Europe, occasioned by the presence of the Turk in southeastern Europe, gave rise to the Near Eastern problem, which has taxed the patience and ener- gies of some of Europe's greatest statesmen and is stiU far from solution. Turkey in Asia, however, was but a mere out- post of a vast land mass, peopled with teeming millions of Orientals. It was not a continent shrouded in mystery and in darkness as was Africa, as one after the other the great trading nations of Europe — the Portuguese, Dutch, and Enghsh — had come in contact with its peoples and had brought back to Europe, with their rich jewels, spices and silks, some knowledge of the strange countries themselves and their civi- Hzations. Nevertheless, with the exception of the EngHsh occupation of India, down to the middle of the nineteenth cen- tury, the influence of the West upon the Far East had been Exclusive almost negligible. The great empire of China with its three Policy of the hundred milhons of inhabitants, the great "Middle Kingdom" as it was called by its people, occupying with its dependencies an area larger than that of Europe, was practically closed to European enterprise and promised to remain so indefinitely. The same was true of Japan, her next-door neighbor on the East. Korea, lying between the two, was long known as the Hermit Nation. East of Russia Eastward EXPANSION OF EUROPE IN ASIA AND AFRICA 327 The same influences, however, which opened Africa trans- formed these portions of Asia. As a result Europe now has a Far Eastern question to solve — a situation closely related to that in the Near East and in some of its characteristics merely a part of the same great problem. Of all the European nations, Russia is probably most responsible for this awakening of interest in the Far East, although our own country and Japan have figured prominently in the movement. The course of Russian history since the 13 th century has The Expansion been marked by steady and persistent additions of territory. Conquest, says a Chinese proverb, is like water. That which proceeds by flood overturns, passes, and disappears; that which progresses little by little filters in; it is slow and permanent; it penetrates and remains master. The latter is the character of the conquests of the Russians. Sometimes they seem to stop; but it is only to take breath; no obstacle prevents them from advancing. It was the Russian occupation of Siberia, which was practically completed by the founding of the port of Okhotsk on the Pacific in 1638, that eventually precipitated the rapid changes which mark the history of the Far East in our day. This was the work of the Cossacks who, acting largely on their own initiative, gradually extended the control of Russia over this vast expanse of territory. For the next two centuries, however, the Tsars paid little attention to this region, using it merely as a place of exile for political offenders. But when Russia was checked by the other powers of Europe in her designs upon Turkey, especially after the Crimean War, she began to direct her attention towards Siberia and the regions in Asia immediately to the east of the Caspian Sea. The advance of Russia into the great continent of Asia fol- lowed three Hnes or avenues: (i) that by Siberia; (2) that by Turkestan; and (3) by the route across the Caucasus toward Turkey and Persia. This last may be considered one of the routes to Constantinople. By this time it was evident that the valleys of the Dnieper 328 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Reasons for the Coloniza- tion of Siberia Expansion Southward The Conquest of Turkestan and the Don and the fertile steppes of southern Russia were no longer sufhcient to maintain the increasing peasant popula- tion. As the population of all Siberia in i860 numbered but three and a half millions, it offered a convenient outlet for this agricultural population. Unfortunately the northern por- tion, lying as it does under the Arctic circle, is a frozen tundra for a large part of the year and is therefore not available for cultivation. The emigration or colonization movement which now commenced and which had the support and encourage- ment of the government, soon placed large tracts in the south under cultivation and began to make of Siberia one of the great granaries of the world. The movement was most active about 1880. In the period from 1893 to 1900 over a million peasants were attracted into this region. This was largely the result of the building of the Trans-Siberian railroad, of which more will be said later. When the Russians began to realize the vast natural resources of Siberia, its furs, fish, lumber, and mineral wealth, including platinum, copper, and iron, the necessity became more pressing for a proper outlet for these products. As the harbors of Siberia are ice-locked for more than half of the year, it became necessary, if Russia was to develop any commerce, that the territorial Hmits of Siberia be extended southwards. This would mean expansion at the expense of China. While China was occupied with a dispute between England and France (1858-1860), Russia annexed the Chinese coast of the Sea of Okhotsk as far south as Manchuria and founded the city of Vladivostock C'Lord of the East") as a naval base. Meanwhile the nomadic tribes on the southern frontier of Siberia, living in what is known as Turkestan, were making raids upon the Russian settlers, and it became necessary to despatch mihtary expeditions against them. Step by step these campaigns brought this territory under Russian control until by 1895 Russia had occupied the plateau of Pamir and had almost touched the frontier of India. EXPANSION OF EUROPE IN ASIA AND AFRICA 329 The Far Eastern problem was rapidly taking shape. England England began to fear that Russia had designs on India, and it was this and'ortin fear that probably prompted her to declare her neutrality in the of Russophobia Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78. England had remained in The Relief of Lucknow: an Incident of the Sepoy Mutiny "Havelock's glorious Highlanders answer with conquering cheers, Sick from the hospital echo them, women and children come out, Blessing the wholesome white faces of Havelock's good fusileers, Saved by the valor of Havelock, saved by the blessing of Heaven! 'Hold it for fifteen days!' we have held it for eighty-seven." — Tennyson. peaceful possession of her Indian Empire for almost a cen- tury after the decisive conflict known as the Seven Years' War, when her control was threatened by the great Mutiny or TheSepoy Sepoy Rebellion of 1857-8. This was due to a variety of ^«^«"'°° 330 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY causes, not the least of which was the steady progress of annexation and the hatred of the Hindus towards their con- querors. The EngHsh administrators also displayed at times an excess of zeal in remodelling India upon western lines and in accordance with western ideals. The native soldiers or sepoys on the pretext that native customs, and especially their religious scruples, had been set at naught, suddenly rose in rebellion, murdered their English officers, seized some of the principal cities, including Delhi, and sought to extermi- nate all Europeans. Fortunately for England the mutiny did not spread to all parts of the empire, and English authority was finally restored after several hundreds of Europeans had been brutally massacred. English prestige, however, had suffered a severe blow. The dual administration of the country by the crown and the East India Company was now terminated. India became a crown colony, thereby passing under the direct authority of England.^ It was not long after this event that Russia began to loom up on the north as a possible contestant for the rich plains of the Indus and the Ganges. Beginning with about 1890, the goal of Russian ambition began to He farther East. Hand in hand with her expansion movement had gone an effort to consolidate her possessions. Three great lines of railroads were projected to this end: the Trans-Caspian; the Trans-Caucasus; and the Trans-Siberian. The first of these, opened in 1888, connects Usun Ada on the Caspian Sea with Samarcand and Tashkent, the capital of Turkestan. The Trans-Caucasus connects Baku on the Caspian Sea with Poti on the Black Sea. A steamer line crosses the Caspian from Usan Ada to Baku, thus linking together the Trans-Caucasus with the Trans-Caspian. These systems have also been linked with that greatest of all recent railway undertakings, the Trans-Siberian Railway, which was begun in 1891 and formally opened in 1902 at a cost of 1 In 1876 India was declared an Empire, and the following year Queen Victoria assumed the title of Empress of India. EXPANSION OF EUROPE IN ASIA AND AFRICA 331 $360,000,000. It is over 3000 miles long and connects Petro- grad with the Pacific. It was the question of a Pacific ter- minal for this road that precipitated in the Far East a crisis of such a nature as to attract the attention of all Europe and to result in an entire shifting of power there. This was in part the result of the appearance on the scene of the island empire of Japan. 135. The Awakening of Japan. — Before the twelfth cen- tury Japan was under the personal rule of the emperor, or Mikado. The existence of a strong feudal system, however, gradually under- mined the power of the Mi- kado, and his duties began to devolve upon the com- mander-in-chief of the feu- dal barons, who was known as the Shogun. By the sev- enteenth century, the title of Shogun had become he- reditary and his power overshadowed that of the Mikado. The situation may be compared to the re- lation which existed between the kings of the Franks and the mayors of the palace in the early Middle Ages. For the next two hundred years the Mikado was the religious and the Shogun the temporal head of the nation. The national policy was one of strict isolation. Foreigners could not enter the country, nor could the Japanese leave it. Except for a little trade with the Dutch, foreign goods were pro- hibited. The United States forced the abandonment of this A Japanese Feudal Castle In Nagoya, a city ninety miles north- east of Kyoto, stands this magnificent feudal castle which was built in 16 10. Except for the moat and the fortified wall, it has little in common with the feudal castles of Europe, and is of typi- cally Japanese construction. The inte- rior is beautifully decorated. Shogunate 332 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Opening poHcy by sending Commodore Perry in 1853 with an American by Commodore squadron to demand an entry for our ships into Japanese Perry harbors. ReaHzing that swords and armor were no match for the American cannon, the Shogun signed a treaty with Perry, opening two ports to American ships. Similar de- mands were made by some of the European powers and were granted, but the action of the Shogun was resented by many of the leaders in Japan, and a movement was set on foot for his overthrow. The Revolution j^ 1866 the death of the Shogun, which was followed the year apan ^^^^^ ^^ ^^^ death of the Mikado, brought about conditions favorable to revolution. A conflict followed between the Mikado and the Shogun, and in 1868 the last Shogun resigned his power to the young Mikado, and the era of ''enlightened rule" began. This act heralded one of the most astonishing transformations in history. Within the next third of a century Japan changed from a mediaeval monarchy to one of the most progressive of twentieth century states. The nobles voluntarily gave up their feudal rights; the army and navy were reorganized after Ger- man models; a modern educational system was introduced; and in 1890 a constitutional government went into effect by the free grant of the Mikado. The legislative branch of the govern- ment is in the hands of a House of Peers and a House of Com- mons. The Japanese now began to draw upon the whole world for the most up-to-date and scientific methods of doing things. Quick to learn, they in many cases improved upon their western teachers. The Industrial Revolution was soon in full swing, bringing with it the same problems which were troubling the West. Japanese and With the new era of enlightenment came an awakened ests in Korea" interest in the mainland, especially in the peninsula of Korea. The Japanese had long laid claim to Korea, as they be- lieved that it had been conquered by them in prehistoric times. These claims were contested by China whose em- peror had long asserted his authority over the king of Korea. EXPANSION OF EUROPE IN ASIA AND AFRICA 333 This anomalous position of Korea as the tributary of both Japan and China, combined with misgovernment, had resulted in many a clash between the rival states. Korea was like a dagger pointed at the heart of Japan, if held by any hostile nation, and as the surplus population of the island empire demanded some outlet, the Japanese began to look upon Korea and the adjacent territory of Manchuria as legitimate fields The Great Wall of China The Great Wall of China was erected two centuries before Christ to protect China from the inroads of the Tartar tribes to the north, Toda}^ it stands in almost perfect preservation, while the Wall of Hadrian has almost crumbled to pieces except in a few spots. It winds along for fifteen hundred miles, and is constructed of two strong retaining walls of brick, rising from granite foundations, the space between being filled with stones and earth. It is about twenty-five feet in breadth and the height varies from fifteen to thirty feet. for Japanese enterprise. Korea and Manchuria now became a bone of contention between two great Oriental empires, the one Westernized and aggressive, the other dormant and inert; for in the same period which had witnessed the emergence of Japan as a powerful nation, the closed doors of China also were forced open, but with far different results. 136. China and Its Civilization. — Occupying a region larger than the United States, with Alaska and Great Britain thrown 334 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY in, the Chinese Empire is a land of navigable rivers, rich agri- cultural districts, and wonderfully abundant mineral resources, which are as yet almost untouched. It has been estimated that one province could supply the world with coal for a thousand years. Long before the people of Europe knew of the compass, gun powder, printing, paper, porcelain, tea, glue, and gelatine, these necessities of our civilization were in constant use in the "Middle Kingdom." Roads and canals equal to the best work of modern engineers have been in existence there for many hundreds of years. The high state of civilization of the Chinese is shown by their development of peaceful occupations and by their contempt for war. Confucius, their greatest national hero, was not a soldier, but a teacher and a philosopher. He taught them to worship their ancestors and to hold sacred the cus- toms and habits of the generations that had gone before. So faithfully have these teachings been observed that they have prevented new ideas from being introduced and have given to the Chinese character its conservative and frequently unpro- gressive mould. New ideas, especially those of the outside world, were undesired by the Chinese. They regarded all foreigners as no more than enlightened barbarians. For this reason China maintained almost no relations with Europe until the nineteenth century; sent no ambassadors, and received none; and opened only one port. Canton, to western traders, and then under the most discouraging conditions. This selfish policy of national isolation began to break down in the third decade of the nineteenth century. The deciding factor was one wholly to the discredit of European civihzation. The government of China, wishing to root out the opium habit from among its people, forbade the importation of the drug, which is prepared from a species of poppy which grows in India. But for thirty years a smuggHng trade was carried on by Euro- peans, and grafting Chinese officials conveniently closed their eyes to the traffic. By 1837 the profits of the trade to the producers of the drug in British India were enormous. Then the EXPANSION OF EUROPE IN ASIA AND AFRICA 335 Chinese government decided to enforce the law against the importation of opium and seized and destroyed thousands of chests of the drug at Canton. Some of the government's acts seemed to the British to be a reflection upon their national honor, and they therefore went to war with China (1840) and were easily victorious. By the Treaty of Nanking (1842), China Treaty was compelled: (i) to pay a large indemnity, partly as compen- °^ i^a^i^ig sation for the opium confiscated; (2) to open five ports to Eng- lish trade, namely, Amoy, Foochow, Shanghai, Canton, and Ningpo; and (3) to cede to Great Britain the island of Hong Kong. Some years later the English again came into collision with the Chinese at Canton. France, enraged at the murder of a French missionary by the Chinese, joined with England in intervention. A joint force penetrated even to the capital, and Treaties by the Treaties of Tientsin and the convention of Pekin °' Tientsin (i860) China was forced to receive ambassadors from the intervening countries, to open additional ports to both, and to pay further indemnities. From this time forward China began to b^ permeated with influence European influences. This came about in two ways: by the °^ ^"cwl direct introduction of Europeans, and by Chinese emigration. Consuls took up their residence at the open ports, and powerful banking and trading houses were founded. Steamship service was established and later railways constructed. Meanwhile China was obliged to call for European assistance to quell the Taiping rebellion. The results of this rebellion were that the management of the custom house at Shanghai was intrusted to an Englishman, and the direction of the arsenal of Foochow to a French officer of marine. The Chinese now began to leave their land in great numbers, but it was always their ambition and desire that their bones should be brought back to their native land for burial. The old Portuguese port of Macao acquired a new importance through its traffic in the living and the dead. About 1859 France began to penetrate China from the The French southeast through the region known as Indo-China, a sort of *^ i^do-China 336 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY halfway station between India and the Chinese Empire. The French first secured a foothold in this peninsula through the efforts of Napoleon III, occupying Cochin China and exer- cising a protectorate over Cambodia. After the Franco-German War, by a series of campaigns, they secured Tonkin and placed Annam under a French protectorate. By these possessions they had control of a natural gateway into the province of Yunnan and had thrust a wedge between England's possessions in India and Burma and her foothold at Hong Kong. 137. Chino- Japanese War, 1894-95, and its Effects. — In spite of this contact with civilizations so clearly superior to her own, in the main China still pursued the even tenor of her way and remained as Oriental and as unprogressive as she had been for centuries. This was the situation in the Far East Causes whcn Japan and China finally came to blows over Korea. During the quarter of a century which elapsed between 1870 and the outbreak of this struggle, the greatest figure in China Li Hung Chang was Li Hung Chang. He was one of the few leaders who seemed to realize the advantages of European civilization and the necessity on the part of China of adopting the same modern methods of defence as were used in the West. He had risen by successive steps to the position of governor of the province in which was located the capital city of Pekin. This office brought him in direct contact with the throne, and in his hands were vested the relations with the outside world. He was a wily, shrewd diplomat, and had his hands been entirely free, China might have faced the crisis of the war with Japan with brighter prospects of success, for he had succeeded in partially remodelling the army on western lines and in laying the foundations for a navy. The conditions which precipitated the Chino- Japanese War of 1894-5 were somewhat analogous to those which occasioned the break between Prussia and Austria in 1866. The conflict of authority in Korea may be compared to the conflicting interests of Austria and Prussia in Schleswig-Holstein. The EXPANSION OF EUROPE IN ASIA AND AFRICA 337 anarchic conditions which prevailed in Korea seemed to call for vigorous repressive measures. Japan therefore proposed to China joint intervention, but China refused. It was a ques- tion whether this proposal was made in good faith, as Japan possessed at the time a party favorable to war. When the break came China reaHzed her helplessness before a Westernized power. She was driven from the peninsula and defeated in Manchuria as disastrously as the Austrians were in their war with Prussia. Li Hung Chang was made the scapegoat for this failure by his government, but his ability was so far recog- nized that at its close he was intrusted with the peace nego- tiations. By the Peace of Shimonoseki (1895), China ceded Peace of to Japan the Liao-tung peninsula, including the important fortress of Port Arthur, and the island of Formosa; recog- nized the independence of Korea; and agreed to pay nearly $175,000,000 war indemnity to her conqueror. At this juncture Russia, backed by England and Germany, Foreign brought pressure to bear upon Japan, "in the cause of peace," ^^chi^a"^ to give up the Liao-tung peninsula, for they held that its pos- session by Japan was a perpetual menace to China's territorial integrity. The explanation of this act soon appeared in the schemes of Russia to secure a satisfactory terminal for her great transcontinental line. She, too, had her eyes fixed longingly upon Port Arthur and hoped to dominate the neighboring province of Manchuria. Japan was in no condition to go to war with Europe ; so she restored the peninsula and Port Arthur to China. This act signalized a new era in the Far East. Japan realized that she must face one or more of the great European powers in a life and death struggle for supremacy in a region which seems to her ever increasingly necessary to her contin- uance as a nation. Accordingly she began to build a strong navy which would be her right arm when that struggle should come. The hollowness of the pretensions of the three great European powers soon appeared when Russia used the build- ing of the Eastern Chinese railroad, a section of the Trans- 338 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Siberian system, as an excuse for filling Manchuria with her soldiers and in 1898 obtained a twenty-five-year lease of Port Arthur from China. Her partners in the events of 1895 were not far behind her in securing for themselves advantages in the Far East. The murder of two German missionaries in the province of Shantung furnished occasion for a German protest to the Chinese government. A fleet was despatched, and the slow action of the Chinese government in investigating the out- rage enabled Germany to demand the lease of the harbor of Kiao-chao and a practical monopoly of railroad and mining privileges in the province of Shantung. The Chinese govern- ment was forced to yield, and thus Germany obtained a "sphere of influence" in that part of China. Great Britain, not to be outdone by her neighbors, demanded and obtained the lease of the port of Wei-hai-Wei on the Yellow Sea. France also demanded and obtained a port in China. It seemed in 1898 that China was to experience the same treatment that the European powers had inflicted on Africa. But an internal revolution in China brought this movement to a sudden termination. A few of the more far-sighted Chinese had been profoundly impressed by the impotence shown by China in the face of European aggression, and they had succeeded in winning over the young emperor in an effort to do for China what had been done for Japan. The attempt failed, for a new force and a new figure appeared upon the scene. Just as the Carbonari in Italy and the Jacobins in France profoundly influenced the course of events in their respective countries, so an organization of Chinese known as the Boxers played a similar role in China. They were actuated by the policv of "China for the Chinese" and bitterly opposed all foreign ideas. This was the new force. The new personality was the Dowager Empress Tsu-hsi. By a coup d'etat she brushed aside the young Emperor and assumed control of the situation. She undoubtedly sympathized with EXPANSION OF EUROPE IN ASIA AND AFRICA 339 the patriotic movement represented by the Boxers, and en- couraged their anti-foreign propaganda. The reactionary, ori- entahzing party for the time being had the upper hand. The Boxers adopted as their watchword, ''Drive the foreign devils into the sea," and in 1900 the storm burst with the murder of scores of European missionaries and hundreds of native Chinese Christians. The German ambassador was assassinated in the streets of Pekin and the other foreign ministers were besieged in their legations. These events created a profound impression throughout the entire West, and the European powers concerned called for immediate action. With Japan and the United States, they arranged for a relief expedition, which rescued the foreigners in The Relief Pekin, suppressed the Boxer revolt, and demanded an excessive ^^p^^^'^^o'^ indemnity for the destruction of the lives and property of all the intervening powers. The United States, after paying all legal claims for damages sustained by its citizens, returned the unused portion of its share of the indemnity to China, thereby cement- ing new ties of friendship with the Chinese people.^ At the close of the war the powers involved renounced all thought of dismembering China and formally guaranteed its terri- torial integrity. 138. The Conflict between Russia and Japan. — Events The "Open- now moved swiftly towards a clash between Russia and Japan. ^°°'^" ^°'*<=y Russia's attitude alone belied the agreement which the powers had made to maintain the "open-door" policy and to ' abandon the idea of territorial acquisitions. Japan became suspicious of her activities in Manchuria. In 1902 having Alliance concluded a treaty of alliance with Great Britain, Japan felt and^Grea/*^^ ready to demand from Russia a withdrawal from Manchuria. Britain After months of evasion on the part of Russia, which Japan believed were being used to strengthen the position of the latter power in that province, the island empire suddenly ^ This balance is being used by the Chinese government to send students to the United States to be educated. 340 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Siege of Port Arthur Mukden Treaty of Portsmouth broke off diplomatic relations and began hostilities. Early in February, 1904, the Russian fleet was destroyed in the har- bor of Port Arthur, and that Rus- sian fortress was besieged. Port Arthur finally surrendered, and the Japanese army pressed on to de- stroy the Russian army at Mukden early in 1905. This gave the Japa- nese command over the southern section of the Trans-Siberian sys- tem. Meanwhile, in August, 1904, the Vladivostok and Port Arthur fleets had been eliminated. In May, 1905, the Japanese fleet an- nihilated a Russian fleet in the Straits of Tsushima, thus giving Japan the mastery of the seas. On the initiative of President Roose- velt, representatives of the two bel- ligerents met at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, and negotiated a treaty of peace. Russia agreed to evacu- ate Manchuria and gave her lease of Port Arthur and the Liao-Tung Peninsula to Japan. She also ceded the southern half of the island of Saghalin, north of the Japanese archipelago. Korea was to be sub- ject to Japanese influence. In 19 10 Japan annexed that state, and it is now known as the Japanese province of Chosen. Japan had now disposed of her greatest rival and had attained the position of arbiter of events in the Far East. This marked a real epoch in the history of the The Old Japanese Soldier The contrast between this equipment of a Japanese soldier of the period before the Revolu- tion in Japan and the modern uniform of Japan, shown on the opposite page, is striking. The general effect of the armor of the Japanese is startling, and it was designed to terrify the enemy. EXPANSION OF EUROPE IN ASIA AND AFRICA 341 the Far East Chinese Revo- lution, 191 1 Far Eastern Question. Japan's victory over a great European Effects upon nation was an inspiration to the reform movement in China. After the suppression of the Boxer revolt in 1900, the Chinese government at first seemed favorable to reform measures. Steps were taken towards inaugurating a constitu- tional government, but the crafty empress dowager, Tsu-hsi, sought to keep the power well within her own hands. The cause of reform seemed threatened, but the move- ment had gone too far to be sup- pressed. Revolts broke out in various parts of the empire, the dynasty of the Manchus was de- posed, and a provisional govern- ment was established. A republic was set up, and a constitution pre- pared which was in some respects modelled after that of the United States. Dr. Sun Yat Sen, a well- educated physician, was the heart and soul of the reform movement, and to him was intrusted the des- tinies of the new China. His ad- ministration was short-lived, and Yuan Shi Kai, a former minister of the Manchu dynasty, was next chosen president. 139. Japan as a Great Power. — Early in the European War of 1914, it became evident that Japan was to play a still more prominent role in Far Eastern history. As (jC) Underwood o° Underwood, X . Y. Oyama Field Marshal Oyama re- ceived his miUtary training with the German army during the Franco-German War. He was commander-in-chief of the second Japanese army corps in the war with China, and took Port Arthur and Wei-hai-wei. During the war with Russia, he was commander-in-chief in Manchuria. This picture shows him standing in front of his head-quarters at Mukden. 342 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Japan in the European War of 1914 Kiao-chao Japanese Demands on China the ally of Great Britain, she formally entered the war against the Teutonic allies and began a siege of Kiao-chao, the German port on the Yellow Sea. The German garrison defended it bravely, but were forced to surrender before overwhelming numbers. When Japan took possession, she announced that she intended ultimately to re- store the port to China. Japa- nese squadrons also scoured the Pacific and seized various Ger- man island colonies. The Japanese, recognizing perhaps the opportunity which was theirs of still further strengthening their position in the East, early in 191 5 made definite demands upon China, which, had they been granted, would have virtually debarred Europe from the country and have made it a Japanese de- pendency. China was to transfer to her certain railroad and commercial privileges in South Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia; the railroads were to be exclusively under Japanese control for ninety-nine years; and no other countries were to be allowed to build or finance railroads there without the consent of Japan. A joint force of Japanese and Chinese were to police important places in China. China was to obtain from Japan a certain quantity of arms, and the Chinese gov- ernment was to engage influential Japanese as advisors for ad- ministrative, financial, and military affairs. China was to recognize Japanese predominance in . those portions of China conquered from the Germans, and finally, China was to agree not to make any further lease of any part of China to the Euro- YuAN Shi K ai Successively Prime Minister, Presi- dent, Emperor and President of China. For over five years, until his death in 19 16, the fate of the Dragon monarchy-republic hinged upon this mihtant and wily statesman. EXPANSION OF EUROPE IN ASIA AND AFRICA 343 pean powers without the consent of Japan. This in effect was to establish in China a condition of affairs similar to that created in South and Central America by the Monroe Doctrine. At first China was disposed to appeal to the western nations to compel Japan to recede from her aggressive demands. But Europe was at war, and the United States felt that the whole question was one in which she was not directly concerned, provided her com- mercial and similar interests were guaranteed. The land- ing of Japanese troops at the port of Tientsin in China forced China to yield on many of the points demanded. Japan's purpose is evidently to dominate Eastern Asia, either by conquest, or by estab- lishing ^ definite Japanese over- lordship over China, or by a confederation of Asiatic states, with Japan as the leader, or, at least, by the application of the principle of the Monroe Doctrine in relation to her af- fairs with China. As one au- thority has said, ''It is a fact surely worthy of special note that wherever Japan sets her foot — no matter how she may have placed it there and no matter what promises she may have given regarding evacuation — there she remains for good." It will be well, on the other hand, to hear the view of Count Okuma, Ex-Premier of Japan: "Japan now has continental possessions, and it is felt that China is powerless herself to Sun Yat Sen Dr. Sun has perhaps not been en- tirely eliminated from power in Chinese affairs, although he resigned the provisional presidency. In 19 16 a formidable revolution broke out in the southern provinces of China, where the influence of Dr. Sun is very great. Chinese Concessions 344 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY The Far East maintain the integrity of her territory — a weakness which in 1916 brings the influence of the powers to operate in China. . . . Japan is now a continental as well as an insular country, and requires a strong navy to insure connection between the differ- ent parts of the Empire as well as a defensive army." Japan is, TOKIO The only touch of old Japan in this view of a street in Tokio, the capital, is the jinrikisha, or wheeled chair. The swiftness of the transformation of Japan from the middle ages to modern times is here well illustrated. perhaps, prepared for a struggle for mastery not only in Shan- tung, which she gained from the Germans, not only in the Manchurian Province, which she gained from the Russians, but also in China itself. China has keenly realized her power- lessness to thwart Japanese designs and before the death of Yuan Shi Kai, in 1916, there was a movement on foot to transform the republic into a constitutional monarchy. 140. The Great Colonial Powers of the Present Day. — This expansion movement has not been carried to its present point of development without bitter rivalries and jealousies. Those who have benefited primarily by it are Great Britain, Russia, France, EXPANSION OF EUROPE IN ASIA AND AFRICA 345 Japan, Germany, and the United States. These are the great colonial powers of today. Next to them are the smaller states of Italy, The Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Denmark, and Belgium. The fields represented by the colonial interests of these nations have already been pointed out. The forms and methods by which they have gained and now maintain their control are either economic or political. The methods employed to obtain Methods of economic control have been varied. The would-be colonial ^°°*^°^= Economic power loans vast sums of money to semi-civiUzed governments, as was the case of Egypt, and upon their failure to pay their debts seizes control over their national finances, which inevit- ably leads to the second form of control — pohtical domination. Another method is by the building and control of great pubhc works, such as railroads, in the coveted region. Inevitably this calls for a policing of the railroads by the soldiers of the colonizing power, as in Manchuria, and It is then but a short step to empire. Just as varied have been the methods of pohtical control. First Pouticai there is the dependency, where pro-consuls or military governors rule with more or less absolute authority. This system Great Britain employs in India, although nominally ruHng the sup- posedly seK-governing native states as a protector. This last- named relationship suggests a second method of control — the protectorate. Here the control is more shadowy. The protecting state watches over the foreign relations of the vassal state and affords it a varying degree of freedom in its internal affairs. A third method is by the self-governing colony. Great Britain has been remarkably successful with this method, as is shown in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and South Africa. These countries are to all intents and purposes republics. They have their own parliaments, elected by popular vote. At the head of the government is a responsible ministry modelled upon the British cabinet. The sole connection between the colony and the mother country is the governor-general sent from England. He acts as the representative of the British government in the colony and, with his vice-regal powers, HONG-KONG AND WEI-HAI-WEI TERRITORIAL POSSESSIONS OF GREAT BRITAIN, 1914 Note:- This and the following maps of territorial possessions are drawn to the same scale lor purposes of comparison. FRENCH NORTHWEST AFRICA FRANCE FRENCH GUIANA FRENCH INDO-CHINA FRENCH SOMALILAND TERRITORIAL POSSESSIONS OF FRANCE, 1914 GERMAN S.W. AFRICA ' tKIAO-CHAU TOGO LAND GERMANY i CAMEROONS !^ GERMAN EAST AFRICA M KAISERWILHELM W^^^^J ^^L LAND i^^^B* TERRITORIAL POSSESSIONS OF GERMANY. 1914 L.L.PO«TES I PORTUGUESE AMr-rM A EAST AFRICA ANGOLA PORTUGAL MADEIRA i °<" • AZO«ES CAPE VERDE TERRITORIAL POSSESSIONS OF PORTUGAL, 1914 DUTCH EAST INDIES DUTCH GUIANA HOLLAND TERRITORIAL POSSESSIONS OF HOLLAND, 1914 UNITED STATES J^^^^^^^^^^^^^ //J^ PHILIPPINE IS. h /% SAMOA PORTO RICO HAWAIIAN I TERRITORIAL POSSESSIONS OF THE UNITED STATES, 1914 EXPANSION OF EUROPE IN ASIA AND AFRICA 349 delights the imagination of the royalty-loving Briton, however little he really interferes with the actual colonial administration. Imperial federation is an outgrowth of this form of control. First in Canada, then in Australia, and finally in South Africa, federative systems of government have been introduced, binding the separate colonies in each of these localities the more closely together and making for a larger measure of self-government. The English have been especially successful in the promotion The English of great industrial works, such as factories, railroads, and mining ^ Colonial ventures in their colonial possessions. In the development of trade in the commercial wares of her colonies and in the exchange of articles manufactured in Europe, the English are rivalled by no other people save the Germans. The latter have The Germans also proven successful as agricultural colonists, especially in ^^ Coiomzers America. They are willing to settle in a wilderness in the hope of making it blossom like the rose; and their willingness to endure hardships and hard work is an important feature of their colonial efforts. Although the French lack this quaUty The French and have not been as successful as true colonizers, they have ^°^°^^^ ' -^ System proven themselves great colonial administrators and have added considerably to the wealth of their colonies. The Dutch are Dutch Policy very successful in winning the loyalty of their subject colonies by a policy of avoiding friction with native customs and institutions. 141. The Influence of Expansion upon the European Situa- tion and the European War of 1914. — The principle of impe- riahsm has for several decades exercised a marked influence upon international relations, and this influence will undoubtedly con- tinue into the future. As Russia reached out toward the Pacific, she came in conflict with the expansionist programme of Japan, with a far-reaching train of consequences whose end no one can prophesy. Great Britain and Russia may come some day to blows over the control of central Asia. France and Great Britain were perilously near war over their interests in The Fashoda Africa, when at Fashoda the French attempted to prevent ^°<=*^®^* 350 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Great Britain from reaping the reward of her victory over the Mahdists in 1898. In 1906 Germany attempted to drive France out of Morocco and desisted only because of the The Aigefiras firm Stand of England and the other powers in the Algegiras conference. The United States has a keen interest in the maintenance of the Open-door in China and in wielding a para- mount influence in South America. The causes of the present war in large part are to be found in this rivalry for world domin- ion, this struggle for the Near East, for the mastery of the Pacific, and for the world's commerce. Pansiavism The Russiau plan of territorial extension southward to the Dardanelles, by uniting under her influence the people of the Balkan peninsula, long menaced the world's peace. England was one of the chief antagonists of Russia in this diplomatic contest; but in recent years German influence has been supreme in Constantinople. For centuries Austria has dreamed of the acquisition of the weaker Balkan states, yet the people of these states were overwhelmingly Slavic and hence more favorable to Russia. In Hungary, Russia was accused of fomenting conspiracies against the government in the interests of Pan- slavism. It required but a shght episode to precipitate a gen- eral conflict. This was the assassination of the Archduke Francis Ferdinand on the 28th of June, 1914, while riding through the streets of Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia. Causes of The assassin boasted that he was a Serb, although a citizen War "/°9^4 ^f Austria-Huugary. The latter government decided to use this incident as an excuse for humbling Serbia and made such drastic demands upon that government that to have acceded to them would have meant the virtual loss of inde- pendence. Russia thereupon notified Austria that she would not allow Austria to make war on Serbia "upon a mere pretext," and Germany responded with a demand upon Russia to keep out of the quarrel on penalty of war with both the Teutonic states. Like a row of blocks which children set up to topple over, the principal powers of Europe entered the war. EXPANSION OF EUROPE IN ASIA AND AFRICA 351 352 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Belgium became the highroad of a tremendous invasion by the German armies into France, and England entered the war to redress this alleged violation of Belgium's neutrality. How the war settled down to a grim burrowing beneath the ground in the entrenched and far flung battle lines on the East and -^ 't ,i^«i^f^i^%:|L/ :)^^m: Sarajevo A view of the quaint little city of Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia, where the Crown Prince of Austria was assassinated. In the 14th and 15th centuries this city was the capital of an independent kingdom, but it was conquered by the Turks early in the 15 th century and remained under Ottoman rule until the 19th century. West; how Japan entered the war, ostensibly as the ally of England, but primarily to gain territorial and commercial supremacy in the Far East; how Italy finally threw in her sword against her old partners of the Triple Alliance; how a new Quadruple Alliance was formed by Germany, Austria- Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria; how Roumania after long EXPANSION OF EUROPE IN ASIA AND AFRICA 353 delay unsheathed the sword ; of ZeppeHn and submarine warfare ; and the world-wide character of this most disastrous conflict that the world has ever known; all these must be the province of a future writing. SUGGESTIVE TOPICS AND QUESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY I. Name in order the independent states which have emerged from the Ottoman Empire in modern times. 2. Explain the part played by the Euro- pean powers in the estabhshment of the kingdom of Greece and discuss the bearing of this matter on the European War of 1914. 3. Discuss the causes, events, results, and the terms of the treaty ending the Crimean War. 4. Discuss the unbearable conditions under the rule of the Sultan in Bosnia, Herzegovina, and Bulgaria. 5. Contrast the poUciesof Gladstone and Dis- raeli concerning the Balkan question. 6. Discuss the causes, events, re- sults and the terms of the treaty ending the Russo-Turkish War, 1877-8. 7. Show how the proceedings of the Cong'ress of Berhn sowed the seeds for a later general European War. 8. Describe the estabhshment of the king- dom of Bulgaria. 9. What is the Panslavic movement? 10. What is your estimate of the work of the Young Turk party? 11. What is the pres- ent status of the Balkan situation? 12. Give a more complete account of the Mahdist rebellion. 13. Describe the administration of Lord Cromer. 14. What is the object of the Nationahst movement in Egypt? 15. Why is the Suez Canal regarded as the "Heel of Achilles" of the British empire? 16. How have the mihtary operations around the Suez Canal perhaps modi- fied the future interpretation of the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty regarding the Panama Canal? 17. What is the outlook for Morocco? 18. What bearing has the Great European War on the future of the Congo region? 19. De- scribe the operations of the British colonial forces against the German colonies in Africa, 1914-16. 20. Summarize the British conquest of South Africa touching on the seizure of Natal and the Orange River colony; Gladstone and the Boers; Boer pohcy toward foreigners; Jameson's raid; Kruger; attitude of William II of Germany during the Boer War; the Boer War and its results; the present government of South Africa and its problems. 21. Summarize the policies of Great Britain, Russia, Germany, and Japan with regard to China. 22. Summarize Chinese history from the Chino- Japanese War to the death of Yuan Shi Kai in 19 16. 23. Contrast pohtical, social, and industrial conditions in Japan before and since the revo- lution. 24. In the Hght of the Great European War did Germany receive a fair deal at the Algejiras conference? 25. What colonies were held by each of the following nations at the opening of the European War in 1914: Great Britain, France, Belgium, Italy, Germany, Portugal, The Netherlands, Spain? What changes in possession have been effected? 26. Discuss the conditions in India at the present time. 27. What was the Quebec Act? 28. Give the terms of the Canadian Federation Act of 1867. 29. Discuss 354 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY the territorial and industrial advance of Canada since the federation. 30. What are the pohtical parties in Canada today? For what does each stand? 31. Discuss the relation between Canada and Great Britain; Canada and the United States. 32. How large a part of India is under the direct rule of England ? What are the relations maintained with the other portions ? 33. Describe the social reforms introduced in AustraHa and New Zealand. 34. Compare the governments of AustraHa and Canada. 35. Illus- trate the loyalty of the British colonies to their sovereign since 1870. Collateral Reading I. The Disruption of the Ottoman Empire and the Rise of the Balkan States. Hazen, Europe since 1815, pp. 601-44. Robinson and Beard, Devel- opment of Modern Europe, Vol. II, pp. 303-17. Schurman, The Balkan Wars, pp. 3-13 1. Duggan, The Eastern Question, pp. 1-152. Gooch, History of Our Time, pp. 120-30. Seignobos, Contemporary Civilization, pp. 307-34. Buxton, Europe and the Turks, pp. 1-118. McCarthy, A Short History of Our Own Times, pp. 132-62, 405-26, 473-6. Miller, The Ottoman Empire, pp. 399- 504. Sloane, The Balkans, pp. 3-292. Gibbons, The New . Map of Europe, pp. 131-219, 263-367. Jane, Metternich to Bismarck, pp. 46-69. Hawkesworth, Last Century in Europe, pp. 371-87. Cross, A History of England and Greater Britain, pp. 959-65, 1002-6, 1082-3. Hayes, Modfern Europe, Vol. II, pp. 46-50, Chap. XXVI. Rose, European Nations, Part I, pp. 184-343. 11. The Partition of Africa. Johnston, The Opening Up of Africa, pp. 101-252. Hazen, pp. 371-5, 536-45, 550-63. Robinson and Beard, Vol. II, pp. 353-66. Gooch, pp. 179-204. Seignobos, pp. 355-63. Larson, Short History of England, pp. 596-607, 610-1. Johnston, History of the Coloni- zation of Africa by AHen Races, pp. 125-45, 160-89, 208-76. McCarthy, pp. 441-5, 465-73^ 497-502, 532-9- Gibbons, pp. 241- 262. Hawkesworth, pp. 410-29, 446-50, 465-84. Cross, pp. 1013-6, 1029-35, 1063-4. Harris, Intervention and Coloni- zation in Africa. Hayes, Vol. II, pp. 614-37. Rose, Part I, pp. 143-298. III. The Expansion of Europe into Asia. Hazen, pp. 518-23, 681-705. Robinson and Beard, Vol. II, pp. 331- 53. Gooch, pp. 154-78. Brinkley-Kikuchi, A History of the Japanese People, pp. 679-740. Asakawa, The Russo-Japanese Conflict, pp. 65-372. Grifhs, Japan in History, pp. 203-44. Cantlie and Jones, Sun Yat Sen, pp. 66-136, 214-40. McCarthy, pp. 44- 57, 170-200, 487-97. Hunter, Brief History of the Indian People (found in Beard, English Historians, pp. 638-44). Hawkesworth, pp. 485-97. Smith, Student's History of England, pp. 326-60. EXPANSION OF EUROPE IN ASIA AND AFRICA 355 Cross, pp. 966-74, 1006-7, 1063-4, Seignobos, pp. 363-71. Hayes, Vol. II, Chap. XXVII. Rose, Part II, 44-91, 299-319. IV. English Self-governing Colonies. Bradley, Canada, pp. 66-250. Bryce, Australia (found in Beard, pp. 645-62). Gooch, pp. 223-6. Bryce, The Ancient Roman Empire and the British Empire in India, pp. 1-133. Cross, pp. 1063-9. Hazen, pp. 523-36. Hayes, Vol. II. Chap. XXIX. V. The European War of 19 14. Hart, The War in Europe. Simonds, The Great War. Anonymous, I Accuse. Beveridge, What is Back of the War. White, A Text- book of the War. Gibbons, pp. 368-412. Rose, The Origins of the War. Miinsterberg, The War and America. Burgess, Euro- pean War of 1914. Hayes, Modern Europe, Vol. II, Chap. XXX, Rose, Part II, pp. 376-95. Source Studies 1. Letter of Lord Byron on the modern Greeks. Robinson and Beard, Readings in Modern European History, Vol. II, pp. 386-8. 2. Independence of the kingdom of Greece. Ihid., pp. 384-8. 3. The Crimean War. Ibid., pp. 389-94. 4. Treaty of Berhn. Ihid., pp. 396-8. 5. Macedonian disorders. Ibid., pp. 399-400. 6. Bulgarian independence. Ibid., pp. 395-6, 400-1. 7. The annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Ibid., pp. 401-3. 8. The opening of the first Turkish parhament. Ibid., pp. 403-5. 9. The Turko-Italian War of 191 1 and Tripoli. Year-books; Independent; Outlook; Literary Digest; Review of Reviews. 10. The Balkan Wars. Ibid. Schurman, The Balkan Wars. (Not a source but a contemporary account.) 11. The European War of 19 14. Sheip and Bacon, Handbook of The Euro- pean War. (Contains ample source material for a study of the beginning of the conflict.) Collected Diplomatic Documents Rela- ting to the Outbreak of the European War. (Official statements of each of the belligerents defending their entry into the war.) Published in International Conciliation, nos. 83-90, 93-96, loi. Contem- porary reviews and journals. 12. Present extent of European colonies. Robinson and Beard, Vol. II, pp. 413-5. 13. The colonial question and the Great War. Simonds in the Review of Reviews. 14. The work of the missionaries. Robinson and Beard, Vol. II, pp. 415-9. 15. Abolition of the opium traffic. Ibid., pp. 419-22. 16. Chinese Gordon. Ibid., pp. 422-3. 17. A review of Japan's economic advance. Ibid., pp. 430-1. 18. Japanese constitution. Ibid., pp. 431-3. 19. Chino- Japanese War. Ibid., pp. 433-5. 356 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY 20. The Boxer uprising. Ibid., pp. 435~4i- 21. The educational revolution in China. Ihid., pp. 441-4. 22. The Russo-Japanese War. Ibid., pp. 444-7- 23. The Chinese poHtical revolutions, — empire, repubhc, empire. Con- temporary reviews and journals. Year-books. Chinese Year-book. 24. Stanley and Livingston. Robinson and Beard, Vol. II, pp. 449-52. 25. The partition of Africa. Ihid., pp. 448-9. 26. The Congo atrocities. Ibid., pp. 453-4- 27. English occupation of Egypt. Ibid., pp. 454-8. Year-books for 1914-15. Suggestions for Map Work I. On an outline map of the Balkan region show the Ottoman Empire at its widest extent; indicate the various losses of the empire to 19 14. 2. On an outUne map of the Balkan regions show the problems of nationality which produced the European War of 19 14. 3. On an outline map of Europe indicate the alignment of -powers in the European War of 1914. 4. Show the expansion of Russia in Asia at the time of its widest extent. Indicate the losses. Show the Trans-Siberian raikoad. 5. Show the growth of Japanese empire in eastern Asia; indicate the principal places of historic interest in China. 6. Show the partition of Africa to 1914. Indicate the colonial problems arising from the European War of 1914. Locate the places mentioned in the chapter. Show the route of the Cape to Cairo raikoad; of Stanley's explorations; of the projected German railroad; the Suez Canal. 7. Show the spheres of interest of the great European powers in Asia Minor and Persia. Locate the principal railroad projects. Indicate the strategic pointsin the European War of 1914. 8. Show on an outline map the territo- rial divisions of Canada; the transcontinental railroads; the principal cities. 9. Show on a map of Australasia the territorial divisions; the gold region; the principal cities. 9. On a map of the world show the distribution of the prin- cipal European languages. 10. On a map of the world show the colonial possessions of Great Britain, Germany, France, Italy, Belgium, and the United States in 1914. 11. On a map of the world show the distribution of the principal European races. Locate the routes made possible by the Panama Canal; by the Suez Canal. Map References Shepherd, Historical Atlas. Holt. Dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire since 1683, p. 164, Distribution of races in the Balkan peninsula and Asia Minor, p. 165. Europe in 1910, p. 166. The growth of European and Japanese dominions in Asia, 1801-1910, p. 170. Australia and New Zealand since 1788, p. 172. The partition of Africa, p. 174. The Suez Canal and Egypt, p. 1 74. The Boer repubUcs to 1902, p. 1 75. Distribution of the principal European languages, p. 176. Distribution of Europeans, Chinese, Japanese, and Negroes, p. 177. Colonies, dependencies, and trade routes, p. 179. Canada and Newfoundland, p. 212. Panama Canal, p. 216. Dow, Atlas of European History. Holt. Ottoman Empire from 1729- EXPANSION OF EUROPE IN ASIA AND AFRICA 357 1878, p. 29. European Turkey from the Treaty of Berlin to the Balkan Wars, p. 29. Partition of Africa to I906, p. 30. The Boer Republics on the eve of their suppression, p. 30, Muir, School Atlas of Modern History. Holt. Growth of the Ottoman Empire, p. 21. Algiers and Tunis, p. 21. Political distribution of Euro- peans in the West Indies, 1855, p. 41. India in 1858, p. 46. Expansion of Europe into Africa, p. 47. Cape Colony before and after the Great Trek, p. 47. West Africa, p. 47. South Africa, showing the growth of British power during the nineteenth century, p. 47, Natal and Zululand for the Boer and Zulu Wars, p. 47. Australasia, p. 48. Gardiner, Atlas oj English History. Longmans. Southeastern Europe, 1856, p. 60. France, 1860-71, p. 62. Southeastern Europe, 1892, p. 63. The world showing British possessions, 1907, p. 65. India, 1857, p. 61. Africa, 1897, p. 66. Siege of Sebastopol, p. 88. Robertson-Bartholomew, Atlas of Modern European History. Oxford Press. The Ottoman Empire and the Balkans, 1789-1815, No. 22. The Ottoman Empire and the Balkans, 1815-60, No. 23. The Ottoman Empire and the Balkans, 1856-78, No. 24. The Balkan States, 1878-1911, No. 25. The Balkan States, 1911-1914, No. 25. The Ottoman Empire in Asia, 1 789-1914, No. 26. Southern Russia, 1721-1914, No. 29.. Persia and the Persian Gulf, No. 2,2)- Africa, 1914, No. 34. The Far East from 1789-1815, No, 26. Southern Russia, 1721-1914, No. 29. Persia and the Persian Gulf , No. 7,7,. Africa, 1914, No. 34. The Far East from 1815-1914, No. 35. Co- lonial Powers, 1914, No. 36. Bibliography Asakawa. The Russo-Japanese Conflict. Houghton Mifflin. Beard. Introduction to the English Historians. Macmillan. Beveridge. What is Back of the War. Bobbs-Merrill, Bradley. Canada. Holt. Brinkley-Kikuchi. A History of the Japanese People. The Encycloped a Britannica Co. Bryce. The Ancient Roman Empire and the British Empire in India. Ox- ford University Press. Burgess. The European War of 1914- McClurg. Buxton. Europe and the Turks. Methuen Co. London. CantHe and Jones. Sun Yat Sen. Revell. Collected Documents Relating to the Outbreak of the European War. T. Fisher Unwin. London. Cross. A History of England and Greater Britain. Macmillan. Duggan. The Eastern Question. Macmillan. Forbes and others. The Balkans. Oxford University Press. Gibbons. The New Map of Europe. Century. Gooch. History of Our Time. Holt. Griffis. Japan in History. Houghton Mifflin. Harris. Intervention and Colonization in Africa. Houghton Mifflin. Hart. The War in Europe. Appleton. Greenwich REFERENCE ted States | | France I I Spain at Britain [ ', | Netherlands | | Portugal fiiany | [ Beigium ' ' sia I I Japan Italy Couni Foreign Possessions D COLONIES AND DEPENDENCIES, 1914 10 Longitude 60 from 120 Greenwich 150 CHAPTER XII THE ADVANCE OF DEMOCRACY 142. The Domestic Problems of Individual States in 1870: their Origin and Nature. — While the different states of Europe were taking an active part in shaping the destinies of the heretofore uncivilized and backward continents, they were undergoing important changes within their own boundaries. These changes were in part the result of this expansion movement and therefore cannot be separated from it. It is perhaps possible to appreciate more fully the transforma- tion which these states were undergoing in their social, po- litical, and intellectual life if it be considered apart from the external developments described in the preceding chapter. The epoch which opens about 1870 found them confronting certain difficulties which were in a measure a legacy from their past. For example, the creation of two new states, the German Em- pire and the Kingdom of Italy, was not accomplished without giving rise to many a perplexing problem to be solved by succeeding generations. Attention has already been called to this fact in a preceding chapter (sec. 267). The problems to which these events gave rise were not Conditions without their influence upon neighboring states, and, as is the case with the individual so it was with the state, it found it impossible to "live unto itself." The Industrial Revolution, which was fast spreading to the remotest confines of the globe and which was taking on new forms and developments with the progress of time, gave rise to new issues which made the tasks of the statesmen of this epoch more and more difficult. Industry, accompanied as it was by intellectual and scientific progress, Responsible for the Problems 360 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY The Great Problems Their Origin Militarism seemed to have no fixed bounds or limits; commerce assumed stranger and stranger forms and shaped all social and political progress as never before in human history. Older problems took on larger and larger proportions until they loomed like great obstacles in the path of progress. Among the more important problems which now pressed for solution were: (i) militarism and the great burden of main- taining armaments; (2) the desire of each nation to give expression to its ideals and to shape progress after its own peculiar notions; (3) the relations of church and state; (4) the profitable development of trade and industry, with the ques- tion of the relative advantages of a free trade versus a protective policy; (5) the extension of education; and (6) finally, related to all these, and yet distinct from them all, the spread of socialism and the growth of socialist parties. All these problems can be readily traced in their origin to one or the other of the general conditions already mentioned. The desire of Bismarck to keep Germany in a state of preparedness in the event that France should seek to recover her lost prov- inces; the knowledge that he had attained his end by force and that it would be unwise, for the time being, at least, to abandon the methods which had proved so successful, com- mitted Germany to a policy which has been widely imitated. There was not only conscious imitation but a conviction in the minds of many of the leaders of other states that only by similar methods could their own states hope to retain their place in the sun, and not only maintain their existence but count for something among their neighbors. Sardinia had demonstrated the advantages of a well-organized army in the formation of the new kingdom of Italy, and it was natural that it too should continue to maintain an effective fighting force. The nations of Western Europe, one and all, with the exception of England, adopted or maintained a system of compulsory military service. Each vied with the other in the adoption of new and improved fighting machines and in the expenditure of THE ADVANCE OF DEMOCRACY 361 vast sums of money upon their fighting forces, be they armies or navies. The question began to be raised in many of these states as to whether such expenditures were not sapping their vitaHty and energy and might not better be abandoned for more profitable forms of effort. The intensity of the national spirit in some of the coun- Nationalism tries of Europe often showed itself in a form of chauvinism, or a contempt for neighboring states, that called for vigorous repression on the part of those in power. This condition was in part responsible for the imperialistic tendencies dis- cussed elsewhere. Intellectual progress and the desire to free education from the control of any particular church organization helped to bring the question of church and state to the fore in many of the countries of Europe. The absorption of the papal territories Relations into the new kingdom of Italy caused this question to assume °*^^""^ a different aspect here from its form elsewhere. Then again there was the desire to consolidate into one administrative system all religious activities except those of actual worship. Everywhere the relationship gave rise to perplexing questions. In some cases the state church was maintained by the contri- butions of a people who worshipped in a different church and who felt it to be a rank injustice to have their money diverted to an institution for which they felt no attachment. Such was the case, for example, in Ireland. These questions of church and state were only one of the many results of the equalizing and levelling movement which is a marked characteristic of recent years. How best to secure and hold its trade was a matter of absorb- Free Trade ing interest to each state as it began to reaHze the increasing ^^ P'^ote<=«°" profits which accrued from this source with the perfection of modern business methods. Whether to erect the barrier of a tariff wall or to allow free entry to the goods of others was a question not easy to answer, as it involved so many considera- tions of wages, nationality, and standards of living. 362 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Illiteracy Spread of Socialism Karl Marx and the Socialist Parties Education, outside of certain very limited areas, had thus far not made much progress and many of the countries still suffered from the effects of the ignorance and low mentality of the masses. How best to meet the need everywhere recognized, without at the same time undermining the foundations of society and of the state by a too rapid transition from their former condition; what sort of an education to provide; how best to deal with the evils which ignorance had already deeply rooted — these were matters of no little moment to many of the states of Europe in the period which opened about 1870. The unrest of the epoch was to be seen in the rapid advance of the socialist movement, not alone among the wage earners but among the thinking classes. The origin of the movement has already been touched upon as well as the different theories held by its adherents as to how the present order of society should be changed and improved. The peaceful solutions proposed by the early socialists now began to give place to more violent and radical programmes. For example, there were the Syndical- ists represented in this country by the Industrial Workers of the World. They had their origin in France and took their name from the syndic, the French equivalent for a trade union. They counselled violence to attain their ends and conceived the relations between capital and labor to be that of a perpetual warfare in which neither side should ask or give quarter. The workers were to wage a bitter struggle with the capitalists until they had wrested from them the machines and factories which gave them their peculiar advantage. Political parties bearing the name of socialist were formed in every state. This may be traced in part to the influence of a young German, Karl Marx. In 1848 he issued the Communist Manifesto, calling upon all workers to unite. Organized political socialism may be said to date from this step. The socialists abandoned their Utopian visions of the early days and began to unite as political parties, demanding the reorganization of the existing social and industrial order on the basis of democratic government. In other words THE ADVANCE OF DEMOCRACY 363 they sought a species of industrial democracy. Many of their industrial adherents sought not so much the new social order to be secured ^^^o^^cy through the reorganization of industry, but rather a greater measure of political freedom. The social democratic parties, as they were often called, were parties of protest and usually the only party in a position to voice the longings of the people. The political transformation which brought the nations of Europe nearer and nearer to the goal of true democracy can be best understood and its significance grasped by passing in review the great powers of western Europe. In each one the voice of the people begins to be heard and heeded, but this does not mean that in every case they attain to the same measure of freedom, nor do they find themselves the real masters of the situation. Two nations stand out as bulwarks of the monarchic and autocratic idea: Germany and Russia. 143. The Preponderance of Germany in Europe and the Maintenance of the Monarchical Principle. — Two aims German Aims seemed to dominate Bismarck, who continued in power for the first twenty years of the period: namely, to maintain Germany's commanding position in Europe and to preserve the imperial form of government. These objects were also sought by his real successor, the present Emperor William II. Bismarck made it a cardinal point in his policies to safeguard the work completed in 187 1 by powerful alliances which should prevent France from recovering her lost provinces and at the same time give Germany a commanding position in Europe. He courted the Tsar, the Emperor of Austria, and later the King of Italy. The first alliance which he concluded was known as the league of the three Emperors and included the German Emperor, the ruler of Austria, and the Russian Tsar. He lost the friendship of Russia, however, because of his part in the Congress of Berlin in 1878, Russia's place being taken later by Italy (1882). This new alliance, which was defensive in char- acter, was known as the Triple Alliance and guaranteed to each state the arrangements which it had already made for its own 364 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY The Imperial Government The Power of Prussia internal affairs and for its existing boundaries. France was in a position of almost complete isolation until Russia's defection from the league of the three Emperors. Such was the rapidity of France's recovery from the events of 1870-1871 and so fear- ful was Bismarck of a reopening of the Alsace-Lorraine ques- tion in a war of revenge upon Germany, that it has been asserted that he was on the point of attacking her in 1875, had he not been dissuaded by the attitude of Russia. Bismarck and William I were most successful in making and holding friends for Germany. German diplomacy has not proved quite so successful since Bismarck's fall. The Empire has nevertheless attained to the position of a world power and is the rival of England in her influence over Western Europe. This is largely the result of the naval policy begun by her present ruler and the maintenance of friendly relations with her neighbors. The European War of 19 14, however, has upset these relationships in a disagreeable manner. A careful analysis of the government of the German Empire shows on the one hand a retention of certain mediaeval forms and practices and, on the other, the tremendous power and influence of Prussia over the whole imperial edifice. When Bismarck drew up a constitution for the North-German Con- federation, which later became the framework of the govern- ment of modern Germany, he was dominated by one idea, and that was to make Prussia supreme. This was a comparatively easy task, as so much of German territory was under her direct control. The Prussian constitution has not been changed radically since its proclamation in 1850. The friends of democracy were disappointed in the results accomplished in its framing, as has already been indicated. Bismarck's apparently high-handed acts of the epoch between 1862 and 1866 had been carried on seemingly in the face of opposition from the Prussian lower house. This fact in itself serves to indicate the weakness of the constitution as a bulwark of the people's rights. Prussian territory included 134,616 square miles or 64% of all Germany; THE ADVANCE OE DEMOCRACY 365 Count Otto von Bismarck The artificer of German unity had as his guiding maxim, "To be too logical in politics is frequently a fault which leads to obstinacy. It is necessary to veer with the course of things, with various possibilities; to regulate ones conduct by circumstances and not by a personal opinion which is frequently a prejudice." 366 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY The Bundesrat its population now numbers 40,000,000 or 61% of the total population of the empire. The control of a state so great in extent and so populous gives its ruler, who is at the same time German Emperor, a tremendous advantage. The chief governing bodies of the empire are the Federal Council or Bundesrat and the Imperial Diet or Reichstag. These two bodies may be regarded as forming a sort of par- liament, the Bundesrat corresponding to the upper house and the Reichstag to the lower. The analogy, however, is not very close. Each is possessed of separate functions. The Federal Council is in the nature of an advisory board to the Emperor and consists of the personal representatives of the rulers or of the chief governing authority in each of the twenty-five states. Its members are selected by those in authority, be they kings, grand dukes, municipal council (as is the case with Hamburg), or princes. They serve at the pleasure of those who appoint them, doing their bidding in all matters. Since 191 1 the imperial vice-royalty of Alsace-Lorraine also sends represen- The Reichstag tatives. The Reichstag represents the people and is chosen by their vote, i.e. by all male Germans over twenty-five years of age. This was Bismarck's concession to the people to make the empire popular with them. The imperial government, as contrasted with the governments of the separate states, has charge of all matters pertaining to peace and war, foreign relations, commerce and navigation, banking, etc. The Emperor has power ''to declare war, con- clude peace, and* frame alliances, but the consent of the Fed- eral Council (Bundesrat) is needed for the declaration of war in the name of the Empire." Its consent, however, is not necessary in the case of a defensive war. Sessions of both Bundesrat and Reichstag are convened every year at the call of the Emperor, who may also adjourn and close them. No laws are laid before the Reichstag without first receiving the approval of the . Bundesrat. The Imperial Chancellor, the appointee of the Emperor, is his personal representative in these meet- The Imperial Chancellor THE ADVANCE OF DEMOCRACY 367 ings, either presiding over or supervising their business. Prussia, with its king in the imperial saddle, its seventeen out of sixty-one members in the Bundesrat, and its two hundred and thirty-six out of three hundred and ninety- seven members in the Reichstag, is the dominant factor in shaping the destinies of the imperial fabric. The Prussian con- stitution, by its denial of equal voting to the masses and its bestowal of unrestricted authority upon its ruler, places the German Emperor in a position comparable to that of no other European monarch save the Russian Tsar. 144. Bismarck's Domestic Policy. — This autocratic power Bismarck'! and Germany's position in Europe were not maintained by ^""^^^^^^ Bismarck during his Chancellorship without a series of struggles. The first foe which appeared was the Church. The contest which ensued will be described in connection with the social transformation of Europe. More formidable, perhaps, was the rising party known as the Social Democrats. It voiced the aspirations and desires of the working classes, and its numbers rapidly increased as Germany turned more and more to industry. Bismarck checked the activity of the Social Democrats by wresting from them some of their most formidable weapons, putting into operation many of their desired reforms, but under imperial rather than popular control. He made the state itself responsible for the care of the worker by laws enforcing compensation in case of accidents and by regulations providing against sickness and a destitute old age. This pension legisla- industrial tion or industrial insurance was a great step toward solving ^°^"^*°*^® some of the problems consequent upon the industrial revolu- tion, and the present emperor from the outset of his reign has shown his sympathy with and support of such legisla- tion. In spite of these efforts to cut away the ground from beneath the Social Democrats, their number has steadily increased, especially in Prussia, where all efforts to secure equal voting have thus far proved a failure. As the prop- ertied classes receive undue recognition in the government. 368 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Bismarck's Protective Policy Policy of WUliam II The Navy there is every reason to expect that the Social Democrats will continue their struggle. Another difficulty which faced Bismarck was largely economic in character. It was during Bismarck's period of power that Germany abandoned free trade for a protective policy. Ger- many seems to have suffered a severe panic about the time our own land was having its financial difficulties (1873). This panic, due in part to overconfidence, following the tremendous payments of the French war indemnity, was partially responsible for the change of policy. The aim of the new policy seems to have been to benefit both farmer and manufacturer. In con- sequence of the duties on foodstuffs, Germany has been referred to as the land of ''dear bread and dear meat." There can be no question of the tremendous advance of industry since 1873, whether the results of these measures or due to other causes. Food is probably no dearer in Germany than in many other countries where the population is dense and industry has the right of way. The attitude of the government toward these questions has been decidedly paternalistic, subsidizing and aiding by every means possible industrial enterprises likely to make for the country's prosperity. By concluding the Triple Alliance, Bismarck made Germany the arbiter of central and western Europe. This combination, which in its early form as the Dual Alliance was designed primarily to check France, gradually came to be one of the great forces responsible for the peace of contemporary Europe. 145. The Reign of William II. — When William II ascended the throne, it was apparent that a man of no ordinary ability had come upon the scene. He had been called to the throne at the age of 29 on account of the untimely death of his father, who had ruled but 99 days and who was suffering from an incurable disease when he became emperor in 1888. Williajn's reign inaugurated two decided departures from the policies followed by his predecessors. The first was an effort to build up a strong navy. "Our future lies on the water," was his THE ADVANCE OF DEMOCRACY 369 now famous utterance. Hand in hand with this resolve to make Germany a naval power was an interest in colonies and in colonial enterprise. Germany's ventures in this field have been described in another connection (see sec. 321). William II also showed the characteristic HohenzoUern in- terest in the army. His first words upon ascending the throne were addressed to it, and time and again he has empha- sized his belief that in a strong army and in military prepared- ness lies the secret of Ger- many's future position in Europe. These convictions of the Emperor have placed a heavy financial burden upon the people and have brought upon him the hostility of the Social Democrats. He has been ac- cused of favoring a compara- tively small military party made up of those who have found in the army a career carrying with it social distinc- tion and the special favor of the emperor-king. The com- parative success of his naval policy is shown by the fact that in 19 14 Germany ranked as the second great naval power in the world. Starting well at the foot of the ladder in 1898, in comparison with the other great powers, this progress is nothing short of remarkable. One of the most sensational steps taken by the young mon- arch soon after his accession was the dismissal of Bismarck as William II, Third Emperor of THE German Empire His conception of his office is strik- ingly similar to that held by Louis XIV, as shown by his own words. In a visitor's register in Munich, he wrote, Suprema lex regis voluntas esto (Let the King's will be highest law). The German people regard him as the embodiment of their own virile and efficient ideals. 370 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY The Fall of Bismarck Prince von Buelow The Future of Germany Chancellor. It was not possible for two such strong wills to work in harmony, and in 1890 the emperor asked for the resignation of his grandfather's trusted counsellor. This was a great blow to the old chancellor and astounded Europe. Ever since this the chancellor has been the mouthpiece of the ruler and has never attained the position of coworker or master, as was the case with Bismarck. Perhaps the most able man called to this position was Prince von Buelow, who held office from 1900 to 1908. His handling of the foreign relations of Germany and his efforts to make her a real world power were marked by conspicuous success. There can be no question but that the present ruler has a high conception of his responsibility to his people and is seek- ing by every means in his power to identify his own interests with those of the country at large. His efforts to secure markets for German trade throughout the world are a recog- nition of one of the foundations of Germany's power — her unexampled industries. The great question in Germany today seems to be whether the Prussian imperial system will be maintained in its original form or be seriously modified by giv- ing the people a larger share in the management of their affairs. The European War of 1914 may have much to do with deter- mining this. 146. The Maintenance of Autocracy in Russia. — Down to 1855 backwardness and stagnation had been the main char- acteristics of Russia — that other great representative of the monarchic idea in our day. The Napoleonic wars had done much to arouse Russia to a sense of her greatness, but in spite of the pride felt in the expulsion of Napoleon the people made little progress in the period which followed. The sentimentality of Alexander I, the one-time friend of Napoleon and the origi- nator of the Holy Alliance, counted for little in relieving the wretched condition of the Russian people, and down to the time of the Crimean War the Russian Tsars maintained in their entirety that system of government and those traditions THE ADVANCE OF DEMOCRACY 371 and customs which had been consecrated by centuries of repression and were so apparent under Peter the Great and Catherine II. Nicholas I, the brother and successor of Alex- The Russian ander I (1825), was an autocrat of the autocrats, remaining ,^°^^rn™e"t true, however, to the ambition of his ancestors to add to his patrimony by encroachments upon his neighbors. One of these enterprises, the Crimean War, as has been pointed out, broke the- long spell of peace which prevailed over Europe after the Napoleonic Wars. The interest of these rulers in the Near East is discussed elsewhere. Their ambitions never seemed to be directed toward amehorating the lot of their subjects. It would seem at times as though they engaged in these wars in order to distract the attention of their people from con- ditions at home. The Russian people had not been inactive in the years of The Autocracy revolution which marked the first half of the nineteenth century. "^ Nicholas i The death of the sentimental Alexander in 1825 occasioned the first effort to change conditions which was perhaps prompted by his failure to really transmute his promises into deeds. The leaders of this effort were members of the nobility who had The imbibed through contact with the French Revolution many of Mov^^^eTt* its liberal ideas. The movement came to nothing and was sternly suppressed. The new ruler, Nicholas I, was absolutely fearless and so firm a believer in the superior wisdom of the Tsar that nothing was to be expected from him in the way of reform. He was confronted in 1830 with a revolution in Poland, w^hich he rigorously put down. He even sent troops to assist the ruler of Austria in stamping out the uprising of 1848 in Hungary. It was not until his successor, Alexander II, came to the throne, Accession of that Russia began to progress towards a more enlightened ^^xander n administration (1855). In the year 1861 — a memorable date in the struggle to rid the United States of human slavery — the Tsar by proclamation freed the 21,000,000 serfs who were attached to the lands of the nobility. This proclamation was Emancipation followed by others, by which not only all the serfs in Russia were °^ ^^® ^^^^ 372 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY The Zemstva Education The Creed of NihUism Assassination of the Tsar The Reaction towards Absolutism The Industrial Revolution and its Effects freed and set up as proprietors of their farms, but arrangements were made for the participation of the people in local affairs by the creation of zemstva or local assemblies. These were made up of representatives from the peasants and the landed aristocracy. Although these measures were far from perfect and left the peasant burdened with certain obligations with reference to the land which retarded his progress, they were a long step towards placing the masses of the people on the same footing as the other peoples of Europe. The reign of this Tsar Liberator, as he was called from thenceforth, was also marked by a law throwing the universities open to a larger proportion of the population. These reform movements on the part of the government, however, received a decided setback as a result of the activities of the intellectual and student classes. The Tsar did not move fast enough to suit these ardent apostles of reform; he seemed to hesitate and possibly to regret what he had done. A doctrine known as Nihilism began to be preached by this class which met with wide acceptance. Its followers denied — as the name implies — those things which seemed to be realities, such as government, religion, and property, as they knew them, and proposed to sweep these away and to build anew where they had once been. This negative creed soon gave way to an active programme calling for the elimination by whatever means offered of all those in authority. Bomb throwing and assassination became the order of the day, and the emperor himself fell a victim (1881) at the very moment when he was meditating upon other reform measures to remove the unrest which was every- where apparent. His death sealed the fate of the Nihilists, as a decided reaction set in against them on the part of the people themselves, and they soon disappeared. By this time Russia had begun to feel the effects of the Indus- trial Revolution, and since then up to the present day, agitation for reform has been carried on through the factory workers. A protective policy was adopted by her ministers and encourage- ment was given to foreign capital to invest in Russian mines THE ADVANCE OF DEMOCRACY 373 and factories. The Tsar and his ministers reahzed the impor- tance of developing the natural resources of the country and sought to remove every obstacle to Russia's industrial develop- ment. Thus lines of railroad began to be built. The most gigantic undertaking of this sort was the Trans-Siberian, already referred to, which was opened in 1902. The name of Count Count Witte Witte will always be associated with these undertakings. As minister of communications and later as minister of finance, he sought to place the county on a sound financial basis by introducing the gold standard and by providing adequate sources of revenue. The government monopoly in alcohol, which was given up at the outbreak of the War of 1914, was one of his means of providing revenue. He encouraged railroad building and favored a protective policy in order that Russian industries might be placed upon a stable foundation. The failure of the terrorist movement, as Nihilism was called in its destructive aspects, led the reformers to attempt a propa- ganda among the workers along socialistic lines, and the Rus- sian people now began to be inoculated with socialistic doctrines and to trust to socialistic reform programs. The new Tsar, Alexander m Alexander III (188 1), was a reactionary, and he associated with him, as both agent and mentor, the head of the Russian Greek Church, Pobyedonostseff, who reminds us of Metternich in his influence of distrust of the people. Parliaments and newspapers were ^g^.gggf^'^' branded as instruments of the Prince of Darkness; "orthodoxy, nationalism and autocracy" became the creed and program of the government. To realize the aim of this program the Jews Religious were persecuted and closely confined to certain well-defined ^^^^'^^ ^°^ areas known as the Pale, and a harmless, law-abiding dissent- ing sect was almost suppressed. The other points in this policy were illustrated in the efforts to Russianize the provinces of Russianizing Finland, Poland, and the German-speaking portions of the Em- ^°^^'^^ pire, restricting the use of their native tongue and wiping out their local liberties. 374 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Character of Nicholas II Assassination of Plehve The October Manifesto The Duma 147. Nicholas II and the Struggle for Representative Gov- ernment. — The present Tsar, who succeeded his father in 1894, has exhibited many of the same tendencies. He is not as pronounced a character as Alexander III and has shown at times a decided leaning towards policies which do not harmonize altogether with the maintenance of autocracy. On the whole, however, his influence has been in the same direction. He was brought up at the feet of Pobyedonostseff, and the struggle to Russianize his subject peoples of other nationalities has been a dark page in the annals of his reign. The first efforts of the government to check the dissatisfaction and disorder which marked the opening months of the war with Japan in 1904-5 resulted in the assassination of Plehve, the Tsar's minister in- trusted with the perservation of order. The successive defeats of Russia at the hands of the Japanese were followed by demands which were voiced most loudly by the working classes for a national representative assembly. It had been expected that Alexander's grant of the zemstva would have led to this long before this time, but the forces of autocracy have yielded but slowly to the demands of the hour. A great workingman's dem- onstration was organized in St. Petersburg, or Petrograd as it is now called, and on a memorable Sunday in January, 1905, thou- sands of their number marched toward the palace to lay their grievances before the Tsar. The troops were called out and the mob dispersed with considerable loss of life. The unrest con- tinued until finally the Tsar was obliged to issue the so-called October Manifesto (1905), calling for the meeting of a duma to be made up of representatives from all classes of the popula- tion. According to the terms of the proclamation no law was to be enacted in the future without its consent. It also promised control of officials by the duma and the recognition throughout the empire of freedom of speech, of religion, press, and assembly and "the widest possible extension of the franchise." This national assembly was to be composed of two houses, the one called a council of the empire and made up partly of officials THE ADVANCE OF DEMOCRACY 375 appointed from the bureaucracy and partly of elected members, and the other of a lower elective house known as the duma. It met May 10, 1906, but again the hopes of the people were doomed to disappointment, as the Tsar, fearful of its power, dis- solved the assembly before it could accomplish anything. He called another assembly for the next year, hoping perhaps that he could more easily control it. Meanwhile, several of the radi- cal members of the duma had gone to Viborg in Finland and The Viborg there signed a protest against the action of the government. ^'"°*®^* Among other things this protest urged the people not to pay taxes, nor to grant recruits until the duma was restored. The Tsar and his ministers sought by manipulating the electoral laws in their own interest to secure a duma more to their liking, but only partially succeeded. This, too, had a brief but stormy ca- reer and was dissolved by government decree. The third duma Tnet in November, 1907, and, although much less representative than either of its predecessors, exercised a certain amount of con- trol over the Tsar and his ministers. The expenditures of the government were severely criticised as was also the system by which noble families, or relatives of the Tsar, were given im- portant posts in the government. The fourth duma is now in session (191 7). These meetings of the people's representatives have done much to educate the Russians in the practice of self- government. Their actual legislative achievements, however. Results have been small, and the whole period has been marked by A<^<=°™P^»shed wholesale arrests, disorder, and stubborn opposition to every reforming tendency. With the exception of the powers granted to the duma. The Russian Russia still remains in her organization the same autocratic ^°^«^^™e°t empire which Peter the Great bequeathed to his successors. The Tsar is usually assisted in the administration of the gov- ernment by members of the imperial family, who often occupy responsible positions at the head of the army or navy, or as governors of important provinces. Like his imperial cousin, William II, he selects a premier or right-hand man who is The Premier 376 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY intrusted with the general oversight of the country, suggesting and carrying out poHcies in harmony with the wishes of his The august master. The bureaucracy is a tremendous force in ureaucracy Russia. A one-man system, such as prevails there, has made necessary a whole host of employees who may be compared to those which operate a great department store. They are not expected to act upon their own initiative, but get their orders from those higher up until the Tsar himself is reached. It is a very difficult matter to introduce any reforms in a system of this character, as has been demonstrated time Police and Spy and time again. The police and spy system are the in- ^^ ^™ struments by which the Tsar and his minions keep them- selves informed of any political activity, and a lonely exile in far-off Siberia or death is the penalty for any agitation which threatens to undermine the power vested in the au- thorities. Military service is universal. With the increased strength and better organization of the army, revolution has become a more remote possibility. Russia and the It will be noted that every great war in which Russia has of 1914 participated has been followed by unrest and change. This was true in 1856, in 1878, and again in 1905. The European War of 1 9 14 may have momentous consequences for the Russian Empire and its people. The spread of education will undoubtedly accomplish much in the future as it has in the past. Much is also to be expected from the great material progress attendant upon the Industrial Revolution. The ignorant, superstitious peasant, who forms the backbone of the country, is , difficult material out of which to shape an alert, progressive nation. 148. The Third Republic in France. — With the exception of the two countries just reviewed, Germany and Russia, much progress toward the democratic ideal is to be noted in the other great states of Europe. It was long-after 1870 before the govern- ment of France was placed upon a secure foundation, such was the force of her defeat at the hands of Prussia and the THE ADVANCE OF DEMOCRACY 377 collapse of the hollow system known as the Second Empire. A Establishment republic had been immediately proclaimed following the news °^ *^® Republic of the disaster of Sedan. It had to pass through an ordeal of fire, however, before it became the accepted form of government. The crisis was not entirely passed until 1875, and, even after this date, many difficulties had to be surmounted to give the republic that standing and permanence which alone could safe- guard its future. In the spring of 1871, Paris became the scene of one of the bloodiest civil wars that history records. The The causes are somewhat difhcult of analysis, but the working classes, ^prisTg ^ suspecting the National Assembly of treason and wrought up to a high state of nervous tension by the siege through which they had just passed, took up arms against the government following the news of its removal to Versailles. The storm had been brewing for some time. It was in the nature of an anti-cUmax to the war. The people could not understand why France had failed in this crisis. W^hen, therefore, the National Assembly began to enact laws which bore heavily upon the poorer classes, stopped all payments to the national guard which had been formed from their number, and de- manded the payment of debts which had been suspended during hostilities, they were easily aroused to action by some of the bolder spirits. Suspecting the new assembly of mon- archistic tendencies, they announced as their platform the transformation of France into a federation of independent municipalities or communes. This avowed aim gave them their name of Communists (or Communards). The red flag was adopted and an organization effected. From the very beginning the provinces refused to follow the example set by Paris, and it was not long before the German army of occupation in Northern France witnessed the strange sight of regular troops Destructive besieging the city of Paris, which was he\d against them by ^^^ ®*" their fellow-countrymen. An entrance was forced and then followed bloody street fighting and a terrible destruction of property, as the Communists set fire to some of the great his- Nature of the Republic 378 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY toric buildings of the city. No quarter was asked or given, and it is estimated that before the struggle ended 17,000 lives had been sacrificed and 7,500 others had been condemned to exile in New Caledonia. The contest lasted two months. The Communists' Assault on the Hotel de Ville The Communists set fire to the Tuileries Palace and made an assault on the Hotel de Ville, the city hall. Many women were among the mob. An analogy may be drawn between this movement and the Irish uprising in Dublin in 1916. This danger passed, the assembly took up its work of con- stitution-making. In spite of the strength of the friends of monarchy in the assembly, a constitution was finally drawn up guaranteeing a rep^iblican form of government, but a republic of a far different character from the one with which we are famil- iar in this country. The word "repubhc" scarcely appeared in any of these fundamental or basal regulations, but the govern- THE ADVANCE OF DEMOCRACY 379 ment of the land was intrusted to a president, a senate, and a chamber of deputies. The senate is composed of 300 members The Senate chosen for a term of nine years and selected by an indirect o^og^ut^s^^ method of voting. The president is elected for seven years by the Senate and Chamber of Deputies in joint session. He is a sort of figurehead, but is charged with the conduct of all foreign affairs and, in conjunction with the two law-making J'uiLERiES Palace One of the beautiful public buildings burned by the Communists. It stood close to the Louvre and was the scene of many brilliant court functions during the reign of Napoleon III. bodies, the Senate and Chamber of Deputies, participates in The President legislation. He names the ministry, which, however, is respon- sible to the two chambers, and its membership therefore is practically determined by them. A failure to follow their lead- ership in the acts which are passed means that they must immediately resign, however acceptable they may be to the head of the state. The right to vote was conferred upon all The Suffrage male inhabitants over 21. They select the deputies, who are elected for four years. These fundamental laws were so framed, however, as to make 380 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Boulangism The Decline of it easy for a monarchy to be established — at least that was Monarchism ^-^^ intention of those who made them. These hopes were doomed to disappointment, although on several occasions France was dangerously near the verge of a restoration of the kingly power. The retention of the bureaucratic system and the placing of all power in the hands of a central authority seemed to make it easy to effect a change to a monarchy. The choice of Marshal MacMahon as President in 1873 was regarded as a step in this direction. The safety of the repubhc, however, was assured by the divisions among its opponents, as the monarchists could not agree among themselves as to what dynasty to restore. The last danger from this source was in the movement called Boulangism (1886-89). General Boulanger, an elegant gentle- man well versed in the art of pleasing and a clever politician, became the centre of plots to restore the monarchy, and his popularity was utilized to bring together all the elements op- posed to the government in one great effort to overthrow the republic. The effort failed. The general became frightened at his own temerity and fled the country, leaving his supporters disconcerted and helpless. Later the government was somewhat discredited in the eyes of Europe, first by the Panama Scandal and again in connec- tion with the Dreyfus case. In order to obtain additional funds for their enterprise and at the same time retain the con- fidence of the French public, the Panama Canal Company resorted to bribery on a large scale, subsidizing prominent newspapers and distributing large sums among the members of the House of Deputies. In 1892 the company was declared bankrupt and the work on the Isthmus came to a standstill. The Dreyfus case was much more serious. France had not failed to profit by the lesson of 1870-71, and universal mihtary service was made obligatory upon all her citizens by a law enacted the very next year. The Prussian system was introduced with slight modifications. The arbitrary, unjust treatment of Cap- tain Dreyfus, who was accused of betraying military secrets to The Panama Scandal The Dreyfus Case THE ADVANCE OF DEMOCRACY 381 the Germans, not only revealed to patriotic Frenchmen the weak- nesses which had crept into the standing army and marred its effectiveness, but opened up again the old question of whether the republic was to endure. Captain Dreyfus was a Jew. He was twice tried and convicted. The first time he was sentenced to exile in French Guiana. After his second trial he was par- doned and later was vindicated of all the charges against him. His persecution was in part the result of an anti-Semitic agi- Anti- tation in which all the forces opposed to the republic again ^®°^***sm combined. Again the combination was in vain ; changes were effected by which the army was placed under the more direct control of the state and the republic still further strengthened. All these years an alliance had been maintained between the Church Catholic Church and the party opposed to the repubhc. The ^°^ ^***® feeling against the church was becoming more acute with the lapse of time. The story of the final break which separated church and state will be told later. 149. The Spread of Constitutional Government and the Extension of the Suffrage. — This period witnessed notable progress toward the establishment elsewhere of well-ordered, democratic forms of government. The situation in Spain in Establishment 1870 had been the occasion for the break between France and **^ Constitu- T-»'o-i -1 Tiir ' -, tional Govern- Prussia. Spam, then without a ruler, had for some time been ment in Spain torn by civil strife and was a prey to the ambitions of rival factions. For a little more than a year a republic existed, but its foundations were too insecure to make it a permanent arrange- ment. The people were not ready for such an experiment. Finally, in 1874, a representative of the Spanish Bourbons was acclaimed King by the army, "the most powerful body in the country," and a liberal constitution was adopted upon the lines laid down in England. As is the case in Italy, however, the Parties people have little genius for party government and are still ^ ^^^^ divided into groups where members are more interested in fighting for personal advantage than in furthering the interests of their country. The Suffrage in Austiia- Htmgary The Suffrage Question in Italy The Downfall of the Monarchy in Portugal Causes 382 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY In Austria-Hungary modifications in the government have been effected in recent years, especially in Austria, by means of which the voting privileges have been extended and the repre- sentation widened. The Slavs, however, are still denied any considerable participation in the affairs of the Dual Empire. In Austria the right to vote is enjoyed by practically every male citizen twenty-four years of age or over who has resided at least one year in the district where he votes. In Hungary the Magyar element still retains control, although representing less than half the population. ''In an aggregate population of some 20,000,000, today there are not more than 1,100,000 voters." The demands of the disfranchised element have been so strong of recent years that it is very probable that the near future will witness a decided change. In Italy the suffrage has been greatly widened. The law of 191 2 provides for universal manhood suffrage, except for men under 30 who have neither performed their military service nor learned to read and write. Previous to the passage of this law many were without the ballot because of their inability to satisfy the educational test required in their case. The depths of ignorance into which the population was plunged is clearly demonstrated by the fact that in 1904 only 29% of the male population over 21 were enrolled as voters.^ One of the minor states of Europe has joined the ranks of the republics in this era — the Httle state of Portugal. Portugal had long been cursed by faction struggles between the ''ins'' and the "outs" to control the governmental machinery, which was modelled after that of England, and the rulers showed themselves helpless to prevent the graft and corruption which such a contest fostered. They were probably themselves partners to this plundering process. As time passed the burden of taxation became heavier than the people could bear. When 1 The democratic wave has even been felt in the Near East in the Young Turk movement, described elsewhere; in the demand for a con- stitution in Persia; and in the creation of the Chinese Republic. THE ADVANCE OF DEMOCRACY 383 King Carlos placed Franco over the country as virtual dictator (1907), the people felt that the constitution had been trampled under foot. They immediately showed resentment at this interference with their liberties, and manifested their dissatis- faction in acts of disorder. On Feb. i, 1908, the king and Murder of his oldest son were murdered as they were returning to the ^°^^ FamUy palace. The late king's younger son was proclaimed king as Manuel II. He was unable, however, to master the situation, and a civil war broke out in 1910 in which the navy co- operated with the repubUcan element and forced the king to flee. A republic was then proclaimed, a provisional president Establishment selected, and this form of government to all appearances is °* *^® Republic Hkely to be maintained. In the far north the people's yearnings to express their nation- The Triumph aHty were apparent in the separation of Norway from Sweden, °^ Nationality after almost a hundred years of joint rule (18 14-1905). The people of Norway chose a relative of the Danish king as their ruler and, in remembrance of the days when the Norsemen ruled the seas, gave him the title of King Haakon. The Norwegians Woman are unique in having recognized the principle of woman suffrage ^**^''*8® more generally than any other state. They have even made it possible (19 13) for them to vote for members of the national legislative body and to sit as members of this body. The past half century has witnessed a similar progress along The Extension democratic hnes in England. In 1867 Benjamin DisraeU, who ^ Engiand'^*^^ was then a member of the cabinet, recognizing the popularity of a further extension of the franchise and possibly hoping Benjamin thereby to win votes for his party, carried through parliament fn^^Re^form a measure by which the workingmen in the cities finally received Bm of i867 recognition. Besides providing for further changes in the system of representation, it conferred the privilege of voting upon every person in a borough who owned or rented his house. Lodgers paying £10 a year rent were also included. In the counties all who owned or rented for life land that would yield £5 in rent to the owner and short-time tenants paying a yearly 384 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Gladstone and the Third Reform Bill The Problem of Militant Suffragism The Land Problem rental of £12 were given the suffrage. This excluded the country laborer. He must await the action of Gladstone in 1884, who, as prime minister, carried the Third Reform Bill, placing the right to vote practically upon the basis of manhood suffrage. At this time England was divided as nearly as might be into equal parliamentary dis- tricts. The women have been active in recent years in a campaign to include their sex among the voters. In 1905 they began to resort to tactics which fixed upon them the name of militant suffragettes, destroying property and creating dis- turbances in order to at- tract public attention to their demands. The out- break of the European War in 1 91 4 terminated their activities for the time being. 150. The Irish Question and the Reform of Parlia- ment. — One of the most perplexing problems which has confronted England in this period has been her relations with Ireland. The solution has taxed the energy and resources of some of her greatest statesmen. For some time previous to 1870 Ireland had been suffering from the curse of absentee land- lords, who took as little interest in their Irish tenants and treated them with as small consideration as was the case with William Ewart Gladstone The grand old man of English politics in the 19th century entered politics as a con- servative, but became liberal prime min- ister in 1869 and instituted a policy of internal reform. For the fourth time premier, unsuccessful in securing the assent of the House of Lords to his Home Rule Bill, he resigned his office in 1894, four years before his death. For sixty years he was prominently before the eyes of the English people. THE ADVANCE OF DEMOCRACY 385 the nobles of France and their peasants in the days before the French Revolution. Another evil of long standing which bore heavily upon the people was the financial support demanded for the Anglican Church, an institution in which they did not wor- The Anglican ship and in which they had not the slightest interest. Ever ^^""^ since the Catholic Emancipation Act a feeling of dissatisfaction was to be detected with the terms of the union with England, The Union and in many quarters it was felt that the Irish were entitled to a ''"^ England greater measure of home rule. Gladstone's name will always be associated with the Irish problem as the result of the long period of service which he gave to the island. Almost from the outset of his poHtical career his sympathies went out to the Irish, and in 1868 he set himself to ridding Ireland of the incubus of the Anglican Church, Gladstone carrying a resolution through the Commons in favor of discs- ^'JggstTbiish- tablishment. This resolution caused the overthrow of Disraeli, ment of the who was then prime minister, and the next year Gladstone as ^^l^ prime minister carried an act providing that the Anglican Church should no longer be recognized as the state church in Ireland, but should be treated as any other church estabHsh- ment, retaining, however, all its church buildings. Ample provision was also made for its clergy. Even before Gladstone's advocacy of the cause of the Irish, a great deal of political unrest had manifested itself in the island. This has continued throughout this entire period, from 1870 to the present. Several organizations were formed among the Irish to remedy the existing evils. In some cases, as with the Fenians, who were organized in the late sixties, they The Fenians went so far as to countenance and encourage conspiracies, having as their aim the overthrow of English rule by force. The most successful of these efforts to secure justice for Ireland was the Irish Land League, which was organized The Irish to remedy the abuses associated with land-holding. Their demands were embodied in the three F's — fair rent, fixity of tenure, and free sale of the tenant's rights. Gladstone's first Land League 386 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY The Irish Land Act The Question of Home Rule Parnell and the Irish Nationalist Party Opposition of Ulster effort to meet these demands by legislation only partially removed the injustices of which they complained, but by the passage of his act of 1881 a better system was introduced, guaranteeing to the tenant a security in his holding, which was unknown before, and compensating him for improvements of a permanent character in case of removal. An opportunity was afforded the peasant farmer of becoming the owner of his land, as the government stood ready to advance the purchase price (under certain conditions), allowing the peasant a certain length of time to repay the loan. The agitation over the land question gave way to a more persistent and a more bitter struggle, tending to separate Ireland from England and to place the fortunes of the island in the hands of the native Irish. The Irish Catholics, in particular, felt that England had never understood the Irish situation and that what- ever legislation was enacted in the EngHsh parliament showed a decided leaning toward the Protestant element in the north. They therefore organized a Home Rule Party to secure a radical rearrangement of the relations between the two islands. An Irish Nationalist party appeared, obstructing legislation in the English Parliament and seeking to attract attention to Irish conditions, allying itself with whichever party seemed inclined to admit the justice of its contentions. Charles Stuart Parnell was its greatest leader. Although he was of English descent and a Protestant, he threw himself heart and soul into the struggle to secure jus- tice for the country of his birth. One of the great difficulties that arose in any readjustment of the relations between the two countries was the enmity and racial differences between Ulster in the north and the Catholic and native element. The Ulster- men did not wish to be at the mercy of these advocates of home rule; they were in the main content to abide by existing arrange- ments. Gladstone was finally convinced of the merits of home rule and spent the closing years of his political activity in a vain effort to realize it. It is a question which time has not settled and it still remains one of the great issues. y THE ADVANCE OF DEMOCRACY 387 O H+, S- l-r g crq f^ f^ 388 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY The Home Rule Bill Prospects of Civil War Lloyd George and the Reform of Parliament The Budget of 1909 A most bitter struggle was on between the Ulstermen and the rest of Ireland when the war broke out in 19 14. The ministry and parliament, convinced at last of the necessity of a change, had enacted a home rule bill providing for a separate parUament for Ireland to legislate upon local matters, but allowing a certain number of Irish representatives to sit in the imperial parliament, as it was to be known, to act upon matters of defence and the like which applied to the whole empire. The Ulster counties were allowed to vote as to whether they would enter into the . arrangement or remain as they were for six years. It was inti- mated by the supporters of the act that at the end of this time some provision would be made for a federal union acceptable to them. So aroused were the opponents of the measure that volunteers were enrolled in Belfast and other cities of the north, and a civil war seemed imminent. Until the spring of 1916, the European War seemed tohaveobhterated these differences for the time being, and the home rule problem seemed to be in abey- ance. Then came the misguided movement under Sir Roger Casement and the Sinn Fein Society. Relying upon German assistance, a revolt was started in Dublin which was sternly suppressed. Several of the leaders were executed, among them Sir Roger Casement. The English constitution has recently experienced a decided modification in the curtailment of the power of the House of Lords. The question of the right of this body to block measures passed by the lower house had been raised many times in history, but without result. The attempt of Lloyd George as Chancellor of the Exchequer to carry a somewhat unusual budget through both houses in 1909 forced the question to an issue. . The government had been running behind financially, and new means of taxation had to be devised to cover the increasing expenditures and deficit. Lloyd George conceived the idea of placing a heavier burden upon the wealthy classes, especially those in possession of great estates or valuable city properties. The lords were directly affected by these levies and time and THE ADVANCE OF DEMOCRACY 389 of House of Lords again interposed their veto. This right to kill a measure by a Veto Power veto was contested, and a bill was finally passed (191 1) providing (i) that the Lords could not veto a money bill and (2) that any measure which had passed the Commons in three successive sessions and had been vetoed by the upper house should be- come a law without their ap- proval, providing two years had elapsed since its introduc- tion. This was a definite tri- umph for the principle of democracy, as the House of Lords was one of the few twentieth century survivals of the power of the old aristo- cratic families of England. In England we find de- veloped most thoroughly the system of representative gov- ernment. With this principle was also developed that of popular liberty. These two ideals are fundamental to our own government, and there- fore it is of especial value for us to summarize first the rights enjoyed by Englishmen and, because won by Englishmen, David Lloyd George Premier David Lloyd George is the foremost man in British politics. In Asquith's cabinet, as Chancellor of the Exchequer, he was the real force behind the reform measures of the ministry and is an outspoken cham- pion of democratic ideas. In the war cabinet, he filled with distinction the highly important position of Minister of Munitions, and his services in or- ganizing the industrial forces of the country on a scale of high efficiency made him the man of the hour. Summary of the English Government of Today enjoyed by Americans; and second, the essentials of the government of England today. When one examines the amendments to the United States Con- stitution, there appear the rights won by EngHshmen during a struggle lasting many centuries while continental Europe groaned under the tyranny of feudal lords or ''Divine right" rulers. These basic rights may be summarized briefly as follows: (i) 390 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY The Lords freedom of religion; (2) freedom of speech and of the press; (3) freedom of assembly and of petition for a redress of griev- ances; (4) security of person and property; (5) just trials by jury and reasonable penalties. Parliamentary government in England won a complete triumph by the Act of 191 1. In form a monarchy, the govern- ment in some respects responds more directly and quickly to the popular will than in the United States. The reformed House of Lords is composed of (i) peers of England by descent or by new creation; (2) lords spiritual, i.e. the two archbishops and certain bishops of the Anglican Church; (3) sixteen Scot- tish peers elected for the term of parliament to represent the whole body of Scottish noblemen, and twenty-eight Irish peers elected for life to represent the whole body of Irish nobles; and (4) four leading representatives of the most eminent authorities on law, chosen for life. A drastic reconstitution of the House of Lords was considered by the ministry in 191 1, and further changes may be expected after the unusual conditions produced by the European War of 19 14 have been eliminated. The Commons The British House of Commons is composed of 670 members: 465 for England, 30 for Wales, 72 for Scotland, and 103 for Ireland. They are chosen in a general election and hold office for 5 years, unless parliament is previously dissolved. Whenever a vacancy occurs, a special or by-election is held to fill the office. After a general election has shown which party the people wish to hold office, the leader of that party in parliament becomes premier, or prime minister. He chooses from parliament those members of his party who will work in sympathy with him to fill the important cabinet offices. After a merely formal acceptance of this list of names by the ruler, the new cabinet begins its work, which is to formulate the policy of the state concerning all important matters and to present for parhament's consideration bills embodying this policy. If the cabinet, or *' government," as it is popularly called, fails to secure the passage of an important measure or is subjected to a vote The " Government " or Cabinet THE ADVANCE OF DEMOCRACY 391 392 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY THE ADVANCE OF DEMOCRACY 393 of censure, it may either resign, thus giving way to a new cabinet representing the opposition party, or ask the king to dissolve parhament, thereby appeaHng to the voters to elect a new House of Commons in which the ministry's party shall have a larger majority. 151. The Separation of Church and State in Europe. — Europe has not only been undergoing a pohtical transformation since 1870, but has likewise been experiencing radical social and intellectual changes. References have already been made to the changed relations between church and state in Ireland. A Disestabiish- similar step was taken in Wales (19 14), where the bulk of the ™®°* ^" ^^'^^ population worshipped in other churches.^ Upon the continent the power of the church was still felt in politics, especially in France and Italy. Mention has been made of the support given by the church to the foes of the newly formed French republic. This attitude was bitterly resented by the civil authorities, especially after the Dreyfus scandal, and efforts began to be directed toward dissolving, the bonds which united the two. The leaders of the church showed an unwillingness to cooperate with the government, and the government felt compelled to take steps separating church and state. The change was accompanied by rioting Separation and the destruction of property by Catholic partisans. By ^ France the law of 1905 the Concordat of 1801 was set aside, but the people were allowed to form associations for the conduct of religious worship. These do not receive any aid or support from the state. The church property was to be at the dis- posal of these *' Associations of Worship." The opposition of Pope Pius X to these arrangements prompted the passing in 1907 of a law by which the use of the churches was to be gratuitious and regulated by contracts between the governing authorities and the priests. Ecclesiastical buildings other than churches have been taken over by the government and put to other uses. « ^ The act was suspended until after the European War of 19 14. 394 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY In Italy the occupation of Rome in 187 1 placed the Italian government in an embarrassing position with reference to the pope, who thereafter regarded himself as a prisoner in the Vatican. The Catholic Church continued to be the religion of the state, and similar conditions prevailed in Italy as in France. Those Catholics whose loyalty to the papacy outweighed their patriotism formed a clerical cHque and obstructed many of the measures undertaken by the government. When Leo XIII became pope, he showed a greater breath of view and a better appreciation of the situ- ation than his predecessor, and his attitude did much to smooth over the difficulties which arose between the papal court and the government. His successor, Pope Pius X, although respon- sible in part for the crisis in France, succeeded in maintaining in Italy the conditions which prevailed under his predecessor. The relations between church and state are still deter- mined by the Law of Papal Guarantees passed in 187 1. The object sought by this law was the ideal of Cavour, a " free church in a free state." By its provisions the pope's person is declared sacred and inviolable; he has his own court and diplomatic representatives, his own postal and telegraph ser- vice; and certain places have been set apart as entirely under his sovereignty. Bismarck was involved in a bitter struggle with the Catholic Church in Germany in the early part of the period. In his efforts to strengthen the power of the state in Prussia, especially in its control of education, he encountered opposition from the Catholics and succeeded in securing the passage of some very Pope Leo XIII THE ADVANCE OF DEMOCRACY 395 oppressive measures known as the May Laws. ''We will not Bismarck and go to Canossa," was his famous utterance, in which he likened * ^ *^ the situation to the mediaeval contest between Henry IV and Pope Gregory. The struggle was known as the Kulturkampf, or war with the church. Recognizing socialism and not the church as his real opponent, Bismarck effected a compromise with the latter upon the accession of Leo XIII, whom he believed friendly to him. The spread of secular education gave rise to conflicts between the church and people in Spain, where the Catholic Church retains perhaps as great power as anywhere in Europe, but thus far no radical change has taken place. The establishment of a republic in Portugal was the signal for a violent expul- sion of the religious orders from the country and the separa- tion of church and state, as these changes were an essential part of the republican program. Everywhere, with the pos- sible exception of the Balkan region, the hold of the church upon the people as an institution has been weakened. This does not necessarily imply any abandonment of religion, but a denial to the church organism of that authority which had its origin in the dark ages. Everywhere the power of the people has been in evidence, seeking to throw off anything savoring of tyranny, be it in the domain of politics or of religion. 152. The Spread of Socialism and the Increase of Social Legislation. — The spread of socialism and of sociaHstic teach- ings has undoubtedly encouraged this tendency, and every coun- try has witnessed an increase both in the number of the sociaHsts and in their political activity. Today the Social Democrats are credited with no out of the 397 members in the Reichstag. In France they are very strongly represented in the Chamber of ^ France Deputies and have been recognized in the make-up of minis- tries; for example, the SociaHst Briand is now serving for the third time as premier, and his predecessor, Viviani, is also a member of a sociaHst party. In Italy they are likewise an 396 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY In Germany Social Legislation in England Workingmen's Compensation Old Age Pensions aggressive element, but have perhaps taken a less conspicuous part in the management of affairs. So powerful did the socialists become in Germany in the first decade of the Empire that Bismarck was alarmed over the situation and sought by repressive legislation on the one hand and by relief measures on the other to undermine their power and alleviate social unrest. The tremendous industrial develop- ment which marked these years brought with it an increase in the industrial population and gave rise to problems similar to those which accompanied the Industrial Revolution elsewhere. Although the socialists have never been powerful as a political party in England, schemes of social reform have occupied the attention of parliament as in no other part of Europe, except perhaps in Germany. This has been in response to a demand — not always voiced by the workers themselves but no less clearly recognized — that something be done to remove the curse of poverty and the misery so common in many of the great industrial centres. Investigations carried on by experts in London and in York revealed the most glaring conditions and showed the necessity of remedial legislation. The early factory legislation had done much to improve the lot of the workers, but had neither raised wages nor remedied the de- moralizing effect of irregular employment. Beginning in 1906, parliament, therefore, passed employer's compensation laws, compulsory insurance acts, and old age pensions, striving to safeguard at one and the same time both state and worker. In 1906 a Workingmen's Compensation Act made every employer liable for compensation in case of injury, except where the employee had been guilty of "serious and wilful misconduct." The law, as finally enacted, protects all manual laborers and domestic servants receiving less than £250 a year. The Old Age Pension Act of 1909 awards a pension to every person, male or female, over seventy years of age who has been a British subject for twenty years and a resi- dent of Great Britain for twelve, provided his or her income THE ADVANCE OF DEMOCRACY 397 is less than £31.105. The most recent act, that of 191 1, provides a system of insurance, designed (i) to safeguard workers in the case of loss of health; (2) to prevent and cure sickness, and (3) to insure against unemployment. All workers having less than a specified income from property must insure and pay a certain quota themselves. The bal- ance is made up by contributions from the state and the em- ployer. In certain cases, where the wages are very low, the worker's share falls upon the employer. In return for these payments the worker is entitled to sick benefits, free medical attendance, and free treatment at hospitals to be supplied by the state. The provision against unemployment only applies to two trades, building and engineering, and provides for pay- ments in case of unemployment not due to misconduct, strikes, or lockouts. The fund is maintained by contributions from the employees, the employers, and the state. These measures were carried through parliament largely through the instrumen- taUty of Lloyd George, Chancellor of the Exchequer, one of the Lioyd George most commanding figures of recent times. With this legislation went an effort, for which Lloyd George was also responsible, to shift the burden of taxation to shoulders better able to bear the load, as was illustrated by his budget of 1909, which occasioned the bitter struggle between the House of Commons and the House of Lords. As the worker is also a voter and his voting strength is on the increase, the party in power must aim to preserve his support if it would hold its power. In France the form of socialism known as Syndicalism has Syndicalism secured a strong foothold and from there has spread to other parts of the world. The Syndicalists would organize all workingmen into one grand consolidated union in order to dominate the whole field of industry by the strength of their numbers and solidarity. As yet they have had little influence in shaping legislation. The power of the industrial classes was illustrated in the great railway strike of 19 10, which threatened 398 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Darwin Pasteur The X-rays The Emancipation of Woman to paralyze industry throughout the country. Briand made his name famous by breaking the strike. He summoned all the railroad employees back to their work by issuing a miH- tary call to the colors — a summons which no patriotic French- man could well refuse to heed. 153. Intellectual and Scientific Progress in Europe. — The various measures to which references have been made indicate an intellectual progress on the part of the people of Europe during this period which itself calls for special mention. This was the age of Darwin, the author of a theory of the origin of species which shook the scientific world to its very foundations. His results, published in 1859, have furnished the basis for much of the study of biology since that time. The greatest work of Pasteur was done during this period, and his researches have had much to do with the elimination of disease and suffering. The progress in sanitation has enabled the United States Gov- ernment to carry to a successful conclusion a great work such as the Panama Canal, as the scourges of malaria and of yellow fever were responsible in no small measure for the failure of the French company to complete the task. Roentgen and his X-rays have given us a new science, that of radiography, and illustrate the scientific marvels of the present age. These and other discoveries in the fields of physics, chemistry, and mathe- matics helped to make possible the wonderful results in the industrial world which were described in a preceding chapter. With this intellectual progress woman has been still further emancipated from her position of inferiority and has demon- strated as never before her ability to compete with man in the various spheres of activity open to both. She has been admitted to higher institutions of learning and has entered many of the professions. In some cases, as has been noted, she has been intrusted with the ballot and with political office. The names of women are to be found in ever-increasing numbers among the great leaders of thought and among the benefactors of mankind. Taking Europe as a whole, one of the most important ten- THE ADVANCE OF DEMOCRACY 399 dencies of recent times has been a concerted movement in favor The Peace of peace — a peace secured not at the expense of costly arma- ^°^®™®*^* ments and heavy war budgets, crushing the people under their weight, but a peace resting upon the more permanent foundation of reason and good will. The necessity for a readjustment of their relations to each other was brought home to each nation with greater force as time passed and their rivalry became more acute in the economic and poUtical world. Many of the states felt that their internal development was seriously handicapped and retarded by the diversion of so much of their labor and wealth into channels which yielded little real return. The world was surprised in 1898 by the announcement that the autocratic ruler of Russia, the Tsar Nicholas II, had summoned all the powers represented at his court to a congress to consider the advisability of lightening the military burdens under which their peoples staggered. In 1899, in response to the call, the first Hague Conference assembled to discuss his proposals. The opposition of Germany to any change in her military system shattered the hope of a general disarmament, but the delegates agreed to maintain a permanent court of arbitration at the Hague to which nations might submit their differences if they so desired. The conference gave a great impetus to the use of arbitration and mediation, and when the second conference met in 1907 the advocates of peace won still further advantages which, however sHght, seemed to bring nearer the desired goal. This second conference was much more representative in char- acter than the first, so much so in fact that it savored more of an international congress than a European assembly. Many obstacles block the path to the attainment of world peace. ''The vested interests which thrive on armaments, the Yellow Press which lives by sensation, the nervous patriot who dreams of invasion, the soldier who glorifies the bracing influence of war, are formidable but not insuperable obstacles to the reign of law." The existence of interparliamentary unions, and the peace propaganda of individuals like Andrew Carnegie, Baron 400 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Etournelles de Constant, and Baroness von Suttner are little by little bearing fruit. Although unable to prevent the European War of 1 9 14, their labors have made the people realize as never before the horrors and disasters consequent upon war. ^GGESTIVE TOPICS AND QUESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY I. What restrictions were placed on the Roman Catholic Church by Bismarck? 2 . Show in tabular form the government of the German Empire, making as column headings: elements; how chosen; term; powers; limi- tations. 3. Show that the Hohenzollerns beheve in the Divine Right of Kings. 4. To what extent is the question of states' rights also a German problem? 5. Define ''kulturkampf." 6. To what did Bismarck refer when he said, "We will not go to Canossa." 7. Explain the origin of the socialist movement in Germany and give a biographical sketch of Karl Marx. 8. Explain how Germany provides for the working class. 9. Discuss Bis- marck's views concerning protection. 10. What are the main features of Germany's protectionist system? 11, Review the growth of the Russian empire touching on these topics: the dukes of Moscow; the Golden Horde; Ivan the Terrible; Peter the Great; Catherine the Great; Alexander I. 12. Explain the origin and growth of nihilism. 13. Comment upon the phrase "serf of the state." 14. Give an account of the industrial revo- lution in Russia and discuss its political results. 15. Compare Witte with Colbert. 16. Discuss these topics: censorship of the press; bureaucracy; Russification of Finland; policy of Plehve; "Bloody Sunday"; terrorists; zemstva; duma; general strike; "Black Hundred"; Council of the Empire. 17. Under what circumstances was the Third Repubhc of France estab- lished? 18. Compare the invasions of France of 1870 and 1914. 19. Give an account of the commune and distinguish between a communist and a sociahst. 20. Show in tabular form similar to that in question 2 the pres- ent government of France. 2 1 . Give an account of the origin and outcome of the Dreyfus case. 22. Summarize the history of Spain from the time of Napoleon to the present day, touching on these topics: conditions in Spain during Napoleon's rule; the constitution of 181 2; the restoration of the Bourbons; the question of the Spanish candidature; the CarUst revolt; Spain since 1870. 23. Describe the Italian constitution. 24. Discuss the extension of the suffrage in Italy. 25. Discuss the ideals of the political parties of modern Italy. 26. Give an account of the ministry of Crispi. 27. What are the chief problems of modern Italy? 28. What is meant by the " Victorian Era"? 29. Give biographical sketches of DisraeU and Glad- stone. 30. Show that parliament really rules England. 31. Contrast the responsiveness of the British and American governments to popular will. 32. Contrast the abolition of religious grievances in France, Germany, and England. $3- What is the Irish question? 34. Summarize the main points in the relations between England and Ireland since the outbreak of the THE ADVANCE OF DEMOCRACY 401 European War of 1914. 35. Give the provisions of recent British legisla- tion concerning taxation, old age pensions. Collateral Reading I. Organization of the German Empire. Priest, Germany since 1740, pp. 107-23. Tower, Germany of Today, pp. 25-68. Seignobos, Contemporary Civilization, pp. 296-99. Ogg, The Governments of Europe, pp. 198-244. Hayes, Modern Europe, Vol. II, pp. 397-403. II. The Chancellorship of Bismarck. Hazen, Europe since 1815, pp. 305-23. Priest, pp. 124-45. Orth, SociaHsm and Democracy in Europe, pp. 146-70. Jane, Metternich to Bismarck, pp. 253-74. Hayes, Vol. II. pp. 404- 15- III. Socialism in Germany. Roberts, Monarchical Socialism in Germany, Chapters I, II, V, VI, VIII, X. Howard, The Cause and Extent of the Recent Industrial Progress of Germany, Chapters III, V. Macdonald, The Socialist Movement, pp. 205-17. Orth (as in II), also pp". 171-206. Hayes, Vol. II, pp. 253-61. IV. Russia to the War with Japan. Hazen, pp. 645-80. Van Gergen, Story of Russia, Chapters I, VII, VIII, X, XIV, XVII-XIX, XXI, XXIV-XXVIII. Rob- inson and Beard, Development of Modern Europe, Vol. II, pp. 261-89. Hayes, Vol. II, pp. 452-78. V. Russia from the War with Japan to the Present Day. Hazen, pp. 706-18. Van Bergen, Chapter XXIX. Robinson and Beard, Vol. II, pp. 289-302. Hayes, Vol. II, pp. 478-87. VI. The Papacy under Pius IX. Barry, The Papacy in Modern Times, pp. 227-52. Hayes, Vol. II, pp. 226-30. VII. The Third Republic of France. Poincare, How France is Governed (entire). Ogg, pp. 301-34. Hazen, pp. 329-75. Gooch, History of Our Time, pp. 34-56. Orth, pp. 75-117. Macdonald, pp. 217-21. Robinson and Beard, Vol. II, pp. 151-79. Hayes, Vol. II, pp. 331-67. VIII. England between the Reform Waves. Hazen, pp. 439-96. McCarthy, A Short History of Our Times, PP- 397-413, 432-40- Larson, History of England, pp. 535-56. Ogg, PP- 80-5, 147-54, 176-9. Cross, A History of England and Greater Britain, pp. 928-82. Hayes, Vol. II. pp. 278-90. IX. The Cabinet System and Parliament. Bagehot, The Enghsh Constitution, Chapter II. Ogg, pp. 48-76, II 7-147. Robinson and Beard, Vol. II, pp. 193-8. Ilbert, Parliament, pp. 1-219. Cross, pp. 529, 614-7, 642, 667, 738, 917, 1078-80. Hayes, Vol. II, 290-7. 402 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY X. The Irish Question. Johnston and Spencer, Ireland's Story, Chapters XVII-XXX. Robinson and Beard, Vol. II, pp. 220-32. Hazen, pp. 497- 517. Larson, pp. 580-92; 631-2. McCarthy, Chapters XXIII, XXIV, XXVIII, XXIX, XXX, XXXIX. Cross, pp. 880-2, 916-20, 932-3, 943-4, 950-2, 991-5, 1086-9. Hayes, Vol. II, pp. 319-26. XL Recent English History. Tuell and Hatch, Readings in English History, pp. 446-74. Ogg, pp. 97-116, 158-66,183-91. Gooch, pp. 1-33. Beard, English Historians (Clarke), pp. 608-22. Orth, pp. 207-49. Mac- donald, pp. 229-35. Larson, pp. 617-30, 636-9. Synge, Social life in England, pp. 369-93. Cross, pp. 1071-86. Hayes, Vol. II, pp. 307-19. Source Studies 1. Bismarck and modern Germany. William 11. Views on Cabinet gov- ernment. Robinson and Beard, Readings in Modern European His- tory, Vol. II, pp. 176-8. Kulturkampf. Ibid., pp. 178-85. State socialism. Ibid., pp. 185-92. WilUam II's speech on German world policy (1897). Ibid., pp. 193-6. Conservative election manifesto on imperialism and sociaHsm. Ibid., pp. 196-8. William II's first ad- dress to the Reichstag. Ibid., pp. 198-200. The causes of friction between William II and Bismarck. Ibid., pp. 200-2. William II's letter to Bismarck on his resignation. Ibid., pp. 202-3. Socialism in the election of 1907. Ibid., pp. 204-7. 2. The Russian Empire in the Nineteenth Century. Alexander I and his plans for reform. Ibid., pp. 338-43. Nicholas I's aboHtion of the PoHsh constitution. Ibid., pp. 343-5. Domestic hfe in the family of a Russian noble. Ibid., pp. 345-8. Emancipation of the serfs. Ibid., pp. 348-53. Kropotkin, Terror in Russia. Prisons, Chapters I and II. Executions, Chapter III. The exiles. Chapter IV. Provoking conduct of the poHce, Chapter VI. The union of Russian men. Chap- ter VII. Repression, Chapter VIII. Nihihsm. Robinson and Beard, Vol. II, pp. 353-4. Siberia. Ibid., pp. 354-62. Letter of the revo- lutionary committee to Alexander III. Ibid., pp. 364-67. The in- dustrial revolution in Russia. Ibid., pp. 367-71. The struggle for liberty under Nicholas II. Ibid., pp. 371-81. 3. Austria-Hungary since 1866. /6z'J., pp. 165-75. 4. France under the Third RepubHc. The estabUshment of the third repub- lic. /67'(/., pp. 208-15. The Dreyfus affair. /6J(/., pp. 219-23. Sepa- ration of church and state. Ibid., pp. 223-33. Political parties in France. Ibid., pp. 233-7. 5. Political reforms in England. Extension of the suffrage. Tuell and Hatch, Readings in English History, pp. 437-42. Cheyney, Readings in English History, pp. 735-9. Robinson and Beard, Vol. II, pp. 239- 58. Parliamentary reform. Cheyney, p. 747. Tuell and Hatch, THE ADVANCE OF DEMOCRACY 403 pp. 459-66. Hayes, British Social Politics, pp. 421-505. White and Notestein, Source Problems in English History, pp. 331-66. Local government reform. Robinson and Beard, Vol. II, pp. 267-9. Cabinet government. Ibid., pp. 258-266. Tuell and Hatch, pp. 467-74. 6. Social reforms in England. Freedom of discussion and religious toler- ance. Robinson and Beard, Vol. II, pp. 270-8. Cheyney, pp. 674-9, 739-42. Humanitarian legislation. Cheyney, pp. 669-74. Rob- inson and Beard, Vol. II, pp. 279-86. Workmen's compensation. Hayes, pp. 20-76. Trade unionism. Hayes, pp. 77-106. Child welfare. Hayes, pp. 107-129. Kendall, Source-book of EngUsh His- tory, pp. 401-6. Old age pensions. Hayes, pp. 130-184. The unem- ployed. Hayes, pp. 185-216. Sweated labor. Hayes, pp. 217-62. The housing and land problem. Hayes, pp. 263-346. The Lloyd George budget. Hayes, pp. 263-420. Tuell and Hatch, pp. 446-58. 7. The war against poverty, socialism. Extracts from More's Utopia. Robinson and Beard, Vol. II, pp. 478-81. Owen's reasons for expect- ing the speedy arrival of the millenium. Ibid., pp. 481-3. Fourier's scheme for communal societies. Ibid., pp. 483-5. The principles of trade unionism. Ibid., pp. 485-7. The extent of poverty in the EngHsh city of York. Ibid., pp. 487-9. Extracts from the Com- munist Manifesto. Ibid., pp. 489-493. Bullock, Readings in Eco- nomics, pp. 668-81. The socialist program. Robinson and Beard, Vol. II, pp. 493-5. A Fabian program of reform. Ibid., pp. 495-7. Arguments against socialism. Ibid., pp. 497-500. Bullock. Ibid., pp. 681-705. Leo XIII on socialism and labor reforms. Robinson and Beard, Vol. II, pp. 500-5. 8. The Irish question. How tithes for protestant clergy were collected in Ireland. Robinson and Beard, Vol. II, pp. 293-95. John Bright's plea for the disestablishment of the Anglican church in Ireland. Ibid., pp. 295-7. The demand for land reform in Ireland. Ibid., pp. 297-300. Gladstone on Home Rule. Ibid., pp. 301-2. English argument against Home Rule. Ibid., pp. 302-5. Tuell and Hatch, pp. 442-6. Irish Home Rule Bill in the House of Commons. Cheyney, pp. 748-51- Suggestions for Map Work I. On an outHne map of Europe indicate the geographical location of industries. 2. On an outline map of Europe show the territorial arrange- ment of Europe at the present time. 3. Show the distribution of the princi- pal races. 4. Of population. 5. On an outline map of the British Isles indicate all places mentioned in this chapter. Map References Current periodicals. Year-books. Robertson-Bartholomew. Historical Atlas of Modern Europe. Oxford Press. Europe. Distribution of Population, No. 2. Ethnographical, No. 3. Europe Industrial and Economic, No. 4. 404 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Bibliography Andrews. Development of Modern Europe. Scribner. Bagehot. The English Constitution. Appleton. Barry. The Papacy in Modern Times. Holt. Beard. Introductio?i to the English Historians. Macmillan. Bullock. Selected Readings in Economics. Ginn. Cheyney. Industrial and Social History of England. Macmillan. Cheyney. Readings in English History. Ginn. Cross. A History of England and Greater Britain. Macmillan. Duruy. History of Modern Times. Holt. Ellwood. Sociology and Modern Social Problems. American Book Company. Fyffe. History of Modern Europe. Holt. Gardiner. Stiidenfs History of England. Longmans. Gooch. History of Our Time. Holt. Grant. History of Europe. Longmans. Hayes. British Social Politics. Ginn. Hayes. The Political and Social History of Modern Europe, Vol. II, Macmillan. Hazen. Europe since 1813. Holt. Henderson. A Short History of Germany. Two volumes in one. Macmillan. Howard. The Cause and Extent of the Recent hidustrial Progress of Germany. Houghton Mifflin. Howard. The German Empire. Macmillan. Hunter. Socialists at Work. Macmillan. Ilbert. Parliament. Holt. Jane. Metternich to Bismarck, 1815-1878. Oxford University Press. Johnston and Spencer. Ireland's Story. Houghton MifHin. Kendall. Source Book of English History. Macmillan. Elropotkin. Terror in Russia. Methuen and Company. Larson. History of England. Holt. Lichtenberger. Germany and its Evolution in Modern Times. Holt. McCarthy. A Short History of Our Times. Harper. Macdonald. The Socialist Movement. Holt. Miiller. Political History of Recent Times. American Book Company. Ogg. Governments of Europe. Macmillan. Orth. Socialism and Democracy in Europe. Holt. Pbincare. How France is Governed. McBride. Priest. Germany since 1740. Ginn. Roberts. Monarchical Socialism in Germany. Scribner. Robinson and Beard. Development of Modern Europe. Volume II. Ginn. Robinson and Beard. Readings in Modern European History. Volume 11. Ginn. Rose, The Development of the European Nations, i87o-igi4. Two Volumes in one. Putnam. Seignobos. Contemporary Civilization. Scribner. Seignobos. Political History of Contemporary Europe. Holt. THE ADVANCE OF DEMOCRACY 405 Simkhovitch. Marxism vs. Socialism. Holt. Synge. Social Life in England. Barnes. ^ SjE^XIfUme' V, section II. Volume VI. Sections I and II. Putnam. ,. , „. o- TueU and Hatch. Selected Readings in English History. C^mn. VanBereen Story of Russia. American Book Company. White and Notestein. Source Problems in English History. Harper. APPENDIX I IMPORTANT EVENTS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY 1682-1725 Peter the Great 1688 The Glorious Revolution in England 1689 Bill of Rights 1697 Peace of Ryswick 1701 Act of Settlement in England 1701-1714 War of the Spanish Succession 1703 Methuen Treaty between England and Portugal 1707 Parliamentary Union of England and Scotland 1709 Pultava 1713 Peace of Utrecht 1740-1786 Frederick the Great (born in 171 2) 1740-1748 War of the Austrian Succession 1748 Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle 1751-1761 Struggle for India 1754 Albany Congress. Franklin's Plan 1754-1763 French and Indian War 1756-1763 Seven Years' War 1765 Stamp Act 1770-1782 Lord North's Ministry 1772 First Partition of Poland 1775-1783 War for American Independence 1783 Peace of Versailles 1783-1801 Ministry of William Pitt the Younger 1787 Assembly of Notables 1789 Meeting of the Estates General 1789 Fall of the Bastille. Abolition of Privilege. Declaration of the Rights of Man. Removal of the King and Queen to Paris. 1791-1792 Legislative Assembly 1792 Outbreak of War between France and Europe 1792-1795 National Convention 1792 September Massacres. Abolition of the Monarchy in France 1793 Execution of Louis XVI 1793 Committee of Public Safety 1793-1794 Reign of Terror 1794 Fall of Robespierre (Thermidor) 408 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY 1795-1799 The Directory 1795 Final Partition of Poland 1796 Bonaparte's Campaign in Italy 1797 Peace of Campo Formio 1798 Battle of the Nile 1799 Bonaparte's Coup-d'Etat 1799-1804 The Consulate 1800 Marengo. Hohenlinden 1801 Parliamentary Union of Ireland with Great Britain 1802 Peace of Amiens 1804-1814 Napoleon I, Emperor 1805 Trafalgar. AusterUtz 1806 End of the Holy Roman Empire. Jena 1806 Berlin Decree 1807 Abolition of the Slave Trade by England 1807 Friedland. Peace of Tilsit 1807 Orders in Council blockading France 1807 Milan Decree 1808-1814 Peninsular War 1809 Wagram 1812 Invasion of Russia 1813-1814 War of Liberation 1813 Dresden. Leipzig, " Battle of the Nations " 1814 First Abdication of Napoleon 1814-1815 Congress of Vienna 1814 Invention of the Locomotive 1815 Waterloo. Foundation of the Holy Alliance 1819 Carlsbad Decrees 1821-1832 War of Greek Independence 1830 July Revolution at Paris 1830 Opening of the Manchester and Liverpool Railway 1830-1848 Reign of Louis Philippe 1830 Independence of Belgium 1832 First Reform Act in England 1833 Formation of the Zollverein 1837-1901 Reign of Queen Victoria 1838 Beginning of the Chartist Movement. Anti-corn Law League 1840 Penny Postage in England 1842 Treaty of Nanking between England and China 1846 Repeal of the Corn Laws 1848 February Revolution in Paris. Revolutions in Italy, Austria and Germany 1848-1849 Parliament of Frankfort 1850 Conference at Olmiitz 1851 Coup-d'fitat of Louis Napoleon 1852-1870 Second French Empire 1854-1856 Crimean War APPENDIX I 409 1857-1858 Sepoy Mutiny 1858-1860 Treaties of Tien-tsin and Peking 1859 War of France and Sardinia against Austria. Solferino 1860 Expedition of Garibaldi 1861-1888 Reign of William I of Prussia (German Emperor after 187 1) 1864 War of Austria and Prussia against Denmark 1866 Austro-Prussian War. Konigratz 1866 Atlantic Cable Successful 1867 Second Reform Act in England 1867 Dominion of Canada 1869 Disestablishment of the Irish Church 1869 Opening of the Suez Canal 1870-1871 Franco-German War 1870 Sedan. Establishment of the Third Republic in France 1870 Irish Land Act 1871 Establishment of the German Empire. Peace of Frankfort 1871 Abolition of Feudalism in Japan 1875 Adoption of a Republican Constitution in France 1877-1878 Russo-Turkish War 1878 Peace of San Stefano. Congress of Berlin 1879 Dual alliance between Austria-Hungary and Germany (not pub lie until 1888) 1881 Gladstone's Irish Land Act 1882 Triple Alliance between Austria, Germany and Italy 1884 BerKn Conference 1885 Third Reform Act in England 1888 Beginning of the reign of William II of Germany 1890 Dismissal of Bismarck 1892 Witte Minister of Finance in Russia 1892-1894 Last Ministry of Gladstone 1894 The Dreyfus case 1894-1895 War between Japan and China 1897 Lease of Kiao-chao by Germany 1898 Spanish-American War 1898 Lease of Port Arthur by Russia 1898 Lease of Wei-hai-wei by England 1899 First Hague Peace Conference 1899-1902 Boer War 1900 The Boxer Revolt 1900 Buelow Chancellor of Germany 1900 Commonwealth of Australia 1901 Death of Queen Victoria. Accession of Edward VII 1902 Anglo- Japanese Alliance 1902 Education Act in England 1903 Irish Land Act 1904-1905 Russo-Japanese War 1905 Fall of Port Arthur. Mukden. 410 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROEPAN HISTORY 1906 Separation Law of Church and State in France 1906 The First Duma 1906 Workingmen's Compensation Act in England 1908 Young Turk Movement in Ottoman Empire. Annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Independence of Bulgaria 1908 Asquith prime minister 1908 Annexation of Congo Free State by Belgium 1909 Old Age Pension Act in England 1909 Revolution in Constantinople. Accession of Mohammed V 1909 Lloyd George's Budget 1910 The Union of South Africa 1910 Estabhshment of the Republic of Portugal 1911 Parliament Act in England 1911 Chinese Republic Proclaimed 1911-1912 The Turco-Italian War 1912-1913 The Balkan Wars 1914 DisestabHshment of the Anglican Church in Wales 1914 Asquith's Home Rule Bill. Discontent in Ulster 1914 Outbreak of The European War 1914 England announces the annexation of Cyprus and Egypt 1916 Entrance of Italy into The European War 1915 Bulgaria joins the Central Powers 1916 Entrance of Roumania into The European War APPENDIX II GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY ZBooks marked (*) are especially useful for high school classes.l American Year Book (Published Annually) Appleton. $3 . 00 Andrews Historical Development of Modern Europe Putnam. Two volumes in one. $2.75 Asakawa The Russo-Japanese Conflict Houghton Mifflin. $2.00 Bagehot The English Constitution Appleton. Net, $2.00 Barry The Papacy in Modern Times Holt. $.50 * Beard Introduction to the English His- torians Macmillan. $1.60 * Becker Beginnings of the American People. Houghton Mifflin. $1.25 * Belloc The French Revolution Holt. $.50 Beveridge What is Back of the War? Bobbs-Merrill. Net, $2.00 Bland, Brown, and Tawney English Economic History: Select Documents Macmillan. $2.00 Bradley Canada Holt. $.50 Brinkley-Kikuchi .... A History of the Japanese People . . . The Encyclopedia Bri- tannica Co. $ 3.00 Bryce The Ancient Roman Empire and the British Empire in India Oxford University Press. $1.90 Bullard The Diplomacy of the Great War Macmillan. $1.25 * Bullock Selected Readings in Economics Ginn. $2.25 Burgess The European War of 19 14 McClurg. Net, $1.00 Buxton Europe and the Turks Methuen Co. London. Net, IS. Cambridge Modern History Volumes V, VI, VIII, IX, X, XI, XII Macmillan. $4.00 each * Cantlie and Jones . . . Sun Yat Sen Revell. $1.25 Cesaresco Cavour Macmillan. $.75 Channing The Jeffersonian System Harper. Net, $2.00 Cheyney , European Background of American History Harper. Net, $2.00 * %^ Introduction to the Industrial and Social History of England Macmillan. $1.40 412 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY * Cheyney Readings in English History Ginn. $i.8o i * Short History of England. . Ginn. $1.40 Chinese Year Book, 1914 Edition Button. $3.50 i Clarke Modern Spain Cambridge University Press. $2.00 * Colby Selections from the Sources of Eng- lish History Longmans. Net, $1.50 Collected Documents Relating to the Outbreak of the European War. Fisher Unwin. London. $.25 Cross A History of England and Greater Britain. Macmillan. $2.50 ^' Cunningham Growth of English Industry and Commerce, Volume II Cambridge University Press. $2.75 Curtler A Short History of English Agricul- ture Oxford University Press. $2.15 J Day History of Commerce Longmans. Net, $2.00 I * Dow Atlas of European History Holt. $1.50 Duggan The Eastern Question Longmans. $1.00 Duruy History of. Modern Times Holt. $1.60 EUwood Sociology and Modern Social Prob- lems American Book Co. $1.00 * Fisher Napoleon Holt. $.50 * Fiske The American Revolution Houghton Mifflin, 2 vol- umes. $2.00 each Fling Source Problems of the French Rev- olution Harper. $1.10 Forbes, Toynbee, Mitrany, Hogarth . . The Balkans Oxford Press $i.75 Fordham Short History of English Rural Life. .Scribners. $1.00 »- * Foumier Napoleon Holt. $2.00 J| Freeman Atlas to the Historical Geography of ^ Europe Longmans. Vol. I, Text, Net, $4.00. Vol. II, Maps, Net, $2.00 Fyfife History of Modern Europe Holt. $2.75 * Gardiner Atlas of English History. . Longmans. $1.50 Student's History of England Longmans. $3.00 j^ The French Revolution .Longmans. $1.00 Gibbins Industry in England Scribner. $2.50 * Gibbons The New Map of Europe Century. Net, $2.00 * Gooch History of Our Time Holt. $.50 * Grant History of Europe Longmans. $2.25 Green History of the English People Harper. 4 volumes. $2.50 each. APPENDIX II 413 Griffis Japan in History Houghton MifBin. $.75 The Mikado Princeton Press. $1.00 * Guedalla Partition of Europe 1715-1815 Oxford Press. $1.10 Hannay The Navy and Sea Power Holt. $.50 Harris Intervention and Colonization in Africa Houghton Mifflin. $2.00. * Hart The Formation of the Union Longmans. $1.25 The War in Europe Appleton. Net, $1.00 Hassall The Making of the British Empire . Scribner. $.50 * Hawkesworth The Last Century in Europe Longmans. Net, $1.40 * Hayes British Social Politics Ginn. $1.75 The Political and Social History of Modern Europe Macmillan. 2 vols. $2.25 each * Hazen Europe Since 1815 Holt. $3.00 Headlam Bismarck and the Foundation of the German Empire Putnam. $1.50 * Henderson A Short History of Germany^ Macmillan. Two vol- umes in one. $3.50 Hill Liberty Documents Longmans. $2.00 Hirst Adam Smith Macmillan. $.75 Howard The Cause and Extent of the Recent Industrial Progress of Germany . Houghton Mifflin. $1.00 Howard The German Empire Macmillan. $2.00 PreUminaries of the American Revo- lution Harper. Net, $2.00 * Hunter Brief History of the Indian Peoples . Oxford University Press. $.90 * Hunter Socialists at Work Macmillan. $1.50 I Accuse. (Anon.) Geo. H. Doran Company. Net, $1.50 * Hbert Parliament Holt. $.50 Independent IndependentCorporation, N. Y. $3.00 per year * Jane Metternich to Bismarck, 1815-1878 . Oxford University Press. $1.10 * Jefifery The New Europe, 1789-1889 Houghton Mifflin. $2.50 * Johnson AgeofEnlightenedDespot,i66o-i789. Macmillan. $.90 Johnston The Colonization of Africa Cambridge University Press. $2.50 The Opening Up of Africa Holt. $.50 * Johnston French Revolution Holt. $1.25 Napoleon Holt. $1.25 Johnston and Spencer Ireland's Story Houghton Mifflin. $1.40 Kendall Source Book of English History. . . . Macmillan. $.80 Kropotkin Terror in Russia Methuen Co. London. Net, 2S. 414 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY * Larson Short History of England Holt. $1.40 Lee Source Book of English History. . . . Holt. $2.00 Library of Original Sources University Research Ex- tension Company, Milwaukee. 10 vol- umes. $70.00 Lichtenberger • Germany and its Evolution in Mod- ern Times Holt. $2.50 Literary Digest Funk and Wagnalls Com- pany. $3.00 per year Longman Frederick the Great Longmans. $1.00 * Lowell The Eve of the French Revolution. . . Houghton Mifflin. $2.00 Ludlow The War of American Independence . Longmans. $1.00 LyaU Rise of British Dominion in India . . Scribner. $1.50 McCarthy A Short History of Our Own Times . Harper. Net, $1.50 * Macdonald The Socialist Movement Holt. $.50 Macy and Gannaway . Comparative Free Government Macmillan. $2.25 Madelin French Revolution Putnam. $2.50, net. * Mallet The French Revolution Scribner. $1.00 * Mathews The French Revolution Longmans. Net, $1.25 Miller The Ottoman Empire Cambridge University Press. $2.50 Morley Voltaire Macmillan. $1.50 ' Walpole Macmillan. $.75 Morris The French Revolution and First Empire Scribner. $1.00 * Muir School Atlas of Modern History. . . .Holt. $1.25 Mtiller Political History of Recent Times . . American Book Com- pany. $2.00 Miinsterberg The War and America Appleton. Net, $1.00 New Republic, The Republic Pub. Co. $4.00 per year * Ogg The Governments of Europe Macmillan. $3.00 Social Progress of Contemporary Europe Macmillan. $1.50 Orth Socialism and Democracy in Europe. Holt. $1.50 Outlook The Outlook Publishing Company. $3.00 per year Phillips European History, 1815-1899 Houghton Mifflin. $1.50 Plunket The Fall of the Old Order, 1 763-181 5. Oxford University Press. $1.10 Poincare How France is Governed McBride. $1.50 Priest Germany since 1740 Ginn. $1.25 Reinsch Colonial Government Macmillan. $1.25 World Politics at the end of the Nine- teenth Century Macmillan. $1.25 APPENDIX II 415 Review of Reviews Review of Reviews Com- pany. $3.00 per year Roberts Monarchical Socialism in Germany . Scribner. $1.25 * Robertson- Bartholomew Historical Atlas of Modern Europe. Oxford University Press. $1-15 * Robinson Readings in European History. Volume II Ginn. $1.50 * Robinson and Beard . .Development of Modern Europe. Ginn. 2 volumes. $1.50 and $1.60 Readings in Modern European History Ginn. 2 volumes. $1.40 and $1.50 * Rose Development of the European Na- tions, 1870-1914 Putnam. 2 vols, in one. $2.75 Life of Napoleon I Macmillan. Two vol- umes in one. $3.00 The Origins of the War Putnam. $1.00 Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era. Putnam. $1.10 Rise of Democracy in England Stone. $1.25 Rousseau Emile Heath. $.90 Schmitt England and Germany, 1 740-1914 . . . Princeton University Press. $2.00 Schurman The Balkan Wars Princeton Press. $1.00 Seeley The Expansion of England Little, Brown. Net, $1-75 V* Seignobos Contemporary Civilization Scribner. $1.25 Political History of Europe since 1814 Holt. $3.00 Sheip and Bacon Hand-book of the European War. . .Wilson Company. $1.00 * Shepherd Historical Atlas Holt. $2.50 Latin America Holt. $.50 Simkhovitch Marxism vs. Socialism Holt. $1.50 Simonds The Great War Mitchell Kennerley. Two vols. $1.50 each Sloane The Balkans Eaton and Mains. $1.50 Smith Outlines of European History, 1814- 1914 Longmans. $.75 Smith Student's History of India Oxford University Press. $.60 Sparge Socialism Macmillan. $1.50 Statesman's Year-Book. (Published Annually) Macmillan. $3.00 Stephens Revolutionary Europe Rivingtons (Macmillan). $1-75 Stillman The Union of Italy Cambridge University Press. $1.50 4l6 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY Stryienski The Eighteenth Century in France . .Putnam. Net, $2.50 Synge Social Life in England Barnes. Net, $1.50 Thurston Economics and Industrial History for Secondary Schools Scott, Foresman. $1.10 * Thwaites The Colonies Longmans. $1.25 v^* Tickner Social and Industrial History of England Longmans. Net, $1.00 * Tower Germany of To-day Holt. $.50 Toynbee The Industrial Revolution Longmans. Net, $1.00 Traill Social England Putnam. 12 volumes. $35.00 * Tuell and Hatch Selected Readings in English His- tory Ginn. $1.40 Van Bergen Story of Russia American Book Com- pany. $.65 Van Tyne The American Revolution Harper. $2.00 Wakeman European History, 1598-1715 Macmillan. $1.75 * Webster General History of Commerce Ginn. $1.40 West American History and Government .Allyn and Bacon. $2.00 Source Book in American History. .Allyn and Bacon. $1.50 ^ White A Text-book of the War Putnam. $1.00 White and Notestein . Source Problems in English History . Harper. $1.30 Wilson Clive Macmillan. $.75 APPENDIX III SYNCHRONOLOGICAL CHARTS ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY A SYNCHRONOLOGICAL CHART SHOWING THE RULERS OF Year i68s 1690 1695 1700 170S 1710 171S 1720 1725 1730 1735 1740 174s 1750 1755 1760 1765 1770 I77S 1780 178s 1790 I7QS i8cx) 1805 1810 181S ENGLAND f James II Charles II 1660-85 WiLUAM III ]■ 1689-1702 Mary II 1685-8 1689-94 George I (Elector of Hanover) 1714-27 George II 1727-1760 Frederick P. of Wales George III 1 760-1820 FRANCE Louis XIV 1643-1715 Louis the Dauphin Anne I 1702-14 Louis D. of Burgundy I Louis XV 1715-74 Louis the Dauphin Louis XVI 1774-93 NETHERLANDS BELGIUM 1830 1835 1840 1845 1850 i8S5 i860 i86s 1870 187s 1880 188s 1890 189s 1900 190S 1910 IQIS 1916 William I 1815-30 1815-40 FIRST REPUBLIC National Convention 1792-95 Directory 1795-99 1 1 Consulate 1 799-1804 Napoleon I Louis 1804-14 I Louis XVIII 1814-24 I Charles X 1824-30 1820 George IV Edward D. 182s 1820-30 of Kent William IV | I 1830-1837 Victoria | Leopold I 1837-1901 William II 1831-65 Louis Philippe 1840-49 I 1830-48 I William III 1 1849-90 SECOND REPUBLIC 1848-52 President Louis Napoleon Bonaparte SECOND EMPIRE Napoleon III 1852-70 Leopold II I 865- I 909 Philip WiLHELMINA Edward VII 1890- 1901-10 George V 1910- Albert I 1909- THIRD REPUBLIC OF FRANCE President Thiers 1871 " MacMahon 1873 " Grevy 1879 " Carnot 1887 " Casimir-Perier 1894 " Faure 1895 " Loubet 1899 " Falliferes 1906 " Poincar6 1913 APPENDIX III 419 THE PRINCIPAL EUROPEAN STATES FROM 1688 TO 1916. SPAIN Charles II 1665-1700 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY THE EMPIRE Emp. Leopold I 1658-1705 Philip V 1700-46 Emp. Joseph I I 705-1 I Emp. Charles VI I 7 11-40 Ferdinand VI 1746-59 Maria Theresa m. Emp. Francis I I [740-80 I 745- I 765 Charles III 1759-88 Charles IV 1788-1808 Emf. Joseph II 1765-90 Joseph 1808-14 Emp. Leopold II 1790-2 Emp. Francis II 1792-1804 EMPIRE OF AUSTRIA (Emp. of Austria 1804-1835) Ferdinand VII 1814-33 I A Isabella II 1833-68 Emp. Ferdinand 1 irancis 1835-48 I I Ejip. Francis Joseph 1 Maximilian | Charles 1S48-1916 Emp. of Mexico ITALY Victor Emmanuel II 1861-78 Amadeo I 1870-73 REPUBLIC OF SPAIN 1868-1870, 1873-74 Alfonso XII 1875-85 Alfonso XIII 1886- Humbert I 1878-1900 I Victor Emmanuel III 1900- Francis Ferdinand (murdered 191 4) Otto I Emp. Charles I Year i68s 1690 1695 1700 170S 1710 1715 1720 172s 1730 I73S 1740 1745 1750 1755 1760 1765 1770 I77S 1780 178s 1790 1795 1800 180S 1810 181S 1820 182s 1830 1835 1840 1845 1850 1855 i860 1865 1870 187s 1880 1885 1890 189s igoo 190S 1910 191S 1916 420 ESSENTIALS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY A SYNCHRONOLOGICAL CHART SHOWING THE RULERS OF THE PRINCIPAL EUROPEAN STATES FROM 1688 TO igi6 — Continued. Year PRUSSIA RUSSIA Year 1685 1690 169s 1700 1 70s 1710 171S 1720 172s 1730 1735 1740 174s 1750 I7SS 1760 176s 1770 I77S 1780 178s 1790 1795 1800 180S 1810 181S 1820 182s 1830 183s 1840 184s 1850 I8SS i860 i86s 1870 187s 1880 188s 1890 189s 1900 1905 1910 191S 1916 ELECTORS OF BRANDENBURG Frederick William 1640-88 (The I Great Elector) Frederick III 1688-1701 King of Prussia i 701-13 I I Ivan V 1689-96 Peter I 1696-1725 m. Catherine I I 1725-7 Frederick William I 1713-40 I Alexis Peter II 1727-30 Frederick II 1740-86 | The Great Augustus William Anna Catherine 1685 1690 1695 1700 1705 1710 1715 1720 1725 Anna I Anna I 1730-40 1730 I 1735 Ivan VI 1740-41 1740 I 1745 Elizabeth I 1741-62 ^75o 1755 1762 Peter III m. Catherine II 1762-96 The Great Frederick William II 1786-97 Frederick Wiluam III 1 797-1840 Paul I 1 796-1801 Frederick Willlam IV 1840-61 Alexander I 1801-25 GREECE Nicholas I 1825-55 Capo d' Istria President Otto I 1832 GERMAN EMPIRE William I 1861-71 George I 1863-1913 German Emperor 1871-1888 Frederick III 1888 I William II 1888- Alexander II 1855-81 Nicholas II 1894- CONSTANTINE I 1913- 1760 1765 1770 1775 1780 1785 1790 1795 1800 1805 1810 I8I5 1820 1825 1830 1835 1840 1845 1850 1855 i860 1865 1870 1875 Alexander III 1881-94 i? 1890 189s 1900 1905 1910 1915 1916 INDEX Abhorrers, 4 Absolutism in France, 10; in Prussia, 21; in 1740, 24; of enlightened despots, 25-28; of Napoleon I, 175 Abyssinia, 323 Acadia, 63, 64, 65 Act, Corporation 6, 247; Enumer- ated Articles, 76; Molasses, 76; Navigation, 22, 76; Act of Set- tlement, 4; Test, 5, 247; Tolera- tion, 3; Sugar, 80; Stamp, 80; Townshend, 81; Intolerable, 82; Union, 246, 385; Catholic Eman- cipation, 246-47; Irish Land, 386; Insurance, 397 Adams, Samuel, 81 Admiralty courts, 77 Africa, Portuguese in, 47; opening by missionaries and explorers, 317, ff; remnants of older colonial em- pires, 318; exploration of, 318 Agriculture, interest of Tories in, 7; early in England, 190-92; im- provements in, 192-5 Aix-la-Chapelle, Treaty of, (1748), 70, 72, 74 Albania, 317 Alberoni, Cardinal, 22-23 Alexander I, of Russia, at Tilsit, 172, 176; break with Napoleon, 179; influence of, 225, 370; sup- presses Polish Revolt, 235 Alexander II, of Russia, 371-72 Alexander III, of Russia, 373 Algefiras Conference (1906), 303, 350 Algeria, France in, 317, 318, 321 Alliance, The Grand, 62; The Holy, 225-26; The Quadruple, 226; Triple, 363-64, 368 Alsace-Lorraine, 289 America, Portuguese colonies in, 57; French and Indian Wars, 61; War for Independence, 76-83, (See United States, etc.) American Independence, War of, 82-84 Amiens, Peace of, 166 Ancien Regime, defined, 90 Andros, Sir Edmund, 78 Angola, 57 Anne, of England, 4, 7, 63, 66 Anti- Corn-Law League, 253 Antwerp, 139 Arbitration, international, 399 Arcot, 72 Argentina, 231 Arkwright, Sir Richard, 197 Armada, Spanish, i Army, under Louis XIV, 15; under Peter the Great, 19; under Frederick William, 20; Prussian system, 21; Prussian soldier, 68; under Bismarck, 276; North German Confederation, 279; Wil- liam II's interest in, 369; (See Mihtarism) Arndt, 180 Art, French, 12, 15 Assembly, of Notables, 102; Na- tional 104, 106, no, 1 1 2-13, 1 16-18, 123-25; Legislative, 114- 15, 123 125-26, 130-31 Assiento, 52, 65-66 Assignats, (Asseen-yat), 113 421 422 INDEX Auerstaedt, battle of, 171 Ausgleich (Austro-Hungarian), 1867, 280 Austerlitz, battle of, 170 Australia, government, 345, 349 Austria (See Austria-Hungary), influ- ence of, 23; in Grand Alliance, 62; in War of Spanish Succession, 63; in War of Austrian Succession, 66-68 ; alliance with France, 74; in Seven Years' War, 74-75; war with French RepubUc, 127, 135; in Third CoaUtion, 169; revolt against Napoleon, 178; in Con- gress of Vienna, 182-85; Indus- trial Revolution in, 215; situation in 1 814, 222; in Holy Alliance, 225; Revolution of 1848, 240-44; War with Sardinia, 267; rivalry for leadership with Prussia, 274; Danish War, 277; Convention of Gastein, 277; receives Holstein, 278; war with Prussia 278-279; humbling of, 279 Austria-Hungary (See Austria) distri- bution of races in, 223; restoration in, 222; possessions in, 1848, 224; Ausgleich of 1867, 280; govern- ment, 280-81; interests in the Near East, 304; intervention in Turkey, 308 ; annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, 316; interven- tion in war between Serbia and Bulgaria, 314; attitude toward Turkey, 1908, 316; interest in Balkans, 350; extension of suf- frage, 382; Compromise of 1907, 382 Austrian Succession, War of, 70 Azores, 80 Baden, 279 Bailly (Bay-ye) 107, 137 Baker, 318 Bakewell, Robert, 183-94 " Balance of Power," 63 "Balance of Trade," 51 Ballcan Wars, 316-17 Bank of England, 42, 144 Bank of France, 165 Banking, goldsmiths, 42; South Sea Bubble, 43; Bank of France, 165; development under Napoleon III, 262; modern, 301 Banquets, poHtical, 237 Barere, 136 Barre, Colonel, 77 Bastille, 97, 108 Bavaria, in War of Spanish Succes- sion, 64; Austrian Succession, 68; Kingdom, 170; not in North German Confederation, 279 Bazaine, Marshal, 286 Belgium, aggressions of Louis XIV, 62; conquest by French Republic, 138; ceded to France, 145; united with Holland, 182; Revo- lution of 1830, 233-34; in Africa, 319-20; invasion of 1914, 352 Bengal, 73 Berlin, Congress of, 310-12, 363; Conference of, 319; Decree, 176 Bessemer process, 201 Biarritz, interview at, 278 Bill of Rights, 3 Bismarck, Otto von, friend of Austria, 275; personality, 275; character and aims, 276; "Blood and Iron," 276; struggle with legislature, 276; plans humbling of Austria, 277-78; forestalls European in- terference, 278; tricks Napoleon III, 278, 284; magnanimous to Austria, 279; forms North Ger- man Confederation, 280; proposes Leopold for Spanish Throne, 282; interview at Ems, 284; dic- tates peace terms, 287; inter- view with Napoleon HI, 288; at proclamation of German Em- pire, 288; triumph of policy, 289-91; at Congress of Berlin, 311-12; aims and policies, 360, INDEX 423 363; alliances, 363-64; portrait, 365; struggle with Church, 367, 394-95; struggle with Socialists, 367-68, 396; protective poUcy, 368; dismissal 369-70 ''Black Hole" of Calcutta, 73 Blanc, Louis, 235, 237, 258-59 Blast furnace, 200 Bliicher (Bleecker), 182 Board, of Agriculture, 193; of Trade, 77 Bohemia, 241 Boileau, 15 Bolivar, General Simon, 228 Bolivia, 228 Bombay, 60, 69 Bonaparte (See Napoleon) Bonaparte, Joseph, 170, 177 Bonaparte, Louis, 170 Boston, 83 Boulangism, 380 Bourbon family, compact of 1733, 66; abdication of Spanish, 177; restoration in Spain and Naples, 221-22 Bourgeois Monarchy 236, 258 Bourgeoisie, (Boor-zhwa-zee), 14 Boxer Rebellion, 338-39 Braddock, General, 72 Brandenburg, 20, 74 (See Prussia) Brazil, 57, 176 Breda, Declaration of, 2 Brindley, James, 203 Brook Farm Colony, 214 Brunswick, Declaration of, 128 Buelow, Bernhard, (Prince) von, 370 Bulgaria, division, 312; union with RoumeHa, 314; accession of Fer- dinand I, 314; independence, 316; alliance with Turkey, 317; part in Balkan Wars, 316-17 Bundesrath, 279, 366 Burgoyne, General, 83 Burschenschaft, 180, 229-30 Byron, Lord, 306 Cabal, 3 Cabinet (British), 3, 5, 7, 8, 79 Cahiers (Ca-ya) 103 Calcutta, 60, 72-73 Calonne (Calon), 101-02 Campo Formio, Treaty of, 154-56 Canada, Count Frontenac in, 63; in Austrian Succession War, 69; capture of Louisbourg, 70; in Treaty of Paris, 75; American in- vasion, 83; government, 346, 348 Canals, 298-99 Canning, George, 230 Cape Breton Island, 70, 75 Cape Colon}^ 318 Capitalism, 38, 194-95, 208-09 Carbonari, 242 Carlsbad Decrees (1819), 230 Carnegie, Andrew, 399-400 Carnot, 136-138 Cartwright, Edmund, 197 Casement, Sir Roger, 388 Catherine II (The Great) of Russia, 27-28, 123 Cavaignac, General, 259 Cavour, Count, portrait, 265; per- sonaHty, 266; policy, 266; at Paris, 266; at Plombieres, 266; outwits Austria, 267; supports Garibaldi, 268; Church policy, 394 Ceylon, 184 Champ de Mars (Sham dii Mar), Massacre of, 122 Charles Albert, of Sardinia, 243, 244, 266 Charles, Archduke of Austria, 62, 64 Charles Edward, The Pretender, 68 Charles I, of England, 2 Charles II, of England, 2, 4, 6, 8, 22, 60 Charles II, of Spain, 62 Charles IV, of Spain, 174 Charles VI, Emperor, 67 Charles X, of France, 231-32 Charles XII, of Sweden, 19 Charters, colonial, 77 Chartism, 252-53 424 INDEX Child Labor, 210-11 China, Portuguese in, 47; missions in 302; attitude toward West, 326; Russian aggressions, 328; size and characteristics, 333-34; in- fluence of West. 335; early re- lations with Europe, 334-36; interest in Korea, 332-333; Boxer Rebellion, 338-39; influence of Li Hung Chang, 336-37; Re- public, 341; Japanese demands, 342-43 Church and State, in France under Louis XIV, 3-4, 12, 15; lands confiscated, 113; reoganization, 116-17; Concordat, 1801, 163; Inquisition in Spain abolished by Napoleon, 178; hostihty to govern- ment of Italy, 270-73; in the nineteenth century, 361; struggle with Bismarck, 367; in Ireland, 385; disestabhshment in Wales, 393; relations with Prussia, 394- 95; in Spain, 395 Cisalpine Republic, 166 Clarendon, Earl of, 3 Clarkson, 250 "Clermont," The, 204 Clinton, De Witt, 206 Clipper ship, 205 CUve, Robert, 35, 68, 72-74 Coalitions, against France, First, 139-40, 145; Second, 166; Third, 169; Fourth, 171 Coblentz, French occupation of, 138 Coke of Holkham, 194 Colbert, 13, 52, 66 Cologne, occupation of, 138 Colombia, 228 Colonies, toleration in American, 4; Portuguese, 57; Enghsh, 58; French, 58-59; loss of French, 75 ; government, 345, 349; in 1914, 346, 347, 348; kinds, 345; wars in, 61; development af- fected by wars, 63; situation in 1 713, 66; French empire in India, 69; French colonial empire, 71; policy of England, 75-85; charters, 77; poUcy of Napoleon, 165; colonial empire of England, 85; changes made by Congress of Vienna, 185; in Africa, 318-19 Commerce, domestic, 38-40; market, 39; restrictions on, 39, 77; fairs, 39-41; routes, 40-42; dangers, 41-42; Portuguese, 47-48; Span- ish, 48-49; Dutch, 49-50; Mer- cantile System, 50-51; slaves, 57; Board of Trade, 'j'], (See Trading Company); Expansion in eigh- teenth century, 6-7, 24, 32-35; restrictions in France, 84-95; Na- poleon's blockade of, 176-77; since 1870, 300 Committee of Public Safety, 135- 36 Committees of Correspondence, 82 Common Sense, 83 Commons, House of, 5-6 (See Par- liament) Communists, 214, 377-79 Communist Manifesto, 362 Compromise of 1907, 382 "Concert of Europe," 226, 231 Concordat of 1801, 163, 393 Confederation of the Rhine, 170; German, 183-84, 222, 278; North German Confederation, 278-80 Confucius, 334 Congo Free State, 319-20 Congress, Stamp Act, 80; First Continental, 82; Second Conti- nental 83; Erfurt, 179; Vienna, 181-85, 219, 242, 250, 262; Carls- bad, 230; Laibach, 230; Verona, 230; Berlin, 363 Conservatives, 250 Constant, Baron, 399-400 Constitution, French, 1791, 113-15; First French Republic, 135; Con- sulate, 161; Directory, 144; North German Confederation, 279; Aus- I INDEX 425 tria-Hungary, 280-81; (See Gov- ernment) Consulate, 160-61 "Continental System," 176, 179 Convention, National, calling of, 129; meeting of, 131; trial of Louis XVI, 132; war with Europe, 134; war policy, 138-39; Consti- tution of Year III, 144; adjourn- ment and services, 144-4S Cordeliers (Cor-del-ya) Club, 125 Corn Laws (English), 212, 224, 252 Cornwallis, Lord, 84 Corporation Act, 6, 247 Corvee (Cor-va), 93, 100 Costiunes, 1814-24, 245; 1834-64, 257 Cotton gin, 198, 200 Cotton manufacture, 198-99, 200 Coureiirs de bois (Coorier day bwa). Craft guilds, 32, 33 Crete, 316 Crimean War, 262, 264 Criminal law, in France, 97; in Eng- land, 247 Cromer, Lord, 321 Crompton, Samuel, 198 Customs duties, in France, 94-95 Custozza, battles of, 243-44, 270, 279 Czechs, revolt in 1848, 241 Danby, Earl of, 3 Danton, 125, 129, 132, 140, 142 Darby, 200 Darwin, Charles, 398 "Daughters of Liberty," 81 Decembrists, 371 Declaration of Breda, 2; of Bruns- wick, 128; of Indulgence, 4; of Pillnitz, 123; of Rights of Man, I 13-14 Defoe, 38 Denmark, enlightened despotism in, 27; deprived of Nonvay, 184; war with Prussia and Austria, 277; loss of Schleswig-Holstein, 277 Deputies on Mission, 136 Despotism, Benevolent or EnUght- ened, 26-28; Napoleon I, 176 Dettingen, battle of, 68 Diderot (De-der-o), 25 Directory, formation, 144; weakness, 149, 160; X, Y, Z. affair, 160; overthrow, 160 Dispensing power, 3 Disraeli, Benjamin, Earl of Beacons- field, 383-85 "Domestic System" in industry, 36, 195-196 Dom Pedro I, Emperor of Brazil, 229 Dreyfus case, 380-81 Duma, Russian, 374-76 Dumouriez (Doo-moo-re-ya), 131, 134 Dupleix, 68, 69, 72-73 Dutch, explorers, 21; gains from Portugal, 57; trading operations, 21-22, 58, 331; War of Spanish Succession, 63; in Africa, 318; colonial poHcy, 348 East India Company, English, 46, 60, 72 Economics, 24, 53, 99 Ecuador, 228 Edict of Nantes, 12 Education, beginnings in England, 251; problems of, 362; in Russia, 372; spread in Europe, 395 Egypt, Napoleon in, 158-59; rule of Mehemet AU 307-08; occupa- tion by England, 318-19; with- drawal of France, 320; control of, 345 Elba, Napoleon at, 181 Elizabeth, of England, 46 Elizabeth, of Russia, 75 Emigration, 301 Emigres (A-me-gra), See Nobility Entile, 25 Empire, (See Holy Roman Empire; France; etc.) 426 INDEX Ems Dispatch, 284 Enclosures, 190-91, 194 Encyclopedia, 25 England, in the eighteenth cen- tury, 23; wars with Spain and France, 67-68; colonies in America, 58-59; trading opera- tions, 52, 57; and French Revolu- tion, 139; and Napoleon, 157-58, 167, 176; at Congress of Vienna, 182-85; Industrial Revolution, 195-214; in the Quadruple PA- liance, 226; after Waterloo, 245- 46; factory legislation, 250; Re- form Bill of, 1832, 247-50; Reign of Victoria, 252; cession Ionian Isles to Greece, 315; interests in the Near East, 305; Crimean War, 262-64, 308-10; interven- tion in Greece, 306-07; interven- tion in Turkey, 308; Reform Bills of 1867 and 1884, 383-84; in Africa, 318, 320-21, 324-25, 349, 350; in China, 337-38, 334- 35; alliance with Japan, 339; colonial possessions in 19 14, 346; War of 19 14, 352; woman suf- frage, 384; Workingmen's Com- pensation, 396; old age pensions, 396-97; agriculture in, 190-95 "Enlightened Despots," 25-28, 53 Erfurt, Congress of, 179 Estates-General, (See States General) Eugenie, Empress, 284 Exclusion Bill, 4 Explorers, in Africa, 318 Eylau, battle of, 171 Fabianism, 214 Factory System, 206-09; legislation in England, 250-51 Fairs, 39-41, 45 Fashoda incident, 349-50 Fenians, 385 Ferdinand I of Bulgaria, 314-15 Ferdinand I of Naples, 244 Ferdinand II of Naples, 267 Ferdinand VII of Spain, 228 FeudaUsm in France, 91-92, 95, iio-ii; in Japan, 331-32 Feuillants, (Fu-yan), 125, 127 Finland, 184 Fitch, John, 204 Florida, 75, 84 Fourier, Charles, 214 France, Huguenot Wars, i; in 1740, 23; manufacturing in, 52; colo- nial empire, 71; under Louis XIV, 6-18, 62-65; in War of Austrian Succession, 67-68; in French and Indian Wars, 70-71; alHance with United States, 84; class distinc- tions, 90-91; Revolution in, 90- 148; under Napoleon, 149-182; at Congress of Vienna, 183; Indus- trial Revolution in, 215, 235; restoration of Louis XVIII, 220- 21; reign of Louis XVIII, 231; reign of Charles X, 231-32, 258- 59; Revolution of 1830, 231-34; Revolution of 1848, 235-37; Second Repubhc, 260; Second Empire, 261; gains Nice and Savoy, 266-67; France and Prus- sia, 282-84, 288; under Third Republic, 237, 286, 288, 376-78; in the Near East, 305-06; in Africa, 318, 320, 322-23; in Far East, 335-36, 338; colonial pos- sessions in 19 14, 347; separa- tion of Church and State, 393,' Sociahsm, 395; Francis I, Emperor, 185 Francis Joseph of Austria-Hungary, 241, 280 Franco-German War, 282-90 Frankfort Assembly, 238-39 Frederick William I of Prussia, 20 Frederick II (the Great), 27, 66-67, 70, 74-75 Frederick WilUam III of Prussia, 171-72 Frederick William IV of Prussia, 238-40 INDEX 427 Free Trade, 212-13, 252-53, 361 French and Indian Wars, 71-72 Friedland, battle of, 172-73 Fulton, Robert, 204 Gabelle, 94 Gambetta, 289 Garibaldi, 267-68, 271 Gastein, Convention of, 277 George I, of England, 5, 7, 66 George II, of England, 75 George III, of England, 79, 81, 84-85, 195 Germany, reorganized by Napoleon, 170, 172; reawakening of, 180; reconstructed by Congress of Vienna, 182; formation of German Confederation, 183-84, 222; In- dustrial Revolution 215; unrest in, 229; Revolution of 1848, 237- 40; Assembly of Frankfort, 238- 39; ZoUverein, 274; North German Confederation, 279-80; alliance of all German states, 281; unifica- tion, 290; proclamation of Em- pire, 288-91; in the Near East, 316; in Africa, 323-24, 350; colo- nial policy, 349; colonial posses- sions in 19 14, 347; in China, 337-38, 342; government, 364, 366-67; under William II, 368- 70; future of 370; socialism, 395- 96; opposition at Hague, 399 Gibraltar, 65 Girondists ( Ji-ron-dists) , origin, 125; leaders, 126; policies, 127, 130, 138; struggle with Mountain, 132; overthrow, 134 Gladstone, 384-86 Goa, 57 Gobelins, 13 Goldsmith, Oliver, 40 Gordon, " Chinese, "321 "Great War" of 1914, 317, 349- 53 Greece, uprising of 1820, 229; struggle for independence, 305-07; gains Thessaly, 315; gains Ionian Isles, 315; gains Crete, 316; rule of George I, 315; rule of Otho, 314-15; part in Balkan Wars, 316-17; war with Bulgaria, 317 Grenville, 80 Grey, Earl, 247, 250 Guiana, British, 184 Guilds, 32-36, 235 Guizot, 236 Habeas Corpus Act, 225 Hague Peace Conferences, 226, 399 Hanover, Electress of, 4; Elector of, 66; annexed to Prussia, 170; taken from Prussia, 172; opposes Prussia, 1866, 278; reannexed to Prussia, 279 Hapsburg Family, Maria Theresa, 67; dominions in 1848, 240-41; hereditary title to throne of Dual Monarchy, 280 Hargreaves, James, 197 Hayti, 165 Hebert (a-bar), 140-42 Helvetic Republic, 166 Henry IV of France, i, 8 HohenHnden, battle of, 166 Holland, colonial expansion, 3, 18, 21-22, 49-50; relations with French Republic, 145; Batavian Republic, 166; kingdom, 170; united with Belgium, 182; colo- nial possessions, 348 (See Dutch) Holstein, 278 Holy Alliance, formation, 225-26; opposition to, 230, 306; end of, 244 Holy Roman Empire, i, 2, 23, 170 Hongkong, 57, 335 Howard, John, 248 Hudson Bay, 65 Huguenots, 12 Hungary, Revolution of 1848, 241; Magyar influence in, 281; exten- sion of suffrage, 382 (See Austria- Hungary) Huskisson, William, 212 428 INDEX Ibrahim, Pasha, 306 Imperialism, 302 India, in eighteenth century, 59-62; situation in 1748, 68-70; CHve in, 68-69; Sepoy Mutiny, 329-30; control of 345 Indians, American, 63 Indulgence, Declaration of, 4 Industrial Revolution, in England, 195-216; effects, 209-216, 359-60; on the continent, 215-16; in France, 235-36; in Japan, 332; in Russia, 372-73 Industry, domestic system, 195-96; under Napoleon III, 261-62; since 1870, 300-01 Inquisition, 178 Insurance (Workingmen's) , in Ger- many, 367; in England, 397 Intendants, 95 Interlopers, 46 Intervention, doctrine of, 226, 229- 231, 244 Ionian Islands, 184 Ireland, Union with England, 246, 385; CatlioHc Emancipation, 246; famine in, 252; Home Rule agita- tion, 386, 388; Church in, 385; Land Act, 386; conditions in 1870, 384-85 ; Sinn Fein insurrection, 388 Iron industry, 199; charcoal smelt- ing, 199; blast furnace, 200; steel, 200; Bessemer and Sie- mens-Martin processes, 201 Ismail, of Egypt, 320 Italy, Napoleon's first campaign, 154-56; second campaign, 166; Kingdom of Naples, 166; reconsti- tuted at Congress of Vienna, 183- 84; Italy in 1815, 242, 269; upris- ings of 1820, 229; Revolution of 1830, 234; revolts in 1848, 242; Carbonari and Young Italy, 242; completion of unity, 265-76; prob- lems of modern, 273, 360, 382, 396; alliance with Prussia, 268, 270; Church and State, 394; war with Turkey, 316; government of, 273; in Africa, 302, 323; abandons Triple Alliance 303; in war of 1914, 352 Iturbide, 228-29 Jacobins (Jako-bin) 1 23-24, 127-28 James II of England, 3, 62, 78 Japan, attitude toward West, 326; early government, 331; revo- lution, 332; Industrial Revolu- tion, 216; Chino- Japanese War, 337; Russo-Japanese War, 339- 40; War of 1914, 341-42; de- mands on China, 342-43; posi- tion in Far East, 343-44; present government, 332 Jefferson, Thomas, 83 Jemappes (Zhe-map), battle of, 135 Jena, battle of, 171 Jews, 3 Joseph II, Emperor, 23, 26, 27 Josephine, marriage with Napoleon, 154; divorce, 179 "July Ordinances," 232 "July Revolution," 231-34 Junto, Whig, 4 Kay, John, 198 Kiao-chau, 338, 342 "King's Friends," 79 Kipling, Rudyard, 27 Kitchener, Lord, 321 Korea, rivalry over, 332-33; war between China and Japan, 336- 37; annexation by Japan, 340 Kossuth, Louis, 240 Kotzebue, 229 Kulturkanipf, 395 La Fayette, Commander National Guard, 107; at Versailles, 111-12; desertion, 130; in Revolution of 1830, 232 La Fontaine, 15 Laissez-faire (Lay-say-fair), theory, 99, 212-13 INDEX 429 Lamartine, 257 Large scale production, 208 Law, John, 44 Laws, labor, 213, 215, 252 Le Brun, 15 Lee, Richard Henry, 83 Legion of Honor, 164 Legislative Assembly, creation, 114- 15; meeting, 123, 125; parties in, 125-26, responsibility for Sep- tember Massacres, 130; adjourn- ment, 131 "Legitimacy," 219 Leipsic, battle of, 181 Leo Xni, Pope, 394, 395 Leopold I, Emperor of Austria, 117, 123, 233 Leopold II, of Belgium, 319-20 Lettres-de-cachet (Let-r-du-ka-sha) , 97 Li Hung Chang, 336-37 Liberation, War of, 180-81 Lissa, battle of, 279 Literature under Louis XIV, 15 Livingstone, David, 302, 318-19 Lloyd George, David, 388-89, 397, Locke, John, 24 Locomotive, 205-08 Lombardy, in Revolution of 1848, 241; united to Sardinia, 267 Longwy, battle of, 130 Lords, House of, opposes Reform Bill of 1832, 249-50 (See Parli- ament, English) Lorrain, Claude, 15 Louis XIV, of France, 1,8-9; dom- inates his age, 18; residence, 10- 11; system of government 10-12; Church under 12; at the Gobe- lins, 13; army, 15; patronage of art and literature, 15, 24; de- signs on Spain, 22; colonies, 59; rivalry with England, 62-65; death, 66; expenditures, 93 Louis XV of France, accession 66; expenditures, 92-93; misgovern- ment, 98-99; death, 66 Louis XVI of France, character, 99-100; collects troops, 103; be- fore National Assembly, 106; dis- trust of, iii; removes to Paris, 112; flight to Varennes, 117, 122; vetoes, 127-28; flight to the As- sembly, 129; suspension of, 129; deposition, 131; trial, 132; execu- tion, 134 Louis XVIII of France, 181-82, 221 Louis Napoleon (See Napoleon III) Louis Philippe, accession, 232-33; policy, 232-33, 326; negotiates return of Napoleon's body, 234, 257; acquisition of Algeria, 321; overthrow, 236; exile, 241 Louisburg, 70, 72 Louisiana, 75, 165, 174 Lou vols (Lu-vwa), 15 Luneville, Peace of, 166 Macadam, John, 203 Macao, 57 Macaulay, Lord, 15 MacMahon, Marshal, 286 Madagascar, 323 Madeira, 80 Madras, 68, 72 Magenta, battle of, -267, 285 Magyars (See Hungary) Mahdi, 321 Malplaquet (Mal-plack-ay), battle of, 64 Malta, 184 Manchester massacre, 224-25 Manchuria 337-38, 339-40, 344 Manorial system, 190-91 Mansard, 15 Manufacturing of textiles in England, 206-9; revolution of eighteenth century, 196 (See In- dustry; Factory System; etc.) Marat (Ma-ra), 124, 130, 132 Marengo, battle of, 166 Maria Theresa of Austria, 23, 67, 70 Marie Antoinette (Maree-Antwanet), 100, 122, 137 430 INDEX Marlborough, Duke of, 63, 64 Marseillaise (Mar-s%yaz), 129 Marx, Karl, 362 Mary II of England, 3-4, 7, Massacre, Boston, 81; Champ de Mars, 122; September, 129, 130; Manchester, 224 Maximilian of Mexico, 281-82 "Maximum, Law of," 136, 144 ''May Laws," 394-95 Mazarin (Mazaran), Cardinal, i, 8, 19, 66 Mazzini, 242, 265 Mehemet AU, 306-08 Mercantilism, 50, 53, 85, 212 Methuen Treaty, 52, 65 Metric system, 145 Metternich, Prince, at Congress of Vienna, 185; character and aims, 219; portrait, 220; and the Holy AlUance, 225; formation of Quad- ruple AUiance, 226; Carlsbad meeting, 230; overthrow, 240-41 Metz, 286, 289 Mexico, 228, 281 Milan Decree, 176 Militarism, 360-61 Minorca, 65, 75^84 Mirabeau, 106, 124, 117 Missionaries, 301-02, 318 "Mississippi Bubble," 44 Modena, 267 Moliere (M6-lee-air), 15 Moltke, Hellmuth von, 279, 284-85, 288 Monopohes, in England, 34-35 Monroe Doctrine, origin 230-31; in Asia, 343-44 Montcalm, General, 72 Montenegro, independence of, 312; part in Balkan Wars, 316-17 Montesquieu (Mon-tes-kew), 2 Moscow, 18, 46; campaign, 179; re- treat from, 180 "Mountain," The, origin, 125-26; poHcy, 132; struggle with Giron- dists, 134 Mukden, battle of, 340 Naples, Kingdom of, under Napo- leon, 166, 170; restoration of Bourbons, 221-22; uprising in, 229-30; Revolution of 1848, 244; conquered by Garibaldi, 268; annexed to Italy, 268 Napoleon I, Emperor of French, early life, 150; portrait, 151, 155; characteristics, 150-51; edu- cation, 152; services to Conven- tion, 144, 152; at Toulon, 152; marriage with Josephine, 154; appointment to army of Italy, 154; Egyptian campaign, 157; invasion of Syria, 159; Coup- d^etat, 160-61; First Consul, 162; Emperor, 162, 168-69; rela- tions with the Pope, 163; ad- ministrative reforms, 163-64; codification of law, 164; colonial policy, 165; financial measures, 165; Second Italian Campaign, 166; at Boulogne, 167; Con- sul for Life, 168; extension of power over central Europe, 168; plots against, 168; crushes Aus- tria, 170; defeats Fourth Coali- tion, 171; power at its height, 171; at Tilsit, 172; designs on Spain, 174; attitude of French to, 174-75; absolutism, 175-76; relations with Europe, 175; na- tionahst reaction against, 176; Berlin Decree, 176; Milan De- cree, 176; influence on United States, 176; campaigns in Spain and Portugal, 177-78; divorce and remarriage, 179; Russian campaign, 180; in War of Libera- tion, 180; first abdication, 181; at Elba, 181; the Hundred Days, 181; defeat and exile, 182; inter- est in industry, 235; "Napoleonic Legend," 257 Napoleon II, 179 INDEX 431 Napoleon. Ill, Emperor of French, character and aims, 256; elected President, 259; imitation of Na- poleon I, 259-60; personaHty, 260; formation of Second Em- pire, 260-61; Coup-d'etat, 261; policy, 261; encouragement of industry, 261-62; foreign policy, 262; enters Crimean War, 262-63, 308-10; receives Siamese Min- isters, 263; presides over peace congress at Paris, 264; at Plombi- eres, 266; ends Sardinian War, 267; opposes final unification of Italy, 268-70; tricked by Bis- marck, 278, 284; schemes in Mexico, 281-82; interest in Indo- China, 336; part in Austro-Prus- sian War, 281; defeat at Sedan, 286; interview with Bismarck, 287; exile, 287 Nassau, annexed to Prussia, 279 National Assembly, proclaimed, 104; forms Constitutional Convention, 104; Abolition of Privilege, no; removal to Paris, 11 2-13; parties in, 123-25; issue of assignats, 113; Civil Constitution of Clergy, 116- 17; adjournment, 118 National Guard, formation, 107; at Versailles, no; Massacre on Champ de Mars, 122 "National Work Shops," 237, 258- 59 Nationality, principle of, 227, 244, 280 Navarino, battle of, 306 Navigation Acts, 2 2 Near East, question of, 262, 264- 65, 304 Necker, appointment, 104; recall, 103; dismissal, 107 Nelson, Horatio, Lord, battle of Nile, 158; portrait, 168; Trafal- gar, 167-68 Neutrality, the Armed, 84 New Netherland, 22 New Zealand, 345, 349 Newcomen, Thomas, 202 Newfoundland, 65 Nicholas I of Russia, relations with Turkey, 308-09; policy, 371 Nicholas II of Russia, 374-75, 399 Nihilism, 372 Nile, battle of, 158 Non-intercourse agreements, 81 Norway, united with Sweden, 184; separated from Sweden, 383; woman suffrage in, 383 Nova Scotia, 63, 75 Novara, battle of, 244 '"'Oath of the Tennis Court," 105 O'Connell, Daniel, 246-47 "October Manifesto," 374 Ohio Company, 70 Okuma, Count, 343-44 Opium War, 334-35 Orange River Free State, 318 "Orders in Council," 176 Oswego, 72 Ottoman Empire, formation, 303; in 1 81 5, 304; war with Egypt, 307-08; Young Turk movement, 315-16; war with Balkan League, 316-17; alliance with Bulgaria, 317 Owen, Robert, 214 Oyama, Marshal, 341 Paine, Thomas, 83 Palatinate, War of the, 62-63 Palmerston, Lord, 277 Panama, 65-66 Panama Canal, 298, 380, 398 Pan-Slavism, 304, 350 Papal Guarantees, Law of, 394 Papal States, 243, 267-68 Paris, influence on French Revolu- tion, 107-08, III, 113; changes in government, 107, 129; siege of, 287, 289; Treaty of 1763, 75; Treaty of 1783, 84; Treaty of 1856, 266 432 INDEX Parlements, 97, 102 Parliament, English, restoration, 2; Rump, 2; power of, 8; suspends Habeas Corpus, 225; Reform of 1832, 247-50; composition and powers, 388-93; Houses of, 387 Parma, annexed to Italy, 267 ParneU, Charles Stewart, 386 Parties in England, 4; platforms, 6; in Italy, 273 Pasteur, Louis, 398 Peace, encouragment of, 399-400 Peasants, in France, 92-94, 97-98 Peel, Sir Robert, 247, 252 Peninsular War, 1 78 Pensions, in France, 93; in England, 396-97 Pepperell, William, 70 Perry, Commodore, visit to Japan, 331 Peru, 228 Peter I (the Great), of Russia, early life, 17-18; reforms, 19; con- quests, 20 Peter III, of Russia, 75 Petrograd (St. Petersburg), 19 Philadelphia, capture of, 84 Philip II of Spain, i Philip V of Spain, 22, 64 Philosophers, 24 Phipps, Sir WiUiam, 63 Physiocrats, 53, 99 Pillnitz, Declaration of, 123 Pitt, WiUiam (Earl of Chatham), 75,72,80 Pitt, Wniiam (the Younger), es- tablishes Board of Agriculture, 193; war policy, 139; reforms, 85; Act of Union, 246; forms Third Coalition, 170; death, 170 Pius IX, Pope, 242-43, 267-71 Pius X, Pope, 393, 394 Plassey, battle of, 73 Plebiscite, under Napoleon I, 162; use by Napoleon III, 261; in Italy, 267-68 Plombieres, 266 Pobyedonostseff, 373 Poincare, Raymond, 404 Poland, weakness of, 20; dismem- berment, 123, 146; reconstituted by Napoleon, 172; Russian, 179; receives a constitution, 225; Revolution of 1830, 234-35, 371; Russian poHcy, 373 Pondicherry, 68, 74 Poor Law, Enghsh, 251 Port Arthur, 337-38, 34° Port Royal, 63-64 Portugal, trading operations, 21, 46-47, 52, 57; weakness of, 21, 47, 57; enlightened despotism, 27; Methuen Treaty, 52, 65; grants Bombay to Charles II, 60; rela- tions with Napoleon, 171; flight of royal family, 177; revolution of 1820, 229; in Africa, 318; in China, 335; downfall of mon- archy, 382-83; Church and State, 395 Poverty, increase under factory sys- tem, 210; in England, 251, 396 Pragmatic Sanction, 67 Prague, 241 Pressbiurg, Treaty of, 170 Princeton, battle of, 83 "Prisoner of the Vatican," 273 Protection, in Russia, 373; in Ger- many, 368 Protectorate, the, 345 Protestantism, i, 3, 4, 12 Prussia i, growth of, 74; religious toleration, 3; in "Peace of Hu- bertsburg, 1763, 75; relations with Louis XVI, 123; declaration of war, 128; victories in 1793, ^35 5 peace with France, 145; gains Hanover, 170; in Fourth Coali- tion, 171; reawakening, 180; re- constituted at Congress of Vienna, 182-85; in Holy Alliance, 225; in Carlsbad Congress, 230; in Trop- pau, Laibach and Verona Con- gresses, 230; constitution of, 238; INDEX 433 at Frankfort Parliament, 239; Humiliation of Olmiitz, 274; forms Zollverein, 274; William I, 275; Bismarck, 275; militarism, 276; . Danish War, 277; Convention of Gastein, 277; War with Austria, 278-79; annexations in 1866, 279; joins North German Confeder- ation, 279; aUiance with South German States, 281; prepared- ness in 1870, 284; power in Germany, 364, 366-67, "The May Laws," 394-95 (See Ger- many) Public Safety, Committee of, 135-36 Quartering Act, 82 Quebec Act, 82 Racine (Ra-seen), 15 Railways , Liverpool and Man- chester, 205; construction, 206; since 1870, 296-97; Trans-Si- berian, 328,330-31; Russian, 373 Ramillies, battle of, 64 Reform Act, British (1832), 247-50; (1867), 383; (1884), 384 Regulating Act, 82 Reichstag, North German Confedera- tion, 279; German Empire, 366 "Reign of Terror," 143 Repubhcs, First French, 131, 135; Cisalpine, 166; Helvetic, 166; Batavian, 166; Central American, 228; Mexican, 229; South Ameri- can, 228; Second French, 259; Third French, 289, 376-81; in Spain, 381; Portuguese, 382-83 Restoration, EngHsh, 2 Revolution, agricultural in England, 194-95; American, beginning of 2>2,\ influence on France, 113, 126; French, 104-46; of 1820, 227-29; of 1830, 227, 231-34; Revolution of 1688, 3, 24, 59; of 1848, in France, 235-37, 258-60; in Ger- many, 237-40, 274; in Prussia, 238; in Austria, 240-41; in Italy, 242-44; in Naples, 244; results, 244-45; 221; Industrial, 195-216; Turkish, 315-16 Rhodes, Cecil, 324-25 RicheHeu (Reesh-lu), Cardinal, i, 8, 19, 66 "Right of Search," 177 Road-making, i8th Century, 40; since 1870, 296 Robespierre, portrait, 124; influence, 132; in Committee of Public Safety, 136; ideas of, 140-41; dictatorship, 142; overthrow, 143 Roentgen, 398 Romagna, annexed to Italy, 267 Rome, King of, 179; Repubhc of 1848, 243; annexed to Italy, 270 Romilly, 247 Roosevelt, Theodore, 340 "Rotten Boroughs," 249 Rousseau (Ru-so) 25, 99 Rumania, origin, 309-10; indepen- dence, 312; since 1881, 314; in War of 1914, 317, 352-53 RumeHa, 314 Rump Parhament, 2 Russell, Lord John, 249 Russia, rise of, 16; Enlightened Despotism in, 27-28; in Seven Years' War, 74; dismember- ment of Poland, 146; in Third Coahtion, 169; in Fourth Coali- tion, 171; Peace of Tilsit, 172; Invasion of, 179-80; at Congress of Vienna, 182-85; in Holy Alli- ance, 225; designs on Turkey, 262, 350; intervention in Greece, 306-07; Crimean War, 262-64; Russo-Turkish War, 308-10; con- trol of Bulgaria, 312; opposition to Mehemet Ali, 308; serfdom in, 371-72; railroads, 330-31, 373; Industrial Revolution, 215-16; occupation of Siberia, 327; con- quest of Turkestan, 328; interests in Far East, 327-29, 337-38; 434 INDEX Russo-Japanese War, 339-40, 374; War of 1914, 376; govern- ment, 375-76; future, 376 Russo-Turkish War (1877-78), 310-11 Sadowa, battle of 270, 279 Saint Just (San Zhiist), 136 St. Leger, 84 Saint-Simon (San-Semon), 214 San Stefano, Treaty of, 310 Saratoga, battle of, 84 Sardinia, gains in 1748, 70; revolt of 1848, 241, 243; enters Crimean War, 266; supported by Napo- leon III, 266; gains in 1859, 267 Saxony, made a Kingdom, 172 Scha^orst, 180 Schenectady, 63 Schleswig, assigned to Prussia, 279 Schleswig-Holstein Question, 277 Science, 398 Sebastopol, siege of, 264 Second Empire, establishment, 260; fall, 286, 287 Sedan, battle of, 286 Sepoy, defined, 60; Mutiny, 329-30 September Massacres, 129-30 Serbia, independence, 312; wars with Bulgaria, 314, 317; part in Balkan Wars, 316-17 Serfdom, in France, 97; abolished in Austria, Denmark, Portugal, 27; in Russia, 371-72 Seven Weeks' War, 278-79 Seven Years' War, 74-75 Sevigne (Sa-veen-ya), Madame de, 15 Shipping, early 204-05; since i860, 297-98 Shogunate, 331 Siam, 263 Siberia, 327-28 Sicilies, Two (See Naples) Sieyes, (See-ya), 160 Silesia, 67, 74 Siraj-ud-daula, 73 Sinn Fein Society, 388 Six Acts, 225 Slavery, slave trade, 57; abolished in English colonies, 250 Smeaton's blast furnace, 200 Smith, Adam, 53, 85, 212 SmuggUng, 78, 81 Social Legislation, in Germany, 396; in England, 250-51, 396-99 SociaHsm, growth in England, 213; theories of, 213-14; communists, 214; Fabianism, 214; views of Louis Blanc, 235-36; formation of Socialist Party in France, 235- 36; influence in 1848, 258-59; Communist Manifesto, 362; syn- dicalism, 362-63; struggle with Bismarck, 367-68; in Russia, 373; recent progress, 395-98 Solferino, battle of, 267, 285 South Africa, Union of, 325 South America, independence, 228- 29, 231 "South Sea bubble," 43 Spain, early history, 1-2, 22-23, 48-49, 52: aUiance with France, 66-67; domination of Portugal, 57; trading operations, 58; colo- nial system, 58, 77; Family Com- pact, 66; Napoleon's designs on, 174; Napoleon's war on, 177; restoration of Bourbons, 221; loss of American colonies, 228-29, 231; in Africa, 318; in Morocco, 322- 23; repubhc, 381; adoption of present constitution, 381; rela- tions between Church and State, 395 Spanish Succession, War of, 52, 62; Question of, 282-83 Speke, 318 Spice Islands, 49 Spinning jenny, 197; frame, 197; mule, 198 Stambulofif, 314 Stamp Act, 80, 82 Stamp Act Congress, 80 INDEX 435 Stanley, Henry M., 318-19 States General, in France, 14; agi- tation for, 102; called, 103 Steamboat, 204-05, 297-98 Steam engine, 201; Newcomen's, 201-02; Watt's, 202, 205-06, 208 Steel manufacture, 200-01 Stein, Baron von, 180 Stephenson, George, 205-06 Strassburg, ceded to Germany, 290 Stock exchange, 44 Stuart Family, 2, 4 Sudan, 320-21 Suez Canal, 262, 298, 320 Suffrage, in eighteenth century, 6; Reform Bill of 1832, 247-50; ex- tension in Austria-Hungary, 382; extension in Italy, 382; woman suffrage in Norway, 383; in Eng- land, 384, 398 Sun Yat Sen, 341, 343 Suspects, Law of, 136-37 Siittner, Baroness von, 400 Sweden, decline of, 19; united with Norway, 184; loss of Norway, 383 Switzerland, 166 SyndicaHsm, 362, 397-98 Syria, invasion by Napoleon, 158 TaiUe (Td-y'), 93-94 Talleyrand, 182, 185 Taxation, in America, 81; in France, 92-95; reformed in Spain by Napoleon, 178; in England, 224 "Tea Party, Boston," 82 Telegraph, 299-300 Telephone, 299 Telford, Thomas, 203 Tennis Court Oath, 105 Terror, Reign of 136-37 Test Act, 6, 247 Thessaly, cession to Greece, 315 Thiers, 257, 288, 290 Third Estate, 14, 103 Third French RepubUc, 290, 376-81, 393, 395, 397-98 Three-field system, 190 Tientsin, Treaties of, 335 Tilsit, Treaty of, 172 Timor, 57 Tithe, 95 Toleration acts, 3, 4, 5, 12 Tories, origin, 4; policy, 7, 78, 222, 224-25, 250 Toulon, siege of, 152 Townshend Acts, 80-81 Townshend , Charles (" Turnip ' ' Townshend), 192-93 Trade (See Commerce) Trade unions, 212-13, 215 Trading Company, regulated, 44; joint-stock, 46; London, 46; East India, 46; South Sea, 47; Missis- sippi, 47; Dutch West India, 47-49; Dutch East India, 49 Trafalgar, battle of, 168 Transportation, conditions in eigh- teenth century, 203; telford roads, 203; macadam roads, 203; bridge building, 203; canals, 203-4; steamboat, 204; ocean, 204-5; steam engine, 205-6; since 1870, 295-99; railroad building by Rus- sia, 330-31 Transportation Act, 82 Trans-Siberian Railroad, 328, 330-31 Transvaal, 318 Treaties, Westphalia (1648), i, 21; Ryswick (1697), 62, 63; Methuen, (1703), 52, 65; Utrecht (1713), 65; Assiento (1713), 62, 65-66, 67; ALx-la-ChapeUe (1748), 70, 72, 74; Paris (1763), 75; Paris (1783), 84; Campo Formio (1797), 154, 156; Luneville (1801), 166; Amiens (1802), 166; Pressburg (1805), 170; Tilsit (1807), i72;Nanldng (1843), 335; Paris (1856), 264; Tientsin (1858, i860), 335; Zurich (1859), 267; Versailles (1871), 289; Shimo- noseki (1895), 337; Portsmouth (1905), 340 Trenton, battle of, 83 436 INDEX Triple Alliance, 363-64, 368 Triple Entente, 303 Tripoli, annexation by Italy, 316 TuUeries (Twee-ler-ee), attack on, 128-29 Tull, Jethro, 192 Tunis, France in, 302, 318, 322 Turgot (Tergo), 100-01 Turin, 268 Turkestan, conquest by Russia, 328 Turkey(See Ottoman Empire) Tuscany, annexed to Italy, 267 Tzu-hsi, Empress of China, 338-39, 341 Ulm, battle of, 1 70 Ultra Royalists, 231 Umbria, annexed to Italy, 268 Unemployment, 397 Union, Act of (with Ireland), 246 Unions, Trade (See Trade Unions) Unitarians, 3 United States of America, Indepen- dence of, 83, 84; affected by Napo- leon, 176; Monroe Doctrine, 231; Maximihan of Mexico, 282; inter- vention in China, 339; relations with Japan, 331-32; colonial pos- sessions, 348; Open Door Policy, 350 University of France, 164 Utrecht, peace of, 65 Valmy, 131 Varennes, flight to, 1 1 7 Vauban, 15 Vendee, insurrection in, 134, 138 Venezuela, 228 Venice (Venetia) , revolution of 1848, 241, 243; annexed to Italy, 270, 278-79 Verdun, capture of, 130 Versailles, under Louis XIV, 12, 14; palace, 91; court at 93; march of women to, 111-12; proclama- tion of German Empire at, 289 Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia (Italy), accession, 244; begins struggle for Italian unity, 265; defeats Austria, 266; gains Na- ples, 268; alliance with Prussia, 268; monument to, 270 Victoria, of Great Britain, 251- 52; Empress of India, 330 Vienna, Congress of, 181-85; Vienna, Revolution of 1848, 241 Vladivostock, 328 Voltaire, 25 Voting, in England, 5-6, 247-48, 383-84; in Italy, 273, 382; in Austria-Hungary, 382; in Nor- way, 383 (See Suffrage) Wagram, battle of, 179 Wales, disestabHshment of Church, 393 Walpole, Sir Robert, 5, 66, 75, 78 Wandewash, battle of, 74 Wars, Great Civil in England, 2, 24, 59; table of, eighteenth century, 61; French and Indian, 61, 70; Palatinate, 61, 62; Spanish Suc- cession, 7, 22, 61, 63; Jenkins' Ear, 67; Austrian Succession, 61, 68; Seven Years', 74; 1812, 176-77; Peninsular, 178; Liber- ation, 179; Opium, 334-35; Crimean, 262-65; Italian or Austro-Sardinian, 265, 267; Danish, 265, 277; Seven Weeks', or Austro-Prussian, 265, 278- 79; Franco-German, 265, 284- 87; Russo-Turkish, 329; Chino- Japanese, 336-37; Russo-Japanese, 339-40, 374; Boer, 324-25; Turco-ItaHan, 323; Balkan, 317; Great War, 1914, 35^-53 Warsaw, Grand Duchy of, 172, 179 Wartburg festival, 229 Washington, George, 78 Waterloo, battle of, 182 Watt, James, 202 Weaving process, 198 Wedgwood, Josiah, 201 INDEX 437 Wellington, Duke of , in Spain, 178; at Waterloo, 182; ministry of, 247 West Indies, slavery abolished in, 250 Westphalia treaty, i, 21; Kingdom of, 172 Whigs, origin, 4; Junto, 4; in 1740, 6; rivalry with Tories, 7; under Walpole, 78; time of William Pitt, the Younger, 85; interest in agri- culture, 192; name changed to Liberals, 250 Whitney, Eli, 189-99 Wilberforce, William, 250 William I, (German Emperor) of Prussia, personality, 275; defeats Napoleon III, 286; proclaimed Emperor, 288; influence, 364 WiUiam II, of Germany, aims, 363; encouragement of navy, 368-69; interest in the army, 369; por- trait, 369 William III, of England 3, 4, 7, 62- 63 William, IV of England, 247 Witte, Serge de, 373 Woman suHrage, in Norway, 383; in England, 384 Workingmen's compensation, 396 "Worship of Reason," 141 "Writs of Assistance," 81 Wurtemberg, made a kingdom, 170; not in North German Confedera- tion, 279 X-Rays, 398 X, Y, Z, affair, 160 Young, Arthur, 192-93 "Young Italy," 242 "Young Turks," 316 Yuan-Shi-K'ai, 341-42 Zemstva, 372 Zollverein, 274 Zurich, 159, 267 THE'PLIMPTON'PRESS NORWOOD-MASS-U-S-A Deacidified using the Bookkeeper process. 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