D80 1863 UBRARY OF CONGRESS DODDSbflSbbV ^ 0^ •", "^^ '"' # ""^ •^^ A^ y ;* Y.v THE CLASSICAL MANUAL: AN EPITOME OF ANCIENT GEOaRAPHY, GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY, ANTIQUITIES, AND CHRONOLOGY. •f CHIEFLY INTENDED FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS. COMPIIiKD BY. JAMES S; S. BAIRD, TRINITY COLLEGE, DUBLIN, ASSISTANT CLASSICAL MASTER, KING'S SCHOOL, GLOUCESTER. PHILADELPHIA: BLANCHARD AND LEA 1863. J}$0 /tL5 Transfer Engineers School Llfe|^. June 29,1931 REY THOMAS EVANS, D.D. ¥BAD MASTER OP KING'S SCHOOL, GLOUCESTER, THIS LITTLE WORK HI WISPECTFULLY DEDICATED, BT HIS OBLIGED AND FAITHFUL SERVANT, JAMES S. S. BAIRD. m PREFACE. Many excollent works have recently issued from the press, which, cither separately or in the form of diction- aries, treat of the subjects of the following pages : and yet the want of an Epitome has been recognized, which would contain, in the compass of a single volume, of small size and moderate price, as much information upon such points as is calculated to elucidate the Greek and Roman authors usually read in the junior forms of our schools. It has been the object of the compiler of the present manual to supply this deficiency by introducing into it such details as are most likely to be useful (indeed much of which is absolutely necessary to the classical student) in so small a space as to admit of its being thoroughly mastered and retained. Although at first the requirements of junior forms were chiefly contemplated, yet in the progress of the work so much additional matter has been supplied as, it is hoped, will render it not unacceptable to more advanced students. In the compilation, the best and most recent authorities have been consulted, but particular obligations must be acknowledged to the following works : Dr. William Smith's 1* (V) VI PREFACE. Dictionaries of "Greek and Eoman Mythology and Bio- graphy/' " Greek and Roman Antiquities," and " Classical Dictionary;" the Rev. T. K. Arnold's editions of the *' Handbook of Ancient Geography and History," by W. Piitz, and the " Handbooks of Greek and Roman Anti- quities," by Dr. Bojesen. The editor's best thanks are also due to the Rev. H. Haines, M. A., Second Master of the King's School, Gloucester, for his kind supervision of these pages while passing through the press, and also for the valuable assistance he has afforded in several parts of the work. J. S. S. B. GiiOtJCESTER, January, 1862, CONTENTS GEOGRAPHY. EUROPE. Page CotJNTiiTES, Seas, Gulfs, Straits, Rivers, Mountains, Lakes, Islands 13, 14 Hispania. — Boundaries, Mountains, Rivers, Promontories, Divisions, Tribes 15 Tarraconensis, Lusitania, Bsetica. Islands.... 16 Gallia. Boundaries, Mountains, Rivers, Lake, Divisions.. 17 Narbonensis lb. Aquitania, Lugdunensis 18 Gallia Bel gica. Tribes, Islands 19 Ger mania. — Boundaries, Mountains, Rivers, Divisions, Tribes 20 Vindelicia, Rhsetia, Noricum, Pannonia, Illyri- cum. — Vindelicia. Boundaries, Rivers, Tribes, Towns 21 Rhaetia. Boundaries, Rivers, Tribes ib. Noricum. Boundaries ib. Rivers, Towns 22 Pannonia. Boundaries, Rivers, Lakes, Divisions, Towns ib. Illyricum. Boundaries, Mountains, Divisions ib. Towns, Islands 23 Italia, — Boundaries, Gulfs, Strait, Mountains ib. Rivers, Lakes 24 Capes, Divisions 25 Liguria, Gallia Cisalpina or To gat a ib. Venetia, Garni, Histria, Etruria 26 Umbria, Picenum, Sabinum 27 Latium, Samnium 28 Campania, Apulia 29 Lu cania, Bruttium 30 Islands: Si cilia ib. Moesia. — Boundaries, Divisions, Tribes, Rivers, Towns.... 31 Dacia, — Boundaries, Rivers, Tribes 32 8 arm a tl a. -—Boundaries, Tribes, Towns ib. (7) VIU CONTENTS. Macedonia. — Boundaries 82 Gulfs, Mountains, Rivers, Divisions, Cities 33 Illyris Grseca ib. Thracia. — Boundaries, Straits, &c., Mountains, Rivers, Cities 34 Grsecia. — Boundaries ib. Gulfs, Strait, Mountains, Rivers 35, 36 Lakes, Promontories, Divisions 37 Thessalia ib. Epirus, Acarnania, -^tolia, Doris, Locris 38 Phocis, Boeotia 39 Attica, Megaris (Peloponnesus), Achaia, Elis 40 Messenia, Laconia, Argolis 41 Arcadia, Corinthia, Sicyonia ,.. 42 Greek Islands. — In the Ionian and iEgean Seas 43 Britannia or Albion. — Boundaries, Rivers, Promontories, Divisions 44 Tribes, Towns, Islands 45 ASIA. Countries, Mountains, Seas and Gulfs, Rivers, Islands 46, 47 Asia Minor. — Boundaries, Gulfs, Mountains, Rivers 47 Lake, Promontories, Divisions 48 Bithynia ib. Paphlagonia, Pontus, Mysia, Lydia or Mseonia 49 Caria, Lycia, Pamphylia, Cilicia 50 Phrygia, Galatia, Cappadocia, the Six Dorian States, the Twelve Ionian States 51 jEtolian League, "Seven Churches of Asia" 52 Island : Cyprus ib. Syria, Palsestina. — Boundaries, Mountains, Rivers ib. Divisions: Syria, Phoenicia, Palaestina or Judaea. Tribes 53 Divisions: Galilee, Samaria, Judgea 54 Perssa and Batansea, the Cities of Refuge, Seven Heathen Nations 55 Arabia. — Boundaries ib. Mountains, Divisions, Tribes, &c 56 Countries between Pontus Euxinus and Hyrcanum Mare. — Sarmatia A si a tic a, Colchis or ^a, Iberia ib. Albania 57 Armenia Propria vel Major. — Boundaries, Mountains, Rivers, Lake, Towns ib. Mesopotamia ib. River, Divisions, Towns 58 Babylonia and Chalda^a, — Boundaries ib. Countries East of the Euphrates and Tigris: — Assyria, Media, Susiana or Susis 59 Persia or Persis 60 CONTENTS. ix Countries South of the Oxus: — Hyrcania, Parthia, Aria, Baetriana 60 Carmania, Gedrosia 61 Countries North of the Oxus: — Sogdiana, Scythia ib. India. — Boundaries, Rivers, Divisions, Towns, &c.. Islands, &c. 62 AFRICA. Boundaries, Bays, Strait, Rivers, Lakes 63 ^gyptus. — Boundaries, Divisions, JEgyptus Inferior or Delta, Heptanomis 64 ^gyptus Superior vel Thebais *.!]'.'.!!]!!!!!!!!" 65 Northern Coasts of Africa. —Divisions ib. Libya, Tripolitana, Africa Propria 66 Numidia, Mauritania, Islands 67 MYTHOLOGY. TheTwelve Olympian or National Deities of the Greeks and Romans 68-70 Minor Deities •. ..!!!.'.*.! 70-75 Heroes, Mythical Persons, &c ]... 75-84 EARLY GRECIAN LEGENDS, &c. The Argonautic Expedition 85 Early Legends relating to Thebes .'.'...'..*..*." 86 Story of (Edipus and War of the Seven against Thebes 86, 87 Early Kings of Troy gg Legend of the Trojan War '.V.V.V. 89 91 Grecian Heroes, &c., connected with the Trojan War 91-94 Trojan Heroes, &c 95-97 GREEK ANTIQUITIES. Divisions of the Inhabitants of Attica and Sparta 98 Magistrates: — Archons, their number, functions, &c 98 99 Inferior Magistrates ...V.V... ' 99 Ephori ..!"!.'".*.'..'.*.".!!.".'.'.'.' ib. Assemblies.— The General Assembly, The Senate of the Five Hundred -^qq Gerousia, the Senate at Sparta .*..'.'.'.'.".'.*.'.*.*.' 101 J u d g e s and C o u r t s of J u s t i c e.— The Court of Areopagus ib The Heliasts. The Diatet^. The Forty ib. Court of the Ephetas. Amphictyones 102 Punishments. — Ostracism, Atimia, &c 102, 103 Temples, Priests, and Sacrifices [ 103,' 104 Oracles. — Zeus at Dodona. Apollo at Delphi 104,' 105 Other Chief Oracles : of Zeus; ofApoUo; of Heroes... 105 X CONTENTS. Festivals. -— Adonia, Anthesteria, Dionysia, Eleusinia, &c 106-108 Public Games. — Principal Exercises used in 108,109 The Four National Games. Olj'mpic Games 109 Pythian Games. Nemean Games. Isthmian Games.... 110 Military Affairs. — Divisions of the Army and Classes of Soldiers Ill Arms (defensive and offensive) ib. Officers. Minor Divisions of the Army 112 Naval Affairs. — Ships of Burden ; War Galleys; Principal parts of the vessel, &c. Tackling, &c 113 Naval officers, &c 114 Private Life of the Greeks. — Meals, Dress, Funerals 114-116 The Greek Theatre 116,117 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. Divisions of the Inhabitants of the Roman Empire; Patricii, Plebei 118 Equites, Nobiles, Ignobiles, Optimates, Populares, Servi, &c 119 The Senate. — Members, Proceedings, &c 119,120 Assemblies. — Comitia Curiata, Comitia Centuriata 121 Comitia Tributa 122 Magistrates and Chief Public Officers:- — jEdiles, Apparitores ib. Censores, Consules, Curatores 123 Dictator, Praefectus, Praetor 124 Pro-Consul, Procurator, Pro-Prsetor, Qucestores, Tri- buni 125,126 Judicial Proceedings, Punishments 126 Pviests. — Pontifices, Augures or Auspices 127 Fetiales, Haruspices, Decemviri, Curiones, Rex Sacrifi- culus, Flamines, Virgines Vestales 128 Salii, Luperci, Galli, Fi\atres Arvales 129 Prayers, Sacrifices, Festivals , 129,130 Games. — Ludi Circenses, Gladiatorii 131 Classes of Gladiators, Scenic, or Stage Plays, Theatres 1?2 Military Affairs. — Conscription and Period of Service, Pay, &c 133, 134 Divisions of the Army ; Arms 134,135 Officers: Legati, Tribuni, Centuriones ; Encampment... 135 Order of Battle, Standards, Military Engines 136 Military Rewards and Punishments, Triumph, Ova- tion 136, 137 Naval Affairs 137 Private Life of the Romans. —Dress 138,139 Meals, &c 139,140 CONTENTS. XI Private Houses, Baths, Amusements 140, 141 Funerals 142 Names, and their abbreviations 143 ANCIENT GREEK WRITERS. Poets. — Epic, Tragic 144 Comic, Lyric 145 Pastoral . . 146 Prose Writers. — Historians 146,147 Orators, Medical Writers 147, 148 Mathematicians, Geographers, Fabulist 149 Satiric Writer, Critic, Philosophers 150, 151 ANCIENT ROMAN WRITERS. Poets. —Epic 152 Elegiac, Lyric 153 Tragic, Comic, Didactic. Satirists 154 Epigrammatist, Fabulist 155 Prose Writers. — Historians ib. Orator, &c 156 Epistolary Writers. Writers on Philosophical Subjects, NatuT-al History 157 Agriculture, Architecture, Medicine, Grammar and Criticism 158 SCHOOLS OF ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY. The Ionic School 159 The Italic School ib. TOPOGRAPHY of ATHENS 160,161 ROME 162-164 GREEK AND ROMAN DIVISION of TIME 165-167 MISCELLANEA. Hills of Rome, Kings of Rome 168 Twelve CaBsars, Seven Wonders of the World, Seven Sages of Greece 169 Twelve Labours of Hercules, Nine Muses, Three Graces 170 Three Horse, Three Fates, Three Furies, Three Judges of Hell, Five Rivers of Hell 171 The Winds 172 ROMAN CALENDAR 172, 173 GREEK CHRONOLOGY .- 174-180 ROMAN CHRONOLOGY 181-187 INDEX 189 ABBREVIATIONS, Cap. = Capital. = Lacus, Lake. Mts. = Mountains. Prom. = Promontorium. R. = Eiver. G. = Gulf. O.T. = Old Testament (U> GBOGEAPHT. EUROPE. COUNTRIES. — Hispania, Spain; Lusitania, Portugal; Gallia, France and West of Switzerland; Germania, Germany; Cimbrica Chersonesus, Denmark; Scan- dinavia, Norioay and Sweden; Sarmatia Europaea, Russia and Poland; Rhaetia, East part of Switzerland 2i,vi& the Tyrol; Vindelicia, Bavaria S. of Danube; Panno- nia, Hungary ; Illyricum, Illyris, Illyrica, Croatia, Dalmatia, and part of Turkei/ ; Italia, Italy; Graecia, Greece, and part of Albania and Roumelia in Turkey; Macedonia, Western part of Roumelia ; T h r a c i a, East- ern part of Roumelia; Moesia, Servia and Bulgaria; Dacia, Transylvania, Wallachia, and Moldavia. SEAS. — N. : Mare Pigrum, vel Cronium, Frozen Ocean; Oceanus Germanicus, North Sea. W. : Atlanticum Mare, Atlantic. E.: Palus Maeotis, Sea of Azov; Pontus Euxinus, Black Sea; Propontis, Sea of Marmora; ^geum Mare, Archipelago. S. : Mare Internum, Mediterranean ; Mare Ionium, W. of Greece ; Mare Inf erum, Tyrrhenum, vel Tuscum, Tuscan Sea, W. of Italy ; Mare Hadriaticum, vel Superum, Gulf of Venice. GULFS, STRAITS, &c. — Sinus Codanus, vel Mare Sue- vicum, Baltic; Fretum Britannicum, vel Gallicura, Straits of Dover ; Oceanus Cantabricus, Bay of Biscay ; Fretum Gaditanum, Straits of Gibraltar; Gallicus Sinus, Gidf of Lyons; Sinus Ligusticus, Gulf of 2 (i3) 14 GEOGRAPHY. Genoa; Tergestinus Sinus, Gulf of Ti^ieete; Fossa, Straits of Bonifacio ; Fretum Siculum, Straits of Mes- sina; Hellespontus, Straits of the Dardanelles; Bos- porus Thracius, vel Thraclcus, Straits of Constanti- nople; Bosporus Cimmerius, Straits of Kaffa. . ■ RIVERS.— Flowing into the Baltic: Vistula, Vistula; ViS- dus, Oder. Flowing into the North Sea: A Ibis, Elbe; Visurgis, Weser ; Scaldis, Scheldt; Rhenus, Rhine; Tamesis, Thames. Flowing into the Atlantic : Sequana, Seine; Liger, Loire; Garumna, Garonne; Durius, Douro ; Tagus, Tago ; Anas, Gimdiana ; B set is, Guadal- quivir. Flowing into the Mediterranean: Iberus, -E^5?'o; Rhodanus, Rhone; Arar, Saone; Arnus, Arno ; Tibe- ris, Tiber; Athesis, Adige; Padus, Po. Flowing into the Black Sea: Ister, Danube; Tyras, Dniester; Borys- thenes, Dnieper; Tanais, Don. Falling into the Caspian Sea-: Rha, Volga. MOUNTAINS. — Sevo Mons, Dofrefield Mts. ; Pyren^i Montes, Pyrenees; Alpes, The Alps; Apenninus Mons, Apennines ; Carpates vel Bastarnicae Montes, Carpathian Mts.; Haemus Mons, Hccmus, or the Balkan; Hyperborei Tel Rhipsei Montes, Ural Mts. LAKES. — Lacus Lena an us, L. of Geneva; L. Brigan- tinus, Boden See, or L. of Constance; L. Verba nus, Lago Maggiore; L. Larius, Lago di Como; L. Benacus, Lago di Garda ; L. C o p a i s, L. Topolias. ISLANDS. — In the Atlantic: Britannia vel Albion, Bri^ tain; Hibernia, Ireland; Hebudes vel Ebudes, He- brides; Orcades, Orkneys; Thule, Iceland (?). In the Mediterranean: Pityusse Insulae; among these Ebusus, Mca; Baleares Insulse (vel Gymnesias), Balearis Major, Majorca; Balearis Minor, Minorca; Sardinia vel Sardo, Sardinia; Corsica vel Cyrnos, Corsica; JEthalia vel Ilva, Elba; Trinacria vel Sicilia, Sicily; Melita, Malta. In the Ionian Sea: Corcyra, Corfu; GEOGRAPHY. 15 Leucadia vel Leucas, Santa Maura; Ithaca, TMaki; Cephallenia, Cephalonia ; Zacynthus, Zante; Cy- thera, Cerigo. In the ^gean Sea: Creta, Candia; Cy clad 6 8, Cyclades ; Euboea, Negropont. . HISPANIA. 'f^lpain and Portugal. BOUND APJEvS. — X ' )ceanus Cantabricus, Bay of Bis* cay, and Pyrenici Montes; E. and S.E., Mare Inter- num, Mediterranean; W., Mare Atlantlcum, Atlantic. MOUNTAINS. — N., Pyrenaei Montoa, Pyreyiees ; Mon8 I d u b e d n, , Skrra D' Oca a n d Sierra Molina ; M o n s H e r* m i n i u s , S'^ rra d'JE^^l^^ ; M a r i a n it s M o n s, Sierra Mo- rerm; Orosped«k,ipTOs, Skrrok.Begv;ra. RIVERvS. — Falling into the Atlantic: Minius, Minho; Du- rius, Douro ; Tag us, Tagus ; Anas^, Ovadiana; B set is, Guadalquivir. Falling into the Mediterranean: Iberus, Ehro (which receives from the N. Cinga, Cinca, and Sicoris, SegrCy and from the S. Salo, Xalon); Turia, Guadalaviar; SuGT&fjMcar ; Tader, Segura. PROMONTORIES. — A rtabrum Prom., Cape Finisterre; Magnum Prom., Cape La Roca; Sacrum Prom., C. St. Vincent; Junonis Prom., C. Trafalgar; Calpe, Rock of Gibraltar (which, with Abyla on the African coast, formed the Pillars of Hercules); Scombraria Prom., C. de Palos; Bianium Prom., C. La Nao; Prom. Pyre- naeum, Cape Crevx. DIVISIONS. — Hispania Citerior or Hither, afterwards called Tarraconensis ; and Hispania Ulterior or Further, divided into Lusitania, Portugal, in the West, and Baetica, Andalusia, in the South. TRIBES. — In Tarraconensis: Oallaici, Astures, Cantabri, Vaccsei, Vascones, Arevaci, Jacetani, Veseitani, Lacetani, 16 GEOGRAPHY. Ilergetes, Cosetani, Arevaci, Carpetani, Celtiberi, Ede* tani, llercaones, Oretani, Contestani, Bastitani. In Lusi- tania: Lusitani, Vettones, Celtici. In B^tica: Turduii, Turdetani, Bastuli, Poeni. TARRACONENSIS.— Cities. — On the Ebro: Csesar Au- gusta, Saragossa. On the Salo: Bilbilis (the birth-plac* of Martial). On the E. coast: Tarraco, Tarragona, tht Capital; Saguntum, Murviedro (its destruction by Han nibal, B.C. 219, gave rise to the second Punic war); Va lentia, Valencia. Near Scrombraria Prom., Cape Polos ' Carthago Nova, Cartliagena (taken by Scipio Africanus B.C. 210). On the Tagus : Toletum, Toledo. Near the source of the Douro: Numantia (destroyed by Scipio the Younger, B.C. 133). At the mouth of the Douro: Calle, Oporto. jIII LUSITANIA. — Cities. — S a 1 a m a n 1 1 c a, Salamanca, on a tributary of the Douro; Norba Caesarea, Alcantara, on the Tagus ; 1 i s i p o, Lisbon, near the mouth of the river ; Emerita Augusta, Merida, on the Anas, Guadiana (colonized by Augustus vrith the veterans [Emeriti) of the fifth and tenth legions). BiETICA. — Cities. — Illiturgi, on the Beetis (destroyed by Scipio, B.C. 210) ; below it, Cordtiba, Cordova, surnamed Patricia (the birth-place of the two Senecas and Lucan) ; Italic a, Sevilla la Vieja (the birth-place of the Emperors Trajan and Hadrian); Hispalis, Seville; Tartessiis, on the coast; Gades, Cadiz, on a small island, one of the chief seats of commerce of the Phoenicians ; M u n d a, Monda, on the South coast (battle b. c. 45, Caesar defeated the sons of Pompey). ISLANDS. — In the Mediterranean: Pityusge InsuloB, comprising E bus us, Iviga, and Ophiusa; Baleares [or Gymnesiae) Insulas, Balearic Isles, comprising Major Insula or Majorca (Cap. Palma, Palma), and Minor In- sula, Minorca, Cap. Mago, Port Mahon. GEOGRAPHY. 17 GALLIA. France, Belgiiiin, and West of Switzerland, BOUNDARIES. — N. : Oceanus Britannic us, English Channel; F return Gallicum, Straits of Dover; and Oceanus Germanicus, German Ocean. E. : Rhenus, Rhine, and Alpes, The Alps. S. : Mare Internum, Medite7'ranean, an d P y r e n ae i M o n t e s, Pyrenees. W. : Atlanticum Mare, Atlantic. MOUNTAINS. — Pyre nasi Monte s, Pyrenees; Alpes, Alps. RIVERS.— Falling into the North Sea and English Channel : Rhenus, Rhine (with its tributaries, Mosella, Moselle^ and Mosa, Meuse) ; So aid is, Scheldt; Samara, Somme; Sequana, Seine (with its tributaries. Matron a, Marne, and Axona, Aisne, Isara, Oise). Falling into the Bay of Biscay: Liger, Loire (and its tributary, Elaver, Allier) ; Garumna, Garonne, Avith Duranius, Dordogne, and Aturus, Adour. Falling into the Mediterranean: Rho- danus, Rhone (with its tributaries, Arar, Saone, IsSira, Isere, and Druentia, Durance). LAKE. — L. L c m a n u s, Lake of Geneva. DIVISIONS. — Gaul was originally divided among the BELGyE (between the Rhine and Seine) ; CELT^ (be- tween the Seine and Garonne) ; and AQUITANI (between the Garonne and the Pyrenees). About B.C. 120, Gaul was divided by the Romans into Provincia, or Gallia Braccata, and Gallia Comata; and again, B.C. 27, into, I. Provincia, or Gallia Narbonensis, in the S.E. ; II. Aquitania, in the S.W. ; III. Gallia Celtica, or Lugdunensis, in the N.W. ; IV. Gallia Belgica, in the N.E. NARBONENSIS, divided into Narbonensis Prima, Narbo- nensis Secunda, Viennensis, Alpes Maritimce, and Alpes 2* 18 GEOGRAPHY. Graice et PennincB. — Towns. — In Narbonensis Secunda and Viennensis: Massilia, Marseilles, on the coast (founded about B.C. 600, famous for its literature and commerce); Aquae Sextiae, Aix (Marius defeated the Teutoni, b.c. 102); Telo Martius, Toulon, on the coast; E. of which Forum Julii, Frejus (the birth-place of Agricola) ; Ge- neva, Geneva, on L. Lemanus ; Vienna, Vienne, on the Khone (the chief town of the Allobroges) ; Cularo, Gre- noble; Valentia, Valence; Dea, Die; Arausio, Orange (a Roman colony) ; Avenio, Avignon; Ar elate, Aisles (a Roman colony, founded by the soldiers of the sixth Legion). In Narbonensis Prima: Nemausus, Nismes; on the coast, Agatha, Agde; Narbo Martius, Narbonne, the Capital of Gallia Narbonensis. On the Garonne : Tolosa, Toulouse (surnamed Palladia, a large and wealthy city). On the coast : R u s c i n 0, near Perpignan. AQUITANIA, divided into Novempopulana, S. ; Aguitania Prima, E. ; Aquitania Secunda, W. Towns. — In Novempopidana : Climberris, AucJi. In Aquitania Prima: Albiga, Albi; on the Dordogne, Uxel- lodunum, Puech d'Issola; near the Elaver, Allier, G er- go via; AVest of this, Angus to ritum, Limoges; in the N., Avaricum, Bourges. In Aquitania Secunda : on the Garonne, Burdigala, Bordeaux (the birth-place of Auso- nius) ; in the N., Limonum, or Pictavi, Poitiers: Medio- lanum, or Santones, Saintes. LUGDUNENSIS, divided into Lugdunensis Prima, Secmida, Tertia, and Quarta. Towns. — In Lugdunensis Prima: Lugdunum, Lyons, the capital, at the junction of the Rhodanus and Arar, Saone (the birth-place of the Emperor Claudius) ; N. of this. Bib r act e, orAugustodunum, Autun, and Alesia, Alise (destroyed by Caesar, b.c. 52). In Lugdwuv.sis Quarta: on the Sequana, Seine, Augustobona, or T pi- cas ses, Troyes ; Agendicura, Sens, the Capital of the Senones; and Lutetia, or Parisii, Paris; Genabum, CenS bum, or Aureliani, Orleans, on the Liger, the Cap. of tbe GEOGRAPHY. 19 Carnutes. In Ltigdiinensis Secunda: RotomSgus, Fouen. In Lugdunensis Tertia : on the Loire, Csesarodunum, Tours, Cap. of the Turones ; in the N.W., Brivates Por- iu^y Brest. GALLIA BELGICA, divided into 1. Belgica Prima; 2. Bel- gica Secunda; 3. Germania Prima; 4. Germania Secmida; 6. Maxima Sequanorum. Towns. — On the Mosella : Tullum, To?/?; Divodurum, Metz; Augusta Treverorum, Treves. On the Matrona, Marne: Durocatalaunum, Chalons; N. of this Duro- cortorum, Rheims, the Cap. of the Remi. On the Axona, Aisne: Augusta Suessionum, Soissons. On the Sa- mara, Somme : S a m a r o b r i v a or A m b i a n i, Amiens. On the coast: Gesoriacum or Bononia, Boidogne, and Itius Portus (from which Csesar set sail for Britain). On the Scaldis: Turn a cum, Tournay. On the Rhine: Argentoratum, Sfrasburg (Julian defeated the Ale- manni, a.d. 357); Borbetomagus, Worms; and Mogon- tiacum, Alentz; at the junction of the Rhenus and Mo- sella, Confluentes, CoUentz. On the Rhenus: Colon la Agrippina, Cologne; Noviomagus, Nimeguen ; Lug- dun um Batavorum, Leyden. On the Dubis, Douhs : Ve- sontio, Besangon; S.E. of this Aventicum, Avenche. TRIBES. — In Narbonensis: Salyes or Saluvii, Allo- broges, Volcae Arecomici, Volcae Tectosages. In Aqui- tania: Bituriges Cubi, Lemovices, Arverni, Pictones, Santones, Bituriges Vivisci. In Gallia Lugdunensis: Am- barri, M^n'i, Lingones, Senones, Carnutes, Veneti, Osismii. In Gallia Belgica: Treveri, Mediomatrici, Leuci, Remi, Suessiones, Bellovici, Atrebates, Nervii, Morini, Ilelvetii (people of Switzerland), Sequani, Rauraci, Ubii, Tungri, Menapii, Batavi. ISLANDS.—On the W. Vindllis, Belleisle ; Uxantis, UsJiant} Csesa^ren, Jersey ; Sarnia, Guernsey; Ridxxna, Aldemey. 20 GEOGRAPHY. GEEMANIA. Germany and Prussia. BOUNDARIES. — N.., Codanus Sinus and Mare Suevi. cum, Baltic, and Oceanus Germanicus; E., Vistula, B. Vistula, and Carpates Monte s, Carpathian Moun- tains; S., Danubius, B. Danube; W., Rhenus, B. Bhine. INIOUNTAINS. — Hercynii Montes, all the mountains in the south and centre of German^/. In the centre: Her- cynia Silva, an immense forest which took Caesar nine days to cross. RIVERS.— Falling into the Baltic : Vistula, Vistula; and Viadrus, OcZer (with its tributary Varta, Wartha). Fall- ing into the German Ocean: A Ibis, Elbe (and its tributary Sala, Saale) ; Visurgis, Weser; Am as i a, Ems; Rhenus, Bhine (with its tributaries Nicer, Neckar ; Moenus, Main; Lupia or Luppia, Lipjpe) ; Ister or Danubius, Danube. DIVISIONS. — 1. Vindeli or Suevi, N. of the Elbe to the Baltic; 2. Hermiones, N. of the Danube; 3. Istaevones, E. of the Rhine. TRIBES, &c. — Among the Vindeli or Suevi: Lemovii, Lon- gobardi, Burgundiones, Gothones, Scmnones. Among the Hermiones : Cherusci, Catti, Hermunduri, Boii, Marcomanni. Among the Istgevones: Frisii, Chauci (divided into Minores and Majores), Bructeri, Marsii, Sicambri, Tencteri, Mattiaci, Sedusii, Marcomanni, Alemanni, in the S. Decumates Agri, whose inhabit- ants paid a tithe of their produce to the Romans. N. of Germany: Saxones, Angli and Cimbri, inhabit- ing Cimbrica Chersonesus, Jutland; Hilleviones, Sui- ones, and Si tones, inhabiting Scandinavia or Scandia, Norway and Sioeden. N. B. The Teutones, probably dwelt in the N. of Ger- many, on the coast of the Baltic. GEOGRAPHY. 21 VINDELICIA, RH^TIA, NORICUM, PANNONIA, ILLYRICUM. Bavaria ; East of Switzerland, Tyrol ; Austria, South of the Danube; Hungary ; lUyria, Croatia, JDalmatia, and part of Turkey. ViNDELICIA. Bavaria. 'BOUNDARIES. — N. and W., Danubius, R. Danube; E., R. ^nus, Inn; S., iEnus, Fl. Ehaetia, and Brigaii' tinus Lacus, Lake of Constance. RIVERS. — Isarus, Iser ; Licus, Lech. TRIBES. — Brigantii, Genauni, Estiones. TOWNS. — Augusta Vindelicorum, Augsburg; Brigan- tia, Bregentz ; Reginum, Ratisbon. Rh^tia. East of Switzerland and the Tyrol. BOUNDARIES. — N., Brigantinus Lacus, R. ^nus, and Vindelicia; E., Noricum; S., Gallia Cisalpina; W., the Helvetii. RIVERS. — Rhenus, Rhine; -^nus, Inn; Addua, Adda; Ticinus, Ticino ; Athesis, Adige (all these rise Id Rhaetia). TRIBES. — Lepontii, Cap. Oscela; Sarunetes, Cap. Curia, Coire; Brenni, Vennones, Tridentini. Noricum. Austria, South of the Danube. BOUNDARIES. — N., Danubius; E., Mons Cetius and Pannonia; S., Illyricum, R. Savus, ^ave# and Alpes Carnicae; W., Rhaetia and R. ^nus. 22 GEOGRAPHY. RIYERS. — Juvavus, Salza; Anisus, Enns ; Murus, Mulir ; Dravus, Drave (all these rise in Noricum). TOWN S. — Juvavum, Saltzhurg ; Boiodurum, near Pas' sau, on the Danube, and Lauriacum, the station of a Roman fleet; Noreia, Neumai'M, near the centre (battle B.C. 113, the Consul Carbo defeated by the Cimbri) ; S.E. Celeia, Cilly. Pannonia. Hungary, Slawnia, and part of Croatia and Turkey. BOUNDARIES. — N. and E., Danubius FL; S., Illyri- cum; W., Noricum. RIVERS. — Arab on, Raab ; Dravus, Drave; Savus, Save. LAKES. — Volcea Palus, Flatten See; Peiso L., Neu- siedler See. DIVISIONS. — Pannonia Superior and Inferior. TOWNS. — On the Danube: Vindobona, Vienna; Car- nuntum (E. of Vienna); Acincum or Aquincum, Buda ; Contra Acincum, Pesth; Paetovia, near Pe^^aw, on the Drave; Mursa, Esseck, near the junction of the Drave and Danube. On the Save: Siscia, Sissek; and Sirmium. Illyricum. Illyria, Dalmatia, Croatia, and part of Turkey. BOUNDARIES. — N., Noricum; E., Pannonia and Moe- sia; S.W., Mare Iladriaticum and Histria. MOUNTAIN. — Albius Mons. DIVISIONS. — N. 1. Liburnia (inhabited by the Liburni and Japydes) ; 2. Dalmatia. The Liburni vrere famed as bold and skilful sailors, their vessels were remarkable for their swiftness ; hence, vessels after their models were te?' ' ed Lihurnicoi Naves. GEOGRAPHY. 23 TOWNS. — -(Em on a, Layhach ; Scardona, Scardona, the Cap. of Liburnia; Salon a, Spalatro (the birth-place of Diocletian) ; Narona, on the Naro, Narenta ; S. of which Epidaurus, Old Ragusa; Scodra, Skidari, on Labeatis Pal us, Lake of Skutari ; S. of this, Lissus, Alessio. ISLANDS. — W. of Illyricum: Scardona, Isola Grossa; Pharus, Lesina; Corcyra Nigra, Curzola; Me lit a, Melida. ITALIA. Hesperia, (EnotriAj Ausonia, Saturnia. Ifaly, BOUNDARIES. — N. and N.W., Alpes, The Alps; E., Ha- driaticum Mare vel Superum, Adriatic Sea, or Gulf of Venice; S., Mare Internum, Mediterranean; W., Mare Tyrrhenum, Tuscum, vel Infer um, Tuscan Sea. GULFS.— E., Tergestlnus Sinus, Gidf of Trieste: S., Ta- rentinus Sinus, Gulf of Taranto ; Scylacius Sinus, Gulf of Squillace: W., Teringeus Sinus, Gulf of St. Eufemia ; L a u s Sinus, Gulf of Policastro ; P re s t a n u s Sinus, Gidf of Salerno; Cumanus vel Puteolanus Sinus, Bay of Naples; Cajetanus Sinus, Gulf of Gaeta: S. of Liguria, Ligusticus Sinus, Gidf of Genoa. STRAIT. — Fretum Siculum, Straits of Messina. MOUNTAINS. — Alpes, The Alps, in the North, divided into three principal chains. I. The Western: Alpes Maritimae, Maritime Alps; Alpea CottijB, Mt. Cenis, and Mt. Gen^vre ; Alpes Graiae, Alps of Sa^ voy, including Little St. Bernard and 3ft. Blanc. II. The Central Alps: Alpes Penninae, Alps of Valais, including Great St. Ber^ nard, Mt. Rosa, and St. Gothard ; Alpes Lepontia;, Alj^s of the Orisons; Alpes Rhaeticae, Alps of Tyrol. III. The Eastern Alps: Alpes Norica9, Alps of Styria; Alpes Carnicae, Carnic Alps ; Alpes Juliae, Julian Alpo, 24 GEOGRAPHY. AppenninusMons, The Apennines, running the whole length of Italy. Principal Elevations: Mens Soracte, S. Oreste, in Etruria ; Mons Sacer, in Sabinum ; Mons Albanus, in Latium (on which the Ferise Latinse were celebrated); Algidus Mons, in Latium; Mons Mass*- cus, in Campania, near the coast (famous for its wines) ; Vesuvius, the celebrated volcanic mountain (the first eruption occurred Aug. 24, a.d. 79, which destroyed Pom- peii and Herculaneum) ; Garganus, Mte. Gargano, in Apulia; and Mons Vultur. RIVERS. — In Gallia Cisalpina: Padus, or EridSnus, Po ; it rises in Mons Vesiilus, Monte Viso, flows east, and falls into the Adriatic. Chief tributary streams from the N. : Duria Major, Bora Baltea ; Ticinus, Ticino (Hannibal defeated P. C. Scipio, b.c. 218), from L. Verbanus, Lago Maggiore; Addua, Adda, from L. Larius, Lago di ^^BS0a;' and Mincius, Mincio, from L. Benacus, Lago di Garda. From the S. : Tanarus, Tanaro ; Trebia, Trebia (Han- nibal defeated the Romans, B.C. 218). Athesis, Adige, N. of the Po; Rubicon, Fiumicino, between Cisalpine Gaul and Umbria ; Metaurus, Metauro, in Umbria (Has- drubal defeated, b.c. 207); and Aufidus, Ofanto, in Apulia, all fall into the Adriatic. Running into the Tus- can Sea: Arnus, Avno, in Etruria; Tiber is, Tivere — \\, receives, on the left, Clanis, Chiano, and Cremera (300 Fabii destroyed, b.c. 477); on the right, Tinia, Tinia, and its tributary Clitumnus, Clitumno ; Nar, Nero-, and Velinus, Velino, its tributary; A Hi a (Gauls overcome the Romans, b.c. 390) ; and Anio, Teverone. In the S. of Latium: Liris, Garigliano. In Campania: Vulturnus, Volturno; Silarus, Silaro (victory of Crassus, B.C. 71). LAKES. — In Cisalpine Gaul: L. Verbanus, Lago Mag- giore; L. Larius, Lago di Como ; L. Benacus, Lago di Garda. In Etruria: L. Trasimenus, Lago di Perugia (Hannibal's third victory, B.C. 217); L. Vulsiniensis, L. Bolsena. In Sabini: L. Fucinus, Lago di Celano. GEOGRAPHY. 25 In Latiuni: L. Kegillus, Lago di Regillo? (battle B.C. 498); L. Alb anus, Lago di Albano. In Campania: L. A V em us, Lago Acerno, and L. Lucrinus, famed for its oysters. CAPES. — In Etruria: Populonium Prom. In Latium: Circeium Prom., Monte Circ.ello. In Campania: Mise- num Prom., Cape Miseno., and Minerv^e Prom., Cape Camjjandla. In Lucania : P a 1 i n u r u m P r o m.. Cape Por linuro. In Apulia: Garganum Prom., Cap)e Gargano ; lapygium vel Salentinum Prom., Cape Leuca. In Bruttii: Lacinium Prom., Cape Colonne ; Herculeum Prom., Cape Spartivento ; Leucopetra Prom., Cape Armi. DIVISIONS. — North : I. Liguria; II. Gallia Cisal- pina, vel Togata; III. Venetia, Garni, and Histria. Middle: IV. Etruria, vel Tuscia; V. Umbria; VI. Picenum; VII. Sabinum; VIII. Latium; IX. Sam- nium; X.Campania. South: XI. Apulia; XII. Lu- cania; XIII. Bruttii. LIGUJUA.—Nice, Genoa, and part of Fiedmo?i{. — Boundaries: N., K. Padus, Po, and Gallia Cisalpina ; E., Gallia Cisal- pina; S., Sinus Ligusticus, Gulf of Genoa; W., Alpes Maritima3 and Gallia. C///€6-.— Genua, Geiwa, at the N. of the Gulf of Genoa ; Pollen ti a, Polenza, on the Tanarus. IVlbes. — N. of Apennines: Vagienni, Statielli, Fri- niates, Montani, LigGres. South: Intcmelii, In- gauni, Apuani. GALLIA CISALPINA, vel TOGATA. — Part of the king- dom of Sardinia, Lomhardy, Parma, Modena, and part of States of the Church. Divisions.— I. GALLIA CISPADANA, inhabited by the Boii and Lingones. Cities: Placentia, 'Placenza, near the junction of the Po and Trebia, (founded by Romans, 219 b.c.) ; Mutina, Modena (M. Antony defeated, b.c. 43); Ravfenna, Ra- venna; Bononia, Bologna. 3 26 GEOGRAPHY. II. GALLIA TRANSPADANA, inhabited by the Tau- rini, Salassi, Insubres, Cenomani. Cities: Augusta Taurinorum, Turin, on the Padus; Vercella, Vefcelli, near which Raudi Campi, (where Ma- rius defeated the Cimbri, B.C. 101) ; Ticinuni, Pavia, on the Ticinus ; Mediolanum, Milan, the capital of the In- subres ; C m u m, Como, on L. Larius ; Cremona, Cre- mona, on the Po, (founded by Romans, B.C. 219) ; Mantua, Mantua, on the Mincivis, (near which Virgil was born, B.C. 70). VENETIA, CARNI, et HISTRIA. — Eastern part of Vene- tian Lombard}/ and Istria. Boimdaries. — N, and N.E., Alpes Carnicse, vel Juliae, and Rhaetia ; E., Liburnia ; S., Mare Hadriaticum and R. Padus ; W., R. Athesis, Adige, and Gallia Transpadana. Cities. — Verona, Verona, on the Athesis; E. of Verona, Patavium, Padua, (Livy born, b.c. 59); Aquileia, Aquileia, near the coast, (destroyed by Attila,.king of the Huns, A.D. 452) ; E. of Aquileia, Tergeste, Trieste. ETRURIA, TUSCIA, vel TYRRHENIA. — Tuscamj, and part of States of the Church. Boundaries. — N., R. Macra, Magra, and Apenninus Mons ; E. and S., R. Tiber ; W., Tuscum Mare. Cities. — Pi 8 96, Pisa, and Florentia, Florence, both on the Arnus. Luc a, Lucca, on the Auser, Serchio. Fae- sulse, Fiesole ; Pistoria, Pistoia, (Catiline defeated, B.C. 62); Portus Herculis, Labronis, vel Liburni,iep^ horn; on the coast. Poptilonium, or ia, the chief sea- port of Etruria. Centum Cellag, Civifa Vecchia ; on the coast, with a fine harbour. The following were probably the twelve confederate citiea of Etruria Proper, Volaterrse, Volaterra. Vetulonii, to the E. of Popu- lonia. Rusellae, on the Umbro. Tarquinii, Corneto. Agylla, or Caere, Cerveteri, (where the Vestal Virgins took refuge on the destruction of Rome by the Gauls, b. c. 390). Veii, Isola, on the Cremera, twelve miles from GEOGRAPHY. 27 Rome, (the most powerful city of Etruria). Falerii, or Turn, (taken by Camillus, B.C. 394), near Mt. Soracte. Vulsinii, Bolsena, on L. Volsiniensis, (the birth-place of Sejanus, the favourite of Tiberius). Clusium, Chiusi, near the Clanis, (the residence of Porsena). Perusia, Perugia, E, of Clusium, on the Tiber. Cortona, Cortonay N.W. of Trasimene Lake. Arretium, Arczzo, (the birth- place of Mascenas). UMBRIA. — States of the Church. Boundaries. — N., Gallia Cispadana; E., Mare Hadriati- cum and Picenum ; S., Sabini ; W., R. Tiber. It was in- habited in the N. by Galli Senones. Cities. — Ariminum, Eimiui; Sena Gallic a, Seni- gaglia, on the coast; in the interior, Sentinum, (battle, B.C. 294, Samnites defeated); Spoletium, or S pole turn, Spoleto, in the South. PICENUM. — Part of States of the Church. Boundaries. ■^'^., R. ^sis, Esino ; E., Mare Hadriati- cum ; S., Vestini, in Sabinum ; W., Umbria and Sabini. Cities. — Ancona, Ancona, in the N. ; As culum Pice- num, Ascoli, (taken, b.c. 89, in the Marsic or Social War). Tribe. — Pr^tutii, in the South. SABINUM. — Part of States of the Church, and part of Kaples. Boundaries. — N., Umbria and R. Nar ; E., Apenninus Mons and Hadriaticum Mare ; S., Samnium ; W., Latium and R. Tiber. Cities. — Reate, Rieti, in the W. ; Cures, Correse, (the native city of Numa, and capital of the Sabines) ; Fidenas, Castel Giubileo, and Crustumerium, between the Anio and Tiber; Amite mum, in the E., on the borders of the Vestini, (Sallust born, b.c. 86); Alba Fucentia, Alba, N. of L. Fucinus ; Marruvium, chief city of the Marsi ; Sulmo, Sulmona, in the country of the Peligni, (Ovid born, B.C. 43) ; Corfinium, the chief city of the Pelig}u. 28 G E O G R A P II y . Tribes. — ^qui, Marsi, Peiigni, Marruciiii, Ves- tini. LATIUM. — States of the Church, Boundaries. — N., R. Tiber and Anio; E., Samnium and Campania ; S. and W., Mare Tuscum. Cities. — Roma, Rome, on the Tiber, (founded by Ro- mulus, B.C. 753, on the Palatine Mount); built on seven hills, Palatinus, Capitolinus, Quirinalis, Vimina* lis, Esquilinus, Cselius, and Aventinus, to which were afterwards added Janiculum, Vaticanus, and CoUis Hortulorum (Public Buildings, &c., vide Topo- graphy). Ostia, Ostia, at the mouth of the Tiber. Lau- ren turn, on the coast. Lavinium, built by -iEneas. Ardea, the city of Turnus. An tin m, Porto d'Anzo, on the coast. Tibur, Tivoli, on the Anio, (a favourite resi- dence of the Roman nobles). S. of this Gabii. Tuscu- lum, near Frascati, surrounded by numqrous villas. Alba Long a, on the border of L. Albanus, founded by Ascanius (a legend). Praeneste, Palestrina. Velitras, Velletri, (the native city of the Octavian family). Corioli, (which gave to C. Marcius the surname Coriolanus). Aquinum, Aquino, (birth-place of Juvenal). Anagnia, Anagni, the capital of the Hernici. Eastward: Arpinum, Arpino, (birth-place of Cicero and Marius) ; Anxur, or Tarra- cina, Terracina; Suessa Pometia, (stormed by Tarq. Superbus). Cajeta, Gaeta; Formiae, Mola, (famous for its wine) ; and Minturnge ; on the coast. Tribes. — Latini, ^qui, Hernici, Rutiili, Volsci. SAMNIUM. — Part of Naples. Boundaries. — N., Sabinum and Mare Hadriaticum; E., Apulia; S., Campania and Lucania; W., Campania and Sabinum. Cities. — Beneventum, Benevento, (Pyrrhus defeated, B.C. 275). S.W. of Beneventum : Caudium, near whi(ih the pass called Furculse Caudinse, or Caudine Forks (where the Roman army, overcome by the Samnites, GEOGRAPHY. 29 passed under the yoke, b.c. 321); Bovilnum, Bojano, (chief city of the Pentri). Tribes.— N., Frentani; Middle, Pentri; S., Hirpini. CAMPANIA. — Part of Naples, Boundaries. — N., Latium and R. Liris ; E., Samnium ; S., R. Silarus ; AY., Tyrrhenum Mare. Cities. — On the coast : C u m se, the most ancient Greek colony in Italy; Baiae, (famed for its bat-hs) ; Misenum, the principal station of the Roman fleet in the Tyrrhene Sea; Puteoli, or Dicaearchia, Pozzuoli ; Neapolis, Naples, founded on the site of the ancient Parthenope ; Herculaneum (over which stand Portici and Resina), Pompeii, and Stab ire, (destroyed, a.d. 79, by an eruption of Vesuvius) ; Salernum, Salerno. In the Interior: Ve- nafrum, Venafro, (noted for its olives); Capua, Capua, (which espoused the cause of Hannibal, and, when taken by the Romans, b.c. 211, suffered the vengeance of the conquerors); Nola, Nola, (here Augustus died, a.d. 14). In the N.: Mons Massicus and Falernus Ager, both noted for wine (Massic and Falerniau). Tribes. — N., Aurunci; S., Picentlni. APULIA. — Part of Naples. Boundaries. — N. and E., Mare Hadriaticum ; S., Taren- tinus Sinus ; W., R. Bradanus, Brandano, and Samnium. Divisions. — Daunia, Peucetia, Messapia or lapy- gia, Calabria. Cities. — Luceria, Liicera, (noted in the Samnite -wars); Argyripa or Arpi, Aipi. On the i\ufidus: Cantisium, Canosa, and C annas, Canne, (battle, b.c. 216, Romans defeated by Hannibal) ; Asculum Apulum (Romans defeated by Pyrrhus, b.c. 279); Ventisia, Ve7iosa, (the birth-place of Horace, B.C. 65). In Calabria: BrundQ.- sium, Brindisi, (the usual port of embarcation for Greece) ; Hydruntum or Hydrus, Otranto; Tarentum or Taras, Taranto, (a flourishing and opulent city). Tribes. — Pediculi, Salentini. 3^ 80 GEOGRAPHY. LUC ANIA. — Part of Naples. Boundaries. — N., Campania, Samnium and Apulia; E., Tarentinus Sinus; S., Bruttii and R. Laus; W., Tyrrhenuin Mare. Cities. — In the E. : Metapontum; Heraclea, on tho Aciris ; Sybaris (proverbial for the luxury of its inhabit- ants) ; Thurii, (founded by the Athenians, b.c. 443, with whom were Herodotus, and Lysias the orator). In the W., also on the coast: Paestum, vel Posidonia, (noted for its roses) ; Elea, Helia, or Velia, (the birth-place of Zeno and Parmenides, the founders of the Eleatic School of Philosophy). In the Interior: to the E., Pandosia; Potentia, Potenza. BRUTTIUM. — Part of Naples. Boundaries. — N., Lucania ; E., Ionium Mare ; S., Mare Siculum ; W., Tyrrhenum Mare. Cities. — On the Eastr'Croton, Cotrone, (the residence of Pythagoras, who here founded his school, and of Milo, the most famous athlete of antiquity) ; Scylacium, Squil- lace; Locri Epizephyrii, (the city of Zaleucus, the law- giver) . On the West : Consentia, Cosenza, the Capital ; Temesa or Temps a. On the coast further South: Rhe- gium, Reggio, N. of Rhegium, the Rock Scylla, opposite to Chary bdis on the Sicilian coast. Islands. SICILIA OR TRINACRIA, Sicily, (inhabitants the Sicani) Mountain. — ^tna, Monte Gibello. Rivers. — Symaethus, Giaretta, in the E. ; Himera, Salso, in the S. Capes. — Pelorum Prom., Cape Faro ; Pachynum Prom., Cape Pas- saro; Lilybseum Prom., Cape Boeo. Cities. — E. Messana, Messina; Tauromenium, Taormina; Catana, Catania; SyracusEe, Syracuse or Siragossa, consisting of five towns, 1. Ortygia, (or Nasos, the Island), 2. Achradina, 3. Tyche, 4. NeapSlis, and 5. the superb Epipolse: in the S. Agrigentum, Girgenti, (famed for its temple of Zeus Olympius) ; Selinus, ruins: in the W. Lily bge urn, GEOGRAT>HY. 31 Marsala; Drepanum, Trapani: in the N. Segeste or ^gesta, near Alcamo ; Panornius, Palermo. Himera, (battle, B.C. 480): in the centre Henna or Enna. Castro Giovanni, (from which Pluto carried off Proserpine). North from Sicily, Mo\\3d vel YulcanigB Insulae, Lipari Islands, the largest of which Linara; Strongvle. Stromboli: W. iE gates Insulae, (battle, b.c. 241, Car- thaginians defeated): S. Cossyra, Pantelearia; Melita. Malta; G a u 1 u s, Gozzo. W. of Etruria : 1 1 v a vel ^ t h a 1 1 a. Elba, (famed for its iron-mines); Corsica. Corsica. Chiel Toivns. — Mariana, and Alalia or Aleria, a Roman colony. S. of Corsica: Sardinia vel Sardo, Sardinia, Cap. Ca ralis, Cagliari, in the S. MCESIA. Servia and Bidgaria. BOUNDARIES.— N., R. Danubius or Ister; E., Pontus Eux inus, Black Sea; S., Ila^mus Mons ; W., lliyricum and R Drinus, Drino. l^IVISIONS. — W., Moesia Superior, including Dacir Aureliani; E., Moesia Inferior, including Scythir Parva. TRIBES. — Moe si, Scordisci, Dardani, Triballi. RIVERS. — Drinus, Drino; Margus, Morava ; (Esc us, Isker ; latrus, lantro ; all tributaries of the Danube. TOWNS. — In Moesia Superior: Singidunum, Belgrade, Margus, near the Margus; Naissus, Nissa, on the Mar- gus. In Moesia Inferior: Sardicaon the OEscus, S.E. of which Tauresium, (the birth-place of Justinian). On the Danube: Nico polls, Kicopoli, built by Trajan. On the borders of the Pontus Euxinus, Black Sea: Tomi, (to which Ovid was banished by Augustus), to the South of this Odessus, Odessa, W. of which Marcianopolis, founded by Trajan. ^2 GEOGRAPHY.' DACIA. Transylvania, Wallacliia, Moldavia, Bessarabia. BOUNDARIES. — N., Mons Carpates vel BastarnicjB, and R. Tyras, Dniester ; E., Pontus Euxinus, Black Sea, and Sar- matia ; S., R. Danubius ; W., R. Tibiscus, Theiss. RIVERS. — Tibiscus, Theiss; Aluta, Alida; Ar discus, Argish; Ararus, Sereth ; Porata or Hierasus, Pruth; all falling into the Danube. TRIBES. — Getae vel Daci, (chief city Sarmizegethusa or Ulpia Trajana) ; Jazyges, in the West. SARMATIA. Pa7't of European Russia. BOUNDARIES.— E., R. Tanais, Don; S., Palus Mseotis, Sea of Azov, and Pontus Euxinus; AV., R. Tyras, Dniester. TRIBES. — Bastarngc, Jazyges, Roxolani, Hamaxobii, Alani, Venedi, &c. &c. TOWNS, &c. — 01b i a, near the junction of the Borysthenes, Dnieper, and Hypanis. S. of Sarmatia: Chersonesus T auric a, Crimea; on the W. coast of which, Cherso- nesus; on Bosporus Cimmorius, Straits of Kaffa, Panticapeeum, Kertsch, the residence of the Greek kings of the Bosporus. MACEDONIA. Part of the Roumelia in Turkey. fi( >UND ARIES.— N., Moesia; E., Thracia; S., Mare ^geum and Thessalia ; W., Illyris Graeca, included in Macedonia under the Romans. GEOGRAPHY. 33 GULFS. — S. Thermaicus Sinus, Gulf of Sdlonild ; Toro- naicus Sinus, Gidf of Cassandra ; Singiticus Sinus, Gidf of Monte Santo ; Strymonicus Sinus, Gidf of Contessa. MOUNTAINS. — N., Mons Orbelus, Scardus Mons, separating Macedonia from Mcesia ; S.W. of the Penin sula Acte, Mons Athos, Monte Santo. RIVERS. — Strymon, Struma or Carassou, flowing into Strymonic Gulf; Axius, Vardari (with its tributary Eri- gon), and Haliacmon, Vistriza, flowing into the Ther^ maic Gulf. DIVISIONS. — S., Pieria, Elymiotis, ^mathia, Chal- cidice, with the Peninsulas Pa lien e, Sithonia, and Acte; E., Mygdonia and Sin tic a. In the centre: Pelagonia; N., Pseonia; ^Y., Lyncestae and Eordaga. CITIES. — Pydna, Kitron, near the Haliacmon, (battle, B.C. 168 ; iEmilius Paulus routs Perseus, the last king of Mace- donia) ; Pel la, Alaklisi, the Capital; Thessalonica or Tborinia, Saloniki, on the Thermaic Gulf; Potid[»a, Finaka, on the Isthmus of Pallene ; Olynthus, ruins, on the Toronaic Gulf, (destroyed by Philip II., B.C. 347): Amphipolis, at the mouth of the Strymon, (taken from the Athenians in the Peloponnesian War by Brasidas, B.C. 424) ; Eastward Philippi, PMlippi, (battle, b.c. 42; Brutus and Cassius defeated and slain by Antony and Octaviauus). The tract of country called ILLYRIS GR.^CA (bounded N. by Drinus, R. Drino ; E., Macedonia; S., Epirus; W., Hadriaticum Mare); inhabited by various tribe? of Illyrian origin, was incorporated with the Roman prO' vince of Macedonia. Chief Towns. — On the coast: Epi- damnus vel Dyrrachium, Durazzo, (the usual landing, place for persons who crossed over from Brundusium, in Italy). Inland: Apollonia, (celebrated as a place of commerce and learning; here Augustus for some time studied literature and philosophy). a 34 GEOGRAPHY. THRACIA. Roumelia. BOUNDARIES. — N., H^emus Mons and Moesia; E., Pontus Euxinus and Bosporus Thracius ; S., Propontis, Helles- pontus and ^geum Mare ; W., Macedonia. WATERS OF THRACE. — He lie sp on tus, Dardanelles; Propontis, Sea of Marmora; Pontus Euxinus, Black Sea; Bosporus Thracius, Straits of Constantinople; Melas or Melanes Sinus, Gulf of Saros. MOUNTAINS. — N., Hgemus, Balkan; W., Pangaeus, Pangea, east of which R ho dupe, sacred to Bacchus. RIVERS. — In the AV. Nestus, Nesto, rising in the N.W. and flowing S. into the ^gean Sea; Hebrus, Maritza. CITIES. — Abdera, at the mouth of the Nestus, (the birth- place of Democritus) ; Adrianopolis, Adrianople, on the Hebrus; Chersonesus, in the S. between the Gulf of Saros and the Hellespont, (colonized by Athenians under Mil- tiades) ; Lysimachia, Eksemil, at the Isthmus; S. of this Sestos, (between which and Abydos, Xerxes formed a bridge of boats) ; iEgos Potamos, (near which Lysan- der defeated the Athenian fleet, b.c. 405) ; Byzantium, Constantinople, on the Thracian Bosporus, (made the Capital of the Roman empire under Constantine, a.d. 330). GR^^iCIA — HELLAS. Greece. BOUNDARIES. — N., Macedonia and lUyria; E., ^geum Mare, Archipelago, and Myrtoum Mare; S., Mare Internum, Mediterranean; "W., Ionium Mare, Ionian Sea. GEOGRAPHY. 85 GULFS. — E., Therm aicus Sinus, Gulf of Salonild ; Pa- gasaeus Sinus, Qulf of Volo ; Maliacus Sinus, Gulf of Zeitoun ; Saronicus Sinus, Gulf of JEgina ; A r g o- licus Sinus, Gulf of Napoli. S., Laconicus Sinus, Gulf of CohhytJiia ; Messeniacus Sinus, Gulf of Koran. W., Cyparissius Sinus, Gulf of Arcadia ; N. of Achaia and Corinthia, Sinus Corinthiacus, Gulf of Lepanto ; S. of Locris, Oris s sens Sinus, Bay of Salona ; S. of Epirus, Ambracius Sinus, Gulf of Arta. STRAIT. — Euripus, Cliannel of Negropo)it, between Boeotia and Euboea. MOUNTAINS. — In Thessalia: N., Cambunii Monies, Bolutza Mis. ; ^ ., 1 y m p u s, Ehpn ho ; s s a, Kissovo ; Pelion, Plesnia; S., Othrys, Olhrys ; W., Pindus, Pindus. In Epirus: N.W., Acroceraunii vel Ceraunii Montes, Chimera. In Pnocrs: N., 05] t a Mons, Katavotlira; W., Parnas- sus, Lyakouri. In Bceotia: S.W., Helicon, Zagora, (a haunt of the Muses). On the borders of Attica and Megaris, Cith{je- ron, Cithoiron. In Attica: N., Parnes Montes, Nozia; N.E., Pen- telicus, Pentele, (celebrated for its marble); S. E. of Athens, Ilymettus, Telovuni ; at the S. extremity of Attica, Laurium, (famed for its silver-mines). On the Borders of Achaia: Cyllene, Zyria, (Mercury- born). In Laconia: Taygetus, West of the Eurotas. In Arcadia: in the S.W., Lycceus Mons; in N.W., Erymanthus, (here Hercules slew the wild boar); to wards the S., Moenalus, Roino ; Parnon, Malevo. RIVERS. — In Thessalia: 1. Pen e us, Salamhria, from Mt. Pindus, flowing through the lovely vale of Ternpe, falls into the Thermaicus Sinus, Gulf of Saloniki ; it receives on the 36 GEOGRAPHY. North the Titaresius, on the South the Enlpeus and A p id anus. 2. Sp ere he us, EUada, from the West, falls into Sinus Maliacus, Bay of Zeitoun. In Epirus: 1. Aracthus, Arta, from the N., falls into Sinus Ambracius, Gulf of Arta. 2. Acheron, and its tributary Cocytus, fall into the Glykys Portus or Har- bour. Northward, Thy am is, Kalamas, falls into the Ionian Sea, opposite to Corcyra, Corfu. In Acarnania: Ache lo us, Asjjro Pofamo, from Mt. Pindus, flows southward, divides -t'Etolia from Acarnania, and falls into the Gulf of Patras. In ^tolia: Even us, Fidhari, from Mt. Q^ta, falls into the Gulf of Patras. In Doris : C e p h i s u s M a j o r, Mavronero, flows through Phocis and Boeotia, and falls into Copais L., Lake Topo- lias. In Bceotia: Asopus, Asopo, falls into the sea opposite to Euboea, the island Negropont. Ismenus, into which the brook Dirce flows, falls into L. Hylica. Permessus and Hippocrene, or "fountain of the horse/^ falls into Copais L. In Attica: Cephlsus Minor, from Mons Pentelicus, and Hiss us, from Mons Ilymettus, flow South into Saro- nicus Sinus. In Achaia : Crathis, Grata, (into which the Styx flows), and Sellnus, Vostitza, fall into the Corinthian Gulf. Pirus, Kamenitza, falls into the Gulf of Patras. In Elis: Peneus, lliaco, from Mons Erymanthus,- falls into Ionium Mare. Alp he us, Rouphia, rising in Arcadia, and receiving from the North the Lad on and He lis son, falls into the Ionian Sea. In Messenia: Pa mis us, Pirnatza, from Mt. Ly casus, and Neda, Buzi, between Elis and Messenia, fall into the Ionian Sea. In Laconia : Eurotas, Basilipotamo, from the N., falls into Laconicus Sinus, Gidf of Kolokythia. In Argolis : Inachus, Banitza, falls into Argolicus Sinus, Gulf of Napoli. GEOGRAPHY. 37 LAKES. — Copais L., Lake Topolias, in Boeotia, (famed for its eels, and subterranean communication with the Euboean Sea) ; Acherusia L., in the S.W. of Epirus ; L. Tricho- nis, in -^tolia; L. Baebeis, in the East of Thessaly ; L. Stymphalis, in the North of Arcadia. PROMONTORIES. — S.E. of Thessalia, Magnesise Prom., Cajye St. George; S.E. of Attica, Sunium Prom., Cape Colonna; S.E. of Argolis, Scyllaeum Prom., Cape Skillo: S.E. of Laconia, Male a Prom., Cape Maleo or St. Angela; S.W. of Laconia, Taenarum Prom., Cape Matapan; S.W,. of Messenia, Acritas Prom., Cape Gallo ; N.W. of Elis, Chelonatas Prom., Cape Tornese ; N.W. of Achaia, Araxus Prom., Cape Kologria ; N. of Acliaia, Chium Prom., Castello di Morea, opposite to this in the S. of ^tolia, Anti-Rhium Prom., Castello Rumeli ; N.W. of Acarnania, at the entrance of the Ambracian Gulf, Ac- tlum Prom., La Punta, (battle, B.C. 31, Augustus defeats Antony and Cleopatra.) DIVISIONS. — Northern Greece.— 1. Thessalia; 2. Epi- rus. Central Greece. — 1. Acarnania; 2. ^tolia; 3. Doris; 4. Locris; 5. Phocis; C. Boeotia; 7. Attica; 8. Megaris. Southern Greece or Peloponnesus, Morea. — 1. Achaia; 2. Elis; 3. Messenia; 4. Laconia; 5. Argolis; 6. Arcadia; 7. Sicyonia; 8. Corinthia. THESSALIA. — Boundaries. — N., Macedonia; E., iEgeum Mare ; S., Phocis, Doris, -^tolia ; W., Epirus. Divisions. — N., Pelasgiotis; E., Magnesia; S.E., Phthiotis; S., iEnianes; S.W., Dolopia; N.W., Hes- tiaeotis; in the Centre, Thessaliotis. Cities. — Larissa, Larza, the Capital, on the Peneus. Pharsalus, Pharsa, (battle, b.c. 48, Cassar defeated Pom- pey). Cynocephalae, (battle, b.c. 197, Philip defeated by Cons. Flaminius). Anticyra, at the mouth of the Spercheus. Pherae, Valestino ; noted for its tyrants. Lamia, Zeitoun; near the mouth of the Spercheus, (war between Antipater and the Athenians, B.C. 323). lolcos, 4 88 GEOGRAPHY. N. of the Pagasgeus Sinus, (the city of Pelias and Jason, from which the Argonauts sailed in quest of the Golden Fleece). EPIRUS. — Boundaries. — N., Illyria; E., Macedonia and Thessalia ; S,, Acarnania ; W., Ionium Mare. Divisions. — N.W., Chaonia; S.E., Molossis; S.W., Thesprotia. Cities. — Ambracia, Arta, (the residence of Pyrrhus), on the Aracthus. Nicopolis (built by Augustus, in me- mory of his victory at Actium). Dodona, on the borders of Molossis and Thesprotia, (famed for its oracle of Zeus, the most ancient in Greece). ACARNANIA. — Boundaries. — N., Ambracius Sinus and Epirus ; E., River Achelous ; W., Ionium Mare. Cities. — Stratus, on the Achelous, the Capital. Ac- tium, on a promontory of the same name, (near v^hich Augustus defeated Antony and Cleopatra in a naval en- gagement, B.C. 31). ^TOLIA. — Boundaries. — N., Thessalia and Epirus ; E., Doris and Locris; S., Sinus Corinthiacus ; W., R. Achelous. Cities. — T h e r m a vel T h e r m u m, the place of meeting of the iEtolian league. Cal}'don, the city of Tydeus and Diomedes, (in the vicinity of this city the celebrated Caly- donian hunt took place). DORIS. — Boundaries. — N., Thessalia; E., Phocis; S., Locris; W., ^tolia. Cities. — Four small cities vt^hich gave the name of Te- trapolis to the country, Erineus, Boium, Pindus, Cytinium. LOCRIS vs^as divided into two districts, inhabited by three tribes. DISTRICT I.— Boundaries.— ^., Doris; E., Phocis; S., Sinus Corinthiacus; W., ^toha. Inhabited by OZOLIAN LOCRIANS. Chief Cities. — Am^hisso,, Salona; Nau- p actus, Lepanto. GEOGRAPHY. 39 DISTRICT lI.~~Boundaries.~N., Thessaly; E., Euboean Sea and Malian Gulf; S., Phocis ; W., Doris and Phocis. Inhabited .S. by OPUNTIAN LOCRIANS. (7%: Opus, Talanda. Inhabited N. by EPICNEMIDIAN LOCRIANS as far as ThermopylaB, (a celebrated pass, where Leo- nidas and 300 Spartans fell, after a gallant defence against the mighty army of Xerxes, B.C. 480). Cities: Phronium, Romani, Nicaea, and Scarphia. PIICk?1S. — Boundaries. — N., Locri Epicnemidii and Doris; E., jsoeotia ; S., Sinus Corinthiacus ; W., Locris. Citut,. — Delphi, or Pytho, Castri, on the western de- clivity ol Mt. Parnassus, between its two peaks, (famed for the " iMctllible" oracle of Apollo, and celebrated as the place of meeting of the Amphictyons, and of the cele- bration of tne Pythian games) ; Crissa, or Crisa, S.W. of Delphi; Elatea, UlejjJita, N. of the Cephissus ; Anti- cyra, Aspra Spitia, in the South, on the coast, (famed for its hellebore, the cure for madness among the ancients). BCEOTIA. — Boundaries. — N. and E., Euboicum Mare; S., Mountain-chain of Parnes and Cithgeron, separating Boeotia from Attica ; W., Phocis. Cities. — Thebae, Thibai (founded by the Phoenicians under Cadmus, thence called Cadmea ; it was destroyed by Alexander, b.c. 335). Orchomenus, Scripu, near the Lake Copais, with a temple of the Graces, (victory of Sulla, B.C. 86). Plataeae, or Plataea, KoMa, near Mt. Cithseron, (battle, B.C. 479, Mardonius defeated). Thespias, at the foot of Mt. Helicon, sacred to the Muses. Leuctra, Lefka, S.E. of Thespice, (battle, b.c. 371, Thebans overcame the Spartans). Tanagra, Grimada, E. of Thebae, (battle, B.C. 457, Athenians defeated). Delium, Dilessi, on the E. coast, (battle, b.c. 424). Haliartus, Mazi, on Lake Copais, (battle, B.C. 395 ; destroyed by the Romans, b.c. 171). Coronea, S.W. of Lake Copais (Boeotians over- came Athenians, b. c. 447 ; Agesilaus defeated allied Greeks, b.c. 394). Chaeronea, Capurna, on the Cephissus, 40 GEOGRAPHY (battles, B.C. 447; Philip conquers the Greeks, B.C. 338; Sulla's victory, B.C. 86). As era, near Mt. Helicon, the birth-place of Hesiod. ATTICA. — Boundaries. — N., Boeotia ; E., ^geum Mare, S., Saronicus Sinus ; W., Megaris. Cities. — Athense, Athens, between the rivers Cephissua and Ilissus, the most celebrated city of antiquity for learn- ing and the liberal arts ; it consisted of two parts, viz. : — 1. The City; 2. Its three ports, Piraeus, Piireus, P ha- le rum, and Munychia, united to the city by two long walls, called "Longi Muri," sixty feet in height (vide "Topography" for an account of Public Buildings. &c.). E leu sis, Lepsina, N.W. of Athens, famous for its temple and mysteries of Demeter or Ceres. Marathon, Mo,ra- tliona, N.E. of Athens, (celebrated battle, Athenians and Platseans, under Miltiades, routed the Persians, B.C. 490). Phyle, Fill, N.W. of Athens, (here Thrasybulus assem- bled the Patriots opposed to the thirty Tyrants, B.C. 404). Sunium, Colomia, on a prom, of the same name in the extreme S. of Attica. MEG ARIS. — jBc?m^an"e5. — N., Boeotia; E., Attica and Sa- ronicus Sinus ; S., Corinthia ; W., Sinus Corinthiacus. Cities. — Me gar a, Megara ; Niseea, on the coast. Peloponnesus. ACHAIA. — Boundaries. — N., Sinus Corinthiacus; E.-, Co- rinthia ; S., Arcadia and Elis. Cities. — He lice, on the north coast, the ancient Capital, (engulphed by an earthquake, B.C. 373); ^gium, Vos' titza, (here the meetings of the Achtean league were held) ; Patrae, Patinas, a sea-port. ELIS. — Boundaries. — N,, Achaia ; E., Arcadia; S., Mes* senia ; W., Ionium Mare. Divisions. — 1. Elis Proper, N. ; 2. Pisatis wi*b Olympia, Middle; 3. Triphylia, South. GEOGRAPHY. 41 Cities. — Elis, on the Peneus. N.W., Cyllene, on the coast. Pisa, on the Alpheus, (near this the plain of OLYMPIA, where the Olympian games were celebrated. Here was the sacred grove "Altis," which, with the neighbourhood, were adorned with temples, statues, &c. The "Altis" was inclosed by a wall; it contained the fol- lowing temples: I. The Olympieum, in which was the famous statue of Zeus, by Phidias, made of ivory and gold; II. The H e r ae u m, or Temple of Juno ; III. The M e t r 5 u m. Public buildings : The Thesauri of the states ; The Pry- taneum, in which the Olympic victors dined; The Bou- leuterion, or council-hall, in which all the regulations were made. The chief buildings without the Altis were the Stadium, for gymnastic exercises, and the Hippo- dromus, for racing). Pylos, in Triphylia. MESSENIA. — Boundaries. — N., Triphylia and Arcadia; E., Laconia ; S., Messenlacus Sinus ; W., Mare Ionium. Cities. — Pylos, Navarino, in the S.W,, (the city of Nestor); Ithome, in the centre, on a hill of the same name; near which was Messene, ruins, the Capital, built by Epaminondas ; Ira, in the N., (which Aristomenes defended against the Spartans for eleven years). LACONIA. — Bonndaries. — N., Arcadia and Argolis ; E., Myrtoum Mare ; S., Lacomcus Sinus ; W., Messenia. Cities. — Lace daemon, or Sparta, S^aiia, on the Eurotas, the Capital of the most powerful state in Greece, (the city of Lycurgus, the lawgiver) ; S. of Lacedasmon, Amyclae, with a temple to Apollo; Helos, near the mouth of the Eurotas, (its inhabitants, the Helots, were reduced to slavery by the Spartans); Sellasia, (battle, B. c. 222, Athenians, under Antigonus Doson, defeated Cleomenes, king of Sparta). AKGOLIS. — Boundaries. — N., Corinthia and Saronicus Si- nus; E., Myrtoum Mare; S., Argolicus Sinus and Laconia; W., Arcadia. 4* 42 GEOGRAPHY, Cities. — Argos, Argos, on the Inachus, one of the most ancient cities in Greece; S.E. of Argof^, Nauplia, Napoli di Romania, the port of Argos; N. of Argos, Mycenae, ruins, (the city of Agamemnon, noted for its Cyclopean walls; destroyed by Argives, b.c. 468); Tiryns, ruins, S.E. of Argos, (Hercules educated here, hence called Ti- rynthius) ; Nemea, ruins, N.W. of Mycenas, (Hercules killed the lion, vide first labour; triennial games cele- brated in consequence); Epidaurus, Epidauro, in the district of Epidauria, on the Saronic Gulf, (famed for a temple of ^sculapius) ; Troezene, Demala, in the district Troezenia, in the S.E. of Argolis ; Hermione, Kastri, in the district Hermionis, in the South. -* ARCADIA. — Boundaries. — N., Achaia; E., Corinthia and Argolis ; S., Laconla and Messenia ; W., Tryphylia and Elis. Cities. — Man tine a, Paleopoli, in the East, (battle, B.C. 418, Athenians defeated; battle, B.C. 362, Epaminondaa slain); Tegea, Piali, S.E. of Mantinea; Megalopolis, ruins, on the Helisson, founded, by the advice of Epami nondas, b.c. 371, (the birth-place of Polybius). CORmTIlI A. — Boundaries.— N., Megaris and Sinus Corin thiacus ; E., Saronicus Sinus ; S., Argolis ; W., Achaia. Cities. — Corinth us, Corinth, the Capital, built at tV foot of a steep mountain, on which stood the Acro-Corin- thus, the strongest citadel in Greece, the key of the Pelo- ponnesus ; (destroyed by Mummius, the Roman Consul, B.C. 146). At the narrowest part of the Isthmus stood Fanum Neptuni, a temple of Neptune, near which the Isthmian games were celebrated (vide Antiq.). On the Asopus : Phlius, the Capital of the independent state, Phliasia. SICYONIA.— jBoM7icZarie5. — X., Sinus Corinthiacus ; E., Co- rinthia ; S., Arcadia ; W., Achaia. City. — S icy on, ruins, on the north coast, at the mouth of the Asopus. geography. 43 The Greek Islands. IN THE IONIAN SEA.— Corcyra, Corfu; Cap., Corcyra. Leu-cadia, Santa Maura; Cap., Leucas. Ithaca, Theaki; Cap., Ithaca. Cephallenia, Cejjlialonia. Cities. — Ce- phallenia and Same. Zacjnthus, Zante; Cap., Zacyn- thus. Teleboides Insulae, between Leucadia and Epi- rus, Cjthera, Ceri^o, (sacred to Venus). TN THE ^GEAN SEA.— I. In the Western part. Hydrea, Hydra. Calauria, Calanria, (Demosthenes poisoned him- self, B.C. 322). Mgi\i?i, Egina. Salamis, CoZoim, (battle, B. c. 480, Persian fleet defeated by Athenians, under Tho* mistocles). Euboea, Negropont, Artemisium Prom., in the N., (battle, b.c. 480); Cities: 1. C hale is, Negro- ponte, the Capital; 2. Eretria. Scyros, Skgro. II. In the Northern part. Lemnos, Lemno, (sacred to Vulcan, who is said to have fallen on this island, when hurled from keaven by Zeus). Imbros, Imbro. Samo- thrace, Samothrahi. Thasos, Thaso, anciently famous for its gold-mines. T e n e d o s, Tenedos, near the coast of Troas. III. In the Eastern part. Lesbos, Mytilene, (noted for its wine) ; Cities: 1. Mitylene (the birth-place of Sappho, Alcseus, Pittacus, &c.) ; 2. Methymna. Chios, Skio, (famed for its wine). Samos, Samo ; Cap., Samos ; (sacred to Juno, the native city of Pythagoras). I c arcs, or-ia, Nikaria, which, with the adjoining sea, derived its name from Icarus, the son of Daedalus (vide Mythol.). Patmos, Patino or Patmos, (to which St. John was banished). Leros, Lero. Cos, Kos, (the birth-place of Hippocrates the physician, and Apelles the painter) Rhodus, Rliodes ; Cap., Rhodes, in the port of which stood the Colossus. Carpathus, Scarpanto, whence Car- pathium Mare. IV. In the Southern part, THE CYCLADES. Delos, JDelo, in the Centre, with Mt. Cynthus, (the birth-place of Apollo and Diana) ; Naxos, Naxo or Naxia ; (sacred to 44- GEOGRAPHY. Bacchus); Paros, Paro, (famed for its white marble). N. : Andros, Andro ; Tenos, Teno ; Ceos, Zea ; Cyth- nos, TJiermia; Syros, Syra ; Myconos, Myconi ; Seri- phus, Serplio. S. : Melos, Milo ; Siphnus, Siplino ; I OS, Nio; Amorgus, Amor go; Thera, Santori7i; A sty- pa lae a, Stampalia. The name SPORADES was applied to those islands not lying round Delos, but scattered apart, V. South of the Cyclades. Creta, Candia ; Cap., Gnos- sus, (the residence of Minos) ; N.W., Cydonia, Khania, (famed for its archers) ; S.W. of Cnossus, Gortyna. Mons Ida in the centre of the island ; E., Mons Dicte, in a cave j)f which Jupiter was brought up. BRITANNIA or ALBION. Great Britain. BOUNDARIES. — N., Mare Pigrum, North Sea; E., Ger- manicus Oceanus, German Ocean ; S., Eretum Gallicum, Straits of Dover, and Oceanus Britannicus, English Chan- nel ; W,, Oceanus Hibernicus, Irish Sea, and Verginium Mare, St. George^ s Channel. RIVERS, &c. — Tame sis, Thames; Sabrina, Severn; An- ton a, Nen; Trivona, Trent; A bus, Humher ; Tina, Tyne ; I tun a, Eden; Deva, Dee. In Scotland: Bodo- tria, Forth; Glotta, Clyde; Tavus, Tay ; Metaris -^stuarium, The Wash; Bodotrioe M&t., Firth of Forth; Glottae ^st.. Firth of Clyde; Itunje ^st., >So^- way Frith. PROMONTORIES.— cell urn Prom., Spurn Head; Can- tium Prom., North Foreland ; Ocrinum Prom., Lizard Point; Bolerium Prom., Land's End. DIVISIONS. — S., Britannia Prima; Centre, Flavia Caesariensis ; W., Britannia Secunda, Wales; N., GEOGRAPHY. 45 Maxima Caeaariensis ; N. of the Wall of Severus, Va- le nti a, South part of Scotland; N. of the Wall of Anto- ninus, Caledonia, Korth part of Scotland. TRIBES. — S. of the Thames: Cantii, Kent; Regni, Surrey and Sussex; Bel gas, Hants, Wilts, and Somerset; Atre- batii, Berks; Durotriges, Dorset; Dumnonii, Devon and Cornwall. N. of the Thames: Trinobantes, Middlesex and Essex; Simeni, vel Iceni, Suffolk and Norfolk; Cattieuchlani, Herts, Bucks, &c. ; Dobuni, Oxon and Gloucester; Si lures. South Wales; Ordovices, North, Wales; Cornavii, Cheshire, Salop, Stafford, Worcester, Notts, &c. ; Coritani, Lincoln and Leicester ; Brigantes^ York, Durham, Cumberland, and Westmoreland. TOWNS. — S. of the Thames : Durovernum, Canterbury; Ru- tupiae, Richbor,ough ; Venta Belgarum, Winchester ; Reg- num, Chichester; Aquae Solis, Bath; Uxela, Exeter. N. of the Thames: Londinium, London; Verulamium, >S'^. Alban's; Glevum, Gloucester; Corinium, Cirencester; Isca Silurum, Caerleon; Lindum, Lincoln; Deva or Deona, Chester; Eboracum, York. Hadrian's Wall, between the mouth of the Tyne and the Solway Frith; erected a.d. 121. Wall of Severus; erected a.d. 209. Rampart of Antoninus, between the Friths of Forth and Solway ; erected a. d. 140. TSLANDS.—Or cades, Orkneys; ^hiides, Hebrides; Thule, Shetland Isles {'^); Mona (of Caesar), Ma7i; Mona (of Tacitus), Anglesey; Cassiterides, Scilly Isles, (famous for their tin) ; V e c t i s, Isle of Wight ; H i b e r n i a, Ireland; Cap., Eblana, Dublin. ASIA COUNTKIES. — Asia Minor, Anatolia, Roiim, a.nd Kara " mania; Syria, Si/ria and Palestine; Arabia, Arabia; Sarmatia Asiatic a, S.E. part of Bussia in Europe; Colchis, Guriel, Mingrelia, and Imeritia ; Iberia, Geor- gia; Albania, Shir van and part of BagMstan ; Armenia, Armenia and part of Georgia ; Mesopotamia, Algesira; Chaldaea, Irak Arabi; Assyria, Kurdistan; Media, jS\W.part of Persia; Susiana, Khuzistan; Persia, S.W. imrt of Persia ; H y r c a n i a and P a r t h i a, part of Turkis- tan; Aria, E. part of Khorassan and N. part of Afghan- istan ; Bactriana, Bokhara; Carmania, Kir man ; Ge- drosia, S. part of Beloochistan ; Sogdiana, part of Turkistan and Bokhara; India, Hindostan, &c.; Scythia, Tartary. MOUXTAIXS. — Caucasus, (between Pontus Euxinus and Caspium Mare) ; Taurus Mons, in Asia Minor; Emodi Montes, Himalayah Mountains in the N. of India. SEAS, GULFS, &c. — Mare Hyrcanum vel Caspium, Caspian Sea and Sea of Aral [t) ; Sinus Arabicus, Red Sea; Erythraeum Mare, Arabian Sea; Sinus Per- sic us, Persian Gulf; Gangeticus, Bay of Bengal; In- dicus Oceanus, Indian Ocean. RIVEPtS. — 1. Rha, Volga (flowing into the Caspian Sea); 2. Euphrates and Tigris, falling into the Persian Gulf, 3. Oxus, Jihon, 4. Jaxartes, Sihon, falling into the Sea (46) GEOGRAPHY. 47 of Aral, (but supposed by the ancients to fall into Mare Caspium) ; 5. Indus, Indus, with its five tributaries; 6. Ganges, Ganges. ISLANDS. — Cyprus, Cyprus, in the Mediterranean; Ta- probana, Ceylon, S. of Hindostan. ASIA MINOR. Anatolia, Roum, and Karamania. BOUNDARIES. — N., Pont us Euxinus, Black Sea; E., Euphrates and Syria; S., Mare Internum, Mediter- ranean; W., ^geum Mare, and Propontis, Sea of Marmora. GULFS. — N., Amisenus Sinus. W., Adramyttenus Sinus, Gidf of Adrymitti; Smyrnseus Sinus, Gulf of Smyrna; S., Glaucus Sinus, Gulf of Macri ; Issicus Sinus, Gidf of Scanderoon. MOUNTAINS. — Olympus, a chain extending from N.W. to N.E., passing through Galatia, Bithyuia, and Paphla- gonia; Ida in Troas ; Dindymus in Phrygia, sacred to Cybele, (hence called Dindymene) ; Tmolus in Lydia (famed for its saffron and wine); S.W. of this My c ale, (near which the Persian fleet was defeated by the Greek, B.C. 479); Cragus in Lycia; Taurus, extending through Asia Minor, from W. to E., to the countries beyond the Euphrates; Mons Argasus, Erdgish Dagh, in Cappa- docia. • RIVERS. — Flowing into Pontus Euxinus: 1. Thermodon, Thermeli; 2. Iris, Teshel Irmak ; 3. Halys, Kisil Irmak : 4. Parthenius; 5. Sangarius, Sakariyeh. Flowing into the Propontis: 1. Rhyndacus, Edrenos ; 2. Granicus, (battle, B.C. 334, Alexander defeated the Persian Satraps). Flowing into the ^gean Sea: 1. Scamander or Xan- 48 GEOGRAPHY. thus, Mindereh, (joined by the Simois) ; 2. Herraus, Ghiediz-Chai, (with its tributary Pactolus, famed for ita golden sands); 3. Caystrus, (abounding in swans); 4. Mseander, Menderehy (proverbial for its windings). Flo-w- ing into the Mediterranean: 1. Xanthus, Echen-Chai; 2. Oestrus, Ak-Su; 3. Eurymedon, Kapri-Su, (battle, B.C. 469, Cimon defeated the Persians); 4. Calycadnus, Giuk-Sooyoo ; 5. Cydnus, Tersus-Chai, (famed for the clearness and coolness of its water) ; 5. Sarus, Sihan; 6. Pyrumus, Jihan. LAKE. — Tatta Palus, Tuz Gol, in Phrygia, a great salt lake. PROMOXTORIES.— N., Carambis Prom., Cape Karempe. At the entrance of the Hellespont: Rhoeteum and Si- geum Prom. W., Trogilium Prom., C. St. Mary, near which was the PANIONIUM, or place of assembly for the twelve Ionian states; Triopium Prom., C. Krio, with a temple of Apollo, (surnamed Triopius), the place of meeting for the six Dorian states, or " Hexapolis," after- wards reduced to five, "Pentapolis.'^ S., Sacrum Prom., and Anemurium Prom., C. Anamur. DIVISIONS. — N., Bithynia, Paphlagonia, Pontus; W., Mysia, Lydia, Oaria; S., Lycia, Pamphylia, Cilicia; Oentral, Phrygia, Galatia, Oappadocia. BITHYNIA. — Cities. — H eraclea Pontic a, Harakli, near which Acherusia Chersonesus, (with a cave thrpugh which Hercules is said to have descended to the infernal regions to drag up Oerebus). On the Thracian Bosporus: 1. Chrysopolis, Scutari; 2. Chalcedon, (or the city of the blind, so Called from its founders having overlooked the more delightful situation of Byzantium). On the Pro- pontis: 1. Libyssa, Geibiizeh, (where was the tomb of Hannibal) : 2. Nicomedia, Izmid, the Capital of the kings of Bithynia, (here Hannibal died, B.C. 183). On L. Ascanius, L. of hnik: Nicasa, Iznik, (first Christian oecumenical council held, a.d. 325). Ox E O G R A P H Y . 49 PAVRLAGkjIsIA.-^ Cities. — On the N. coast: Si nope, Sinoiib or Sinope, (the birth-place of Diogenes, the Cynic philosopher); Cytorus, Kydros^ famous for its tox- wood. PONTUS.— CVV/e5.— On the coast: 1. Trap ez us, Tiehizond; 2. Cerasus, Kheresoun, (from which the cherry-tree was first introduced into Italy, by Lucullus) ; 3. Pole'mo- nium, Polemon ; 4. Themiscyra, Thermeh[t) (founded by the Amazons); 5. Amis us, Samsun, (the residence of Mithridates). Inland: Zela, ZilleJi, (battle, B.C. 47, Caesar conquered Pharnaces ; an account of this battle Caesar sent to the Senate in three words, viz., Veni, Vidi, Vici) ; Am as i a, Amasiali, (the birth-place of Mithridates and Strabo the geographer); Magnopolis, (built by Mithri- dates and Pompey). MYSIA, with TROAS and ^OLIS or \K.— Cities. — In the N. : Cyzicus, Bal Kiz, (on an island of the same name, unsuccessfully besieged by Mithridates, b. c. 75). On the Hellespont: 1. Lamp sac us, Lapsaki, (celebrated for its wine, and one of the cities assigned to Themistocles for his maintenance); 2. Abydos, Nagara; 3. Dardanus, from which arose the modern name Dardanelles. At the foot of Mt. Ida, Troja or Ilium, Troi/, with its citadel Per- gama; at the head of a bay of the same name, Adra- myttium or eum, Adramytti. Inland, on the Calcus : Pergamus (on or os), Bergama, (celebrated for its library, where parchment (Pergamenas charta3) was first used in writing ; the library was afterwards added to that at Alexandria). LYDIA or MiEONIA w^ith lO'NlK. — CHies. — On the coast: 1. Phocaea, a colony from which was founded Massilia, Marseilles ; 2. Smyrna, Smyrna, (one of the seven cities which claimed the honour of being the birth-place of Homer); 3. Teos, (the birth-place of Anacreon) ; 4. CoI5- phon, (famed for its cavalry) ; 5. Ephesus, Ayasaluk, at the mouth of the Cavster, (famous for its temple to Diana, 6 50 GEOGRAPHY. one of the seven -vvondei's). Inland: Magnesia, (battle, B.C. 190, Scipio defeated Antiochus) ; Sardes, Sart, on the Pactolus, (the Capital of Croesus, king of Lydia, taken by Cyrus, b.c. 546). CARIA with DORIS.— C?:^/e5. — On the Ma3ander: My us. On the coast: 1. Miletus, (one of the chief cities of Asia Minor, the birth-place of Thales, Anaximander, and other great men); 2. Halic amass us, Biidrum, (the birth-place of Herodotus the historian, and Dionysius the rhetorician, and celebrated for the tomb of Mausolus. Opposite to the island Cos: Cnidus), (battle, b.c. 394, Pisander, the Spartan admiral, defeated by Conon, the Athenian). LYCIA. — Cities. — On the coast: Telmessus, Mdcri. (in- habitants famed for augury). On the Xanthus: Xanthus, Gunik. Near the mouth of the river: Patara, Patara, (with a famous temple and oracle of Apollo). On the East: Phaselis, (the head-quarters of the pirates before its destruction by P. Servilius Isauricus). PAMPHYLIA with PISIDIA and ISAURIA.— C'/zf/e^.-On the S. coast: Attalia. Inland: Perga, (the birth-place of Apollonius the mathematician); Selga, the chief city in Pisidia : Isaura, chief city in Isauria, (taken, B.C. 75, by P. Servilius, who thence received the surname Isau- ricus). CILICIA. — Divided into Cilicia Trachea or Aspera and Cilicia Campestris. Cities. — In C. Aspera. — On the coast: 1. Selinus, Selenti, (where the Emperor Trajan died, A.D. 117); 2. Seleucia, Selefkeh; 3. Corycus (famed for its excellent saffron). In C. Campestris: 1. Soli, also called Pompeiopolis ; 2. Tarsus, Tersus, on the Cydnus, the Capital of Cilicia, (the birth-place of the Apostle Paul and many distinguished philosophers, cele- brated for the study of philosophy and the liberal arts) ; 3. Issus, ruins, on the Issic Gulf, (battle, B.C. 333, Alex- ander defeated Darius).' GEOGRAPHY. 51 PIIRYGIA with LYCAONIA. — Cities. — In the S.AV. — On the Lycus: 1. Colossas, (to the inhabitants of which St. Paul addressed an epistle); 2. Laodicea; 3. Apamea Cibotus. Near the centre: 1. Ipsus (battle, B.C. 301, Antigonus and Demetrius defeated by Lysimachus and Seleucus, the two other generals of Alexander) ; 2. Syn- nada (famed for its marble). In Lycaonia: I. Iconium; 2. Lystra; 3. Derbe (vide Acts xiv.). GALATIA.— C<7i"e5. — On the Sangarius: I. Gordium (the ancient Capital of Phrygia, where Alexander cut tho famous " Gordian knot," on which its destinies were sup- posed to depend) ; 2. Pessinus (the chief seat of the wor- ship of Cybele, whose image was removed to Rome to satisfy an oracle in the Sibylline books). Near the centre: Ancyra, Angoi^a, (the Capital of the province in the time of Augustus). CAPPADOCIA with ARMENIA MINOR. --C/^/es. — Near the centre, at the foot of Mons Argseus: Csesarea or Mazaca, Kesarieh, the chief city; S.W. of this, Tyana, in the district Tyanitis, (the city of Apollonius the im- postor). In Armenia Minor: 1. Nicopolis, Devriki ; 2. Cabira or Sebaste, Sivas. THE SIX DORIAN STATES (''Hexapolis"), which met at the temple of Apollo at Triopium Prom., in Doris (vide Caria), were, 1. Lyndus; 2. lalyssus; 3. Camirus (in Rhodes) ; 4. Cos (in the island of Cos) , 5. Cnidus ; 6. Ha- licarnassus (in Caria) ; the last city was afterwards ex- cluded from the number, the remaining five being termed "Pentapolis.'' THE TWELVE IONIAN STATES, which held their meet- ings at the Pan ionium, near Mt. My c ale, in Ionia (vide Lydia), were, 1. Miletus ; 2. Myus ; 3. Priene (in Caria) , 4. Ephesus ; 5. Colophon ; 6. Lebedos ; 7. Teos ; 8. Ery- thrcie ; 9. Glazumene ; 10. Phoc^ea (in Lydia); 11. Chios, and 12. Samos ; Smyrna from the ^olian colony increased the number to thirteen. 52 G E G R A P H Y THE ^OLIAN LEAGUE (" Panajoli _m") possessed twelve cities, which met at Smyrna: 1. Cyme; 2. Larissae; 3. Neontlchos; 4. Temnus ; 5. Cilia; 6. Notium ; 7. ^gi- riissa ; 8. Pitane ; 9. JEgiGce ; 10. Myrina ; 11. Grynea ; 12. Smyrna (which subsequently became an Ionian colony). THE "SEVEN CHURCHES OF ASIA.'^ — 1. Ephesus; 2. Smyrna; 3. Pergamos ; 4. Thyatira; 5. Sardis ; 6. Plii- ladelphia; 7. Laodicea. Island. CYPRUS (sacred to Venus), separated from Asia Minor by Aulon Cilicius. Toions. — On the W. coast: 1. Paphos, Baffa; Am a thus, Limasol ; 2. Citium (the birth-place of Zeno the Stoic philosopher) ; E,, Sal am is, (said to have been founded by Teucer) ; N., Lapethus and Soli. Inland: 1. Tamasus (famed for its copper-mines); 2. Idalium (sacred to Venus). Mountain. — Olympus. SYRIA — PAL^STINA. BOUNDARIES.— N., Amanus Mons, and Taurus Mons; E., R. Euphrates and Arabia; S., Arabia; W., Mare Internum, Mediterrmiean. MOUNTAINS. — Casi us Mons, Jehel Okrah ; Lebanon (famed for its snowy summits and its cedars), divided into Libanus on the W. and Antilibanus on the E., to the E. Mt. Hermon. On the sea-coast: C arm el. Inland, in Galilee: Mt. Tabor, Mt. Hermon, and Mt. Gilboa. In Samaria: Mt. Ebal and Mt. Gerizim; (on the latter the Samaritans erected a temple to rival that at Jerusalem.) In Peraea: Mt. Nebo and Mt. Abarim. RIVERS. — Falling into the Mediterranean: 1. Orontes, El Asy, from the S. ; 2. Leontes. Jordanes, Jordan, from Hermon, flowing S., through, 1. Semechonitis Lacus, GEOGRAPHY. 53 Waters of Meron ; 2. L. Tiberias vel L. Gennesaret, Lake Chinnereth or Sea of Galilee, falls into 3. Lacus Asphaltites vel Mare Mortuum vel Salsum, Dead Sea or Salt Sea. DIVISIONS. — 1. Syria; 2. Phoenicia; 3. PaliBstina. SYRIA.— Ci7«>,?.— On the coast: Seleucia Pieria, Capital of the district; Lao dice a, Ladikeyeh. Inland, on the Orontes: 1. Antiochia, Antioch, the Capital, (where the disciples were first called Christians); 2. Epiphanea, (0. T. Hamath), HamaJi ; Heliopolis or Balbec, near the source of the Leontes ; (with a magnificent temple of the sun); to the S.E., Damascus, one of the most ancient cities in the world; E. of Antioch, ChalybonorBeroea, Aleppo. In the Desert: Palmyra or Tadmor, (the city of Zenobia, with whom Longinus the philosopher resided, destroyed a.d. 273). On the Euphrates: 1. Samosata, Someisat, (the birth-place of Lucian) ; 2. Zeugma; 3. Thapsacus, (famed for its ford, by which Cyrus in his expedition, Darius in his retreat, and Alexander previous to the battle of Arbela, crossed the Euphrates). PHCENICIA.— (7iY?e5.— On the coast: 1. Tri polls, Taror hulus or Tripoli; 2. Byblus, Jeheil; 3. Berytus, Beirout; 4. Si don, Saida, (famed for its commerce and manufac- tures of glass) ; 5. Sarepta, for some time the residence of Elijah; 6. Tyrus, Tyre or Sur, (celebrated for its mari- time wealth, enterprise, commerce, and colonizing activity: taken, b.c. 332, after a siege of seven months, by Alex- ander) ; 7. Ptolemais, Acre, one of the oldest Phoenician cities. PAL^STINA vel JUDAEA. — In Scripture called Canaa^n, The Land of Promise, The Land of Israel, and The Holy Land. TRIBES. — W. of the Jordan: 1. Ashor; 2. Naphthali; 3. Zebulon; 4. Issachar; 5. a half tribe of Manasseh; 5* 54 GEOGRAPHY. 6. Ephraim; 7. Dan; 8. Simeon; 9. Benjamin; 10. Judah; E. of the Jordan: a half tribe of Manasseh; 11. Gad; 12. Reuben. After the death of Solomon the land was divided into the kingdoms of Israel and Judah DIVISIONS. — 1. N., Galilsea (divided into Galilsea Su- perior, Galilee of the Gentiles, and Galilsea Inferior, Lower Galilee). 2. Centre: Samaria. 3. S. : Judtea 4. Batansea; 5. Peraea, both beyond the Jordan. GALILEE.— CiVie^.— In the N. : Dan ; E. of this, Ca3sarea Philippi vel Pane as, Banias. On the borders of the Sea of Galilee: 1. Capernaum (our Saviour's usual place of residence) ; 2. Bethsaida (the city of Peter, Andrew, and Philip); 3. Tiberias (built by Ilerod Antipas, in honour of Augustus Cassar). W. of the Lake: Dio Cse- sarea vel Sepphoris, Sefurieh ; 2. Cana (where our Lord wrought his first miracle at the marriage-feast). 5. of Cana: 1. Nazareth (the residence of Joseph and Mary) ; 2. Nain, where the widow's son was restored to life. SAMARIA. — Cities. — Near the centre: Samaria, aft. Sebaste, (founded by Omri, king of Israel; it was the Capital of the ten tribes until taken by Shalmaneser, king of Assyria, B.C. 721). S. of this, 1. She c hem or Sychar. afterwards Neapolis, Nahlous; 2. Shiloh, (where Joshua erected the tabernacle) ; S.E., Archelais, founded by Archelaus, son of Herod. On the coast: Csesarea, or Turris Stratonis, Kaisariyeli, (the residence of the Roman Procurators). JUD^A. — Cities. — On the coast: Joppa, Jaffa, a very ancient maritime city; in the N., Bethel, S.E. of this Jericho or Ilierichus, (taken and destroyed by Joshua) ; S. of Bethel, Emmaus, afterwards Nicop51i8. W. of the northern extremity of the Dead Sea: Jerusalem vel Hier5solyma (originally Jebus, the city of the Jehu- sites), the Capital of the Jewish nation from the time of aEOGRAPHY.- 55 David, B.C. 1048; destroyed by Titus, a. d. 70; the city •was situated on four hills, 1. Zion (or the Upper City), on which a fortress was erected by David; 2. A era (or the Lower City) ; 3. Mori ah, on which the temple was built; 4. Bezetha; at the foot of Mt. Moriah was the brook Ke- dron, which flowed into the Dead Sea ; N.E. of Jerusalem, Bethany and the Mt. of Olives; S. from Jerusalem, 1. Bethlehem, the birth-place of David and of Our Blessed Saviour; 2. Hebron, the burial-place of Abra- ham, Isaac, and Jacob. Five principal cities of the Philistines: 1. Gath; 2. Ekron or Accaron; 3. Azotus or A s h d o d, famed for its temple to Dagon ; 4. Ascalon; S.Gaza. FER.^A and BATAN^EA. — In Persea: 1. Heshbon; 2. Ramoth Gilead; 3. Bethabara, on the Jordan. In Batansea and N. of Pergea: DECAPOLIS, comprising, 1. Canatha; 2. Hippus; 3. Gadara; 4. Capitolias; 5. Abila; 6. Scythopolis; 7. Pella; 8. Gerasa; 9. Diura ; 10. Phila- delphia. THE CITIES OF REFUGE.— W. of the Jordan: l.Kedesh; 2. Shechem ; 3. Hebron. E. of the Jordan : 4. Golan ; 5. Ramoth Gilead ; 6. Bezer. SEVEN HEATHEN NATIONS. — 1. The Hittites ; 2. Gir- gashites ; 3. Amorites; 4. Canaanites ; 5. Peiizzites; 6. Hivites ; 7. Jebusites. ARABIA. Arabia. BOUNDARIES. — N., Syria and Chaldc-ea; E., Sinus Persicus; S., Erythraeum Mare, Arabian Sea; W, vEgyptus, Egypt; Sinus Arabicus, Red Sea or Aror hian Gidf; Dirae, Straits of Babel Mandel. 56 GEOGRAPHY. MOUNTAINS. — In the N., between the two branches of the Red Sea: Mt. Sinai and Mt. Horeb; Mt. Hor, near Petra. DIVISIONS. — N.W., ARABIA PETE^A; W. and S., ARABIA FELIX ; E. and in the interior, ARABIA DE- SERTA. TRIBES, &c. — N., Idumgea; W., Nabathgei; S., Sabsei, Cap. Saba or Mariaba, 0. T. Sheba. In Arabia Petraea: Petra. 0. T. Tribes bordering on Palestine: Ammonites, Moabites, Midianites, Edomites, Amalekites. COUNTRIES BETWEEN PONTUS EUXINUS, Black Sea, AND HYRCANUM MARE, Caspian Sea. I. SARMATIA ASIATICA, Circassia, and S. E. part of Russia in Europe. — Boundaries. — N.E., R. Rha, Volga; S. E., Caspium Mare, Caspian Sea; S., Caucasus Mons; W., Pontus Euxinus, Black Sea, and R. Ta- na is, Don. II. COLCHIS or ^A, Guriel, Imei^itia, and MingreUa.— Boundaries. — N., Mons Caucasus; E., Iberia; S. Armenia; W., Pontus Euxinus. Chief River. — Phasis, Faz (which has given its name to the pheasant, said to have been first brought to Greece from its banks). Towns. — On the Phasis : Cyta, (where Medea was said to have been born). On the N. W. coast: Dioscuri as, Iskuria, (a considerable trading city). III. IBERIA, Georgia. — Boundaries. — N., Caucasus; E., Albania; S., Armenia; W., Colchis [inhahitantSj Iberes or Iberi). Chief River. — Cyrus, Kour, (tributaries, Cambyses and Alason). Ti'ihe.—y^\, Moschi. GEOGRAPHY. 57 IV. ALBANIA, SJiirvan and part of Dagldstan. — Bound- aries. — N., Sarmatia Asiatica; E., Hyrcanum Mare; S., R. Cyrus, Kour ; W., Iberia. Mountain. — Caucasus Mons. ARMENIA PROPRIA, vel MAJOR. Armenia and part of Georgia. BOUNDARIES.— N., Colchis, Iberia, and Albania; E., a point at the junction of the Araxes and Cyrus; S., Me- dia, Assyria, and Mesopotamia ; W., R. Euphrates. MOUNTAINS. — Mons Ararat, Imbarus Mons, Niphates Montes. RIVERvS. — 1. Araxes, Aras (rising in the country of the Chalybes), with its tributary, Harpasus, falls into the Caspian; 2. Euphrates, formed by two branches from the N. and E., and flow S., into Sinus Persicus, The Persian Gulf; 3. Tigris, with its tributaries, Nymphasus and Nicephorius. LAKE. — Arsissa Pal us. Lake Van. TOWNS.— On the Araxes: Artaxata. On the Tigris: Ami da. On the Nicephorius: Tigranocerta (founded by Tigranes, son-in-law of Mithridates, king of Pontus). MESOPOTAMIA. Algesira. MESOPOTAMIA, so named from its position between the rivers Euphrates (W.) and Tigris (E.), was bounded on the N. by Masius Mons, Armenia, and Taurus Mons; S., by Babylonia. 58 GEOGRAPHY. RIVER. — Chaboras or Abo rr has, Khdbour (a branch of the Euphrates). DIVISIONS. — N.W, Osroene; N.E., Mygdonia. TOWXS. — On the Euphrates: 1. Nicephorium, Balkah (built by order of Alexander); 2. Cunaxa (battle, B.C. 401, Cyrus the Younger defeated and slain by Artaxerxea his brother. The Greek auxiliaries of Cyrus commence their return to Greece, usually called the retreat of the Ten Thousand). Between the two rivers: 1. Edessa, (0. T. Ur), Urfah, the Capital of Osroene; 2. Charrae, the Haran of the 0. T., (death of Crassus, and defeat by the Parthians, B.C. 53); 3. Nisi bis. Cap. of Mygdonia, and a very important place as a military post. BABYLONIA AND CHALD^A. Irak Arahi. BOUNDARIES. — N., Mesopotamia; E., R.Tigris; S., Persicus Sinus; "W., Arabia. Cities. — Babylon, ruins, on the Euphrates, founded by Nimrod, about b. c. 2000, and taken by Cyrus, b. c. 538 ; it was built in the form of a quadrangle, on both sides of the Euphrates, and was distinguished for its extent and mag- nificence. Its chief buildings were: 1. The Tower of Belus; 2.The Old Royal Palace; 3. The New Palace, with the hanging gardens [i. e. gardens laid out in the form of terraces over arches). S. of Babylon: Borsippa (the chief residence of the Chaldoean astrologers), and Seleucia, on the Tigris, for a long time the Capital of W. Asia. GEOGRAPHY. 69 COUNTRIES East of the EUPHRATES and TIGRIS. I. ASSYRIA, Koordistan. — Boundaries. — N., Armenia; E., Media; S., Susiana; AY., R. Tigris. Rivers. — Flowing into the Tigris: Zabatus vel Lye us, Zah ; Delas or Sill a, Diala. Divisions. — N., Aturia; Centre, Adiabene; S., Sit- tacene. Cities. — On the Tigris: 1. Xinus or Nineveh, near Mosul, (the Capital of the great Assyrian monarchy, de- stroyed by the Medes and Babylonians, b. c. 606) ; 2. Ctesiphon (the usual winter residence of the Parthian monarchs). E. of the Tigris: Gaugamela, (the scene of the last and decisive battle between Alexander and Darius, B.C. 331, usually called the battle of Arbela, from its proximity to that town). II. MEDIA, North-west part of modern Persia, Irak. — Boundaries. — N., Armenia, R. Araxes, and Caspium Mare: E., Ilyrcania and Aria; S., Persia and Su- siana; W., Assyria. Divisions. — N., Atropatene; Chief Town , G a z a. S., Media Magna. Chief Towns. — Ecbatana, Humadan, (near Mt. Orontes, the residence of the Median, and latterly of the Persian kings. The city was built without walls, on the slope of a hill, on the summit of which stood the royal castle, surrounded by seven walls, with battlements). N.E. of Ecbatana : Kdarttm TtvXac, a mountain-pass ; near this the Nicjean plains, famed for the breed of white horses. III. SUSIANA or SUSIS, KJmzistan. — Boundaries, — N., Assyria; E., Persia; S., Sinus Persicus; W., R. Tigris. Bivers. — Choaspes, Xerah; Coprates, Ahzal ; and Pasi-Tigris, Karoon (?), fall into the Tigris. 60 GEOGRAPHY. Tribes. — Cossae, Elamitae. Capital. — Susa (0. T. Shushan), on the ChSaspes (tho winter residence of the Persian monarchs). rV^ PERSIA or PERSIS, Persia. — Boundaries. — lii., Me- dia; E., Carmania; S., Sinus Persicus; W., Su- siana. Cities. — Persepolis (the burial-place of the Persian kings) ; Pasargada (founded by Cyrus the Great, in memory of his victory over Astyages, the last king of Media, B.C. 559). COUNTRIES South of the R. OXUS, Jihon. I. HYRCANIA, Astrabad. — Boundaries. — ISi. and E., Par- thia; S., Media; W., Caspium Mare. II. PARTHIA, KJiorassan (inhabited by a very warlike people). — Boundaries. — N., Scythia; E., Aria; S. and S.W., Media; W., Hyrcania. Capital. — Hecatorapylus (founded by Arsaces). III. ARIA or ARIANUS, East part of Khorassan and N. of Afghanistan. — Boundaries. — N., Parthia; E., Bac- triana and Indo-Scythia ; S., Gedrosia; W., Car- mania and Media. Divisions. — N., Margiana (famed for its wine) ; Centre, Drangiana [River: Etymandrus, flowing into Aria Pal us, Lake ZurraJi) ; S., Arachosia. Tribe. — Paropamisadse (at the foot of Paropamisus Mons vel Caucasus, Hindoo- Koosh. Capital. — Aria vel Artacoana, Herat. IV. BACTRIANA or BACTRIA, Bokhara.— Boundaries.— N., Osus, B. Jihon; E. and S., Paropamisus Mons, Hhidoo-Koosh ; W., Aria. GEOGRAPHY. 61 Capital. — B Si cktr Si, Balk (the winter-quarters of Alex- ander, B.C. 329). V. CARMANIA, Kirman. — Boundaries. — E., Aria and Ge- drosia; S., Sinus Persicus; W. and N.W., Persia. Divisions. — Carmania Propria and Carmania De- serta. Capital. — Caramana, Kirman. VI. GEDROSIA, BeloocJiistan. — Boundaries. — N., Aria; E., Paropamisus Mons, Hala Mts.; S., Er^'^thrceum Mare, Arabian Sea; W., Carmania. Mountains. — Parsici Montes, near the centre. Tribes. — Ichthyophagi, Orita3, and Arabitae, on the coast. Capital. — P u r a. COUNTRIES North of the OXUS. I. SOGDIANA, part of Turkestan and Bokhara. — Bound- aries. — N., R. Jaxartes, Sihon or Sirr ; E., Imaus Mons; S., R. Oxus, Jilion or Ajnou; W., Sea of Aral (unknown to the ancients.) Cities. — Maracanda, Samarkand (the Capital); Cyro- polis, on the Jaxartes (founded by Cyrus). II. SCYTHIA [Independent Tartary and Mongolia), the name ^•jven to the large tract of country N. of the Caspian Sea, R. Jaxartes, and Emodi Montes, Himalai/a Mts., and E. of Sogdiana and Bactriana. Scythia was divided by Imaus Mons, Altai Mts., into Scythia intra Imaum, on the N.W., and Scythia extra Imaum, on the S.E. Tribes, &c. — Sacse and Massagetas; E. of Scythia extra Imaum, Serica, N.W. part of China, inhabitants the Seres, famous for their manufactures of silk (the coun- try was regarded as the native region of the silk-worm.) G 62 GEOGRAPHY. INDIA. Hindostan, Birmali, Siam, Cocliin China, and Malaya, BOUNDARIES.— N., Emodi Montea, Himalaya Mis., aud Scythia; S., Gangeticus Sinus, Bay of Bengal, and Indicus Oceanus, Indian Ocean; W., Erythraeum Mare, Arabian Sea, and Paropamisus Mons, Hala and Soliman Mis. PvIVERS. — I. N.W., Indus, Lidns, with its five tributary streams: 1. Hydaspes, Jelam ; 2. Ace sines, Chenauh ; 3. Hydraotes, Eavee ; 4. Ilyphasis, Gliarra or Beeas ; 5. Zaradrus, Stitlej. II. Ganges, Ganges. III. Dyar- danes or CEdones, Burrampooter. DIVISIONS.— W. of the Ganges, India intra Gauge m; E. of the Ganges, India extra Gangem. TOWNS, &c. — On the Indus: Taxila, Atfock (near which Alexander crossed the river). On the Hydaspes: Buce- phala, Jehi7n (built by Alexander, in memory of his favourite horse Bucephalus, which died and was buried here, B.C. 327). Malli, a tribe on each side of the Ace- sines, Chenauh ; their Capital is supposed to have been on the site of the fortress of Moultan. On the Ganges: Pallbothra, Patna, the Capital of the Prasii. ^ ISLANDS, &c.— Taprobane vel Salice, Ceylon; Jabadi- Ins., Sumatra; Aurea Chersonesus Malaya; E. of which, Magnus Sinus, Gulf of Siam. AFRICA. BOUNDARIES. — N., Mare Internum, Mediterranean; E., Arabia, Sinus Arabicus, Red Sea, and Erythrieum Mare, Arabian Sea; W., Mare Atlantic urn, Atlantic Ocean. BAYS. — Syrtis Major, Gulf of Sidra; Syrtis Minor, Gidf of Cahes. STRAIT. — Fretum Herculeum vel Gaditanum, Straits of Gibraltar. RIVERS. — Nil us, Nile, remarkable for its periodical inun- dations ; some few miles below Memphis the river divided into three branches, but now into two, E., Ostium Phatni- ticum, at Damietia, W., Ostium Bolbitlnum, at Rosetta, which flows through a low land, called from its shape (resembling the fourth letter of the Greek language) *' Delta," and fell into the Mediterranean. The seven ancient mouths, from E. to W., were: 1. Pelusiac; 2. Saitic; 3. Mendesian ; 4. Phatnitic, or Bucolic ; 5. Sebennytic ; 6. Bolbitic ; 7. Canopic. Of these the fourth and sixth were artificial. LAKES. — Near the western mouth of the Nile, L. Ma- reotis; S. of this, L. Moeris. E. of the Nile, L. Sir- bonis. (63) 64 GEOGRAPHY. iEGYPTUS. Egypt. BOUNDARIES. — N., Mediterranean; E., Arabia and Sinus Arabicus, Red Sea; S., -Ethiopia; W., Libya. DIVISIONS. — 1. N., .Egyptus Inferior or Delta; 2. Middle: Heptanomis; 3. S., yEgyptus Superior vel Thebais. ^GYPTUS INFERIOR vel DELTA.— OY/e.?.— Between L. Mareotis and the Sea, Alexandria, with two harbours (the Capital of Egypt under the Ptolemies, founded by Alexander, B.C. 332, and famous for its learning and com- merce ; the library is said to have contained 400,000 volumes). Opposite to Alexandria: the island Pharos, with a famous light-house, built by Ptolemy Philadelphus, B.C. 283. E. of Alexandria: Canopus, near Ahoukir (its inhabitants were proverbial for their luxury). In the Delta: 1. Naucratis, founded by the Milesians, the only place in Egypt where Greeks were permitted to settle and trade) ; 2. Sais (the ancient Capital of Lower Egypt — it contained the palace and burial-place of the Pharaohs) ; 3. Busiris, with the temple of Isis ; 4. Buto (with an oracle of the Egyptian goddess Buto). E. of the Delta: 1. Pelusium (surrounded by swamps, and called, from its situation, the Key of Egypt); E. of this, Casius Mons, with a temple of Jupiter ; here also was the grave of Pom- pey; 2. He Hop ol is, or On, O.T. (with a celebrated temple, the chief seat of the Avorship of the Sun); 3. Bubastis (where the great annual festival to the goddess Bubastis, or the Moon, was held). HEPTANOMIS. — Cities. — On the W. side of the Nile : 1, Memphis or Moph, the Capital (near which were the celebrated Pyramids) : of its splendid buildings tlie chief were, the Palace of the Pharaohs and the temples of Apis and Serapis; 2. Crocodilopolis or Arsin5e GEOGRAPHY. 65 (the chief seat of the worship of the Crocodile) : near this, the famous Labyrinthus, containing 3000 apartments, in which the kings and sacred crocodiles were buried; 3. Oxyrhyncus, Belineseh, so called from the fish of that name there worshipped. ^GYPTUS SUPERIOR vol TIIEBAIS. — CaV/e^. — On the W. side of the Nile: 1. Ptolemais, Mensliiek (an import- ant city under the Ptolemies) ; 2. Abydos, with a Mem- nonium, (i. e. a building erected by, or in honour of Memnon), and a temple of Osiris; 3. Thebse vel Dios- polis, on both sides of the Nile, Capital of Thebais, and the most ancient residence of the Egyptian kings: this city, called the hundred-gated [txaroixriv-Koi), possessed many magnificent buildings, the ruins of which now enclose a space two miles in length; 4. Elephantine, and 5. Philse, on two small islands, with many architec- tural remains. On the E. side of the Nile: 1. Syene, Assouan, the S. frontier city of Egypt; 2. Coptos, Kofty (the central point of commerce between India and Arabia, by way of Berenice, on the Arabian Gulf). At the N. of the Red Sea: Cleopatris vel Arsinoe, Suez. South of Egypt: Ethiopia, KuUa, Senaar, Kordofan, and Abyssinia. Rivers. — Astapus and Astaboras, flowing into the Nile. Ciii/. — ;Meroe (the Capital of the powerful kingdom of Meroe), with a famous oracle of Ammon. ^ NORTHERN COASTS OF AFRICA. DIVISIONS. — 1. Libya, Barca, with the provinces; 1. Mar- marica: 2. Cyrenaica. II. Tripolitana vel Regie S y r t i c a, Tripoli. HI. A f r i c a P r o p r i a, Tunis, with Z e u- gitana and Byzacium vel Emporia. IV. Numidia, 6» 66 GEOaRAPITY. Algiers. V. Mauritania, Morocco and Fez^ divided into Mauritania Cgesariensis, E., and Mauritania Tin- git an a, AY. LIBYA, Barca. — Towns. — In Marmarica. — On the coast : Paraetonium, El-Bareton ; S. of this, Oasis of Ammon, famous for its temple, visited by Alexander ; "W. of Paraeto- nium, Catabathmos, generally considered the boundary between Egypt and Cyrenaica. In Cyrenaica: Cyrene, the chief city (founded by Battus, b.c. 631), the birth-place of Aristippus, the philosopher, and Callimachus, the poet ; S.W. of Gyrene, Barce, Barca, chief town of the Barcitee. On the coast: 1. Ptolemais; 2. Berenice, the fabled site of the Gardens of the Hesperides. TRIPOLITANI, Tripoli.— Towns.— On the coast: 1. Leptis Magna vel Neapolis; 2. Oea, Tripoli; 3. Sabrata (these three cities formed the African Tripolis). Tribe. — On the coast: Lotophagi or Eaters of the Lotus, the taste of Avhich was so delicious, that those who eat of the fruit lost all desire to return to their native country. AFRICA PROPRIA, Tanis, divided into Byzacium and Zeugitana. — Towns. — In Byzacium. — On the coast: 1. Tacape, Cabes ; 2. T haps us, Demas (battle, b.c. 46, Coesar defeated the Pompeian army) ; 3. Leptis Minor, Lamta; 4. Hadrumetum (the Capital of Byzacium under the Romans). Inland: Tritonis Palus, El Sibkah (in which Minerva is said to have been born, and hence called *' Tritonia"). In Zeugitana. — On the coast: 1. Tunes, Tunis; 2. Carthago, the Capital of Africa, situated at the head of a bay, formed by two promontories, Her- maeum Prom., C. Bon, and Apollinis Prom., C. Fa- rina. The Tyrlan colony of Carthage was said to have been founded by Dido, about b. c. 853 — its citadel was termed Byrsa (Brpcra, "a hide"), in reference to the manner in which the portion of land for building the first city was GEOGRAPHY. 67 o^btained by Dido (destroyed, B.C. 146, by Scipio Afrlcanus the Younger) ; 2. Utica, near the mouth of the Bagradas, the second city in Africa, and even more ancient than Carthage (the birth-place of Cato, whence he received the surname of Uticensis). Inland: Zama (battle, B.C. 202, Hannibal defeated by Scipio, and the Second Punic war ended). NUMIDIA, E. part of Algiers. — Toivn. — Cirta, the Capital, the city of Syphax and Masinissa. Tribe. — Massyli. MAURITANIA, Morocco, Fez, and part of Algiers. — Towns. — On the coast: 1. Cartenna, Teiinez ; 2. Siga; 3. Tin- gis, Tangier; 4. Sal a, Sallee. S. of Mauritania : Atlas Mens, Mt. Atlas. Tribes. — S. of Atlas Mons, Numidia and Africa Propria, Gaetuli, I], of which Garamantes, dwelling in the region Phazania, Fezzan, Cap. Garama, Mourzouk. ISLANDS. — In the Atlantic : Insulae Purpura rise, pro- bably the Madeira, S. of which Insuloe Fortunatae, Canary islands, in which the ancients supposed the Elysian fields to be situated; Hesperidum InsulDB, Cape 9erdt j Islands, ")r the Bissagos group. MYTHOLOGY. THE TWELVE OLYMPIAN OR NATIONAL DEITIES OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. JUPITER (Zfi'j'), son of Saturn and Ops, king of gods and men, and the most powerful of all the deities. He was educated in a cave on Mount Ida. When a year old he made war against the Titans, in the cause of his father Saturn, and liberated him. He is usually represented as sitting on an ivory or golden throne, holding in his hand thunderbolts. He bore a shield or goat-skin called ^gis. NEPTUNE {n.oast,8^v), son of Saturn and Ops, and chief deity of the sea ; he was on this account entitled to more power than any other god except Jupiter. He is repre- sented as carrying the trident, or three-pronged spear, attended by dolphins. Amphitrlte was his queen. VULCAN {"H^atatos), son of Juno ; the god of fire, and patron of all workers in iron and metals : his palace, which was in Ol3mipus, contained his workshop, in which he made many ingenious and marvellous works, both for gods and men. His abode is said by some to have been in b volcanic island. The Cyclops were his workmen. MARS ("Apj^j), the god of war ; son of Jupiter and Juno. He presided over gladiators, and was the patron of manly and warlike exercises. He is generally represented as riding in a chariot, drawn by furious horses, called Flight and Terror. In the Trojan war he is said to have taken the part of the Trojans. In Rome he received the most unbounded honours. (68) MYTHOLOGY. 69 MERCURIUS (*Ep|ti^j), son of Jupiter and Maia; messenger of the gods, and deity of eloquence, commerce, and the a ts. He conducted the souls of the dead into the lower world, and is usually represented with a winged hat and sandals, bearing the caduceus in his hand. Hermes was born on Mount Cyllene, in Arcadia. APOLLO, son of Jupiter and Latona ; god of music, medi- cine, augury, painting, poetry, and all the fine arts. He was born, with his sister Diana, near Mount Cynthus, in Delos, an island in the ^gean Sea. When he grew up he slew the serpent Python, which infested the country near Delphi, and established the famous oracle. He received* the surname of Phoebus from his connexion with the Sun (.-^7tto5), the god of medicine, instructed in this science by Chiron. He was worshipped throughout Greece ; and his temples, which were built in healthy places, on hills, or near wells, were not only places of wor- ship, but frequented by sick persons. AMMON, a surname of Jupiter, worshipped in Libya; and afterwards in Egypt. AMPHITPJTE, a NEREID or OCEANID, wife of Neptune, and goddess of the sea. APIS, the bull of Memphis, worshipped by the Egyptians. He was allowed to live but about twenty-five years, and was then slain and secretly buried ; but if he died a natural death, he was buried publicly, with great solemnity. ASTR^A, daughter of Zeus and Themis; goddess of justice She lived on earth during the golden age ; but the wicked- ness of mankind drove her to heaven during the brazen MYTHOLOGY. 71 and Iron ages. She was placed among the constellations, under the name of Virgo, and is represented holding a paii of scales in one hand, and a sword in the other. AURORA [Eds, "Ecoj), the goddess of the morning, daughter of Hyperion, and wife of Tithonus son of Laomedon. She is represented as setting out before Helios her brother, drawn in a chariot by four white steeds, and dispelling darkness and sleep. BACCHUS {Dionysus, Aiowaoi), the god of wine, son of Jupiter and Semele the daughter of Cadmus of Thebes. He is usually represented as an effeminate youth, crowned with ivy and vine leaves. BELLONA, the Roman goddess of war, and companion of Mars. She is usually described as his wife, and repre- sented armed with a scourge, to animate the combatants. CUPIDO or AMOR ("Epcoj), the god of love ; the son of Venus and Zeus (some relate of Mars and Mercury). He is usually represented as carrying a bow and arrows, which he darts into the bosoms of gods and men. FAUNI, rural deities, represented as half men and half goats. FLORA, the goddess of flowers among the Romans. FORTUNA [Tvxt]), daughter of Oceanus ; the goddess of for- tune. From her were derived riches and poverty, pleasures and misfortunes. The Romans paid great attention to this goddess, and had eight temples dedicated to her at Rome. FURI^ or DIRyE, called by the Greeks Erinyes ('E^ptvuf j) or Eumenides [EvixivtSfs), three goddesses sprung from Ge and the blood of Uranus, namely, Tisiphone, Alecto, and Megcera. They haunted the impious with remorse for their crimes. GE or G^A {T^ or Tola), also called by the Romans TELLUS and TERRA, was the personification of the earth, and as such was worshipped by the ancients as a deity. GENIUS, the guardian or protecting spirit of each man's life. Such spirits were called by the Greeks hdi^ovBc, by the Romans Genii, and were regarded as the ministers of Zeus, and guardians of men and justice. Hesiod numbers the Dsempnes at 30,000. 7*2 MYTHOLOGY. GRATIS, the three goddesses presiding over all elegant arts and social enjoTments. They are generally represented dancing. Their names were Aglaia (splendour), Euplird- sy)ie ( ioy), Thalia (pleasure). H-\JDES or PLUTO i'Ai^r?), god of the [unseen or) nether world He is also kno-svn as Orcus, Taiiarus, and DU. The word Hades is also frequently used to designate the infernal regions. HEBE vel JUYEXTAS, daughter of Jupiter and Juno : the goddess of youth. She was for some time cup-bearer to the gods, to which office Ganymede succeeded ; she was also employed by Juno in preparing her chariot, - casta, the daughter of Menoeceus and sister of Creon. STORY OF OSDTPUS, AND OF THE WAR OF THE SEVEN AGAINST THEBES. An Oracle having foretold that Lai us should be slain by his son, (T^dipus was exposed at his birth on Mt. Cithsercai; • THE SEVEN AGAINST THEBES. 87 but was found by a shephei-d, who (from his feot being pierced through) gave him the name of OtStrtorj (i. e. sicollen- footed), and brought him to his master, Poly bus, king of Corinth, and husband of Me rope or Pe rib 03 a, and by whom CEdipus was brought up. On attaining manhood, his birthright being called in question, (Edipus consulted the Delphic Oracle, which replied that he was destined to slay his father and marry his mother. Soon afterwards, near JDaulis, he met his father in a chariot, and, refusing to make way for him, was struck by Laius, whom he killed, together with the slight escort which attended the chariot. Purposely avoiding Corinth, he arrived at Thebes, where he foiled the Sphynx, a monster who used to murder all those who were unable to solve the riddles which she put to them. CEdipus having explained the riddle of the being with foui', two, and three feel, to mean man crawling in infaney, walking in man- hood, and leaning on a staff in old age, the monster was so enraged at the solution, that she threw herself down from the rock on which she was seated. The Thebans, according to their promise, rewarded Oedipus with the hand of their queen, Jo casta, by whom he became the father as well as brother of Eteocles, Polynices, Antigone, andlsmene. In consequence of his marriage a plague was sent, and Creon brought back word from Delphi that the murderer of Lams must be banished. Tire si as, the blind seer, forced by CEdipus, revealed to him his crimes ; whereupon Jocasta hung herself, and CEdipus put out his own eyes, Avas expelled by his sons, and wandered an outcast, under the guidance of his daughter Antigone, to Colonos, in Attica, where ho died. Eteocles having violated the agreement with Polynices to reign in turns, the latter fled to Adrastus, king of Argos, married his daughter Argia, and persuaded her father to assist him against Eteocles. Polynices, accompanied by Adrastus, Tydeus, Amphiaraus, Capaneus, Ilippo- medon, and Parthenopgeus, advanced against Thebes, and each assailed one of its seven gates ; but were all slain except Adrastus ; Eteocles and Polynices falling by each other's hands. Antigone performed the rites of burial over 88 EARLY KINGS OP TROY. Polynices, in deJ&ance of the orders of Creon (who was regent- for Laodamas, son of Eteocles), and was buried alive by her uncle's command; whereupon Hsemon, her lover, son of Oreon, slew himself in despair. Ten years after the war of the " Seven against Thebes," the descendants ('Erttyovot) of the heroes stormed Thebes, and razed it to the ground. EARLY KINGS OF TROY. 1. TEUCER (c. B.C. 1400?), hence the Trojans were called Teucri. His daughter Batea married — 2. DAKDANUS, who came from Arcadia and Samothrace, and built Dardania, hence the name Dardanelles. 3. ERICTHONIUS, his son, was the wealthiest of mortals, and was succeeded by his son — 4. TROS, hence Troja, Trof/ ; he was the father, by Cal- lirhoe, of — 5. ILUS, after whom Troy was called Ilium. The brothers of Ilus were Assaracus (grandfather of ^neas) and Ganymede s, who was carried off by Zeus to be his cup-bearer, in place of Hebe. Tros was compensated for his loss by a present of horses. Zeus also gave Ilus the Palladium, or image of Pallas, with the promise that, as long as it remained in Troy, the city should be safe. 6. LAOMEDON, son of Ilus, and husband of Strymo. Jupiter condemned Neptune and Apollo to serve him for a year ; the former built the walls of his city, the latter became his shep- herd. Upon his insolently refusing them their wages, Nep- tune sent a sea-monster to ravage the country. He si one, the daughter of Laomedon, was chosen by lot as a sacrifice to appease this scourge ; but Hercules came to her assistance, and offered to save her if the king would give him the horses of Zeus. After Hercules had slain the monster, Laomedon refused to fulfil the conditions he had agreed to; the hero therefore slew him and all his sons,, except Priam, whom Hesione ransomed with her veil. 7. PRIAM (i. e. ransomed, rtptajuat-), originally called Podarces, married Hecuba, by whom he had Hector, Paris, Helenus, Deiphobus, LEGEND OP THE TROJAN WAR. 89 Polydorus, Troilus, also Creusa, Laodice, Polyxena, Cassandra, and other children. At the taking of Troy, he was slain by Pyrrhus at the altar of Zeus, before which his son Polite 8 had just fallen by the same hand. LEGEND OF THE TROJAN WAR. B.C. 1194 — B.C. 1184. To the marriage of Peleus, king of the Myrmidons, in Thessaly, and Thetis, parents of Achilles, all the deities were invited, except the Goddess of Discord ("Epij), who, in revenge, thrcAV among the guests a golden apple, inscribed " To the fairest." Juno, Venus, and Minerva each claim- ing it, Jupiter referred the decision to Paris, also called Alexander, a son of Priam, and at that time a shepherd on Mt. Gargarus (a part of Mt. Ida), on which he had been exposed at his birth, owing to his mother Hecuba having dreamed that she had brought forth a firebrand, which should devastate Troy. Paris, at the risk of drawing down on himself and on his country the resentment of the two other goddesses, awarded the apple to Venus, who had pro- mised him the most beautiful woman for his wife. This was Helen, daughter of Jupiter and Leda, and wife of Mene- laus, king of Sparta, whence Paris carried her off, together with the treasures of her husband. Upon the commission of this outrage, the various Grecian chieftains, who had been suitors of Helen, collected at Aulis, in Boeotia, an army of about 100,000 men, and a fleet of 1186 ships, and placed them under the command of Agamemnon, king of Mycenae, brother to Menelaus, and the most powerful of the Greeks. Before, however, the expedition started, Menelaus and Ulysses attempted a fruitless negotiation at Troy. Agamemnon hav- ing, at Aulis, killed a stag sacred to Diana, a pestilence was sent on his followers, and a calm detained their vessels. Calchas (the son of Thestor) the Grecian soothsayer, ordered him to a])pease the anger of the goddess by sacrificing hia 90 LEGEND OF THE TROJAN WAR. daughter Iphigenia. Diana, however, substituted a stag as a victim, and carried off Iphigenia to be her priestess at Tau- ris, where she subsequently delivered her brother Orestes, when he was on the point of being sacrificed to Diana. The Greeks, on their arrival at Troy, drew their ships on shore, and surrounded them with a fortification ; but being unable to take the city, they blockaded it, and ravaged the neighbouring country. Among the spoils of Chrysa (one of the captured cities) was Chryseis, who fell to the lot of Agamemnon. On his refusing to release her, Chryses, her father, obtained from Apollo, whose priest he was, the inflic- tion of a pestilence on the Greeks. Calchas having declared the cause of the plague, ChrySeis was released, and Aga- memnon consoled himself by taking away Briseis from Achilles, into whose hands she had fallen at the capture of Lyrnessus. Achilles, being deeply enraged, refused to take any further part in the war ; at last, finding that the Greeks, from being deprived of his aid, were worsted, and even their ships assailed with fire, he permitted his friend Patroclus to put on his armour, and lead his Myrmidons to the fight. Patroclus was slain- by Hector ; and Achilles, in consequence, roused by grief and resentment, and being furnished by his mother with fresh armour, forged by Vulcan, rescued his friend's dead body, and burnt it. He then pursued Hector thrice round the walls of Troy, slew him, tied him to his chariot, and dragged him to the ships. The aged Priam ransomed in person his son's corpse, and buried it: with this event, the subject of the Iliad of Homer closes. The same poem also relates several single combats between the various heroes, in which the gods and goddesses often take part; Juno, Minerva, Neptune, Mercury, and Vulcan, espousing the side of the Greeks, while Mars, Phoebus, Diana, Venus, and Latona, aid the Trojans. Homer also gives an account of the slaughter, by Ulysses and Diomedes, of Rhesus, king of Thrace, and the carrying oif his snow-white horses before they drank of the Xanthus, And fed on the Trojan plains; which had they done, Troy, ac- cording to a prediction of an oracle, could not have been taken. GRECIAN HEROES; ETC. 91 Helcnus (son of Priam), who had deserted from tho Trojans, having foretold that the presence of Pyrrhus or Neoptolemus (son of Achilles and Deidamia) and Phi- loctetes was necessary for the success of the Greeks, thft former was brought by Ulysses from the court of his gran(5 father, Lycomedes, king of Scyros ; and afterwards eithtr he or Diomedes aided Ulysses in bringing Phi'ioctete^, who had been bitten by a serpent nine years previously, and left behind at Lemnos by the Greeks, on their way to Troy. Philoctetes, being cured on his arrival, employed against the Trojans the arrows Hercules had given him, and mortally wounded Paris. The carrying off the Palladium from Troy is ascribed to Diomedes and Ulysses ; and the latter hero has also the credit of contriving the huge wooden horse (constructed by Epeus, with the aid of Minerva), which Sinon, a pretended deserter, persuaded the Trojans had been left by the Greeks, on their departure for the Peloponnesus, as an atonement for carrying off the Palladium, and made of a large size, in order that it might not be drawn into the city. Notwithstanding the opposition of Lao coon (who, with his two sons, was killed by serpents sent by Pallas), the in- fatuated Trojans drag the horse within their walls, and Sinon by night releases the Greeks who had been concealed in it. Meanwhile the Grecian army, which had retired only to Tenedos, arrives, and the ill-flited city is sacked and burnt, ^neas, however, escapes, with his father, son, and house- hold gods (his wife, Creusa, being parted from him in the confusion) ; and, after many adventures, he reaches Italy, and founds Lavinium. GRECIAN HEROES, &c., CONNECTED WITH THE TROJAN WAR. ACHILLES, son of Peleus and Thetis ; leader of the Myrmi- dons from Phthiotis, in Thcsbaly. His mother gave him the choice between a long but inglorious life, and one of 02 GRECIAN HEROES, ETC. renown and short duration ; the latter of Avhich he chose. Thetis, knowing his fate, concealed him, when a child, among the daughters of Lycomedes, king of Scyros : but Ulysses discovered his place of concealment. He was re- luctantly led to the Trojan war, of which he was the chief hero, and, after exhibiting deeds of great prowess, he was slain in battle, at the Sca3an Gate, before the capture of Troy ; but some say he was shot by Paris in the heel, the only part of his body which was vulnerable, Thetis having held him there when she dipped him in the Styx. AGAMEMNON, son of Atreus and gj-andson of Pelops, and commander-in-chief in the Trojan war. On his return to Mycenae, he was slain by his wife, Clytemnestra, daughter of Tyndarus, who had married ^Egisthus in her husband's absence. Orestes, aided by his friend Pylades, avenged his father's death. AJAX, son of Oileus, king of the Locrians. On his return from the war, he was drowned' by Neptune, for setting at nought the god's assistance during a shipwreck, in wliich his companions perished. Virgil relates that he was dashed on a rock by Minerva, in whose temple he had insulted Cassandra, at the capture of Troy. AJAX, son of Telamon, king of Salamis, and inferior only to Achilles in bravery. Ulysses having defeated him in the contest for the armour of Achilles, he became mad, and slaughtered a flock of sheep, imagining them to be the Greeks ; on discovering his mistake, he committed suicide. By Tecmessa he had a son, Eurysaces, named after his father's broad sJdeld. ANTILOCIIUS, son of Nestor; slain at Troy by Memnon. after many deeds of bravery. AUTOMEDON, charioteer and companion of Achilles, and afterwards of Pyrrhus. CALCIIAS, the soothsayer who foretold the length of the Trojan war, and died of grief because Mopsus excelled him in his art. DIOMEDES or TYDIDES, son of Tydeus and Deipyle ; king of Argos. On his return from the war, finding his wife. GRECIAN HEROES, ETC. 93 -^Egialea, married to Hippolytns, he went to iEtolia. As he was returning, a storm cast him on the coast of Daunia, in Apulia, where he is said to have founded several towns, Arpi, Beneventum, Brundusium, Venusia, &c HELENA, daughter of Zeus and Leda. On the death of Paris, she married his brother, Deiphobus, but afterwards became reconciled to her former husband, Menelaus. IDOMENEUS, son of the Cretan Deucalion, king of Crete ; one of the bravest warriors on the side of the Greeks. It is said that he sacrificed his son (who first met him on his return) to Neptune, owing to a rash vow he had made in a storm. LAODICE or ELECTRA. After the murder of her father, Agamemnon, she sent her brother, Orestes, to King Stro- phius, in Phocis, where he became intimate with Pyllides, whom Electra married, after she had incited Orestes to avenge his father's death. MACIIAON, son of iEsculapius, and surgeon of the Greeks. MENELAUS, son of Atreus, and husband of Helen, by whom he had Hermione, wife of Neoptolemus. MERIONES, a brave warrior, who came with Idomeneus from Crete. NEOPTOLEMUS or PYRRHUS, son of Achilles ; called Neoptolemus (f«oj, 7i['t)6%f^oi), because he came late to the Trojan war, and Pyrrhus {Ttvppoi), from the bright red colour of his hair. He was slain at Delphi. NESTOR, son of Neleus, king of Pylos, in Elis, and the most venerable of the Greeks, by whom he was greatly respected for his wisdom, oratory, and skill in war. PATROCLUS, the intimate friend of Achilles. He was son of Menoetius, the brother of ^acus, who was grandfather to Achilles. PHILOCTETES, the best archer in the Trojan war. He was the friend of Hercules, who gave him his poisoned arrows, as a reward for setting fire to the pile on Mt. Oilta, on which Hercules burnt himself. PHCENIX, son of Amyntor. He fled to Peleus, king of 94 GRECIAN HEROES, ETC. TJiessaly, who made him ruler of the Dolopes, and tutoi of Achilles, whom he accompanied to the Trojan war. PYRRHUS. See Neoptolemus. STHENELUS, son of Capaneus, and friend of Diomedes. TALTHYBIUS, herald of Agamemnon. TEUCER, son of Telamon, king of Salamis, who refused tc receive him on his return from Troy, because he had not avenged his half-brother Ajax's death. Teucer sailed to Cyprus, and there founded a second Salamis. ULYSSES {'08vas£vs), son of Anticlea and Laertes, king of Ithaca. To avoid going to the Trojan war, he feigned madness, by yoking an ox and an ass together, and plough- ing the sea-shore, which he sowed with salt. Palamedes detected him, by placing his infant son, Telemachus, before the plough, which the father stopped. After he left Troy, he underwent a variety of adventures, which are related in Homer's "Odyssey." He blinded the Cyclops Polyphemus, who had devoured six of his companions. After encountering various dangers from the Sirens (vide Mythol.), from shipwreck, and at the islands of ^olus, ^ea (inhabited by the sorceress Circe, who changed his associates into swine), Sicily, Ogygia (where he was de- tained by Calypso, vide Mythol.), and Scheria, he reached Ithaca. In the meantime, the hand of his wife, Penelope, had been sought by numerous suitors, whom she had de- clined answering till she should have finished a web or robe for Laertes ; this she contrived to delay, by undoing by night her day's work. At last Ulysses, after an absence of twenty years, arrived in the disguise of a beggar ; and, after vanquishing the suitors in drawing the bow of Eury- tus, he slew them, by the aid of Telemachus and Minerva, and was recognized by his wife and aged father. TROJAN HEROES, ETC. TROJAN HEROES, &c. ACESTES, son of the Sicilian river-god Crimisus, and the Trojan Egosta or Segesta. He aided Priam in the Trojan war, and afterwards, together with Elymus (son of An- chises), hospitably received ^neas, who built the towns of ^gesta and Elyme, in Sicily. iENEAS, son of Anchises and Venus, and one of the bravest of the Trojans. By his wife, Creusa (who was parted from him in the confusion at the taking of Troy), he had a son, Ascanius or lulus. After escaping from Troy, he wan- dered over the JEgean and Ionian Seas to Sicily, and La- tium, in Italy, where he married Lavinia, daughter of the king La tin us, and built Lavinium. Latin us and Turnus, king of the Rutuli, having fallen in battle, ^neas succeeded to their power, but was slain by Mezentius, king of the Rutuli. Virgil, by an anachronism, represents ^Eneas as visiting Dido, queen of Carthage, who fell in love with him, and burnt herself alive on his leaving her. ALEXANDER. See Paris, page 89. ANCHISES, father of ^neas by Venus. Having accom- panied his son after the fall of Troy, he died in Sicily, and was buried on Mt. Eryx. ANDROMACHE, daughter of Eetion (king of Thebes, in Cilicia), and Mdfe of Hector, by whom she had Scaman- drius or A sty an ax. At the capture of Troy, her son was thrown from the walls, and she became the prize of Pyrrhus, but afterwards married Helenus, king of Chaonia, in Epirus. ANTENOR, one of the wisest of the Trojans. He advised the surrender of Helen before the war began. After it was over, he is said to have founded Pat avium {Padua), in Italy. CASSANDRA, daughter of Priam ; loved by Apollo, who gave her the gift of prophecy ; but, on her ofiending the god, he caused her prophecies to be discredited. At the taking of Troy, she was insulted by Ajax, son of Oileus, 96 TROJAN HEROES, ETC. in the temple of Minerva. She afterwards became the prize of Agamemnon, and was murdered, at Myceuce, by Clytemnestra. CORO^BUS, a Phrygian; son of Mygdon. He fought at Troy with the hope of marrying Cassandra, but was killed by Peneleus or by Pyrrhus. T>EIPHOBUS, son of Priam, and, next to Hector, the bravest among the Trojans. On the death of Paris, he married Helen, and was slain by Menelaus at the capture of Troy. GLAUCUS, grandson of Bellerophon, a Lycian ally of the Trojans, slam by Ajax. HECTOR, eldest son of Priam, the bravest of the Trojans, and husband of Andromache. He slew Patroclus, and he himself fell by the hand of Achilles. HECUBA, daughter of Dymas, or of Cisseus, king of Thrace, and wife of Priam. After the fall of Troy, she was taken by the Greeks to the Thracian Chersonesus, Avhere, accord- ing to Euripides, her daughter, Polyxena, who had been beloved by Achilles, was taken from her by Ulysses, and sacrificed by Pyrrhus. On the same day, Hecuba also be- held the murdered corpse of her son. Poly dor us, cast on the shore. He had been entrusted to the care of Polym- nestor, king of the Chersonese, by whom he was mur- dered, for the sake of the riches he had brought with him. Hecuba, in revenge, enticed Polymnestor to come to her, under pretence of revealing some Trojan treasure, when she blinded him and slew his sons. HELENUS, son of Priam, gifted with prophecy ; he fell to the lot of Pyrrhus, after whose death he married Andro- mache. When ^neas came to Epirus, Helenus foretold his destinies. MEMNON, son of Tithonus and Aurora, an Ethiopian prince, who came to the assistance of his paternal uncle, Priam, and was slain by Achilles. PANDARUS, a Lycian archer ; slain by Sthenelus or Dio- medes. PARIS or ALEXANDER, son of Priam, vide page 89. PRIAM, vide page 88. TROJAN HEROES, ETC. 97 SARPEDON, son of Zeus and Laodamia, a Lyeian prince; renowned for his valour. Ho was slain by Patroclus. Apollo, by order of Zeus, cleansed Sarpedon's body from blood and dust, covered it with ambrosia, and entrusted it to Death and Sleep to carry into Lycia to be buried. TROILUS, son of Priam and Hecuba, or of Apollo ; slain by Achilles. Note. — After their death, many of the Grecian and Trojan war- riors were worshipped as heroes, and had various templea erected to Iheou GREEK ANTIQUITIES. THE INHABITANTS OF ATTICA were divided into three classes: I. noXtT-at, or freemen; 11. MfVotxot, or foreigners settled in the country; III. AoCxot, or slaves. THE INHABITANTS OF SPARTA were divided into two classes : I. 'Zrtaptvdtav and Hspioixot,, town and provincial free- men ; II. EiTMtss, slaves. MAGISTRATES. The foru -i^ government at Athens was, as in lAjny states, frequently oiianged: it began with Monarchy, and, having passed through a Dynasty (in which the power was con- fined to one family) and Aristocracy, ended in Demo- cracy. Theseus may be called the first king, and Codrus the last, after whom (b.c. 1045) the Athenians elected the Archons, who were the chief magistrates at Athens, nine in number; their power was originally for life, but was afterwards limited to ten years, and latterly to one. The names and offices of these magistrates were distinct: the President was styled o "Apzcov or sTiuivvixoi, from the year being called after, and registered in, his name ; the second was called ^aaiXsvi ; the third, fto'Ksfxapzo?, or commander-in-chief; and the remaining six, dssfioditoA., or legislators. The functions of the "Apj^cov were : 1. To provide for the celebration of the feasts, as the Dionysia, &c. ; 2. To settle disputes arising between neighbours and citizens, and to determine all causes between married people; 3. To take (98) MAGISTRATES. 99 cavo of orphans, provide them tutors, and superintend their estates. The duties of the Baat^vj were : 1. To superintend the fes- tivals, and especially the Eieusinia ; 2. To settle all disputes respecting the priesthood, and judge those accused of impiety. The duties of the n.o%£fx,apzo5 were : 1. To celebrate rites in honour of Mars and Diana; 2. To have under his care all foreigners and strangers, and settle actions brought against them ; 3. To superintend the wars, over which he had the chief command, and thence received his name. The functions of the ©sa^xoditax were connected with the administration of justice, such as, 1. Receiving indictments, bringing cases to trial, and appointing the day of sitting; 2. Annually revising the code of laws ; 3. Drawing up agree- ments with foreign states, &c. ; 4. Examining the magistrates, and taking the votes in the assemblies. THE ARCHONS were elected by lot, and, before they were admitted to office, passed an examination as to their family, age, past conduct, &c., and took oath that they would observe the laws, administer justice, and accept of no presents. Inferior Magistrates. — 1. Ot sVSfxa, the eleven, elected one from each of the ten tribes ; and, to complete the number, there was added a rpa^u^arfvj, or registrar. 2. *iJXap;i;ot, who presided over the tribes. 3. A'^^ap;^^^ the chief magistrates of the Ajjuot, or boroughs in Attica. 4. Kvii.iapx'^i, six in num- ber, assisted by thirty inferiors ; they fined those absent from the Assembly, took the votes of those present, and kept the public registers. 5. Nofxoeetav, 1000 in number; they inspected old laws, and, if found useless, caused them to be abolished by an act of the people. The Ephori. The ''E4)opot, or "overseers," were the chief magistrates at Sparta; they were five in number, and elected annually, from and by the people, without any qualification of age or pro- perty. Though at first only judicial officers, in time their authority became so great, that even the two hereditary kings of Sparta, as well as the magistrates, were prosecuted or sue- 100 ASSEMBLIES, pended at their discretion. They had the superintendence of the public morals, convened the public assembly, levied troops, &c., &c., and had great influence in the most import- ant matters. Every month they exchanged an oath with the kings, promising to defend the royal authority, provided it did not violate the laws. The tribunal of the Ephori was the ap;:^ffcor or i^opsiov, a Council Hall in the Forum. ASSEMBLIES. 'Kxx%t^aia, THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY of the citizens at Athens, in which they met to discuss matters of public inte- rest. This assembly had the power of making laws, electing magistrates, proclaiming war, &c. ; the place of meeting was either the Agora (dyopd) or Pnyx (rtwl), in later times, the theatre of Bacchus. The magistrates who presided in the Assembly were : 1. Prytanes (rtputavftj), who summoned the people, and announced the subject for decision ; 2. Proedri (rtpofSpot), who occupied the front seats ; 3. iHiatdtr^^, or Pre- sident, chosen by lot from the Proedri. The usual manner of giving votes was by holding up the hand, called zscpotwia, and as soon as the voting was ended, the Proedri examined the suffrages, and pronounced the decree, '^iq^vsi.ia, so called from the -^jj^ot, pebbles, which, together with beans (xva^ot), were sometimes used in voting. 'H i3ov%^ ^ t^v rtspifaxodiov, THE SENATE OF THE FIVE HUNDRED. The institution of this body is attributed to Solon, in whose time the Council consisted of only 400 mem- bers ; but, on the tribes being remodelled by Cleisthenes, B.C. 510, the Council was increased to 500, and the members were divided into ten sections of fifty, each, and were called Prytanes (rtprtavfij) : they presided in the Council, as well as the Assembly, during thirty-five or thirty-six days, so as to complete the lunar year of 354 days. Each tribe presided in turn, and the period of office was called a Prytany (rtpurcwsta). The members of the Council remained in office for a year, at JUDGES AND COURTS OF JUSTICE. 101 the end of which they were obhged to give an account of their conduct [svOvvrj) ; and previous to entering office, they sub- mitted to the SoxLixada, or scrutiny into their private character, repouffta was the name given to the Council of Elders, yspovts^, or Senate at Sparta; it was composed of the two Kings and twenty-eight citizens, v, ho had reached at least their sixtieth year. They were elected by the people, and were irresponsible. The functions of this Council were : 1. To propose measures to be laid before the Popular Assem- bly ; 2. To discharge the highest offices of government ; 3. To sit as the supreme criminal tribunal ; and, 4. To watch over the public morals. JUDGES AND COURTS OF JUSTICE. THE COURT OF AREOPAGUS. — This was the most ancient and venerable seat of justice in Athens ; it derived its name from o "Apatoj rtctyo? (the hill of Mars), because, it is said, Mars was the first criminal tried. The court was com- posed of ex-archons who had discharged their office un- blamably, and of the most distinguished citizens : the num- ber of judges varied at diiferent times. They Avere termed apBLOTtayltav, and took cognizance of all crimes, vices, and abuses, such as robbery, murder, poisoning, arson, &c. ; they overlooked religious matters, and punished severely for im- piety and contempt of holy mysteries. So great was their power, that they sometimes even annulled the decrees of the Popular Assembly. THE HELIASTS, so named from their court, rfKiala, were a body of Judges chosen by lot, and varied in number; some- times the rfkiaatoi were 6000 in number. They took cogni- zance of affairs of the greatest importance, but were not per- mitted to pass sentence until they had taken oath to decide according to the decrees of the people. THE DI^TETiE. THE FORTY. — The haitritai were inferior judges who settled private disputes, subject to an appeal before the Heliasts. They were chosen yearly from 9* 102 PUNISHMENTS. the ^"Kcu, or tribes, and were required to be jfifty or sixty years of a^^e. The Forty, ol tsaaapaxovra, were also inferior judges, who annually took a circuit through the Demi, and decided causes where the matter in dispute did not exceed 10 drachmae. COURT OF THE EPHET^. — The i^^tav were judges, fifty-one in number, selected from noble families, and re- quired to be more than fifty years of age. Their jurisdiction extended to cases of justifiable and unintentional murder ; when judging of the former, they sat at the Delphinium — when of the latter, at the Palladium. AMPHICTYONES were members of the afi^ixtvovia, which was a confederation formed for mutual security, and for the protection of a temple at which the members assembled to transact business and celebrate their festivals. The most celebrated was the Delphic Amphictyonia, originally com- posed of twelve tribes, whose deputies met annually at Delphi in the spring, and at Thermopylae in the autumn. The Council itself was called Pylsea, TtvTMia. PUNISHMENTS. OSTRACISM {datpaxiGfios) was a political plan for removing from the country for ten years those who had either power or popularity enough to attempt any thing against the State. The word is derived from oatpaxov, a tile, as it was on this each individual wrote the name of the person he wished to be ostracised. The assembly was held in fche Agora, where each voter deposited his tile ; but no decision was valid unless the number of votes exceeded 6000. If this number were obtained, the ostracised was obliged to leave the city within ten days ; but in his absence no injury was done to the house or property of the banished, nor was any disgrace attached to ostracism. As by the votes of the tribes a man was ostra- cised, so was it in their power to recall him before ten years had elapsed, if they chose. TEMPLES, PRIESTS, AND SACKIEICES. 103 ^Aftfxia was a public disgrace, by which the person on whom it was inflicted was deprived, either partially or totally, of his political privileges. AovKfia (servitude), by which a criminal was reduced to the condition of a slave. Xtiyfxarta, marks impressed with a hot iron on the foreheads or hands of slaves who had fled from their masters, or of cri- minals convicted of grievous offences. ^trp^ri, a pillar, on which was engraven the crimes of an offender. A80|U.o$, the punishment of imprisonment or chains. The instruments used were: 1. xv^icv, the collar; 2. x^*"^^ the stocks ; 3. (savi^, a piece of wood to which criminals were fastened ; 4. t^oxoi, a Avheel to which slaves were bound, and beaten with stripes. ^vyri, banishment. Persons condemned to this punishment lost their estates, and had no hope of returning to their coun- try, unless recalled by those who banished them. ©ccmT'of, capital punishment. This was performed in various ways : 1. By the sword (It'^oj) ; 2. By a rope (j3po;to?) ; 3. By poison (^apjuaxof ) ; 4. By stoning (xt5o/3o?ua) ; 5. By fire (rtip) ; G. By the cross (cfr'aupof), &c., &c. TEMPLES, PRIESTS, AND SACRIFICES. The objects employed in the worship of the gods were either temples (fooj, b6(xos), consecrated groves or en- closures [Tfiixsvoi), or altars (|3(o^oj). The temples were generally built in an oblong or round form, and adorned with columns. The larger temples were divided into three parts: 1. rtpoi/ooj or rtpoSo^ioj, the vestibule ; 2. vojo^, ar^xo^, or aSvtov, the temple or habitation of the deity whose statue it con- tained ; 3. oTCtaOoSouos or dr^savpo^, the chamber in which the treasures of the temple were kept. The priests, set apart for the service of certain gods or temples, were called tspftj, oj^jy-r^paj, Ovoaxooi : divines and 104 ORACLES. wizards, juai^wj or OsoTtportoL. They foretold events from signs {tipa/ta, ojj/Mara), such as thunder and lightning; from the song and flight of birds, especially of prey (ow'wvoTto^oi, oiu)VL(Sfai, 6f|to$ opvtj) ; or from dreams, ovupoTtoT^ot. The sacrifices were of tJiree kincis. I. Occasionally human. II. Animal, called Ispnov, victima, liostia. The victim Tvas in early times burnt vrhole, and termed holocaust; but in Homer's time the thighs {f^r^poi, ^vjpa) were inclosed in fat and consumed, from which omens were often taken. As the gods were supposed to delight in a number of victims, a hundred bulls {sxatoujSr;) were often sacrificed. The word hecatomb is also used to signify any large sacrifice. The animals sacrificed were usually oxen, sheep, and goats, with- out blemish (I's^tsw)?). Previous to being slain, the head of the victim was strewed with barley and salt {ov'koxvtcu, mola salsa), adorned with garlands, and a tuft of hair was cut ofi" from the forehead as a beginning [aytapxv^ l^^'i^^iiHf^) of the sacrifices ; the animal was then killed by drawing back the head {avapljvto) and cutting the throat. III. Unbloody sacrifices. These were: 1. Libations [tiol^ol, aTtov^ai, or ;^oa<;) of wine, milk, and honey, &c. ; 2. Cakes {rttxavot), dishes of fruit (xspm), &c., &c. ORACLES. The word oraculum was used by the ancients to describe the revelations of the deities to men. The responses were sometimes given in verse, or written on tablets ; and their meaning was always ambiguous and obscure. The most celebrated oracles were: I. ORACLE OF ZEUS, at DODONA, the most ancient in Greece, founded by Pelasgians. The oracle was given from lofty oaks, which were said to have human voices and the spirit of divination, and were hence called the " prophesying or speaking oaks.*' With regard to this fable, the fact appears to be, that those who gave the oracles were men, and when consulted mounted an oak, and ORACLES. 105 there gave the replies. The decisions of the oracle were afterTvards given by two or three old women (called rts^siadss). As this word also signifies doves, the fable originated respect* ing the- oracles being delivered by doves. The usual form in which the oracles were given at Dodona was in hexameter verse. II. ORACLE OF APOLLO, at DELPHI. This oracle, the most celebrated of antiquity, was situated on Mt. Par- nassus, in Phocis, supposed by the ancients to be the centre of the world. The oracle was at fijst called Pytho ; the priestess was named Pythia. In the innermost sanctuary the statue of Apollo was placed, and on an altar before it burnt an eternal fire ; in the centre of the temple was a small opening in the ground, from which the most intoxicating vapours arose ; over this chasm the Pythia took her seat on a high tripod when the oracle was to be consulted, and the suf- focating fumes caused her to utter sounds which were taken down by the Prophetes, and were believed to contain the revelations of Apollo. The Pythia was always a native of Delphi, not allowed to marry ; and bound, after once enter- ing, never to leave the service of the god. The times for con- sultation, as well as the number of priestesses, were from time to time changed, to meet the wants of those who flocked to the oracle. Valuable presents were required to be made, and hence this temple exceeded all others in splendour, riches, and magnificence. It must, however, be borne in mind, that many of these valuables were only deposited in the temple for the sake of safety. The replies were always returned in the Greek tongue, and usually in hexameter verse, in the Ionic dialect. They had at all times a leaning in favour of Doric Greeks. The chief of the remaining oracles were — I. Of Zeus: 1. The oracle at Olympia, in Elis ; 2. Zeus Ammon, in Libya, N.W. of Egypt. IL Of Apollo: 1. At Ahse, in Phocis; 2. At Delos, in the ^gean Sea; 3. Of the Branchidee, at Didyma, in the territory of Miletus ; 4. At Claros, near Colo- phon, in Ionia. III. Of Heroes: 1. Oracle of Trophonius, at Lebadea, in Boeotia ; 2. Of Amphiaraus, near Thebes, and at Oropus, between Boeotia and Attica. 106 FESTIVALS. FESTIVALS. Festivals were instituted — 1. In honour of the gods, f*.r benefits received from them ; 2, In order to procure some favour; 3. In memory of deceased friends, who had done good service for their country ; 4. As a season of rest to labourers, that, as a recompense, some da3'S of ease and refreshment might be obtained. The chief festivals among the Greeks were : — 'AStiim, in honour of Venus and Adonis. The solemnity lasted two days; the first was given up to mourning and lamentation, the second to mirth and joy. 'AvOEaty;pux, the chief of the Diouysian festivals, celebrated, in honour of Bacchus, for three days ; the first called nt^ocyta, second, Xofj, third, Xv^poc. 'A^tttTovpta, celebrated at Athens, and lasted three days. The first called AopTtsta, because each tribe assembled at an entertainment ; second, ' Avdppvais, because victims were offered to Jupiter ; third, Koupfwrtj, because the young children born that year were then taken to have their names enrolled in the public register. ^Sa^vrj^ofiLa, celebrated every ninth year by the Boeotians, in honour of Apollo ; when an olive bough, adorned with garlands, was carried in procession ; on the top of the boiigh was a globe, the emblem of the sun or Apollo. Atovvaia, four festivals celebrated in honour of Dionysus or Bacchus, and observed at Athens with great splendour. ■ The wildest mirth abounded at the various Dionysiac festivals ; some wore the dress of satyrs, others comic dresses, others, dancing ridiculously, personated madmen, and shouted Evai Bdxxf, i^ "^^o^xxs, 'Iw Bdxzs- Choruses were sung at these fes- tivals, called Dithyrambs, and theatrical representations were also given; 'E-K£vaU'ia, the most celebrated and mysterious solemnity in Greece (sometimes called, by way of eminence, Mvatr.pia), was observed every fourth year at Eleusis, in Attica. The mysteries were divided into nixpd, in honour of Proserpine, FESTIVALS. 107 and jM-eyaTia, in honour of Ceres; they lasted nine days: on the first day the worshippers first met together ; second day, they purified themselves by washing in the sea ; third day, they sacrificed ; fourth day, they made a solemn procession, in which the xaxddLov, or holy basket of Ceres, was carried ; fifth, the women ran about with torches ; sixth, the statue of "laxxoi, d'owned with myrtle and bearing a torch, was carried from Ceramicus to Eleusis in procession ; seventh, there were sports ; eighth, the lesser mysteries were repeated, and those were initiated who did not enjoy that privilege ; on the ninth, and last day, two earthen vessels filled Avith wine were thrown down, and the wine spilt was offered as a libation. ©fo^o^opta ("the lawgiver"), in honour of Ceres; celebrated by the Athenians with great pomp and devotion ; the wor- shippers were free-born women, assisted by a priest and by certain virgins, kept at the public charge. The women were dressed in white for four or five days before the festival, and on the 11th of the month Pyanepsion, they carried the books of the law to Eleusis, where the festival commenced, and lasted three days. YlavoBr^va.ia, an Athenian festival in honour of Minerva, the protectress of Athens ; it was instituted by Erichthonius, who called it 'AS^mta ; but afterwards revised by Theseus, who, having united all the Athenians into one body, called the festival liavoJdr^va.ia. There were two solemnities called UavaBr^iuia ; ixeyd'ka, the greater, celebrated once in five years, and mxpci, the lesser, celebrated once every year. The chief difference between the two festivals was, that at the greater one, which was attended with more solemnity, the Pep 1 us, or garment of Minerva, was carried in procession to her temple on the xYcropolis. The solemnities, games, and amusements of the Panathen^a were : rich sacrifices, foot, horse, and chariot-races, gymnastic and musical contests, and the lam- padephoria, or race with torches ; at these festivals the works of Homer and other Epic poets were recited, philosophers disputed, and the people indulged in a variety of amuse- ments ; the chief solemnity, however, was the procession in which the greater part of the Attic population took part. 108 PUBLIC GAMES. These festivals were at first celebrated for one day, but were afterAvards prolonged for several. The prizes awarded were vases, containing oil from the sacred olive-tree of Athena, on the Acropolis. PUBLIC GAMES. These were instituted in honour of the gods or of deified • heroes, and the victors, especially in the Olympian games, received the highest honours. On their return home they rode in a triumphal chariot into the city, a portion of the wall being thrown down to give them admittance ; they were honoured with the first places at all shows and games, were maintained at the public charge, and great honour descended to their relations. The games were called 'Aywvf^, and the principal exercises used in them were: I. Apo^j, Ciirsus, running; 11. Aiaxoi, throwing the discus; III. "ATifia, Salius, leaping; IV. Ui/yfjtri, rugilatus, boxing; V. Haxri, Lucia, wrestling. These five exercises were called by the Greeks jtivtaBTjiv, Pentathlon, by the Romans, Qidnquertium. Some, however, instead of Tivyix'/i, place a.xQV'tiov, jaculum, throwing the spear. I. Apo/xoj, running ; this game was performed in a space of ground called oi'aStov vel av?u)s, containing 125 paces. There were four kinds of races : 1. ctdhov ; 2. hta.v'koi, running twice over the stadium ; 3. b6uxo<;, running .seven times ; 4. brfhliiq^y running armed. II. C:i,iaxoq, the discus, was a round quoit of stone, brass, or iron ; sometimes a heavy mass called aoXo^ was used instead of the discus, which was thrown by the help of a thong. III. "A'Kua, leaping; this exercise was sometimes performed with empt}^ hands, and sometimes with weights of lead or stone, called a^tijpfj, which were carried in their hands or upon the head and shoulders. IV. nvyjujj, boxing ; in this exercise balls of stone or lead were sometimes held in the hand, and the cestus was used, PUBLIC GAMES. l09 which was the name given to the bands of leather, Bometimes loaded with iron and lead, and tied round the hands to harden the blows. V. Tbxkfi, wj-estling ; this was the most ancient of the exer- cises, and was performed in the Xystus, a covered portico ; in which two naked men anointed with oil, and sprinkled with dust, folded themselves in one another's arms, and en- deavoured to throw each other to the ground. There were two kinds of wrestling ; one in which the wrestlers contended on their feet, and another in which they threw themselves down, and contended rolling on the ground. [The Pancra- tium, Ttw^xpatvov, was an exercise which consisted of wrestling and boxing.] The four solemn games in Greece, called aywj^f 5 t^pot, were : 1. The Olympic ; II. Pythian ; III. Isthjiian ; and IV. Nemean. THE OLYMPIC GAMES. — Those were celebrated in honour of Zeus Olympius, and were held at Olympia, a town in Elis, whence they received the name Olympian. Their institution is assigned to Hercules by some, but it is impos- sible to say with any accuracy who was the real founder. They were for some period neglected, until the time of Iphitus, who re-instituted the solemnity ; but it was not till B.C. 776, when Coroebus won the foot-race, that the Olympiads were employed as a chronological era. The games were cele- brated every fifth year, in the Attic month Hecatombason, and continued five days, from the 11th to the 15th inclusive, the interval of four years between each celebration of the festival being called an Olympiad. The Eleans had the management of the games, and appointed the judges, who were chosen by lot from their number. Women were not allowed to be present. Those who intended to contend were obliged to swear that they were freemen, not guilty of any sacrilegious act, and had spent the proper period (ten mouths) in preparatory exercises. The wrestlers were chosen by lot, and the exercises, in addition to those mentioned in the last section, were horse and chariot-races, in which, as in several of the other exercises, boys contended. There were also con- 10 110 PUBLIC GAMES tests in which musicians, poets, and artists, strove for the victory. The victors in these games were rewarded with wreaths of wild olive, and statues in the grove of Altis ; and still more substantially on their return to their own cities, as mentioned before. THE PYTHIAN GAMES were celebrated in hou-ur of Apollo, at Delphi, anciently called Pytho, whence the namo Pythian. The common tradition is, that the games were in- stituted by Apollo himself, after he had overcome the serpent Python. They were at first celebrated every ninth year (fi'iusTJ/pt?) ; but afterwards at the end of every fourth year [Tiivtastripi^), and comprehended the space of four years, com- mencing with the third year of each Olympiad. The games lasted several days, and the exercises were the same as those of the Olympic games. Some say that the solemnity was at first a musical contention, and that a song (to which a dance was performed) consisting of five parts was sung, in which Apollo's contest with the dragon was represented. The re- wards, when there was only a musical performance, are said to have been gold and silver ; but when gymnastic exercises were introduced, garlands of laurel, palm, or parsley, were presented to the victors. THE NEMEAN GAMES were celebrated in honour of Zeus, at Nemea, near Cleono3, in Argolis, every third year. The institution of these games is assigned both to the Seven against Thebes, as well as to Hercules, after he had slain the Nemean lion. The various exercises were chariot and horse- racing, and the pentathlon. The reward of the victors was at first a chaplet of olive-branches, but afterwards a ga,rland of parsley was awarded. THE ISTHMIAN GAMES were so called from the Corin- thian Isthmus, whore they were celebrated. At the narrowest- part of the Isthmus stood a temple (Fanum Neptuni), near which was a tlieatre and stadium of white marble, where the games took place. Some say they were instituted in honour of Palaemon, or Melicertes, son of Athamas, king of Thebes ; others, in honour of Neptune. The games took place every MILITARY AFFAIRS. Ill third year, and the exercises were the same as those of tlio other sacred festivals ; the rewards were chaplets of pine ; at one time ivy was used. The Isthmian games were held in great veneration, on ac- count of the religion by which they were consecrated, as well as on account of their antiquity. MILITARY AFFAIRS. Divisions of the Army. The Grecian armies consisted of free bodies of men, whom the laws of the country obliged, when arrived at a certain age, to appear in arms : at the age of eighteen, the Athenians were appointed to guard the city ; at twenty, they were sent to foreign wars ; at sixty, they were alloAved to retire. The army was composed of three classes of soldiers: 1. In- fantry, Tts^oi,; 2. Charioteers, r^viozoo; 3. Cavalry, vTtTieli. The foot soldiers were divided into, 1. 'OTOtrat, who wore heavy armour, and fought with broad shields and long spears ; 2. "^0.01, light-armed men, who engaged with darts, arrows, and slings ; 3. UeXfaa'tal, who were armed with a small shield called Ttaxtri. Arms. These were divided into two classes : 1. Arms for the pro- tection of the body ; and, 2. Those used to injure an enemy. I. The defensive arms, which protected the body: 1. xpdvo^, xopvi, xvviri, or Ttapixs^aXala, helmet, made of brass or of the skins of animals, and surmounted by a crest [\6^oi) ; 2. 5topa|, cuirass, made of hemp (twisted into cords, and woven close together), of brass, or of leather covered with brass ; 3. xvt]ixLbss, greaves, for the front of the legs, made of brass or other metal ; 4. a67tii, a round buckler, made either of osiers twisted together, or of wood covered with leather, and bound round the edge with metal; in the centre was a projection called ofi^aT^oi or fxtao^^duov, a boss, upon which a spike was 112 MILITARY AFFAIRS. sometimes placed. The Ovp^os was an oblong shield (corre* eponding to the Latin scutum), and the neMri a small shield used in the Greek army, by a body of men named from using it Tte'k'taataL II. The offensive arms: 1. tyzoi and bopv, the spear and lance, usually made of ash ; the point, aix/xri, was of metal ; 2. IJ^oj, the sword, suspended by a belt {tf'Kafi.Jov) from the shoulder ; 3. a^ivrj et Tt^Kexvi, pole-axe ; 4. -to^ov, the bow, said to have been invented by Apollo, who communicated his in- vention to the Cretans, who became iirst-rate archers : the arrows, Avhich were called jde'krj, oiatol, and 'to^svjxafa, were made of light wood and pointed with metal ; 5. axovttov, the javelin, of which there were various kinds ; G. 6&>^v86i'9], the sling, which was commonly used by the lightrarmed soldiers. THE CHIEF OFFICERS OF THE ARMY were, 1. rtoxi- fxapxos or general (vide Magistrates) ; 2. sTpatt^yol, ten in num- ber, one elected from each tribe : they conducted all military affairs at home and abroad ; 3. ta^tapzoi, ten in number, elected by the tribes : they had the care of marshalling the army, directing the marches and encampments, and discharg- ing the soldiers convicted of misdemeanours ; 4. vTtnapzoh two in number: they commanded the cavalry; 5. q>v'kap%0L, ten ia number, elected by the tribes, subordinate to the iTtTiapxot: the inferior officers received their names from the number of men they commanded. Among the Lacedsemonians, the supreme command was vested in one man (usually a king of Sparta), who was attended by a body-guard of horsemen, tnrtftj, 300 in number. THE DIVISIONS OF THE ARMY.— The whole body was called G'tpa'tM ; the van, ixitvoTtov vel Ttpwr'oj ^ryoj ; the Avings, xf'pata; the rear, ovpd vel saxO'-fos (vyo^. Minor divisions: TtspLTid^, a party of five soldiers ; "koxo?, a party of twenty-four or twenty-five, sometimes of only sixteen ; T'a|tj vel Bxatov •fapx^o., a company of 100 or 120 ; ^ayiayl, a body of troops in close order, whose chief weapon was a long spear. The whole army of the Spartans was divided into ixopat, regiments, and T^ox.oi, companies, the number of men each contained ia uncerta'n. NAVAL AFFAIRS. 113 NAVAL AFFAIRS. The vessels of the Greeks may be divided into two classes : I. Naves Onerarias, oXxdhe^, ^oftnyol, stpoyyu'Kai, rCKolay ships of burden, generally made of a bulky form, and chiefly propelled by sails. II. Naves Bellies, fptjjpfcj, T'sT'pjjpEtj, Ti^vtYip^i^ [triremes, quadriremes, quinqueremcs), vi^ar-galleys, propelled chiefly by oars, and distinguished from each other by the number of banks of oars. The most usual number of banks was three, four, or five, which gradually ascended in the manner of stairs. The most common ships of war in the earlier times were long vessels {naves longce) called TttvtYixovtopoi, with fifty rowers, twenty-five on each side. The principal parts of the vessel were : 1. r'portt? or atdi^r} {carina), the keel; 2. Ttpi^pa or (.litcorcov [prora), the prow; 3. jjlsgoxolTm, or middle part of the ship ; 4. jtpv/jLvyj [puppis), the stern; 5. n^ivpal {latera), the sides of the ship; 6. xataatpu>ixata, the decks or hatches ; 7. t8u>%ta {transtra), the benches on which the rowers sat: the upper were called 0pai/ot, (the rowers ^pawfat), the middle ^wya (the men l^vyltai), the lower daXaixo^ (the rowers daJia^ltac) ; 8. s^jSoXov {rostriun) or beak : this con- sisted of a beam pointed with brass, and was used for the purpose of sinking and disabling the enemy's vessels ; 9. avfKo^ {sentina), the hold ; 10. ifpo^^jl, the bulwark. The tackling, &c., used in navigation were: 1. lato^ {mains), the mast; 2. xipara, xf^axai [anfennce), the yards; 3. IstCov {velum), the sail; 4. toTtda, the cordage, comprising o%ot,via {fimes), the cables, moSsj {jyedes), the ropes attached to the lower corners of the square sail, and vrtr'pat, the ropes fastened to the two ends of the yards ; 5. Ttribaxiov {gubernaculum), the rudder, usually two large oars, placed on each side of the stern ; 6. ola^, the tiller or handle of the oar ; 7. ayxvpa, the anchor; 8. xtortat or ipstinol {remi), the oars: their blades were called rfkafM [palmidcv), and were fastened in their holes by leather thongs, tporiol {stroplii) ; 9. xovtot. {conti), punting poles. 10* Il'l PRIVATE LIFE OP THE GREEKS. The 6f7iviov. The exterior garments were : 1. Ifxa-eiov or ^apoj, a cloak (Lat. pallimp) ; 2. z>^a.iva, a thicker garment for cold weather ; 3. ^atvoXgyf (^Lat. jycenula), a round garment without sleeves ; 4. s^^stpli, a ^reat coat ; 5. tpi)5uiv, a threadbare coat worn by philosophers and the poor ; 6. croAjy, a long garment reachiwg to the heels : 7. x^a^vs, a military cloak. On the feet were worn : 1. i)rto6)j^f\ro., or shoes bound under with thongs; 2. xpr]7ii8es, slippers. KoOo^vo^ were buskins, or boots worn by tragedians. Funerals. The Greeks attached great importance to the burial of the dead, as they believed the souls could not enter th'*^ Elysiaii fields unless their bodies were buried ; and it waa therefore looked upon as a grave charge on the character of a man to have neglected the burial of his relations. The folIo-v-fiE^ customs were connected Avith the Greek funeral. As soon as any one had expired : 1. the eyes were closra by the nearest relative ; 2. the mouth was shut ; 3. the f?^ce was covered ; 4. all the members of the body were stretched out ; 5. the body was washed and anointed with oil ; 6. wrapped in a handsome garment, and decked with chaplets and flowers; 7. laid out (rtpf^^fcrij) on a couch (xAtVjy), with the feet towards the door ; 8. a small coin (6/3oAoj) was place'! in the mouth, as Charon's fare for carrying the soul over th.fvj {monitor), and flute-player were usually placed. _ The ancient theatres were of vast size, capable of containing in the xoi'Kov {cavea) many thousand spectators, who sat according to their rank, the senators, priests, &c., occupying the front seats. The buildings were open to the sky [the Romans sometimes used an awning], and, owing to their vast size, the actors wore masks, perso7ice (adapted to their characters), with mouth-pieces to aid the voice ; and tragic actors wore cothurni, or thick-soled buskins, to elevate the figure. The ancients used in their theatres various stage machinery to give effect to the representations. ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. DIVISIONS OF THE INHABITANTS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. The Roman people were divided by Romulus into threo tribes [tribiis], Eamnes or Ramnenses, Titienses, and Luceres: these tribes were again divided into thirty curice, each of which had its curio, or president, and the whole body had a curio maxhmis. The inhabitants of Rome were at first divided into two ranks [ordines): I. Patricii, and II. Plebei — these were connected together as Patroni and Clientes ; afterwards, the Equites, forming a kind of intermediate order, were added. The Patricii appear to have been the original citizens, and were divided into curiae and gentes, or clans, united by reli- gious ties or family connexion. They were entirely separated from the Plebei, no connubium or marriage being permitted between the orders, and were the only parties eligible to the senate, or the higher offices in the religious and political government of the state. In time, however, the Plebeians increased in importance by the admission of conquered tribes into their order, so that, from the time of Servius Tullius, they took part in the comitia or legal assemblies, and ultimately obtained the connubium and equal rights with the Patricians. The Equites were at first only a military order, 300 in number [celeres], and insti- tuted by Romulus. This number was increased by the suc- cessive kings ; the Equites had a horse at the public charge {eqnits puhlicus) and [ces eqnestre) a sum for its support. Latterly, however, the name Equites was extended from those who had horses at the public charge to all those having (118) THE SENATE. 119 horses of their owm, and quaiiiied by their property to act aa judices, and thus the military character of the original order disappeared, and all free-born citizens possessing 400,000 sestertii were Equites, or of the Equestrian order. The in- signia of these Knights were the annulus aureus, gold ring, and the angustus clavus, a narrow band of purple wrought in the cloth, and extending from each shoulder to the bottom of the tunica. The Equites occupied the first fourteen benches at the theatres. When the ancient dilFerence between Patricians and Ple- beians had disappeared, then arose a new classification, Nobiles and Ignobiles; the only privilege of the Nobiles was \hQJus imaginiun, an ancient custom of setting up in the atria or courts of their houses waxen busts or efligies of their ancestors. These Nobiles were again divided into Optimaies or Conservatives, and Populares or Radicals. When the Roman empire enlarged its territories, there arose another division, Servi, or slavj.s, who became such either by being taken in war, by ssih^ by way of punishment, or by being born in a state of servitude. They received a monthly allowance, but could not obtain property without the consent of their masters. Slaves were sold at Rome by auction, and became either the property of private indviduals or of the state. The state of slavery was terminated by Manumissio, which was efiected either by entering a slave's. name on the Censor's books [censii), or by certain ceremonies with a rod {vindida) before the Prastor, or by will [testamenio). THE SENATE {Senatus). The Senate, according to tradition, was instituted by Romulus, and consisted at first of only 100 members [seiior tores or patres), chosen from the Patricians. This number was increased to 200 when the Sabine Titles became united to the Latin Ramnes, and another 100 were also added when 120 THE SENATE. the Luceres, consisting chiefly of Etruscans, were incorpo- rated in the time of Tarq. Prisons ; these new Senators were called Patres minorum gentium, in distinction to the old Sena- tors, Patres majorum gentium. The vacancies which occurred in the Senate after the abolition of the monarchy {b.c. 509) were filled up by Plebeians of Equestrian rank, who were designated Conscripti, and hence the Senate was addressed as Patres (sc. et) Conscrijjti. The number of 300 remained until the time of Sulla, when the Senate consisted of between five and six hundred. The Senate possessed the administra- tive authority, in such matters as religious worship, taxation, levying of troops, negotiations with foreign states, embassies, provincial government, &c., &c. The sittings of the Senate were either regular [senatus legitimus) or extraordinary [senatus indictus), and were held between sunrise and sunset. When the members tad assem- bled, the presiding magistrate announced the subject [referre ad Senatum), and called on each member to state his opinions [rogare sententias, sententias dicere) ; this he delivered either by a single word or in a speech ; then followed the voting [discessio, pedibus ire in senteniiam alicnjns). The decree, when passed [Senatus Consultum vel Decretum), was written down and placed in the wrarium or treasury, under the care of the Prcetor. A certain number of Senators were required to be present to make a decree valid, and those absenting themselves with- out just cause were fined. For Intercessio vide Tribuni. It was required in a candidate that he should be free-born, and possess a certain amount of property ; latterly, 800,000 sestertii. The Senators were chosen [legehantur] by the Kings, by the Consuls, and, in later times, by the Censors ; one of the qualifications necessary was, that the candidate should have fulfilled the duties of the magistracy, the first degree of which was the qugestorship. The insignia of the Senators were the latus clavus, a broad band of purple, ex- tending from the neck down the centre ul' the tunica, and the zalceus lunatus, a high shoe adorned with a small crescent. The Senators had also certain seats at the public shows. ASSEMBLIES. 121 ASSExMBLIES {Cornifia). The Comitia were the legal meetings of the Roman people at which their votes were taken on matters connected with the government of the State. The Comitia could onlv be held on certain days [dies comitiales), never on festivals; and, pre- vious to meeting, notice was given {promulgari) of the subject for decision. There were three kinds of Comitia: I. Comitia Curiata; II. Comitia Centuriata ; III. Comitia Trihuta I. COMITIA CUEIATA were held, in a part of the Forum called Comitium, first by the Kings, and afterwards by the Consuls and Piv^tors. Though at first they Avere assemblies of the whole people, and possessed power in enacting laws and confirming the authority of the Kings, on the decline of the Patrician power they lost their importance. The Comitia Calata belonged to these Comitia, which were merely meet- ings for the purpose of sanctioning certain proceedino-s, in- augurating the Flamines, &c. "^ II. COMITIA CENTURIATA were held, extra Poma^rium, m the Campus Martius, either by the Consul or Prcetor. In these Comitia the Consuls, Praetors, and Censors, were elected, laws were passed, war declared, and capital offences were tried. ^ The Comitia Centuriata were usually assembled by an edict, and summoned twenty-seven days befor.) the period of meeting ; this space of time was called trinundiimm. All those who had the right of Roman citizens might be present, and voted according to their property. On the day of meet- ing, the auspices were consulted by the presiding magistrate and the augurs, and the Comitia were opened with sacrifice and prayer. After the debate, if no religious obstacle pre- vented, the people were called on to arrange themselves for foting. The Equites voted first, and the six classes in suc- cession. The votes were at first viva voce, but were after- wards delivered in writing by means of a tahella. The centuries which were to vote passed over bridges into an inclosed space [pmle], where the tahellce were supplied, and thrown by the voters into the cistce or ballot-boxes, frcm 11 122 MAGISTRATES AND CHIEF PUBLIC OFFICERS which they were taken and counted, and the result of the voting proclaimed with a loud voice. III. COMITIA TRIBUTA were held both intra and extra Pommrium, under the presidency of the Tribunes of the People. At these Comitia the inferior magistrates were chosen, as well as the ^diles Curules, and the Tribunes of the People after B.C. 471 ; and after B.C. 104 the members of the Colleges of Priests. Laws were passed at these Comitia called Plebiscita, which at first only bound the Plebeians ; but after B.C. 306 they concerned the whole people. The Patricians seldom attended, as the votes of all were of equal force. MAGISTRATES AND CHIEF PUBLIC OFFICERS. N. B. — The dates affixed are tliose of the institution of the various offices. j35DILES PLEBIS, B.C. 494, two functionaries elected from the Plebei, to take charge of the public buildings, to judge in inferior cases, inspect weights and measure, and prohibit unlawful games. iEDILES CURULES, b.c. 365, two in number, elected at first from the Patricii. They superintended the public games, took care of the buildings, repaired the temples, theatres, baths, &c., and were appointed judges in all cases relating to the buying and selling of estates. ^DILES CEREALES, b.c. 45, two in number, elected from the Plebei. They inspected the public stores of corn, all commodities exposed in the markets, and punished delin- quents in ^-H cases of buying and selling. The office was instituted by Julius Caesar. The ^diles had various officers under them, viz., prcecones or " criers,'' scribce or " clerks/' and viatores or " attendants" and " messengers." APPARITORES, the general name given to the public officers who waited on the magistrates, such as the Accensi, Liciores, Scriboi, Prceodnes, Viatores, &c. MAGISTRATES AND CHIEF PUBLIC OEFICERS. 123 CENSORES, B.C. 443, two officers of high rank and autho- rity, elected (at first from among the Patricians) for a lustrum, :r space of five years ; but latterly the period of office was only for eighteen months. The duties were of three kinds : I. To take an exact account of the property and estates of Tjvery person {census), and to divide the people into their proper classes or centuries ; II. To superintend the adminis- tration of the finances of the State, and meet the expenses attendant on the erection or repairs of temples, public build- ings &c. ; III. To punish immorality in amj person: the Senators they might expel from the Curia or Senate-house ; the Knights they might punish by depriving them of the horse allowed them at the public charge ; and the Commons they might remove from a high tribe to one less honourable, impose on them a fine, or disable them from voting in the Assemblies. CONSOLES, B.C. 509, the principal annual Roman magis- trates, two in number. The office was established on the ex- pulsion of Tarquinius, the last King of Rome. At the first institution, the Consuls were elected from the Patricians only; but afterwards, b.c. 366, the Plebeians obtained the right of electing one. The common age required in a candi- date was forty-three years ; the time of election was about the end of July or beginning of August, they were then called ''designati" until entering on their office, the period of un- dertaking which varied at different times. At first their power was as great as that of the Kings, and their badges of office nearly the same, in public being always preceded by twelve lictors, with the fasces. They wore the ioga prcdexta, sat on the curule chair, and carried an ivory sceptre. Their chief duties were presiding in the Senate, administering jus- tice, levying troops, commanding armies and provinces, con- ducting the Circensian games, &c., &c. The first Consuls elected were L. Junius Brutus and L. Tarquinius Collatinus. CURATORES, public officers of various kinds, viz. : Cura- lores Annonce (of corn), Curatores Riparum (of the navigation of the Tiber), Curaiores Kalendarii (of books containing the names of persons who borrowed public money), Curaiores 124 MAGISTRATES AND CHIEF PUBLIC OFFICERS. Ludorum (of the public games), Ciirafores Operum Puhlico- rum (of public works), &c., &c. DICTATOR, B.C. 501, a magistrate with supreme authority among the Romans ; he was nominated by the Consuls, the auspices being taken at midnight. The Dictator was only elected at times when great danger threatened the State. His period of office was six months, sometimes even less. So great was the power of this officer, that he might proclaim war, levy forces, and lead them to battle, or disband them, without any consultation with the Senate. He could also punish as he pleased, and there was no appeal from him, at least until later times. The insignia of the office were the sella curulis and toga pi'cetexta; the Dictator was also pre- ceded by twenty-four lictors, and during his tenure of office all other magistrates resigned except the Tribuni Plebis. On his election, his first act was to choose a " Magister Equitum,^' or Master of the Horse, who always attended him. T, Lartius Flavus, or Rufus, was the first Dictator, and Sp. Cassius Viscellinus the first Magister Equitum. PRxEFECTUS URBI (office instituted by Romulus), an officer who presided in the city during the absence of the Kings or Consuls. The office was latterly merged in that of Prcetor Urbdmis. PR/ETOR, B.C. 366, one of the chief magistrates at Rome, next to the Consuls. In b. c. 246 a Prgetor was appointed, called Peregrinus, whose duty it was to administer justice in matters of dispute between peregrini (foreigners) or pere- grini and Roman citizens. The other Prastor was then called Urban us. Sp. Furius Camillus was the first Praetor: Ijie Quniber varied at difi'erent times. The duty of the Praetor was, 1. to administer justice (his tribunal was called " Prae- :orium*'), and, 2. to act as Consul in the absence of that officer. He was entitled to the prcetexta, the sella curulis^ two lictors when at Rome, and six when out. The exercise ,)f the preetorian authority was signified by the words ''do" (when they granted licence to institute a trial), ''dico" (when they pronounced sentence), and "addico" (when they gave MAGISTRATES AND CHIEF PUBLIC OFFICERS. 125 the 30ods of a debtor to a creditor). Praetors were also sent to govern provinces subject to the Romans. PRO-CONSUL, B. c. 327, a magistrate sent to govern a pro- vince with Consuhir power. It was usual for Consuls, on the expiration of their Consulship at Rome, formally to obtain leave of the people, and get a decree of the Senate for per- mission to govern a province. The command lasted one year, at the end of which the Pro-Consul made up his accounts, left them in writing in the two chief cities of the province, and returned to Rome. The insignia were the same as the Consuls, but only six lictors. PROCURATOR, an officer of the Imperial provinces, who discharged the same duties as the Quaestors in other pro- vinces. PRO-PRiETOR, an officer who had all the authority of a Prsetor. The name was assumed by those who, as Prastors, had continued in power beyond the time fixed. QU^ STORES, magistrates, at first two in number ; in- creased B. c. 421 to four, B. c. 265 to eight, by Sulla, b. c. 82, to twenty, by Caesar to forty. They had the management of the public treasury. Two Quaestors accompanied the Consuls in all their expeditions; they received the name "Peregrin!,'' the other two "Urbani.'' When the number was augmented, certain Quaestors were sent to collect the taxes in various pro vinces. No person was eligible to this office under the age of twenty-two years. TRIBUNI PLEBIS, b.c. 494, certain Roman magistrates, elected from among the Commons to defend their liberties ; they were at first only two in number, afterwards increased to five, and lastly to ten. Though at first only redressers of public wrongs, they afterwards assumed great power. They made decrees, and carried laws, which they executed on ma- gistrates themselves, ordering even Consuls to prison ; they possessed the right of " intercessio," and their persons were " sacrosancti." Nothing could be concluded without their consent, which was signified by affixing the letter T to the decree. They could prevent the passing of any measure by standing up, and pronouncing the simple word "vefo" (called 11* 126 JUDICIAL PROCEEDINGS, PUNISHMENTS, ETC. intercessio). They kept open houses, and were never allowed to leave the city, except at the festival " Ferife Latinje," heW on the Alban Mount. TRIBUXI MILITUM, b. c. 445, elected with Coimda^ power. They were three in number, but in b. c. 405 in- creased to six. For many years the number of these tribuno* was very irregular. The office was abolished j? c. 367. JUDICIAL PROCEEDINGS, PUNISHAIENTS, &c The judicial proceedings [judicia) of the Romans v^er^ either public or private. The judicia privata, or civil trial* had reference to the rights of private persons, &^ , in whir* at first the Kings, and afterwards the Consuls and Praetors decided. The Judicia publica, or criminal trials, wore origin- ally conducted by Qucesitores (subject to the Kings), ana after the expulsion of the kings by the Consuls and Preetors. Capital offenders were tried before the Comitia Centuriata, at which it was necessary that the accuser should be a magistrate. The chief punishments among the Romans were : 1. midcta or damnum, a fine ; 2. vincula, bonds, imprisonment ; 3. ver- bera, beating or scourging ; 4. talio, retaliation, as an eye for an eye ; 5. ignominia or infamia, disgrace inflicted by the Censors, or by edict of the Praetor ; 6. exilium, banishment ; 7. servitus, slavery ; 8. mors, death, either by decapitation, hanging, throwing from the Tarpeian Rock, strangling, burn- ing, crucifying, &c. PRIESTS. The ministers of religion among the Romans were divided into two orders : I. Those appointed to the common service of fll the gods ; and, II. Those devoted to the service of par- ticular deities. Among the former were — PRIESTS. 127 THE PONTIFICES, a college of priests, presided over by the Pontifex Maximus. They were first appointed by Xuma. The Collegium consisted of four members, elected from the Patricians until B.C. 300, when an equal number of Plebeians were admitted. They administered the ecclesiastical laws, prescribed the ceremonial of any new public or private wor- ship, prepared the forms for public prayers and vows, com- posed the annals, and regulated the fasti, interpreted pro- digies, inaugurated magistrates, and punished persons guilty of offences against religion. The insignia of the Poutifices were the toga prceiexta and a woollen cap, pileus. The Pon- tifex Maximus chiefly superintended the service of Vesta. THE AUGURES ^or AUSPICES were originally three or four in number, Patricians, presided over by a Magister CoU legii ; but in b.c. 300 five Plebeians were added, and under Sulla the Augurs were increased to fifteen. The word Augur or Auspex at first meant a diviner by birds [aves) ; but in time the name was applied in a much wider sense. The art was called Augurium or Auspicium. In ancient times no transaction, either public or private, took place without con- sulting the auspices, which were divided into five kinds : 1. Those derived from the sky [ex ccclo), particularly from lightning and thunder; 2. From birds [ex avibus), which were either osclnes, which gave auguries by singing, or nUtes, by flying: 3. From the feeding of chickens [ex tri~ pudiis), chiefly war auguries; 4. From four-footed animals [ex quadrnpedibiis) ; 5. Ex diris sigiiis, which included every other kind of augury, as sneezing, stumbling, &c. The Augurs, when about taking the auspices, stationed them- selves on some open ground, and, after offering sacrifices, proceeded, with veiled heads, to mark out with the lituiis, or curved wand, a particular division, templum, in the heavens, in which they intended to make their observations. Ths spectio, or right of taking the auspices of the State, was con- ducted by a magistrate, assisted by an Augur, who inter- preted the signs. The auspices taken by the magistrates were divided into avspicia majora and minora, the forme? being taken by the Consuls and superior magistrates, the 128 PRIESTS. latter by the Quaestors and Curule iEdiles. The right of self- election, co-optaiio, was possessed by the Augurs until B.C. 1C3. The insignia of the order were the trahea and lituus. THE FETIALES were a college of priests, instituted by Numa. They were twenty in number, and their president was styled Pater Pairatus. The Fetiales acted as the guardians of the public faith, and it was their office, when disputes arose with foreign states, to demand restitution, conclude treaties, and perform the rites attendant on the declaration of war, &c. THE HARUSPICES were soothsayers, who interpreted the will of the gods from the appearance of the entrails [exta)y whence they are sometimes called Extispices. The art was called Haruspiclna, and much taught in Etruria. THE DECEMVIRI SACRIS FACIUNDIS or SACRO- RUM were the priests appointed to take charge of the three Sibylline Books (which Tarquin received from the Sibyl), and offer the sacrifices prescribed by them. At first they were two in number, then ten (five Patrician and five Ple- beian), and afterwards fifteen. The term Decemviri was also applied to the ten officers who were appointed to draw up a code of laws, b.c. 451 (vide Chronology). THE CURIONES were priests for the Curiae, under a Curio Maximus. THE REX SACRIFICULUS was a priest appointed after the expulsion of the Kings to superintend the religious rites formerly performed by them. The priests for the services of particular deities. THE FLAMINES were appointed to the temple-service of certain gods ; they were fifteen in number, the chief of whom were Flarnen Dialis, the priest of Jupiter; Flamen Martialis, the priest of Mars ; Flamen Quirinalis, the priest of Romulus. They wore a purple robe, Icena, and conical cap, apex. THE VIRGINES VESTALES were appointed by Numa to feed the sacred fire, and guard the relics in the temple of ~\^esta; they were at first four in number, two more were sub- sequently added. They were originally chosen by the Kings, afterwards by the Pontifex Maximus, and were required not PRAYERS, SACRIFICES, EESTIVALS, ETC. 1'29 to be under six nor above ten years of age, and free from bodily defects. The period of service lasted thirty years, at the end of which they were allowed to marry. While in the service of the goddess, they enjoyed many privileges, such as freedom from parental control, a particular seat at shows, the right of liberating any criminal whom they accidentally met, the attendance of a lictor, &c. They were subject to the Pontifex Maxim us, who severely punished them for letting out the sacred fire, and for unchastity ordered them to be buried alive. The Vestals were clad in a white robe, and their heads Avere adorned with fillets [infidce). THE SALII were priests of Mars Gradivus, twelve in number. Patricians, appointed by Numa to guard the Anclle, or sacred shield, which fell from heaven, and the eleven others of similar make which were kept in the temple of Mars, and carried in procession, with dancing and singing, by the Salii, annually on the first of March. THE LUPERCI were priests of Pan ; they went in proces- sion, dressed in goat-skins, on the Lupercalia or festivals of Pan, to the Palatine, where they sacrificed to the god. THE GALLI were the eunuch priests of Cybele, whose worship was introduced at Rome from Phrygia, b. c. 204. THE FRATRES ARVALES were twelve in number, who superintended the yearly rural sacrifice of purification. PRAYERS, SACRIFICES, FESTIVALS, &c. The worship of the gods consisted of prayers, vows, and sacrifices. Public prayers were ofiered by the chief magis- trates after a form prepared and recited by the priests ; these prayers were often accompanied by vows [vota). It was usual for persons who had been in great danger during a voyage, on landing, to hang up their clothes in the temple of Nep- tune, with a tablet [votiva tabula), on which was depicted a representation of the event. Sacrifices [sacrificia) formed the chief part of the public 130 PRAYERS, SACRIFICES, FESTIVALS, ETC. worship of the Romans, whose customs were in this matter much the same as those of the Greeks. The victim [liosiia^ victima), without blemish before being sacrificed, was deco- rated with garlands [vittce, infidce), and sometimes its horns were gilded ; it was then led to the altar by the popa, or attendant, where the animal's head was sprinkled with roast barley meal, mixed with salt {mola salsa), and afterwards slaughtered, and its entrails {exta) inspected by the hams- pices, the better parts strewed with meal, wine, and incense, and burnt on the altar, and a solemn banquet prepared. The lustratio was a purification in which the victim was lead round the object intended to be purified. (For libatio, vide page 104.) The most common sacrifices at Rome were the suovetaurilia, consisting of a pig, a sheep, and an ox. The places dedicated to the worship of the Romans were either buildings, or sacred spots consecrated by the Augurs : e. g. templa, cedes sacrce, fana, deluhra, sacella, cedicidce; luci. Days among the Romans were either devoted to religious observances, dies festi, or to business, dies prqfesti. The ferice or festivals, in which the Romans ceased from political transactions, law-suits, &c., were divided into piihlicce and 2jrivatce ; the former being again divided into ferice stativce or immoveable, ferice conceptivce or moveable, and feince im- perativce, fasts held by command of the magistrate: thejh'ice privatce were kept by families in commemoration of birth- days, &c. The chief ferice stativce were the Lupercalia to Pan,. 15th of February ; Mcdronalia, celebrated by matrons for various causes, 1st of March ; Megalesia, or feast of Cyhele, mother of the gods, 4th of April ; Parilia or Palilia, in honour of Pales, deity of orchards, 21st of April ; feast of the Bona Dea, attended by the vestal virgins and women only, 1st of May ; feast of Castor and Pollux, with the Transvectio Equitum, an annual procession of the Equites or Knights, 15th of July ; Saturnalia, feasts of Saturn, the most celebrated of the fes- tivals, when all orders devoted themselves to mirth and revel- ling ; the feast commenced on the 19th, afterwards 17th, of December, and lasted several days. GAMES. 131 GAMES. The games of the Romans were either stated {stati), and votive> or extraordinary, which were celebrated in con- Bequence of vows, or at the funerals of private persons. The games were of three kinds: I. Ludi Circenses; II. Gla- diatorii, shows of Gladiators; III. Scenici, dramatic en- tertainments. The Ludi Circenses, so called from being celebrated in the circus {maximus), were of Etruscan origin. They com- menccd with a procession, and consisted of: I. Cursus, chariot or horse-races ; 2. Lucius Trojce, a sham fight or tournament on horseback; 3. Pugna equestris et pedestris, a representa- tion of a battle ; 4. Certamen gymniciim, consisting of the 7i£vtaB%ov of the Greeks (Lat. quinquertium) ; viz. saltus, leap- ing ; cursus, running ; lucta, wrestling ; pugilatus, boxing ; discus, throwing the quoit or discus ; and the pancratium ; 5. Venaiio, hunting, i. e. the combats of wild beasts, either with one another or with men hired for the purpose, or with condemned criminals or captives ; 6. Naumachia, a represen- tation of a naval engagement ; the Naumachise were either exhibited in the amphitheatres (sufficient water being brought in to float the ships), or in buildings erected for the purpose. Gladiator ii. The shows of gladiators were also of Etrus- can origin, and were first introduced at Rome in the Forum Boariura, B.C. 264, by order of M. and Decimus Brutus, at the funeral of their father. Though at first only confined to funerals, the shows of gladiators afterwards took place at public festivals, and combats were exhibited by the chief Roman magistrates and emperors till the time of Constantine, by whom they were abolished. The combatants were at first either slaves, captives, or condemned criminals, and some- times free men, who hired themselves out ; but during the empire, even Senators and Equites fought in the arena. The gladiators were instructed by a lanisla in the use of the various weapons, and previous to the actual combats a prcdusio or sham battle took place, when the gladiators were matched by pairs, and used blunt wooden swords {rudes), which were also given them on their discharge. 132 GAMES. The several kinds of gladiators were : 1. Andabaiw, who wore helmets which covered the face, and consequently they fought blind-folded ; 2. Catervarii, who fought in companies ; 3. Essedarii, who fought from chariots ; 4. Mlrmillones (so named from having the image of a fish (^.opjuupoj) on their helmets), usually matched with retiarii ov Thracians ; 5. Re- Harii, who fought with a "fuscina," or three-pointed lance {tridens), and a net {rete), with which they endeavoured to entangle their adversaries, and despatch them with the tri- dent ; 6. Samnites, who used the oblong shield [scutum) and the usual armour of the Samnites; 7. Thraces, armed like the Thracians, with around shield and short dagger [sica). When a* gladiator was wounded, the people shouted Jiabel, *' he has got it," and the vanquished one lowered his arms in token of submission ; but his fate depended on the people, who pressed down their thumbs {poUicem premere), if they wished his life to be spared, and turned them up [vertere) as a signal for death. The combats usually took place in the Amphitheatrum, a large building, in form a complete oval, the centre space of which was called the arena, from being sprinkled with sand ; the most celebrated was the Amph. Fl avium or Coliseum, built by Vespasian and Titus, which had raised seats, capable of containing 87,000 spectators. The Scenici, or stage plays, were introduced from Etruria, about B.C. 364. They were performed in theatres [theati^a), large semicircular buildings, fitted up with benches or seats [cunei], which rose one above another ; the fourteen foremost rows next the stage being occupied by the Equites ; the whole of the space for the public was called cavea. The orchestra was a semicircular space in front of the spectators, assigned to the Senators, foreign ambassadors, &c. The Scenici were of three kinds : Comoedia, Comedy ; Tragoedia, Tragedy : Mimus, Pantomime. The dramatic pieces were purchased by the ^diles, and the recitation was accompanied by flutes, and the actors usually wore masks, personce. Vide Greek Theatre (page 116), to which, on the whole, the Roman cor- responded. MILITARY A ... „. 133 MILITARY AFFAIRS. - Conscription and Period of Service, &c. The Romans were a nation of warriors, and thus from the earliest period they had an organized military establishment. In the early times, the army consisted of 3000 infantry and three centuries of cavalry {Eqidtes). When Servius TuUiua divided the people, he formed the better class of citizens into eighteen centuries of Equites. The infantry then consisted of five classes, and were divided into seniores, for the defence of the city, and juniores, for service abroad. Every citizen was compelled to enlist when the public ser- vice required: the age of enlisting was from seventeen to forty- six, and the time of service tAventy campaigns of one year for the infantry, and ten for the cavalry ; these services were looked upon as honourable, and ten years of either infantry (r cavalry service was a qualification for the magistracy. At first, none of the poorest citizens [proletarii) or freedmen performed military service, except on urgent occasions. Ma- rius, B.C. 107, first chose soldiers without reference to pro- perty, in still later times citizens were exempted from com- pulsory service, and under the Emperors the army consisted chiefly of foreigners. In the times of the Republic, four legions of soldiers were raised, two for each Consul; but this number gradually increased, and was greatly augmented by allies. The Consuls, at the yearly conscription, required all those who had reached the military age to appear on the Campus Martius, or at the Capitolium, for the purpose of en- rolling their names. The selection was made by the Military Tribunes, after which an oath [sacramentum) was adminis- tered. Persons sufi'ering from bodily infirmity were exempted from service ; but soldiers conscribed on a sudden emergency {tumultuarii or siibitarii) were allowed no exemption. Soldiers who had served their time were called emeriti, and received h discharge, missio, but sometimes were again called out or 12 184 MILITARY AFFAIRS. induced to re-enlist, and were then termed evocati. The pay of the common soldiers was ^ denarius a day ; the centurion received double this sum ; the Equites were allowed a horse at the public expense, and an annual sum for its keep (Vide page 118). Divisions of the Army. After the levy was completed, and the oath administered, the troops were formed into legions ; each legio was divided into ten cohorfes, each cohort into three mauipuli, and each manipulus into two centiirice. To each legion belonged a body of cavalry (300 in number), divided into ten turmce or troops, each turma containing three decurice. The number of men in a legion varied at different times, generally from 4000 to 6000 infantry, and from 300 to 400 cavalry. The soldiers were divided into the hastati (forming the first line, so called from bearing the hasta, a long spear, which was afterwards laid aside, and the pilum used instead), the prin- cipes (men of middle age in the vigour of life, who formed the second line, originally the first), the triarii, old soldiers, Avho formed the third line; they were also called pilani, from the pilum or javelin they used. The other kinds of soldiers were : 1. Velites, swift and light-armed soldiers, em- ployed in outpost duty when the Romans were encamped ; 2. Funditores, slingers ; 3. Sagittaru, archers ; 4. Ferentarii and Rorarii, light-armed soldiers. A R JI s . The defensive arms were : 1. senium, an oblong shield, made of wicker-work or wood, joined together with iron and covered with hide, and having an iron boss in the centre ; 2. clipeus, a large shield of a circular form ; 3. galea, the helmet, made of brass or iron, and surmounted by a crista or crest ; 4. lorlca, a coat of mail or cuirass, generally made of leather, covered with plates of iron or of chain ; 5. thorax, a breast-plate (more in use than the lorica) ; 6. ocrece, the greav«.^s for the legs, made of. metal lined with leather. MILITARY AFTAIRS. 135 The offensive arms were: 1. gladius or eiisis, a SAVord, gene- rally straight, with a two-edged blade; 2. pila, javelins pointed with iron ; 3. hastce, long spears. The light-armed soldiers, velites, mentioned above, used a small shield called parma. Officers. The command [imperium) of the army was intrusted to the chief magistrates ; first to the Kings, and afterwards to the Consuls, Prastors, and Dictators. The principal officers under these were : 1. Legati, nominated by the Consul or Dictator, and approved of by the Senate. 2. Tribuni Militum, elected by the Consul or Dictator ; latterly, b. c. 362, partly by the people ; to each legio there were at first three, but afterwards six Tribunes, who were relieved every two months. 3. Centuriones, chosen by the Tribunes according to merit from the common soldiers ; each maniple had two, a 2)rior and p)osterior. The Centurions had under them Optiones, or Succeniiiriones, and Signiferi, or standard-bearers. The troops of allies {auxilia) were commanded by Free" fecti. The cavalry was commanded by a Prcefedus alee, and the tiirmce had each three Decuriones (or officers often), who had under them Optiones or deputies. The military cloak of the General was called 2>oludamentum or chlamys, and was of a scarlet colour (the latter was also a travelling-dress). The sagum was the common military cloak of the soldiers. The Romans, when on a march, every night constructed an encampment, which they fortified with a palisade [vallnm), trench [fossa), and mound [agger). The camp was generally a parallelogram, and had four gates, prcetoria, decumanay jmncipalis dextra, and sinistra. The signals were given by wind-instruments : huccina (a trumpet, bent almost round), cormi (a horn similar to the huccina), tidm (a straight trumpet) in the infantry, and litims fthe clarion) in the cavalry. lo6 MILITARY REWARDS AND PUNISHMENTS, ETC. The Order of Battle. The army was usually drawn up in three lines, Jiastahf yrincipes, and triarii, placed at certain distances, and divided into maniples or cohorts, the open spaces being occupied by [velites) light troops. The legions were in the centre {media acies), and the cavalry and allies formed the wings {cornua). Sometimes a different order of battle was necessary, and the troops were formed into the cuueiis or wedge, the o)-bis or globus, a round body, and the iestudo, a compact body em- ployed in sieges, the whole of the men being covered with their shields, as with a roof. The standards, signa, gave the signals for the movements of the army ; each maniple had one, the ancient signal of which was a handful of hay on a pole. The standard of the legio was a spear, hasta, with the figure of an animal upon it : from the consulship of Marius, b.c. 104, a silver eagle with extended wings became the standard of the legio. The engines used in storming towns, &c., were : 1. Aries, a battering ram, consisting of a beam, to one end of which was fixed a mass of iron, in the form of a ram's head ; 2. Bal- lista, an engine for projecting stones, &c. ; 3. Catapidta, used for throwing darts ; 4. Vinea, a shed (pushed forward on wheels), under which generally hung the aries ; 5. Turris, a wooden tower, lofty enough to overtop the walls of the city, against which it was usually wheeled upon an artificial mound {agger). It was faced with iron or wet hides, to. pro- tect it from fire, and consisted of several stories {tahidata)^ on which slingers, catapults, &c., were placed. MILITARY REWARDS AND PUNISHiMENTS. TRIUMPH. OVATION. Besides a share in the booty taken from an enemy, the Roman soldiers received as rewards garlands of leaves or flowers. The principal were : 1. Corona civica, a crown of NAVAL AFFAIRS. 137 oak-leaves, presented to one who saved the life of a citizen ; 2. Corona castrenais, given to the soldier who first forced an entrance into an enemy's camp ; 3. Corona muralis, for him who first scaled the walls of a besieged city ; 4. Corona obsi- dionalis or graminea (grass), given to the commander who had relieved a besieged city, or an army surrounded by an enemy ; 5. Corona oleagina (olive-leaves), presented by their commanders to soldiers who had distinguished themselves. The other rewards were weapons of honour, hasta pnra ; vexilla, standards ; ijhalercB, trappings ; aurece torques, gold chains ; armilloe, bracelets, &c., &c. The military punish- ments were deprivation of pay, degradation of rank, to be beaten with rods, to be scourged and sold as a slave, to be stoned, to be beheaded, &c., &c. The highest honour a general could obtain was a triumph, and to be saluted as Imperator by his army. To be honoured with a triumph, it was necessary that the general should in a just war have extended the bounds of the empire, and de- stroyed more than 5000 enemies in one battle. On a triumph being decreed, the procession proceeded from the Campus Martins to the Capitolium, and consisted of musicians, oxen for sacrifice, the spoils taken in war, models of the captured cities, the captives, the lictors (their fasces being wreathed with laurel), and the general [dux) dressed in purple embroi- dered with gold [toga pictd et tunica pahnatd), crowned with a laurel wreath, and in an ornamented chariot drawn by four white horses, followed by the victorious army. There was also an inferior sort of triumph, ovatio, in which the general entered the city on foot, crowned with a wreath of myrtle, and sacrificed a sheep. NAVAL AFFAIRS. For the names of the various parts of a ship, tackling, &c., the reader is referred to Greek Antiq., "Nava] Afiairs,'' page 12* 138 PRIVATE LIFE OP THE ROMANS. 113, where the corresponding Latin names are given. The Roman navy consisted of naves iongce, triremes, quadrh'emes, qiiinqueremes ; lighter vessels, actuarice, liburnce, vide page 113 ; onerarioe, ships of burden or transports. The Romans in their engagements attempted to set fire to the enemy's ships, or seize and board them by means of corvi, ferrece 7na- nus, and harpagones, grappling irons, &c. Sometimes towers or castles were built on their vessels, from which arrows and other missiles were discharged. The vessels were often manned by slaves, freedmen, and the lowest class of citizens. The admiral, dux, prcefectus classi, was usually a Consul, and his ship was called navis prcetoria. PRIVATE LIFE OF THE ROMANS. Dress. The dress of the Romans consisted of the tunica, a woollen garment, which was generally without sleeves, and reached a little below the knees. A long tunic with sleeves was con- sidered eiFeminate. The tunic was fastened round the waist by a belt, cingulum. The Senators wore a tunica laticlavia, Avith a broad purple stripe wrought in the cloth ; and' the Equites or Knights a tunic with a narrow stripe, tunica angusiiclavia. A dress called suhucula was generally worn under the tunica. The toga, the distinguishing part of the Roman dress, was an outer gown or mantle, thrown round the body so as to cover the left arm, and leave the right partly exposed, and forming a fold, sinus, on the breast; these folds, when collected in a knot or centre, being called umbo. The colour of the toga was white {alha, pura). Can- didates for office wore a toga whitened by the fuller [toga sandido,). PRIVATE LIFE OF THE ROMANS. 139 Magistrates wore the toya iDrcpAexta, bordered with purple ; and generals in a triumph an embroidered toga, pida or pal' mata, having palm-leaves worked on it. The toga prsetexta was worn by young women until they were married, and young men till they were seventeen years of age, when the latter assumed the toga virilis ; this ceremony was performed with great solemnity in the Forum. The pcenida was a gar- ment used chiefly as a travelling-cloak. In later times, the lacerna, a kind of great-coat, was worn above the toga, with the cucullus, a cowl or hood ; similar to the lacerna was the kena. The stola was a female dress worn over the tunica, and fastened by a girdle ; over the stola was worn the palla, corresponding to the toga of the male sex. The coverings of the feet were calcei, shoes, when abroad, and soleoi, sandals, which only covered the sole of the foot. The shoes of the soldiers Avere called caligce, of comedians, socci, and of tragedians, cothurni. The head was uncovered, except in bad weather or when on a journey, when the pileus, hat, or galerus, cap, was worn. Rings [annuli), set with precious stones, were very much worn by the Romans ; the Senators and Equites used golden rings, the Plebeians iron ones. Meals. The first meal taken was the jentaculum, or breakfast ; to this followed the prandium, or luncheon, taken about noon • ccena,, or dinner, was the next and the principal meal of the Romans ; it was taken in the evening, and consisted of three sourses, the first gustatio, antecmna, or promidsis, the second :)r principal course capid ccence, and the dessert mensa^ seciindce or bellaria. The guests reclined, according to their rank, on •)Ouches {lecti), generally three, summus, medium, imus, at sach table, thus : — 140 PRIVATE LIFE OF THE ROMANS, lectus medius imus medius - summus summus medius imus 6 5 4 imus medius summus i 8 9 mensa 6 2 1 A supper, commissatio, was sometimes taken after the cncna. Wine, though rarely drunk in earlv times, came after^A'ards into general use, but was sometimes mingled with ATater oi cooled with snow. The best Italian wines were viiium Ccecu- bum, Falernum, Massicum, Calenum, Alhdnum, Surrentiuum, Sellnum, &c. ; the foreign were vinum Chium, Leshium, Leu- vadium, Coum, Rhodium, Naxium, Mceonium, &c. The wines were brought to table in jars, amphorce, and mixed with water in a bowl, crater, whence it was poured into pocula, cups. Private Houses. Baths. Though at first mere cottages, the houses of the Romans in after-times were built in a style of great elegance, and orna- mented with marble pillars, elegant furniture, pictures, rases, candelabra, &c. The principal parts of the Roman houses were : 1. Vesti- bulum, an open space before the doors, enclosed on three sides by the building ; 2. Ostium or janua, the door or en- trance, with the limen, threshold, posies, door-posts, fo7^es or valvce, the actual doors ; 3. Atrium, or cavum cedium, the prin- cipal apartment : in the centre of the roof was aii opening, compluvium, from which the rain-water fell into a cistern PRIVATE LIFE OF THE ROMANS. 141 [impluvium) in the floor; this imjjluviwn, which also denoted the aperture in the roof, was ornamented with statues, &c. ; 4. Alca, the wings or small apartments on each side of the atrium; 5. Peristylium, adjoining the cedium, a partially open court-yard surrounded by columns, and ornamented with shrubs and flowers; 6. Cuhicida or dormitoria^ bed-chambers; 7. Tnclinia, dining-rooms ; 8. (Eci and cxedrce, saloons ; 9. Finacotheca^ or picture-gallery ; 10. Bibliotheca, library ; 11. Ccenacida, rooms on the second story. The floors, sola, were frequently laid in mosaic, and the inner walls, parietes, lined with slabs of marble and pictures. The windows, fenesirce, were closed with wooden shutters ; and in the time of the Emperors with transparent stone {lapis spccidaris, mica) and glass [vitrum). The ceilings were flat, and divided by the intersection of the beams and planks into hollows [lacimaria, laquearia), which were often carved and gilt. Baths, balnece, thermce. The Romans at first used baths but seldom, and only for health and cleanliness ; but after- wards as a luxury. They were taken after exercise, and pre- vious to the principal meal, coena, and sometimes after eat- ing, to promote digestion. The principal parts of the public thermce were : 1. Vestibulum, in which the servants waited, and the bahieator, or keep or, received the quadraiis paid by each visitor ; 2. Apoduierium, or undressing-room ; 3. Frigi- darium, the cold-bath ; 4. Tepidarium, the tepid-bath, or a chamber heated with air; 5. Caldarium, the warm-bath, warmed by liypocausta, heating-apparatus. After bathing, the Romans made use of instruments called strigiles, or scrapers, for removing the oil with w^hicli they were anointed, and the impurities of the skin, and lintea, towels. Amusements. The Romans before bathing took various kinds of exercise, one of which was tennis, played with a small ball, pila, or with the follis, an inflated ball of leather. During the in- tervals of drinking, they played at various games of chance, among which were ale a, dice, played with tali (huckle-bones) 142 PRIVATE LIFE OF THE ROMANS. sometimes numbered on four sides {1, 3, 4, 6) and the enda left blank, or with tesserce, dice made of ivory, bone, or wood, and numbered on six sides, as with us ; at first three dice were used, but afterwards two. The dice-box was called fritillus. The board, alveus, alveolus^ or abacus, was divided by twelve lines, and was frequently used for playing with two sets of latrunmdi or draughtsmen, fifteen on each side ; this game, Indus duodecim scrijjtornm, nearly agreed with our backgammon, and the Indus calculorum was similar to chess. At drinking-bouts [commissationes] a president was chosen by throwing the dice, named magister vel arbiter bibendi, or rex convivii. Funerals. The Romans, like the Greeks, paid great attention to funeral rites, as they believed the souls of the unburied could not enter the abodes of the dead. On the death of a friend, the nearest relative closed the eyes and mouth of the deceased, and called on him by name [conclamare], exclaiming have or vale ; the corpse was then washed and anointed with oil and perfumes by slaves, who belonged to the undertakers, libiti- 7iarii, and a small coin was placed in the mouth of the corpse to pay the ferryman of Hades (Charon) ; the body was then clothed in its shroud (the best toga the deceased had worn when alive; magistrates in the prsetexta), and laid out in the vestibule, with feet towards the door, and a branch of cypress was placed in front of the house. The corpse was usually carried out for burial on the eighth day after death. The funeral procession was formed of musicians [cornicines, &c.), mourning women {prceficce), who sang a dirge [mimi sometimes attended), slaves ; and persons bearing the ima- gines (representing the ancestors of the deceased) preceded the corpse, which was carried on a couch {lectlca ovferetrum), followed by the relatives of the deceased. If the deceased were a noble, the procession stopped at the Forum, where a laudaUo was delivered. The corpse was then carried off and buried [huinare, sepelire), or burned {cremare) on a pile of wood {pyra or rogus), sprinkled, when burning, with in' PRIVATE LIFE OF THE ROMANS. 143 cense, &c. When burnt down, the embers were soaked with wine, and the bones and ashes of the deceased collected and placed in an urn [urna), which was deposited in a tomb [sepulchrum). The mourning and solemnities continued for nine days, at the end of which a sacrifice, Novendiale, took place, and games and shows of gladiators were sometimes held in honour of the deceased. Names. To mark the different gentes and familiae, and to distin- guish individuals of the same family, the Roman citizens had three names: the first [prcenomen), as Quintus, indicated the individual; the second [nomen), as Horatius, the ^ew5 or clan; the third {cognomen), as Flaccus, the siirps or familia, ftimily. A fourth name {agnomen) was sometimes added, for some illustrious action or remarkable event, e. g. Scipio was called Africanus, from the conquest of Carthage and Africa, The daughters bore the name of the gens, Cor- nelia, Julia, Livia, Tullia, &c. The following are some of the contractions used for the praenomina : Ap., Appius ; A., Aulus; C, Caius; Cn., Cneius; D., Deciraus; K., Kaeso; L., Lucius ; M., Marcus ; ^F., Manius ; N., Numerius ; P., Pub- lius; Q., Quintus; Ser., Servius ; Sex., Sextus ; Sp., Spurius; r., Titus ; Ti., Tiberius. ANCIENT GREEK WRITERS. POETS. Epic. HOMER flourished about b.c. 900. Birth-place uncertain, seven oities contended for the honour.' Works: Iliad, twenty- four books ; Odyssey, twenty-four books. HE8I0D, born at Ascra, in Boeotia. Flourished about B.C. 800. "Works extant: ©?oyoi'ta, Theogony ; 'AtfTttj 'Hpax>.£'ovj, Shield of Hercules ; and "Epya xal 'H|Lt£pa^, Works and Days. Tragic.^* ^SCtlYLUS, born at Eleusis, in Attica, b.c. 525 ; died at Gela, in Sicily, b.c. 456, aged sixty-nine. Works: seventy tragedies, of which only seven are extant, viz. : Prometheus Chained, Seven Chiefs against Thebes, The Persians, The Suppliant-^, Agamemnon, The Choephorw, The Eumenides. SOPHOCLES, born at Athens, b.c. 495-; died in his nine- tieth year, b. c. 406. Works : 130 plays, of which only seven are extant, viz.: Antigone, Electra, Trachinice, Ajax, Philoc- tetes, (Edipus Tyrannus, Oedipus in Colonus. ' " Septum urbes certant de stirpe insignis Homeri, Smyna, Chios, Colophon, Salamis, Rhodos, Argos, Athena?." 2 The DHhyrambs, or choral hymns chanted at the Dionj^sia (vide Antiq.), fi''st assumed the form of Tragedy, when Thespis, about •&.•?,. 535, introduced between them the representation ^pafia i-etcoSiov, of a story or plot by a single actor {viroKpirijg), who was separated from the chorus, and played many parts in succession. J^schylus added a second actor, and thus founded the dialogue, Sophocles introduced a third actor. (144) ANCIENT GREEK WRITERS. 145 EtrRIPIDES, bom at Salamis, B.C. 480; died at Mace- ionia, b. c. 406, in his seventy-fifth year. He is said to have written ninety-two plays, by some ; by others, seventy-five, nineteen of which have reached us, viz. : Medea, Elecira, Orestes, IpMgenla in Aulis, Iphigenia in Tauris, Andromache, Trojan Captives, Hecuba, Ion, The Suppliants, Children of Hercules, Phoenician Damsels, Raging Hercules, Alcesiis, Hip- ■pclytus, Ehesus, The Bacchanalians, Helen, The Cyclops. Comic. AEISTOPHANES, born at Athens, about b.c. 444; died about B. c. 380. Works : fifty-four plays, of which eleven remain perfect: Acharnians, Knights, Clouds, Wasps, Peace, Birds, Thesmophoriazusce, or Feasts of Ceres, Lysistrata, Frogs, Ecclesiazusce, or Female Orators, Plutus. The other writers of the " Old Comedy of Greece'' were Epicharmus, born B.C. 540; Phormus, about b.c. 480; Crates, B.C. 450; Cratinus, b.c. 445 ; Eupolis, b.c. 434. The poets of the "Middle Comedy" were Antiphanes, b.c. 380 ; Eubulus, Alexis, Anaxandrides, and Araros, b. c. 375 ; Timocles, b. c. 336. Of the " New Comedy" were, MENANDER, born at Athens, b.c. 342, educated under Theophrastus ; died B.C. 291. Works: upwards of 100 come- dies, of which only fragments remain. PHILEMON, born at Soli or Syracuse, flourished about B.C. 330. Works: ninety-seven comedies, of which only frag- ments are extant ; the other writers were Philippides, Di- philus, Apollodorus flourished b.c. 336 to 300; Posidippus, B.C. 289. Lyric. ANACREON, born at Teos, in Ionia, about b.c. 563; died, aged eighty-five, about b.c. 478. Works: Of five books, sixty- eight poems and fragments are extant ; many of the odes are considered spurious. SAPPHO, born at Mitylene, in Lesbos, flourished about B.C. 610. Her poems formed nine books, of which only frag- ments are extant. 13 146 ANCIENT GREEK WRITERS. ALCiEUS, born at Mitylene, in Lesbos, flourished about B.C. 604. Ho is said to have been the inventor of the "bar- biton/' or harp. Of his works, only a few fragments of war- songs remain to us. PINDAR, born at Thebes, in Boeotia, b. c. 522 ; died, pro- bably in his eightieth year, b. c. 442. Works: Epinicia, or triumpihal odes describing the four national games of the Greeks ; four books entire, and numerous fragments, remain. The other lyric poets, fragments of some of whose works we have, are Alcman, b. c. 670 ; Stesichorus, b. c. 612 ; Simo- nides, B.C. 540; Bacchylides, b.c. 452. Pastoral. THEOCRITUS, born at Syracuse, flourished b. c. 284-280. Works : Thirty poems known as Idyls, twenty-two epigrams, and a few fragments, are extant, which may be divided into pastoral, lyric, epic, mimetic, and epigrammatic. BION, born near Smyrna, flourished about b.c. 280. Of his works, fragments are alone extant. MOSCHUS, born at Syracuse, flourished about b.c. 250. Of his works, only four of his Idyls, an epigram, and three small fragments, are extant. PROSE WRITERS. Historians. HERODOTUS, born at Halicarnassus, in Caria, b.c. 484; died subsequent to b.c. 408, exact period unknown. His history, which embraces a period of about 240 years (from the time of Cyrus), is divided into nine books, called by the names of the Muses. THUCYDIDES, born at Athens, b.c. 471; died in exile, probably at Scaptesyle, in Thrace, b.c. 391, aged eigisty. Works : History of the Peloponnesian War, in eight books, which he brought down to the twenty-first year, and Xeno- phon concluded to the twenty-eighth. ANCIENT GREEK WRITERS. 147 XENOPIION, born about b.c. 445, educated in the school of Socrates ; died about b.c. 359, beyond ninety years of age, probably at Corinth. Works : Anabasis, in seven books ; Hellenica (the continuation of the history of Thucydides), in seven books ; Cyropcedia (memoirs of Cyrus), in eight books; Memorabilia, in four books ; Agesilaus ; The Athenian Re- public; The Lacedcemonian Republic; De re Equestri ; Hip- parchicus ; Cynegeticus ; Hiero ; Apology of Socrates; Sym- posium; (Eco7iomicus. POLYBIUS, born at Megalopolis, in Arcadia, about b.c. 203; died b.c. 121, in his eighty-second year. Work: A Universal History, in forty books (of which only five remain entire), commencing b.c. 220. DIODORUS SICULUS, born at Agyrium, in Sicily, flou- rished B.C. 60-30. Work: A History of Egypt, Persia, Syria, Media, Greece, Rome, and Carthage, in forty books, of which fifteen and some fragments are extant. DIONYSIUS OF HALICARNASSUS flourished b.c. 29-7. Work : Antiquities of Rome, in twenty-two books (of which eleven now remain), comprising the History of Rome for 312 years down to b. c. 264. PLUTARCH, born at Chasronea, in Boeotia; died about A.D. 140. He was sent on an embassy to Rome, where he opened a school. He was honoured by Trajan with the ap- pointment of governor of Illyricum. Works : Lives of Rlus- trious Meji, Moralia. Orators. PERICLES, born at Athens, about b.c. 499; died b.c. 429. The first Greek orator, surnamed, from the grandeur of his style, the Olympian. LYSIAS, born at Athens, b.c. 458; died b.c. 378, aged eighty. Of his orations, thirty-four are extant, remarkable for their purity of style. ISOCRATES, born at Athens, b.c. 436; died b.c. 338, in his ninety-eighth year, being unable to survive the blow the liberty of his country r"^ceived at the battle of Chaeronea. 148 ANCIENT GREEK WRITERS. As Isocrates was prevented by timidity from addressing the national assemblies, he opened a school in Athens, where he distinguished himself by the number, character, and fame of his pupils. Only twenty-one of his orations have come down to us ; he is said to have written sixty. DEMOSTHENES, born at Athens, b.c. 382; died at Ca- lauria, by poison, b. c. 322. Of his orations, which have been always celebrated as the most perfect models of eloquence, sixty-one are extant, viz. : seventeen political orations, forty- two judicial, and two show speeches. IS^US flourished about b.c. 360. He was the instructor of Demosthenes. AVorks: sixty-four orations, of which eleven are now remaining. vESCHINES, born b.c. 389; died at Samos or Khodes, B.C. 314. Works: nine epistles and three orations, of which the orations alone are extant. The other Greek orators are Demades and Hyperides ; they flourished about B.C. 335. Medical Writers. HIPPOCRATES, born in the island of Cos, about b.c. 460; died at Larissa, in Thessaly, b. c. 357, in his 104th year. Of his works, more than sixty in number, the majority being written by his disciples and followers, only a few are genuine: Pracenotiones, or Prognosticon ; Aphorismi ; De Morhis Popu- larihus, or Epidemiorum ; De Ratione Victits in Morhis Acutis, or De Diceia Aciitoriim ; De Aere, Aquis, et Locis; De Capitis Vuhieribus. GALEN, born at Pergamum, a. d. 130 ; died about a. d. 200. Works, under the name of Galen : eighty-three Treatises {genuine); nineteen, genuineness doubted; forty-five spurious, nineteen Fragments; fifteen Commentaries on the works of Hippocrates. ANCIENT GREEK WRITERS. 149 MATHEMATICIANS. EUCLID flourished at Alexandria, in the time of the first Ptolemy, b.c. 323-283, and was the founder of the Alexan- drine Mathematical School. Works extant: The Elements, in thirteen books, the fourteenth and fif eenth being added by Hypsicles ; The Data, containing 100 propositions ; The Division of the Scale ; a Treatise on Optics, &c. ARCHIMEDES, born at Syracuse, b.c. 287; slain at the taking of Syracuse, b. c. 212. Works extant : On Equipon- derants and Centres of Gh'avity ; The Quadrature of the Par or hola ; On the Sphere and Cylinder; The Dimension of the Circle; Spirals; Conoids and Spheroids ; The Arenarius ; On Floating Bodies; Lemmata. Archimedes is said to have con- structed engines used for military and naval purposes, and many machines, among which was the water-screw ; but his most famous invention was a kind of orrery, representing the movements of the heavenly bodies. OEOaRAPHERS. STRABO, born at Amasia, in Pontus, about b.c. 54; died about A. D. 24. Works : a work on Geography, in seventeen books ; this is entire, with the exception of the seventh book. Strabo wrote a history, in forty-three books (in continuation of that of Polybius), which is lost. PAUSANIAS, born in Lydia(?), flourished about a. d. 170. Works : Periegesis, or Itinerary of Greece, in ten books. FABULIST. .^SOP flourished about b.c. 570. He was originally a slave, but received his freedom from ladmon, his master. The Fables now extant in prose, attributed to ^Esop, are said to be spurious. 13* 160 ANCIENT GREEK WRITERS SATIKIC WRITER. LUCIAN, born at Samosata, in Syria, about a. d. 120 ; died about the end of the century. AVorks : Dialogues, comprising The Dialogues of the Gods, twenty-six in number ; Jupiter Convicted; Vitarum Audio, or Sale of Philosophers ; Th« Fishermen, &c.; The Dialogues of the Dead, comprising Icaro Menippus, Charon, &c. CRITIC. LONGINUS flourished about a. d. 250. He opened a school at Athens, in which he taught philosophy, criticism, rhetoric, and grammar ; but afterwards went to the East, where he became the tutor of Zenobia, queen of Pahnyra, on whose capture he was put to death, a.d. 273. Work: On the Sub- lime, Uspl "T4'0vj, a great part of which is extant. PHILOSOPHERS. THALES, the Ionic Philosopher, born at Miletus, B.C. 636 ; died about B.C. 546. One of the founders in Greece of the study of philosophy. He maintained water was the first principle of all things. PYTHAGORAS, born at Samos ; flourished b.c. 540-510 He travelled in Egypt and the East, and finally settled ai Crotona, in Italy, whence he is called the Italic Philosopher. The whole discipline of his sect is represented as tending to a lofty serenity and self-possession. They believed in the transmigration of souls; and it was one of their maxims, that " every thing should not be told to every body ;" hence all that was done and taught by the members was kr^pt a pro- f.mnd secret to all but themselves. ANCIENT GREEK WRITERS. 151 SOCRATES, bora near Athens, B.C. 469; died B.C. 399. Socrates was the first who turned his thoughts to the subject of Ethics ; in discussing which, he employed the dialectic or interrogative system, termed from him the Socratic. Not- withstanding his efforts to promote the welfare of mankind, he was accused of corrupting the Athenian youth, and was sentenced to drink poison. PLATO, born at Athens, b.c. 429 or 428; died b.c. 347. He was the founder of the Academic School, and in his writings are preserved the doctrines of Socrates, whose dis- ciple he was. The writings of Plato have come down to us complete; they are in the form oi dialogues, which are closely connected with one another, and may be divided into three series. ARISTOTLE, born at Stagira, in Macedonia, b.c. 384; died B.C. 322, at Chalcis, in Euboea. Ho was the founder of the Peripatetic School, so called, either from his delivering his lectures in the shady walks {iiipina.tov) surrounding the Lyceum, or while walking up and down [Tts^iTtani^v). His numerous writings comprise works on, 1. Dialectics and Logic; 2, Theoretical Philosophy, Mathematics, Naim^al His- tory, &c. ; 3. Practical Philosophy or Politics, Ethics, &c. ; 4. Works on Art. ZENO, the founder of Stoic Philosophy, born at Citium, in Cyprus. Birth and death uncertain. Flourished about B.C. 280, After many years' study, and having sufficiently deve- loped his peculiar philosophical system, he opened his school in one of the Porticoes at Athens [Stoa Poecile), and hence his disciples were called Stoics. The Stoic philosophy recog- nised real good only in virtue, and enjoined a life in accord- ance with nature. EPICURUS, the founder of the Epicurean School, born in the island of Samos, b.c 342; died b.c 270. He is said to have written 300 volumes, of which the principal was a work on Nature, in thirty-seven books. The theory of the Epicu- reans represented pleasure as constituting the greatest hap- piness, and must therefore be the chief end of man. ANCIENT ROMAN WRITERS. POETS. N. B. — The chief works of the writers are mentioned, though all may not come under the same classified heads. Epic. ENNIUS (Quintus Ennius), born at Rudiae, in Calabria, B.C. 239. He lived on intimate terms with Scipio Africanus, and died b.c. 169, aged seventy. The Romans regarded Ennius as the " father of their poetry.^' Work : Fragments only extant, though Ennius wrote Annales (i. e. a history of Rome, from its foundation to his own times), an epic poem, in eighteen books. VIRGIL (Pub. Virgilius Maro), born 15th of Oct., b.c. 70, at Andes, a small village near Mantua; educated at Cremona and Mediolanum [Milan) ; died 22d of Sept., b.c. 19, in his fifty-first year, at Brundusium [Brindisi). Works: JEJneid, in twelve books ; Bucolics, ten short poems (Pastorals) ; Georgics, an agricultural poem, in four books. SILIUS (C. S. Italicus), born about a.d. 25; died about his seventy-fifth year. Work : Punica, in seventeen books. LUCAN (M. Annaeus Lucanus), born at Corduba, in Spain, A.D, 39 ; died a.d. 65, in his twenty-sixth year. Work: The Pharsalia, in ten books, alone extant. VALERIUS FLACCUS flourished in the reign of Vespa- sian ; he was a native of Padua, and died a.d. 88. Work: Argonmitica, an unfinished poem, in eight books. STATIUS (P. Papiuius), born at Neapolis, about a.d. 61; died about a.d. 96. Works: Thebaid, in twelve books; Silvce^ a collection of occasional poems, in five books. (152) ANCIENT ROMAN WRITERS. 153 Elegiac. OVID (P. Ovidius Naso), born at Sulmo, in the country of the Peligni, 20th of March, B.C. 43. He was descended from an ancient family, and enjoyed the favour of Augustus, by whose edict (a.d. 9) he was suddenly exiled, without even a trial, to Tomi, a town near the mouths of the Danube, where he died, in the sixtieth year of his age, a.d. 18. Works: Amoves, three books ; Epistles, twenty-one in number ; Ars Amatoria; Remedia Amoris, one book; Metamorphoses, fifteen books ; Fasti or Roman Calendar, twelve books, six only ex- tant; Tristia, five books (written at Tomi) ; Epistoloi ex Ponto, four books ; Minor Poems ; Nux, or The Complaint of the Nut-tree ; Ibis, a satire, &c. TIBULLUS (Albius Tibullus), born about b.c. 54; died about B. c. 18 ; was of the Equestrian order : his patron was Messala. Work : Elegies, four books ; the genuineness of several poems in the third and fourth books is doubted. PROPERTIUS (Sex. Aurelius), born about b.c 51; year of death unknown. He enjoyed the friendship of Maecenas; Virgil, and Ovid. Work : Elegies, four books. Lyric HORACE (Q. Horatlus Flaccus), born at Venusia, in Apu- lia, Dec. 8, B.C. 65. His father was a collector of taxes, and paid the greatest attention to his son's education, who fre- quented the best schools at Rome, and visited Athens to com- plete his education. He lived on most intimate terms with Mcecenas, a Roman knight, and obtained the patronage of Augustus. Horace died Nov, 17, b. c. 8, aged fifty-six. Works : Odes, five books ; Satires, two books ; Epistles, two books ; a poem. Be Arte Poetica. CATULLUS (Valerius Catullus), born at Verona, b.c. 87; died about b.c. 47. Works extant: 116 poems, on various topics, composed in different styles and metres. 154 ANCIENT ROMAN WRITERS. Tragic. LIVIUS ANDRONICUS, the earliest Roman poet. Frag- merits of his work are extant. SENECA (L. Anngeus, vide infr.). Ten of his tragedies are extant ; they are written in iambic senarii, interspersed with choral parts. Comic. PLAUTUS (T. Accius Plautus), born at Sarsina, a village in Umbria, about b. c. 254 ; died b. c. 184, aged seventy. Works : tAventy-one Comedies, of which twenty are extant. TERENCE (P. Terentius Afer), born at Carthage, B.C. 195 ; died b. c. 159, in his thirty-sixth year. Works : six Comedies, viz.: 1. Andria ; 2. Hecyra ; S. Heauion-timorou- menos, or "the Self-tormentor;" 4. Eiinuclius ; 5. Phormio ; G. Adelplii, i. e. " the Brothers." He is said to have trans- lated 108 of Menander's Comedies when he went to Greece. Didactic. LUCRETIUS (T. Lucretius Cams), born at Rome, b.c. 95; perished by his own hand, b.c. 51, in his forty-fourth year. Work : De Rerum Naturd, in six books, containing upwards of 7400 lines. SATIRISTS. HORACE, vide supra. PERSIUS (A. Persius Flaccus), born at Volaterrse, in Etruria, 4th of Dec, a. d. 34; died 24th of Nov., a. d. 62, aged twenty-seven. Work extant : six Satires. JUVENAL (Decimus Junius Juvenalis), born at Aquinum, in tlie reign of Claudius. Works extant : fifteen Satires. ANCIENT ROMAN WRITERS. 155 EPiaRAMMATIST. MARTIAL (Marcus Valerius Martialis), born at Bilbilis, in Spain, a.d. 43. He resided for thirty-five years at Rome, where he obtained the patronage of the Emperors Titus and Domitian. He died at Bilbilis, about a.d. 104. Work: Ein grammata, fourteen books. FABULIST PH^DRUS, originally a slave, brought from Thrace or Macedonia to Rome, but eventually became a freedman of Augustus. Work: The Fables of JEsop, translated, with some alterations, into Latin iambics. HISTORIANS. C.^SAR (Caius Julius Csesar), born 12th of July, b.c. 100; murdered 15th of March, b.c. 44, being stabbed, in the Senate- house, with twenty-three wounds: among the conspirators was his intimate friend Brutus. Works : Commentarii de Bello Gallico, inr seven books (an eighth is added by another hand) ; and Commentarii de Bello Civili, in three books. The books De Bello Alexandrino, Africano, and Hispanienoi, are spurious. CORNELIUS NEPOS flourished in the time of -Julius Cresar. Work extant : Vitoi Excellentium Imperatorum, a short biography of twenty-two Grecian and two Carthaginian generals. SALLUST (C. Sallustius Crispus), born b.c. 86, at iVmiter- num, in the Sabini ; died b. c. 34. Works : Catillna, a his- tory of Catiline's conspiracy ; Jugurtha, a history of tfee wars of the King of Numidia ; Historice, fragments alone extant. LIVY (Titus Livius), born at Pataviura, b.c. 59; died A.D. 17. Work : Histm^y of Rome, from its found ati07i to the 156 ANCIENT ROMAN WRITERS. death of Drusus, b.c. 9, in 142 books, of which thirty-five are extant, viz., books 1-10, and 21-45, besides fragments and notices of contents [Epitomce). VALERIUS MAXIMUS flourished during the time of Ti- berius. Work: Factorum Didorumque Memorahilium lihri ix., a collection of facts and anecdotes, &c. TACITUS (Caius Cornelius Tacitiis), born a.d. 57, at In- teramna(?). Works: De Situ, Moribus, Poj)vUsque Gennor nice ; Agricola, a biography of his father-in-law ; Historice ; Annales, a history of Rome, from the death of Augustus to ihat of Nero; Dialogus de Oratoribus {'i ) . CURTIUS (Quintus Curtius Rufus) flourished in the reign of Vespasian (? ). Work : De Rebus Gestis Alexandri Magni, in ten books, of which two books are wanting. SUETONIUS (Caius Suetonius Tranquillus) flourished during the reigns of Trajan and Hadrian. Works extant : Vitoi xii. Imperatorum ; Be lUusiribus Grammaiicis ; De Claris Rhetoribus. FLORUS (Lucius Annaeus Florus) flourished in the time of Trajan (?). Work: Epitome de Rebus Gestis Romanonim, four books. JUSTIN (M. Junianus Justinus) flourished under the An- tonines. Work : An abridgment of the Historice Philippicce of Trogus Pompeius, in forty-four books. EUTROPIUS flourished under Constantino and Valens. Work : Breviarium Histories Romance, in ten book*. ORATOR, &c. CICERO (Marcus TuUius Cicero), born b.c. 106; murdered B. c. 43, at the instigation of the Triumviri. Works : of Ora- tions, fifty-six are extant. Rhetorical works : De Inventione, or Rhetorica ; De Oratore, three books ; Brutus, or De Claris Oratoribus; Orator ad Brutmn, or De Optimo Genere Dicendi ; Topica, a work on evidence ; De Partione Oratoria; De Optimo Genere Oratorum. Philosophical works: De Republica, in six ANCIENT ROMAN WRITERS. 157 books, of which Somnium Scipionis has been preserved ; Ve Legibiis, three books ; Academica, divided first into two, and afterwards into four books, one of which, and a fragment of the second, we possess; De Finibus Bonorum et Malorum, five books ; Disputationes Tusculance, five books ; De Natura Deo- rum, three books ; De Dlvinatione, two books ; De Fato, a fragment ; Cato Major sive de Senedute ; Lcelius sive de Ami- cUia; Paradoxa Sioicorum ; De Officiis, three books. Epis- tolary writings : Epistolce ad Diversos, sixteen books ; Epis- tolce ad T. Pomponium Atticiim, sixteen books ; Epistolce ad Quintum Fratrem, three books. EPISTOLARY WRITERS. ATTICUS (Titus Pomponius Atticus), born b.c. 109; died in his seventy-seventh year, b. c. 32. He corresponded with CICERO (vide supra). PLINY (Caius Plinius Cgecilius Secundus, surnamed the Younger), born a.d. 61; died a.d. 114. Work: Epistolce, in ten books. Of his Orations, the Panegyricus on Trajan is alone extant. WRITERS ON PHILOSOPHICAL SUBJECTS, &c. SENECA (Lucius Annaeus Seneca), born about a.d. 1; died A.D, 65, in the reign of Nero. Works: 124 Letters on Philosophical Subjects ; Qucestiones Naturales, seven books. CICERO (vide supra). Natural History. PLINY (Caius Plinius Secundus Major, the Elder), bom A. D. 23 ; died in the eruption of Vesuvius, a. d. 79, aged fifty- six. Work : Sistoria Naturalis, in thirty-seven books, alone remains of his numerous writings. 14 158 ANCIENT ROMAN WRITERS. Agriculture. CATO (Marcus Porcius Cato Censorius), born B.C. 234; died B.C. 149, aged eighty-five. Works: A Treatise on Agri- cnllvre, the most ancient Latin prose work extant ; Origines^ a history of Rome from B.C. 753-151. VARRO (Marcus Terentius Varro), born b.c. 116; died B. c. 28. Works : De Lingua Latina, a fragment ; De Re Rustica, a fragment alone extant. COLUMELLA (Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella), con- temporary of Seneca. Work : De Re Rustica. Architecture. yiTRUVIUS (Marcus Vitruvius Pollio), born at Verona ; flourished in the time of Caesar and Augustus. Work: De Architectura, in ten books. Medicine. CELSUS (Aulus Cornelius Celsus) flourished in the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius. Work: De Medicina, in eight books. Grrammar and Criticism. QUINTILIAN (Marcus Fabius Quintilianus), born a.d. 40; died about a.d. 118." Works: Instvhitiones Oratorioe, in twelve books ; a collection of Declamations is by some also ascribed to Quintilian. AULUS GELLIUS flourished in the time of the Anto- nines. Work : Nodes Atticce, in twenty books, of whicli the eighth is wanting. SCHOOLS OF ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY. T. The IONIC SCHOOL, founded by Thales, from WHICH sprung: 1. THE SOCRATIC SCHOOL, founded by Socrates. Disciples : Xenophon, ^schines, Phgedo, Euclid, Plato, Alci- biades, &c. 2. CYRENAIC SECT, founded by Aristippus. Flou- rished about B. c. 370. 3. MEGARIC or ERISTIC SCHOOL, founded by Euclid of Megara, b.c. 399. 4. ELI AC or ERETRIAC SCHOOL, founded about b.c. 395, by Phsedo of Elis, whose doctrines were similar to those of Socrates. 5. THE ACADEMIC SECT, founded by Plato. 6. THE PERIPATETIC SECT, founded by Aristotle, succeeded by Theophrastus, Straton, Lycon, Ariston, &c. 7. THE CYNIC SECT, founded by Antisthenes. Dis- ciples : Diogenes Crates, and Hipparchia, his wife. 8. THE STOIC SECT, founded by Zeno, succeeded by Cleanthes, Ariston, Antipater, &c. II. The ITALIC SCHOOL, founded by Pythagoras, FROM WHICH sprung: 1. THE ELEATIC SCHOOL, founded by Xenophanes. Flourished B.C. 540-500, Disciples: Parmeuides, Zeno,. both of Elea, in Italy, Democritus, Protagoras, ,'cc. 2. THE HERACLITEAN SECT, founded by Hera clitus. Flourished B.C. 513. 3. THE EPICUREAN SECT, founded by Epicurus. 4. THE SCEPTIC SECT, founded by Pyrrhon. (159) TOPOGEAPHY OF ATHENS. ATHENE, the Capital of Attica, is said to have been founded by Cecrops, about b. c. 1556 ; it was called from its founder Cecropia, and afterwards Athenae (at 'A^jjvat), in honour of Minerva {'AOrivrj), the protectress of the city. It was divided into two parts, 1. THE ACROPOLIS, or UPPER CITY (dzpo7toXt$, Kfxportta, t^ dvco rtoUi), and THE LOWER CITY {7^ xdTu> rtous). The Acropolis or Citadel was a steep rock, about 150 feet high, 1150 feet long, and 500 feet broad, surrounded by a wall, and approached from the W. by the Propylsea (rtportv^tata), a colonnade of Pentelic marble. The summit was covered with temples, statues, &c. The most beautiful of the temples were, 1. the Parthenon, sacred to Athene, with a statue of the goddess by Phidias, thirty-seven feet high, and carved in gold and ivory. 2. Erechtheum, or temple of Neptune, with the temple of Athene Polias and the Pandroseum. Between the Par- thenon and Erechtheum stood the colossal bronze statue of Athene Promachos (seventy feet high, whose helmet and spear were first visible from the sea), cast by Phidias. THE LOWER CITY was built in the plain round the Acropolis, and was surrounded by walls ; the chief gates of which were: the Thriasian or Dipylon, leading from the inner to the outer Ceramicus and the Academia ; and the Pirsean gate, leading to the Piraeeus. The chief districts: Colyttus, on the N. of the Acropolis; Melite, on the E. ; Limnse, on the S.; Ceramicus (Kfpa^ftxoj, or the "Potter's Quarter"), in the W. Hills; Areiopagus, W., and Pnyx, S.W., of the Acro- polis. (160) TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. 161 The chief buildings of the Lower City were: 1. The Temple of Olympian Zeus {^OxvpLTtlsiov), founded by Pisistratus; 2. The Temple of Theseus {@rja8iov), erected by Conon, and was used as a sanctuary for slaves ; S.Ildvdsov, a temple dedicated to all the gods, a magnificent building, supported by 120 marble pillars; 4. The Temple of the Eight AVinds (vide page 172), surmounted by a weather- cock; 5. The Odeum CciSelov), built by Pericles, and origin- ally intended, for musical festivals, but afterwards used as a court of justice ; 6. The Bouleuterion, Bov'Ksvtrjpcov, or Senate-house; 7. The Prytaneum, Upvtavflov, or place of assembly of the Prytanes (vide Gr. Antiq.); 8. The Great Theatre of Dionysus, S.E. of the Acropolis; 9. Por- ticoes {Xtocu), or covered walks, in which seats (e'lfSpat) were placed. The Porticoes were sometimes adorned with paintings by the best masters, as, 10. The Poecile {otoa Ttoixi'kri), N.W. of the Acropolis, adorned with frescoes of the battle of Marathon; 11. 'Ayopat, corresponding to the Fora at Rome, places both for public assembly and all matters of traffic and public business; 12. The Pnyx (llwl), W. of the Acropolis, the place in which the ancient assemblies were held. Without the City: The Academia, where Plato taught; The Cynosarges, where Antisthenes taught; The Ly- ceum, where Aristotle instructed his disciples, the Peri- patetics ; The Stadium,' for public games. 14* TOPOGKAPHT OF EOME. ROMA, the Capital of Italy, is said to have been a colony frDui Alba Longa, and to have been founded by Romulus, B.C. 753. The original city comprised only the Mons Pala- tinus ; it was surrounded by walls, which followed the line of the Pomoerium, a kind of symbolical wall, the course of which was marked by stone pillars. On the increase of the inhabitants of the city, one hill after another was occupied, to the number of seven (vide pages 28, 168). Servius Tullius divided the city into four regiones or districts, which re- mained unchanged till the time of Augustus, who divided the city into fourteen regiones. THE FORA AND CAMPI. The Forum was an open space of ground of an oblong form, in which the people met for the transaction of business, or used for markets. The prin- cipal Fora at Rome were: 1. Forum Romanum, or simply the Forum (the narrow or upper end of which was occupied by the Comitium) ; it was surrounded by public buildings, and adorned with statues of celebrated men, &c. 2. Forum Julii or Cassaris. 3. Forum Augusti. 4. Forum Tra- jani. The CAMPI were large open spaces of ground, covered with grass, planted with trees, and 'adorned with works of art. The chief was the Campus Marti us, or " Plain of Mars," where the Roman youth exercised. There are said to have been 215 streets in Rome ; Vise and Vici were the broad streets, and Angiportus the narrow streets. The finest street was the Via Sacra, from the Colosseum to the Forum. The Suburra was a crowded dis- trict, between the Esquiliue, Quirinal, and Viminal. (162) ' TOPOGRAPHY OF ROME. 163 TEMPLES. Of these, there are said to have been 400 in Rome, the chief of which were: 1. Templum Jo vis, or Capitoliurn, built on the Capitoline Hill. It was com- menced by Tarq. Priscus, and dedicated B.C. 507. Three times was it burnt down, and as often rebuilt, but with far greater splendour than before, by Domitian, about a.d. 81. The building was in the form of a square, 200 feet each side ; it was approached by 100 steps, and contained three temples [cellce), consecrated to Juno, Jupiter, and Minerva. In the building were kept the Sibylline Books, and there the Con- suls, upon entering office, sacrificed, and took their vows. THE ARX, or Citadel of Rome, was situated near the Capitol, on the N. summit of the Capitoline Hill. 2. The Pant he um, in the Campus Martius, built by Agrippa, B. c. 27 ; it is still extant, and used as a Christian church {Santa Maria delta Rotonda). It is the largest circular build- ing of antiquity, and in form resembles the Colosseum, Re- gent's Park. The numerous temples were dedicated chiefly to Jupiter, Juno, Mars, Janus, Saturn, Fortuna, &c. The principal of the CIRC I, or places for chariot and horse- racing, was the Circus Maximus, between the Palatine and Aventine Hills ; it is said to have contained seats for 385,000 persons. Among the THEATRES, the chief were: 1. The Thea- trum Pompeii, the first stone theatre built in Rome (B.C. 55) ; 2. Th. Marcelli. Of the AMPHITHEATRES, the Amphiteatrum Flavium, or Colosseum, was the most magnificent ; it was commenced by Vespasian and com- pleted by Titus, a. d. 80 ; it furnished seats capable of con- taining 87,000 persons. THERMS. These buildings were distinct from the com- mon Bain 93 or baths, as, besides baths, they contained places for athletic games and sports, public halls, porticoes, libraries, &c. ; the chief were: 1. Thermae Antonini; 2. Th. Dio- cletiani; 3. Th. Constantini; 4. Th. Caracallse. THE BASILICiE were numerous at Rome; they were buildings which served as courts of law, or places of meeting for merchants and men of business THE PORTICOES 164 TOPOGRAPHY OF ROME. were covered walks, supported by columns, used as places of recreation or of public business. Of THE CITRIC or Senate-houses, the chief was Curia Ho s til i a, in the Forum ; it was used as the place of assem- bly for the senate until the time of Cassar. The other chief buildings were the Palaces (e. g. Palatium, Domus Aurea Ncronis) ; the Triumphal Arches {Arcus Fahianus, Ar. Titi, Ar. Trajani, Ar. Constantini) ; Aqueducts [Aqua Appia, Aq. Marcia, Aq. Julia, Aq. Claudia); Monuments {Mausoleum Angusti, M. Hadriani). Of the Columns were: Col. Ro strata, in the Forum, in honour of the naval vic- tory of Duilius, B.C. 260 ; Col. Trajani, 117 feet high, now surmounted by a statue of St. Peter. Of THE ROADS leading out of Rome, the principal were : 1. Via Appia, from the Porta Capena to Brundusium ; 2. Via Flaminia, or Great North Road from the Porta Flaniinia; 3. Via Aurelia, the Great Coast Road through Etruria and Liguria from the Porta Janiculensis. GEEEK AND EOMAN DIVISION OF TIME. GREEK. In early times, the Greeks divided their years by the recur- rence of the seasons, the rising and setting of the constella- tions Orion, the Pleiades, &c. Afterwards, having adopted the lunar month of about twenty-nine days and thirteen hours as a division of time, they endeavoured to adjust this to the solar year of 365 days five hours and forty-nine minutes, so that the seasons should regularly occur at the same periods of the calendar year, and that the end of the year should not be in the middle of a month. As the twelve lunar months contain only 354 days, intercalary or additional months [turjvss iix^ouixoi) were inserted to make up the defi- ciency. The errors of the early calendars of Thales, Solon, and Cleostratus, were rectified by Meton, who, b.c. 432, introduced a cycle of nineteen years, at the end of which period the position of the earth, with reference to the sun and moon, became the same. Calippus, and after him the celebrated Hip parch us (c. b.c. 150), corrected the slight inaccuracies of Meton's system. The cycle of Hipparchus consisted of 304 years, with 112 intercalary months. The twelve Attic months contained thirty and twenty-nine days alternately; the former termed full {rtXfjpns), the latter JioUow [xol-Kov], months. Their names, derived from the va- rious festivals held in them, were, ^Exatoix^aidiv, Mstay^LtviCjv, "BorjdpojjLLujv, M.aifA.axtyipcd>p, Ilvavs-^LU)i', ''AvOsattipiiav, Iloasidsojv. Fafirj'kidiv, 'E7ia^r^^o\td)v, Mouj'ii;Ktwi/, ©apyyj'Kidtv, Xxip^o^opiup.^ 1 The following rough memorial lines will aid the memory in remem- bering the Attic months : — Ex — Mitel — rettvi — Borj — 11 vet — Mai/.idxtrjpi — Iloaii8u)P ra|U. — Ai'dsat — ~~'E?M^rj \\ MovplX'' — 0apy — 'Exipoi)5p. (165) 166 GREEK AND ROMAN DIVISION OP TIME. The days of the month were divided into three decades or sets of ten days, numbered from one to ten : thus the first of each decade (i. e. our first, eleventh, and twenty-first) vras termed respectively, 7tpu>trj (sc. t^^spa), tatdjjifvov or apxofxivov [lX9]v6i) — 7tpu>ti^ irtl Bixa or fxeaovvtoi — rtpuitt] srt' elxd^ri, ^Qlvovtoi, "Kviyovtos, &c. But in the last decade the days were often reckoned backwards ; thus the first was called bsxa-tvi ^divov- -rof, &c. The first day of the month was also termed Not^jywcu. {new moo7i), the last evrj xoi via, as belonging both to the old and the new month. The three Homeric divisions of the day were : 1. ^^wj (morning), afterwards divided into rtpcot and TfKf^dovar]^ trjg ayopas ; 2. fxiGov ^|Uap or /xsGr^iiSpia (midday) : 3. Stt'^,?/ (after- noon), afterwards divided into rtpwta and o-^la. At Athens the years were called after the chief Archon {^Tim'vixoi), at Sparta after the first Ephor, at Argos after the priestess of Juno. So at Carthage after the Sufietes, at Crete after the Proto-cosmus, and at Rome after the Consuls. Timeeus of Sicily (c. b.c. 260) introduced the calculation by Olympiads, or periods of four years, commencing from B.C. 776 (vide Chronology). Thus, b.c. 775 would be the second year of the first Olympiad, b.c. 772 the second Olym- piad, &c. But as the Attic year began at the summer solstice, with the month Hecatomb^on (June and July), the first half of the first Olympiad would be the latter half of b. c. 776, and the latter half of the Olympiad the first of b.c. 775. ROMAN. The Roman year was probably at first divided into ten months, beginning with March. To this division, which is ascribed to Romulus, Numa is said to have added the two months Januarj^ and February, to have assigned 355 days to the year, and to have adopted a cycle similar to Meton's Julius Caesar, b. c. 46, employed Sosigenes, of Alexandria, GREEK AND ROMAN DIVISION OF TIME. 167 and Flavius, a scribe, to revise the calendar. The intercalary months were set aside, the solar year was composed of 365 days, and a leap-year inserted every four years. But, as this did not provide for the accumulation of the excess of minutes and seconds. Pope Gregory, a.d. 1582, ordered ten days, be- tween Oct. 4 and 15, in that year to be omitted. This " new style" was not recognized in England till a.d. 1752. The "old," or "Julian style," is still used in Russia. The names of the Roman months are Januarius, Februa- rius, Martins, Aprilis, Mains, Julius, Quintllis and Sextllis (changed to Julius and Augustus, in honour of the two first Caesars), September, October, November, December. The number of days in each month was the same as our own ; but they were divided into Calends, Nones, and Ides. The Calends were the first of every month. In March, May, July, and October, the Nones fell on the 7th, in the other months on the 5th. The Ides were always eight days after the Nones, i. e. on the 13th or 15th. If the day of the month was not one of these three divisions, it was expressed by its distance from the following Calends, Nones, or Ides, as the case might be. Thus, the 31st of December was termed pridie (the day before) Calendas Januarias. But, as the Romans reckoned in both the days to and from which they calculated, Dec. 30 would be the third day before the Calends of January, usually expressed ante diem tertium (or a. d. iii.) Kal. Jan. The Romans (as well as the Greeks) used water- clocks [clepsydrce) and sun-dials [solaria) to measure the divisions of the day. The Consular aara was used in public affairs. In the time of the Caesars, the aera " ab urbe condit^" (A. U. C), from the founding of Rome, dated by Varro b.c. 753 (by Cato, B.C. 752), was employed by historians and others. MISCELLANEA HILLS OF ROME. 1. Palatinus, first occupied by the Latins. 2. Capitolinus, occupied by the Sabines, afterwards united to the Latins. 3. Coelius, occupied by the Etruscans. 4. Quirinalis, occupied by the Sabines, afterwards united to the Latins. 5. Aventinus, added by Ancus Martins, who also erected a fort on Janiculum, on the right bank of the Tiber. 6. Esquilinus, added by Servius Tullius. 7. Viminalis, added by Servius Tullius. KINaS OF ROME. 1. Romulus, 2. Numa Pompilius, 3. Tullus Hostilius, 4. Ancus Marcius, 5. L. Tarquinius Priscus, 6. Servius Tullius, 7. L, Tarquinius Superbus, reigned 753—716, 37 years " 715—672, 43 «' « 672—640, 32 " " 640—616, 24 " « 616^578, 38 " " 578—534, 44 " " 534r-510, 25 « (168) MISCELLANEA. 169 TWELVE CiESARS. 1. Julius, B.C .45— B.C. 44. 2. Augustus, " 30— A.D. 14. 3. Tiberius, A.D .14— " 37. 4. Caligula, 37— " 41. 5. Claudius, 41— " 54. 6. Nero, 54— " 68 7. Galba, 68— " 69 8. Otho, Jan. 15, 69— Apr. 16, " 69. 9. Vitellius, Jan. 2, 69— Dec. 22, " 69 10. Vespasian, Dec. 22, 69— " 79 11. Titus, 79— « 81, 12. Domitian, 81— " 96. SEVEN WONDERS OF THE WORLD. 1. The Colossus of Rhodes. 2. The Sepulchre of Mausolus, king of Caria. 3. The Palace of Cyrus. 4. The Pyramids of Egypt. 5. The Statue of Jupiter at Olympia. 6. The Temple of Diana at Ephesus. 7. The Walls and Hanging Gardens of Babylon. SEVEN SAGES OF GREECE. 1. Thales, of Miletus. 2. Pittacus, of Mitylene. 3. Bias, of Priene. 4. Solon, legislator of Athens. 5. Cleobtilus, of Rhodes. 6. Periander of Corinth (some say Myson), of Laeonir 7. Chilon, of Sparta. 15 170 MISCELLANEA. THE TWELVE LABOURS OF HERCULES. 1. The Fight with the Nemean Lion. 2. The Fight with the Hydra of Lerna, near Argos. 3. The Capture of the Brazen-footed Stag of Arcadia. 4. The Destruction of the Erymanthian Wild Boar. 5. Cleansing the Stables of Augeas, king of Elis. 6. The Destruction of the Stymphalian Birds. 7. The Capture of the Cretan Bull. 8. The Capture of the Mares of Diomedes, king of Thrace. 9. The Seizure of the Girdle of Hippolyte, queen of the Amazons. 10. The Capture of the Oxen of Geryon. 11. Obtaining the Golden Apples of the Hesperides. 12. Bringing the Three-headed Dog Cerberus from the lower regions. THE NINE MUSES. 1. Clio, muse of History. 2. Euterpe, Lyric Poetry. 3. Thalia, Comedy. 4. Melpomene, Tragedy. 5. Terpsichore, Choral Dance. 6. Erato, Erotic, or Amorous Poetry. 7. Polyhymnia, Rhetoric, Eloquence. 8. Urania, Astronomy. 9. Calliope, Epic Poetry. THE THREE GRACES. Aglaia (Splendour). Euphrosyne (Joy). • Thalia (Pleasure). MISCELLANEA. 171 THE THREE HORiE, OR GODDESSES OF THE ORDER OF NATURE, &c. (Hesiod). Eunomia (Good Order). Dike (Justice). Irene (Peace). THE THREE FATES. Clotho, Lachesis, ]■ for attributes, vide Parcae. Atropos, THE THREE FURIES. Alecto. Megasra. Tisiphone. THE THREE JUDGES OF HELL. Minos, formerly king of Crete. Rhadamanthus, son of Zeus and brother of Minos. -ffiacus, son of Zeus, famed for his Justice and Piety. THE FIVE RIVERS OF HELL. Styx. Acheron. Cocytus. Phlegethon. Lethe. 172 MISCELLANEA. THE WINDS. N., *ArCaf,xtlai, Sepiemtrio. N.E., Katxtas, Boptaj (usually N. wind), AguUo. E., 'Aftrj'kMtr^i, Subsolanus. S.E., Evpoj, Eurus, VuUurnus. S., Nofoj (prop. S.W.), Auster. S.W., At'^/, Afi'icus. W., Zf^vpoj (prop. N.W.), Zephyrus, Favonius. N.W., 'Apyistri^, Sxtpwv, (7o?'z<5 or Caurus. 'Etr]cslcu, northerly winds which blew in the summer. lapyx, "W. or N.W. wind, which blew from Apulia. Atabulus (Hor.) a scorching wind of Apulia. THE ROMAN CALENDAR. For the purposes of administering justice and holding the assemblies, all the days of the year were divided by the Romans into dies fasti and nefasti. The former [dies fasti) were the days on which the praetor was allowed to administer justice ; they were marked in the calendar by the letter F. ; the latter [dies nefasti) were days on which neither the courts of justice nor comitia were allowed to be held. Some days, however, might be partly fasti as well as nefasti, in which case they were marked in the calendar thus, Fp. (i. e. fasius primo), or Np. (i. e. nefastus primo). The Nundince (ninth days) were originally market-days, on which the country-people came to Rome to sell the produce of their labour. The nundinse were fericB or sacred days for the populus, while they were real business days for the» MISCELLANEA. 173 plebeians [dies fasti), for many years, until the dies fasti and nundinae coincided. Mat ., May, July, 1 Jan. Aug-., Dec, Apr . June, Sep., l Feb. 28 flays, in , Oct., 31 days. 31 days. Nov., 30 days. Leap-year 29. Kalendis Kalendis Kalendis Kalendis 6] 5 .Ante 4 (Nonas 4 \ Ante 3 / Nonas 4 1 Ante 3 /Nonas 4 ) Ante 3 / Nonas Pridie Nonas Pridie Nonas Pridie Nonas 3J Nonis Nonis Nonis Pridie Nonas ^1 81 7 8] Nonis 7 ^1 ^ 6 1 Ante 6 [Ante 6 Ante 5 1 Idus 5 f Idus 5 " Idus Ante 4 4 4 Idus 3J 3J 3 4 Pridie Idus Pridie Idus Pridie Idus 3 Idibus Idibus Idibus Pridie Idus 19] 18-1 16 Idibus 18 17 15 Il- 1 17 16 14 ls 16 15 1^ 13 15 15 ■5 14 12 OQ 14 a? 14 «« "faD 13 11 -^^ 13 tw bD 13 o^a 12 10 « .88 12 2^a 12 Sl 11 a o 9 w "i 11 Ti 11 (CO 10 ■g=2 8 s^ 10 9 8 10 9 8 <1 9 8 7 31 7 6 5 < 7 6 |i 7 6 6 5 <1 4 3 5 <1 5 4 Pridie Kalen« 4 4 3J das Martias. 3 3. Pridie Kalen- Pridie Kalen- Pridie Kalen- das (of the das (of the das (of the month follow- month follow- month follow- ing.) ing ). ing ). 16* GREEK CHRONOLOGY. B.C. 1856. Foundation of Argos: of Athens, 1556. 1194. Trojan War commences. 1124. jEolic migration: Ionic migration, 1044. 1104. Return of the Heraclidae. 1045. Death of Codrus, last king of Athens. Medon, first Archon. 884. Legislation of Lycurgus. 776.*Coroebus gains the victory in the foot-race at the Olympian games. 743. First war between the Messenians and Lacedaemonians commences: ends with the defeat of the Messenians,. 723. 734. Syracuse founded by Archias of Corinth. 683. Creon, first annual Archon elected at Athens. 668. End of second 3Iessenian War ; begun 685. 664. Sea-fight between Corinthians and Corcyrcdans, most ancient recorded. 624. Dracon legislates at Athens. 595. Crcesiis, king of Lydia, born ; Cirrhsean or Sacred War commenced. 594.*Solon legislates at Athens as Archon. 586. Cirrhmans vanquished and Pythian games celebrated. The Seven sages flourished about this time. 585. Death of Periander. 572. War between Pisa and Elis, ended by subjection of Pisaeans. 560.*PisisTKATUs usurps the government of Athens. 559. Cyrus begins to reign in Persia, and the Median empirt ends; it had existed^ 149 years. Death of Solon. 646. Sardis taken by Cyrus. 548. Temple of Apollo at Delphi burnt. 638. Babylon taken by Cyrus. 635. Thespis first exhibits tragedy. 631. Pythagoras, the philosopher, flourished. 527. Death of Pisistratus. 521. Death of Cambyses, and accession of Darius to the throne of Persia. (174) GREEK CHRONOLOGY. 175 B.C. 614. HiPPARCHUS, tyrant of Athens, slain. 51().*HippiAS flees from Athens. Ten tribes instituted by Cle- ISTHENES. 499. lonians revolt, and, assisted by the Athenians, burn Sardis. 494. Sixth and last year of the Ionian revolt. lonians defeated in a naval engagement near Miletus. 493. Persians take the islands Chios, Lesbos, and Tenedos. MiLTiADES comes from the Chersonesus to Athens. 492. Mardonius, the Persian general, invades Europe and unites Macedonia to the Persian empire. 491. Dakius sends heralds to Greece. 490.*Datis and Artaphernes, the Persian generals, invade Eu- rope, take Eretria in Euboea, and land in Attica, but are defeated at Marathon by the Athenians, under Miltiades. 489. Miltiades endeavours to conquer Paros, but is repulsed. He is accused, and being unable to pay the fine is thrown into prison, where he dies. 485. Xerxes, king of Persia, succeeds Darius. 483. Aristides ostracised. 481. Themistocles (the chief man at Athens) persuades the Athenians to build a fleet of 200 ships to resist the Persians. 480. Xerxes invades Greece. Battles of Thermopijlv and Arte- misium; Athens taken by Xerxes; battle of Salamis; Xerxes' fleet destroyed. 479. Mardonius, the Persian general, winters in Thessaly, in the spring occupies Athens, and is defeated by the Greeks under Pausanias at the battle of Plata^a, in Sept. ; Persian fleet defeated ofi" Mycale on the same day. 478. Sestos taken by the Greeks. History of Herodotus termi- nates. Themistocles fortifies Athens. 477.*Commencement of the Athenian ascendency. 471. Themistocles banished by Ostracism for ten years, and goes to Ai'gos. Pausanias convicted of treason and put to death. 468. Mycenffi destroyed. Aristides dies. 466. CiMON overcomes the Persians at the river Eurymedon, in Pamphylia. Themistocles flies to Persia. 465. Deatli of Xerxes, who is succeeded by Artaxerxes. Thasos revolts ; subdued by Cimou, 463. 464. Earthquake at Sparta. Helots and Messenians revolt. 461. Cimon marches to assist the Lacedaemonians ; his ofi'er of assistance declined; the Athenian troops sent back, and Cimon ostracised, but recalled, 456. Pericles chief man at Athens. 460 First year of Egyptian war, which lasts six years, till 455. 457. Battles between Athenians and Corijithians ; Athenians de- feated by Lacedsemonians at Tanagra. Longi Muri com- 176 GREEK CHRONOLOGY. B.C. menced by the Atlienians completed, 456, in which year battle of (Enophyta. 455. Messenians overcome by the Lacedtemonians. Tolmides, the Athenian general, settles the Messenians at Naupactus, and sails round the Peloponnesus, inflicting much injury. 450. Five years' truce between Athenians and Peloponnesians. 449. Wa7' with Persia renewed. Cimon dies. Athenians victo- rious at Salamis in Cyprus. 448. Sacred Wa7- between the Delphians and Phocians for posses- sion of the oracle and temple. The Lacedaemonians assist the Delphians, the Athenians the Phocians. 447. The Athenians defeated at Coronea by the Boeotians. 445. Megara and Euboea revolt from Athens. Lacedeemonians invade Attica. Pericles recovers Euboea. Thirty years' truce between Athens and Sparta. 440. Samos revolts from Athens, but is subdued by Pericles. 439.*ATHENS AT THE HEIGHT OF ITS GLORY. 435. Corinthians and Corcyrseans carry on war ; Corinthians de- feated in a sea-fight. 432. Corcyrreans, assisted by the Athenians, repulse the Corin- thians. Potideea revolts from Athens. 431.*jP?Vs< year of the Peloponnesian War. The Thebans make an attempt upon Plataea. — 430. Plague rages at Athens. — 429. Potidoca surrenders to the Athenians. Platsea besieged. Pericles dies. — 428. Fourth year of the war — Mitylene besieged. — 427. Mitylene taken by the Athenians, and Les- bos recovered, which had revolted the year before. Platsea surrendered to the Peloponnesians. — 425. Spartans in the island Sphacteria surrendered to Cleon. Demosthenes takes Pylos. —424. NiciAS ravages the coast of Laconia, and cap- tures Cythera. Brasidas marches into Thrace. Athenians defeated by the Thebans at Belium, at which Socrates and Xenophon fought. — 423. Ninth year of the war — Truce for one year. Thuctdides banished in consequence of the loss of Amphipolis. — 422. Brasidas and Cleon fall in bat- tle. — 421. Truce for fifty years between the Athenians and Lacedeemonians. — 419. Alcibiades marches into the Pelo- ponnesus. — 418. Athenians send an army into the Pelopon- nesus, which is defeated at the battle of Mantinea. — 415. The Athenians send an expedition against Syi-acuse, com- manded by Nicias, Alcibiades, and Lamachus. Alcibi- ades is recalled, but escapes and takes refuge with the Lacedaemonians. — 414. Second campaign in Sicily ; the Athenians invest Syracuse, to the assistance of which Gt- lippus, the Lacedaemonian, is sent. — 413. Attica invaded and Decelea fortified by the advice of Alcibiades. Third GREEK CHRONOLOGY. 177 B.C campaign in Sicily — Demosthenes, the Athenian general, sent to the assistance of the Athenians. The Athenian armtj and fleet destroyed. Nicias and Demosthenes surrender and are put to death. —412. Lesbians and Chians revolt from Athens, Alcibiades sent to Persia to form a treaty. A treaty is formed with Tissaphernes. The Athenians use the 1000 talents deposited in the temple for emergencies. 411. Twenty-first year of the war. Democracy abolished at Athens, and the council of the Four Hundred appointed. Alcibiades recalled from exile by the army and by the vote of the Athenian people. Mindarus, the Lacedemonian admiral, defeated at Cynossema.— 407. Alcibiades returns to Athens. Lysander, the Lacedaemonian general, defeats Antiochus, the lieutenant of Alcibiades, by sea at Noiium. Alcibiades banished. —406. Callicratidas succeeds Ly- sander, and is defeated by the Athenian fleet off the Ar- ginussce islands. — 405. Lysander defeats the Athenians off JEgospotami, and takes or destroys nearly the whole fleet. 4Q4:.* Twenty-eighth and last year of the Peloponnesian War. Athena taken by Lysander, and the government intrusted to the " Thirty Tyrants," who held their power for eight months. Death of Alcibiades. 403. Thrasybulus and his party obtain the Pirseus, whence they carry on war against the "Ten," the successors of the "Thirty," and obtain possession of Athens in July ; though the contest was not ended till Boedromion (September). Thucydides returns to Athens, having been exiled twenty years. 401. Expedition of Cyrus against his brother Artaxerxes IL : Cyrus is slain in the battle of Cunaza. The Greek allies commence their return home, usually called the " Return OF THE Ten Thousand." First year of the war of Lacedce- mon and Elis, which lasted three years. 399 The Lacedemonians send Thimbron to assist the Greek cities in Asia. Thimbron superseded by Dercyllidas in the autumn. 396. Agesilaus supersedes Dercyllidas. He winters at Ephesus. 895. Second campaign of Agesilaus. He defeats Tissapher- nes. 894, Agesilaus recalled from Asia, to march against the Greek states who had dedared war against Lacedgemon. He de- feats the allied forces at Coronea. Conon, the Athenian admiral, gained a victory over Pisander, the Spartan, off Cnidus. Xenophon fights against his country at Coronea, and is banished from Athens. 893. Sedition at Corinth. Pharnabazus and Conon ravage th«i coasts of the Peloponnesus. 178 GREEK CHRONOLOGY. B.C. 392. The Lacedaemonians, under Agesilaus, lay waste the Co- rinthian territory. 390. The Persians side with the Lacedaemonians. Conon is im- prisoned. Thrasybulus, the Athenian commander, is de feated and slain at Aspendus. Long walls at Athens re- built. 387. The peace of Antalcidas. 386. Platsea restored. 385. Mantinea destroyed by Agesipolis. 382. First year of the Olynthian War : the Lacedaemonians com- manded by Teleutias. Phcebidas, the Spartan general, seizes Cadmea, the citadel of Thebes. 379. Fourth and last year of the Olynthian War. The Cadmea recovered. 378. The Athenians form an alliance with Thebes against Sparta. First Expedition of Agesilaus into Boeotia. 376. The LacediBmonian fleet overcome off Naxos. 374, The Athenians, jealous of the Thebans, conclude a peace with the Spartans. Timotheus, the Athenian, takes Cor- cyra. War with Lacedaemon renewed. 373. Lacedgemonians attempt to take Coreyra, but are defeated. 371. Congress at Sparta, and a general peace concluded, from which the Thebans were excluded. Spartans invade Boeotia, but are defeated by the Thebans under Epaminondas, at the battle of Leuctra. 369. First invasion of the Peloponnesus by Thebans. Second invasion, 868. Third invasion, 366. 365. War between Arcadia and Elis. Battle of Olympia, 364. 362. Fourth invasion of Peloponnesus by Thebans. Battle of 3Ianti?iea. Epaminondas slain. 861. A general peace with all except the Spartans. Agesilaus goes to Egypt, but dies in the winter while preparing to re- turn home. 360. War between the Olynthians and Athenians, for the posses- sion of Amphipolis. 359. Accession of Philip to the throne of Macedonia (set. twenty- three). 357. Chios, Rhodes, and Byzantium revolt from Athens. First year of the Social War. The Phocians seize Delphi. Com- mencement of the Sacred War. 356. Birth of Alexander. Potidosa taken by Philip. 355. Third and last year of the Social War. 352. Philip entei-s Thessaly, expels the tyrants from Fherce, and makes himself master of Thessaly. Attempts to pass Ther* mopyloi, but is prevented by the Athenians. 348. Olynthian War continued. 847. Olynthus taken, and destroyed by Philip. GREEK CHRONOLOGY. . 179 B.C. 346. Philip brings the Sacred War to a close, after it had lasted ten years. 843. TiBioLEON completes the conquest of Syracuse, and expela Dionysius, having sailed from Corinth for this purpose in 344. 342. Philip's expedition to Thrace. Demosthenes' Orations. 339. War renewed between Philip and the Athenians. 338. Philip defeats the Athenians and Thebans at the battle of Chceronea, and becomes master of Greece. 336.*Murder of Philip, and accession of Alexander (aet. twenty). 335. Thebes revolts, and is destroyed by Alexander. 334. War commenced against Persia. Alexander defeats the Persian Satraps at the Granlcus. 333. Alexander subdues Lycia, collects his forces at Gor- dium in the spring, and defeats Darius at Issus in the autumn. 832. Alexander takes Tyre and Gaza, and marches into Egypt, and orders Alexandria to be founded. — 331. Marches through Phoenicia and Syria, crosses the Euphrates, and defeats Darius at Arbela or Gaugamela. 330. Darius slain by Bessus. 329. Alexander crosses the Oxus and Jaxartes, defeats the Scy- thians, and winters at Bactra. 327. Alexander conquers Sogdiana ; marries Roxana, a Bac- trian princess ; returns to Bactria, and invades India. 326. Alexander returns to Persia, and sends Nearchus with a fleet to sail from the mouths of the Indus to the Persian Gulf. 325. Alexander reaches Susa ; and Babylon, 324. 323.*Alexander dies at Babylon in June, after a reign of twelve years and eight months. The Greek states wage war against Macedonia {Lamian War). 322. Battle of Cranon, and end of the Lamian War. 316. Antigonus becomes master of Asia. 315. Seleucus, Ptolemy, Cassander, and Lysimachus wage war against Antigonus. 312. Fourth year of the war. — 311. A general peace. Boxana murdered. Seleucus recovers Babylon, .^ra of the Se- leucid^e begins. 308. Ptolemy's expedition to Greece. 306. Ptolemy defeated by Demetrius, son of Antigonus, in a sea-fight, off Salamis in Cyprus. 803. War in Greece carried on by Demetrius against Cas- sander. 301. Battle of Ipsus in Phrygia : Lysimachus and Seleucus defeat Antigonus and Demetrius. 180 GREEK CHRONOLOGY. B.C. 295. Demetrius takes Athens, and, 294, makes an expedition into Peloponnesus. Becomes king of Macedonia. 294. Civil War in Macedonia, between Antipater and Alex- ander. 290. Demetrius takes Thebes, and, 289, carries on war against Pyrrhus. 287. Demetrius driven from Macedonia, and his kingdom divided. 281. Lysimachus defeated and slain at the battle of Corupedion. 280.*Seleucus murdered. Rise of the Achaean league. Pyr- rhus crosses into Italy. 279. The Gauls, under Brennus, invade Greece. 273. Pyrrhus invades Macedonia, and expels Antigonus. 272. Pyrrhus dies. Antigonus regains Macedonia. 227. Cleomenes, king of Sparta, wages war against the Achaean League. 221. Antigonus obtains possession of Sparta. 220. Social War commences. — 217. Third and last year of the war. 211. Treaty between Rome and the ^tolians. — 208. Philip marches into the Peloponnesus to assist the Achseans. 200. War between Philip and Rome. Philip defeated at the battle of Cynoscephalce, 197. 192. Antiochus affords assistance to the jEtolians. 1 67. One thousand of the principal Achceans sent to Borne. Romans victorious. 147. Macedonia becomes a Roman province. 14Q.*Corinth destroyed by Mummius. Greece becomes a Roman province. ROMAN CHRONOLOGY. B.C. 753.*Foundation of Rome on the Palatine Mount, 21st of Api'il, according to the ei'a of Varro. Cato gives B. c. 752 ; Poly- bius, B.C. 750; Fabius Pictor, b.c. 747. 753-716. Romulus, the first Roman King, reigned thirty-seven years. Senate consists of 100 "Senatores." Wars -with FidencB and Veil. 715-672. NuMA PoMPiLius, the second King, reigned forty-three yeai's. Institution of religious ceremonies, and regulation of the year. 672-640. TuLLUS Hostilius, third King of Rome, reigned thirty- two years. Destruction of Alha, and removal of inhabitants to Rome. 640-616. Ancus Martius, fourth King of Rome, reigned twenty- four years. Origin of Plebeians, consisting of conquered Latins settled on the Aventine. Ostia founded. 616-578. Lucius Tabquinius Priscus, fifth King, reigned thirty- eight years. Great public works undertaken. The Senate increased to 300. 578-534. Servius Tullius, sixth Roman King, reigned forty-four yeai's. Rome surrounded by a stone wall. Institution of thirty Plebeian tribes. 634-510. Tabquinius Superbus, seventh and last Roman King. Expulsion of the Tarquins, and establishment of a republic. 509.*Consuls elected. Death of Brutus. First treaty with Car- thage. 508. War loith Porsena, king of Clusium. 501. Institution of Dictatorship and Magister Equitum. 498. Battle of Lake Regillus : Latins defeated. 494. Secession of the Plebs to Mons Sacer. 493. War with the Volscians, and capture of CorioU. — 491. CoRi* OLANUs goes into exile. 483. War with Veil. 477. Slaughter of the 300 Fabii at the Cremera. 471. Lex Publilia passed. 465. War with the ^quians. 16 (181) 182 ROMAN CHRONOLOGY. B.C. 458. Dictatorship of Cincinnatus, who relieves the Roman army shut ill by the Volscians and ^quians. 454. Three Commissioners sent to Greece, to prepare a code of laws. 451.*Decemviri appointed. Laws of ten tables promulgated; increased by two, 450. 449. Death of Virginia. Decemvirs deposed. 445. Lex Canuleia passed, and connubium between Patricians and Plebeians permitted. 444. Tribuni Militum with Consular power. 443. Institution of Censorship. 440. Famine at Kome. Prsefectus Annonas appointed. 438. Inhabitants of Fidenoi revolt. 426. War with Veil. Fidence destroyed. 421. Number of Quaestors increased from two to four. 407. Truce with Veil (made 425) expires. 406. Pay decreed to the soldiers by the Senate for the first time. 405. Siege of Veii. It lasts ten years; ends 396, Veil being taken by Camillus. 399. A pestilence at Rome. — 398. An embassy sent to consult the Oracle at Delphi. 39L Cabiillus banished. Gauls enter Etruria. 390. Rome taken by the Gatds. Romans defeated at the battle of Allia. Camillus recalled, and appointed Dictator. 367. Licinian laws passed. One of the Consuls to be chosen from the Plebeians. Camillus conquers the Gauls. 365. Death of Camillus. 861. Invasion of the Gauls. T. Manlius kills a Gaul in single combat, and is surnamed Torqiiaius. 356. First Plebeian Dictator elected. — 351. First Plebeian Censor. 348. Treaty with Carthage renewed. 343. First Samnite War. Valerius defeats the Samnites. 340. Latin War. 337. First Plebeian Praetor. 326. Second Samnite War. 321. Roman army surrendered to the Samnites at the Caudine Forks, and sent under the yoke. 300. Lex Ogulnia passed, increasing the number of Pontiffs and Augurs. 298. Third Samnite War. Samnites defeated at Bovianum and at Volaterrce, by the Etruscans. 295. Battle of Senti?ium ; Samnites, Umbrians, Etruscans, and Gauls defeated. 290. Conclusion of the Samnite War, which had lasted lifty-threa years. ROMAN CHRONOLOGY. 183 B.C. 281. Pyrrhus arrives in Italy to assist the Taren tines against the Romans. 280, Romans defeated by Pyrrhus near Heracleia ; and, 279, near Asculiwu 278. Pyrrhus in Sicily. Romans successful in Southern Italy. 275. Pyrrhus totalis/ defeated near Beneventum. 272. War in Southern Italy concluded. 264:.*The First Punic W(ir. Cons. Claudius crosses over into Si- cily and defeats the Carthaginians and Syracusans. 262. Agrigenlum taken after a siege of seven months, 260. Fifth year of the First Punic War. Duilius, the Consul," gains a naval victory over the Carthaginians. 256. The Romans victorious in Africa. 255. Regulus, in Africa, takes Tunis and overcomes the Cartha- ginians, but is afterwards defeated and taken prisoner. 250. Fifteenth year of the war. — Great victory of Metellus at Panormiis. Regulus sent to Rome to solicit peace. 247. Hamilcab appointed to the command of the Carthaginians. Hannibal born. 241. Twenty -fourth and last year of the First Punic War. — Naval victory of C. Lutatius, off the Agates. P^ace made with the Carthaginians. Sicily becomes a Roman province. 229. Death of Hamilcab in Spain. He is succeeded by Has- DRUBAL. 225. War with the Gaids. Fourth and last year of the war, 222. 219. Hannibal takes Saguntum, and winters at Carthago Nova. 21S.^Second Punic War. — Hannibal reaches Italy from Spain in five months. He defeats the Romans at the battles of the Ticinm and the Trebia. Scipio carries on the war in Spain. 217. Hannibal defeats Flaminius at the battle of the Trasymene Lake^ and marches into Apulia. 216. Romans defeated at the battle of Cannm. 215. Mabcellus overcomes Hannibal near Nola. The Scipios successful in Spain. 212. Seventh year of the war. — Hannibal takes Tarentum, and Marcellus takes Syracuse. The two Scipios defeated in Spain. 208. The two consuls are defeated by Hannibal near Venusia. Hasdrubal crosses the Pyrenees and winters in Gaul. 207. Hasdeubal marches into Italy, is defended on the Mciaurus, and slain. 206. Scipio becomes master of Spain. — 204. Hannibal worsted near Croton. Scipio crosses over into Africa. 203. Carthaginians defeated, Syphax taken prisoner. Hannibal leaves Italy for Africa. 202 Scipio defeats Hannibal at the decisive 5/2(^Ze of Zama. 184 ROMAN CHRONOLOGY. B-C. 201.* Eighteenth and last year of the Second Punic War. Peace with Carthage. 200. War renewed with Philip of Macedon. 197. Philip defeated by Flaminius at the battle of Cynoscephalce^ and peace concluded. 196. Flaminius proclaims the independence of Greece. 191. War with Antiochus, who is defeated at Thermopyloi. 190. L. Scipio, the consul, crosses into Asia and defeats Antio- chus at the battle of Magnesia. 183. Death of Hannibal and of Scipio Africanus (exact date not settled). 171. War with Perseus. 168. Fourth and last year of the war. Perseus defeated by ^MiLius Paulus at the battle of Pydna. 149. Third Pu7iic War. — The Consuls land in Africa. \^Q.* Fourth and last year of the Third Punic War. — Carthage de- stroyed by Scipio. 143. Numantine War commenced. — 140, 138 and 137. Numantines successful. 133. Kumantia taken and destroyed hj Scipio. 129. Death of Scipio Africanus (get. 56). Death of C. Grac- chus, 121. 111. Jugurthine War. — 106. Sixth and last year, Jugurtha cap tured, jMarius commander. 102. Battle of Aquoi Seztia;. — Marius defeats the Teutones. Ser- vile War arises in Sicily. 101. Marius and Catulus, Pro-con., defeat the Cimbri at Campi Raudii. 90. 3Iarsic or Social War. — 89. Romans successful, Asculum taken. SS.*End of the 3farsic War. Sulla appointed to command the army against Mithridates, which occasions the civil war of Marius and Sulla. Sulla marches upon Rome, pro- scribes Marius and his pai'ty. 87. Sulla crosses into Greece to conduct the war. Marius and CiNNA, the Consul, enter Rome and murder their oppo- nents. 86. Marius dies (set. seventy). War continued against Mith- ridates. Archelaus defeated in Boeotia. 84. Mithridates and Sulla conclude a peace. 83. Sulla returns to Italy and continues the civil war against the party of Marius. The Capitol burnt. 82. Sulla, victoi'ious, is appointed Dictator. Prteneste cap- tured. 78. Death of Sulla (aet. sixty). 75. P. Servilius Vatia, the Pro-consul (sent against the Pirate* on the S. coast of Asia Minor, 78), conquers the Isaurians. ROMAN CHRONOLOGY. 185 B.C. "^4 War with 3Iithridates renewed. Lucullus ajspomted general. 73. MiTiiRiDATES defeated by Lucullus, near Cyzicus. Com- mencement of the war in Italy against the Gladiators under Spartacus. 71. Miihridatic War continued. Mithridates flees into Armenia, to- Tigranes. Spartacus, the leader of the Gladiators, de- feated. 69. Lucullus invades Armenia, and defeats Tigranes. 66, Mitkridatic War iutinisted to Cn. Pompeius. 65. Catiline's fii-st consjnracy. 63. Death of Mithridates. Catiline's second conspiracy disco- vered and ci'ushed by Cicero the Consul. 62. Catiline defeated and slain. 61. Pompeius, having returned to Italy, triumphs, 60. C. J. Cesar victorious in Spain. C^sar, Pompeius, and Crassus establish the first Triumvirate. 58. CjiSAR undertakes his first campaign in Gaul. Defeats the Belgfe, 57 ; crosses the Rhine, and invades Britain, 65 ; second expedition into- Britain, 54. 54. Crassus marches against the Parthians, — 53. Defeat and death of Crassus. 51. C^SAR subjugates Gaul, his ninth campaign. 49. Commencement of tke Civil War between Pompeius and C^SAR. 48. Cjssar lands in Greece, and defeats Pompeius at the battle of Pharsalus. Pompeius murdered before Alexandria (aet. 58). Alexandrine War. 47. CiESAR, Dictator, concludes tlie Alexandrine War; marches into Pontus, and conquers Pharnaces. 46. C^SAR defeats the partisans of Pompeius at the battle of Thapsus. He reforms the Calendar. 45. Battle of Munda in Spain. C^sar defeats the sons of Pom- peius, and is made Consul for ten years, and Dictator for life- 44. C^sar assassinated, on the 15th of March (set. fifty-six). Civil War of Mutma against Antony. 43. Second Triumvirate formed by Octavianus, Antonius, and Lepidus. 42, War in Greece. Battle of Philippi, and death of Cassius. Second battle of Philippi, and death of Brutus. 36. Defeat of Sex. Pompeius. Lepidus ceases to be a Triumvir, 34. Dalmatians defeated. 33. A rupture takes place between Octavianus and Antonius, and both prepare for war. 31. Antonius defeated at the battle of Actium, 2d of Sept. 30.*Death of Antonius (get. fifty-one) and Cleopatra, ^gypi be- comes a Roman province. Octavianus soli; ruler of thbs 16^ 186 ROMAN CHRONOLOGY. B.C. Roman Empire. He returns to Rome from the East, and celebrates three triumphs, Dalmatian, Actian, Alexandrine. 27. OcTAViANUs takes the title of Augustus, and accepts the government for ten years. 25. The Temple of Janus shut a second time. 23. Death of Marcellus. 20. Ambassadors sent to Rome from India. 12 Death of Agrippa. 10. Augustus returns to Rome from Gaul, -with Drusus and Ti- berius. 9. Drusus sent against the Germans. Dies. A.D. 4. Tiberius adopted by Augustus, and sent to carry on war against the Germans. 12. Tiberius returns to Rome from Germany, and triumphs. 14. Census taken, the citizens are 4,197,000. Augustus dies at Nola in Campania (set. seventy-six), and is succeeded by Ti- berius (jet. fifty-six). 16. Germanicus continues the war in Germany, and triumphs, 17. Returns to Rome. 19. Germanicus visits Egypt, and returns to Syria. Dies (sot. thirty-four). The Jews are banished from Italy. 23. Death of Drusus, poisoned by Sejanus. 31. Fall and execution of Sejanus. 33. Agrippina and her son Drusus are put to death. 37. Death of Tiberius (ast. seventy-eight), having reigned twenty- three years. Caligula succeeds (oet. twenty-five). 39. Herod Antipas, tetrarch of Galilee, deposed, and succeeded by Agrippa. 40. Caligula in Gaul. His expedition to the ocean. He returns to Rome. 41. Caligula slain (aet. twenty-nine). Claudius succeeds (set. fifty). Germans defeated by Galba. 43. Expedition of Claudius into Britain. Returns to Rome, and triumphs, 44. 49. Claudius (his wife Messalina having been put to death jn 48) marries Agrippina. 64. Claudius poisoned (ast. sixty-three) ; reigned fourteen years. Nero succeeds (oet. seventeen). 59. Agrippina, the mother of Nero, is murdered by his order. 61. Insurrection in Britain under Boadicea. 62. Nero divorces Octayia, and marries Popp^a Sabina, the wife of Otho. 64. Great fire at Rome. First persecution of the Christiajis. 65. Piso's conspiracy discovered and suppressed. 66. Nero goes to Greece. The Jewish war begins, 67. Nero in Greece. Vespasian conducts the Jewish War. ROMAN C H R N L G r. 187 A.D. 68. Nero kills himself (aet. thirty). Galea succeeds. 69. Galba slain, Jan. 15 (fet. seventy-three). Otho succeeds, Jan. 16, and died April 10 (ret. thirty-six). Vitellius pro- claimed at Cologne, Jan. 2 ; reigned till his death, Dec. 22 (set. fifty-four). Vespasian (set. sixty) proclaimed at Alex- andria, July 1. On the death of Galba, the Civil War be- tween Otho and Vitellius commenced. The troops of Otho defeated at the battle of Bedriacum ; the generals of Vespa- sian meanwhile invade Italy, take Cremona, and march upon Rome. The Capitol burnt. Vitellius slain, 22d of Dec. 70.*Vespasian proceeds to Italy, leaving Titus his son to carry on the Jewish war. Jerusalem taken, after a siege of. five months. 71. Triumph of Vespasian and Titus. Temple of Janus closed. 78. Agricola in Britain. 79. Death of Vespasian, June 23 (aet. sixty-nine). Titus suc- ceeds (set. thirty-eight). Second campaign of Agricola in Britain. Eruption of Vesuvius. 80. Great fire at Rome. Colosseum completed. Third cam- paign of Agricola. 81. Death of Titus, Sept. 13 (aet. forty). Domitian succeeds (9Bt. thirty). Fourth campaign of Agricola in Britain. Fifth campaign, 82 ; sixth, 83 ; seventh, 84. Agricola re- called to Rome, 85. 96. Domitian slain, Sept. 18 (set. fortj^-four). Nerva Emperor (set. sixty-three) ; died Jan. 25, 98 (set. sixty-five). 98. Trajan (ret. forty-one); died Aug. 8, 117 (set. sixty), having reigned nineteen years. 117. Hadrian (set. forty-two; died July 10, 138 (set. sixty-two), having reigned t-v^enty-one years. 138. Antonius Pius (ast. fifty-one); died Mar. 7, 161 (set. seventy-four), having reigned twenty-three years. 161. M. Aurelius (tet. thirty-nine) ; died Mar. 17, 180 (set. fifty- eight), having reigned nineteen years. 180. CoMMODUs (set. nineteen) ; slain Dec. 31, 193 (set. thirty- one), having reigned thirteen yeai's. 193, Pertinax (set. sixty-six); slain Mar. 28, 193, having reigned three months. Julian us (set. fifty-six); reigned from Mar. 28 to June 1. Septimus Severus (set. forty-six); died Feb. 4, 211, at Eboracum, York, (set sixty-four), having reigned eighteen years. GREEK INDEX. A. ayKvpa, 113.. ayopai, 161. ayfUvti, 108. abvTov, 103. a6u>via, 105. aO'ivaia, 107. 'Adnv7,, 69. 'a;?^^s, 72. ai^Hfl, 112. U/cdlTIOl', 112. aKpariajxa, 114. aKpiTToAtf, 160. aA/^ia, 108. .iXr^pfS, 108. cuKpiKTvovia, 102. ai'dppvffig, 106. avnppVQ), 104. ai'9£(rr;7j:i(a, 106. ^ AvQcarr]pi(hvy 165. arrAoy, 113. a^iv,;, 112. 'ATtapKTtas, 172. aTra/);^)?, 104. •jTraTowpja, 106. 'A7r?;XiuJr?;j, 172. 'ApyeoT^f, 172. dp(5«i'ioi', 115. apf£07ray£(ra<, 101. 'Aprii, 68. apTjT^pr.s, 103, lipiaTov, 114. "AprE^tj, 70. dp;;^£7ov, 100. ap')(Uiv, 98. ' A.i6pia, 106. htiXivdVf 114. ^ftrrrov, 114. {it\oj, 103, 112. o. d^oXdf, 115. '05ucro-£Vf, 94. o?af, 113. OiVwi/OTToAot, 104* dt(TTOt, 112. oioiviaraif 104. bXKdSes, 113. 6A^o/, 114. 6ix(paXoi, 111. ^v£«po7rdXoj, 104. iiTiffddQofioi, 103, GREEK INDEX 191 (nrXnai, 111. hTrXirris, 108. 6p)^rjaTf)a, 116. 6aTpaKi(jfi6g, 102. ov\o'y^vTai, 104. oiipd, 11-2. n. TrayKpariov, 109. TTdAv, 109. nJAXaj, 69. 7rava0/?vaia, 107. TTf^oi, 111. ■niKavoi, 104. jrfXtta^ES, 105. TTfAtKl'f, 112. TTfAraoraJ, 111, 112. i:i\Tr,, 111, 112. TTEfiTTcii, 112. ■KtvTadXov, 108. Tcti/TrjKdvropoL, 113. TTepiKCKpaXaia, 111. irepioiKot, 98. TtcpinXovs, 114. ->7(5aAtuv, 113. niOoiyia, 106. ffiAoi, 115. TrXarat, 113. T:\evpai, 113. 7rAo7a, 113. TTVU^, 161. rdJ/cS, 113. jToixiXr], 161. ;roA///ap;:^of, 98, 112, TToXlrm, 98. noo-£t(Sfdlv, 165. Iloo-fi^uii/, 68. trpdSojxos, 103. np6c5poi, 100. 7r(.d0£(7tj, 115. T^pSvaog, 103. TrpoTTilAata, 160. npoaKrjvtoVf 116. irpiftvt), 113. TTOvraviia, 100. TrpuruvfToj', 161. Trpura'vet?, 100. nptjpa, 113. Ilvav£ipiu)v, 165. TTuy^)}, 108. TTvAota, 101. 7ri5p, 103. 2. fforif, 103, uTjKos, 103. arifiara, 104. UKrivri, 116. 'ZKippo(popi(ijv, 165, S/ct'pwj/, 172. ffoAos, 108. 2:rapTtarai, 98. CTTzipr), 113. airovhai, 104. oraJfoi', 108. aravpos, 103. arrjXai, 116. arrjXrj, 103. aTiy/xaTa, 103. aroai, 161. <7TdAaj3;;^;of, 114. (TToX/j, 115. cTpaTijyoi, 112. CTparyjydi, 114. a-parid, 112. orpoyyjJAai, 113. (TiPevSovT], 112. cr^oivia, 113. T. ra^iapxoi, 112. ra'l.f, 112. Tfixevos, 103. Tipara, 104. TtcaapaKuvTa, 102. To^tvfjtara, 112. rdlov, 112. TOTTtia, 113. rpdrt^ai, 116. Tpd(pT]^, 113. Tpi[So}v, 115. r/)(^pa(t);:tof, 114. Tpha, 116. Tpdiris, 113. TpoiToi, 113. TpO')(6i, 103. Ti5;t'?^ 71. Y. Vucpai, 113. VTT0l3o\£VS, 117. VKo6>ifiaTaf 116, ipaivoXrig, 115, (l>d\ay^, 112. (pdpiiaKov, 103. (pdpos, 115. '^ . .»>•'* ■:i