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HISTORY NOTES 
 
 FOR THE 
 
 SEVENTH GRADE 
 
 Revised i 9 1 5 
 
 BY 
 
 ROBERT j> Mclaughlin, a. :sl 
 
 Welsh-West School, Philadelphia 
 
 Walther Print, Third St. and Girard Ave, 
 PHILADELPHIA 
 

 Copyright, 1915, by Robert J. McLaughlin 
 Published November, 1915 
 
 6 
 
 ©CI,A416462 
 
 NOV 16 ISIS 
 
 -2^ 7 
 
History Notes for the Seventh Grade 
 
 Note. — Review the following from "Sixth Grade History 
 Notes":— 
 
 The Causes of the Revolution ; the Second Continental Congress ; the 
 Declaration of Independence; the alliance with France; the treaty of 
 peace; the Articles cf Confederation; the events leading to the adop- 
 tion of the Constitution; the adoption of the Constitution; the Ordi- 
 nance of 1787; the state of the country and the extent of the territory 
 occupied; finances under Washington's administration; the purchase 
 of Louisiana; the exploration of the Oregon country; the influence of 
 the Democratic spirit; causes and results of the War of 1812; the 
 Missouri Compromise; the Monroe Doctrine; the Tariff question; the 
 growth of sectional feeling; inventions and improvements, with their 
 effects (the steamboat, the Erie Canal, the railroad, the telegraph, 
 the McCormick reaper, the screw propeller). 
 
 Polk's Administration (1845 — 1849). 
 
 I. James K. Polk, of Tennessee, was elected president 
 by the Democratic party, serving from 1845 to 1849. 
 
 Note. — In the election of 1844, Henry Clay was the Whig candi- 
 date, and for the third time this popular orator failed to win the 
 presidency. Polk was able and industrious, but narrow in his views. 
 In his cabinet, James Buchanan was Secretary of State, and George 
 Bancroft, Secretary of the Navy. 
 
 2. The War with Mexico. 
 
 There were two causes of the Mexican War: 
 
 First, the United States had admitted Texas into the 
 Union, although its independence had never been acknowl- 
 edged by Mexico, from whom it had revolted. 
 
 Second, both the United States and Mexico claimed the 
 land lying between the Eio Grande and the Nueces River. 
 When General Taylor occupied this disputed territory, 
 war broke out. 
 
 Note. — Texas stretched from the Rio Grande on the west to the 
 Sabine Kiver on the east, and from the Gulf of Mexico on the souths 
 to the Rod River and the Arkansas River on the north. 
 
Polk did not really want war, but lie did want California, which 
 he thought Mexico would sell to the United States. Hoping that the 
 banished Santa Anna would sell us California if restored to x^ower, 
 Polk brought him back to Mexico from Havana in a war vessel. 
 
 Santa Anna regained power and urged war against the United 
 States on account of Texas. 
 
 Taylor's Campaign. 
 
 The object of General Taylor's campaign was to hold the 
 disputed territory and invade northern Mexico. All the 
 battles of Taylor's campaign were fought in 1846, except 
 the last battle, which was fought early in 1847. A few days 
 before Congress declared war, Taylor fought two battles in 
 the disputed territory, at Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma, 
 in both of which he defeated General Arista, the Mexican 
 commander. Shortly afterwards he crossed the Rio Grande ; 
 and after a severe battle, he captured the city of Monterey, 
 in the northeastern part of Mexico. Taylor was now ordered 
 to send a large part of his troops to aid General Scott. Santa 
 Anna learned this fact and attacked him with an army 
 four times as great as Taylor's, at Buena Yista, in the 
 northeastern part of Mexico; but Taylor defeated him 
 (1847). The result of Taj^lor's campaign was to hold the 
 disputed territory and northeastern Mexico. 
 
 Note. — At Buena Vista (February 23, 1847), Santa Anna nad 
 18,000 men and Taylor 5,000, the battle lasting all day. At one part 
 of the battle, Lieutenant Crittenden was sent to demand the surrender 
 of part of the Mexican army. The commander of this section sent him 
 to Santa Anna, whereupon Crittenden demanded the surrender of the 
 entire Mexican army. When told that Taylor must surrender in an 
 hour or bo routed, he replied ''General Taylor never surrenders." 
 
 At a critical moment in the battle Bragg 's artillery was ordered to 
 the aid of the infantry. The first discharge of his battery caused 
 the Mexicans to waver. "A little more grape. Captain Bragg," 
 shouted Taylor. At the third volley, the Mexicans fled. 
 
Scott's Campaign. 
 
 The object of General Winfield Scott's campaign was to 
 capture Mexico, the capital. This campaign was fought 
 in 1847. 
 
 He landed at Vera Cruz, in southeastern Mexico, on the 
 Gulf of Mexico, and took the city after bombarding it. 
 Scott then began his march of two hundred miles toward 
 the capital. At the mountain pass of Cerro Gordo, in 
 southeastern ]\Iexico, Scott defeated Santa Anna. 
 
 Marching on toward the capital, Scott defeated the IMexi- 
 cans at the village of Contreras, eight miles from the capi- 
 tal. That same day, the Americans defeated Santa Anna 
 at the village of Churubusco, about five miles from the 
 capital. Santa Anna was then granted an armistice ; but as 
 the Mexicans used it only to strengthen their works, Scott 
 attacked the city, and after taking the castle of Chapulte- 
 pec, entered the city in triumph. The result of Scott's 
 campaign was the capture of Mexico and the ending of 
 the war. 
 
 Treaty of Peace. 
 
 The treaty of peace was signed at Guadalupe Hidalgo, 
 near IMexico, the capital, in 1848 By the terms of this 
 treaty, IMexico gave up all claims to Texas, and made the 
 Rio Grande its western boundary JMexico also gave the 
 United States the vast territory called the IMexican Cession. 
 
 This Cession extended from the Rocky Mountains and 
 the Rio Grande on the east, to the Pacific Ocean on the 
 west, and from Mexico on the south to the Oreiron country 
 on the north. In return, the United States gavf^ Mexico 
 fifteen million dollars. 
 
6 
 
 Note 1. — The Alamo (a' la mo) was originally a church at San 
 Antonio, Texas. Later it was surrounded with walls and made into 
 a fort. Colonel Travis occupied it in February, 1836. After a ter- 
 rible siege by Santa Anna with a large force, the fort was taken by 
 assault on March 6th. Of the garrison of about one hundred and 
 eighty, only five Texans survived, and these Santa Anna ordered 
 killed. David Crockett and Colonel Bowie were part of the brave 
 garrison. 
 
 "Eemember the Alamo" became a watchword. 
 
 Note 2 — Sam Houston was president of Texas from 1836 to 1838 
 and from 1841 to 1844. After Texas was admitted into the Union, 
 he was a United States senator (1845-1859). 
 
 Note 3. — Colonel Stephen Kearney with the little Array of the 
 West left Fort Leavenworth in June, 1846. After a march of a 
 thousand miles they reached Santa Fe in August. The Mexicans 
 abandoned the city without resistance. Kearney with six hundred men 
 then started for California. This region had, however, been conquered 
 by the Americans. In June, 1846, about three hundred American set- 
 tlers revolted against Mexico, adopting a flag bearing a grizzly bear. 
 Commodores Sloat and Stockton commanding an American fleet, and 
 Captain John Fremont, who was then exploring the West, aided the 
 settlers. The towns of Monterey, Los Angeles, and San Francisco 
 surrendered with little resistance, giving California to the Americans. 
 Kearney arrived in California after the conquest had been made. 
 
 Note 4. — Santa Anna was made president of Mexico in 1846. He 
 commanded the Mexican army in the Mexican War. His defeat at 
 Cerro Gordo left the way open for Scott's march to the capital. It 
 was at this battle that he barely escaped capture, leaving behind his 
 wooden leg. After Scott occupied the capital, Santa Anna resigned 
 and left the country. He was again president from 1853 to 1855, 
 when he was exiled. He never regained his former prominence; he 
 died almost forgotten in the capital in 1876. 
 
 Note 5. — Both Eobert E. Lee and Ulysses S. Grant fought in the 
 Mexican War. Grant in his "Personal Memoirs" said that he con- 
 sidered the Mexican War ''one of the most unjust ever waged by a 
 stronger against a weaker nation." 
 
 Note 6. — The Mormons or ''Latter-Day Saints" were founded by 
 Joseph Smith, of western New York. He claimed to have received a 
 revelation that in a certain hill near Palmyra, New York, he would 
 find a book written on gold plates. This work he published in 1830, 
 as the "Book of Mormon." He gathered followers, who moved first 
 to Ohio, then to Missouri, and then to Illinois, where they built a city, 
 Nauvoo, on the Mississippi River. At Nauvoo polygamy was intro- 
 duced. Smith was arrested, and murdered in jail by a mob. Brig- 
 ham Young, Smith 's -successor, led the people to Utah to secure peace, 
 founding Salt Lake City in 1847. The state they called Deseret, 
 meaning "The Land of the Honey Bee." They greatly improved 
 the region by irrigation, and built up a fine city. 
 
3. The Tariff Question. 
 
 A tariff is a tax or duty laid on articles imported into a 
 country. It is the opposite of ' ' free trade, ' ' which imposes 
 no duties at all on imports. Hamilton's plan included 
 the laying of a tariff, but it was not very high. A high 
 tariff; or protective tariff, is one which is intended to pro- 
 tect American manufacturers by laying such a tax on im- 
 ported goods as will make them more expensive than similar 
 goods made here. "The American System" meant the de- 
 velopment of American commerce by a protective tariff. 
 This protective tariff began in 1816. In 1828, a very high 
 tariff was passed. The North as a manufacturing section 
 favored it, w^hile the South as an agricultural section op- 
 posed it. To appease the South, the tariff of 1832 was 
 passed, but it failed to allay the trouble. South Carolina 
 declared the tariff "null and void," and threatened to secede 
 if the duties were collected. President Jackson did not be- 
 lieve a State had a right to secede. He therefore sent 
 troops and ships to Charleston to enforce the Federal law, 
 and South Carolina had to obey. The trouble was ended 
 by Henry Clay's Compromise Tariff of 1833, which pro- 
 vided for a gradual reduction of the tariff. 
 
 The Walker Tariff of 1846 was passed in Polk's ad- 
 ministration. It reduced the Whig Tariff of 1842, and it 
 continued in force till 1857 when further reductions were 
 made. 
 
 From 1846 to 1861, the tariff of the United' States was a 
 tariff for revenue only. A revenue tariff does not aim to 
 protect home manufactures, but lays a tariff on imports, 
 to raise only enough revenue to support the government. 
 (See Harrison's, Cleveland's, McKinley's, Taft's, and Wil- 
 son's administration.) 
 
4. The Northern (Oregon) Boundary Settled. 
 
 The Oregon country was bounded on the south by Cali- 
 fornia, Nevada, and Utah ; on the east it was bounded by the 
 Rocky Mountains; its western boundary was the Pacific 
 Ocean. 
 
 The United States claimed Oregon because of Captain 
 Gray's discovery of the Columbia River in 1792, and be- 
 cause of the exploring expedition made there by Captains 
 Meriwether Lewis and William Clark in 1804- '06. Dr. Marcus 
 Whitman, an American missionary, by his winter journey 
 in 1842 from Oregon to Washington, D. C, roused the 
 country to secure Oregon, and brought back many emi- 
 grants with him. The United States claimed as boundary 
 line 54° 40'; but by treaty with England in Polk's admin- 
 istration (1846), the forty-ninth parallel was taken as the 
 northern boundary line. 
 
 Note.- -From the Oregon country, the States of Oregon, Washing- 
 ton, and Idaho have been formed. 
 
 5. The Wilmot Proviso. 
 
 In 1846, David Wilmot, a member of Congress from 
 Pennsylvania, proposed in Congress that slavery should 
 be prohibited in territory to be acquired from Mexico. It 
 was not adopted, but it greatly aroused the feeling for and 
 against slavery. 
 
 6. The Discovery of Gold. 
 
 Gold was discovered in 1848 by James Marshall, in dig- 
 ging a mill-race for a sawmill for Captain Sutter in the 
 Sacramento Valley, California. As a result, population 
 flocked from all over the world to California, which soon 
 developed into an important State with the great seaport 
 
of San Francisco. Many of the emigrants turned their 
 efforts to agriculture, and this soon became of more value 
 to the State than gold mining. 
 
 Note. — Those who went to California in 1849 to find gold were 
 3alled the "forty-niners.^' There were three routes by which Cali- 
 fornia could be reached from the East, — overland, around Cape 
 Horn, and across the Isthmus of Panama. The overland route on 
 horseback or in covered wagons over mountains, deserts, and swamps 
 caused the death of many, unable to stand the extreme sufferings of 
 this long journey. The route around Cape Horn took six or seven 
 months' time. By the third route, a steamer was taken to the 
 Isthmus of Panama; after an overland journey to the town of 
 Panama, the adventurers were taken northward by a California 
 steamer. These steamers sold their available tickets by lot, leaving 
 the disappointed to try for the next steamer. All rushed for the gold 
 fields; some made enormous fortunes, and others failed to find any 
 of the precious metal. 
 
 7. Inventions. 
 
 In Polk's administration (1846), Elias Howe, of Massa- 
 chusetts, invented the sewing-machine. Its effect was to 
 cheapen the price of clothing, by diminishing the labor in 
 sewing. After some years its use extended into the fac- 
 tories, giving employment to many thousands. In Polk's 
 administration, in 1846, Kichard Hoe, of New York, in- 
 vented a rotary, steam printing-press. This cheapened 
 the price of printing, making books and newspapers more 
 common, and thus influencing and educating the people. 
 This press took the place of the hand-press formerly in use. 
 
 Note 1. — To-day the Hoe octuple press can print 96,000 eight-page 
 newspapers an hour. — McMaster. 
 
 Note 2. — In 1846, it was discovered that a person could be made 
 temporarily insensible to pain by the use of sulphuric ether. The 
 discovery of this anaesthetic was claimed by Dr. Morton and Dr. 
 
 Note 3.— Charles Goodyear, after years of experimenting in which 
 he reduced himself to poverty, discovered how to harden, or vulcanize, 
 india-rubber, for the purpose of making overshoes, caps, coats, etc. 
 In 1844 he took out his first patent for the process. 
 
10 
 
 Taylor's and Fillmore's Administration (1849 — 1853). 
 
 1. Zachary Taylor, of Louisiana, the hero of the Mexi- 
 can War, was elected by the Whig party, and died after 
 serving a little over a year, from 1849 to 1850. He was suc- 
 ceeded by Millard Fillmore, of New York, the vice-presi- 
 dent, who served as president from 1850 to 1853. 
 
 2. Slavery was the chief political question of this 
 period. 
 
 Every time a State was to be admitted, the slavery ques- 
 tion led to disputes in Congress. Each side wanted to in- 
 crease its votes in Congress oy admitting new States, hold- 
 ing its views, and by keeping out those holding contrary 
 opinions. California applied for admission as a State, and 
 to allay the strife on this and other points, Henry Clay, 
 a United States senator from Kentucky, proposed a plan 
 of compromise in the United States Senate, in 1850. The 
 matter was referred to a committee of thirteen senators. 
 Clay being made chairman of the committee. Clay's plan 
 w^as adopted by the committee with few changes, and sub- 
 mitted to Congress. It was called an "Omnibus Bill," as 
 its recommendations dealt with California, Utah, New Mex- 
 ico, and the passage of a law regarding escaped slaves. 
 
 Its compromise measures w^ere passed as separate bills by 
 Congress, and signed by President Fillmore. By this action : 
 
 (a) California was admitted into the Union as a free 
 State, its Constitution excluding slavery from the State. 
 
 (b) Utah and New Mexico were organized as territories 
 without any provision regarding slavery. 
 
 (c) The slave trade was prohibited in the District of 
 Columbia. 
 
 (d) A Fugitive Slave Law was enacted. This law pro- 
 vided for United States officials who should hear claims 
 
11 
 
 to fugitive slaves, and should surrender such slaves to 
 their owners without a jury trial. Persons who assisted 
 a fugitive slave to escape could be fined and imprisoned. 
 ''The worst feature of the law was that it compelled any 
 bystander to assist in making a capture if summoned to 
 do so by the sla^e-catcher. " The effect of this law was 
 to strengthen the antislavery party greatly, as the law w^as 
 very unpopular in the North. 
 
 j^OTE 1.— California, after adopting a State Constitution whicli pro- 
 hibited slavery in the State, applied for admission into the Union; 
 the South opposed her admission for the reason that it would mean 
 more antislavery votes in Congress, The South said she would agree 
 to California's admission on receiving other concessions; hence the 
 Compromise of 1850 was passed. James Mason (later connected with 
 Slidell), a senator from Virginia, drafted the stringent Fugitive Slave 
 Law. One provision of it allowed the commissioner who determined 
 the matter a fee of ten dollars if he adjudged the negro to slavery 
 and only five dollars if he declared the fugitive a freeman. The law 
 irritated the North and inspired the writing of ''Uncle Tom's Cabin" 
 by Harriet Beecher Stowe. This book, published in 1852, helped to 
 elect Lincoln. — Adapted from Eliodes. 
 
 Note 2. — An organized system for aiding fugitive slaves to escape 
 to Canada was formed after the passage of this law. This ''Under- 
 ground Railroad" as it was called, was a "network of routes along 
 which slaves escaping to the free States were sent by night from one 
 friendly house to another," until they reached safety and freedom. 
 
 Note 3. — Daniel Webster spoke on Clay's compromise resolutions 
 on the seventh of March, 1850. Webster was America's greatest 
 orator, and his intellectual powers probably exceeded those of all our 
 other statesmen. His love for his country and his reverence for the 
 Constitution were profound. In his famous Seventh-of-March Speech 
 he supported the Fugitive Slave Law and opposed the Abolition 
 societies. For this he was condemned by the North. Whittier in his 
 poem, ' ' Ichabod, ' ' mourned for the ' ' fallen ' ' statesman. Yet Web- 
 ster was actuated by a love for the Union, for he believed the attacks 
 on slavery would injure the Union. Webster's influence was of im- 
 mense value in passing the compromise measures. 
 
 3. The growth of the antislavery sentiment was 
 
 largely due to the work of Seward, Sumner, Beecher, and 
 Whittier. 
 
12 
 
 William Henry Seward, a prominent lawyer, was a 
 United States senator from New York, from 1849 to 1861. 
 He opposed slavery, voting against both the " Omnibus Bill" 
 in 1850 and the Kansas-Nebraska Bill in -1854. He was one 
 of the founders of the present Republican party. As Secre- 
 tary of State in Lincoln's administration, he settled the 
 Trent Affair creditably. One of the Booth party of con- 
 spirators stabbed Seward while ill in bed, the same night 
 Lincoln was shot, but failed to kill him. 
 
 Johnson continued Seward as Secretary of State. In 
 1867, Congress, acting on Seward's advice, purchased 
 Alaska from Russia. 
 
 Charles Sumner, a lawyer, succeeded Webster as a 
 United States senator from Massachusetts, in 1851. He op- 
 posed slavery and voted against the Kansas-Nebraska Bill 
 in 1854. He was one of the founders of the present Repub- 
 lican party. In 1856, in his speech in the Senate on "The 
 Crime against Kansas," he spoke severely against one of 
 the South Carolina senators. A few days later, this man's 
 nephew, Preston S. Brooks, beat Sumner, who was working 
 at his desk, so severely on the head with a cane that he was 
 unable to return to the Senate for nearly four years. Sum- 
 ner's statesmanship was remarkable for its honesty. 
 
 Henry Ward Beecher was the famous pastor of Ply- 
 mouth Church, Brooklyn. He was a great orator both in 
 the pulpit and on the lecture platform, and attacked slavery 
 everywhere as a great evil. In 1863, he delivered addresses 
 on the Civil War in England, taking the Union's side, and 
 by his eloquence did much to prevent England's recogniz- 
 ing the Confederacy. 
 
13 
 
 John Greenleaf Whittier. (See ''History Notes for 
 Sixth Grade, Revised, 1906.") 
 
 Note 1. — Eeview the biographies of Webster, Clay, and Calhoun in 
 ' * Sixth Grade Notes. ' ' Give their views on the slavery question. 
 
 Note 2. — Mrs. Harriet Beecher Stowe, sister of Henry Ward 
 Beeeher, exerted a powerful influence against slavery by her famous 
 novel, "Uncle Tom's Cabin." It was published first as a serial in a 
 Washington newspaper, and appeared in book form in 1852. Its sale 
 was immense, and it was translated into twenty different languages. 
 Lodge says: ''Eufus Choate probably did not miss the truth far 
 when he said the book would make two million Abolitionists. ' * 
 
 Pierce's Administration (1853 — 1857). 
 
 I. Franklin Pierce, of New Hampshire, was elected 
 president by the Democratic party, serving from 1853 to 
 1857. 
 
 Slavery continued the chief political question. 
 
 2. The Gadsden Purchase. 
 
 To settle the disputed boundary line between Mexico and 
 the United States, General James Gadsden, in 1853, nego- 
 tiated a treaty with Mexico, by which we secured a large 
 tract of land in the southern part of Arizona and the south- 
 western part of New Mexico, paying in return ten million 
 dollars to Mexico. 
 
 3. The Kansas=Nebraska Act. 
 
 Stephen Douglas, a Democratic United States senator 
 from Illinois, introduced the Kansas-Nebraska Bill into 
 Congress in 1854. There had been violent disputes in Con- 
 gress regarding slavery from 1820 on. 
 
 Each party wished to increase its votes in Congress and 
 to prevent the votes of the other party from increasing. 
 The quarrel was renewed every time a State or a Terri- 
 tory was organized. 
 
14 
 
 Douglas's Kansas-Nebraska Bill provided for the organi- 
 zation of two Territories, Kansas and Nebraska, allowing 
 the people of each Territory to decide for themselves as to 
 whether to permit slavery or not. As the early settlers were 
 sometimes called squatters, their power of deciding the 
 question was called "squatter sovereignty." The bill pro- 
 vided for the repeal of the Missouri Compromise, which 
 prohibited slavery in that region ; it became a law in 1854. 
 
 The result was to lead to a bitter conflict in Kansas. Both 
 the slavery and antislavery parties sent settlers to Kansas, 
 and fighting went on for several years. John BroA\Ti, the 
 Abolitionist, took part in this conflict. Finally, the anti- 
 slavery party won, and Kansas was admitted as a free State 
 in 1861. 
 
 The Kansas-Nebraska Act by setting aside the Missouri 
 Compromise, aroused intense indignation in the North. It 
 disrupted the Democratic party and opened the way for 
 the formation of the Republican party, as opposed to the 
 extension of slavery. The Act greatly widened the breach 
 between the North and the South. 
 
 Note 1. — As Douglas and Pierce botli desired the next presidential 
 nomination, they wanted Southern support. By the aid of Jefiferson 
 Davis, Pierce's secretary of war, Douglas induced Pierce to agree to 
 the repeal of the Missouri Compromise. Both made a great blunder. 
 Douglas was denounced ' ' as the betrayer of his country, the Judas 
 Iscariot, and a society of women in Ohio sent him thirty pieces of 
 silver. . . . Attempting to speak in his own city of Chicago, he 
 was hooted off the stage. By his own statement he 'could travel 
 from Boston to Chicago by the light of his own effigies. ' . . . He 
 soon found himself dashed to the ground like a broken toy, and his 
 presidential prospects forever blasted.'' 
 
 Note 2. — The struggle between the slavery party and the anti- 
 slavery party for the possession of Kansas lasted seven years, from 
 1854 to 1861. At the first election there in 1854, a mob of five thou- 
 sand armed men marched from Missouri to Kansas, seized the ballot- 
 boxes, and elected to the Territorial Legislature men who were in favor 
 of slavery. The next year the New England immigrants and others 
 
15 
 
 who were opposed to slavery organized a govemment of their own, 
 thus giving two separate governments in Kansas. Civil war broke 
 out. 
 
 In 1857, a convention at Lecompton adopted the unjust Lecompton 
 Constitution; application was made to Congress for admission as a 
 State under this proslavery Constitution, although three-fourths of 
 the people of Kansas opposed slavery. President Buchanan urged 
 Congress to admit Kansas with this Constitution. Douglas opposed 
 the injustice in a great speech before the Senate, insisting that the 
 people of Kansas had a right to vote on their Constitution. He won 
 his cause and also regained his place as leader of the Democratic 
 party. When the people of Kansas did vote on the Lecompton Con- 
 stitution, they rejected it by a large majoritj^ Finally, in January, 
 1861, Kansas entered the Union as a free State. 
 
 Note 3. — The struggle over slavery resulted in the breaking up of 
 the old Whig party. The present Eepublican party was formed from 
 part of the Whigs and the Free-soilers. At a ''meeting at Eipon, 
 in Wisconsin, in 1854, it was proposed to call the new party Eepub- 
 lican.'^ The new party was successful in the state elections of 1854 
 and 1855, and this led to a convention at Pittsburgh on Washington's 
 Birthday, 1856. There and then the national Eepublican party was 
 founded. 
 
 At Philadelphia, in June, 1856, a Eepublican National Convention 
 nominated John C. Fremont for president. The Democrats nominated 
 James Buchanan, who was elected. —Abridged from McMaster. 
 
 Note 4. — In 1853, Commodore Matthew C. Perry visited Japan with 
 a United States fleet. He induced them to make a treaty the next 
 year, permitting trade with the United States. During the fifty years 
 after that date, Japan has developed into a great, civilized world 
 power. 
 
 Buchanan's Administration (1857 — 1861). 
 
 I. James BuclianaD, of Pennsylvania, was elected presi- 
 dent by the Democratic party, serving from 1857 to 1861. 
 
 In this administration, slavery continued the chief politi- 
 cal question. 
 
 2. The Dred Scott Decision. 
 
 Dred Scott was a negro slave owned by an army sur- 
 geon living in Missouri. He was taken from Missouri to 
 the free State of Illinois and then to Minnesota, which had 
 free soil according to the Missouri Compromise of 1820. 
 
16 
 
 When brought back to Missouri, Scott sued in court for 
 freedom, claiming that his residence on free soil had made 
 him a freeman. 
 
 The case was finally taken to the Supreme Court of the 
 United States, of which Koger Taney was Chief Justice. 
 The decision of the Supreme Court was that Dred Scott 
 was still a slave, devoid of the legal rights of a citizen; 
 and that a slave was only a piece of property, and might 
 be taken into the Territories of the United States if the 
 owner so desired. 
 
 Taney further declared that the IMissouri Compromise 
 of 1820 was unconstitutional and void, since Congress 
 could not shut slavery out of the Territories. 
 
 The effect of this decision was to enrage the North and 
 to make permanent peace between the two sections of the 
 country impossible. 
 
 Note 1. — The Dred Scott decision was delivered two days after 
 Buchanan was inaugurated, March, 1857. Chief Justice Taney 
 thought the Supreme Court could settle the slavery question in the 
 Dred Scott case. Taney declared that ' ' the right of property in a 
 slave is distinctly and expressly aflfirmed in the Constitution,'' and 
 that Congress had no right to prohibit it; consequently the Missouri 
 Compromise Act ' ' is not warranted by the Constitution, and is there- 
 fore void." Five judges agreed with Taney, making two-thirds of 
 the Supreme Court. — Ehodes. 
 
 Mote 2. — The Lincoln-Douglas debates in Illinois in 1858 attracted 
 much attention. The people of Illinois were to elect a Legislature 
 which would choose a United States senator. Stephen A. Douglas 
 was the Democratic candidate and Abraham Lincoln was the Eepubli- 
 can candidate. The debates were on the slavery question, seven 
 "joint debates" being held in different towns of Illinois. Douglas 
 won the senatorship, but Lincoln won the presidency by these speeches, 
 
 3. John Brown's Raid. 
 
 John Brown, who had fought against the slavery party 
 in Kansas, went, in 1859, to Harper's Ferry, in northeast- 
 ern West Virginia on the Potomac River, in order to start 
 
ir 
 
 an insurrection among the slaves. The old man with 
 twenty-two followers seized the United States arsenal 
 there; but it was soon retaken, and Brown with six fol- 
 lowers was hanged. While the North did not approve of 
 his attempt, his fate aroused much sympathy there. 
 
 Note 1. — On a cold, dark Sunday niglit of October 16th, Jolin 
 Brown, with his few followers, seized the United States armory and 
 the arsenal at Harper's Ferry, then a town of about 1,400 inhabitants. 
 
 For a few hours after daybreak. Brown might have retreated in 
 safety to the mountains, but he refused. On Monday evening. Colonel 
 Robert E. Lee arrived, and early on Tuesday morning he forced 
 Brown 's surrender. Of Brown 's force of twenty-two, nine were killed, 
 six were taken prisoners, and seven escaped. After a trial of five 
 days, the jury found him guilty of freason and murder in the first 
 degree, and the judge sentenced him to be hanged on the second of 
 December. 
 
 Brown to the end felt he had done right in his effort to free the 
 slaves. ' ' Soldiers marched ahead of the wagon in which the old 
 Puritan, seated on his coffin, rode." He calmly said to his compan- 
 ions as he looked at the mountains around, ' ' This is a beautiful coun- 
 try. ' ' Brown showed not a tremor of fear, and died * ' like a man, ' ' 
 unheeding the hostile guard of fifteen hundred Virginia troops that 
 surrounded the scaffold. 
 
 Note 2. — Within a year and a half from the day of his death, the 
 North and the South were at war with each other, and a Northern 
 regiment on its way to the contest was singing: 
 
 "John BrowTi 's body lies a mouldering in the grave, 
 But his soul is marching on." — Montgomery. 
 
 4. The First Atlantic Cable. 
 
 Cyrus W. Field, of New York, after many experiments, 
 succeeded in lajdng a cable on the bed of the ocean between 
 Newfoundland and Ireland, in 1858. After a few weeks, 
 it failed to work. Mr. Field continued his efforts, until 
 in 1S66. a successful cable was laid bv the famous ship, the 
 ■'Great Eastern." The cable permitted rapid communi- 
 cation betweeri the two continents. 
 
 Note. — A New York newspaper dated August 4, 1815, was the first 
 to give America the news of the battle of Waterloo, fought on the 
 eighteenth of June, almost seven weeks before. The cable made a 
 
18 
 
 vast difference. Thus, the coronation of King Edward VII. of Eng- 
 land took place on August 9, 1902, at noon; but some hours before 
 noon of that day the American papers gave the account of the event. 
 
 • — Abridged from Elson. 
 
 5. In Buchanan's administration, in 1858, the famous 
 Comstock lode was discovered in Nevada, one of the richest 
 deposits of silver in the world. Rich deposits of gold and 
 silver were later found in different parts of the West. 
 
 In 1859, the first petroleum v^^ell was di'illed by Mr. E. 
 Drake, near Titusville, in northwestern Pennsylvania. 
 Petroleum to-day is one of the important exports of the 
 United States. 
 
 Note. — California is the State producing most petroleum to-day. 
 
 6. The progress in literature continued. Two great 
 
 writers of this Civil War epoch were Emerson and Lowell. 
 
 Bryant, Whittier, Longfellow, Hawthorne, Bancroft, and 
 
 Holmes were still in the full vigor of their literary careers. 
 
 Note. — In the following biographies the dates are for reference 
 only. 
 
 Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882), the celebrated es- 
 sayist and poet, was born in Massachusetts and graduated 
 from Harvard College. After being a clergyman for a 
 few years, he became a lecturer for almost forty years. 
 His best-known essays are *' Self -Reliance,'* '^ Compensa- 
 tion," and ''History.'* His work on "Representative 
 Men" deals with the lives of certain eminent characters in 
 history. Emerson's finest poems are ''The Rhodora" and 
 "Concord Hymn." His writings have noble, beautiful 
 thoughts, though frequently they are hard to understand. 
 
 James Russell Lowell (1819-1891), a great American 
 poet and essayist, was born in Cambridge, Massachusetts, 
 
19 
 
 and graduated from Harvard College. He became a pro- 
 fessor of literature in Harvard when Longfellow resigned 
 the position. He was editor of the "North American Re- 
 view'* for a number of years, and was United States min- 
 ister first to Spain and then to England. His chief prose 
 worl^ are ''Among My Books" and "My Study Windows." 
 His best-known poems are "The Vision of Sir Launfal," 
 "Under the Old Elm," "The First Snow-Fall," and "The 
 Biglow Papers." 
 
 Note. — Eeview the biographies of Cooper, Irving, Bryant, Whit- 
 tier, Longfellow, Holmes, Hawthorne, Bancroft, and Prescott, as 
 given in the * ' History Notes for Sixth Grade, Kevised, 1906. ' ' 
 
 7. The Presidential Election of i860. 
 
 This election was very exciting. The South threatened 
 to secede if a Republican president was elected. The 
 Democratic party was split into two factions. One faction 
 nominated John C. Breckinridge, and the other faction 
 nominated Stephen A. Douglas. The Republicans suc- 
 ceeded in electing Abraham Lincoln, of Illinois, with Han- 
 nibal Hamlin, of Maine, as vice-president. 
 
 As soon as this was known. South Carolina seceded from 
 the Union, and soon Georgia and the five Gulf States fol- 
 lowed. In Februaiy, 1861, delegates from these seven 
 States met at Montgomery, Alabama, and organized their 
 new government, calling it the "Confederate States of 
 America." 
 
 Jefferson Davis, cf Mississippi, was elected president, 
 and Alexander H. Stephens, of Georgia, was made vice- 
 president; when Virginia seceded in 1861, Richmond was 
 made the Confederate capital. 
 
20 
 
 After the war actually began, in the spring of 1861, Vir- 
 ginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina seceded, 
 making eleven seceded states. 
 
 Note. — The industrial and social condition of the people in 1860 
 showed marked progress. 
 
 The population then numbered about 31,000,000. In the South 
 agriculture was the chief occupation, with cotton the leading crop; 
 in the North and West, commerce, agriculture, mining, and manufac- 
 turing were the chief industries. McCormick 's reaper ' ' made possible 
 the great grain fields of the West." The value of the manufactures 
 was ten times as great as in 1810, due to the building of great fac- 
 tories and the use of improved m.achinery. In 1860 there were about 
 a thousand cotton factories chiefly in the Middle States and New 
 England. Iron and steel, boots and shoes, woolen goods, and rubber 
 were other leading manufactures. 
 
 The increase of railroads improved commerce, there being 30,000 
 miles of railroad in the United States in 1860. This period was 
 remarkable for the number of American ships engaged in ocean com- 
 merce. 
 
 The cities increased in size and number, about one-sixth of the 
 population of the country living in large towns or cities. Some of 
 these cities began to show great improvement, with public water 
 works, gas, and street cars, drawn by horses. Newspapers were 
 numerous, and the graded public school was found in most of the 
 cities. 
 
 8. The Condition of the Country in the Winter of i860. 
 
 Buchanan, the Democratic president, in his annual De- 
 cember message to Congress in 1860, showed his sympathy 
 for the South but advised against secession. The message, 
 however, denied the power of the president or Congress to 
 prevent a State from seceding from the Union. The North 
 vras astonished at the message ; the Southern States judged 
 from it that the president would not interfere with them. 
 On December 6, 1860, South Carolina elected a secession 
 convention, and on December 20th, the delegates passed an 
 ordinance of secession, declaring the union between South 
 Carolina and the United States dissolved. Georgia and 
 the five Gulf States soon followed. 
 
21 
 
 The United States forts and arsenals were being every- 
 where seized but Buchanan did not interfere. Before the 
 end of his administration, the Confederate government had 
 seized nearly every fort, navy yard, and custom-house in 
 the South. It is possible that Buchanan might have pre- 
 vented secession by reinforcing the Federal forts in Charles- 
 ton harbor, but he declined to do so. The South ignored 
 every attempt the North made to bring about a reconcilia- 
 tion, and war was inevitable. 
 
 Note. — In January, 1860, General John A. Dix, of New York, be- 
 came Buchanan's Secretary of the Treasury. His dispatch to the 
 treasury agent at New Orleans, "If any man attempts to haul down 
 the American flag, shoot him on the spot," had a great effect on the 
 North. 
 
 Lincoln's Administration (1861=1865). 
 
 Abraham Lincoln, of Illinois, was elected by the Republi- 
 can party, serving from 1861 to 1865. 
 
 Note 1. — Jefferson Davis (1808-1889) served in the Mexican War. 
 He entered the United States Senate in 1847; from 1853-57, under 
 President Pierce, he was Secretary of War; in 1857 he became again 
 a United States senator from Mississippi, serving in the Senate until 
 his State seceded. He was elected president of the Confederate 
 States, serving until the end of the Civil War. When Lee sur- 
 rendered, Davis fled from Eichmond, trying to renew the war; he 
 was captured in Georgia about a month later. He was imprisoned in 
 Fort Monroe, Virginia, for two years after the war ended (1865- 
 1867), being finally released on bail. On Christmas day, 1868, John- 
 son issued a pardon for all unpardoned Confederates, and Davis be- 
 came free. 
 
 Note 2. — Abraham Lincoln was born in Kentucky, February 12, 
 1809. He received only one year's schooling, but his constant read- 
 ing of good books gave him an education. At nineteen he went as a 
 flatboatman to New Orleans, his wages being $10 a month. On his 
 return he helped the family move to Hlinois, and aided in the build- 
 ing of the log cabin. Then he split the rails to fence in their ten-acre 
 farm- 
 After trying various pursuits, in 1834 he began to study law, be- 
 coming a lawyer in Springfield a few years afterwards. He was 
 elected to Congress in 1846, serving one term. His ''joint debates" 
 with Douglas in 1858 gave him a national fame, and in 1860, he was 
 
elected to the presidency of the United States. Ee-elected in 1864, 
 he brought the Civil War to a successful close. He was shot by John 
 Wilkes Booth in Ford's Theater, Washington, April 14, 1865, dying 
 the next day. 
 
 James Eussell Lowell said, '^History will rank Lincoln among the 
 most prudent of statesmen and the most successful of rulers. If we 
 wish to appreciate him, we have only to conceive the inevitable chaos 
 in which we should now (1864) be weltering had a weak man or an 
 unwise one been chosen in his stead. ' ' 
 
 Nicolay, one of his biographers, says, "As statesman, ruler, and 
 liberator, civilization will hold his name in perpetual honor." 
 
 The Civil War, i86i— 1865. 
 
 The three great causes of the Civil War were slavery, 
 the doctrine of State rights, and the tariff, 
 
 (a) Slavery was the chief cause. The South was an 
 agricultural section, and used slave labor. The North was 
 mainly a manufacturing section^ and required no slave 
 labor. This produced a conflict of interests and opinions. 
 Slavery began at Jamestown, in 1619, when Dutch traders 
 brought twenty negroes there. 
 
 The invention of the cotton-gin, in 1793, made cotton a 
 great production in the South, and increased the need of 
 slaves. 
 
 The quarrel over slavery was shown in the Constitution 
 itself, in the Ordinance of 1787, in the Missouri Compromise 
 of 1820, in the rise of the Abolitionist party in 1831, in the 
 annexation of Texas in 1845, in the Wilmot Proviso in 1846, 
 in the "Omnibus Bill" of 1850, in the Kansas-Nebraska Act 
 of 1854, in the Dred Scott Decision in 1857, and in John 
 Brown's Raid in 1859. 
 
 (b) By the doctrine of State rights, we mean the 
 opinion that the United States was only a voluntary league 
 of States, and that any State might set aside any act of 
 Congress which it considered unconstitutional, or might 
 secede from the Union when it desired. According to this 
 
doctrine, the State government was independent of the 
 Federal government. The Southern States all held this 
 view, while the North rejected this idea entirely, believing 
 in an indissoluble union. 
 
 (c) The North and the South held opposing views on the 
 tariff. The North, as a manufacturing section, desired a 
 high protective tariff to enable its products to compete with 
 the cheaper importations of Europe. The South, as an 
 agricultural section, opposed a high tariff. It had no 
 manufactures to protect, and desired only to buy its needs 
 as cheap as possible. This conflict of interests was shown 
 especially in the Nullification troubles of 1832. 
 
 (d) The immediate causes of the outbreak of hostilities 
 were the election of Lincoln, the secession of the Southern 
 States, and the attack on Fort Sumter. 
 
 Note. — Lincoln was inaugurated March 4, 1861. The President's 
 address was conciliatory and concluded with these beautiful words to 
 the South: ''We are not enemies, but friends. We must not be 
 enemies. Though passions may have strained, they must not break 
 our bonds of affection. The mystic chords of memory, stretching 
 from every battle-field and patriot grave, to every living heart and 
 hearthstone all over this broad land, will yet swell the chorus of 
 the Union, when again touched, as surely they will be, by the better 
 angels of our nature. '^ 
 
 Fort Sumter in Charleston harbor was one of the few 
 
 forts in the South that remained loyal to the Union. Bu- 
 chanan had sent an unarmed steamer, the "Star of the 
 West," to bring the fort food and other supplies, but the 
 Confederates drove it back. Lincoln on April 8th notified 
 the governor of South Carolina that he intended to send 
 provisions to Fort Sumter. Jefferson Davis then directed 
 General Beauregard to demand Fort Sumter's surrender, 
 and in case it refused, to fire on it. As Major Anderson 
 refused to surrender the fort, it was bombarded for thirty- 
 
24 
 
 four hours, and Anderson was forced to surrender on 
 
 April 14, 1861. The effect was that the North and the 
 
 South determined on war. 
 
 Note. — Anderson's little garrison consisted of one hundred and 
 twenty-eight men. His report to the Secretary of War was as follows : 
 * ' Having defended Fort Sumter for thirty-four hours, until the quar- 
 ters were entirely burned, the main gates destroyed, the gorge-wall 
 seriously injured, the magazine surrounded by flames, and its door 
 closed from the effects of the heat, four barrels and three cartridges 
 of powder only being available, and no provisions but pork remaining, 
 I accepted terms of evacuation offered by General Beauregard, and 
 marched out of the fort on Sunday afternoon, the 14th instant, with 
 colors flying and drums beating, bringing away company and private 
 property, and saluting my flag with fifty guns. ' ' 
 
 The Raising of Men and Money for the War. 
 
 (a) The day following the fall of Fort Sumter, Lincoln 
 issued a proclamation for 75,000 troops to serve three 
 months, and four times that number volunteered. 
 
 (b) The low revenue tariff was changed by Congress, 
 and a high war tariff was passed in 1861, to raise funds for 
 government needs. This tariff was called the Morrill Tariff. 
 By the end of the war, the tariff was almost three times 
 as great as in Buchanan's administration. 
 
 (c) As the expenses of the government varied from one 
 to three million dollars daily, heavy taxes were laid. Money 
 was also raised by borrowing, bonds being issued which 
 paid a high rate of interest. The government also issued 
 paper money, or "greenbacl^," These two methods were 
 the ideas of Salmon P. Chase, the Secretary of the Treas- 
 ury. Gold was soon at a premium as the war continued, 
 and "greenbacks" sank in value, so that in July, 1864, a 
 dollar note was worth only thirty-five cents in gold. 
 
 Note. — The Confederate money steadily depreciated in value. In 
 1864, Mrs. Jefferson Davis says that in Eichmond a turkey cost $60, 
 a barrel of flour $300, and a pair of shoes $150. 
 
25 
 
 The Principal Movements of the War. 
 
 (a) The operatious of the Confederates were mainly de- 
 fensive, the chief exceptions beinoj Lee's invasions of the 
 North in 1862 and in 1863, and Early's raid in 1864. This 
 gave them an immense advantage, as they knew their terri- 
 tory and could use all their forces to defend it, without 
 using any in overrunning the North The operations of 
 the North were mamly aggressive, and were conducted in 
 the enemy's territory. 
 
 (b) The three chief objects of the Union forces were 
 the blockade of the Southern ports, the opening of the Mis- 
 sissippi River, and the capture of Richmond. 
 
 The Blockade. 
 
 In April, 1861, Lincoln declared the entire Southern 
 coast in a state of blockade. The purpose of the blockade 
 was to prevent the importing of war supplies into the South. 
 and to prevent the exporting of cotton and other products 
 from the South, thus ruining its commerce, and impoverish- 
 ing it. (See Outline of Blockade Events.) 
 
 Note— Each side began with certain advantages and certain dis- 
 advantages. The South had a white population only one-fourth as 
 large as that of the North, but she could send nearly all the men to 
 fight the slaves remaining on the plantations to raise the crops, ine 
 North was rich in money, foundries, shipyards, railroads, etc., while 
 the South was much poorer in the^e respects. With a strict blockade, 
 its resources were very limited, indeed. A great advantage of the 
 South was that her warfare was mainly defensive. Her soldiers knew 
 the country, and they were fighting for their own homes. 
 
 The geographical features of the country had an important mtlu- 
 
 ^"^The Mississippi cut the Confederacy in two, and its control by the 
 Linion forces prevented the Western Secessionists from aiding those 
 in the East; so the Union control of Chesapeake Bay gave easy water 
 access to Richmond. The march to Richmond by land was very dif- 
 ficult for Northern troops; but Southern troops could march easily 
 through the sheltered mountain valleys of Virginia to the neighbor- 
 hood of Washington. 
 
26 
 
 Operations in 1861. 
 
 I. In western Virginia the people favored the Union. 
 General McClellan and General Rosecrans defeated the 
 Confederates in several battles, driving them out of that 
 region. A State was formed from this part of Virginia, 
 and admitted in 1863 as West Virginia. 
 
 2. Operations in Missouri. 
 
 General Lyons saved the State of Missouri to the Union. 
 He prevented the Confederates from capturing the arsenal 
 at St. Louis. After several minor battles, General Lyons, 
 with a smaller force, attacked the Confederates at Wilson's 
 Creek, in southwestern Missouri, in 1861, but was defeated 
 and killed. By the exertions of other Union generals the 
 Confederates were driven into Arkansas, leaving Missouri 
 in the Union. 
 
 3. The Battle of Bull Run. 
 
 The Union forces under General McDowell began their 
 march towards Richmond. In July, 1861, they met the 
 Confederate forces under General Beauregard at Bull Run, 
 a small stream in northern Virginia. The Confederates, 
 reinforced by General Joseph Johnston, utterly defeated 
 the Union troops. General Thomas Jackson won his title 
 of ''Stonewall" Jackson in this battle. The effect of the 
 battle was to encourage the South and to make the North 
 more determined. Congress calling at once for five hundred 
 thousand men. 
 
 Note 1. — The Confederates called this the battle of Manassas from 
 the village near by. 
 
 Note 2. — General Bee, rallying his men, shouted: "There's Jack- 
 son standing like a stone waU ! ' ' From that time on he was called 
 ''Stonewall" Jackson. 
 
27 
 4. The "Trent" Affair. 
 
 England and France early in the war recognized the Con- 
 federate States as belligerents; the Southern people were 
 considered as conducting a regular war, and were not re- 
 garded as mere rebels. Hoping to secure a recognition of 
 independence from these countries, the South in 1861 sent 
 Messrs. Mason and Slidell, to urge its cause. Escaping to 
 Havana, they there went on the British ship ''Trent", to 
 sail to England. When the ''Trent" was out at sea, 
 Captain Wilkes, of the United States steamer "San Ja- 
 cinto" seized Mason and Slidell, and took them to Bos- 
 ton. England considered this action as an insult to her 
 flag, and demanded their release. Mr. Seward, the Secre- 
 tary of State, returned them and said Captain Wilkes had 
 acted without orders. This prevented any w^ar with Eng- 
 land. 
 
 Note.— Many people of the governing classes of England favored 
 the Confederacy; so did many of the manufacturers, who had to shut 
 down their factories because of the lack of Southern cotton. The 
 English working people, however, favored the North. A hatred of 
 slavery, common to all England, prevented the English government 
 from aiding the South by recognizing its independence. 
 
 Louis Napoleon, the French emperor, was eager to recognize the 
 independence of the South; France would certainly have done so if 
 England had led the way. Eussia, on the contrary, was very friendly 
 to the North. In the spring of 1863, a Eussian fleet was stationed 
 in New York harbor and another at San Francisco, both remaining 
 there for many months. The orders to the commander were that if 
 war broke out between the United States and England or France, the 
 Eussian fleets were to fight for the Union cause. 
 
 1862. Operations in the West. 
 
 I. Grant's Campaign. 
 
 The object of Grant's campaign in 1862 was to open up 
 the Mississippi River, and to separate the States west of it 
 from the rest of the Confederacy, In northwestern Ten- 
 
28 
 
 nessee were two forts, Fort Henry on the Tennessee River, 
 and Fort Donelson on the Cumberland River. Commodore 
 Foote with his iron-clad gunboats captured Fort Henry in 
 February. Grant, aided by Foote 's gunboats, attacked 
 Fort Donelson a week later, and after three days* bombard- 
 ment, General Buckner had to surrender the fort and its 
 garrison of fifteen thousand. 
 
 Note. — When General Buckner asked Grant what terms he would 
 offer. Grant replied: **No terms except unconditional and immediate 
 surrender can be accepted. I propose to move immediately on your 
 works. ' ' 
 
 Grant advanced his army southward, and in April, 1862, 
 fought a great battle at Shiloh, or Pittsburg Landing, in 
 southwestern Tennessee. In the second day of the battle, 
 Buell reinforced Grant, and the Confederates under Gen- 
 eral Albert Johnston were defeated. In this battle about 
 one hundred thousand men fought, and over twenty thou- 
 sand were killed or wounded. General Albert Johnston was 
 among those killed. The result of Grant's campaign was to 
 hold Tennessee and to greatly encourage the North. 
 
 2. The gunboats under Foote, after taking Fort Henry 
 and aiding in capturing Fort Donelson, soon attacked 
 Island No. lo, in the Mississippi River, northwest of Ten- 
 nessee. Aided by land forces imder Pope, this was taken 
 in April. The flotilla proceeded down the Mississippi, and 
 defeated the Confederate fleet at Memphis, which was then 
 occupied by the Union forces. The result of these battles 
 was the control of the river as far as Memphis, in south- 
 western Tennessee. 
 
 Coast Operations in 1862. 
 
 I. A very important coast operation in 1862 was the 
 battle between the "Monitor" and the "Merrimac" 
 
29 
 
 In 1861, tne iNorfolk navy-yard had been abandoned by 
 the Federal government, and the *'Merrimac" with others 
 was sunk to prevent their capture by the South. The Con- 
 federates afterwards raised it, covered it with iron, gave it 
 an iron prow and called it the '* Virginia.*' In March, 
 1862, under the command of Commodore Franklin Bu- 
 chanan, it entered Hampton Roads (that part of Chesa- 
 peake Bay at the mouth of the James River) , and destroyed 
 the wooden war vessels, the ^'Cumberland" and the ''Con- 
 gress." That same night the *' Monitor," commanded by 
 Lieutenant John L. Worden, entered Hampton Roads. It 
 was iron-clad, with a low deck and a central, iron-clad re- 
 volving turret, with two guns. It was built in New York 
 by the Swedish inventor. Captain John Ericsson. After 
 a four hours' battle (Sunday, March 9th), the ''Merrimac" 
 had to withdraw, although not destroyed. The effect of the 
 battle was to save the Northern ports, which would have 
 been at the mercy of the "Merrimac." If the "Merrimac" 
 had won, the blockade would soon have been destroyed, and 
 the Confederacy might have been saved. As a result of 
 this battle, wooden war vessels were withdrawn by the na- 
 tions, and ironclads took their place. 
 
 Note. — The Confederates blew up the ''Mernmac" when they 
 evacuated Norfolk in May, 1862, during McClellan's campaign. The 
 *' Monitor" sank in a gale at sea, near Cape Hatteras, December 31, 
 1862. 
 
 2. New Orleans was the most important Southern port. 
 It was defended by Fort St. Philip and Fort Jackson, about 
 seventy-eight miles below the city. Below the forts heavy 
 iron chains were stretched across the river, while above the 
 forts fifteen war vessels guarded the city. 
 
 In April, 1862, a land and naval expedition was sent 
 against it. Commodore David G. Farragut commanding the 
 
30 
 
 fleet of forty -seven vessels, while General Benjamin Butlet 
 commanded the land forces. After the forts had been 
 bombarded in vain for six days, Farragut determined to 
 pass them by night, and after a terrible battle, succeeded in 
 doing so. Next attacking the Confederate war vessels 
 above the forts, he captured or destroyed them, and forced 
 New Orleans to surrender. The city was then occupied by 
 General Butler with his army. 
 
 Note. — General Butler's rule in New Orleans was extremely severe. 
 He caused William Mumford to be hanged for removing the Federal 
 flag from the United States mint. 
 
 3. Numerous places were captured on the coast during 
 1862, and by the end of this year, the only coast cities that 
 the Confederates held were Charleston, Savannah, Mobile, 
 and Wilmington. This made the blockade very successful. 
 
 Note. — The blockade-running early became a regular system, ad- 
 venturous business firms in England and the Confederacy making 
 great gains by it. Arms, blankets, shoes, tea, linen, wool, silk, wines, 
 medicines, etc. were shipped from England to Bermuda, Nassau, or 
 Havana, and then taken by Confederate ships, called blockade run- 
 ners, to Wilmington, Charleston, Savannah, Mobile, or Galveston, 
 where the goods found a quick sale. The vessels took back a return 
 load of cotton to Nassau, Bermuda, or Havana, and from there it 
 went to England. This cotton was very cheap in the South and very 
 dear in England and the North. The blockade runners were painted 
 a dull gray or lead color, making them invisible except at close 
 range; to avoid smoke, they used hard coal where possible. 
 
 The Union ships did good work in capturing these blockade runners 
 and in closing port after port of the South. Charleston and Wil- 
 mington held out the longest, the latter continuing the traffic till 
 Fort Fisher was captured in January, 1865. — Adapted from Ehodes. 
 
 4, The Confederate cruiser, "Alabama," was built in 
 Liverpool, England, and its crew was mainly Englishmen. 
 It was commanded by Captain Semmes and did great dam- 
 age to Union vessels, destroying between 1862 and 1864, 
 over sixty vessels with their cargoes. In 1864, the "Kear- 
 sarge," a Union vessel, commanded by Captain John A. 
 Winslow, destroyed the ''Alabama" in a great naval battle 
 
31 
 
 near Cherbourg, off the coast of northwestern France. The 
 depredations of the ''Alabama" led to the "Alabama" 
 claims. (See Grant's administration.) 
 
 Operations in the East in 1862. 
 
 I. McCIellan's Campaign (March-August, 1862). 
 
 The object of McCIellan's campaign was to capture Rich- 
 mond. His army of ninety thousand was moved by boats 
 to Fort Monroe, on Chesapeake Bay, near the James 
 River. This campaign is sometimes called the Peninsular 
 campaign, because it was fought in the peninsula between 
 the York River and the James, in southern Virginia. Mc- 
 Clellan first besieged Yorktown, but the Confederates evac- 
 uated it after delaying McClellan a month here. Norfolk 
 was evacuated about the same time. The Union army ad- 
 vanced to within seven miles of Richmond, producing a 
 panic there. Instead of attacking the city at once, McClel- 
 lan waited for reinforcements under McDowell. General 
 Jackson, in order to prevent this reinforcement, raided the 
 Shenandoah Valley. This produced a panic in Washing- 
 ton, and McDowell was ordered to the Shenandoah Valley. 
 Jackson retreated in safety, having accomplished his object. 
 General Robert E. Lee had meanwhile become the Con- 
 federate commander, and Jackson now joined him. 
 
 The Avorst fighting in the Peninsular Campaign was in 
 the Seven Days' battles in the Chickahominy Swamp re- 
 gion east of Richmond. They began on June 25th. After 
 McCIellan's victory at Mechanicsville on June 26th, he de- 
 termined to remove his base to the James River. After 
 severe fighting, the Federals reached a strong position at 
 Malvern Hill on the James River. Here Lee attacked 
 them on July 1st, but was defeated, ending the Seven 
 
32 
 
 Days' battles. A few weeks later, the Army of the Poto- 
 mac was withdrawn from the James, and the Peninsular 
 Campaign ended. It was a failure, since Richmond was 
 not captured by McClellan. 
 
 Note. — Hawthorne, writing of the indignation caused by McClel- 
 lan 's continued delay in attacking the Confederates, said: "When 
 before in all history do we find a general in command of half a mil- 
 lion men and in presence of an army inferior in numbers and no bet- 
 ter disciplined than his own troops, leaving it still debatable after 
 the better part of a year whether he is a soldier or not!" 
 
 General George B. McClellan had been splendidly trained at West 
 Point. He lacked many qualities of a successful general, but as a 
 military organizer he was brilliant. When he assumed command the 
 army was altogether untrained; in four months he made it the best 
 disciplined and organized army ever seen in America. Meade, after 
 the war, said : * * Had there been no McClellan, there could have been 
 no Grant; the army made no essential improvement under any of his 
 successors. ' ' 
 
 2. Pope's Campaign (1862). 
 
 The second battle of Bull Run was fought in 1862, shortly 
 after McClellan 's unsuccessful campaign. McClellan had 
 been ordered to unite his forces with those of General Pope, 
 but before he arrived, Lee and Jackson attacked and utterly 
 routed Pope at Bull Run. Pope's scattered forces with- 
 drew to Washington. 
 
 3. Lee's First Invasion. 
 
 When McClellan withdrew from Richmond, Lee went 
 northward, and defeated Pope at the battle of Bull Run, 
 in northern Virginia. He then advanced into Maryland, 
 hoping to win that State for the Confederates. McClellan 
 was given the Union command again, and attacked Lee and 
 Jackson at Antietam Creek, a branch of the Potomac in 
 southern Maryland, near Sharpsburg, in September, 1862. 
 The result was a Union success, but not a decided one. Each 
 
33 
 
 side lost aDoiu twelve thousand men, and Lee had to with- 
 draw across the Potomac into Virginia. 
 
 Note —Lincoln urged an immediate pursuit of Lee after the bat- 
 tle of Antietam, but the cautious McClellan waited five weeks before 
 crossing the Potomac. Lincoln's patience was exhausted and he re- 
 moved McClellan permanently from command. McClellan was an 
 honest man, and sincerely devoted to the Union cause. 
 
 4. After the battle of Antietam, Lincoln issued his 
 Emancipation Proclamation (September 22, 1862), de- 
 claring that on January 1, 1863, all slaves in States at war 
 with the Union should be free. As the Confederate States 
 continued their rebellion, he issued a second proclamation 
 on January 1, 1863, setting the slaves there free. 
 
 Note. — After Lincoln had written his proclamation, he waited about 
 two months, not issuing it until the North had won an important 
 victory. During these months he was urged on all sides to free the 
 slaves. In a letter to Horace Greeley, editor of the ''New York 
 Tribune," Lincoln said: "My paramount object in this struggle is 
 to save the Union, and is not either to save or destroy slavery. ' ' 
 
 Lincoln said that the proclamation was issued as a ''fit and 
 necessary war measure for suppressing the rebellion. ' ' The effect of 
 the proclamation was to bring to the Union army fully 100,000 former 
 slaves, of whom many fought as Union soldiers. These were a loss 
 to the South, as their services were valuable in raising crops to feed 
 ihe armies. 
 
 Lincoln freed the slaves in the warring States. He also proposed 
 to free the other slaves gradually, and to pay their owners; in his 
 annual message of December, 1862, he pleaded for "gradual and 
 compensated" emancipation. Slavery was not abolished in the United 
 States until the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Consti- 
 tution was passed. 
 
 1863. I. Lee's Second Invasion. 
 
 After Lee defeated General Burnside at Fredericksburg 
 m December, 1862, and conquered General Hooker at 
 Chancellorsville in May, 1863, he felt strong enough to 
 invade the North again. Leaving Virginia, he marched 
 through Maryland into Pennsylvania. General Hooker re- 
 
34 
 
 signed and George G. Meade was given command of the 
 Union forces. At Gettysburg, in southern Pennsylvania, 
 July 1, 1863, the Union forces met the Confederates, and be- 
 gan a terrible three-day battle. Near the western limit 
 of the town lies Seminary Ridge; on the east is Cemetery 
 Ridge, and the three elevations known as Round Top, Little 
 Round Top, and Gulp's Hill. General Reynolds of the 
 Union army was killed as the battle opened. The first day's 
 fight raged till late in the afternoon, the Confederates at 
 its conclusion holding Seminary Ridge, and the Union 
 forces, Cemetery Ridge, and the other three hills. 
 
 General Hancock had been sent in advance by General 
 Meade, and additional Union and Confederate troops 
 marched all night to join the battle. General Meade ar- 
 rived about one o'clock on the morning of July 2d, but 
 the day's battle did not begin till late in the afternoon. 
 The Confederates under Longstreet struggled desperately 
 to gain Little Round Top, but the Union forces held it by 
 great valor. 
 
 On the third day (July 3d), the battle began at day- 
 break. At one o'clock, a terrific artillery contest between 
 the two armies began, two hundred cannons keeping up 
 the duel for almost two hours. When this ended, Lee sent 
 General Pickett with 15,000 to attack the Union centre. 
 After fearful slaughter by Hancock's infantry, the ad- 
 vancing Confederates were defeated, and the battle was 
 over. Lee was forced to retreat into Virginia, ending the 
 invasion. The effect of this battle was to ruin the Con- 
 federacy. From then on, it lost its power. 
 
 Note 1. — In the battle of Gettysburg, Lee had 70,000 men, and 
 Meade about 93,000: the Union loss, in killed, wounded and missing, 
 was about 23,000; that of the Confederates, about 20,000. 
 
 In the charge led by General Pickett, the Confederates tried to 
 march across a field a mile wide exposed to the Union batteries. 
 
35 
 
 Hancock bravely continued to direct his men after he "u-as shot, and 
 the Confederates after great loss of life withdrew. 
 
 Note 2. — The battlefield of Gettysburg was made into a national 
 cemetery with numerous Union monuments. It was dedicated on 
 November 19, 1863. On this occasion President Lincoln delivered 
 his famous Gettysburg address. 
 
 Lincoln's Address at Gettysburg. 
 
 Fourscore and seven years ago, our fathers brought forth 
 upon this continent a new nation, conceived in liberty and 
 dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. 
 Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether 
 that nation, or any nation so conceived and so dedicated, 
 can long endure. AYe are met on a great battlefield of 
 that war. Vs'e have come to dedicate a portion of that field 
 as a final resting-place for those who here gave their lives 
 that that nation might live. 
 
 It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this. 
 But, in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate, we cannot con- 
 secrate, we cannot hallow this ground. The brave men, 
 living and dead, who struggled here have consecrated it, 
 far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will 
 little note, nor long remember, what we say here ; but it can 
 never forget what they did here. 
 
 It is for us, the living, rather, to be dedicated here to 
 the unfinished work which they who fought here have 
 thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here 
 dedicated to the great task remaining before us ; that from 
 these honored dead we take increased devotion to that 
 cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion ; 
 that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have 
 died in vain; that this nation, under God, shall have a 
 new birth of freedom, and that government of the people, 
 
36 
 
 by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the 
 
 earth. 
 
 Note. — This wording follows that given in Harper 's * ' Encyclopedia 
 of United States History/' Vol. 4. 
 
 2. Grant's Campaign in 1863. 
 
 General Grant remained in Tennessee and Mississippi, 
 after winning the battle of Shiloh in 1862. His great work 
 m 1863 was to capture Vicksburg, in western Mississippi 
 on the Mississippi River. Assisted by General Sherman, 
 he defeated General Pemberton and General Joseph E. 
 Johnston, separately, in several battles, and succeeded in 
 shutting Pemberton up in Vicksburg 
 
 The siege lasted nearly seven weeks. Finally, on July 4, 
 
 1863, Vicksburg surrendered, being unable to endure any 
 
 longer the famine and the terrible Union bombardment. 
 
 Note. — During the siege, the sufferings of the people of Vicksburg 
 were terrible. To protect themselves from the shot and shell, the 
 inhabitants "burrowed into the hillsides and lived in caves, where 
 they spent days and weeks." Starvation threatened them, mule 
 meat selling at a dollar a pound. When the city surrendered, "one- 
 third of the army was in the hospital." 
 
 Port Hudson, in southeastern Louisiana on the Missis- 
 sippi River, after a long siege, surrendered to General 
 Banks, in 1863, a few days after Vicksburg 's surrender. 
 This opened all the Mississippi River, putting it entirely 
 under the control of the North. 
 
 1864. I. Operations in the East. 
 
 Early in 1864, Grant was made commander-in-chief of 
 the entire Union forces. He then began a campaign in 
 Virginia, with the object of capturing Richmond and de- 
 stroying Lee's army. Grant's army was almost twice the 
 size of Lee's, but Lee had the advantage of position. The 
 
37 
 
 first battle was the battle of the Wilderness, in northeast- 
 ern Virginia, the region being so called because of its dense 
 forests. The battle lasted two days, with great loss to both 
 Lee and Grant, and the result was indecisive. A few weeks 
 later, the two armies fought at Cold Harbor, nine miles 
 from Richmond. Here Grant was badly defeated by Lee 
 Note.— After the battle of the Wilderness, Grant fought the battle 
 of Spottsylvania Court House, without any decisive result. It was 
 after this battle that Grant sent his famous despatch to the War 
 Department at Washington, in which he said: ''We have now (May 
 11th) ended the sixth day of very heavy fighting. The result, to this 
 time, is much in our favor. Our losses have been heavy, as well as 
 those of the enemy. I propose to fight it out on this line, if it takes 
 
 all summer." „ , . . i.x i • 
 
 Grant in his memoirs expressed regret for his error m attacking 
 Lee at Cold Harbor. Lee was strongly intrenched, and Grant 's men 
 "were mowed down by the thousand." In a few minutes, 6000 
 Union troops ' ' were left dead or wounded on the field. " In a little 
 more than a month. Grant's "hammering" policy cost him 55,000 
 men, while there resulted "no success to justify the sacrifices. 
 
 Grant now moved to the James River and tried to capture 
 Petersburg, a city twenty-three miles south of Richmond. 
 Lee prevented its capture, and Grant began the siege of the 
 place in June, 1864. The greatest event of the siege during 
 1864, was the explosion on July 30th, of the mine dug by 
 the Union soldiers under one of the enemy's forts. The 
 Union forces rushed into this gap or chasm to take the city, 
 but were driven back with great slaughter. (See 1865.) 
 
 2. Early's Invasion or Raid. 
 
 In July, 1864, Lee, hoping to draw Grant away from 
 Petersburg, sent Early up the Shenandoah Valley in west- 
 ern Virginia, to threaten Washington. He came very near 
 Washington, but did not attack it. After burning Cham- 
 bersburg, Pennsylvania, he retreated into the Shenandoah 
 Valley again. General Philip Sheridan was now sent 
 
38 
 
 against Early by Grant. He defeated Early at Winchester, 
 
 in northwestern Virginia, September, 1864. In October, 
 1864, Early surprised and defeated the Union troops at 
 Cedar Creek, while Sheridan was absent at Winchester, 
 twenty miles distant. Sheridan heard the noise of the 
 battle and returned in time to turn back his retreating 
 army. They then attacked the surprised Confederates, 
 and utterly defeated them. As a result of Sheridan *s cam- 
 paign, Early's army was destroyed, and the Shenandoah 
 laid waste. In 1865, Sheridan rejoined Grant at Peters- 
 burg. 
 
 Note.— Eead T. B. Read's poem, ''Sheridan's Ride." 
 
 3. Operations in the South. 
 Sherman's Campaign (1864=65). 
 
 In 1864, while Grant was fighting Lee in Virginia, Gen- 
 eral William T. Sherman was fighting General Johnston in 
 Georgia. 
 
 The object of Sherman's campaign was to capture At- 
 lanta, destroy the Confederate army in Georgia, and 
 lay the region waste. Sherman's army numbered one 
 hundred thousand. After five battles in northwestern 
 Georgia, Johnston had to retire to Atlanta. The Confed- 
 erate government then put General Hood in place of John- 
 ston. After defeating Hood three times, Sherman seized 
 Atlanta, in September, 1864. This was an important cap- 
 ture, as nearly all the war supplies of the South were made 
 in Atlanta's mills and foundries, which Sherman destroyed. 
 
 Thinking to draw Sherman out of Georgia, Hood in- 
 vaded Tennessee, but Sherman refused to leave. In No- 
 vember, Sherman began his march across Georgia, destroy- 
 ing railroads and supplies, and laying waste the whole 
 
39 
 
 country, for a month. In December. 1864, he captured 
 
 Savannah. In 1865^ he marched northward into South 
 
 Carolina, and in February seized Columbia, its capital. 
 
 Soon after the city was burned. 
 
 Note. — The city was not burned by Sherman's orders. Rhodes 
 says it -was set on fire by some drunken soldiers, negroes, and escaped 
 prisoners. 
 
 Charleston was then evacuated by the Confederates and 
 seized by the Union forces. Sherman continued his march 
 into North Carolina, and defeated Johnston at Bentonville 
 in eastern North Carolina (March, 1865). About a month 
 later, on learning of Lee's surrender, Johnston likewise sur- 
 rendered, near Raleigh, North Carolina. 
 
 The effect of Sherman's campaign was to destroy the re- 
 sources of the South, and to conquer the Southern forces 
 there. 
 
 Note 1. — After capturing Savannah, Sherman sent this message to 
 Lincoln: 
 
 •'Savannah, Georgia, Dec. 22, 1864. 
 *'To Ms Excellency, President Lincoln, JVashington, D. C: 
 
 "I beg to present you, as a Christmas gift, the City of Savannah, 
 with one hundred and fifty heavy guns and plenty of ammunition; also 
 about twenty-five thousand bales of cotton. 
 
 "W. T. Sherman, Major-General** 
 
 The message, sent by boat to Fort Monroe, reached Lincoln on 
 Christmas Eve. His reply was, ''Many, many thanks." 
 
 Sherman's march from Atlanta to Savannah took thirty-two days. 
 He estimated the damage done to the State of Georgia at one hun- 
 dred millions of dollars. 
 
 Note 2. — In 1864, after Hood left Georgia, he advanced against 
 Nashville, Tennessee, where he besieged General Thomas for two 
 weeks. Thomas then attacked him and after a two days' battle (De- 
 cember, 1864), defeated and destroyed Hood's army. 
 
 4. Coast Operations of 1864. 
 
 (a) In August, 1864, Admiral Farragut led his fleet 
 past the terrible fire of the forts defending Mobile in south- 
 western Alabama. He compelled the surrender of the 
 
40 
 
 gunboats there and the iron-plated ram ''Tennessee," com- 
 manded by Commodore Franklin Buchanan, and succeeded 
 in closing this important port to the blockade runners. 
 
 Note. — Farragut had a powerful fleet of wooden ships, with four 
 iron-clad monitors. He fastened himself to the mast of his flagship, 
 the ' ' Hartford, ' ' entering the bay at dawn, fighting ' ' one of the 
 most thrilling naval battles ever fought" His land troops were not 
 enough to occupy the city, the Confederates holding it till the fol- 
 lowing April. 
 
 (b) In 1864, the "Alabama" was sunk by the ''Kear- 
 sarge.'* (See 1862.) 
 
 I. 1865. The Ending of the War. 
 
 Late in 1864, Fort Fisher, which defended the harbor 
 of Wilmington, North Carolina, was attacked unsuccess- 
 fully by the Union army and navy. In January, 1865, 
 Commodore Porter, assisted by General Terry's army, cap- 
 tured the fort, and Wilmington, the last Confederate port, 
 was closed. 
 
 2. The siege of Petersburg had begun in June, 1864. 
 On April 1, 1865, Sheridan, after a severe battle, drove Lee 
 from Five Forks, eleven miles from Petersburg. Lee saw 
 he could not hold Richmond much longer. The next day, 
 Grant made an attack along the whole line in front of 
 Petersburg, and carried the works. That night the Con- 
 federate government and army evacuated Petersburg and 
 Richmond; and on April 3, 1865, the Union troops entered 
 them, after their long siege. 
 
 3. Lee hoped to be able to join Johnston in North 
 Carolina, and continue the war. Grant, however, pursued 
 and overtook him ; and Lee surrendered on April 9, 1865, at 
 Appomattox Court House, a village in southern Virginia. 
 
 Note 1. — Grant at Appomattox proved himself generous and mag- 
 nanimous. When the Union lines began to fire a salute of a hundred 
 
41 
 
 guns in honor of the surrender, Grant forbade it, saying, ''The Con- 
 federates are now our prisoners, and we do not want to exult over 
 their downfall. '' Confederate officers and men were allowed to return 
 home on giving their parole not to take up arms again during the 
 
 ar 
 
 Note 2. — Two famous Confederate prisons were Libby Prison, an 
 old tobacco warehouse at Richmond, Virginia, and that at Anderson- 
 ville, Georgia, Over ] 2,000 Union prisoners died in the Andersonville 
 prison during 1864-65. ' ' Insufficiently nourished, exposed by day to 
 the fierce Southern sun, by night to dews, drenched with torrential 
 rains, languishing amidst filth and stench, breathing polluted air," 
 a large number of the Union prisoners succumbed to the horrors of 
 this prison. Wirz, its superintendent, after a trial by a United States 
 commission in 1865, was executed. 
 
 Note 3. — Counting the deaths from battle and disease, about three 
 hundred and sixty thousand men died for the Union. The Confed- 
 erate loss was slightly less. 
 
 On May 1, 1865, there were 1,052,038 men in the Union army. 
 These were gradually mustered out, 800,000 men being changed from 
 ' ' soldiers to citizens ' ' within six months of that day ; by the follow- 
 ing November, the Union army had practically been disbanded. It 
 was really a remarkable thing to send this great body of soldiers 
 so quietly back to the peaceful occupations of civil life. 
 
 (a) Outline of Blockade Events. 
 
 The battle of the ''Monitor" and the "Merrimac" 
 (1862), the capture of New Orleans (1862), the capture of 
 coast cities (1862), the battle of Mobile Bay (1864), the 
 capture of Savannah (1864), the capture of Charleston 
 (1865), the capture of Wilmington (1865). 
 
 (b) Outline of Events Connected with the 
 Opening of the Mississippi. 
 
 The capture of Fort Henry (1862), the capture of Fort 
 Donelson (1862), the battle of Shiloh (1862), the capture 
 of Island No. 10 (1862), the capture of Memphis (1862), 
 the capture of New Orleans (1862), the capture of Vicks- 
 burg (1863), the capture of Port Hudson (1863). 
 
42 
 
 (c) Outline of Events Connected with the 
 Capture of Richmond. 
 
 The battle of Bull Run (1861), McClellan's Peninsular 
 campaign (1862), the second battle of Bull Run (1862), 
 Grant's campaign in 1864-65. 
 
 The Result of the Rebellion. 
 
 The two great results of the Civil War were the aboli- 
 tion of slavery and the establishment of the supremacy of 
 the National government. The doctrine of State rights 
 could no longer be held, and the Constitution became the 
 supreme law of the land. 
 
 The Assassination of Lincoln. 
 
 On April 14, 1865, Lincoln, at a performance in Ford*s 
 Theatre, Washington, was shot by an actor, John Wilkes 
 Booth, dying in a few hours. Lincoln had been reelected 
 in 1864, and had just begun his second term. His death de- 
 prived the North and the South of a wise, just, and gen- 
 erous leader. 
 
 Booth belonged to a band of nine conspirators, one of 
 whom made an unsuccessful attempt to kill Mr. Seward. 
 Booth escaped, but was found after a few days in a barn, 
 in Virginia ; he was shot, after refusing to surrender. Three 
 of the conspirators were hanged, together with Mrs. Mary 
 E. Surratt, at whose house the plot was made. 
 
 Note. — Booth ''stole into the box behind the President, and shot 
 him in the head.'' After firing the shot he shouted, "Sic semper 
 tyrannis! " (''Thus be it ever to tyrants"), and jumped to the stage. 
 During his leap, his spur caught in the flag draping the President's 
 box, and his leg was broken. He, however, escaped, reached his horse, 
 and fled. He was shot on April 25th. 
 
 Lincoln's body lay in state for five days in Washington and was 
 then taken to Springfield by the route used in February, 1861. Every- 
 
43 
 
 where the greatest reverence was shown. In Philadelphia 100,000 
 people escorted the body to Independence Hail. 
 
 Johnson's Administration (1865=69). 
 
 1. Andrew Johnson, of Tennessee, elected vice-president 
 by the Republican party in 1864, became president at 
 Lincoln's death, serving until 1869. Johnson was a South- 
 ern Democrat, but was opposed to the Confederates during 
 the war. 
 
 Note. — Andrew Johnson was born in North Carolina. . . . He 
 never went to school, and when ten years old was apprenticed to a 
 tailor. When eighteen, he went to Tennessee, where he married and 
 was taught to read and write by his wife. He was a man of ability. — 
 McMa&tcr. 
 
 2. In January, 1865, Congress had passed the Thir= 
 teenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. 
 This abolished slavery throughout the United States, be- 
 coming a part of the Constitution in December, 1865, when 
 ratified by three-fourths of the States. 
 
 3. The great question of Johnson's administration was 
 reconstruction. By reconstruction we mean readmitting 
 the seceded States to the Union, and reorganizing their 
 government. 
 
 While Congress was not in session, Johnson issued a proc- 
 lamation of pardon to the people of the seceded States, if 
 they agreed to obey the Constitution. When conventions in 
 the various seceded States ratified the Thirteenth Amend- 
 ment, and repealed the secession ordinances, Johnson de- 
 clared that these States were once more members of the 
 Union, and entitled to send representatives and senators 
 to Congress. 
 
 When Congress assembled in December, 1865, it ignored 
 Johnson's reconstruction work, and refused to admit the 
 senators and representatives from the seceded States. It 
 
44 
 
 enacted the Fourteenth Amendment in June, 1866, which 
 forbade any State to deprive any citizen of his rights, thus 
 protecting the f reedman ; this amendment also forbade the 
 Federal and State governments to pay any part of the 
 Confederate debt or to pay any claim for the freed slaves. 
 
 Tennessee had been admitted in 1866, after ratifying 
 the Fourteenth Amendment, but the other ten seceded 
 States rejected it. Congress in 1867 passed a Reconstruc- 
 tion Act. This provided that the ten States not yet ad- 
 mitted should be divided into five military districts, each 
 under the control of a military governor and an army. 
 This government was to continue until the State adopted 
 a constitution forbidding slavery and until its Legislature 
 ratified the Fourteenth Amendment. In 1868, six States 
 complied, and were readmitted ; in 1870, Virginia, Mis- 
 sissippi, and Texas ratified the Fourteenth and the Fif- 
 teenth Amendment, and were readmitted; Georgia was 
 readmitted in January, 1871. 
 
 Note. — The Fourteenth Amendment was proposed by Congress in 
 June, 1866. It was ratified by the requisite number of States in 1868. 
 
 4. In Johnson's administration (1867), by the efforts of 
 William Seward, Secretary of State, Alaska was purchased 
 from Russia for a little over seven million dollars. This 
 region, rich in gold, timber, fur, and fish, lies in the north- 
 western part of North America. 
 
 5. The Atlantic Cable was laid successfully in 1866. 
 (See Buchanan's administration.) 
 
 Note 1. — When Congress passed the Tenure of Office Act, forbid- 
 ding the President to remove certain office holders without the Sen- 
 ate's consent, Johnson in defiance removed Edwin Stanton, Secretary 
 of War. For this the President was impeached. The Senate tried 
 him, but lacked one vote of convicting him. 
 
 Note 2, — Thaddeus Stevens, from 1865, was the unquestioned 
 leader of the House of Eepresentatives. By his plan, the ten States 
 
45 
 
 not yet readmitted were divided into five military districts to be 
 ruled by military power until they were readmitted. He was John- 
 son 's great enemy, and he was chairman of the committee that recom- 
 mended Johnson's impeachment. Stevens was the negro's great 
 friend. To the end of his days he dominated Congress and his party 
 throughout the nation. 
 
 Note 3. — In 1861, Mexico's foreign debt was about $100,000,000, 
 but the treasury was bankrupt. The government under President 
 Juarez decided that it would pay no foreign debt for two years. In 
 1862, France, England, and Spain sent a fleet to collect the custom 
 duties in Vera Cruz in order to meet their claim. Mexico made an 
 arrangement with England and Spain, and they withdrew their ves- 
 sels, but France, aiming at the setting up of a monarchy in Mexico, 
 refused to withdraw. The French conquered the country in 1863, and 
 invited Maximilian, Archduke of Austria, to become emperor. He 
 accepted the invitation, and the French troops remained to support 
 his rule. This violated the Monroe Doctrine; but the United States, 
 busy with the Civil War, could do nothing. When the war ended, 
 the United States demanded of Emperor Napoleon that the French 
 army should be withdrawn from Mexico, and enforced its demand by 
 sending General Sheridan with 50,000 troops to the Mexican frontier. 
 The French troops were withdrawn in 1867. Maximilian remained in 
 Mexico, but he was easily overpowered. He was executed in 1867, 
 Mexico again becoming a republic. 
 
 Grant's Administration (1869 — 1877). 
 
 1. Ulysses S. Grant, of Illinois, was elected by the Re- 
 publican party in 1868, serving two terms from 1869 to 
 1877. 
 
 2. Early in 1870, the Fifteenth Amendment, which 
 Congress had adopted in the closing weeks of Johnson's 
 administration, was ratified by the States. This Amend- 
 ment secured the negroes the right to vote. 
 
 3. The "Alabama" Claims. 
 
 After the Civil War was ended, the United States de- 
 manded payment from England for the damage done to 
 American commerce by the "Alabama," the "Florida," 
 and other Confederate cruisers, built or bought in England 
 
46 
 
 during the Civil War. Our government considered that 
 England, as a neutral, ought to have prevented these ves- 
 sels from being built or equipped in her ports, and that 
 her failure to do so made her responsible for the damage 
 they did. Commissioners from both countries met at 
 Washington; and in 1871 the treaty of Washington was 
 signed, by which it was agreed to submit to arbitration 
 the ''Alabama" claims and other matters in dispute with 
 England. The "Alabama" claims were acted on by a 
 tribunal of five arbitrators, one being appointed by the 
 United States, one by England, one by Italy, one by 
 Switzerland, and one by Brazil. The arbitrators met in 
 G-eneva (Switzerland), in 1872, and their decision was 
 that England should pay the United States $15,500,000. 
 
 Note. — On September 2, 1872, says Ehodes, ''after a detailed de- 
 liberation, a majority of the tribunal of four to one decided . . . 
 to award in gross the sum of $15,500,000 to be paid in gold by Great 
 Britain to the United States" for the damages done by the "Flor- 
 ida," the ''Alabama," and the "Shenandoah." 
 
 4. The Central and Union Pacific Railroad was begun 
 in 1865. The Union Pacific extended from Omaha in 
 Nebraska to Ogden, Utah. The Central Pacific extended 
 from Sacramento to Ogden. The t^o roads were com- 
 pleted and connected at Ogden in 1869. Other lines ex- 
 tend eastward to the Atlantic. The effect of this railroad 
 was great, leading to increased emigration to the western 
 part of the United States, and the development of its 
 agricultural and mineral wealth. 
 
 Note. — Stage-coaches and prairie schooners, large wagons with 
 white canvas tops, were the chief means of communication w-ith the 
 West prior to the completion of the railroad. One mail route extend- 
 ing from St. Louis to El Paso, Texas, and thence to San Francisco, 
 covered the 2729 miles in twenty-four days. In 1860-1861 the Pony 
 Express carried mail on horseback from St. Joseph to San Francisco. 
 Eiders mounted on swift ponies rode three stations, finding a fresh 
 horse at each, and passed on the mail to a new rider, who in turn rode 
 
47 
 
 three stations. The Pony Express covered the two thousand miles 
 in ten days. The ride over the trail was very dangerous because of 
 the lurking robbers and bands of savage Indians. 
 
 5. The Centennial Exhibition. 
 
 To commemorate the hundredth anniversary of the sign- 
 ing of the Declaration of Independence, an Exhibition was 
 held in Philadelphia in 1876. It was of great value, as it 
 showed to all the nations the resources of the United States, 
 and its progress. The United States also learned much 
 from the various foreign nations that exhibited. 
 
 6. The Presidential Election of 1876. 
 
 The Republican candidate for president in 1876 was 
 Rutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio, and the Democratic candi- 
 date was Samuel J. Tilden, of New York. Both parties 
 claimed the victory, as the votes of Florida, Louisiana, 
 South Carolina, and Oregon were claimed by each. The 
 dispute was referred to Congress to settle, and it appointed 
 an Electoral Commission, consisting of five national sena- 
 tors, five national representatives, and five judges of the 
 United States Supreme Court. By a vote of eight to seven, 
 the Commission declared Hayes elected. 
 
 Note 1, — In the election of 1876, the Democratic candidate was 
 Samuel J. Tilden, the great New York lawyer who had just aided 
 in exposing and punishing the '* Tweed ring,'' a corrupt body of 
 politicians in the city of New York. Both parties claimed the 
 election, but the dispute centred chiefly on the electoral votes of 
 South Carolina, Florida, and Louisiana, which were still under 
 ''carpet-bag" rule. These States had established committees of men 
 called ' ' Eeturning Boards, ' ' to decide which candidates were elected. 
 
 The Democrats felt that they could hold Louisiana, where the re- 
 turns showed 7,876 majority for Tilden. Here the Eeturning Board 
 had four members, "insignificant in the extreme." One member of 
 the Board sent to New York to offer to deliver the electoral vote 
 of Louisiana to the Democratic party for a million dollars, but the 
 offer was declined. The Louisiana Board threw out enough votes, 
 
48 
 
 on the ground of fraud at the election, to change the State's vote 
 from Tilden to Hayes. 
 
 Intense excitement prevailed throughout the country. The matter 
 was finally referred to an Electoral Commission. This Commission, 
 composed of eight Eepublieans and seven Democrats, decided for the 
 Hayes electors in every case by a vote of eight to seven, and Hayes 
 became president. 
 
 Note 2. — In the first years of Grant's administration, the South 
 was overrun with unscrupulous adventurers who came from the North 
 and who received the name of ' ' carpet-baggers, ' ' because it was said 
 that they brought with them from the North nothing but their 
 traveling-satchels. These carpet-baggers, by playing upon the 
 prejudices of the freedmen and taking advantage of their ignorance, 
 secured their votes, and in several States where the blacks outnum- 
 bered the whites, gained control of the government. Where the ' ' car- 
 pet-baggers" were most successful, as in Alabama, Florida, South 
 Carolina, Louisiana and Mississippi, public affairs were managed in 
 a most shameful and corrupt manner. In Alabama, in one county 
 the clerk was a horse-thief and the sheriff a negro who could not 
 read. ... In South Carolina, the corruption under ' ' carpet-bag ' ' 
 rule was shocking in the extreme. In the Legislature, $200,000 was 
 spent for furniture and $150,000 for printing. The most expensive 
 wines, liquors, and cigars were ordered to be sent to the boarding- 
 houses of the members, most of whom were negroes who had been 
 slaves. Watermelons were furnished the members at the expense of 
 the State, and at one session the watermelon bill was $1,800. 
 
 From S. E. Forman 's ' ' History of the United States. ' ' 
 
 Note 3. — To get control of the State government, a secret society 
 called the Ku-Klux Klan was formed in 1868 in Tennessee, and 
 spread over the South. The Klan terrorized the negroes and the 
 * ' carpet-baggers. ' ' At midnight, the Klan would appear at the door 
 of their victim, wrapped like ghosts in winding sheets. Many negroes 
 and their white leader were whipped and banished; and in some cases, 
 murder was committed. In 1871, Congress passed a bill to suppress 
 the society, and by 1872 it was practically overthrown. 
 
 Note 4. — In 1871, the great Chicago fire occurred. It raged for 
 two days, destroyed 17,000 buildings, and caused two hundred and 
 fifty deaths. The property loss was nearly $200,000,000, but a new 
 and grander city was soon built. 
 
 Note 5. — The unsuccessful attempt of Jay Gould and two others 
 to corner the gold market resulted in the temporary panic of 1869, 
 with its "Black Friday" (September 24th). The real panic came 
 four years later, in 1873. It began with the failure of the great 
 Philadelphia banking house of Jay Cooke & Co. ''More than ten 
 thousand business failures occurred in 1873 and 1874." Millions of 
 wage-earners were affected, for the panic conditions were not over 
 for four or five years. 
 
49 
 
 Note 6. — In the election of 1872, Grant's chief opponent was Hor- 
 ace Greeley, the great editor of the New York "Tribune." He was 
 hopelessly defeated by Grant. During Grant's second term, every 
 branch of the government was infested with men whose only aim 
 Vv^as to plunder the country. Grant was not a good judge of char- 
 acter, and many of his appointments were utterly dishonest men. 
 
 Hayes's Administration (1877 — 1881). 
 
 I. Rutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio, was elected by the 
 
 Republican* party, serving from 1877 to 1881. 
 
 Note. — When President Hayes was inaugurated on March 4, 1877, 
 the Southern whites had almost shaken off the Eepublican rule, which 
 had been set up under the protection of Federal soldiers at the close 
 of the Civil War. In only two States, Louisiana and South Carolina, 
 were Eepublican governors nominally in power, and these last "rulers 
 of conquered provinces" had only a weak grip upon their offices, 
 which they could not have maintained for a moment without the aid 
 of Union troops stationed at their capitals. By secret societies like 
 the Ku-Klux Klan, and by open intimidation, the conservative whites 
 had practically recovered from the negroes, whom the Eepublicans had 
 enfranchised, the political power. . . . President Hayes, on 
 April 9, 1877, ordered the withdrawal of the Federal troops from 
 Louisiana; a day later he withdrew the troops from the capitol at 
 Columbia, South Carolina. . . . Henceforward, the negroes of the 
 South were to depend upon the generosity of the whites and upon 
 their own collective efforts for whatever civil and political rights 
 they were permitted to enjoy. — Adapted from Beard. 
 
 2. The Resumption of Specie Payment. 
 
 By specie, we mean gold or silver coin. During the Civil 
 War, the government did not have enough gold and silver 
 to meet its expenses. It therefore issued paper money. 
 At one time the credit of the Union government sank 
 so low that a paper dollar was worth only thirty-five 
 cents in gold. After the war, the credit of the govern- 
 ment improved. In 1875, Congress passed a bill declaring 
 that from January 1, 1879, paper money was to be redeem- 
 able in coin at the United States Treasury for its face value. 
 
50 
 
 Since that date, paper money has been worth its face value 
 in gold. 
 
 Note. — In 1877, a great railway strike occurred, beginning with 
 the employees of the Baltimore and Ohio Eailroad. They were soon 
 followed by those of the other lines east of the Mississippi, thus stop- 
 ping trafl&c in that section of the country. Much rioting resulted, 
 especially in Pittsburgh and Baltimore. National troops were called 
 on to end the disorder in Maryland, Pennsylvania, and West Vir- 
 ginia, and the strike soon ended, though not before millions of dollars' 
 worth of property had been destroyed. 
 
 3. New Applications of Electricity. 
 
 The telephone, invented by Alexander Bell for conversa- 
 tion at long distances, was shown first in 1876. In 1878, 
 Charles BiTish introduced electric lighting by arc lamps, 
 and in 1879, Thomas Edison invented the incandescent 
 electric light. Electricity is now generally used for light- 
 ing streets and large buildings, and for moving street cars. 
 The first lines of street railway to use electricity in place 
 of horses were in Kansas City, Baltimore and Richmond, 
 in 1884 and 1885. 
 
 4. The Growth of the Country. 
 
 In 1880, the growth since the foundation of the govern- 
 ment was showTi in the increase in the population from 
 three millions to fifty millions ; in the increase in the num- 
 ber of States from thirteen to thirty-eight; in the extent 
 of country settled; in the number of inventions; in the 
 steady increase of railroads, and the consequent develop- 
 ment of the mineral, agricultural, and forest wealth of the 
 nation; in the great growth of its manufactures and its 
 commerce; and in the improvement and growth of the 
 literature and of the educational advantages for the people. 
 (Explain each fully.) 
 
51 
 
 Note. — James G. Blaine, of Maine, and Eoscoe Conkling, of New 
 York, were the most prominent men of the Eepublican party at this 
 period. Both were senators of the United States in 1876, when 
 Blaine first aimed at the presidency. In 1880, Blaine again tried to 
 get the nomination, but Conkling prevented it by working for Grant 
 as a candidate. Neither could carry the convention, and Garfield, a 
 'Mark horse," was nominated. In 1884, Blaine secured the Repub- 
 lican nomination, but was defeated by Cleveland. 
 
 Garfield's and Arthur's Administration (i88i— 1885). 
 
 I. James A. Garfield, of Ohio, was elected president by 
 the Republican party, serving from March 4, 1881, to Sep- 
 tember, 1881. Guiteau, an unsuccessful applicant for a 
 government position, shot the President in July, 1881. On 
 the death of Garfield in September, the vice-president, 
 Chester A. Arthur, of New York, succeeded, serving from 
 1881 to 1885. 
 
 2. Civil Service Reform. 
 
 By civil service reform, we mean improvement in the 
 work, character, and mode of appointment of government 
 officers. Jackson introduced the principle of "rotation in 
 office," removing all government officials who were not of 
 his party. This continued for many years. Congress, in- 
 fluenced by the death of Garfield, passed in Arthur's ad- 
 ministration (1883), a Civil Service Act. According to this, 
 public examinations were to be held for certain positions, 
 and no one could be appointed to these positions who had 
 not passed such an examination. It also provided that 
 persons could not be removed from these positions for polit- 
 ical reasons only. At first, the act applied only to a few 
 positions, but now it applies to nearly all the minor offices 
 under the government. Thus the government secures and 
 retains competent men for its service. 
 
52 
 
 Cleveland's Administration (1885 — 1889). 
 
 1. Grover Cleveland, of New York, was elected by the 
 Democratic party, serving from 1885 to 1889. 
 
 2. The Tariff Question. 
 
 Cleveland in 1887, in his message to Congress, showed 
 that the revenues of the government were much greater 
 than were really needed. lie thought that Congress should 
 reduce this surplus revenue by lowering the taritl*. The 
 House thereupon passed the JMills Bill, which lowered the 
 tariff greatly. The Senate voted against the bill, and it 
 therefore failed to become a law. 
 
 3. The Presidential Succession Law. 
 
 In 1886, after the death of Vice-President Hendricks. 
 Congress passed a presidential succession law. It provided 
 that, in case there was no president or vice-president owing 
 to death or other cause, the Secretary of State should act 
 as president until the disability of the president or vice- 
 president w^as removed or a president elected. If there 
 was no Secretary of State, then the Secretary of the Treas- 
 ury should act as president. The succession would pass in 
 like manner to the Secretary of War, the Attorney-General, 
 the Postmaster-General, the Secretary of the Navy, and 
 the Secretary of the Interior. 
 
 4. The Chinese Exclusion Act. 
 
 The Chinese, who work for very low wag^es. took the 
 place of American laborers in many of the Western States, 
 and there was great opposition to them, especially in Cali- 
 fornia. 
 
53 
 
 The first Chinese Exclusion Act was passed ^in 1879, but 
 President Hayes vetoed it as violating our treaty with 
 China. In Arthur's administration (1882), an act was 
 passed suspending the immigration of Chinese laborers for 
 ten years. In Cleveland's administration (1888) another 
 Chinese Exclusion Act was passed. In 1892 and 1902 
 other acts were passed, continuing their exclusion. This 
 has relieved the Western coast to a great extent. 
 
 Note 1. — Japan will make no treaty excluding her subjects; as the 
 United States objects strongly to cheap Japanese labor, Japan applies 
 its own restrictions and issues passports to this country only to its 
 students and business men. 
 
 Note 2. — The Interstate Commerce Act of 1887 provided for an 
 Interstate Commerce Commission to regulate all railway traffic that 
 passed through more than one State. Many of the railroads had dis- 
 criminated against the small shippers by giving cheaper freight rates 
 where the shipments were large. The large concerns could thus under- 
 sell the others, and this forced the small concerns out of business in 
 many cases. This act forbids the railway companies to make ''un- 
 just discriminations " in freight rates. The Eailway Eate Act of 
 1906 gives the Commission authority to say what the railroads shall 
 charge for carrying freight and passengers from one State into 
 another. 
 
 Harrison's Administration (1889 — 1893). 
 
 1. Benjamin Harrison, of Indiana, was elected presi- 
 dent by the Republican party, serving from 1889 to 1893. 
 
 2. In 1890, a new tariff, called the McKinley Tariff, 
 
 was adopted by Congress. It was drawn up by Wm.. Mc- 
 Kinley, who was a member of Congress from Ohio. It was 
 a tariff which aimed at protecting American products and 
 manufactures. One of its ideas was to permit reciprocity 
 treaties. These treaties could be made with another na- 
 tion, certain of its exports being admitted free or at re- 
 duced rates into the United States, if that country gave 
 the same advantage to certain exports from the United 
 States. 
 
54 
 
 3. The famous Sherman Silver Law was passed in 1890. 
 This law ordered the Secretary of the Treasury to purchase 
 four and a half million ounces of silver every month in 
 order to keep up the price of silver. This bill threatened 
 for a time to put the national Treasury on a silver basis. 
 
 4. In 1890, Congress passed the Sherman Anti-Trust 
 Act, forbidding combinations, or trusts, that restrained 
 trade. These trusts are combinations of a number of firms 
 or corporations producing a certain article, in order to do 
 away with all competition. The trust often secured a 
 monopoly of the article by forcing smaller firms out of the 
 business. Such wrongs the Sherman Law aims to prevent. 
 
 Note. — Two prominent men of tMs administration were James G. 
 Blaine, Harrison's Secretary of State, and Thomas B. Reed, the 
 courageous, clear-sighted Speaker of the House of Representatives. 
 Both men came from Maine. 
 
 Cleveland's Second Administration (1893=97). 
 
 I. Grover Cleveland was reelected by the Democratic 
 party, serving from 1893 to 1897. 
 
 2. The Bering Sea Controversy. 
 
 The United States claimed the right to control the seal 
 fisheries of Bering Sea, and to protect the seals from 
 slaughter by the Canadians. In 1886, to stop Canadian 
 depredations, the United States seized three British vessels 
 in Bering Sea, but later restored the captures. After much 
 controversy, a treaty with England was made in 1892, pro- 
 viding for a commission of seven arbitrators to settle the 
 question. The arbitrators met in the spring of 1893 and 
 decided that the United States did not have exclusive 
 jurisdiction in Bering Sea. They agreed on certain meas- 
 ures, however, for the protection of the seal. 
 
55 
 
 3. In 1893, President Cleveland called an extra session 
 of Congress and forced it to repeal the Sherman Silver 
 Law. By this means he saved the currency system and 
 made it possible to adopt the gold standard. 
 
 4. Cleveland's efforts did not prevent the disastrous 
 panic of 1893 which had been gathering for many months. 
 In the autumn of that year hundreds of thousands of people 
 were out of work. It was an unwise time to revise the 
 tariff, but early in 1894, Congress passed the Wilson Tariff, 
 reducing many of the tariff rates. 
 
 5. For half a century, the British government had dis- 
 puted the boundary line between Venezuela and British 
 Guiana. Venezuela had repeatedly offered to arbitrate the 
 matter, but England refused. In 1895 Cleveland informed 
 the British government that in accordance with the Monroe 
 Doctrine, the United States must insist on arbitration. 
 When England refused, he asked Congress to authorize a 
 commission to determine the rightful boundary. War with 
 England seemed possible for a time, but the British govern- 
 ment settled the difficulty by submitting the boundary dis- 
 pute to arbitration. 
 
 Note. — Another example of Cleveland's courage was seen in his 
 intervention in the strike of the employees of the Pullman Car Com- 
 pany of Chicago. As the governor cf Illinois made no effort to quell 
 the disorder in the tltv, Cleveland sent national troops to put down 
 the riot on the ground that the rioters interfered with the mails and 
 with interstate commerce. This strike occurred in May, 1894. 
 
 McKinley's Administration (1897 — 1901). 
 
 I. William McKinley, of Ohio, was elected hy the Re- 
 publican party, serving from 1897 to 1901 In 1900 he was 
 reelected. 
 
56 
 
 2. Immediately after McKinley's inauguration, Con- 
 gress revised the tariff, passing the Dingley Law in 1897. 
 This was a high protective tariff, and continued in effect 
 until 1909. 
 
 3. The Annexation of Hawaii. 
 
 The Hawaiian Islands are a group in the Pacific Ocean, 
 southwest of the United States. At one time the Hawaiian 
 Islands were a kingdom with a native king. In 1893, after 
 a revolution, the queen was deposed. The islanders desired 
 to be annexed to the United States; and finally, in 1898, 
 Congress passed a bill annexing the group. 
 
 4. The War with Spain. 
 
 Cause:— Cuba had been in revolt against Spain for a 
 number of years. In McKinley's first term, General Wey- 
 ler, the Spanish governor-general of Cuba, had waged 
 the war with such cruelty that the indignation of the United 
 States was aroused. The battleship "Maine/* sent to 
 Havana to protect Americans there, was blown up with the 
 loss of two hundred and sixty-four of her crew, February 
 15, 1898. This aroused the indignation of the whole na- 
 tion. Congress ordered Spain to remove her forces from 
 Cuba, and declared the island independent. As Spain re- 
 fused her assent to this, war resulted, beginning April 
 21, 1898. 
 
 Note. — The commission appointed by the United States to inves- 
 tigate the destruction of the ''Maine" reported that it had been 
 destroyed by the explosion of a submarine mine, but ''that no evi- 
 dence had been obtained fixing the responsibility for the destruction 
 of the vessel." 
 
 The Spanish commission of inquiry "reported that the destruction 
 of the vessel was due to some interior cause." 
 
57 
 
 I. Operations in the East. 
 
 (a) The Battle of Manila Bay. 
 
 Commodore Dewey, leaving Hong Kong, sailed to Manila 
 Bay, an arm of the China Sea, in the southwestern part of 
 Luzon. He utterly destroyed the Spanish fleet under Ad- 
 miral Montojo there, without any great injury to his own 
 men or vessels, on May 1, 1898. The ''Olympia" was 
 Dewey's flagship. 
 
 (b) The Capture of Manila. 
 
 General Merritt was sent from the United States with 
 an army to Manila, and after a short siege, the city was 
 taken from the Spanish by a combined attack of the army 
 and navy, in August, 1898. 
 
 I. Operations in or around Cuba, 
 (a) The Naval Battle of Santiago. 
 
 When the Americans learned that the Spanish fleet under 
 Admiral Cervera was in Santiago harbor, in the southeast- 
 ern part of Cuba, Admiral Sampson blockaded them there 
 for about six weeks. On July 3d, Cervera tried to escape 
 from the harbor, but the blockading fleet pursued him and 
 destroyed the whole Spanish squadron, with little injury 
 to the American ships or men. Commodore Schley of the 
 "Brooklyn" and Captain Clark of the ''Oregon" were 
 very prominent in this battle. Cervera 's flagship was the 
 ''Cristobal Colon". 
 
 Note. — At the time of the destruction of the ' ' Maine, ' ' the * ' Ore 
 gon" was at San Francisco. Her voyage of 14,000 miles around 
 South America to join the blockading fleet was the ''swiftest long 
 voyage ever made by a battleship." 
 
58 
 
 (b) The Land Battle of Santiago. 
 
 While the navy was blockading the Spanish fleet in the 
 harbor of Santiago, an American army under General 
 Shafter was sent against the Spanish army there, in June, 
 1898. The Spanish held a strong position outside Santiago 
 on San Juan Hill, and in the village of El Caney. On 
 the first of July, after a severe battle, the Spanish were 
 driven from these positions inside the town. Theodore 
 Roosevelt and his "Rough Riders" rendered valuable ser- 
 vice in the battle. After a siege of about two weeks, the 
 Spanish under General Toral surrendered (July 17, 1898). 
 
 3. The Treaty. 
 
 The treaty was signed at Paris, in December, 1898, and 
 ratified early in 1899. By it, Spain acknowledged the inde- 
 pendence of Cuba, and gave Porto Rico, Guam, and the 
 Philippine Islands to the United States. For the Philip- 
 pines, the United States allowed Spain twenty million 
 dollars. 
 
 In this war, England showed great sympathy for the 
 cause of the United States. 
 
 Note 1. — Guam is one of the Ladrone Islands, in the Pacific Ocean, 
 east of the Philippine Islands. 
 
 The Philippine Islands are in the Pacific Ocean, southeast of China. 
 Porto Eico lies in the Atlantic Ocean, southeast of the United States. 
 
 Note 2. — The natives under the leadership of Aguinaldo, early in 
 1899, began to fight the United States to gain their independence. 
 There were many minor battles, in which the natives were usually de- 
 feated. The capture of Aguinaldo by General Funston in March, 
 1901, practically ended the war in the Philippines. 
 
 Note 3. — In 1901, Cuba adopted a Constitution, and in 1902, 
 Tomas Palma was inaugurated as its first president. The island is 
 independent, but the United States has the right to intervene to pro- 
 tect it or to keep order, if the Cuban government is unable to do so. 
 
59 
 
 The Death of the President. 
 
 In September, 1901, President McKinley, while attend- 
 ing the Buffalo Exhibition, was shot by an anarchist named 
 Czolgosz, and died a w^eek after the attack. 
 
 Roosevelt's Administration (1901- — 1909). 
 
 1. As vice-president under President McKinley, Theo- 
 dore Roosevelt, of New York, succeeded to the presidency 
 in 1901. 
 
 2. The State of Panama revolted from Colombia and 
 set up an independent republic ; and in 1904, by treaty, it 
 gave the United States control of a strip of territory ten 
 miles wide across the Isthmus of Panama for about ten 
 million dollars. This strip is called the "Canal Zone," and 
 here the United States has constructed the Panama Canal 
 to connect the two oceans. This will be of great value to 
 commerce, giving our eastern cities a much shorter route 
 to the Pacific for their exports. 
 
 The canal was officially opened on January 1, 1915. 
 
 Note. — The United States by the treaty of 1904 agreed to pay 
 Panama ten million dollars immediately and two hundred and fifty 
 thousand dollars annually, beginning nine years after the date of 
 the ratification of the treaty. 
 
 The Hay-Pauncefote treaty of 1901 between England and the 
 United States was drawn up by Secretary of State Hay and Lord 
 Pauncefote, It made the United States the sole owner of the Panama 
 Canal and secured its neutrality in time of war. 
 
 3. When gold was discovered in the Klondike region in 
 1896, the dispute regarding the boundary between Alaska 
 and Canada was renewed. The matter was settled by 
 arbitration in 1903, the committee of six arbitrators meet- 
 
60 
 
 ing in London. The disputed land was divided, but the 
 ports were given to the United States. 
 
 Note. — The Klondike region is entirely in Canada. 
 
 4. The Irrigation Act of 1902 is intended to make the 
 arid public lands in the West fit for occupation, by irri- 
 gating them at government expense, the cost being later 
 repaid by the sale of the land. Large reservoirs are built 
 to store the water, which is led by canals to the lands re- 
 quiring it. 
 
 Note. — Since the work began, eight new towns with about ten 
 thousand people have been built on these watered lands (1907). 
 
 5. By the presidential election of 1904, Roosevelt, the 
 Republican candidate, Avas re-elected, and began his second 
 term on March 4, 1905. 
 
 6. The Pure Food Act was passed in 1906 to prevent 
 adulteration of food, drugs, medicines, and liquors. All 
 such articles intended for interstate commerce must be in- 
 spected by United States officials and correctly labeled. 
 
 The law relating to meat inspection requires canned and 
 fresh meats used in interstate or foreign commerce to be 
 inspected by United States officials and marked "inspected 
 and passed." 
 
 Note. — In the summer of 1902, the anthracite coal miners of Penn- 
 sylvania struck, involving 147,000 workmen. This closed the mines 
 for more than five months, and the coal famine affected all classes 
 and occupations. President Eoosevelt asked the two sides to arbi- 
 trate the matter; and on their agreement to do so, he appointed a 
 committee of seven men to investigate the matter. This ended the 
 strike, the men returning to work late in October. 
 
 Taft's Administration (1909 — 1913). 
 
 I. William H. Taft, of Ohio, was elected by the Repub- 
 lican party in 1908. 
 
61 
 
 2. The tariff was revised in Taft's administration. The 
 Payne Tariff, adopted in 1909, was a high protective tariff. 
 
 3. In 1910, Congress passed a bill to permit the forma- 
 tion of Arizona and New Mexico as separate States. These 
 two Territories became States in 1912. 
 
 4. The Postal Savings-Bank Law was passed in 1910. 
 Under the law, savings-banks have been established in cer- 
 tain post-offices, deposits of from one to five hundred dollars 
 being received from any person over ten years of age. 
 Interest at two per cent, per annum is paid. 
 
 5. The Parcel-post Law, passed in 1912, admitted to the 
 mail as fourth-class matter farm and factory produce, the 
 rate varying according to the weight and the distance. 
 This law will be a decided aid to business, as it prevents 
 the express companies' exclusive control of the transmis- 
 sion of packages. 
 
 Note. — Later regulations permitted books to be sent by parcel-post 
 and raised the weight limit, which in January, 1914, was fifty pounds 
 for certain distances. 
 
 6. A new Cabinet position was created by Congress, in 
 1913, at the close of Taft's administration. This new De- 
 partment of Labor makes the president's cabinet consist of 
 ten members. 
 
 Note 1. — During this administration remarkable progress was made 
 with the aeroplane. The first successful flight was made by Wilbur 
 Wright in 1903, his biplane moving a distance of eight hundred and 
 fifty-two feet. In May, 1910, Glenn Curtiss with a biplane travelled 
 from Albany to New York City, one hundred and thirty-seven miles, 
 in one hundred and fifty-two minutes. In June, 1910, Charles K. 
 Hamilton flew from New York to Philadelphia and back, a distance 
 of one hundred and seventy-five miles. To fly this distance, the 
 biplane was in motion three hours and thirty-four minutes. 
 
 Note 2. — Edison's latest invention, exhibited in 1913, is the kineto- 
 phone, a combination of two of his other inventions, the phonograph 
 and the cinematograph, or motion-picture machine. This new inven- 
 
62 
 
 tion makes talking pictures possible, the syncliroiiizer giving abso- 
 lute time agreement between the sounds of the phonograph under trjw 
 stage and the views of the motion-picture machine in the secona 
 balcony, more than a hundred feet distant. 
 
 Note 3. — Guglielmo Marconi, an Italian, after much study succeeded 
 in 1899 in communicating by wireless telegraphy between France and 
 England, across the English Channel. In 1901, he succeeded in com- 
 municating across the Atlantic Ocean. In 1906, he invented a new 
 system of wireless telegraphy, and in 1907 he established wireless 
 telegraph service between England and America, across the Atlantic. 
 His system is in use on all large ships; and by it, ships can be 
 brought into communication with each other, securing relief in emer- 
 gencies. By 1914, the entire globe was encircled with a series of 
 wireless stations. A ten-word message can be sent around the earth 
 in about three minutes. ^ 
 
 Wilson's Administration (1913 — ). 
 
 1. Woodrow Wilson, of Virginia, was elected by the 
 Democratic party in 1912. 
 
 2. The tariff was again revised in Wilson's administra- 
 tion. The Underwood tariff, passed in 1913, was a tariff 
 for revenue only, and not a protective tariff. It placed many 
 articles on the free list and greatly reduced the rate on 
 many others. 
 
 3. The Underwood tariff greatly reduced the revenues o^f 
 the government. To make up this deficit, a tax on incomes 
 was passed, the rate of tax increasing according to the in- 
 come. Incomes below a certain figure are exempt from this 
 tax. 
 
 Note 1. — For single persons, any income above $3,000 is to be 
 taxed. 
 
 Note 2. — The Sixteenth Amendment to the Constitution, ratified 
 in the closing part of Taft's administration, in 1913, gave Congress 
 the power ' ' to lay and collect taxes on incomes. ' ' 
 
 The Seventeenth Amendment, ratified in 1913, requires national 
 senators to be elected by the people, changing the original provision 
 of the Constitution that senators of the United States were to be 
 elected by the State Legislatures. 
 
 Note 3. — The following have female suffrage: Wyoming (1869), 
 Colorado (1893), Idaho (1896), Utah (1896), Washington, 1910), 
 
63 
 
 California (1911), Arizona (3912), Kansas (1912), Oregon (1912), 
 Alaska (1913), Illinois (1913), Montana (1914), and Nevada (1914). 
 Illinois has not full female suffrage, as the women of that State vote 
 only for elective city otticers, for certain county officers, and for 
 presidential electors. 
 
 4. In 1913, Congress passed the Owen-Glass currency 
 bill. The object of this law is to prevent business panics 
 by making money pass easily to sections of the country 
 where business requires it. Twelve Federal reserve-banks 
 have been established, one in each of twelve cities selected 
 by the government. Each national bank in the United 
 States must keep at least half of its reserves in the reserve- 
 bank of its region. A bank needing money may go to the 
 regional bank and receive fifty per cent, of the face value 
 of the stocks and other securities it deposits there. 
 
 The twelve Federal banks are controlled by a Federal 
 Reserve Board, which holds its sessions in Washington ; its 
 seven members are appointed by the president of the United 
 States. 
 
 The Condition of the Country in 1913. 
 
 (a) The present number of States is forty-eight. 
 
 Note 1. — In 1907, Oklahoma and Indian Territory were admitted 
 as the State of Oklahoma. Arizona and New Mexico became States 
 in 1912. 
 
 Note 2. — The territories are Hawaii and Alaska. The colonial 
 possessions are Porto Eico, Philippine Islands, Tutuila (in the 
 Samoan Group), Guam, and Wake Island. 
 
 Note 3. — Hawaii is an organized Territory. Every organized Ter- 
 ritorial government has three departments, — legislative, executive, 
 judicial. The executive department consists of a governor appointed 
 by the president of the United States and confirmed by the Senate; 
 the legislative department consists of a Legislature of two houses, 
 elected by the voters of the Territory; the judicial department con- 
 sists of judges appointed by the president with the consent of the 
 Senate. Each organized Territory sends a delegate to the national 
 House of Eepresentatives to represent the Territory there; he of 
 course has no vote in Congress. 
 
64 
 
 Alaska has a governor and judges appointed by the president. It 
 sends a delegate to Congress, this delegate being elected by the voters. 
 
 Alaska has a Legislature of one house. 
 
 Porto Rico has a governor appointed by the president. Its Legis 
 lature consists of two houses, the lower house being elected by the 
 people and the upper house being appointed by the president. A 
 commissioner represents it in Congress. 
 
 The Philippine Islands have a governor and a commission ap- 
 pointed by the president. The lower legislative body is elected by 
 the people. There are two commissioners to represent the Philippines 
 at Washington. 
 
 (b) The population of continental United States by the 
 census of 1910 (thirteenth census) was about ninety-one 
 millions. 
 
 (c) There has been a great increase in manufacturing 
 since the Civil War. Numerous American inventions and 
 the use of modern machinery have greatly aided this in- 
 crease. 
 
 The South has begun to manufacture extensively, 
 although its main resource is still agriculture. 
 
 The use of modern machinery has greatly advanced agri- 
 culture, just as increased railroads have added to the value 
 of the agricultural products by finding markets for them. 
 Foreign and domestic commerce have increased enormously. 
 Our chief exports are cotton, iron, steel, beef, wheat, flour, 
 petroleum, and manufactured articles, and the trade ex- 
 tends over the world. To-day, the United States is one of 
 the leading manufacturing and commercial nations of the 
 world. 
 
 (d) The progress in literature has been marked. News- 
 papers and books have bacome extremely cheap. They are 
 of great value in educating the people and in making them 
 intelligent, and fit to govern themselves. 
 
65 
 
 There has been a great advance in the character of the 
 education of the country. The colonial schools were few, 
 and were without the present educational facilities. 
 
 The improved condition of the schools has been brought 
 about only by repeated efforts. All the States now have 
 creditable public schools, on which great sums of money 
 are spent. The credit of Pennsylvania's public schools is 
 due first, to Governor Wolf, who induced the Legislature 
 to establish a system of free public schools in 1834 ; and sec- 
 ondly to Thaddeus Stevens, who, by his eloquence, pre- 
 vented the repeal of that law in 1835. 
 
 Outline of Territory Acquired. 
 
 Note. — Describe fully, giving the boundary, and telling how, when 
 and from whom acquired. 
 
 Louisiana (1803), Florida (1819), Texas (1845), Oregon 
 (1846), the Mexican Cession (1848), the Gadsden Purchase 
 (1853), Alaska (1867), the Hawaiian Islands (1898), the 
 Philippine Islands, Guam, Porto Rico (1899). 
 
 Note 1. — The area of the Louisiana Purchase was over eighteen 
 times the size of Pennsylvania; Florida was one and a half times 
 Pennsylvania; Texas was over eight and a half times Pennsylvania; 
 the Oregon country was about six times Pennsylvania; the Mexican 
 Cession was nearly twelve times Pennsylvania; the Gadsden Purchase 
 was about the size of Pennsylvania; Alaska is over thirteen times 
 Pennsylvania ; the Hawaiian Islands are about one-seventh the size of 
 Pennsylvania; the Philippine Islands are two and a half times Penn- 
 sylvania; and Porto Eico is about one-twelfth the size of Pennsyl- 
 vania. 
 
 Note 2. — The northwestern boundary required several treaties with 
 England to settle. The treaty of 1818 made the boundary line the 
 49th parallel from the Lake of the Woods (between Minnesota and 
 Canada) to the Rocky Mountains. This treaty left the disputed 
 Oregon country open to the ''subjects of the two powers" for ten 
 years. In 1827 this arrangement was renewed. The treaty of 1846 
 made the 49th parallel the boundary line to Vancouver Island, where 
 the Strait of Juan de Fuca became the boundary line. 
 
66 
 
 Tariff Outline. 
 
 Hamilton's tariff measure, the high protective tariff of 
 1828, the Nullification troubles of 1832, the ''Compromise 
 Tariff" of 1833, the Walker tariff of 1846, the Morrill tariff 
 of 1861, Cleveland's tariff ideas, the McKinley Tariff of 
 1890, the Wilson Tariff of 1894, the Dingley Tariff of 1897, 
 the Payne Tariff of 1909, the Underwood Tariff of 1913. 
 
 Outline of the Slavery Question. 
 
 Introduction at Jamestown in 1619, the Ordinance of 
 1787, the effect of the cotton-gin (1793), the Missouri Com- 
 promise (1820), the rise of the Abolitionists (1831), the 
 annexation of Texas (1845), the Wilmot Proviso (1846), 
 the ''Omnibus Bill" (1850), the Kansas-Nebraska Act 
 (1854), the Dred Scott Decision (1857), John Brown's Raid 
 (1859), the Emancipation Proclamation (1863), the Thir- 
 teenth Amendment (1865). 
 
 Outline of Inventions. 
 
 Note. — Give the use, the name of the inventor, the date of the in- 
 vention (by administration), and the effect of each. 
 
 The cotton-gin (1793), the steamboat (1807), McCor- 
 mick's reaping-machine (1834), the screw propeller (1836), 
 the telegraph (in operation 1844), the sewing-machine 
 (1846), the rotary printing-press (1846), the Atlantic cable 
 (1858- '66), the "Monitor" (1862), the telephone (1876). 
 the electric light (1878-79). 
 
 Outline of Financial Affairs. 
 
 Finances during the Revolution, Hamilton's measures, 
 the United States Bank (in Washington's and Jackson's 
 administration), the panic of Van Bur en's administra- 
 
67 
 
 tion, the issue of paper money in Lincoln's administration, 
 the resumption of specie payment in Hayes's administra- 
 tion. 
 
 Outline of Modes of Transportation. 
 
 Colonial travel, Fulton's steamboat (1807), the National 
 Road to the West (Monroe's administration), the Erie 
 Canal, Railroads (John Quincy Adams's, Jackson's, and 
 Grant's administration), the use of electricity, the auto- 
 mobile. 
 
 Note- -What little travel there was in early days was by horse or 
 coach, along bad roads. Thus in 1766, a line of stage-coaches was 
 begun that made the journey between New York and Philadelphia 
 (about ninety miles) in two days. 
 
 Some Political Parties of the United States. 
 
 Note 1. — At the beginning of the government there existed two par- 
 ties. One was the Federalist, led by Washington and Hamilton. 
 These believed in a strong central government. George Washington 
 and John Adams were the two Federalist presidents. The opposing 
 party was the Anti-Federalists, who opposed the Constitution. It 
 soon died out. 
 
 Under the leadership of Thomas Jefferson a new party was formed, 
 which he called the Republican party, but it soon took the name of 
 the Deiiiocratic-Republican party. This party believed in the doctrine 
 of State rights. Jefferson, Madison, and Monroe were elected by 
 this party. John Quincy Adams was elected president by the House 
 of H;e[)resentatives, .-^s none of the eandidares had a majority of the 
 electoral votes. After 1832, this party was known simply as the 
 Democratic party. Andrew Jackson was the leader of the Democrats, 
 and they believed in State rights and opposed a protective tariff. 
 This party exists to-day. The presidents elected by this partv were 
 Jackson, Van Buren, Polk, Pierce, Buchanan, Cleveland, and Wilson. 
 
 The Whig party was powerful between 1836 and 1850. The Whigs 
 believed in a protective tariff, in a strong central government, and 
 opposed the doctrine of State rights. William Harrison and Zachary 
 Taylor were elected Whig presidents, and each waa succeeded by a 
 Whig vice-president. 
 
68 
 
 The Republican party was formed in 1S54. It favored a protective 
 tariff and a strong central government; it opposed the extension of 
 slavery. Lincoln was the first president elected by the Republicans. 
 The other presidents elected by the Republicans were Johnson, Grant, 
 Hayes, Garfield, Arthur, Harrison, McKinley,, Roosevelt, and Tart. 
 
 Note 2. — Up to the present time (1911) twenty-two different men 
 have been elected to the office of president of the United States. Five 
 of these have died in office, and have been succeeded by their re- 
 spective vice-presidents. Only one of the latter, Theodore Roosevelt, 
 was afterward elected to the presidency. Thus the great office has 
 been held by twenty- six different men. 
 
 Of these twenty-six men, fourteen had a college education. Har- 
 vard claims three — John Adams, his sun John t^umcy Adams, and 
 Theodore Roosevelt. William and Mary College, in Virginia, had 
 Thomas Jefferson and John Tyler. Wo other college has had more 
 than one of its alumni in the White House. Yale appears in the list 
 now for the first time in the person of Mr. Taft. Bowdoin was rep- 
 resented by Franklin Pierce, Williams by James A. Garfield, Union 
 by Chester a. Arthur, ' Princeton by James Madison, Dickinson by 
 James Buchanan, the University of iS'orth Carolina by James K. Polk, 
 Kenyon by Rutherford B. Hayes, Miami by Benjamin Harrison. The 
 Military Academy at West Point graduated Grant, while Monroe, W. 
 H. Harrison and McKinley entered college but did not graduate. 
 
 Andrew Jackson had almost no formal schooling; Abraham Lin- 
 coln had little or none because of poverty; Grover Cleveland had lit- 
 tle early education, but became a man of wide knowledge and in- 
 fluence; Martin Van Buren had no early training but that of the 
 village school; Millard Fillmore was a clerk in a store. 
 
 Of the twenty-six presidents, nineteen were lawyers. 
 
 It should be said that not one of the twenty-six presidents was 
 ever a sluggard. Those of college training were industrious and 
 ambitious students, and those who had few early advantages were 
 tireless in their labor to overcome their disabilities. Each of them 
 made the very utmost of what he had. — Abridged from H. P. Judson. 
 

 
 
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