.o^.i^."^ .v^,.j;^-.X ,^<.;^..% 1 «> ,. S */^- A ^fu ^ ''bl ^^^ ^^•n. '\>.^'^ ,°-4-^ ,» . *'* YARN AND CLOTH MAKING THE MACMILLAN COMPANY NEW YORK • BOSTON ■ CHICAGO - DALLAS ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO MACMILLAN & CO., Limited LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA MELBOURNE THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. TORONTO Yarn and Cloth Making An Economic Study A College and Normal School Text Preliminary to Fabric Study AND A Refer eyice for Teachers of Industrial History and Art in Secondary and Elementary Schools BY MARY LOIS KISSELL, A.M. w SPECIALIST IN PRIMITIVE TEXTILES, AND FORMERLY ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF HOME ECONOMICS IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA Weto fork THE MACMILLAM COMPANY 1918 All rights reserved r^ 6 Copyright, 1918, By the MACMILLAN COMPANY. Set up and electrotyped. Published August, 1918. SEP -4 I9i8 J. 8. Gushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. /'-vv O I PREFACE The great waste by the clothing consumer due to ignorance of fabric values has called forth this college and normal school text-book on ''Yarn and Cloth Mak- ing." Its object is to awaken in the student a deeper appreciation for economic values. In following the evolving science of spinning and weaving one gains a new valuation, as well as a distaste for waste. The unique arrangement of subject matter makes it helpful also to teachers in secondary and elementary schools searching for material suited to their particular problems. Hitherto no one has presented in a con- secutive study the simplest methods of yarn and cloth making by peoples of lower culture. These are richly suggestive to the instructor of younger children. Teachers of industrial history and economics in- terested in tracing industrial growth and the "dynamic forces which mold society" will find the topics " Out- line " and " Economic Gain " in convenient form for studying the textile industry, which plays a role in social history second only to agriculture. A concise and systematic treatment of the subject will be valued by students of the industrial arts working out problems that need definite data as to implements, vi PREFACE processes and working principles related to the means and methods of manufacture. The rural school with limited appropriation, as well as the expanding city school, needing help in a wise selection of library books and stereopticon slides, will find the carefully rated bibliographies and reference lists of illustrations of indispensable service. Fresh knowledge of scientific facts concerning yarn and cloth making is being gathered by the general anthropologist, who needs the guide of a specialist to direct in this highly specialized field of textiles as to just what technical data are of moment and most im- portant to look for on the expedition. To him "Dis- tinctive Characteristics" and "Outline" will prove of assistance not only in his investigation and research, but in suggesting correct terminology to phrase his re- ports of the facts which he has gleaned. To the industrial museum official, the technical librarian and the textile mechanic the "Outline" topics should make "Yarn and Cloth Making" invaluable for desk reference. It includes in a nutshell a great wealth of related textile facts and data usable in the laboratory, library and museum for selecting and analyzing material and for its labeling. Acknowledgment is due to Anna la Tomette Blauvelt, who compiled the list of Books for Juveniles and assistsd in the compilation of the list of magazine illustrations. Credit is given for each illustration in the List of Illus- trations. INTRODUCTION At a moment when our country's thought is centered on conservation of resources, on economic preservation of health and human energy and on the development of the younger generation for the highest service to mankind, it is an apt season to consider lack in economy and useless dissipation along clothing lines. Social economists are stating that here is one of our greatest present-day wastes. To eliminate this loss and lessen wastefulness, the purchaser needs discrimination in his choice of clothing both as to the style or cut of garment and as to the quality of the textile fabric. It is the object of this text to deal with fabrics. Through arous- ing an interest in spending more wisely and with fuller return, whether in the purchase of cloth by the yard or in the ready-to-wear garment, this work aims to make a more discriminating consumer of the fabric. Textile study in colleges and normal schools to-day has a tendency to swing to exclusive fabric study and away from textile manufacture. This is the result of a previous too extensive consideration of manufacture and one unrelated to its economic bearing upon the product. Exclusive study of the fabric leads the student to think of the fabric in its "already-made" form and not in relation to the energies which bring it into being Vlll INTRODUCTION and the economic accomplishment of these energies. There is a general failure to recognize the underlying sciences, forgetting that fabrics owe their existence to the mechanical and chemical sciences. Previous to college fabric study some knowledge of these seems imperative. One cannot intelligently approach fabric problems involving chemical science without a general knowledge of chemistry. Neither can one successfully approach fabric problems without a little understand- ing of the dynamic power of mechanical science under- lying fabric making. The few facts of textile mechanics presented in "Yarn aid Cloth Making" have been assembled to supply a need for some knowledge of mechanical science pre- liminary to fabric study. In brief form, the course carries spinning and weaving from their crude beginnings into the machine processes. It is an intensive study of a narrow but fundamental field, with a focus upon the economic gain achieved as spindle and loom became more ef&cient in producing improved yarn and cloth. The plan was tested out at one of our universities and the results of the experiment far exceeded expectation. For, as the student followed the expanding science step by step and traced the definite gain in each progressive type, he gained two important things : a clear knowledge of good yarn and cloth, together with a rich appreciation of economic values. Nothing is more needed to-day to stem the tide of extravagant and wasteful expenditure in clothing than such an appreciation of fabrics. Art appreciation courses INTRODUCTION IX are found in many of our schools, not to educate artists, but to give future consumers the abiHty to surround themselves with good art. Educators know it is use- less to teach what is good and what is poor art, unless with it is instilled a love for the beautiful. It is just as fruitless to attempt a reform in clothing waste, with- out instilling a taste and desire for what is of economic worth. A great deficiency in our education to-day is that household science is not approached in- a more inves- tigatory manner. For in the atmosphere of inquiry and research is teaching most effective. When viewed from this angle the study of practical subjects furnishes a liberal education. Convinced of this the author hopes that "Yarn and Cloth Making" may be of wide use. Its suggestive and flexible arrangement adapts it to schools of all grades where the subject is taught, and to localities where instruction is given under widely differ- ing conditions. METHODS OF USING TEXT-BOOK a. As a college or normal school text "Yarn and Cloth Making" is preferably supplemented by outside reading as suggested in the section "Bibliographies." The subject matter is grouped in two sections under "Yarn Making" and "Cloth Making," each of which is considered in an opening descriptive text, followed by a series of Type Studies of the distinct varieties of spinning and weaving. Each of these types is presented under three heads : Distinctive Characteristics, a short clear statement of the salient points of the type ; Out- line, a plan giving details as to implement, power and process ; and Economic Gain, as to quality and quantity. Cross references are found after the various topics of the outline, calling attention to explanatory material, with corresponding numbering in the descriptive text under Yarn Making and Cloth Making. Accompanying each type is a specific Bibliography carefully graded as to fullness of text for this type. These bibliographies afford student, and teacher with limited time, rapid reference to the best books. Lists of Illustrations are supplied each section for clarifying the text and for slide making, and following the General Bibliography is the Magazine Illustration and a list of elementary books in which pictures may be found. Xll METHODS OF USING TEXT-BOOK h. When time is limited, the course may be shortened and yet the constructive sequence be maintained by combining into thirteen lessons as follows : (i) Sp. I, II, III, IV. Hand (8) spinning. (2) Sp. V, VI. Wheel spinning. (9) (3) Sp. VII. Spinning jenny. (10) (4) Sp. VIII. Water frame. (5) Sp. IX, X. Mule spinning. (11) (6) Sp. XI. Power spinning frame. (12) (7) W.I, II. Suspended warp (13) looms. W. Ill, IV. Two-bar looms. W. V. Two-beam looms. W. VI, VII, VIII. Shaft looms. W. IX. Perfected hand loom. W. X, XI. Pattern looms. W. XII. Power looms. c. Another means of shortening for classes with limited time is a selective one, using only culminating types. In this case the topic "Economic Gain" should be omitted, the deductions as to gain being drawn from the "Outline." (i) Sp. IV. Hand spindle. (6) W. IX. Perfected hand (2) Sp. VI. Flax wheel. loom. (3) Sp. IX. Hand mule. (7) W. XI. Jacquard hand (4) Sp. XI. Power spinning loom. frame. (8) W. XII. Pov>^er loom. (5) W. V. Two-beam looms. d. A narrower selection gives the fundamental prin- ciples of spinning and weaving in four lessons, consider- ing "Distinctive Characteristics" and "Outline" only. (i) Sp. IV. Hand spindle. (3) W. V. Stretched warp (2) Sp. VI. Spinning wheel. loom. (4) W. IX. Perfected hand loom. METHODS OF USING TEXT-BOOK xiii e. Elementary schools can use simple selections from the "Outline" of (i) Spinning III. Navajo In- (2) Weaving V. Navajo In- dian spinning. dian weaving. /. Secondary schools will find helpful : (i) Sp. V, VI. Colonial spin- (3) W. IX. Colonial weaving. ning. (4) W. XI. Power weaving (2) Sp. X, XI. Power spinning (very simply). (simply) . g. Elementary industrial arts will find suggestive for construction work : Sp. ni, IV, V, VI and Weaving I, II, III, IV, V, VI. h. As few as three reference books may be used with this study, although more makes a far richer course. Most libraries have in the general stacks three exceed- ingly helpful books : Encyclopaedia Britannica, New International Cyclopedia and National Museum Report of 1914. With these the best books follow: 3. Barlow, "History of weaving"; Marsden, "Cotton spin- ning " ; Kissell, " Fabrics from primitive looms." (In prep.) 5. Marsden, "Cotton weaving"; Hooper, "Hand-loom weav- ing." 7. Ure, "Cotton manufacture"; Baines, "Cotton manufac- ture." 9. Foreman, "Stories of useful inventions"; Woolman and McGowan, "Textiles." 13. Murphy, "The textile industries," II, III, IV, V. 15. James, "Worsted manufacture"; Wilkinson, "Story of the cotton plant." XIV METHODS OF USING TEXT-BOOK 17. Earl, "Home life in colonial days"; Blount, "Story of home-spun web." 19. Beaumont, "Wool manufacture"; Mason, "Origin of inventions." Note. — The Outlines digress from the usual numeral and letter classifications. Here the capital and small letters are re- served for different varieties under the type and the numerals for processes common to all varieties. Titles are omitted from the Illustration lists ; they are given in full, however, in the Bibliographies. The bracketed numerals are inserted for their identification. SUGGESTIVE PLAN FOR STUDY I. HAND SPINNING 1. Select from the library one or two books from the specific "Bibliography" under Spinning I. 2. Read "Yarn Making" right-hand reference numbers I to 7 for general introduction to spinning. 3. Read "Distinctive Characteristics" to get general survey of Hand Spinning. 4. Under Outline follow the various topics, and read from selected books on these topics to enlarge grasp of subject. 5. Where cross reference numbers appear in the Out- line, look up corresponding right-hand numbers under "Yarn Making." 6. Read "Economic Gain" and enlarge upon that given. CONTENTS PAGE Preface v Introduction vii Methods of Using Text-Book xi Suggestive Plan for Study xv YARN MAKING Textile beginnings. Mastery over forces of nature. Early invention. Origin of spinning. Its story and unfolding. Spinning defined. Yarn char- acteristics. Economic progress. Attenuating AND attenuating DEVICES. TwiSTING AND TWISTING devices. Winding and winding devices. De- veloping AGENCIES . I SPINNING TYPES I. Hand Spinning i8 II. Grasped Hand Spindle 21 III. Supported Hand Spindle 24 IV. Suspended Hand Spindle 29 V. Jersey and Asiatic Wheels 36 VI. Saxony Wheel . . . . . . -43 VII. Jenny Frame 51 VIII. Water Frame 56 IX. Hand Mule 59 xvii xviil CONTENTS PAGE X. Self-acting Mule 64 XI. Flyer, Cap and Ring Spinning Frames . . 71 CLOTH MAKING Origin and crude beginnings. Weaving defined. Rudimentary efforts at invention. Weaving processes. Warp arrangement — Stretching — Lengthening. Wefting — Shedding and Shed- ding devices — Picking and picking devices — Battening and battening devices. Loom frame. Warping. Developing agencies .... 80 WEAVING TYPES I. One-Beam Loom 114 II. Weighted Warp Loom 119 III. Two-Bar Loom 126 IV. Frameless Two-Bar Loom 130 V. Two-Beam Loom 136 VI. One-Shaft Loom 149 VII. One-Shaft Treadle Loom 153 VIII. Two-Shaft Treadle Loom 158 IX. Perfected Hand Loom 168 X. Draw Loom 185 XI. Jacquard Loom 192 XII. Plain Power Loom . . . . . .199 Appendix A — General Bibliography .... 207 Appendix B — Magazine Illustrations . . . .216 Appendix C — Books for Juveniles with Additional Illustrations . . . . . . . . 227 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND THEIR SOURCE FIG. PAGE 1. Hand-on-thigh spinning, Philippine Islands . . .18 Worcester, D. C. "Non-Christian tribes in northern Luzon." Philippine Journal of Science. 2. Simplest spindle spinning, Salish Indians . . .22 Kissell, M. L. "A new type of spinning in North America." American Anthropologist. 3. Ancient Egyptian twine maker . . . . .22 Champollion, J. F. "Monuments de I'Egypte et de la Nubie." Paris. 4. Navajo method of spinning 24 Matthews, W. "Navajo weavers." Bureau of American Ethnology. 5. Kwakiutl Indian spinner 25 Photograph, Field Museum. 6. Ancient Egyptian spinners, Middle Kingdom . . 29 ChampolKon, J. F. "Monuments de I'Egypte et de la Nubie." Paris. 7. Suspended-spindle spinning, Hungary .... 30 Malonyay, D. "A Magyar n6p miivlszete." Paris: Magyar Irod. Intezet es Konyvnyomda. 8. Spinning in the Alps, about 1000 B.C., 30 . . . 30 Forrer, R. "Reallexikon." Berlin: W. Spemann. xix XX LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FIG. PAGE 9. Winding yarn on spindle, Algeria . . . -31 Schurtz, H. " Urgeschichte der Kultur." Leipzig: Bibliographisches Inst. 10. Earliest spinning wheel, India .37 Baines, E. "Cotton manufacture." London: H. Fisher, R. Fisher and P. Jackson. 11. Jersey hand wheel, Europe 38 Lindner, G. "Spinnerei und Weberei." Karlsruhe: F. Gutsch. 12. Spinning cotton on Saxony wheel 44 Hooper, L. "Hand-loom weaving." Macmillan, U. S. A., and John Hogg, London. 13. Spinning flax on Saxony wheel 45 Hirth, G. "Bnderbuch." Leipzig. 14. Leonardo da Vinci's spindle, 1 500 46 Lindner, G. "Spinnerei imd Weberei." Karlsruhe: F. Gutsch. 15. Saxony spindle, 1530 46 Lindner, G. "Spinnerei und Weberei." Karlsruhe: F. Gutsch. 16. Saxony spindle at work 47 Blount, Mrs. G. "The story of the homespun web." London : Vineyard Press. 17. High's Jenny, first multiple spinning, 50 . . .50 Guest, R. "Cotton manufacture." Manchester: J. Pratt. 18. Hargreaves' improved Jenny . . . . .51 Woolman and McGowan. "Textiles." New York: The Macmillan Co. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xxi FIG. PAGE 19. Cross section of Hargreaves' Jenny .... 52 Lindner, G. "Spinnerei und Weberei." Karlsruhe: F. Gutsch. 20. Spindle of Jenny, 53 Lindner, G. "Spinnerei und Weberei." Karlsruhe: F. Gutsch. 21. Arkwright's first Waterframe 56 Lamoitier, P. "Triage, peignage filature de la laine peignee." Paris : Dunod et Pinat. 22. Arkwright's improved Waterframe . . . -57 Woolman and McGowan, "Textiles." New York: The Macmillan Co. 23. Crompton's Hand mule 60 Lamoitier, P. "Triage, peignage filature de la laine peignee." Paris : Dunod et Pinat. 24. Cross section of Hand mule, 61 . . . . .61 Lindner, G. "Spinnerei und Weberei." Karlsruhe: F. Gutsch. 25. Four stages of mule spinning 65 Zipser, J. "Textile raw materials." London: Scott, Greenwood & Sons. 26. Cross section, Flax spinning frame . . . .71 Lindner, G. "Spinnerei und Weberei." Karlsruhe: F. Gutsch. 27. Flyer spindle 72 Lindner, G. "Spinnerei und Weberei." Karlsruhe: F. Gutsch. 28. Ring spindle ........ 73 Lindner, G. "Spinnerei und Weberei." Karlsruhe: F. Gutsch. XXU LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FIG. PAGE 29. Cap spindle 73 Woolman and McGowan. "Textiles." New York: The Macmillan Co. 30. One-beam loom, North America 114 Photograph, Field Museum. 3 1 . Wool weaving on One-beam loom 115 Photograph, American Museum. 32. Measuring staff . . . . . . . • nS Emmons, G. "The Chilkat blanket." American Museum. ^$. Method of attaching warp to beam . . . .116 Emmons, G. "The Chilkat blanket." American Museum. 34. TwiUed twining and one method of joining strands in pattern making . . . . . . . .116 Emmons, G. "The Chilkat blanket." American Museum. 35. An Alpine weaver, about 1000 B.C. .... iig Kimakowicz-Winnicki, M. v. " Spinn- und Webewerk- zeuge." Wiirzburg : C. Kabitzsch. 36. Greek weaver, 500 B.C., British Museum vase . . 120 Hooper, L. "Hand-loom weaving." Macmillan, U. S. A., and John Hogg, London. 37. Circe loom on Greek vase in Ashmolean Museum . .120 Hooper, L. "Technique of Greek and Roman weav- ing." Burlington Magazine. 38. A bit of Penelope's loom, 500 B.C., from an Etruscan vase, Chiusi Museum . . . . . . .121 Hooper, L. "Technique of Greek and Roman weav- ing." Burlington Magazine. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XXlll FIG. PAGE 39. Scandinavian Weighted warp loom . , . .122 Roth, H. L. "Ancient Egyptian and Greek looms." Bankfield Museum. 40. Weighted warp loom of Iceland 123 Olafsen, 0. "Economic tour of Iceland." Dres- den. 41. Simple Two-bar loom, South America . . . .126 Ephraim, H: "Veber die Entwicklung der Webe- technik." Leipzig : K. W. Hiersmann. 42. Another crude Two-bar loom from South America . 127 Ephraim, H. "Veber die Entwicklung der Webe- technik." Leipzig : K. W. Hiersemann. 43. Salish Indian family scene : Blanket weaving . .128 Kissell, M. L. "A new type of spinning in North America." Am. Anthropologist. 44. Two-bar loom. West Africa . . . . . .129 Roth, H. L. "Studies in primitive looms." Blank- field Museum. 45. Navajo woman weaving belt 130 Matthews, W. "Navajo weavers." Bureau Ameri- can Ethnology. 46. Indian belt loom, Mexico 131 Photograph, American Museum. 47. Warping for Navajo belt 132 Matthews, W. "Navajo weavers." Bureau Ameri- can Ethnology. 48. The shed-rod and rod-heddle 132 Hooper, L. "Hand-loom weaving." Macmillan, U. S. A., and John Hogg, London. XXIV LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS riG. PAGE 49. Rod-heddle and shed-rod at work. . . .. .133 Roth, H. L. "Studies in primitive looms." Bank- field Museum. 50. Egyptian mat loom 136 Champollion, J. F. "Monuments de I'Egypte et de la Nubie." Paris. 51. Egyptian linen loom, Middle Kingdom .... 137 Champollion, J. F. "Monuments de I'Egypte et de la Nubie." Paris. 52. Slave Indian quill belt loom 138 Roth, H. L. " Studies in primitive looms." Bankfield Museum. 53. Navajo method of warping for blanket weaving , . 139 Matthews, W. "Navajo weavers." Bureau Ameri- can Ethnology. 54. Navajo loom . 140 Matthews, W. "Navajo weavers." Bureau Ameri- can Ethnology. 55. Zuiii belt weaver entering weft ..... 148 Mason, O. T. "Primitive frame for narrow fabrics." National Museum. 56. Hopi belt weaver opening upper shed .... 149 Stevenson, M. "Zuni Indians." Bureau American Ethnology. 57. Evolving heddle-harness, Ceylon 154 Coomaraswamy, A. K. "Mediaeval Sinhalese art." Broad Campden, Gloucestershire. 58. Early Korean loom . . . . . . • 1 54 Ephraim, H. " Entwicklung der Webetechnik." Mus. fiir Volkerkunde zu Leipzig. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XXV FIG. PAGE 59. Early Chinese loom 155 Ephraim, H. " Entwicklung der Webetechnik." Mus. fiir Volkerkunde zu Leipzig. 60. Another crude loom from India 1 59 "Portfolio Indian Art." South Kensington Museum. 61. Outdoor loom of the HiUs, India . , . .160 "Portfolio Indian Art.". South Kensington Museum. 62. West African weaver at crude Two-shaft treadle loom . 162 Roth, H. L. "Studies in primitive looms." Bank- field Museum. 63. Stake warping, India 163 Watson, J. F. "The textile manufactures and cos- tumes of the people of India." London. 64. Egyptian loom, Middle Ages . . . . .164 Gilroy, C. G. "History of silk, cotton, linen and wool." 65. A shawl loom, Asia ....... 165 " Portfolio Indian Art." South Kensington Museum. 66. Greek loom of Middle Ages 169 Montfaucon, B. " L'antiquite expliquee et representee en figures." Paris : F. Delaulne. 67. Perfected hand loom with fly-shuttle . . . .170 Hooper, L. "Hand-loom weaving." MacmiUan, U. S. A., and John Hogg, London. 68. Hand shuttle 171 Hooper, L. "Hand-loom weaving." Macmillan, U. S. A., and John Hogg, London. 69. Fly-shuttle 171 Hooper, L. . "Hand-loom weaving." Macmillan, U. S. A., and John Hogg, London. XXVI LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FIG. PAGE 70. Peg warping, India 173 "Portfolio Indian Art." South Kensington Museum. 71. Hungarian peasant warping 174 Malonyay, D. "A Magyar nep miiveszete." Paris: Magyar Irod. Intezet es Konyvnyomda. 72. Loom prepared for entering 175 Hooper, L. "Hand-loom weaving." Macmillan, U. S. A., and John Hogg, London. 73. Shed opening mechanism 176 Hooper, L. "Hand-loom weaving." Macmillan, U. S. A., and John Hogg, London. 74. Hand shuttle at work 176 Hooper, L. "Hand-loom weaving." Macmillan, U. S. A., and John Hogg, London. 75. Fly-shuttle at work . 177 Barlow, A. "The history and principles of weaving." London : Sampson Low, Marston & Co. 76. Drop-box fly-shuttle 178 Schams, J. "Handbuch der Weberei." Leipzig: B. F. Voigt. 77. Chinese draw loom 184 Gilroy, C. G. "History of silk, cotton, linen and wool." 78. Japanese weaver beating-up weft and throwing shuttle 1S5 "Shokunin Burni," 1770. International Studio. New York : John Lane Co. 79. Diagram showing action of two harness systems . .186 Barlow, A. "The history and principles of weaving." London : Sampson Low, Marston & Co. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XXVll FIG. PAGE 80. Two systems of harness . . . . . .187 Barlow, A. "The history and principles of weaving." London : Sampson Low, Marston & Co. 81. Diagram of European draw loom . . . . .189 Barlow, A. "The history and principles of weaving." London : Sampson Low, Marston & Co. 82. Silk warping in ancient China. . . . . .190 Franke, O. "Keng tschi t'u Ackerbau und Seiden- gewinnung in China. " Hamburg : L. Friederichsen. 83. Jacquard hand loom, 1804 193 Butterworth, B. "The growth of industrial art." Washington. 84. Jacquard mechanism 194 Lindner, G., "Spinnerei und Weberei." Karlsruhe: F. Gutsch. 85. The Jacquard at work 195 Haussner, A. "Technologie der Faserstoffe." Leip- zig : F. Deuticke. 86. Cartwright's first power loom, 1785 .... 199 Butterworth, B. "The growth of industrial art." Washington. 87. Cartwright's second power loom, 1786 .... 200 Butterworth, B. "The growth of industrial art." Washington. 88. Working parts of power loom 201 Reiser, N. "Handbuch der Weberei." Leipzig: A. Felix. 89. Robert's loom, side elevation, 1830 . . . .202 Marsden, "Cotton weaving." London: George Bell & Sons. YARN AND CLOTH MAKING YARN MAKING The story of fabric making through its long and varied development is a fascinating tale which reads Uke a fairy legend inspired by some magic genii. Even in earliest times man has had a desire to conquer the forces of nature, to harness and control them for his good. In primitive man this desire was so strong that he appealed to the spirit world for aid : to the spirits of earth and sky, to the supernatural power in plants and animals. Likewise ancient and medieval man sought the help of " good fairies, and good-natured giants, wishing caps, seven league boots, magic rings, invisible cloaks and magic wands." No doubt the behef in these supernatural powers was an inspiration to man as he pushed forward to conquer, but the real im- pulse which stimulated the existence and growth of industry, including the textile arts, was grim neces- sity. The magic force which made possible its achievement was man's inventive faculty respond- ing to economic pressure. Fabric making did not advance along the highroad of easy success. With many hindrances and failures, by much experiment- YARN AND CLOTH MAKING ing and testing it struggled on to successful accom- plishment, as outlined in the following text and pictured in the accompanying illustrations. How- ever, no chronological sequence in development is claimed, or one that is found in a single locality. In these pages we will find that in no other in- dustry has man obtained a greater mastery over the forces of the earth than in fabric making. For whether by means of the first awkward implements guided entirely by hand, or by means of highly developed self-acting tools obedient to power, he has so harnessed nature's forces as to utilize the life about him, both plant and animal, in supplying his need for textiles. Crude beginnings are always interesting, and no exception to this are the rude attempts of people of lower culture at yarn and cloth making. Life with them was very free and simple, while their daily wants did not exact arts of great complexity. At these rudimentary textile industries primitive man took a hand in some local- ities, and woman in other localities. How these native spinners and weavers so cleverly devised ways and means for handhng the fibers about them will always remain a wonder. Admiration and wonder are aroused not only because of the marvel- ous feats accomplished, but because of pliabihty in the outcome. Mystery hovers near the birth of every practical invention be it primitive or modern ; uncertainty, doubt, surround it. Will it prove successful? Will it efficiently meet the necessity? YARN MAKING 3 Directly, or indirectly, these questions are of prac- tical and universal interest, as much to the con- sumer as to the producer. But life did not remain simple. " When man became a civilized being his needs increased with his culture," and are still ex- tending, an extension vividly reflected in his textile arts. Yarn means to most of us the filaments of which cloth is made, its warp and weft. But twisted fila- ments had another and an earlier signifi- gariy cance to primitive peoples, since twisted Spinning strands in the shape of lines, and lines worked into nets for fishing and trapping wild animals, as well as cords and string for fastening, joining and haft- ing, helped supply man's initial need for food. For purposes of this kind he first gathered slender trail- ing vines, twigs and grasses that grew about him, using them in their natural state. Later he learned how to prepare materials better fitted for binding, tying and sewing. Disintegrating leaves, stems and bark might easily have suggested the artificial extracting of vegetable fiber for this, while the skins and tendons from animals killed on the hunt might very naturally have suggested their stripping into thong and sinew for the same purpose. But whatever the function, or the material, these early cords and yarns were always twisted. We have no record of how twist first origi- origin of nated, or who was its inventor. But we Spinning do know that in a far distant epoch of the remote YARN AND CLOTH MAKING past some " untutored savage " did think out this greatest factor in spinning. Long before civilization dawned, early peoples had solved many of the fun- damental difficulties connected with spinning, for wherever traces of prehistoric man have been found there are remains of spun threads, or of spinning implements. These prehistoric threads found many- uses in fishing and hunting; for carrying earthen vessels and other heavy objects; in navigation, house building and cloth making. Indeed it was the art of spinning which first gave value to the art of loom weaving by supplying it with threads of any desired length, strength and flexibihty. It is yarn for this use, yarn for loom weaving, that concerns us here. Spinning consists of binding together a number of loose filaments into one strand by means of twisting. Spinning Its object is to extend and arrange the Defined loose fibers in a somewhat parallel order, and to bring them into close contact so as to impart greater strength and power to resist strain. To accomplish this, the material to be spun must pass through three processes : attenuation, twisting and winding. Attenuation pulls out the fibers length- wise, arranging them more nearly parallel and length- ening the strand ; twisting compresses the fibers so that they He in close contact and binds them; winding cares for the spun yarn. The essentials of good yarn are strength, firmness and soHdity, quahties which require that the attenu- YARN MAKING 5 ation be regular, that is, free from knots and weak places ; that the twist be of the correct amount and evenly distributed ; and that the relation Yarn char- between the degree of attenuation and acteristics twist be carefully adjusted. Twisting weakens fiber in proportion to the amount of twist put in, so in yarn it is not possible to secure the fiber's full strength. However, strength of yarn does not depend entirely upon the toughness of fiber, since the strain usually falls upon a longer stretch than the length of individual fibers. Weakness therefore results from a sHpping of the filaments upon each other rather than from lack of inherent strength. It is the twist which remedies this slipping and makes twist such an important factor in spinning. Resistance to breakage strain in addition to the above ways may be secured by a sustained round- ness and a uniformity in the diameter of the yarn. Throughout the long period during which spin- ning was being brought to perfection, man worked for three objects : better yarn, more yarn gpi^ning and yarn produced at less expense. How Deveiop- these three were attained is traced here through spinning by hand, hand spindle, wheel, frame and machine. Attention will always be directed to the mechanical science involved and to the economic progress in the finished yarn. The unfolding from simple beginnings was slow, extend- ing over centuries. At times long unbroken inter- vals of calm passed when advance was slight and YARN AND CLOTH MAKING improvement was gradual. Then sudden bursts of energy from some economic cause would produce phenomenal changes. The Industrial Revolution was such a period of progress and prolific invention. Improvement in quality was dependent largely on more perfect methods of attenuation, twisting and winding, as observed under the Distinctive Char- acteristics and Improved Product of the various spinning types. Increase in output was controlled by a number of agencies. Prominent among these were the combining of the spinning processes, im- proved power, the perfecting of the spinning imple- ment and its propelling mechanism, as seen under Distinctive Characteristics, Increased Production and OutUne of the spinning types. Attenuation The first process in spinning is attenuation, or drafting. It is of two kinds : drafting by stretch- Drafting ^^S ^^^ drafting by drawing. In the first Methods the tension is on greater lengths of rove and the draft more or less uneven and irregular, whereas in the second the tension is on shorter lengths and the draft more even. But the best method is a combination of the two, giving the rove both a drawing and a stretching. When con- sidering the means employed in this process we find attenuation performed both by hand power and mechanically. Attenuation by hand power, as found in hand, hand spindle and wheel spinning, is YARN MAKING 7 accomplished either by stretching or by drawing, or by a combination of the two. Likewise mechani- cal attenuation in frame and machine spinning is produced in the three ways. 8a In the simplest Hand spinning, attenuation is by 8b drawing, but in spinning by Hand-on-the-thigh, by the Grasped-spindle and by the Sup- Hand ported-spindle it is accomplished by ^^^^s stretching. The most perfect hand drafting is in 8c Suspended-spindle spinning, where the hand of the spinner draws the rove, while at the same time the spindle by its weight drafts it still further by stretching. This method produces the most fault- lessly attenuated yarn the world has ever known. 8b2 It is true the finest yarn in the world is spun in India by the Supported-spindle. Nevertheless the perfection of this filmy cotton thread does not depend so much upon excellence of method as upon the expertness of the spinner of India. Her dex- trous fingers possess a sense of touch most acute and delicate ; and for finest yarns the spinner's age rarely exceeds thirty years. During spinning she uses a chalky powder to keep the fingers dry. If the thread is exceptionally filmy she must spin when the dew of early morning is still upon the ground and the air filled with moisture, or if this is impossible she must spin over water. Still, with all these contrivances the deft fingers do not suc- ceed in drafting a thread of such uniform thickness as does the Suspended-spindle. Had this been the 8 • YARN AND CLOTH MAKING case, instead of the Suspended-spindle which per- sisted over all Europe and the Mediterranean coun- tries, we should have had a wide distribution of the 8d Supported-spindle. Drafting on the Asiatic and Jersey wheels, and on the Saxony wheel, returned to the less perfect method of attenuating by stretch- 8e ing. A distaff for holding the raw materials is occasionally used with the Supported-spindle, es- pecially by tribes of eastern Asia and the adjoining islands. It is usually present with the Suspended- spindle and the Saxony wheel. 8f The first mechanism to take the place of the human hand in the delicate and complicated pro- Mechanical cess of attenuation was not discovered Drafting until many centuries after a mechanical twisting device had been invented, and some time after winding had become automatic. Two devices for this appeared about the same time. The first was a moving carriage constructed for the new Spinning Jenny, which drafted by stretching. The 8g second was a roller mechanism for the new Water frame, consisting of a series of rollers, each succeed- ing set increasing in speed, which drafted by draw- 8h ing. This last proved so successful that later the Flyer, Cap and Ring spinning frames were built on 8i the same principle of drafting by rollers. However, this means did not make fine soft yarn needed for specific purposes. For. the finer counts a new spin- ning implement was devised which combined the two kinds of drafting, first drawing the rove by a YARN MAKING 9 series of rollers moving at different speeds, as on the Water frame ; and then stretching it on an improved moving carriage. This implement is the Mule, which first took the form of the Hand Mule and later the Self-acting Mule run by power. It produces the most perfect mechanically drafted yarn. Twisting As before noted, twisting is the important factor in spinning, since it is the process which gives strength and elasticity to the spun yarn Twisting by bringing the fibers composing it close ii^piement together and binding them. Earliest twisting between the hands, or between the palm and thigh is laborious and slow; besides, in general it yields a coarse product, although research in northwest America shows that certain Indian tribes gained great dexterity in spinning by this crude method. Better and more expeditious twisting could only arrive with the development of mechanical science. This unfolding and growth showed itself in a diverse and varied way through the mechanics of twisting, first by the invention of a spinning device, the Hand spindle, and then by perfecting it. The earliest twisting devices which have been found among re- mains of ancient civilizations, as well as those seen to-day among the peasants and peoples of lower culture, exhibit the nicety to which the art of shaping, balancing and accelerating can be brought. lO YARN AND CLOTH MAKING 9c This perfecting culminated in the Suspended hand spindle, which spins in the air unretarded by fric- Free tion. It has for centuries persisted Spindle throughout the ancient and medieval world, even down through modern times to the present day. Tomb paintings of the Middle King- dom picture rows of Egyptian spinners making yarn by this method, and Greek vases depict the use of the same spindle. In fact no method of spinning has had so long and wide a distribution. Some authors hold that spindle spinning originated with this type in its crudest form of a single stick, or two crossed sticks, and used in each case as a Suspended-spindle. This may have been the earliest type in the Old World, but not in the New. Here, from the earliest times of which we have record, there have existed two more elementary 9a types, both as to drafting and twisting. The first is the huge Grasped-spindle, which in a unique manner is grasped in both hands. Its spinning end is turned away from the spinner and twirled in the 9b air. The second t5rpe is a smaller and better adapted Supported-spindle. By some tribes it is revolved in a nearly horizontal position along the thigh. By other tribes it is twirled in a nearly vertical position between the thumb and fingers. The India spindle for Dacca yarn is of this type, and as has been said, spins the finest yarn in the world. It consists of a delicate iron, or bamboo shaft, weighted near its lower end with a small YARN MAKING II ball, or wheel, of baked clay. The slender rove of short fibered cotton is so tender it would tear apart during the twisting if the spindle did not rest in a hollow shell. Next to the dexterity of the Dacca spinner in drafting is her skill in putting in an excessively close twist, which adds much to the durability of the yarn. This extra twist is due somewhat to the slender spindle of very light weight, 9d Mechanical science took a decided step in ad- vance with the discovery that it was possible to mount the spindle. Thus came into Mounted existence the first mechanical spinning spmdie implement, the spinning wheel. India was the first home of this new twisting device, and it spread to different parts of Asia as well as Europe, where its form became slightly modified in the Jersey, or Wool wheel. A mounted spindle gives a steadier and consequently more certain twister than the free spindle, whose product is more or less dependent upon the dexterity of the spinner. The spindle's position is horizontal, which brings the spinning end conveniently toward the worker. In addition to stability, the mounted spindle allows the applica- tion of a mechanical means for rotating it. The principle of the pulley and endless band is applied in the shape of a large wheel, whose increased size over the small wheel holding the spindle greatly accelerates the twisting speed. This wheel is driven by hand, except in China where a propelling 9e treadle is added. To the mounted spindle of the 12 ■ YARN AND CLOTH MAKING Saxony wheel is added a flyer which twists the rove and passes it on to an independently moving bobbin. 9f This same spindle is used on the Water frame and the Fly, Cap and Ring frames, although in both it 9g is vertical. The spindle of the Jenny is the same shaft spindle of the Jersey wheel, as is also that of the Mule, although they are vertical. Winding 10 Caring for the spun yarn, or winding, is a very great economic necessity to prevent untwisting and Winding by tangling. The first winding was done by Hand hand when the spun yarn was rolled into a ball. With the advent of the spindle this imple- ment became the receptacle for the spun yarn and 10b has so remained to the present day. On the simplest spindles the yarn is wound by hand. First a length of yarn is twisted, then spinning stops until the spun length has been wound on the spindle, a kind of spinning termed intermittent, because the twisting and winding are separate motions. Wind- ing was a' very backward process in becoming automatic, although the Grasped-spindle makes a 10a crude attempt to assist in the winding. Here the huge spindle is rocked back and forth to loop on the spun yarn for the first winding, when it is re- moved from the spindle for the second winding by hand on the spindle shaft. 10c Attempts at automatic winding may be said to date back as far as the first Asiatic spinning wheel, YARN MAKING 1 3 although no specific winding device is present, neither does the spindle help other than to turn, and to act as a receptacle for the spun Automatic yarn. The general mechanism allows "Winding winding by turning the drive wheel, if the stretch of spun yarn is moved so as to extend perpendicularly to the spindle, instead of out from its point as when lOd twisting. A similar spindle is found later on the multiple spinning frame, the Jenny. This permits winding by means of a moving carriage, which moves in toward the spindles, in imitation of the letting in of the spun yarn by the human hand on lOe the Wool wheel. Still later this same spindle is found on the Hand Mule and Self-acting Mule, where it is placed on a modified form of moving lOf carriage. The spindles of the Asiatic and Jersey wheels, the Jenny and the two Mules put twist into the rove, when twisting stops to give way to winding ; then the yarn is wound on, when winding stops to give way to twisting the next stretch of rove. These alternating movements give the in- lOg termittent spinning. To return to the hand wheel, the Saxony spinning wheel has a new kind of spindle. In addition to twisting, it assumes the labor of winding by means of a freely moving bobbin which automatically winds on yarn as fast as twisted by the flyer. The double-functioned spindle intro- duces a new method of continuous spinning, since it allows twisting and winding without interruption. lOh This is also the spindle of the Water frame, a 14 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING multiple spinning frame with roller drafting and run by water or horse power. Again we find lOi the flyer- spindle on the modern Fly spinning machine run by steam, and in slightly modified form on the Cap and Ring spinning machines of the same type. Developing Agencies 11 Early in the spinning industry an energetic agent appeared which greatly increased speed in yarn Combining making. It was a combining of the pro- Processes cesses. For in some types of spinning, the attenuating and the twisting may take place at the same time. In others the twisting and wind- ing may combine. Indeed, in a few types all three 11a processes are reduced to one motion. In the simplest Hand spinning the three processes are lib performed separately ; but in the second variety of Hand spinning the drafting and twisting are done lie at the same time. A backward step in this respect is taken in Grasped-spindle spinning, for the three processes again separate, as also in the crudest lid variety of Supported-spindle spinning. However, in the second variety of this type the drafting and twisting are performed simultaneously, as also in Suspended-spindle spinning, and in the Jersey and Asiatic wheel spinning. The gain here is in quality as well as in speed, since yarn is generally stronger and more even when twist is put in during drafting, especially when short-fibered materials are spun. YARN MAKING 1 5 lie On the Saxony wheel all three processes are com- bined in one motion through the invention of the flyer spindle. This great victory in mechanical science was won by some unknown Saxony spinner. llf The Spinning Jenny because of a non-automatic llg spindle lapses to two motions. The Water frame has one motion, here the combined processes are drafting, twisting and winding from the automatic llh spindle. In Mule spinning control in this par- ticular gives way to a new problem, a dominant need for fine yarn; and the spinning again splits to three processes, to allow for yarn quality ob- tained only with double attenuation. The second drafting unites with the twisting and is possible only with the intermittent motion of the non- lli winding spindle. With the Spinning frames there is again united action of the three processes, and a continuously spun thread. These, the most highly perfected spinning machines, have a speed truly phenomenal. 12 Another active factor which soon made its presence felt in the spinning industry is the econo- mizing of human energy. In the earliest conserving types it is of special interest to watch the ^^'^''gy freeing of the hands from the twisting process through perfecting the spinning means, or implement. In the most elementary Hand spinning both hands twist jointly ; but in spinning with the Hand-on-the- thigh one hand only need twist, because the thigh supplies a stable working surface. The simplest 1 6 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING spindle spinning with the Grasped-spindle requires both hands to twirl the implement. But the Sup- ported-spindle of smaller lighter shape adapted to support itself again frees one hand from the twist- ing, while the Suspended-spindle with still more perfect adjustment in size and heft releases one hand entirely and partially frees the second. In the earliest wheels, the Asiatic and the Jersey, one hand propels the drive wheel ; but in the Saxony both hands are set free by the employment of foot power for propelling. Equally as interesting as conserving human energy is the avoiding of me- chanical waste. An example of this is the ehminat- ing of friction in various ways, notably its gradual lessening in the three types of hand spindles. The conserving of mechanical energy by effecting better action between the different parts of the implement, or machine, is but one of a number of means which will come readily to mind. 13 Of very great importance to increasing produc- tion was the introduction of a more powerful means for propelling the spinning imple- ment. Although spinning by hand power became quite successful as to speed in Suspended-spindle spinning, it was not until this free implement was finally mounted that much headway could be made toward increasing output. Even then it was with very great effort that early inventors were able to find a substitute for hand power, since the earliest wheels are propelled by YARN MAKING 1 7 hand. With the Saxony wheel, it was discovered that the foot could supplant the hand as a driving force. This gain in improved power is traced in the spinning types through hand, foot, horse, water and steam power. With this last it is pos- sible to manufacture an output of yarn such as is needed by the world to-day. SPINNING TYPES I HAND SPINNING Distinctive Characteristics A . Simplest method of spinning : done entirely by- hand. No device for any of the three processes. Attenuating, twisting and winding done between the fingers, or palms. Spinning processes performed separately, employing both hands. B. Hand and thigh spinning : the two hands and thigh the means for spinning. Attenuating done by left hand. Twisting performed by right hand on thigh. Winding performed by both hands. Spinning intermittent : the attenuation and twisting simultaneous, followed by winding. Outline Examples: A. Peasants of Sicily; B. Koryak of Si- beria ; Tlinget of Alaska. Implement — No artificial device. i8 Fig. I. — Hand-on-thigh Spinning, Philippine Islands The palm by one movement twists the two separate strands, then by a backward movement twists the two together into two- ply yam. SPINNING TYPES 19 A. The two hands (l-7). a. fingers. b. palms. B. Hands and thigh. Power — Hand (13). Motion. — A. Three separate motions (ll, 11a). 1. attenuating. 2. twisting. 3. winding. B. Two motions (lib). 1 . attenuating and twisting (compound process) . 2. winding. Process — Drafting (8b). A. with both hands. B. with left hand. Twisting. A. between fingers, or two palms. B. with right hand on thigh. Winding with both hands. 1. Raw material drawn out into rude form of strand (8, 8a, b). 2. Drawn strand twisted (9). 3. Twisted strand (termed rove) wound into ball (lO). 4. Rove again drawn and twisted for finished yarn. Economic Gain The comparison here is of 5 to ^. ^ is especially slow in manipulation, the length of spin short, the three processes carried on separately. 20 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING In production : Longer spin, the distance between left hand and right thigh. Simultaneous drawing and twisting, one hand freed from twisting, so that left draws while right twists. Stationary thigh furnishes steady base upon which to twist. In product : More uniform yarn from steady base upon which to twist. BIBLIOGRAPHY I Andre, E. "A naturalist in the Guianas." 5 Bancroft, H. H. "Native races," I, 165. I Dellenbaugh, F. S. "North Americans of yesterday." I Emmons, G. T. "The Chilkat blanket," American Museum Mem. ni. 4 Gibbs, C. "Household textiles." 1 Hoffman, W. I. "The Menominee Indians." 14 Rept. Bureau Am. Ethnology, 260. 2 Holmes, W. H. {^) "Prehistoric textile art in eastern United States." 13 Rept. Bureau Am. Ethnology. I Im Thurn, E. F. "Indians of British Guiana," 284. I Jannasch, R. "Die Textilindustrie bei Ur und Naturvolkern." Berliner Gesellschaft fiir Anthropologic, XX, 88. I lochelson, W. "The Koryak." American Museum Mem. X. I Kissell, M. L. (^) "Fabrics from primitive looms." (In preparation.) - Magazines. See magazine illustrations. I Mason, O. T. 0) "Origin of inventions." 3 Mason, O. T. (2) "Woman's share in primitive culture." 4 Nystrom, P. H. "Textiles." 4 Taggart, W. S. "Cotton spinning." I, Introduction. SPINNING TYPES 21 I Tylor, E. B. "Anthropology." 3 Weeden, W. B. "The art of weaving." Rept. Am. Historical Asso. 1902. ^ 4 Woolman and McGowan. "Textiles." I Worcester, D. C. "Non-Christian tribes in northern Luzon." Philippine Journal of Science, I, 1906 ; also in National Geo- graphical Magazine, Vol. 22, 914. ILLUSTRATIONS Andre, p. 286. Spinning cotton. Worcester, PI. 43a. Bontoc Igorot spinning on thigh. II GRASPED HAND SPINDLE Distinctive Characteristics Simplest form of spinning implement : a spindle grasped in two hands. Simplest attenuating device : a tension ring through which the rove is pulled to slightly retard it during the stretching. Twisting device : large hand spindle with shaft and whorl. No winding device : but spindle serves as appHance upon which to wind spun yarn. Spinning processes performed separately with both hands. Outline Example : Salish tribes of North America. Implements — Grasped spindle with 22 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING 1 . shaft. 2, whorl. Drafting ring. a. stone. b. wood. c. wicker work. Power — Hand (13) . Motion — Three separate motions (ll, lie). 1 . attenuating. 2 . twisting. 3. winding. Process — Stretching as rove is pulled through tension ring. Twisting by spindle grasped in both hands (12). Winding (a) with both hands, or (b) by swinging spindle grasped in both hands. 1. Rove prepared by Hand-on-thigh spinning. 2. A long length of rove pulled through tension ring (8, 8b). 3. Stretched rove twisted by rotating with a tossing movement the lifted spindle (9, 9a). 4. Twisted yarn after each length is spun (a) looped on shaft by raising and lowering spindle point, or {b) wound on spindle by hand (lO, 10a). Economic Gain In production : Greater length of spin. Introduction of twisting implement releases hands from actual twisting. Fig. 2. — Simplest Spindle Spinning, Salish Indians The huge spindle twirled in air twists a long length of rove passing from a ball over a distant bar, instead of through the usual drawing ring. Fig. 3. — Ancient Egyptian Twine Maker The twine is twisted by a method similar to that of the Salish Indians. SPINNING TYPES 23 Accelerating whorl for twisting does not stop when power stops as in Hand spinning ; although the friction from manner of holding considerably re- tards rotation. A loss from return to three separate processes. In product : (no gain) . Poorer yarn, very much coarser than best yarn of Hand spinning. Uneven from imperfect drawing. Coarse from clumsy spindle. BIBLIOGRAPHY - Cailliaud, F. "Recherches sur les arts et metiers." (Illus- tration.) - Gosse, A. B. "The civilization of the ancient Egyptians." (Illustration.) - Guide to Anthropological collections, Victoria Museum. (Illus- tration.) 3 James, J. "History of worsted manufacture in England." I Kissell, M. L. (^) "A new type of spinning in North America." Am. Anthropologist, Vol. 18, No. 2, April — June, 1916. I Kissell, M. L. (^) "Fabrics from primitive looms." (In preparation.) - Lepsius, K. R. "Denkmaler," II. (Illustration.) - Manchester, H. H. " Story of silk and Cheney silks." (Illus- tration.) - Miintz, E. (^) "Tapisseries." (Illustration.) - Newberry, P. E. (}) "Beni Hasan," II. (Illustration.) - Ronchaud, L. de. "La tapisserie." (Illustration.) I Rosellini, I. "I monument! dell' Egitto e della Nubia" II. (In Italian.) - Wilkinson, J. G. " Manners and customs of ancient Egyptians." (Illustration.) 24 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING BOOK ILLUSTRATION Cailliaud, PI. 17 A. Man spinning with grasped spindle. Gosse, p. 32. Man spinning. T,^,. Woman spinning flax (fig. to left). Guide to anthropological collections, Victoria Museum. p. 53. Blanket-making, Vancouver Island. James, p. 13, fig. 2. Egyptian spinner. Kissell 0), Pi. XVI. Method of spinning in 1846. Fig. 27. Method of spinning in 1915. Lepsius, II, PL 126. A spinner with grasped spindle. Manchester, p. 14, line 2, middle figure — Man spinning. Miintz, (^) 2a. Egyptian spinner. Newberry Q), II, PL IV, band 5 near center — Egyptian making twine. PL XIII, band 4 right hand — Egyptian making twine. Ronchaud, p. 57. Egyptian spinner (after Wilkinson). Rosellini, II, PL XLI, fig. 4. Spinning with grasped spindle. Wilkinson, II, p. 170. Man engaged in spinning. Ill SUPPORTED HAND SPINDLE Distinctive Characteristics A. Spinning implement: a smaller and less clumsy spindle resting lengthwise on the right thigh. No attenuating device : left hand drafts. Twisting device : hand spindle rotated by right hand. No winding device : yarn wound on spindle-shaft with both hands. Spinning intermittent: the twisting and winding alternating. Fig. 4. — The Navajo Method of Spinning The Indian is drafting the rove preparatory to twisting, for which the upper spindle-arm is rolled along the thigh. Fig. 5. — A Kwakiutl Indian Spinner Here the lower spind'.e-arm is rolled on the lower 1 for twisting. SPINNING TYPES 2$ B. Spinning implement : a small spindle standing erect on ground, in a shell, or in a cup. Other details as in ^. Outline Examples: A. Navajo; Kwakiutl; Pima; B. Mexi- can tribes ; Some Philippine tribes. Implement — Small supported spindle with 1. shaft. 2. whorl. Power — Hand (13). Motion. — A. Three processes separate (ll, lie). B. Intermittent spinning (lid). 1. attenuating and twisting (compound process). 2. winding. Process — Stretching with left hand (12). Twisting with spindle controlled by right hand {B puts in more twist than A). Winding with both hands. 1. Rove prepared by Hand-on-thigh spinning, or by modern hand cards. 2. Prepared rove, or carding, drawn out and fed to spindle (8, 8b, 8b2, e). A. before twisting. B. while twisting. 3. Twisting. A. Palm rotates spindle placed lengthwise on thigh (9, 9b). a. upper arm of spindle rests on thigh. b. lower arm of spindle rests on thigh. 26 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING B. Fingers twirl spindle standing erect. a. standing in wooden thimble between toes. h. standing in clay bowl, or shell. c. standing on ground. 4. Spun yarn, after each length is twisted, is wound on spindle-shaft (lO, 10b). 5. This crude yarn generally respun for finished yarn. 6. Another spinning may be given for a fine yarn, or two single yarns may be doubled for two-ply. Economic Gain In production : A. Position of spindle removes a little friction and permits slightly more freedom to the accelerat- ing whorl. Loses by shorter length of spin. B. Simultaneous drawing and twisting frees one hand from spindle. Position of spindle removes all friction save at point, permitting good use of balancing and rotary power. Greater speed from more even movement of smaller supported spindle. In product : More uniform yarn from better method of drawing and more even spindle movement. B gives a harder twisted yarn than A . BIBLIOGRAPHY I Andree, E. "A naturalist in the Guianas." I Bancroft, H. H. "Native races." I, p. 698; II, p. 485. I Boas, F. " Kwakiutl Indians. " SPINNING TYPES 27 2 Brooks, E. C. "The story of cotton." 1 Coomaraswamy, A. K. "Mediaeval Sinhalese art." 2 Crawford, M. D. C. "Peruvian textiles." Am. Mus. Anthro- pological Papers, XII, Pt. III. 2 Crawford, M. D. C. " Master weavers of the desert empire." Harper's, July, 1916. 1 DeUenbaugh, F. S. "North Americans of yesterday." - Draper, G. O. "Labor-saving looms." (Illustration.) 4 Goddard, P. E.i "Indians of the southwest." Am. Mus. Handbook, 2, 19 13. 2 Goddard, P. E.^ "Navajo blankets." Am. Mus. Journal. Nov., 1910. - Handbook Am. Indians. Bu. Am. Ethnology. Bull, ^o, II. "Weaving." (Illustration.) 4 Holmes, W. H.^ "Textile fabrics of ancient Peru," Rept. Bu. Am. Ethnology, 1889. I HoUister, U. S. "The Navajo and his blanket." I Horniman Museum Handbook, II. I Illustrated London News Supplement, Oct. 20, 1855, p. 473. I Im Thurn, E. F. "Indians of British Guiana." 285, 286. I James, G. W. "Indian blankets and their makers." I KisseU, M. L.^ "Fabrics from primitive looms." (In prep- aration.) I Mason, O. T.^ "Origin of inventions." I Mason, O. T.^ "Woman's share in primitive culture." I Matthews, W. "Navajo weavers." 3 Rept. Bu. Am. Eth- nology. 1 Miller, M. L. "The Mangyans of Mindora." Philippine Journal of Science, D. 7, 191 2. 2 Nystrom, P. H. "Textiles." - Oppel, A. "Die Baumwolle." (Illustration.) I Pepper, G. H. "The making of the Navajo blanket." Every- body's Magazine, Jan., 1902. I Russell, F. "Pima Indians." 26 Rept. Bu. Am. Ethnology. 4 Stevenson, M. "Zuni Indians." 23 Rept. Bu. Am. Ethnology. 28 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING 1 Watson, J. F, "Textile manufactures and costumes of India," p. 64. 2 Woolman and McGowan. "Textiles," p. 21. 2 Worcester, D. C. " Non- Christian tribes of northern Luzon." Philippine Journal of Science, I, 1906. ILLUSTRATIONS Coomaraswamy, PI. 4, i Spinning. 6, 3 Spinning cotton. Draper, p. 18. Early spindle. 18. Mexican spinner. 19. Two Mexican spinners. Goddard 0), p. 50, d-e. Spindles. 152. Navajo woman spinning. Goddard (^), p. 205. Navajo woman spinning wool. Handbook American Indians, II. p. 928. Navajo spinning. HoUister, p. loi. Navajo carder. p. III. Navajo spinner. Holmes (^), p. 7. Peruvian spindles. James, p. 108, fig. 131. Navajo spinning. Magazines. See magazine illustrations. Mason Q-), p. 76. Zuni woman spinning woolen yarn. Matthews, PI. 34. Navajo spinning. 44. Moki spinning. Miller, PI. 8. Spinning cotton thread. Oppel, p. 621. Indian woman spinning in Colombia. p., 566. Distaff and spindle of the Igorot of Luzon. Pepper, p. 38. Navajo spinner. Stevenson, PI. 44. Moki method of spinning. Walton, p. 20. -Indian spinner (drawing out rove). Watson, J. F., p. 64. Spinning fine yarn for Dacca muslins. Woolman and McGowan, p. 20. Navajo spinning. Worcester, PI. 44. A Tingian woman spinning cotton. SPINNING TYPES 29 IV SUSPENDED HAND SPINDLE Fig. 6. — ^ Ancient Egyptian Spinners, Middle Kingdom Right, spinner twisting simultaneously two lines of rove by rolling spindle on thigh. Left, dextrous Egyptian doubling yarn. Four single yarns are being twisted into two two-ply yarns. Distinctive Characteristics Spinning implement : a spindle freely suspended from the thread it is spinning. A Distaff for holding raw material frequently present. Attenuating device: spindle stretches rove after hands have drawn it. Twisting device : hand spindle rotated by right hand and let swing. so YARN AND CLOTH MAKING No winding device : spindle used to hold spun yarn. Spinning intermittent. Outline Example : Peasants of southern Europe, and tribes of Central Asia. Implement — Sus- pended spindle. a. a stone. b. shaft with cleft, or hook. c. shaft with cross bar and hook. d. shaft with whorl and hook. e. shaft with whorl, no hook. Distaff frequently present. Power — Hand (13). Motion. — Intermittent (11, lid). 1 . attenuating and twisting (compound process) . 2 . winding. Fig. - Suspended-Spindle Spin- ning, Hungary The flax is drawn from the distafi with one Process hand and the spindle twirled by the fingers of the other hand. Drawing with both Fig. 8. — Spinning in the Alps, about iooo b.c. On the left is a quaint spinner with suspended spindle etched on the neck of an old tomb um. Fig. g. — Winding Yarn on Spindle, Algeria The spun yarn kept stretched by the spindle weight is first wrapped about the fingers as it is drawn in. Later it is unwrapped from them as it is wound upon spindle. SPINNING TYPES 3 1 hands, followed by stretching with spindle. Drawing regulated by careful adjustment of spindle weight (12). Twisting with spindle managed by right hand. Winding with both hands. 1. Raw material attached to distaff held in left hand, under arm, or thrust into belt ; or material made into loose carding, or rove. 2. Raw material, or rove, drawn out and fed to spindle which continues to stretch rove by its weight (8, 8c, 8e). 3. Spindle rotated by (9, 9c). a. rolling with right palm on thigh and let swing. b. twirling between thumb and first finger and let swing. 4. Spun yarn wound on spindle shaft after each stretch is twisted (lO, 10b). 5. Yarn may be respun for harder twist, or doubled for two-ply, four-ply, or eight-ply yarns. Economic Gain In production : Greater length of spin. Increased momentum of free spindle by eliminating friction. Double means for drawing : the spindle and the entire use of one hand and part time of the other. In product : Yarn of great evenness, strength and deHcacy. 32 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING Evenly attenuated yarn because of double drafting by the hands and spindle weight. Of regular twist because twisted with tension, a close twist because of rapidly moving free spindle. BIBLIOGRAPHY I Baines, E. "Cotton manufacture, " 68. I Blount, Mrs. G. "The story of a home-spun web." I Brooks, E. C. "The story of cottom." I Briiggemann, H. "Die Spinnerei." - Butterworth, B. "The growth of industrial art." (Illus- tration.) - Cailliaud, F. "Recherches sur les arts et metiers." (Illus- tration.) - Coles, F. R. "Scottish spindles and whorls." (Illustration.) Reliquary and Illustrated Archaeologist V. - Davies, N. de G. "Five Theban tombs." (Illustration.) I Encyclopaedia Britannica. "Spinning." I Erman, A. "Life in ancient Egypt." - Forrer, R. "Reallexikon der prahistorischen klassischen und friichristlichen Altertiimer." (Illustration.) 5 Garnett, A. "Hand spinning." 3 Garstang, J. "Burial customs in ancient Egypt." I Gibbs, C. "Household textiles." 4 Gilroy, C. G. (^) "History of silk, cotton, linen, wool," i5, 343- - Gosse, A. B. "The civilization of ancient Egypt." (Illus- tration.) I Guest, R. "Cotton manufacture." I Hooper, L. (}) "Hand loom weaving." 3 Hooper, L. " The loom and spindle : past, present and future." (^) Journal Royal Society of Arts LX, 3120. (*) Report Smithsonian Institution, 1914. I Horner collection, Belfast Municipal Mus., p. 2, Nos. 7, 36, 63, 64. SPINNING TYPES 33 I Horniman Museum handbook II, 36, 37., 3 James, J. "History of worsted manufacture in England," 11, 12, 334- - Keller, F. "Lake dwellings of Switzerland." (Illustration.) - Kimakowicz-Winnicki. "Spinn- und Webewerkzeuge in vor geschichtlicher Zeit Europas." (Illustration.) - Lepsius, K. R. "Denkmaler" IV. (Illustration.) 3 Lindner, G. "Spinnerei und Weberei." - Manchester, H. H. "Story of silk and Cheney silks." (Illus- tration.) I Marsden, R. Q) "Cotton spinning," 3, igo. 1 Mason, 0. T. (^) "Origin of inventions." 3 Mason, 0. T. (^) "Woman's share in primitive culture." - Maspero, G. "Dawn of civilization in Egypt and Chaldaea." (Illustration.) - Miintz, E. (^) "Tapisseries." (Illustration.) 2 Murphy, W. S. "The textile industries," II. I Nasmith, J. " Students' cotton spinning." - Newberry, P. E. (i) "Beni Hasan," I, II, IV. (Illustration.) - Newberry, P. E. (2) "El Bersheth," I. (Illustration.) I New International Encyclopedia. "Spinning." 1 Oppel, A. "Die BaumwoUe." - Pictorial Gallery of Arts, I. (Illustration.) - Rohn, G. "Die Spinnerei." (Illustration.) - Ronchaud, L. de. "Tapisserie." (Illustration.) - Rosellini, I. "Monumenti dell Egitto e dello Nubia." (Illus- tration.) - Roth, H. L. Q) "Ancient Egyptian and Greek looms." Bankfield Mus. Series 2, No. 2. (Illustration.) - Schurtz, H. " Urgeschichte der Kultur." (Illustration.) - Simmonds, P. L. "lire's cotton manufacture." (Illustration.) 4 Taggart, W. S. "Cotton spinning," I. Introduction. 2 Todd, J. A. "The world's cotton crops." 2 Tylor, E. B. "Anthropology." - Ure, A. "Cotton manufacture," II. (Illustration.) 34 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING I Vickerman, C. "Wool spinning," 6, 193. I Walton, P. "Story of textiles." I Warden, A. J. "Linen trade ancient and modern." I Watson, J. F. "Textile manufacture in India." I Watson, K. "Textiles and clothing." 3 Weeden, W. B. "Art of weaving." Rept. Am. Historical Asso., 1902. I Wilkinson, J. G. " Manners and customs of ancient Egyptians." I Woolman and McGowan. "Textiles." ILLUSTRATIONS Baines, p. 49. Ancient Greek spinner. Blount, p. 2. Spindle spinning. II. Two spinners with distaff and spindle. Brooks, p. 147. Street scene in Naples. Briiggemann, p. 35. Peasants spinning flax and wool in 1544. Butterworth, p. 181, fig. i. Greek spinner. Cailliaud, PL 17 A. Egyptian spinners, figs, i, 2, 3, 7, 8. Coles, p. 80. Typical spindle. 81. Spindle from St. Kilda. 81. Spindle and whorl from Scotland. 81. Spindle and whorl from Cullybocky. 82. Two carved spindle butts. 83. 84, 85, 86. Spindle whorls.- Davies, PL 38. Spinning in XI Dynasty, 2000 B.C. Erman, p. 448. Spinning and unraveling the flax. Forrer, Tafel, 152, fig. 5. Spinner on urn from Oedenburg. 278, fig. I. Spinner on urn from Oedenburg. 2, figs. II, 12. Spindle whorls. 35, fig. 3. Spindle whorls. 185, fig. 5. Spindle whorls. 89, figs. 82, 87. Spindle whorls. Garstang, p. 135. Spinning at Abu-Kirkas, Egypt, to-day. Gosse, p. 2,3- Woman spinning flax (center figures). Guest, PI. I. Distaff spinning. SPINNING TYPES 35 Hooper Q), fig. 4. Distaff. 5. Spinning with distaff and spindle. 6. Spindle. PI. II. Egyptian spindle. V. Greek vase painting. VI. Spindle whorls from ancient Greece. Hooper (^) (*), fig. 3. Primitive spindles — Egypt, Peru, Guiana, Great Britain, Colombia, Paraguay. 5. Peasant spinning. James, p. 13, fig. i. Egyptian spindles. 6. Egyptian spinner. Keller, PI. 3, fig. 13. Spindle whorl of earthenware. 57, fig. 6. Whorl of earthenware. 64, figs. 12-16, 18. Whorl of earthenware, fig. 17. Whorl of stag's horn. Kimakowicz-Winnicki, p. 11. Roman spindles and whorls. 24. Siebenburgisch-deutschen whorls. 59. Neolithic whorls. Lepsius, IV Abth. II, PI. 126. Egyptian spinner. Lindner, Title page — Greek spinner. p. I. Hand spindle. •Magazines. See Magazine Illustration. Manchester, p. 14. Egyptian women spinning. Marsden Q-), p. 193. Greek spinner. Maspero, p. 57. Egyptian woman spinning. Muntz (^), p. 2 a, b. Egyptian spinners. Murphy, II, p. 136. Spindle and distaff. Newberry Q-), I, PI. 29. Egyptian spinner. II, 4. Egyptian spinners. II 13. Egyptian spinners. IV 15. Egyptian spinner. Newberry {^), I, PI. 26. Egyptian spinners. Oppel, p. 202. Peasant family spinning. 203. Hausa spindles. 204. Spinning. Nigeria. 36 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING Pictorial Gallery of Arts. I, p. 99. Distaff spinning. Ronchaud, p. 57. Egyptian spinners. Rosellini, II, PL 41. Egyptian spinners. Roth, p. 12. Egyptian spinners. Schurtz, p. 237. Algerian spinner. Simmonds, II, p. 201. Ancient distaff spinsters. Todd, p. 276. Hand spinning in Egypt. Tylor, p. 247. Egyptian woman spinning. Ure, II, p. 255. Ancient distaff spinsters. Vickerman, p. 195. Spinster with distaff and spindle. Walton, P., p. 16. Greek and Roman method of spinning. 106. Distaff spinning. Watson, J. T., p. 16, I. Spinning fine yarn. Watson, K., p. 2. The thread of life. 4. Italian woman spinning flax. 7. Russian spinning. Wilkinson, J. G., I, p. 319. Egyptian spinners. II, p. 170. Egyptian spinners. 172. Egyptian spindles. Woolman and McGowan, p. 17. Spinning with distaff and spindle. 19. Hand in action. v JERSEY AND ASIATIC WHEELS Distinctive Characteristics Earliest spinning contrivance worked mechanically : a spinning wheel with drive wheel and spindle ; built on principle of supported hand spindle. No attenuating device : left hand drafts. First mechanical twisting device : a spindle mounted horizontally and driven by large wheel. SPINNING TYPES 37 First mechanical winding device: spindle capable of winding on yarn. Spinning intermittent. Fig. io. — Earliest Spinning Wheel, India A mounted spindle is turned by a large hand-driven wheel by means of an endless band. Outline Examples : Jersey wheel, Europe ; Teakwood wheel, Asia ; Brunswick wheel, Europe. Implement — One-band spinning wheel. 1. standard supporting spindle and drive wheel. 2. horizontal spindle parallel to axis of drive wheel (three spindles on a Chinese treadle wheel of this type). 38 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING 3. large smooth-rimmed or one-grooved drive wheel which transmits power to spindle by single band. Fig. II. — Jersey Hand Wheel, Europe Wheel for wool or cotton. Top view shows spindle at left. Front view shows drive wheel propelled by hand and belt connecting wheel with spindle. 4. wheel driven by a. hand, or loose stick. b. crank. c. treadle. Power — a. Right hand propels wheel (13). b. Foot propels treadle wheel (Chinese). Motion. — Intermittent (ll, lid). 1 . attenuating and twisting (compound process) . 2. winding. SPINNING TYPES 39 Process — Stretching with left hand (12). Twisting with spindle, left hand controls yarn. Winding by spindle, left hand controls yarn. 1. Raw material made into loose carding. 2. Carding attached to spindle point and continu- ously fed to it as hand holds carding in a line with spindle point, while motion is given to drive wheel. Carding is stretched and twisted simultaneously (8, 8d, 9, 9d). 3. When length of rove has been twisted it is brought at right angles to the spindle and wound on as the hand moves toward spindle (10, 10c). 4. Coarse first spinning (rove) is respun for finished yarn. 5. Yarn may be respun for harder twist, or doubled for two-ply. Economic Gain Only a sHght gain in output over Suspended spindle spinning, but the new invention leads the way for further advance. In production : Mounted spindle gives steady spinning. Drive wheel and endless band assuring constant spindle rotation. Large-size wheel propels smaller wheel, utilizing a multiplying power for greater speed. Mechanical winding. 40 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING In product : Coarser yarn. Far less perfect yarn than the Suspended spindle gives with its double drafting and twisting with tension. BIBLIOGRAPHY 3 Baines, E. "Cotton manufacture," 68, 117. 3 Banerjei, N. N. 0) "Woollen fabrics in Bengal" (Separate), p. 21. 3 Banerjei, N. N. {^). "Cotton fabrics in Bengal." (Separate), p. 41. 3 Brooks, E. C. " Story of cotton." - Butterworth, B. "The growth of industrial art." (Illustration.) - Cavendish, A. E. J. "Korea and the sacred white mountain." (Illustration.) I Earl, A. M. "Home life in colonial days," 196. I Encyclopaedia Britannica. "Spinning." 3 Gibbs, C. "Household textiles." 5 Gilroy, C. C. (^) "History silk, cotton, linen, wool," 341. 3 Guest, R. "Cotton manufacture," 7, 13. I Hooper, L. "The loom and spindle : past, present and future." (^) Journal Royal Society of Arts LX, 3120. (^) Report Smithsonian Institution, 1914- 3 Horner collection in Belfast Municipal Museum, 3-5. I Horniman Museum handbook, II, 37. 3 Illustrated London News Supplement Oct. 20, 1855, 473. "Indian cotton — The webs of Dacca." I James, J. "History of worsted manufacture in England," 334, 335- Journal Indian art and industry. 3 VIII, Banerjei, N.N. C) "Cotton fabrics in Bengal." I X, Brendon, B. A. "Woolen fabrics in Bombay." I X, Silberrad, C. A. "Cotton of Northwestern provinces." SPINNING TYPES 41 I Lindner, G. "Spinnerei und Weberei." I Marsden, R.(0 " Cotton spinning." 3 Murphy, W. S. "The textile industries," II. I Nasmith, J. "Students' cotton spinning." 5 Nystrom, P. H. "Textiles." - Oppel, A. "Die BaumwoUe." (Illustration.) - Pictorial Gallery of Arts, I. (Illustration.) 4 Reliquary and Illustrated Archaeologist V. "Spinning in Persia," 80. - Roth, H. L. (3) "Natives of Sarawak, British N. Borneo." 1 Simmonds, P. L. "Ure's cotton manufacture," I, 226. 2 Taggart, W. S. "Cotton spinning," I, Introd., p. xxvii. - "Tops." Arlington Mills, Lawrence, Mass. (Illustration.) 1 Ure, A. "Cotton manufacture," I, 193. 5 Vickerman, C. "Wool spinning." 2 Walton, P. "Story of textiles." 4 Walton, W. "Cotton in Bombay Presidency." 5 Watson, J. F. "Textile manufactures and costumes of India," - Watson, K. "Textiles and clothing." (Illustration.) 5 Wilkinson, F. "The story of the cotton plant." I Woolman and McGowan. "Textiles." ILLUSTRATIONS Banerjei (^), PL 7. Woman spinning cotton. Baines, p. 68. Teakwood wheel. 118. One-thread wheel. Brooks, p. 63. Spinning by hand in a colonial home. Butterworth, p. 181, fig. 2. Hindoo wheel, fig. 3. Britain wheel. Cavendish, p. 52. Spinning. Earl, p. 36. Wool wheel in background. 197. Wool spinning. Gibbs, p. 25. Wool wheel. Gilroy (2), PL 2 b. Egyptian woman spinning. Guest, PL 3. Roving by hand wheel. 42 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING Guest, PL 3. Spinning by hand wheel. Hooper (^) (*), fig. 6. Sarawak native spinning. Horner collection, PL 2, i. Wheel from India. 2, 3. Three spindle wheel from China (with treadle). 3. Wheel from Teneriffe, Canary Islands. James, p. 13, fig. 9. Spinning with wool wheel. Journal Indian art and industry. VIII, Banerji (^), PL 81. Woman spinning cotton. X, Brandon, PL 10. Spinning woolen yarn. X, Silberrad, PL 14. Spinning cotton. Lindner, p. i. One- thread spinning wheel. Magazines. See Magazine Illustration. Marsden 0), p. 194. Indian girl spinning. 195. Single thread spinning. Murphy, II, p. 138. Primitive spinning wheel. Ill, 60. Spinning and doubling for the Cashmere shawl. Oppel, p. 207. Spinning wheel of India. 223. English spinner. 546. Spinning wheel of Turkestan. 552. Hand spinning in China (wheel worked by foot). Pictorial Gallery of Arts. I, p. 96. Hindoo woman spinning cotton. 104. Jersey wheel. Reliquary and illustrated archaeology. V, p. 80. Spinning in Persia. Roth, p. 31. Spinning wheel. Simmonds, p. 226. Jersey wheel. 227. Hindoo spinning cotton yarn. "Tops," p. 13. Fourteenth-century wool wheel. Ure, p. 194. Jersey wheel. 195. Hindoo spinning cotton yarn. Vickerman, p. 197. Hindoo spinner. 199. One-thread wheel. 201. Spinning (wheel turned by crank). SPINNING TYPES 43 Walton, p. 52. Japanese spinner. 60. Ancient Egyptian spinning. 64. A Hindoo spinning cotton yarn. 112. Spinning by hand wheel. Walton, Series 2, No. 19. The spinning wheel. 20. The spinning wheel at work. Watson, p. 9. Colonial wool wheel. 13. Syrian spinning. Wilkinson, p. 117. Jersey spinning wheel. Woolman and McGowan, p. 21. The Gharka wheel. 22. The great wheel. VI SAXONY WHEEL Distinctive Characteristics Earliest spinning contrivance for carrying on all three processes continuously : a spinning wheel with auto- matic-winding spindle rotated by foot. A distaff may be attached or separate. No attenuating device : both hands draft. Twisting device : a spindle with flyer and independently moving bobbin. First automatic winding device : the spindle-bobbin. First continuous spinning : the three processes carried on simultaneously. Outline Example : Saxony wheel of Europe. Implement — a. Two-band spinning wheel. b. One-band spinning wheel (a later development). 44 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING Reproduced by permission from Hooper's Hand Loom Weaving, Macmlllan, U.S.A., and John Hogg, London. Fig. 12. — Spinning Cotton on Saxony Wheel This treadle wheel, worked by foot power, frees both hands to draft the rove or carding of cotton. The spindle simultaneously twists and winds. SPINNING TYPES 45 Fig. 13. — Spinning Flax on Saxony Wheel The flax is drawn from the distaff and drafted before passing it on to the spindle for twisting and winding. 46 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING I. Standard supporting spindle, distaff, drive wheel with attached treadle for driving wheel. (Ex- ception : the Picardy wheel turned by crank.) Fig. 14. — Leonardo da Vinci's Spindle, 1500 (A drawing found in one of his sketch-books) This spindle can simultaneously twist and wind. Bobbin (left of center) with large pulley (center) runs loosely on spindle shaft. Flyer (ex- treme left) and small pulley (right of center) are attached to spindle shaft. A band about each pulley rotates the bobbin and flyer at different speeds, while the end attachment (extreme right) regulates the position of bobbin and flyer during winding. Fig. 15. — Saxony Spindle, 1530 (The first fly spindle put to practical use) This more compact double-functioned spindle twists and winds contin- uously, spreading the yarn on the bobbin by a row of hooks on one arm of the flyer. The spinner from time to time shifts the yam from one hook to the other. The flyer wheel (right) is larger than the bobbin wheel next it and so rotates less rapidly than the bobbin wheel. 2 . Horizontal spindle supported at both ends, with flyer and bobbin moving at different speeds. (Later two spindles were placed on spinning wheel. Still later there was an automatic spreader for yarn.) 3. (a) drive wheel with two bands, one to spindle, one to bobbin. SPINNING TYPES 47 (b) drive wheel with one band to spindle, drag of yarn retards bobbin. 4. Distaff usually present. The Saxony Spindle at Work The rove to be spun is passed through the hollow spindle end and on to the flyer hooks when it is tied to the bobbin shaft. When the large wheel (extreme right) is turned, the two connecting bands give rapid motion to the flyer and more rapid to the bobbin. The flyer twists the rove and also spreads the twisted yarn on the bobbin, while the bobbin winds on. Power — Foot propels wheel (13). Hands attenuate. Motion — Continuous, the three processes proceed simul- taneously (11, lie). I. attenuating, twisting, winding (triple process). 48 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING Process — Attenuation by hands (12). Twisting by spindle-flyer. Winding by spindle-bobbin. 1. Raw material pulled from distaff, or from carded roll in lap, and after attaching to spindle, it is fed to spindle, attenuating while doing so (8, 8d, Be). 2. At the same time drive wheel turned by treadle rotates flyer and bobbin, which twist and wind on the spun yarn continuously (9, 9e) (lO, lOg.) 3. Yarn may be respun for a harder twist, or doubled for two-ply. Economic Gain In production : Greater speed given through division of labor by add- ing foot power to propel, and freeing both hands for drafting. The double-functioned spindle automatically winds while twisting. All three spinning processes simultaneous. Distaff adds ease in caring for raw material. In product : Better attenuated yarn through the use of the thumb and fingers of both hands. Rounder thread from passing through spindle opening. BIBLIOGRAPHY 2 Barker, A. F. "Textiles." I Blount, Mrs. G. "The story of a homespun web." - Brooks, E. C. "Story of cotton." (Illustration.) SPINNING TYPES 49 I Briiggemann, H. "Die Spinnerei." - Clapham, J. H. "The woollen and worsted industries." (Illustration.) - Draper, G. O. "Labor-saving looms." (Illustration.) 4 Earl, A. M. "Home life in colonial days," 174. - Emery, M. S. "How to enjoy pictures." (Illustration.) 1 Encyclopaedia Britannica. "Spinning." 2 Garnet, A. "Hand spinning." 2 Hooper, L. "The loom and spindle past, present and future." (•'') Journal Royal Society of Arts, LX, 3121. ("•) Report Smithsonian Institution, 1914. I Horner collection in Belfast Municipal Museum. 1 Horniman Museum handbook, II, 38. 2 James, J. "History of worsted manufacture in England," 335. I Lindner, G. "Spinnerei und Weberei;" 2. I Marsden, R. Q-) "Cotton spinning." 1 Murphy, W. S. "The textile industries," II. 2 Nasmith, J. "Students' cotton spinning." I New International Encyclopedia. "Spinning." - Oppel, A. "Die BaumwoUe." (Illustration.) - Pictorial Gallery of Arts, I. (Illustration.) I Simmonds, P. L. "Ure's cotton manufacture," I, 235. 6 Taggart, W. S. Cotton spinning, I. Intro. XXVIII. I Ure, A. "Cotton manufacture in Great Britain," I, 205. I Warden, A. J. "The linen trade ancient and modern," 687. 5 Walton, P. "Story of textiles." 5 Watson, K. "Textiles and clothing." 3 Wilkinson, F. "Story of the cotton plant." I Woolman and McGowan, "Textiles." ILLUSTRATIONS Barker, p. 87. Double-grooved wheel. 88. Diagram of flyer and bobbin. Blount, figs. 11-17. Flax wheel and parts. E 50 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING Brooks, p. 59. Early flax wheel. Briiggemann, p. 36 a. Spindle with bobbin and flyer. b. Spinning wheel with one band. c. Spinning wheel with two bands. Clapham, p. 32. Spinning wool on Saxony wheel. Draper, p. 23. Colonial spinner. Earl, p. 74. Flax wheel by Whittier's fireplace. 186. Flax spinning. Emery, p. 107. Old spinner, by Maas. Garnett, pp. 10, 15. Flax wheel. Hooper (i), fig. 7. Spinning with wheel. Hooper (^) (^), fig. 22. Leonardo da Vinci's drawing of flyer. Horner collection, Belfast museum. PL I . Wheels from Ireland ; England ; Hungary ; Tus- cany ; Upper Austria. 4. Wheels from Picardy, France ; Cambrai, France. 5. Exceptional wheel from Holland ; wheel from Rhine- land, Germany. 6. Wheels from Bavaria, Germany; Wxirtemberg, Ger- many. 7. Wheels from Bohemia ; Russia. 8. Wheels from Tyrol ; Poland ; Portugal ; Russia. Lindner, p. 2. Spinning wheel. 2. Flyer and bobbin spindle. 74. Spindle of Leonardo da Vinci. Magazines. See Magazine Illustration. Marsden, p. 207. Spindle, flyer and bobbin. Murphy, II, p. 134. Lady Hamilton as spinstress. (Painting by Romney.) 140. Saxony wheel. 141. Saxony spindle and flyer. Oppel, p. 218. Spinning wheel of Johann Jiirgens. Pictorial Gallery of Arts. p. 108. Spinning wheel. 108. Flax spinning wheel. Fig. 17. — High's Jenny, First Multiple Spinning, 1763-4 Six-multiple spinning frame built on the principle of the Hand Wheel. High at back is the first mechanical drafting device — - clove bars tightly clasping six hnes of rove. Fig. i8. — Hargreaves' Improved Jenny, 1767 Right, horizontal moving carriage with clove bars is shoved back and forth by left hand. Drive wheel turned by right hand rotates spindles by means of endless bands and a cylinder. Center, row of 8 to 16 rove bobbins. Left, row of 8 to 16 non-automatic spindles. The Jenny here is ready to wind; its carriage has drafted rove on its outward course and the spindles have put in twist ; now they are ready to wind on with the inward run of the carriage. SPINNING TYPES 5 1 Rohn, p. 5. Treadle spinning wheel. Simmonds, p. 234. Domestic flax wheel. 235. Spindle, flyer, bobbin. Ure, p. 204. Domestic flax wheel. 205. Spindle, flyer, bobbin. Walton, p. 68. Domestic flax wheel. 252. Flax spinning. Watson, p. 7. Spinning with crude wheel and distafif. 8. "Gossip" in olden times. 10. Colonial flax wheel. 11. Dutch wheel. Woolman and McGowan, p. 25. The flax wheel. 27. Detail of flyer. VII JENNY SPINNING FRAME Distinctive Characteristics Earliest contrivance for spinning a number of threads and one which performs all three processes mechani- cally : a frame holding drive wheel, row of spindles, a moving carriage and row of rove bobbins ; built on principle of Jersey wheel. First mechanical attenuating device for stretched rove : carriage receding from spindles. Twisting device : row of vertical spindles of the Jersey wheel type. Winding device : spindles and the returning carriage. Spinning intermittent. Outline Example : Hargreaves' spinning jenny. Implement — Spinning jenny. 52 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING I. frame supporting row of vertical spindles (Jersey wheel type), drive wheel, a moving carriage and creel of rove bobbins. 19. — Cross Section or Hargreaves' Jenny The Jenny here pictured is ready to draft and twist. The carriage is starting on its outward run with the rove clasped between the clove bars. As the left hand moves the carriage outward towards the worker the rove be- tween the spindles and clove is drafted. Meanwhile the right hand and drive wheel turn the spindles which twist the rove. 2. spindles with faller-wire at back of frame. 3. moving carriage with clove bars. 4. drive wheel turned by crank rotates spindles by means of band and cylinder. Power — Right hand propels wheel (l3). Left hand moves carriage and faller-wire (earlier toe- managed faller-wire.) SPINNING TYPES 53 Motion — Intermittenf(ll, Hf)- 1. attenuating and twisting (compound process) 2. winding. Process — Stretching by moving carriage (12). Twisting by spindle. Winding by spindle and moving carriage. 1. Carriage placed in front of spindles and rove bobbins on creel, rove carried through clove bars to spindles. 2 . Carriage recedes short distance from spindles measuring off length of rove to be spun, clove bars then close (8, 8f). 3. Carriage recedes to end of traverse stretching rove, while spindles rotated by drive wheel give twist to stretched rove (9, 9d, g). 4. Carriage stops, spindles put in more twist. 5. Carriage slightly backs, faller-wire drops carrying yarn from spin- dle-tip to winding position. 6. Carriage returns to spindles as spun yarn is wound on (lO, lOd). Fig. 20. — Spin- dle OF Jenny Economic Gain In production : Multiplication of threads, one person works a number of spindles, only This non-auto- matic spindle is like that of the Jersey Wheel. It intermit- tently twists and winds. (The spindle shaft and whorl are white.) 54 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING limited to strength and endurance of man to run machine. Mechanical attenuation of yarn ; limited to definite length. In product (no gain) : Yarn not strong (inferior to that from Saxony wheel) . QuaHty of product not in proportion to quantity of product. Inferior yarn from " stretch " attenuation. BIBLIOGRAPHY I Baines, E. "Cotton manufacture," 155. 3 Brooks, E. C. "Story of cotton," 86. I Briiggemann, H. "Die Spinnerei." - Butterworth, B. "The growth of industrial art." (Illustration.) 4 Chapman, S. J. "Cotton industry and trade." I Encyclopaedia Britannica. "Spinning," "Cotton manufacture." -Farrar, F. L. "Factories and great industries." (Illustrations.) 4 Gibbs, C. "Household textiles." I Guest, R. "Cotton manufacture." - Hooper, L. "The loom and spindle : past, present and future." (Illustration.) (^) Journal Royal Society of Arts, LX, 3121. (■*) Report Smithsonian Institution, 1914. 1 James, J. "History of worsted manufacture in England," 345. 2 Lindner, G. "Spinnerei und Weberei." I Marsden, R. Q) "Cotton spinning." 4 Montgomery, J. "Cotton spinning." I Murphy, W. S. "The textile industries," III. I Nasmith, J. "Students' cotton spinning," 16. I New International Encyclopedia. "Spinning." , - Nystrom, P. H. "Textiles." (Illustration.) Oppel, A. "Die Baumwolle." (Illustration.) SPINNING TYPES 55 - Pictorial Gallery of Arts, I. (Illustration.) 2 Priestman, H. "Principles of woolen spinning," 23. I Simmonds, P. L. "lire's cotton manufacture," I, 227. 3 Taggart, W. S. "Cotton spinning," I. Introduction XXXII. 1 Ure, A. "Cotton manufacture," I, 195. - Vickerman, C. "Wool spinning." (Illustration.) 2 Walton, P. "Story of textiles," 142 [picture legend] 136. I Wilkinson, F. "Story of the cotton plant." I Woolman and McGowan. "Textiles." ILLUSTRATIONS Baines, p. 158. Spinning jenny. Brooks, p. 86. Spinning jenny. Briiggemann, p. 37. Hargreaves' mule-jenny spinning machine. Butterworth, p. 181, fig. 5. Jenny of 1764. Farrar, p. 14. Hargreaves' spinning jenny. Guest, PL 6. High's jenny. 7. The improved jenny. Hooper (^) (*), fig. 23. Hargreaves' spinning jenny. James, p. 343, fig. 2. Hargreaves' spinning machine, Lindner, p. 75. Jenny spindle. 76. Outline of jenny. Marsden, p. 203. Hargreaves' jenny improved. Murphy, III, p. 40. Hargreaves' spinning jenny, Nystrom, p. 21. Spinning jenny. Oppel, p. 225. Hargreaves' spinning jenny. Pictorial Gallery of Arts, I, p. 97. Hargreaves' jenny. Priestman, p. 24. Diagram of Hargreaves' jenny. Simmonds, I, p. 231. Hargreaves' spinning jenny, improved form, Ure, I, p. 199. Hargreaves' spinning jenny, improved form. Vickerman, p. 207. Hargreaves' jenny. Walton, p. 136. High's jenny. 142. Improved jenny. Wilkinson, p. 124. Hargreaves' jenny. Woolman and McGowan. Hargreaves' spinning jenny. 56 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING VIII WATER FRAME Distinctive Characteristics Earliest spinning contrivance where the three processes are mechanical and continuous : a frame with drive wheel, roller drawing device, and row of automatic- winding flyer-spindles so arranged as to move in unison and with power applied at one point ; built on prin- ciple of Saxony wheel. First mechanical attenuating device for drawn rove : a series of pairs of rollers moving at increased speeds. Twisting device : row of flyer-spindles. Winding device : the row of automatic- winding spindles. Spinning continuous. Outline Example : Arkwright's Water frame. Implement — Water frame. 1. frame with row of vertical spindles, drawing rollers, creel of rove bobbins and driving mechanism. 2. flyer-spindles with automatic bobbin for building cop. 3 . series of pairs of drawing rollers in front of rove creel. 4. cog-wheel, shaft and drum for driving. Power — Horse power propels entire mechanism (13). Later, water power. Still later, steam power (1790). Motion — Continuous (ll, llg). I. attenuating, twisting and winding. Fig. 21. — Arkwright's First Water Frame, 1770 The first spinning contrivance where all three processes are mechan- ical and continuous. Fig. 22. — Arkwright's Improved Water Frame Built on the principle of the Saxony Wheel, but with an improved method of roller drafting. Above, draft rollers. Below, flyer spindles. Left, wheel which propels the entire mechanism. SPINNING TYPES 57 Process — ^ Drawing by rollers (12). Twisting by spindle-flyer. Winding by spindle-bobbin. 1. Creel filled with rove bobbins, rove passed to drawing rollers. 2. Cog-wheel, shaft and drum set all parts of frame in motion. 3. Rove drawn as it passes between successive pairs of rollers moving at increased speeds (8, 8g). 4. Spindle twists drawn rove as it comes from last drawing roller and winds twisted yarn on bobbin (9, 9e, f, 10, lOg, h). Economic Gain In production : Mechanical working of all processes. Union of all parts in concerted action. Automatically winding spindle. In product : Not very fine yarn. Hard twist, suitable for warp. Strong and even yarn from improved attenuation by drawing. BIBLIOGRAPHY I Baines, E. "Cotton manufacture," 147. I Barker, A. F. "Textiles." 3 Brooks, E. C. "Story of cotton," 85. I Briiggeman, H. "Die Spinnerei." - Butterworth, B. "The growth of industrial art." (Illustra- tion.) 58 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING S Chapman, S. J. "Cotton industry and trade." 1 Encyclopaedia Britannica. " Spinning," " Cotton manufacture," "Woolen and worsted manufacture." - Farrar, F. A. " Factories and great industries." (Illustration.) 4 Gibbs, C. "Household textiles." - Guest, R. "Cotton manufacture." (Illustration.) 2 Hooper, L. "The loom and spindle: past, present, future." (^) Journal Royal Society of Arts LX, 3 121. (^) Report Smithsonian Institution, 1914. I James, J. "History of worsted manufacture in England," 343. - Lindner, G. " Spinnerei und Weberei." (Illustration.) I Marsden, R. "Cotton spinning." 5 Montgomery, J. "Cotton spinning," 149. I Murphy, W. S. "The textile industries," III. 3 Nasmith, J. "Students' cotton spinning." I New International Encyclopedia. "Spinning." - Oppel, A. "Die BaumwoUe." (Illustration.) - Pictorial Gallery of Arts, London I. (Illustration.) I Simmonds, P. L. "Ure's cotton manufacture," I, 237, 245, 255. 3 Taggert, W. S. "Cotton spinning," I. Introduction. I Ure, A. "Cotton manufacture," I, 232. 1 Vickerman, C. "Wool spinning," 204. 2 Walton, P. "Story of textiles," 154 (picture legend). I Wilkinson, F. "The story of the cotton plant." I Woolman and McGowan. "Textiles." ILLUSTRATIONS Baines, p. 139. Paiil's spinning machine. 152. Sir Richard Arkwright's spinning machine. Barker, p. 90, 92, 93, 97, 98. Drafting rollers. 95. Arkwright's water frame. Briiggemann, p. 38. Arkwright's spinning machine. Butterworth, p. 181, fig. 4. Roller spinning frame. fig. 6. Water frame. Farrar, p. 15. Arkwright's spinning machine, 1769. SPINNING TYPES 59 Guest, PI. 8. Section of the water frame, g. Front view of ■ water frame. Hooper (^) (■*), fig. 22. Paiil or Arkwright drawings for rollers. 24. Arkwright's water frame. James, p. 343, fig. i. Arkwright's spinning machine. Lindner, p. 75 a. Spindle of water frame. Marsden, p. 212. Arliwright's spinning frame. 213. Spinning frame, section. Murphy, III, p. 45. Arkwright's water frame. Oppel, p. 227. Arkwright's water frame. Pictorial Gallery of Arts, I. , p. 96. Arkwright's spinning machine. Simmonds, I, p. 255. Arkwright's water frame. Ure, I, p. 232. Arkwright's water frame. Vickerman, p. 205. Roller drawing. Walton, p. 154. Arkwright's water frame with patent specifica- tions. Wilkinson, p. 130. Arkwright's machine (after Baines). Woolman and McGowan, p. 35. Arkwright's water frame. IX HAND MULE Distinctive Characteristics Earliest mechanical contrivance for spinning fine yarn : a frame compounded of the Water frame and the Jenny, with new form of moving carriage, bearing spindles. First mechanical device for a double attenuation of rove : rollers for drawing and receding carriage for stretching. Twisting device : row of spindles of Jenny type which twist while moving and while stationary. Winding device : spindles on returning carriage. Spinning intermittent. 6o YARN AND CLOTH MAKING Outline Example : Crompton's mule. Implement — Mule spinning frame. I. frame with drawing device, headstock and moving carriage with spindles of Jersey wheel type. Fig. 23. — Crompton's Hand Mule Crompton's Mule combined the best points of the Jenny and Water frame. Double drafting was secured by the draw- ing rollers and the moving carriage. 2. pairs of drawing rollers and creel of rove bobbins. 3. carriage that may be wheeled out and back with row of spindles. 4. headstock with driving parts. Power — Hand ; later horse ; water for most of work. Hand and knee managed carriage and the winding on. Motion — Intermittent with three separate movenients (11, llh). SPINNING TYPES 6i 1. Attenuating. 2. Attenuating and twisting. Twisting. 3. Winding. Process — Attenuating first by drawing rollers and second through stretching by receding car- riage (12). Fig 24. — Cross Section of Hand Mule Upper right, drawing rollers attached to frame. Center, moving carriage with spindles. Upper left, propelling hand wheel. Twisting by spindles. Winding by spindles and returning carriage. 1. Rove bobbins placed on creel, carriage in front of rollers. 2. A short stretch of rove drawn from bobbins through drawing rollers to' slightly faster receding carriage with slowly rotating spindles (8, 8i, 9, 9d, g). 62 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING 3. Rollers stop delivering rove and hold fast, spindles rotate more rapidly while carriage slackening pace continues to end of course. 4. Carriage backs a short distance to reheve strain on yarn ; spindles add more twist. 5. Spindles stop; faller-wire drops carrying yarn from spindle tip to winding position (10, lOe). 6. Yarn wound on rotating spindles as carriage returns to first position. Economic Gain In production : Spindles of Jenny transferred from standard to car- riage. Improved moving carriage. A loss in speed from Water Frame, a gain over Jenny. A loss in expense, mule required highly skilled manual labor. In product : Finer, more elastic superior yarn. More evenly drawn because of combined roller and spindle draft. More evenly twisted from stretch during twisting. More gently spun, less strain on rove during attenu- ating. BIBLIOGRAPHY I Baines, E. " Cotton manufacture," 197. I Barker, A. F. "Textiles." I Briiggemann, H. "Die Spinnerei." 3 Chapman, S. J. "Cotton industry and trade," 54, 68. SPINNING TYPES 63 I Encyclopaedia Britannica. "Spinning," "Cotton manufacture," "Woolen and worsted." I Guest, R. "Cotton manufacture," 21. - Hooper, L. "The loom and spindle : past, present and future." (Illustration.) (^) Journal Royal Society of Arts, LX, 31 21. ('') Report Smithsonian Institution, 1914. I James, J. "History of worsted manufacture in England," 346. I Lindner, G. "Spinnerei und Weberei," 76. I Marsden, R-C) "Cotton spinning." I Montgomery, J. "Cotton spinning," 167. 1 Murphy, W. S. "The textile industries," III. 2 Nasmith, J. "Students' cotton spinning," 17. - Oppel, A. "Die BaumwoUe." (Illustration.) I Simmonds, P. L. "lire's cotton manufacture," I, 277. 3 Taggart, W. S. "Cotton spinning," I. Introduction. I Ure, A. "Cotton manufacture," I, 262. 1 Vickerman, C. "Wool spinning." 2 Walton, P. "Story of textiles," 56 [picture legend]. 2 Wilkinson, F. " Story of the cotton plant." 5 Woolman and McGowan. "Textiles." I Zipser, J. "Textile raw materials," 190. ILLUSTRATIONS Baines, p. 207. Mule frame. Briiggemann, p. 40. Crompton's mule-jenny. Guest, PL 12. The mule. Hooper {^) (4), fig. 25. Crompton's mule. (Bolton Museum.) James, p. 343, fig. 3, Crompton's spinning machine. Lindner, p. 76. Handmule. Magazines. See Magazine JUustration. Montgomery, PI. III. The mule-jenny. Murphy, III, p. 52. Crompton's mule. 56. Mule of 1820. 64 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING Oppel, p. 228. The mule-jenny. Simmonds, II, PL 6. The mule-jenny. Ure, II, PL 6. The mule-jenny. Vickerman, p. 211. Crompton's mule. Walton, p. 56. The mule or the muslin wheel. Wilkinson, p. 141. Crompton's spinning mule. X SELF-ACTING MULE Distinctive Characteristics First machine for spinning fine yarn without manual help : the hand mule very much enlarged and perfected to work entirely automatically. Attenuating device : pairs of drawing rollers and spindles on moving carriage. Twisting device : row of Jenny spindles fitted with cop bobbins. Winding device : moving carriage and spindles so ad- justed to their varying speeds as to work automatically. Spinning intermittent. Outline Example : Roberts' mule. Implement — Self-acting cotton mule. 1. machine with frame, headstock and moving carriage. 2. frame with drawing rollers and rove creel. 3. moving carriage with row of Jenny spindles fitted with cop bobbins and automatic faller and counter-faller wires. SPINNING TYPES I. Period. 65 Fig. 25. — ^FouR Stages of Mule Spinning 4. headstock communicating motion to all parts, care- fully adjusted to the many varied movements of machine. Power — Steam (13). 66 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING Motion — -Intermittent, with three movements (ll, llh). 1 . Attenuating. 2. Attenuating and twisting. Twisting. 3. Winding, Process — Drawing by rollers and stretching by moving carriage (l2). Twisting by spindles. Winding by spindles, faller and counter-faller wires on moving carriage. 1. Rove bobbins placed on creel, carriage in front of rollers. 2. Rove delivered to first pair of rollers and drawn as it passes between each succeeding pair, when it is delivered to slowly revolving spindles of the receding carriage which further lengthens it by stretching (8, 8i, 9, 9g). 3. When carriage has covered some distance of path the rollers cease delivering rove and shut close ; spindles revolve more rapidly while carriage moves to end of course. 4. Carriage stops a moment, spindles continue to add twist. 5. Carriage backs off short distance to ease high ten- sion caused by increasing twist. 6. Carriage stops, spindles reverse rotation to pay off yarn wrapped about spindle point above cop bobbin, when two guide wires for winding on yarn assume proper positions. 7. Carriage returns to rollers, while spindles with aid of the guide wires slowly wind yarn on cop (10, lOe), SPINNING TYPES 67 Economic Gain In production : Higher spindle speed. Admirable concert of all parts of machine. Increase of spindles per machine. Greater length wound on each cop. But — More complicated. Requires more power to drive. Requires greater intelligence of tender. In product : Finest and most perfect machine-spun yarn. Better wound yarn. BIBLIOGRAPHY - Baines, E. "Cotton manufacture." (Illustration.) I Beaumont, R.(^) "Wool manufacture" (Wool mule), 63. 1 Beaumont, R.(^) "WooUen and worsted" (Wool mvde), 158. ■ - Brooks, E. C. "Story of cotton." (Illustration.) 2 Clapham, J. M. "The woollen industries," 53. 2 Cyclopedia textile work, I. "Cotton spinning," 265. 2 Cyclopedia textile work, II. "Woolen and worsted spinning," 233. 2 Dooley, W. H. "Textiles." I Encyclopaedia Britannica. "Cotton manufacture," "Wool manufacture." - Hooper, L. "The loom and spindle : past, present and future." (Illustration.) (^) Journal Royal Society of Arts LX, 3 121. (^) Report Smithsonian Institution, 19 14. 68 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING 2 Huiiter, J. A. "Wool," 52. I Lindner, G. "Spinnerei und Weberei," 76. 1 Marsden, R. (0 "Cotton spinning." 2 McLaren, W. S. B. "Spinning woollen and worsted." I Montgomery, J. "Cotton spinning." I Morris and Wilkinson. "Elements of cotton spinning." (Technical.) I Mundorf, E. "Die Appretur der Wool- und Halbwoll- waren." I Murphy, W. S. "The textile industries," III. I Nasmith, J. "Students' cotton spinning." (Technical.) I New International Encyclopedia. "Spinning." - Oppel, A. "Die BaumwoUe." (Illustration.) 3 Peake, R. J. "Cotton." - Pictorial Gallery of Arts, I. (Illustration.) I Priestman, H. "Principles of woollen spinning." I Radcliffe, W. J. "Manufacture of woollen and worsted yarns," 259- I Rohn, G. "Die Spinnerei." (Illustration.) I Simmonds, P, L. "lire's cotton manufacture," II, 117. 1 Taggart, W. S. " Cotton spinning," III. (Technical.) 2 Thornley, T. "Cotton spinning," II, 1916 Ed. (Tech- nical.) I Todd, J. A. "The world's cotton crops," 345. I Ure, A. "Cotton manufacture," II, 145. I Vickerman, C. "Wool spinning." - Walton, P. "Story of textiles." (Illustration.) - Watson, K. "Textiles and clothing." (Illustration.) I Wilkinson, F. "Story of the cotton plant." I Woolman and McGowan. "Textiles." I Zipser, J. "Textile raw materials," 192. SPINNING TYPES 69 ILLUSTRATIONS Baines, p. 207, fig. 3. Self-acting mule. 211. Mule spinning. Barker, p. 105. Woolen mule. 109. Worsted mule. Beaumont Q), p. 64. Mule spinning frame. 66. Section mule spinning frame. Beaumont (2), p. 160. View self -actor mule. 163. End elevation, mule. 165. Self-actor mule. 166. Self-actor mule. 232. Section worsted self -actor mule. Brooks, p. 112. First cotton mill in United States. 113. Modern mill, mule spinning. Clapham, p. 54. Woollen mule. Cyclopedia textile work. I, p. 273. Mule room. 241. Self-acting mule. 256. Mule' head. 266-289. Mule spinning. II, p. 234. Mule. 245. High speed mule. 235-262. Mule spinning. Dooley, p. 137. Mule room. Encyclopaedia Britannica. fig. 9. Mule "Cotton manufacture." 13. Spinning room. " Cotton manufacture." 9. Woolen mule. "Wool manufacture." Hooper (*) (*), fig. 26. Modern spinning mule. Lindner, pp. 78, 79. Selfaktor. 80, 82, 83, 84, 85. Diagram Selfaktor. Marsden, p. 240. Mule, side elevation. McLaren, p. 230. The woolen mule. Morris & Wilkinson, figs. 111-122. The spinning mvile. 70 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING Mandorf, p. S- Feinspinnmaschine. (Selfaktor.) Murphy, III, pp. 64-67. Self-actor mule. Nasmith, p. 377. The mule. Oppel, p. 228. Roberts' self-acting mule. 231. Mule-Spinnmaschine. Peake, p. 59. Self-acting mule. 67. Mule-spinning room. Electric power. Pictorial GaUery of Arts. I, p. 97. Self-acting mule. 104. Wool mule. Priestman, figs. 83-1 11. The mule. Radcliffe, figs. 91, 92. Mule spinning. Rohn, pp. 55-59. Mule spinning. Simmonds, II, fig. 77. Self-actor mule. 80. Cross section of spinning parts of self-actor mule. PI. 5. Self-acting mule. Taggart, III, figs. 9-140. Modern mule. Thornley, II, p. 220. Mule. Ure, II, fig. 77. Self -actor mule. 80. Self -actor mule — Cross section of working parts. PL 5. Fine spinning mule. Vickerman, figs. 59-66. Self-actor mule. Walton, p. 208. A modern mule spinning-room. Watson, K., p. 66. Mule spinning frame. Wilkinson, F., pp. 148, 150, 154, 159. Self-acting mule. Woolman and McGowan. p. 39. Mule spinning. 40. Detail of mule. Zipser, figs. 113-118. Mule (cotton). 238. Mule frame (wool). 241-244. Four stages on mule frame. 270. Worsted mule. SPINNING TYPES XI FLYER, CAP AND RING SPINNING FRAMES 71 Fig. 26. — Cross Section, Flax Spinning Frame The flax on its way to the drawing rollers is passed through a tray of water. On the left the twisting is by cap spindle, on the right by flyer spindle. Distinctive Characteristics Perfected mechanical spinning frame : a spinning machine modeled after the Water frame, improved and simplified in its moving parts and run by power. Attenuating device : series of pairs of drawing rollers. 72 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING Twisting device : the automatic flyer, cap or ring spindle. Winding device : the automatic winding spindle. Continuous spinning. Outline Examples : Flyer spinning frame ; Cap spinning frame ; Ring spin- ning frame. Implements — Continuous spin- ning frames of the above type. 1. Frame with rove creel, draw rollers, spindles, driving mechanism. 2. Creel with rove bobbins. 3. Pairs of drawing rollers. 4. Row of spindles with tube bobbins. a. flyer spindle, loose run- ning bobbin, lifter plate. *>., b. non-revolving cap spindle, revolving bobbin, lifter rail. c. ring spindle with attached bobbin, thread rail with guide wire, movable ring plate and ring with _ „ ^ hook traveler. Fig. 27. — Flyer Spindle Drawing rollers which draft (above). Spindle and flyer revolved by whorl below (white) twist and guide yarn. Loose tubular bobbin (black) resting on lifter plate (gray) winds on. 6 SPINNING TYPES 73 Fig. 28. — Ring Spindle Bobbin (black) firmly at- tached to spindle (white) which twists. Lifter ring plate (gray) with travel- ing hook; drag of yarn through hook winds on. Fig. 29.- F. Cone-shaped cap attached to stationary spin- dle; the drag of yarn on cap-edge winds on. /. Tubular bobbin revolving on spindle as axis is turned by hand about the whorl H ; the bobbin twists. 74 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING Power — Water wheel, later steam (13). Motion — Continuous (Hi). I. drawing, twisting, winding. Process — Drawing by rollers (12). Twisting by flyer, ring or cap spindle. Winding by same. 1. Rove bobbins on creel pegs, rove passed to rollers. 2. Rove drawn between drawing rollers (8, 8h). 3. Rove twisted between last rollers and spindle (9, 9d). 4. Yarn wound on bobbin (lO, lOi). a. flyer revolving winds yarn in cop form on a dragging behind bobbin, as bobbin is raised and lowered by lifter plate. b. spindle and cap stationary and bobbin re- volving builds cop as bobbin is lifted on rail. c. spindle and bobbin revolving in unison and traveler with drag builds cop. 5. Full bobbins doffed, frame filled with fresh empty bobbins. Economic Gain In production and economy : Higher spindle speed. Continuous spindle spinning. Mounting more spindles on floor space. Simplicity of machine requiring less repairs. Employment of less skilled labor. Less expensive than Mule. Less labor. SPINNING TYPES 75 In product : Coarse yarns. Superior strength, wiry smoothness. Not so perfect or fine as Mule yarn. BIBLIOGRAPHY I Baines, E. "History of cotton manufacture." 3 Barker, A. F. "Textiles." 1 Beaumont, R-O) "Wool manufacture." 2 Beaumont, R.(^) "Woollen and worsted." I Briiggemann, H. "Die Spinnerei." - Butterworth, B. "The growth of industrial art." (Illus- tration.) I Carter, H. R.C) "Modern flax, hemp and jute spinning." 5 Carter, H. R.(^) "The spinning and twisting of long vegetable fibers." I Clapham, J. H. "The woolen and worsted industries," 49. 4 Cyclopedia textile work, I. "Cotton spinning." (Technical.) 4 Cyclopedia textile work, II. " Woolen and worsted spinning." (Technical.) 5 Dooley, W. H. "Textfles." I Encyclopaedia Britannica. "Cotton manufacture," "Woolen and worsted spinning." 5 Hooper, L. "The loom and spindle : past, present and future." (^) Journal Royal Society of Arts LX, 31 21. {*) Report Smithsonian Institution, 1914. 3 Hunter, J. A. "Wool." 3 James, J. "History of worsted manufacture in England," 577. I Lindner, G. "Spinnerei und Weberei." I Marsden, R.(0 "Cotton spinning." 1 McLaren, W. S. "Wool spinning." 2 Montgomery, J. "Cotton spinning," 155. I Morris and Wilkinson. "Elements of cotton spinning." (Technical.) 76 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING I Mundorf, E. "Die Appretur der Woll- und Halbwollwaren." I Murphy, W. S. "The textile industries," III. I Nasmith, J. "Students' cotton spinning." (Technical.) I New International Encyclopedia. "Spinning." 4 Peake, R. J. "Cotton." - Pictorial Gallery of Arts, I. (Illustration.) I Radcliffe, J. W. "Manufacture of wooUen and worsted yarn." I Rohn, G. "Die Spinnerei." I Simmonds, P. L. "lire's cotton manufacture," II, 95. 1 Taggart, W. S. "Cotton spinning," I. Introduction, III. (Technical.) 2 Thornley, T. "Cotton spinning," II (1916 Edition). (Tech- nical.) 4 Todd, J. A. "The world's cotton crop," 346. 1 Ure, A. "Cotton manufacture," II, 120. -Walton, P. "Story of textiles." (Illustration.) - Watson, K. "Textiles and clothing." (Illustration.) 2 Wilkinson, F. "Story of the cotton plant." 3 Woolman and McGowan. "Textiles." 2 Zipser, J. "Textile raw materials." ILLUSTRATIONS Baines, p. 207. Throstle frame. Barker, p. 100. Ring spinning. 102. Cap spinning. Beaumont Q), p. 91. Flyer spinning. 94. Cap spinning. 94. Ring spinning. 172, 173. Woollen spinning frame. Beaumont, 228. Flyer spinning frame. 229. Cap spinning frame. 231. Ring spinning frame. Briiggemann, pp. 100, 102. Flachsfeinspinnmaschine. Butterworth, p. 181, figs. 7-9. Throstle frame. 182, figs. 1-4. Cap, Ring and Fly frames. 118. 119. 120. 124. Carter (2) ,P • 154- 166. 178. Clapham, P- 50- 52. 56. SPINNING TYPES 77 Carter Q), pp. 107, 108. Dry spinning flyer frame, no. Dry spinning ring frame, log, 112, 113. Section dry spinning flyer frame. Hot water spinning frame. Wet spinning frame. Section wet spinning ring frame. Section wet spinning flyer frame. Dry spinning frame. Section wet spinning frame. Part of ramie wet spinning frame. Flyer spinning frames. Cap spinning frames. Twisting frame for fancy yarns with ring spindles. Cyclopedia textile work. I, p. 208. Spinning frame. 211. Ring spinning frame. 227. Ring frame. 230-253. Ring spinning. II, p. 213. Fly spinning frame. 214. Method of drafting, twisting and winding. 225. Cap spinning frame. 226, 227. Bobbins for filling and warp. 229. Ring spinning frame. 230. Spindle of ring frame. Dooley, p. 45. Worsted spinning. 135. Spinning room, cotton department. Encyclopaedia Britannica, "Cotton manufacture," fig. 7. Flyer spindle. 8. Ring spindle. "Wool manufacture," fig. 15. Flyer spindle. 17. Cap spindle. 19. Ring spindle. Hooper (^) (f), fig. 27. Ring-spinning machine. James, PI. II. Crompton's spinning machine. 78 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING Lindner, p. 87. Fly-spinning machine. 88, 90, 91. Ring-spinning machine. 75, 96, 97. Ring-spindles. Marsden Q), p. 301. Ring frame for warp yarns, 303. Section of ring frame. 306. Ring spindle. 312. Ring frame for spinning weft. McLaren, p. 151. Flyer spinning frame. 161. Cap spinning frame. 165, 168, 170. Ring spinning. Morris and Wilkinson. figs. 123-129. Ring frame, or "throstle." Mundorf, p. 7. Feinspinnmaschine. (Ring spinner.) Murphy, III, pp. 68, 69, 70. Throstle spinning frame. - 71. Cap spinning frame. 79. Various forms of spindles. Nasmith, pp. 490, 491. Diagram ring spinning machine. Peake, p. 63. Ring spinning frame. Pictorial Gallery of Arts, London. I, p. 100. Silk spinning machine (flyer machine). Radcliffe, fig. 85. Flyer spinning. 86. Cap spinning. 87. Ring spinning. Flyer spinning frame. Cap spinning frame. 90. Ring spinning frame. Rohn, pp. 60, 123. Ring spinning. 143, 144, IS7, 159- Fly spinning. Simmonds, II, fig. 67. Throstle. 68. Throstle, spinning parts. Taggart, III, figs. 145-178. Ring spinning. Ure, II, fig. 67. Throstle. 68. Throstle, spinning parts. Walton, p. 226. Modern ring spinning mill. Watson, p. 65, Fly spinning frame. SPINNING TYPES 79 Watson, p. 67. Modern ring spinning frame. Wilkinson, p. 161. Ring spinning frame. Woolman and McGowan. p. 41. Flyer. 41. Cap of spinning frame. 42. Ring of spinning frame. Zipser, fig. 107. Double fly frame for cotton. 108. Double ring frame for cotton. 148. Flax dry spinning frame. 149. Wet spinning frame for flax. 245. Double ring spinning frame for wool. 271. Single worsted fly frame. 272. Single worsted ring frame. CLOTH MAKING 15 Weaving is a very old art that for centuries has supplied mankind with clothing, and comfort in Origin of his home surroundings. Previous to Weaving man's attempt to weave, the spiders, cat- erpillars and birds skillfully constructed nests for themselves of a rough sort of interlacing, and so were the first weavers. Whether or not primitive man got his idea from these crude interlacings has not come down to us. He might as easily have obtained it from plant structure in peculiar tropical leaf and stem forms, such as the lace tree of South America. Some think he copied it from the interweaving of cut rushes which had been tramped over on the dirt floors of the rude huts ; others believe he imitated the interlacing of date palm leaflets when crossed and tangled by the wind. In tropical countries to-day peoples of lower culture roof and side their crude shelters with these huge leaves, sometimes plaiting the leaflets, at other times letting them hang loose. In this last case they soon become so entangled as to suggest a sur- face little removed from rough matting. Whence the weaving idea came would be interesting to know, although were this possible quite probably 80 CLOTH MAKING 8l we should find that in different regions it had de- veloped from diverse sources. Its source, however, is immaterial. The impor- tant thing is that primitive man did begin to inter- weave the coarse materials close at hand . Activity m his environment, such as pliable twigs, in wide grasses and long palm leaflets. "^®"*^°'^ Of these weavings we have no record, for in the earliest accounts and among the most ancient remains the art appears in an advanced stage, thus furnishing no clew as to early method or origin. Its beginnings are lost in remote ages, for even in neolithic times there were skilled weavers. Be- tween the first rude interlacing and modern machine weaving there is a vast stretch in time, and an ex- penditure of much energetic effort for attainment, since, as has been said, "Civilization's pathway is strewn with evidences of labor to compass the mastery of the industry." This struggle was not continuous, for as in yarn making, there are periods of great activity interspersed with long seasons of rest, since "weaving is an art and the motions of the art spirit are not along plodding levels of material things, but by leaps and flights." In the series of weaving types that follow only the most im- portant developments are presented, with the accent upon the gain accomplished through each type as man responded to economic pressure with new devices to meet new situations. With his progress from savagery to civilization his needs multiplied 82 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING with advance in culture, so that now weaving no longer ministers only to the necessities, but also to the luxuries. The present-day products of the loom are woven almost exclusively by the yard and handled in trade as piece goods, in yards of carpet, broadcloth, or muslin. Rugs and tapestries are an exception to this, but most weavings before coming into actual use must be cut and shaped, fitted and stitched, ere they are of service to mankind. Quite the reverse of this is the woven product of peoples of lower culture, most of whom weave their garments and furnishings entire, ready for wear and use without cutting, fitting, or stitching. Among these com- plete weavings are the poncho, the serape and the blanket of the American Indian. 16 These loom weavings are to be distinguished from basketry plaiting and basketry weaving, which do not require a loom during their con- Weaves, struction. Plaiting is begun by placing Loom |-^Q Qj. three loose rushes or other long Weaves ^ _ ° strands on the ground in parallel position and crossing them by others with an interlacing, and then adding more strands to the left, the right, the near and the far sides. This possible progression in four directions distinguishes plaiting from weaving, which progresses in one direction only by the introduction of a weft strand which crosses a parallel series of warp strands. In plaiting there is no distinct warp or weft, as the strands plait in CLOTH MAKING 83 four directions. It belongs to a large group of basketry technics which includes basketry weaving, but in none is an implement necessary to hold the strands during plaiting or weaving. The subject here is loom weaving of softer materials, which because of their flexibility require a frame, or loom, to secure the parallel warp strands during the weaving. In the crudest instances the materials may not be of spun or twisted yarns, as in the Ulmus-bark weavings of the Ainu and the Cedar- bark splint mattings of the American Indian of the Northwest. 17 Barlow defines weaving as "an art by which threads of any substance are crossed and interlaced so as to be arranged into a perfectly weaving expanded form." This well describes I'efined the finished product, but does not give an idea of the process, and besides, this definition might equally well apply to plaiting. A true definition will picture the row of parallel warp strands with the uniting weft strand moving back and forth across the warp. Such a definition might read : Weaving is a process which unites a series of parallel strands, or warps, by a crossing strand, or weft, which may interlace, wrap, or twine as it moves back and forth across the warp strands to form an expanded surface. 18 Murphy aptly likens the warp to the " bone and muscle of the body " and the weft to " flesh and skin." To form this warp and weft structure 84 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING the warp strands, or foundation, must be arranged on the loom in a parallel series, a procedure termed Weaving loom mounting; while the weft strand, Processes q^ filling, must be passed through the parallel warp strands to unite them, a procedure termed wefting. Each of these activities includes three processes. For loom mounting, the warp strands must be measured off into equal lengths and arranged in a parallel series, a process called warping. The strands must be secured to the beam or beams, the process of beaming. The weft strand when uniting the warp strands passes over and under certain warp strands, but in its second crossing it passes over and under the strands which before it went under and over. This would be a tedious process were it not for a mechanical device which raises and lowers the alternate warp strands across the entire width of the loom, thus making sheds for the passage of the weft. These sheds were prepared during the warping, making ready the warp strands to be connected with the shedding ■ device, a process termed heddling; while the process giving motion to the heddles for opening the sheds is shedding. The movement of the weft through the shed is picking ; and the beating close the weft strands is battening. In addition to these is a process termed letting-of and taking-on, which cares for the web as fast as it is woven, letting off unwound warp and taking on the woven web. CLOTH MAKING 85 Thus we j&nd that weaving includes more processes than spinning, since the manufacture of cloth means the handling of two sets of threads, the warp and the weft. This includes warp processes for measur- ing off the warp, for laying it and for preparing the shedding ; beside weft processes for opening the sheds, throwing the weft and beating it up. All of these processes require specific devices either for warp manipulation or for weft manipulation. At first very simple implements were employed, but as time moved on they became more perfect and better fitted to the particular task in hand. To trace these important weaving improvements and developments is the pleasant undertaking of the next few pages. Warp Arrangement 19 Securing the warp strands in an extended and parallel position takes precedence over all other weaving considerations, since holding -warp the warp in uniform arrangement is not stretching only the first step in order but the most important one. No interlacing of threads can take place until the warp strands are in position. Many writers in classifying the different kinds of weaving describe the simplest as that with stretched warp, like Two-beam loom weaving. Or, if they mention some of the simpler types, they omit discussing this essential and earlier phase of textile development: v/arp arranging and stretching. The five earliest 86 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING types considered here are definitely concerned with the solving of this problem, the essential basis of all weaving, that of stretched warp strands held in parallel order and with equal tension. 19a On the One-beam loom the warp strands hang loosely from the one beam, secured only at their upper ends ; and even this crude staying keeps them from 19b freely slipping about. In this particular, Weighted warp weaving varies slightly from the last type, since again the suspended warp strands Devices ^ i i • for Warp are attached to the one beam at their stretching ^ppgj- ends. Here, however, a new de- vice is introduced, a weight fastened to the lower warp ends to hold the strands taut. This is a de- cided step toward stretched warp, but there is still 19c much to strive for. The Two-bar loom presents an important advance, since here the warp is wrapped over two cylindrical cross-bars, or something which takes their place. The cross-bars are not true beams but serve merely as forms to keep the warp in a stretched position. In the Salish Indian loom of this type the warp does not pass over and over the bars, but over and back, turning upon a slender rod or a stretched cord. This rod or cord in reality is the true warp beam, making this a unique one- 19d beam loom. The Frameless two-bar loom uses the same non-revolving bars for stretching the warp, but they are free, one being fastened to a distant object and the other to the weaver's belt. When this narrow fabric or belt loom is in use, the horizontal warp is CLOTH MAKING 87 held taut by the position of the weaver. When it it is not in use it is rolled up and stowed away for future weaving. 19e The problem of perfectly stretched warp is solved on the Two-beam loom, where there are present two beams, a warp and a cloth beam. Between these the warp strands stretched are stretched. To primitive peoples is ^^ due the credit of perfecting this most important feature in weaving. No better method of securing the warp in a parallel and taut condition has been evolved than their method of stretching it between two beams. This arrangement is still employed on the modern loom of to-day. 20 Turning to another warp problem, that of lengthen- ing it for a longer web, we note that, although warp stretching became perfected with the ^eb Two-beam loom, warp lengthening for a Lengthening weaving which exceeded the length of the loom was not fully accomplished before the Perfected hand 20a loom. The web from the One-beam loorri is most ele- mental in length, for it is limited to the height of the loom. It is true that mattings of coarse flat mate- rials may be twice the loom height, since the warp strands are suspended over the beam at their middle point. They hang to the ground on both sides and each is woven separately. All other weavings can be but once the loom height, since the warp is suspended below the beam and woven in 20b one. The ancient Weighted warp loom shows an 88 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING . advance in that its beam revolves, apparently to permit a longer fabric. Still as there is nothing which indicates a means for extending the lower warp ends, we must conclude that the function of the revolving beam was to bring the work within easy reach of the weaver rather than for lengthening. 20c Webs from the Two-bar loom always measure twice the loom height, since the warp encircles the two bars, producing a weaving twice the dis- tance between them. 21 Efforts to lengthen the web appear in different types. The One-beam loom and Weighted warp loom in general produce a web the height for Web of the loom ; the Two-bar loom produces Lengthening ^^^ ^^j^^ ^^^^ height. Thus length in these simpler types is restricted by the size of the loom. Attempts to overcome this restriction took two directions : that of extending the warp to a distant point beyond the loom ; and that of winding 21a a longer warp on a revolving beam. In the two frameless looms, the Frameless two-bar loom with its far and near bars and the One-shaft loom with its bunched warp ends and near beam, the parts are free and so admit a variety of lengths. This is possible because the far bar of the first loom and the bunched ends of the second are . attached to distant posts, and the near bar of the first and near beam of the second are fastened to the belts of the weaver. So warp length in each case is determined by the weaver's position, although in CLOTH MAKING 89 the first it is twice the length of the distance between the far post and the weaver. 21b These last two examples are quite similar to looms extending the warp beyond the frame, as in the Two-shaft treadle loom. In this Extending method, the extension is usually run out ^^^^ in the direction of the warp end, or away from the weaver. But in a few localities in Africa the exten- sion moves in the direction both of the warp end and the cloth end. Here the weaver sits at the side of the loom, since the lack of a revolving cloth beam prevents the ordinary position of the weaver. No locality in the world shows a greater diversity in mode of warp extension than India. Most outdoor looms of that country have very long warp, extending to a distant post, with an attached rope which passes about the post and back to the side of the weaver. This allows him to release more warp as needed without quitting his position at the loom. Indoor cloth making presents a more serious problem, especially if the weaving room is small, for then the warp must be looped up to the ceiling. If the weaving room is large the warp is extended as on outdoor looms. 21c The second manner of lengthening the warp, that of winding the longer strands on a revolving warp beam, is an ancient method, but still Revolving used to-day. It has never been improved Warp Beam on, as shown in the last four weaving types, for it furnishes a perfectly stretched warp, with a length 90 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING between beams only sufficient to get the needed warp movement for heddles and batten. Thus it allows a very compact loom and one requiring little floor space. Strange as it may appear, it is to ancient Egypt that we must go for the first example of this modern device. If we can correctly judge from ancient wall paintings, it is here that we have the earliest record of the revolving warp beam. In the New Kingdom, fifteen hundred years before Christ, this people had evolved for their simple Two-beam loom the method of procuring a longer web by the use of the revolving warp beam. 22 With both methods of warp lengthening, the extending and the coiling on a revolving warp beam, Revolving Came the need of a revolving cloth beam Cloth Beam ^q receive the finished web as fresh warp was either drawn in from the distant post or unrolled from the warp beam. Previous to the Two-beam loom, there were no distinct warp and cloth beams. In this type the cloth beam appears in two stages 22a of development. First, the non-revolving beam is found on vertical looms for short webs and on the simplest horizontal looms pegged to the ground, as in the Egyptian mat loom. Here for wefting, after the first short section, the weaver sits upon the 22b finished web. The second stage, the revolving cloth beam, occurs in its simplest form with the non- revolving warp beam. It is found on the horizontal loom pegged to the ground when it requires two weavers, one on each side ; and on vertical looms CLOTH MAKING 91 requiring but one weaver, who sits in front. An in- teresting case of invention in this particular appears on the Navajo loom. Its cloth beam is non-re- volving. Feeling the need of some means to care for the finished web as sections of weaving are completed, the weavers lower fresh warp, and then fold the portion of completed web and stitch it to 22c the non-revolving beam. The free cloth beam of the One-shaft treadle loom is attached to the weaver's belt in such a manner that it may be revolved to take on freshly woven web, but in the One-shaft loom the beam is non-revolving, so that the belt web is pulled over the beam when finished and secured by an iron pin. 22d In the seventh, ninth, tenth and eleventh types of weaving both beams revolve, but only at inter- vals. When the cloth and the warp Automatic are to be freshly adjusted the weaver Beams must stop wefting, and wind on the woven cloth and unwind new warp strands. On the Power 22e loom this is changed ; the two motions become continuous and automatic. The cloth beam " takes-on " the woven web and the warp beam " lets-off " fresh warp without the assistance of the weaver and without his stopping the wefting. Thus with the continuously revolving automatic cloth and warp beams web lengthening was brought to completion. 23 Ancient Egyptian weaving displays an interesting diversity in warp lengthening. As noted, the mat 92 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING weaving of this people admits a warp only the loom length, as both beams are non-revolving. The old linen loom of the Middle Kingdom de- Egyptian . Web picted on the tomb wall at Beni Hassan, eng ening ^^^ repeatedly been described and cop- ied, but frequently both copy and description are technically wrong. Latest researches have cleared up a number of facts concerning it, showing clearly that it is a horizontal loom pegged to the ground and supplied with a revolving cloth beam. Quite possibly it has a non-revolving warp beam and if so an extended warp. But this last is not certain, since the one illustration on the tomb at Beni Hassan is all that remains to judge by. The crude outlines suggest that the warp beam might have revolved, otherwise one set of the beam pegs would have had to be taken up and reset each time a short section of web was completed. This practice may have been resorted to, but it seems probable that these inventive weavers had thus early the revolving warp beam. The New Kingdom brought the vertical loom with improved warp arrangement on two revolving beams. Leaving ancient times, we find the Egyptian factory loom of the Middle Age shows an extended warp, such as is used in India. Here, however, it is not managed in the crude manner found in many parts of India, but the warp is perfectly stretched from a beam at- tached high on the side wall, by two long ropes instead of one. cloth making 93 Wefting — Shedding 24 As the threads of a fabric do not all run in one direction, provision must be made for the second series, or the crossing weft- threads. , r • 11 -1 Shedding Simplest weftmg, as has been said, con- sists of the slow and tedious process of entering the weft under and over single warp strands. It was necessary to find a more rapid method and one which mechanically opened the two series of warp strands for the intersecting weft. This is shedding, a process second in importance only to warp stretch- ing. From the earliest types there was a demand for such a process, although it did not become perfected for plain weaving before the Two-shaft treadle loom and for pattern weaving until the Jacquard loom. In early types a wish for greater speed and ease in manufacture forced the develop- ment of the process, but soon pattern making and later a desire for elaborate design necessitated even more perfect shedding contrivances. It is the manipulation of the lengthwise warp strands, for an easy passage of the crossing weft strand, which is the problem in shedding. Inserting the weft requires an entirely different kind of handling from that of warp stretching ; it demands the greatest inventive genius as well as mechanical nicety, since the weft not only crosses the warp, but interlaces with it while doing so. 25 As we have said, the simplest weaving, where each individual warp strand must be lifted and 94 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING lowered as the weft passes under and over, was abandoned by many early weavers because it re- quired a separate movement for each Shedding warp strand. If two hundred warp strands are to be woven together it re- quires two hundred movements to carry the weft 25a across once, and one thousand movements to cross five times. Nevertheless, slow and fatiguing as is this first crude manner of laboriously lifting individual warp strands, it is still practiced by the American Indian of the Northwest. With supreme patience these Indian weavers, without a shedding device, fabricate blankets of most complicated design and beautiful texture. 26 Many primitive peoples realized that for greater speed and ease in wefting a device was needed for simultaneously separating the two series Shed-rod ^ , J t^ fc> of alternate warp strands to form an opening, or shed, through which the weft might pass with one movement. But such an opening was impossible with warp arranged as on the One- beam loom. Stretched strands or those approach- ing it were necessary, and these came with the 26a Weighted warp loom. The first step toward auto- matic warp shedding was probably the introduction of a flat sword-like rod under and over alternate strands, and then leaving it in place while the flexi- ble weft was passed through the shed thus made. The rod was then removed and again entered under and over the opposite set of alternate strands, so CLOTH MAKING 95 preparing a shed for a second line of weft. Without doubt, then came the thought of a permanent shed- rod for the first shed, although only a temporary one was possible for the second shed. Still even this arrangement saved half the work. Slow as is shedding by means of the shed-rod it persists among a few peoples of lower culture, some of whom insert a large number of slender rods to mark their elaborate pattern. Early weavers noted that in shedding the warp strands cross between the two sheds and that the crossing was necessary. Hence they began marking the warp crossing, or lease as it is termed, by two lease-rods, whose forerunners in all probability were the shed-rods above described. 26b The difficult thing at this stage in shedding development was to find a device for raising the second series of warp strands, since only . ^, ' ^ Shed-rod the first series was satisfactorily managed and Rod- by the permanent shed-rod. Finally it ® ® was discovered that a flexible rod-cord-heddle, for convenience termed the rod-heddle, would success- fully open the second shed, and when placed in front of the shed-rod would not interfere with the opening of the first shed, because of the looseness of its cord. This was a great advance over the exclusive use of the shed-rod, as it opened both sheds with the borrowed shed-rod and the newly devised rod-heddle. The invention of this method belongs to peoples of lower culture and was their dominant method of shedding. Although slow, it 96 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING was rapid enough for them, and in fact it was as far as aboriginal peoples developed the shedding process. Since it was a form incapable of develop- ing beyond hand movement, the rod-heddle never carried over into modern weaving. Still the ancient Egyptians more than a thousand years before Christ employed this simple shedding device for manu- facturing their famous linens and quite likely the Lake-dwellers of the Stone Age used a similar device. 26c The One-shaft loom introduces another style of heddle, a free shaft worked by hand, and employed almost exclusively for making belts and hed^die narrow fabrics. It combines in the one implement the work of the shed-rod and rod-heddle. In weaving a web of two hundred warps the single shaft-heddle separates the one hundred warp strands that the weft is to pass under from the one hundred that it is to pass over, so that the line of weft can cross the loom with one move- ment; then it again divides the warp strands so that the second line of weft can pass over and under the opposite strands. For this purpose the heddle is constructed of a single board cut by narrow parallel slits with intervening slats, each pierced at its center by an eyelet or hole. Likewise it may be made of a row of slender splints bound at their ends to two long horizontal bars and each splint pierced by a center hole as were the previously mentioned slats. These slits and eyelets furnish the CLOTH MAKING 97 working parts of the heddle, since one series of alternate warp strands is entered into the row of eyelets and the second series into the row of slits, which allow this last series free movement up and down the vertical openings. When the shaft is raised, the first series of strands are held by the eyelets, while the freely moving second series pass to the lower ends of the slits, making a shed below the eyelet-held series. When the shaft is lowered, the freely moving series slide to the upper ends of the slits, making a shed above the eyelet-held series. Thus by this means the weft may pass quickly back and forth through first one shed and then the other. 26d The one shaft-heddle, although efficient for shedding the warp of narrow fabrics, was not suit- able for wider ones because of greater ^^ ^ _, ° Shed-rod difficulty from tangled strands. Espe- and Shaft- cially troublesome is the warp when extending beyond the loom, and not wound on the revolving beam. Again the use of excessively fine threads for silks and muslins requires a more perfect shedding device. A separate contrivance for each shed and the two working independently was found necessary ; a method which has continued in all later shedding. The One-shaft treadle loom employs a separate device for each shed and also two kinds of devices. It reverts in part to the old method with shed-rod and rod-heddle, but adopts instead of the rod-heddle a more efficient shaft-heddle, 98 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING giving a new combination of shed-rod and shaft- heddle. This is an old and almost extinct type found in a very limited area of China, Korea and Japan. Its most important innovation is the , simplest form of foot power for working the shedding device. Here only one shed is opened by this means. A treadle ring for the toe, a treadle board, or a swinging slat lifts and lowers the shaft-heddle, while the shed-rod arranges the other shed. Ceylon uses a very simple loom of this type for making Dunbara mats, although here the shaft-heddle is worked by hand. There is no adjustment of the two beams, so the weaver is obliged to squat upon the woven portion. One shed is opened by the shed-rod and the second by a rude heddle attached by a cord to a tripod that can be shifted along from time to time as the weaving progresses. The hemp strips of weft are entered with a long lath which has an eye at one end, and are left with loose ends at either side. Another more primitive loom from the Bedouin desert, Hke the last is furnished with side supports upon which to rest the two ends of a rod which supports either the shaft-heddle or the rod-heddle, quite probably the last. (See Roth 0) p. 13.) 26e To ancient weavers, and especially to those of the East, must be given the credit of bringing to comple- Two Shaft- tion the shedding process, by developing, heddies jf ^ot by inventing, the shaft-heddle. The two factors responsible for perfecting shedding CLOTH MAKING 99 are no doubt the desire for greater speed to increase output and for a more elaborate pattern which required very fine yarn. Ancient and medieval history are rich in allusions to the wonderful fabrics of silk, satin and velvet which came from Asiatic looms at this time. Elaborate weaving was possible only with heddle-shafts, frequently termed shedding-harness, or with the closely related heddle-cords of the Draw loom and the Jacquard. The Two-shaft treadle loom appears to have evolved in India and from there spread in all directions. It is found as far as West Africa, although there it is so crude as to suggest that it may be of native origin. Each heddle-shaft is constructed of two wooden laths joined by threads, which are passed from one to the other and looped at the center to form an eyelet through which the warp threads are run. The even threads pass through one heddle and the uneven threads through the other. These heddles are raised successively for shedding. When the first is raised it carries up alternate warp threads, thus opening one shed, and when the second is raised the second series of alternate threads are lifted, and the other shed opened. The employment of two shaft-heddles in place of the shed-rod and one shaft-heddle, furnishes a similar device for each shed. It is the most direct method of shedding, for with equal speed and certainty both sheds are opened, with the additional advantage that both are operated by lOO YARN AND CLOTH MAKING foot power. In the Perfected hand loom this method of shedding persisted throughout Europe during medieval and modern times until the Industrial Revolution. Even now it can be found in out-of- the-way places, used by the peasants. 26f Shedding for elaborate pattern making was first achieved on the Draw loom by a double harness Pattern which provided two kinds of shedding Shedding devices, a front harness for the shaft- heddles worked by treadles; and a back harness of free heddle loops, cords, or wires termed leashes, worked by a draw-boy. The warp strands were first threaded through the shaft-heddles, the eyes of which were made long, thus permitting freedom for the back harness to simultaneously or alter- nately affect the shed with the front harness. Then the same warp strands were passed on through the eyes of the free leashes, that these by their action might produce the pattern detail, as the front harness was producing the pattern in large. Later 26g the Draw loom was superseded by the Jacquard loom., which simplified pattern making by means of a mechanism placed on top of the loom, worked by pattern cards, needles and hooks. Wefting — Picking 27 Although picking is a wefting process not so difhcult to master as shedding, it has had its prob- lems. Weft was first inserted in short lengths that passed but once, or once and return, across the CLOTH MAKING lOl warp in an under and over movement, or one that twined, or wrapped about the strands. Examples of these three methods of weftinsr short No Shuttle strands are shown in cleverly man- 27a aged ways on the One-beam loom. With the use of softer materials, especially spun yarns, some people wove with a longer weft wound into a small ball. The need of lengthening the weft strand presented one of the earliest picking prob- lems, since the short strands woven once across, or once and back, left a loose edge which easily unraveled. A continuous weft that could be carried across again and again provided two strong closed edges, since these journeyings of the weft to and fro formed a " self edge " or selvage as it is termed. The Navajo weavers practice the method of making the weft into a small roll which they insert through the warp strands with their fingers. 27b The ancient Egyptians of the Middle Kingdom on the only cloth loom we know, employed short weft lengths that extended across the Needle- warp but once and return, and they prob- Shuttle ably inserted these strands by hand. Egyptians of the New Kingdom, however, had advanced sufhciently in the weaving art to employ a simple weft device, a long stick which measured the width of the loom and had a hook at one end. This device pulls the weft through the warp strands and also beats up the weft, thus serving the double function of shuttle and batten. There seems great I02 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING likelihood that this crude picking device evolved from the sword-shaped wooden batten, but there is no evidence. It is the simplest needle-shuttle, whose more perfect forms show a pierced eye, or a well-shaped slot, and in different areas vary from a long slender needle to a short broad one. 27c The simplest form of picking device which effectually meets the problem of a lengthened weft stick- is the stick-shuttle. This truthfully shuttle merits the name of shuttle, or weft carrier, for it is loaded with many yards of weft wound endwise, crosswise, or diagonally. In fur- nishing a continuous weft the stick-shuttle is a long step in advance of the needle-shuttle. The latter can carry but a limited length and because free and extended it is liable to tangle. The stick- shuttle with its cargo of weft can traverse again and again through the sheds and form a strong selvage. In fact, this shuttle made its appearance with warp shedding, since it is not adaptable to wefting without a shed in which to pass. It varies in carrying capacity in different localities, and takes on numerous shapes which are usually more slender and shorter than the needle-shuttle. 27d After a continuous weft thread had been attained, a second difficulty needed solving, that of a more Bobbin- smoothly moving weft carrier as it shuttle traversed the warp shed. The stick- shuttle wriggled more or less because of its awk- ward shape and from the unwinding weft, likewise CLOTH MAKING 103 it caught in the warp strands and the load of yarn impeded its progress. Finally some one devised a sheath, or case, in which" to inclose a slender re- volving quill wound with weft. The case took the shape of a boat and within revolved the bobbin of weft. The device probably developed from the stick-shuttle with a transverse winding, since the ancient Greek shuttle of Penelope needs only a case to make it a bobbin-shuttle. The Malay Islanders use a transitional type. Their shuttle consists of a slender rod, wound spool manner with weft, and covered with a removable slender case. 27e The weaver threw the bobbin-shuttle from one hand to the other, a process very slow and employing both hands. However, this method , . ^ , . Fly-shuttle contmued m use for a very long time. The mechanical device finally invented was so planned that by pulling a string the shuttle shot from side to side. For the shuttle an artificial path was constructed, which consisted of a smooth shelf on the base of the reed batten with boxes at both ends to receive the shuttle as it moved to and fro. Here the chief difficulty was driving the shuttle with one stroke through the entire breadth of the warp. But when this difficulty was surmounted, the results were accelerated motion and the freeing of one hand for battening. Another gain was the possibility of weaving wider cloth without an assistant weaver. I04 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING 27f Following the fly-shuttle came the drop-box arrangement for permitting the use of a number of shuttles with different kinds of weft. The end boxes of the shuttle-race were enlarged to contain two or more compartments, with a device which raised and lowered them so as to bring the desired compartment with its shuttle of weft on a level with the shuttle-race. Wefting — Battening 28 ■ While battening is the last process in weaving and might seem of minor import, its significance is by no means slight. It has a task of its No batten . , . , i i . i own to perform upon which good cloth depends. This process packs close together the lines of weft, making a firm, compact web, or an evenly wefted more open texture. Except in earliest, or finger battening, it arranges the weft lines straight and parallel, while in the more per- fected forms it also distributes the warp strands in parallel and equidistant order. Its importance is understood when one remembers that many of the simplest looms, as the Egyptian mat loom, include only the batten in addition to the beams; this is the extent of the weaving apparatus. 28a The first battening was done with the fingers, which press home each line of weft, although these lines frequently are uneven. The short bodkin, or slender pointed stick, was an early tool for packing fine weft, especially in pattern making. CLOTH MAKING 105 It is thrust between the warp strands, which drives home in a better way than do the fingers. 28b The almost universal batten or beater-in of peoples of lower culture the world over is the long thin sword-shaped stick batten. It is stick a very useful tool with a double function, Batten for it assists in two weaving processes, the shedding and the battening. After each warp shed is opened the stick batten is entered flatwise, and then turned edgewise to widen the shed for the passage of the weft strand ; when the shedding and picking for this line of weft is finished, the sword batten undertakes its second and chief work of beating up, by first being turned flatwise and then struck against the weft. With this tool, battening is a very slow pro- cess, since it is a free tool which must be entered anew with each line of weft, although as previously stated this means nothing to aborigines with whom time 28c counts for little. The second task of another double-function tool, the needle-shuttle, is beat- ing up the weft after it has been entered through the shed, but this cumbersome tool probably does not have a wide distribution. The sword-shaped batten is employed exclusively with hand shedding and rod-heddle shedding; it never carried over into shaft-heddle shedding or later industry. Frequently accompanying this batten in pattern weaving is the weaving comb, which assists in driving close short stretches of weft. Io6 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING 286. Progress in weaving invention brought the reed batten, a very great advance over the sword-shaped Reed stick uscd for this purpose. It consists Batten ^f ^i series of short vertical reed strips, or wires set the width of the warp and fastened in a frame. Between these reeds pass the warp threads, which are held by this means in a parallel series evenly dispersed and in such a manner that the web is kept of uniform width. For time saving, the value of a batten always in place in the warp is easily appreciated. The batten does not then have to be entered anew with each line of weft. This also distributes each warp thread in its appointed position, besides lessening the strain on the threads. The earliest reed battens hang loose 28e ' on the warp threads ; they are lightly attached by cords as in the ancient One-shaft heddle loom of 28f China. All later ones on hand looms are firmly sus- 28g pended from the top of the loom frame ; and those on power looms swing from below. Some think the 28h crude weaving comb of aborigines suggested the reed batten, others believe that it followed the shaft- heddle when the textile inventor realized the value of evenly dispersed warp threads. Quite as possibly the reed warp spacer, such as was employed by the Ainu behind their shedding devices, may have preceded the reed batten. Loom Frame 29 The office of the frame differs from that of the devices which carry on the weaving. Its duty is CLOTH MAKING 107 to support the working parts, that they may per- 29a form their function. Two types of looms, the Frame- ^ less two-bar loom and the One-shaft Frame loom, are frameless, depending upon out- beginnings side means for support. A belt passing about the waist of the weaver secures the cloth end of the strands, and a distant post, or the feet of the weaver, 29b secure the warp end. The One-beam loom, the Two- bar loom and the simplest varieties of the Two-beam loom show only the beginnings of the loom frame in pegs, posts and hooks which serve as stays or sup- ports. Two posts answer the purpose for the One- beam loom and the Two-bar loom, four pegs for the simplest horizontal variety of the Two-beam loom, and two cords and two hooks in the crudest vertical variety of the same type. 29c The developing frame of the Weighted warp loom adds a couple of cross-pieces to stay its vertical uprights, a practice sometimes resorted to in the One-beam loom for heavy webs. Rectangular as they might pull the uprights out of ^^™®^ place. As we have stated before, the Two-beam loom may have no frame, or it may have stay- ings of very simple pegs, hooks or cords. But some of its vertical forms have a true frame, com- posed usually of four separate parts, two post and two cross-pieces, as on Navajo and a number of African looms. But these four parts at times are solidly united into a rectangular frame, as in the 29d Egyptian loom of the New ICingdom. Of necessity Io8 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING the frame takes a rectangular form from the shape of the stretched warp strands. Notably the loom frames on the first, second, third and fifth types do not function perfectly, since here the frame does not support all the working parts. In these types it serves only to stay the warp by holding the beams. It is interesting to remember that with a very few exceptions, this is true of all vertical looms. This position does not lend itself to a perfect functioning , frame. 29e It was the horizontal frame, therefore, which claimed the attention of later inventors as the one Horizontal best fitted to the working parts of the Frame loom. When it is given this position 29f it begins to take on fresh duties. On the One-shaft treadle loom it holds the shedding and battening devices in addition to the warp beam, although it excludes the cloth beam to be attached to the 29g weaver's belt. On the Two-shaft treadle loom the frame relinquishes control over the beams and de- votes itself to sustaining the weft devices for shed- 29h ding and battening. In the earliest forms of the Perfected hand loom the frame again supports the beams as well as the devices for shedding and battening, only omitting that for picking. But with the invention of the fly-shuttle this device was included, thus uniting within the loom frame all warp and wefting devices. As speed in weaving increased and the frame developed to in- clude all working parts, its structure was greatly CLOTH MAKING lOg strengthened and refined. For all parts required exact adjustment and good support to withstand the heavy vibrations of the various weaving pro- cesses, especially when the loom was driven by power. 291 The last three types of weaving show a slight variation in the shape of base from the Perfected hand loom ; and the Draw loom and the Jacquard have greatly extended shedding devices which mount high above the rectangular base. Warping 30 An important process in weaving is warping, or arranging the warp threads for the loom. For this they are laid parallel to each other in simplest regular order and must be equal in Warpmg length, as well as crossed twice to form two leases. Difficulty is experienced by the warper in keeping each thread separate with an equal tension through- out, especially for fine webs which may reach two thousand yards in length and have as many as 30a ninety threads to the inch. The simplest method of warping is practiced by northwestern tribes in North America. It consists only of measuring the yarn in proper warp lengths. It is not necessary on this loom to secure equal tension, as the warp strands hang loose, held only by their own weight. Neither is it necessary to prepare the two leases, as there is no shedding device to require leases. The warping device here is a simple measuring stick some five feet long with a few notches cut along the edge no YARN AND CLOTH MAKING near one or both ends. Around this stick the yarn is wound from end to end, or from end to a notch near the opposite end of the stick. When enough yarn has been measured ofT on the stick, it is cut and the warp strands are ready to be suspended from the one beam of the One-beam loom. 30b The first instance we know of effective warping, in the modern sense, is stake warping. A few stake stakes are driven into the ground at a Warping given distance apart. The weaver with a ball or a bobbin of yarn in one hand, or one in each hand, then passes from one stake to another, winding the thread in parallel order from the ball or bobbin on to the stakes. Here the warp threads are laid with as equal tension as possible and the leases are carefully preserved. The Navajo use but two stakes in warping for their short webs but the weavers of India need more stakes for their longer webs. In- deed for these the stakes are often so set as to oblige the warper to travel almost round his house and back. 30c A very similar method to the last is warping on pegs driven into the wall, or into a warp- Peg ing board. Again, the pegs are inserted Warping [^^q warping bars, a standing frame which leans against the wall. Later the warping device freed itself from wall support entirely in the bartrees, which with a support or standard may stand in any open space. Here the position of the peg, the important part, is horizontal instead of vertical, as were the warping stakes. Over the horizontal CLOTH MAKING III pegs the yarn is more easily warped and with less exercise. At first when warping, a single bobbin or ball was held in one hand, or one in each hand; but later a number of bobbins were placed in a bobbin carrier, a small frame held in the hand. This device, with its few bobbins, increased the speed in warping so much that more bobbins were added to a larger and stationary frame or creel. From it a large number of threads were drawn and laid on the bartrees. 30d But it was not until after the expenditure of much effort through the 17th, i8th and 19th centuries that finally, by the invention warping of the warping mill, warping for fine ^^^^ materials like silk was made easy. The mill is a revolving cylindrical form of skeleton framework which takes the place of the warping bars. With it are a very much enlarged bobbin frame, or creel, and a heck through which the threads pass on their way to the mill. The heck spreads the warp threads evenly upon the reel and also holds a device for crossing the threads to form the lease. A newer mill revolves about a horizontal axis and it is claimed lays the warp strands with more uni- form tension than the vertical mills. The two are 30e turned by hand, although a later invention is a warping machine run by power and one which warps directly upon the beam. Recent discoveries record that ancient Egyptians of the New Kingdom had a warping creel and reel. 112 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING Developing Agencies It is not sufficient that each weaving process be perfect in itself ; in addition to this it must be • Perfecting adjusted to the perfected mechanism of Mechanism ^^q other processes. For all parts are obhged to work together, pulleys, gearings, reverse gearings, check stops, etc., all mounted, fitted and balanced to a nicety, so as to move in perfect harmony. Weaving principles of necessity remain the same, the new and improved ideas are applied to the same weaving principles. The sequence of motions also remains the same for both the primary and secondary parts. To control these, especially at a high speed, the loom parts required strengthen- ing and yet needed to be delicately regulated. Each change of movements, heddle shedding, shuttle picking, batten beating up, beams " letting-off " and " taking-up " meant adjustment and read- justment to keep all working in unison. This was more easy with hand power, but more difficult to govern with mechanical power. 31 As the weaving industry expanded, it changed from a manual process to a mechanical one. The races of the East achieved the most Power perfect manual weaving and the peoples of Europe, transforming the crude loom implement into a machine, achieved the most complete 31a mechanical weaving. All types of weaving were done entirely by hand power up to the oriental type CLOTH MAKING 1 13 of the One-shaft treadle loom. From that type through the Two-shaft treadle loom, the Perfected hand loom, the Draw loom and the Jacquard, the looms were so harnessed and geared that the shed- ding process could be worked by foot power. But hand power still controlled the other processes. 31b The Draw loom with its double shedding required both foot power and hand power to manage this process, foot power from the weaver for the front harness and hand power from the drawboy for 31c the back harness. With the Power loom all pro- cesses were so unified as to be driven by one power ; that power was steam. WEAVING TYPES ONE-BEAM LOOM Distinctive Characteristics The most rudimentary weaving implement : a loom of one beam supported by two posts. Warp device : a simple beam from which the warp is suspended. Weft devices : none, the shedding, picking and batten- ing done with fingers. Weaving proceeds from above downward. Outline Example : American Indians of northwest coast. Implement — One-beam loom (15-18). 1. frame, two vertical supporting posts (29, 29b, d). 2. one-beam, non-revolving (19, 19a, 20, 20a). 3. no shedding device (24, 25, 25a). 4. no picking device (27, 27a). 5. no battening device (28, 28a). Warping device — measuring stick (30, 30a). Power ^ Hand (31, 31a). Process — Loom mounting. 114 Fig. 30. — One-beam Loom, North America The warp strands of bark strips are hung loosely over a beam supported by two posts. The weft is run in over and under the warp strands without a shedding device. Fig. 31. — Wool Weaving on One-beam Loom This Chilkat blanket in process of making is not in plain over and under weave but of twined weaving. The warp strands hang loosely without stretching as in Fig. 30, and no shedding, picking or battening devices are used. WEAVING TYPES "5 Warping — warp wound on measuring stick and cut from stick in strands. Beaming. a. warp strands suspended over beam. b. warp strands suspended over headline attached to beam. Heddling, none. Wefting. Shedding, Picking, Battening — done with fingers. a. one weft strand interlacing. b. one weft strand wrapping. c. two or more weft strands twining. Economic Gain Here the usefulness of the device must be summarized without comparison. For uniformity the items are grouped as in the succeeding types. In production : The one beam helps stay the warp strands at one end. It serves both as warp beam and cloth beam. In product : More even technic than if without loom. A great variety of weft arrangements possible from warp stayed atone end . Fig. 32. — Meas- uring Staff Over this stick from end to end the warp yarn is wrapped to ob- tain the required length of warp strands. ii6 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING fAW.q- Fig. 33. — Method of Attaching Warp to Beam The loom beam is flat with pierced holes, through which runs a cord to attach the headline, over which are suspended the soft warp strands. Below the headline is a row of plain twining (A), of two strands which twine about the warp. Farther down is a border of three-ply twine (B), adjoining which is a square of twilled twine (C), the body weave of the Chilkat blanket. [f^ya Fig. 34. — Twilled Twining and One Method of Joining Strands IN Pattern Making WEAVING TYPES 117 BIBLIOGRAPHY 3 Bancroft, H. H. "Native races," I, 190, 191. 2 Boas, F. "Indians of British Columbia," Rept. British Asso. Science, 1890. 1 Emmons, G. "The Chilkat blanket," American Museum Mem., III. - Ephraim, H. "Entwicklung der Webetechnik ausserhalb Eu- ropas." (Illustration.) Mus. fur Volkerkunde zu Leipzig, Band I, Heft I. 2 Foreman, S. E. "Stories of useful inventions." - General guide to American Museum Natural History. (Il- lustration.) I Guide to anthropological collections, Provincial Mus., Victoria, B. C., 13, 23, 37. 3 Hamilton, A. "Maori art," New Zealand Institute, 271-288, 298. I Handbook of American Indians, "Weaving." Bureau Am. Ethnology Bull. 30, 11. - Handbook to ethnographical collections, British Museum. (Illustration.) 1 Hoffman, W. J. "The Menomonee Indians," 14 Rept. Bureau Am. Ethnology, 259. 2 Holmes, W. H. Q) " Prehistoric textile fabrics in United States." 3 Report Bureau American Ethnology. I Holmes, W. H. (^) "Prehistoric textile fabrics in eastern United States." 13 Report Bureau American Ethnology. I Kissell, M. L. Q) "Aboriginal weaving in America," Rept. Cotton Manufactures Asso., 1910. - Kissell, M. L. (^) "A new type of spinning." Am. Anthro- pologist, XVIII, 2. (Illustration.) I Kissell, M. L. (^) " Fabrics from primitive looms." (In prep- aration.) I Mason, O. T. (0 "Woman's share in primitive culture," 63. 4 Nelson, E. W. "The Eskimo," 18 Rept. Bureau Am. Eth- nology, Pt. I. Il8 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING 4 Swan, J. G. "Indians of Cape Flattery," Smithsonian Contri- butions to Knowledge, XVI. 2 Willoughby, C. C. "New type of ceremonial blanket," Am. Anthropologist, XII, i. - Woolman and McGowan. "Textiles." (Illustration.) ILLUSTRATIONS Emmons, PI. 35. Chilkat blanket makers. p. 338. Batten and upper blanket border. 339. Weaving technic. 344. Pattern-boards for blankets. Ephraim, fig. 15. Tlinget weaver. Foreman, p. 112. The primitive loom. General guide to American Museum. p. 24. Mural painting. Weaving a Chilkat blanket. Guide to anthropological collections, Provincial Museum. p. 21. Chilkat blanket. Hamilton, p. 271. Making a flax mat (robe). Handbook ethnographical collections, British Museum. Frontispiece — Robe of woven bark and wool. Hoffman, PL 20. Mat making. Holmes (^), PL 39. Pottery with impressions of textile fabrics. figs. 72, 73, 77-90. Impressions of fabrics on ancient pottery. Holmes (^), PL 3. Mantle, or shirt of light-colored stuff. 4. Fringed shirt. 5. Frayed bag. 6. Charred cloth from mounds in Ohio. 7. Charred fabric from mounds. 9. Fabric marked pottery. figs. 5, 6, 8, 10, 16, 18, 19. Ancient fabrics and im- pressions of fabrics on ancient pottery. Kissell (0, fig. I. Kwakiutl squaw. 2. Mat with checked design. 3. Primitive loom with plaited mat. WEAVING TYPES 119 4- Another type of loom. 5- Unfinished Chilkat blanket. 6. Old Chilkat blanket. 7- Squaw weaving Chilkat blanket. KisseU (2) , PL 1.6. Salish Indians weaving and spinnning Willoughby, pp. i , 5. Blanket. 2 -5. Technic. Woolman and McGowan. p. 48. Chilkat blanket. II WEIGHTED WARP LOOM Distinctive Characteristics Weaving implement : one beam loom with weighted warp strands. Warp devices : one beam and warp weights. Weft devices : shed-sticks, or a shed-stick and one or more rod heddles for shedding ; stick shuttle for picking; at times a sword-like stick for battening. Weaving proceeds from above downward. Outline Examples : Ancient Greek ; Ice- landic ; Ancient Lake-dweller weaving. Fig. 35. — An Alpine Weaver, About iooo b. c. Scratched on an old tomb urn from the eastern Alps is this loom with no frame pictured to show its character, but it must have been similar to that of the early Greek loom. Weights stretch the warp, and a shed-rod and rod-hed- dle part the warp strands. I20 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING Reproduced by permission from Hooper's " Handloom Weaving." Macmillan, U. S. A. and John Hogg, London. Fig. 36. — Greek Weaver, 500 B.C., British Museum Vase " The legend is of Circe at the moment when the Sorceress is in the act of offering the noxious potion to Ulysses." Hooper. Implement I Weighted warp loom. frame — two vertical posts and crossbar (29, 29c, d). warp device (19, 19b, 20, 20b). (i) one-beam supported on upper ends of frame posts. a. non-revolving. h. revolving. (2) warp weights, shedding device (24, 25 26a, b). a. two rods. h. shed-rod and rod-heddle. c. shed-rod and three rod heddles moved lever over cross-bar. stick-shuttle (27, 27c). batten — sword or paddle-shaped stick (28, 28b. c). Fig. 37. — Circe Loom on Greek Vase in Ashmo- LEAN Museum. > 1 Weighted warp strands, revolv- '-'y ing beam, stick-shuttle and probably shed-rod and rod- heddle are all present. Power — Hand (31, 31a). WEAVING TYPES 121 Process — Loom mounting. Warping, over stakes (30, 30b). Beaming, warp lengths suspended from beam. Heddling. 1. shed-rod entered through warps. 2. heddle-rod laid across warp and laced by cord to back series of alternate warp strands. Wefting. Picking, Shedding, Bat- tening. a. by hand. b. as in Frameless two-bar loom. Fig. 38. — A Bit of Penelope's Loom, 500 b.c, from an Etruscan Vase, Chiusi Museum A portion of the cloth already woven has been wound on the beam ; below it is a decorative border with the stick-shuttle ready to weave farther. Economic Gain In production : Warp weights hold warp more taut. Introduction of shedding, picking, and battening de- vices. In product : Web coarse but finer than previous type. Lines of weft more nearly horizontal from shedding and battening devices. 122 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING ^■y>t.^t\- ■'»■•< Fig. 39. — Scandinavian Weighted Warp Loom. BIBLIOGRAPHY I Barlow, A. "History and principles of weaving." 5 Burton, R. T. "Ultima Thula ; or a summer in Iceland," 198. - Draper, G. O. "Labor saving looms." (Illustration.) - Ephriam, H. "Entwicklung der Webetechnik ausserhalb Eu- ropas." (Illustration.) Museum fiir Volkerkunde zu Leip- zig, Band I, Heft I. Ferrer, R. "ReaUexikon," Webstuhl, Webstuhlgewicht, Gewebe. (Illustration.) -Heiden, M. "HandworterbuchderTextilkunde." (Illustration.) WEAVING TYPES 123 Fig. 40. — Weighted Warp Loom of Iceland. 124 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING I Hooper, L-O) "Hand-loom weaving," 20-23, 81-86. I Hooper, L. "The loom and spindle: past, present and future." (^) Journal Royal Society of Arts, LX, 953. (^) Rept. Smithsonian Institution, 1914. I Hooper, L.(5) "Technique of Greek and Roman weaving." Burlington Magazine, 191 1, 276. 1 KeUer, F. " The lake dwellers of Switzerland," 513. 3 Montelius, O. " Civilization of Sweden in heathen times." 4 Miintz, E.(^) "Short history of tapestry." - Miintz, E.(^) "Tapisseries." (Illustration.) - Miintz, E.(^) "La tapisserie." (Illustration.) 2 Pinkerton, J. "Voyages and travels," I, 4. - Ronchaud, L. de. "Tapisserie." (Illustration.) I Roth, H. L. Q) "Ancient Egyptian and Greek looms." Bankfield Museum Notes, Second series, No. 2. I Roth, H. L. (-) "Studies in primitive looms." (Shedding.) Bankfield Museum Notes, Second series. No. 8. I Smith, W. Dictionary Greek and Roman Antiquities, II. "Tela." I Smith, Wayte and Marindin. Diet. Greek and Roman Antiq- uities, II. "Tela." I Thomson, W. G. "History of tapestry." ILLUSTRATIONS Barlow, p. 58. Loom of Iceland. Draper, p. 24. Scandinavian loom. •Ephraim, fig. 13. Loom of the Swiss Lake dwellers. 18. Loom of Faroe and Iceland. 22. Reconstructed loom of the Swiss Lake dwellers. Forrer, PI. 278, fig. i. Loom on Hallstatt vase. 2. Scandinavian loom. 4, s, 9. Loom weights. 13. Embroidery frame. 14. Greek vase with Penelope at loom. WEAVING TYPES 1 25 Heiden, p. 236. Greek loom. Hooper, (}) p. 23. Loom of Penelope. 24. Loom of Circe. Hooper, (^) (*) fig. 7. Loom on Boeotian vase, 500 B.C. 8. Penelope's loom, 500 b.c. Hooper, (^) fig. 6. Loom of Penelope, Chiusi Museum. 8. Loom of Circe, Ashmolean Museum. Keller, figs. 37-40. Conjectured loom. - Magazines. See magazine illustration list. Montelius, p. 160. Loom from Faroe Islands. Miintz, 0) p. 17. Penelope's loom. Miintz, (^) 31. Le Metier de Penelope. Miintz, (^) 3. Le Metier de Penelope. Ronchaud, p. 55. Greek loom. Roth Q), p. 17. Greek loom on vase in Ashmolean Museum. 18. Loom weights of hardened mud and clay. 31. Greek vases showing tapestry loom (may be embroidery frames). 32. Penelope at her loom. 32. Greek weaver at loom. 34. Scandinavian loom. 35. Icelandic loom. 37. Supposed loom weights found in England. 39. Model of weighted loom. 40. Greek shuttle in hand. Roth (^), fig. I. Diagram to illustrate the principles of weaving. Smith, fig. I. Icelandic loom. Smith, Wayte andMarindin, fig. i. Icelandic loom. Thomson, fig. 6. Loom of Penelope from Greek vase about 400 B.C. 126 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING III TWO-BAR LOOM Distinctive Characteristics Weaving implement : a loom with two non-revolving bars supported by side posts (a transitional type be- tween the suspended warp loom and the perfectly stretched warp loom). Warp devices : two non-revolving bars over which the warp is wrapped from one to the other. Weft devices : fingers perform shedding, picking, battening (except in Africa). Weaving proceeds from below upward, or from front backward. Fig. 41. — ^ Simple Two-bar Loom, South America The warp is wrapped round and round over the two bars. Outline Examples : Salish Indians ; Calabar, W. African ; Tereno Indians ; Holamux Indians ; British Guiana apron weaving. Implement — Two-bar loom. I. frame (29, 29b, d). a. two heavy posts which hold ends of bars. WEAVING TYPES 127 b. two posts support cross-stick from which the upper bar hangs, the lower hangs in warp strands. c. no frame. Fig. 42. — Another Crude Two-bar Loom from South America Here two tree trunks serve as frame posts, while the warp itself supports the lower bar. 2. bars — non-revolving, held in place by small wedges or ropes (19, 19c, 20, 20c, 21). a. two straight bars. b. two bays, one bent and joined to the other to form the letter D. 3. heddles (24, 25, 26, 26a, b). a. none, fingers perform shedding. b. shed-stick and one or more rod-heddles (Afr.). 4. shuttle (27, 27a, b, c). a. none, fingers do the picking. 128 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING b. long stick with hook or eye (Africa), c. stick-shuttle (Africa). 5. batten (28, 28a, b, c). a. none, fingers do the beating up. b. none, stick-shuttle performs process. c. sword-like stick. Warping device (30, 30b). a. none. b. stakes. Power — Hand (31). Process — Loom mounting. Warping (none), warp laid over bars without measur- ing off; b. laid on stakes. Beaming. a. warp wrapped over and over beams. b. warp wrapped over beams to back and there turned in the opposite direction over a slender rod, or cord (this rod or cord is in reality the warp beam). Wefting. Shedding. a. none, fingers raise and lower individual warp strands. b. shed-stick and rod-heddle as in Frameless two- bar loom. Picking, weft passed through warp strands by fingers or by stick-shuttle. a. over and under one warp strand (plain weave). b. over and under two warp strands (twill weave) . Fig. 44. — Two-bar Loom, West Africa The most advanced loom of this type is in Africa, where patterns are introduced in overlay (an exceptional form). WEAVING TYPES 129 Battening. a. weft beaten up by fingers. h. weft beaten up by stick-shuttle or batten. Warp adjusting. 1. warp loosened by removing wedges or cords. 2. warp shifted over bars to bring unwoven warp strands in front of weaver. 3. wedges replaced to tighten warp strands. Economic Gain In production : Two bars furnish taut warp. Longer web, twice the length between the bars. Easy shifting of warp to adjust for convenience during wefting. In product : Coarse web, but warp and weft strands are more parallel and more evenly spaced. BIBLIOGRAPHY 4 Bancroft, H. H. "Native races," I, 215. 3 Boas, F. "Indians of British Columbia." Rept. British Asso. Advancement Science, 1890, 566. - Ephraim, H. "Entwicklung der Webetechnik ausserhalb Eu- ropas." (Illustration.) Museum fiir Volkerkunde zu Leip- zig, Band I, Heft I. 3 Gibbs, G. " Tribes of west Washington and northwest Oregon." Contributions to North American Ethnology, I, 219. I Guide to anthropological collections, Provincial Mus., Victoria, B.C., 51. - Hooper, L. "The loom and the spindle : past, present and future." if) Journal Royal Society of Arts, LX., (^) Report Smithsonian Institution, 1914. K I30 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING I Kane, P. "Wanderings," 210. 3 Kissell, M. L.C) "Aboriginal meaning in America." Rept. Cotton Manuf. Asso., 1910. - Kissell, M. L. (2) "A new type of spinning in North America." (Illustration.) American Anthropologist, April- June, 1916. I Kissell, M. L. (') "Fabrics from primitive looms." (In preparation.) 1 Mason, O. T. "Woman's share in primitive culture," 60, 64. 2 Teit, J. "Shuswap Indians." American Museum Mem. IV, Pt. VII. - Woolman and McGowan. "Textiles." (Illustration.) ILLUSTRATIONS Ephraim, fig. 14. Holamux loom. 17. Tereno loom. Guide to Provincial Museum. p. 52. Blanket making, Vancouver Island. Hooper (^) (^), fig. 28. A Loom from Calabar. Kissell (^), p. II. A third type of loom. Kissell (^), Pi. 16. Salish loom. Teit, PL 8. Blanket loom. Woolman and McGowan. p. 5. A primitive loom. IV FRAMELESS TWO-BAR LOOM Distinctive Characteristics Weaving implement : a frameless two-bar loom ; during weaving one bar is attached to belt passing about weaver's body, the second to a distant post. Warp devices : two free non-revolving bars (not true beams) over which the warp is wrapped in passing from one to the other. Fig. 45. — Navajo Woman Weaving Belt This frameless two-bar loom has for the far bar a tree branch and for the near bar a long pole laid across the weaver's lap. Fig. 46. — Indian Belt Loom, Mexico WEAVING TYPES 131 Weft devices : a shed-stick, or shed-stick and one or more rod-heddles ; a shuttle ; a sword-like batten. Weaving proceeds from below upward, or from front backward. Outline Example : Mexican belt weaving. Implement — Frameless two-bar loom (29, 29a). 1. frame. none (Navajo Indians to-day quite frequently use a temporary frame of two slanting posts) . 2. bars (19, 19d, 20, 21, 21a). two light-weight bars (not true beams). (i) first attached to some distant object. (2) second attached to belt passing about weaver, 3. heddles (24, 25, 26, 26a, b). a. none. b. a shed-rod and one or more rod-heddles. c. extra short shed-rods. 4. shuttle (27, 27a, c, d). a. none. b. stick-shuttle. c. bobbin-shuttle. 5. batten (28, 28a, b). a. none. b. comb. c. sword-shape blade of wood. Warping device (30, 30b). a series of short stakes driven into ground. 132 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING Fig. 47. — Waeping for Navajo Belt Warping is done over four stakes. On these the weaver lays her warp as a continuous string in such a way as to secure the shed-lease. Power — Hand (3l). Process — Loom mounting. Reproduced bv permission from Harper's " Hand- loom Wcavinq," MacmlUan, U. S. A., and John Hogg, London. Fig. 48. — The Shed-rod and Rod- A flat ruler-shaped shed-rod is entered through alternate warp strands for opening one shed. Below it a rod is laid across the warp and the back strands bound to it by a looped cord for opening the second shed. Warping. warp laid about slender stakes to form a lease. Beaming. warp placed over free bar at dis- tant post and another at- tached to weaver's belt, carefully pre- serving the lease. Heddling. I. shed-rod en- tered through alternate strands for first shed. WEAVING TYPES 133 2, heddle-rod laid across warp, and a cord caught under the back warp strands and looped over rod for second shed. CLOTH 0" BREftSTBEAM Fig. 49. ROD-HEDDLE AND ShED-ROD AT WORK Above — The rod-heddle is raised by the hand opening one shed for the weft. Below — The rod-heddle is dropped, opening the second or counter shed for another row of weft. Wefting. Shedding, Picking, Battening. 1. shed-rod holds open first shed; batten entered flatwise and turned edgewise in first shed ; weft inserted through first shed ; batten turned flatwise, beats up first line of weft. 2. rod-heddle lifted to open second shed; batten entered flatwise and turned edgewise in second shed; weft inserted through second shed; batten beats up second line of weft. 3. process is then repeated. (When pattern is introduced often short shed-sticks mark the pattern.) Warp adjusting. I. weaver leans slightly forward to lessen warp tension. 134 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING 2. warp shifted over bars to bring unwoven portion to weaver. 3. weaver leans back to again tighten tension. Economic Gain In production : The distant warp post allows great warp length, and one still twice the distance between bars. The presence of shedding, picking and battening devices. In product : A close and very compact web. BIBLIOGRAPHY I Edge-Partington. "Album of weapons, tools and ornaments of natives of the Pacific Islands," I, PI. 160. I Ephraim, H. " Entwicklung der Webetechnik ausserhalb Eu- ropas," 40, 60. - Goddard, P. E.C) "Indians of the southwest." Am. Mus. Handbook 2. (Illustration.) - Handbook American Indians. Bu. Am. Eth. Bull. 30, 11. "Weaving." (Illustration.) - Handbook ethnographical collections, British Museum. (Illus- tration.) - Hooper, L.(') "Hand loom weaving." (Illustration.) - Hooper, L. "The loom and spindle : past, present and future." (^) Journal Royal Society of Arts, LX. (^) Report Smithsonian Institution, 1914. I James, G. W. "Indian blankets and their makers," 130, 135- 4 Kissell, M. L.(i) "Aboriginal weaving in America." Rept. Cotton Manuf. Asso., 1910. WEAVING TYPES 135 I Kissell, M. L.(^) "Fabrics from primitive looms." - Magazines. See Magazine Illustration. I Mason, O. T.(i) "Origin of inventions," 246. 3 Mason, O. T.{^) "Woman's share in primitive culture," 60. I Matthews, W. "Navajo weavers." 3 Rept. Bureau Am. Ethnology. I Roth, H. L.(2) "Studies in primitive looms." (Shedding.) Bankfield Museum notes. Second series, 8. - Watson, K. "Textiles and clothing." (Illustration.) 3 Worcester, D. C. "Non-Christian tribes of northern Luzon," Philippine Journal of Science, I, 1906. ILLUSTRATIONS Edge-Partington, I, Taf. 160. Loom from Santa Cruz. Ephraim, fig. 39. Loom from southeastern Asia. 53. Loom from Santa Cruz. Goddard (}), p. 155. Navajo belt loom. Handbook Am. Indians, II. p. 928. Navaho belt weaving. Handbook ethnology collections, British Museum. p. 92. Philippine belt. Hooper Q), PL 8. Belt loom. Hooper (^) (*), fig. 3. Belt loom. p. 130. Warping for belts. James, p. 134. Navaho belt weaver at work. Kissell (^), fig. 14. Loom. Matthews, PL 36. Navajo woman weaving a belt. p. 388. Warping for belts. Roth (2), fig. I. Diagram to illustrate the principles of weav- ing. Watson, p. 15. Navajo belt weaver. Worcester, PL 43 b. An Ifugao woman weaving. 45 c. Tingian weaver. 136 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING V TWO-BEAM LOOM Distinctive Characteristics Simplest weaving implement for perfectly stretched warp : a loom of two beams with warp extended be- tween them. Warp devices : the two beams, a cloth beam and a warp beam. Fig. 50. — Egyptian Mat Loom This simple Two-beam loom with stretched warp is pegged to the ground. The weaver is obliged to sit upon the finished web as he works, since the cloth beam does not revolve. Weft devices: without shedding device, or with shed- stick and one or more rod-heddles; without picking device, or with stick-shuttle of different forms ; with out battening device, or with sword-shaped batten, or a weaving comb. Weaving proceeds from front backward, or from below upwards. WEAVING TYPES 137 Outline Examples : Ancient Egyptian mat makers ; Egyptians of Middle Kingdom ; Ishogo ; Ainu ; Navajo ; Egyp- tians of New Kingdom. Implement — Simple two-beam loom. Fig. 51. — -Egyptian Linen Loom, Middle Kingdom A horizontal loom pegged to the ground with shed-rod and rod-heddle and prob- ably two revolving beams. I. frame (29, 29b, c, d). a. none, four pegs secure beams to ground. b. none, two roof hooks and two floor hooks secure beams. c. none, warp beam attached to distant post, cloth beam to weaver's belt. 138 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING Fig. 52. — Slave Indian Quill Belt Loom A tree branch bent like a bow furnishes the frame on which to stretch the warp. It is a transitional form, since there are no beams. d. vertical frame of separate parts, two vertical posts, two crossbars. e. vertical frame of complete construction. 2. beams, warp and cloth (19, 19e, 20, 21, 22, 22a, 23). a. both beams non-revolving. h. warp beam non-revolving, cloth beam revolving. c. both beams revolving. 3. heddles (24, 25, 26, 26a, b). a. none, fingers shed. h. shed-stick, and one or more rod-heddles. 4. shuttle (27, 27a, b, c). a. none, fingers perform the picking. b. long needle-shuttle with hook or eye. c. short stick-shuttle. 5. batten (28, 28a, b, c). a. none, fingers batten. h. none, save needle-shuttle. c. comb. d. sword-shape blade of wood. Warping device (30, 30b, c, d). a. series of stakes. WEAVING TYPES . 139 b. wall pegs. c. bobbin creel and reel. Power — ^Hand (31). Fig. 53. — Navajo Method of Warping for Blanket Making The diagram shows the ends of two poles and the Navajo method of laying the continuous warp over them to form the shed-lease. Process — Loom mounting. Warping. a. none, warp laid directly on beams. b. warp laid over ground stakes. c. warp laid over wall pegs. d. warp strands pulled from spool frame and wound on reel. Beaming. a. warp laid on beams in place. b . warp arranged on free bars which later act as beams . HeddUng. a. none. b. with rod-heddle and shed-rod. 1. shed-rod entered under and over alternate strands. 2. heddle-rod laid across warp and a cord caught under each back warp strand and looped about heddle-rod. Wefting. Shedding, Picking, Battening. I. shed-rod holds open first shed; batten entered flatwise and turned edgewise in first shed; 140 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING weft inserted through first shed ; batten beats up first line of weft. Fig. 54. — Navajo Loom Shed-rod («), rod-heddle (w), batten. (/), and two non-revolving beams (/) are present. The warp beam can be lowered by the cords {e and g) and the finished web below folded and stitched to the cloth beam. 2. rod-heddle lifted to open second shed ; batten entered flatwise and turned edgewise in second shed; weft inserted in second shed; batten beats up second line of weft. 3. process is then repeated. Warp adjusting. When there is adjustment the warp beam is lowered, and the cloth beam receives the WEAVING TYPES 141 woven web either stitched to it in folds or rolled upon it. Economic Gain In production : Perfectly stretched warp. Shedding device increases speed of the more perfect varieties. Revolving cloth beam increases length of the same. In product : Texture firm from tightly and evenly stretched warp, although grades and materials of this type vary greatly. BIBLIOGRAPHY I Andre, E. "A naturalist in the Guianas." I Bancroft, H. H. "Native races," I, 502, 766. 1 Banerjei, N. N.(^) "Woolen fabrics of Bengal,". 23. 2 Banerjei, N. N.(2) Cotton fabrics of Bengal, 52. 2 Banerjei, N. N.(^) Same as above in Journal Indian Art, VIII. 3 Barlow, A. "History and principles of weaving," 56. 2 Bartlett, J. R. "Personal narratives," II, 225. - Braulik, A. " Altagyptische Weberei." Dingler's polytech- nisches Jour. 311. (Illustration.) - Cailliaud, M. F. "Les Arts et Metiers." (Illustration.) - Cavendish, A. E. J. "Korea and the sacred white mountain." (Illustration.) - Chamberlain, J. F. "How we are clothed." (Illustration.) - Champollion, J. F. " Monuments de I'Egypte," IV. (Illus- tration.) - Cole, F. C. "Bagobos of Davas Gulf." Philippine Jour. Science D. 6, 191 1. (Illustration.) I Coomaraswamy, A. K. "Mediaeval Sinhalese art," 243. 142 YARN AND CT.OTH MAKING I Crawford, D. M. C. "Peruvian textiles." American Mu- seum Anthrop. Papers, XII, Pt. III. I Davies, N. de G. "Five Theban tombs." I Dellenbaugh^ F. S. "North Americans of yesterday." - Dewar, J. C. "Voyage to Nyanza, Salomon Island." (Illus- tration.) - Draper, D. O. "Labor saving looms." - Du Chaillu, P. "A journey to Ashangoland, W. Africa." (Illustration.) 4 Encyclopaedia Britannica. "Weaving — archaeology and art." 1 Ephraim, H. "Entwicklung der Webetechnik und ihre Ver- breitung ausserhalb Europas." A. p. 12, 26 ; B. 18, 23, 28, 40. 2 Erman, A. "Life of ancient Egypt," 448. - General guide to American Mus. Natural History. (Illustration.) 6 Goddard, P. E.(i) "Indians of the southwest." American Mus. Handbook, 2. 2 Goddard, P. E.(^) "Navajo blankets." American Mus. Journal, Nov. 1910. - Gosse, A.B. "Thecivilizationof ancient Egypt." (Illustration.) - Handbook American Indians, II. "Weaving." (Illustration.) - Heiden, M. " Handworterbuch der Textilkunde." (Illustra- tion.) 3 Hitchcock, R. "The Ainos of Yezo, Japan," 463. I HoUister, W. S. "The Navajo and his blanket." 1 Hooper, L.(i) "Hand loom weaving," 18, 81; 19, 84-86. 2 Hooper, L. "The loom and the spindle: past, present and future." (^) Journal Royal Society of Arts, LX. ('') Rept. Smithsonian Institution, 1914. I Im Thurn, E. F. "Indians of British Guiana," 388. I James, G. W. "Indian blankets and their makers." 3 James, J. "History of worsted manufacture in England." - Kimakowicz-Winnicki. "Spinn- und Webewerkzeuge in vor- geschichtlicher Europas." Darstellung iiber friih und vor- geschichtlicher Kultur-Kunst und Volkerentwicklung, 2 Heft. (Illustration.) WEAVING TYPES 143 - Kissell, M. L. "Aboriginal weaving in America." (Illustra- tion.) Rept. Cotton. Manuf. Asso., 1910. I Kissell, M. L. "Fabrics from primitive looms." (In prepara- tion.) - Lepsius, K. R. "Denkmaler," II. (Illustration.) - Manchester, H. H. "The story of silk and the Cheney silks." (Illustration.) I Marsden, R.(2) "Cotton weaving," 19,45. 1 Mason, O. T.(i) "Origin of inventions-," 246. 2 Mason, 0. T.(^) "Woman's share in primitive cvdture," 60. 3 Maspero, G.(^) "Manual of Egyptian archaeology." I Matthews, W. "Navajo weavers." 3 Rept. Bu. Am. Eth- nology. 4 Miintz, E.(i) "Short history of tapestry." - Miintz, E.(^) "La tapisserie." (Illustration.) - Miintz, E.(^). "Tapisseries." (Illustration.) I Murphy, W. S. "Textile industries," IV, loi. - Newberry, P. E. "Beni Hassan," I, II. (Illustration.) - Newberry, P. E. "El Bersheh," I. (Illustration..) I New International Encyclopedia. "Looms." - Oppel, A. "Die Baumwolle." (Illustration.) - Olivier, L. "La Tunisie." (Illustration.) I Penhallow, D. P. "Fabrication of Aino Cloth." Scientific American Sup. V. 10, Sup. 244, Sept. 4, 1880; p. 3883. I Pepper, G. "Making of Navajo blanket." Everybody's Mag., Jan. 1902. - Perrot and Chipiez. " History of art in Egypt," I. - Ratzel, F. "History of Mankind," II. (Illustrations.) - Ronchaud, L. de. "Tapisserie." (Illustration.) - RoseUini, I. "Monumenti," II. (Illustration.) I Roth, H. L.(i) "Ancient Egyptian and Greek looms." Bank- field Mus. Notes, Series 2, No. 2. I Roth, H. L.(^) "Studies in primitive looms." Bankfield Mus. Notes, Series 2, No. 8. - Roth, H. L.(^) "Natives of Sarawak, Borneo." 144 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING I Russell, F. "Pima Indians," 26 Report Bureau American Ethnology, 149. - Schurtz, H. "Urgeschichte der Kultur." (Illustration.) - Smith, W. Dictionary Greek and Roman antiquities, "Tela." .(Illustration.) - Smith, Wayte and Marindin. Dictionary Greek and Roman antiquities, "Tela." (Illustration.) 3 Thomson, W. G. "A history of tapestry," 2. 4 Tyler, E. B. "Anthropology." 4 Walton, P. "Story of textiles." 4 Warden, A. J. "Linen- trade, ancient and modern," 212. - Watson, K. "Textiles and clothing." (Illustration.) 4 Wilkinson, J. G. " Manners and customs of ancient Egyptians." I Woolman and McGowan. "Textiles." ILLUSTRATIONS Andrea, p. 40. Making hammock. Bancroft(^), p. 539. Mexican weaver. Banerjei (^) PI. 12, (^) PL 83. Weaving a dari. (^) 13 1 (^) 84. Weaving a kalin. Barlow, p. 56, fig. i. Egyptian mat loom. p. 57 Egyptian horizontal loom of Middle King- dom. Branlik, fig. 40. Egyptian horizontal loom. 41. Shedding diagram. Cailliaud, PL 17 A. Loom of the Middle Kingdom. PL 18. Ancient Egyptian mat maker. Cavendish, p. 52. Weaving cloth. Chamberlain, p. 51. A native of the Congo basin weaving. ChampoUion, PL 366. Man weaving mat. PL 381. Women of Egypt weaving. Cole, fig. I. A Bagobo weaver with loom. Coomaraswamy, PL IV. Mat weavers. Crawford, p. 85. Common type of Peruvian loom. WEAVING TYPES 145 Davies, PL 37. Weaving in the XI Dynasty. Dellenbaugh, p. 127. Navajo woman at loom. 131. Details of Navajo loom construction. Dewar, p. 46. Salomon Island loom for weaving grass cloth. Draper, p. 21. Mexican weaver. Du Chillue, p. 291. Ishogo loom and shuttle. Encyclopaedia Britannica. fig. 29. Loom from the Sarawak. Ephraim, fig. 16. Early Navajo loom. 19. Navajo loom. 21. Loom from Ischogo. 24. Loom from North Africa. 27. Old Egyptian loom. 33. Tapestry weaving. 34. Loom of the Aino. 38. Loom of the Schoka. 40. Loom of Borneo. 41. Loom of the Philippines. 54; Old Mexican loom. 55. Loom of Central America. Erman, p. 448. Weaving in the Middle Empire. General guide to American Museum. p. 34. A Hopi weaver. Goddard (}), p. 153. Navajo woman beating down the wool with batten stick. Goddard (^), p. 203. Navajo summer home. 206. Weaving a Navajo blanket. Gosse, p. T,;^. Egyptian women weaving. 32. Man weaving on loom. Handbook American Indians, II. p. 928. Navajo spinning and weaving. Navajo loom. Egyptian horizontal loom. Rug loom of India. Aino woman weaving. 929. Heiden, M., p. 10. 256. Hitchcock, p. 463. 146 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING HoUister, p. 25. Navajo summer hogan. HoUister, p. 121. Navajo weaver. Hooper Q), p. 20. Egyptian mat loom. 21. Egyptian loom of Middle Kingdom, Hooper (^), {*), fig. 10. Egyptian loom and weaver. II. Egyptian loom of Middle Kingdom. 13. Loops and heddle rod. 14. Tapestry loom. 28 b. Calibar loom. Im Thurn, p. 289. Carib method of making a hammock. James, Frontispiece. A Navaho weaver. p. 102, fig. 125. Navaho weaver at her open-air loom. 104, fig. 126. Ordinary Navaho blanket loom. 105, fig. 127. Warping for blanket. 106, fig. 128. Navaho weaver at work. fig. 129. Batten stick in position for passage of weft. 109, fig. 134. Weaving saddle girth, no, fig. 135. Healds for weaving diagonals. p. 114, fig. 141. EUe, one of the best weavers. fig. 142. Tuli, the child weaver. 130, fig. 188. Warping for sash, 132, fig. 190. Zuni heald. fig. 191. Aztec weaver. 154, fig. 207. Navaho weaver. 194, fig. 244. Hopi weaver at Sechomovi. fig. 245. Hopi weaver at Orabic. 195, fig. 247. Hopi weaving ceremonial sash, Kimakowicz-Winnicki, p. 53, fig. 82. Egyptian loom of Middle Kingdom. Kissell C), fig. 9. Navajo loom. Lepsius. Abth. II, PL 126. Egyptian weavers. Magazines. See Magazine Illustration. Manchester, p. 14. The earliest picture of weaving. Marsden, p. 19. Ancient Egyptian mat weaver. WEAVING TYPES 147 Marsden, p, 21. Egyptian loom with two weavers. 24. Grecian vertical loom. 46. Loom from Salomon Islands. 47. Ishogo weaver, Ashangoland, West Africa. Mason Q), p. 244. Zuni woman weaving blanket. Mason {^), p. 61. Navajo weaver. 266. Navajo woman weaving blanket. Maspero, p. 295. Man weaving hanging or carpet. 321. Egyptian women weaving linen. Matthews, PL 35. Weaving diamond-shaped diagonals. 38. Bringing down the batten. p. 378. Ordinary Navajo blanket loom. 379. Diagram showing formation of warp. 382. Weaving of saddle-girth. 383. Arrangement of warp threads for saddle-girth. 384. Diagonal cloth. 391. Aztec weaver. Miintz (1), p. 4. High warp loom of ancient Egyptians. Miintz (2), ,17. Egyptian loom of Middle Kingdom. Miintz (^), 2 b. Egyptian loom of Middle Kingdom. Murphy, p. loi. Hammock weaving. Newberry Q), I, PI. 29, 2 row from below, Horizontal loom with two weavers. II, 13, 3 row from below, Beaming, Heddling. 13, 4 row from below. Mat weaving. Newberry (^), I, PI. 26, i row from below. Warping, Beaming. 26, 2 row from below, Weaver (at extreme right). Olivier, p. 244. Weaver at loom. 245. Weaver at loom. Oppel, p. 209. Attemexikauerin webend. PenhaUow, PI. i. Instruments for weaving Aino cloth. 2. Method of stretching warp. 3. Weaving Aino cloth. Pepper, p. 35. Navajo weaver. 148 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING Pepper, p. 39. Navajo warping. 40. Warp beamed. 41. Wefting. Perrot and Chipiez, I, p. 34. Women at loom. Ratzel, II, p. 392. Weaver of Ishogo. Ronchaud, p. 57. Egyptian weaver at horizontal loom. Rosellini, 2, PI. 41. Women weaving. 41. Two mat makers. Roth (1), p. 3. Egyptian loom of Middle Kingdom (Cailliaud). 4. Same (Wilkinson). 4. Same (Rosellini). 5. Same (Lepsius). 5. Same (Newberry). 6. Same (Davies). 9. Same (Davies). 11. Model from Liverpool Institute. 12. Tomb of Tehuti-hetep, El Bershel. 13. Bedouin Arab weaving. 19. Wooden peg, Manchester Museum. 19. Lathes, Manchester Museum. 20. Weaving comb, Manchester Museum. 25. The linen girdle of Rameses III. 30. Bushongo weaver at work. Roth (^), fig. I. Principles of weaving. I a. Heddle rod. 2. Spools and shuttles. 3, 4. Ainu woman weaving. 8-28. Details of Ainu weaving. 29, 30. Slave Indian loom. 31-37. Weaving devices. PI. I. Mazatec loom. Roth (^) , p. 30. Loom of the Sarawak. Russell, p. 149. Model of Pima loom. Schurtz, p. 320. Aino loom. Smith, fig. 4. Simple Greek loom of Middle Age. 6. Weaver in modern Lycia. Fig. 56. — Hopi Belt Weaver Opening Upper Shed This simple shaft heddle opens both sheds and does the work of shed-rod and rod-heddle. Here the heddle is lowered opening upper shed, the batten is entered and turned edgewise to hold open the shed. The shuttle will be passed through shed and batten turned flatwise will beat up weft when it will be removed. Fig. 54 shows the heddle lifted opening lower shed, the batten entered and turned edgewise, and the shuttle passing into open shed. WEAVING TYPES I 49 Smith, Wayte and Marindin. fig. 4. Simple Greek loom of Middle Age. 6. Weaver in modern Lycia. Thurn, p. 289. Carib model of making a hammock. Thomson, fig. i. A simplified tapestry loom. 5. Egyptian weavers. Tylor, p. 248. Aztec girl weaving. Walton, Frontispiece. Navajo weaver. Watson, p. 18. Navajo loom. 20. Japanese loom. Wilkinson, I, p. 317. Horizontal loom (for linen). II, 170. Mat loom. II, 174. Wooden comb. Woolman and McGowan. p. 51. Navajo loom. VI ONE-SHAFT LOOM Distinctive Characteristics Weaving implement : a frameless stretched warp loom v^ith shaft-heddle hanging loosely on warp ; warp extends between free cloth beam attached to belt passing about body of weaver and distant post. Warp devices : free cloth beam and bunched warp ends. Weft devices : one shaft-heddle adjusted by hand ; short stick shuttle ; sword-shaped batten. Weaving proceeds from front backward. Outline Example : Zuni and Hopi belt weaving.. Implement — One-shaft loom. I. no frame (29, 29a). 150 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING 2. beams (19, 20, 21, 21a). (i) non-revolving cloth beam attached to weaver's belt, web held over beam by a removable iron pin. (2) warp beam. a. missing ; bunched warp attached to dis- tant post. h. revolving beam held by weaver's feet. 3. one free shaft-heddle of slats holding all warp strands (24, 25, 26, 26c). d) eyelets in slats holding alternate warp strands. (2) slits between slats for second series of alter- nate warp strands. 4. stick-shuttle (27, 27c). 5. batten (28, 28a, c). a. fingers only. h. sword-shaped stick. Warping device (30, 30b) . a series of short stakes driven into ground. Power — Hand (3l). Process — Loom mounting. Warping. warp strands laid in lengths desired without making lease. Beaming, Heddling. 1. warp ends bunched and attached to post. 2. first series of warp ends passed through heddle eyelets, second series passed through slits. 3. warp ends attached to cloth beam. WEAVING TYPES 1 51 Wefting. Shedding, Picking, Battening. 1 . heddle raised to open first shed ; batten entered and turned edgewise in first shed; shuttle inserts weft through first shed ; batten flat- wise beats up first fine of weft. 2. heddle lowered to open second shed; batten entered and turned edgewise in second shed ; shuttle inserts weft through second shed ; batten flatwise beats up second line of weft. 3. process is then repeated. Warp adjusting. 1. weaver moves in toward warp post. 2. unpins previously finished web and draws over the cloth beam the freshly finished web and again inserts iron pin. Economic Gain Here the comparison is between the belt looms : the Two-bar loom and the One-shaft loom. In production : Increased speed from opening both sheds by same device. A more easily managed heddle. In product : More closely packed weft. More evenly distributed warp from the shaft heddle. BIBLIOGRAPHY 5 Barlow, A. " History and principles of weaving," p. 56. 4 Encyclopaedia Britannica. " Weaving ^ archaeology and art." 152 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING I Ephraim, H. "Entwicklung der Webetechnik und ihre Ver- breitung ausserhalb Europas." I Foreman, S. E. "Stories of useful inventions," p. 112. - Handbook American Indians, II. "Weaving." (Illustration.) - Marsden, R.(^) "Cotton weaving." (Illustration.) I Mason, O. T.Q) " Origin of inventions." I Mason, 0. T.(^) "Primitive frame for weaving narrow fabrics." Rept. National Museum, 1899, p. 485. I Mason, O. T.(^) Same article as above in Scientific Am. Sup. V. 51, sup. 1324. 1 Matthews, W. "Navajo weavers." 3 Rept. Bureau Ethnology. - Ronchaud, L. de. "Tapisserie." (Illustration.) - Stevenson, M. "Zufii Indians." 23 Rept. Bureau Am. Eth- nology. (Illustration.) 2 Thompson, W. G. "History of tapestry." 2 Watson, K. "Textiles and clothing." - Woolman and McGowan. "Textiles." (Illustration.) ILLUSTRATIONS Ephraim, fig. 8. Heddle of Tsimshean. 9. Heddle. Foreman, p. 113. The Pueblo loom. 114. The shaft heddle. Magazines. See Magazine Illustration. Marsden (2), p. 45. A Japanese weaver. Mason (^), fig. i. Chippewa heddle frame. 2, 3. Masquakie heddle frame and shuttle. 4. Heddle from Helsingfors, Finland. 5. Heddle and shuttle, Helsingfors, Finland. 6. Heddle and shuttle, Saalfeld, E. Prussia. 7. Heddle and shuttle, Saalfeld, E. Prussia. 8. 9. Heddles from Stettin, N. Germany. 10, II. Heddles from Siena, Italy, and Lancaster, Penn. WEAVING TYPES 1 53 12. Heddle frame, Bristol, Conn. 13. Heddle frame, Bristol, Conn. 14. Heddle with healds disconnected at top, Maine. 15. Sketches showing method of attaching healds, Pueblo Indians. 16. Pueblo woman working heddle in belt weaving. 17. 18. Zuiii heddles. 19. Batten from Guadalajara, Mexico. PL I. Zuiii woman weaving ceremonial belt. 3. Loom with heddle frame for silk braid. 6-8. Pueblo heddle frames. 9. Pueblo batten knives. Mason (^), figs. i-io. Heddle frames. 1 1 . Pueblo woman weaving belt , working heddle. 12. Zuni woman weaving ceremonial belt. Matthews, PL 37. Zuiii woman weaving a belt. p. 388. Warping for belts. 389. Wooden heald of the Zuni. Stephenson, p. 373. Wewha weaving a belt. Watson, p. 14. Pueblo woman working heddle. 16. Zuni woman weaving belt. 17. Primitive heddles. Woolman and McGowan. p. 9. Pueblo woman weaving. 53. Primitive heddles. VII ONE-SHAFT TREADLE LOOM Distinctive Characteristics Simplest weaving implement employing foot power: a treadle loom with one suspended shaft-heddle and a shed-rod ; crudest attached and permanently entered 154 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING batten ; the warp beam set in a rough horizontal frame and the free cloth beam attached to a belt about weaver. Developing shedding, battening, frame and power. Fig. 58. — Early Korean Loom The one-shaft heddle is crudely lifted by a toe-cord; the shuttle is passed through open shed. When the line of weft is beaten up by the free reed- batten the heddle will be lowered and the shed-rod will open the other shed. Warp devices : a revolving warp beam and a free revolv- ing cloth beam. Weft devices : a shed-rod for first shed and a suspended shaf t-heddle for second shed ; small hollow boat- shaped shuttle inclosing a revolving quill for weft; suspended swinging reed batten. Outline Examples : Chinese ; Japanese ; Korean (Ainu, Korean and Indian looms show transitional forms with hand power) . WEAVING TYPES 155 Fig. 59. — Early Chinese Loom Another crude attachment for lifting the shaft-heddle is connected with a treadle-slat ; reed-batten swung from a unique contrivance. 156 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING Implement — One-shaft treadle loom. 1. frame (29, 29e, f). oblong base with upright posts supporting warp beam, heddle harness and, at times, batten. 2. beams (19, 20, 21, 22, 22c, d). (i) revolving warp beam attached to frame and governed by a. stop-boards. h. stop-pegs. (2) revolving cloth beam attached to weaver's belt. 3. heddles (24, 25, 26, 26d). (i) shed-rod. a. huge round bar attached to loom. h. flat bar, free, can be turned edgewise. (2) shaft-heddle suspended from frame posts and elevated by foot power with a. cord loop over toe. h. treadle board. c. swinging slat-board. 4. shuttle (27, 27b, c, d). a. needle-shuttle. h. stick-shuttle. c. bobbin shuttle. 5. batten (28, 28d, e). a. free reed batten. h. swinging reed batten. Warping device, probably stakes (30, 30b). Power — Hand for picking and battening (31, 31a). Foot for moving shaft-heddle. WEAVING TYPES 1 57 Process — Loom mounting. Warping as in Two-shaft treadle loom. Heddling. 1. one series of alternate warp strands passed over shed-rod. 2. second series of alternate warp strands passed under shed-rod, then between slats of the one heddle-shaft. Wefting. Shedding, Picking, Battening. 1. shed-rod holds open first shed; shuttle inserts weft through first shed ; already entered batten beats up first line of weft. 2. shaft-heddle raised by treadle holds open second shed ; shuttle inserts weft through second shed ; batten beats up second line of weft. 3. process is then repeated. Warp adjusting. 1. fresh warp unrolled from warp beam. 2. finished web wound on free cloth beam attached to weaver's belt. Economic Gain Comparison here is with the Two-beam loom, the last wide cloth type. In production : Introduction of foot power for the one heddle. A permanently entered batten. Revolving warp and cloth beams. 158 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING In product : A longer web. A closer, more even web of fine yarn. BIBLIOGRAPHY 5 Barlow, A. "History and principles of weaving," 66. - Carus, P. "Chinese life and customs." (Illustration.) - Draper, G. 0. "Labor saving looms." (Illustration.) 1 Ephriam, H. "Entwicklung der Webetechnik ausserhalb Eu- ropas." Museum fiir Volkerkunde zu Leipzig, Band I, Heft I. 2 Hooper, L. "The loom and spindle : past, present and future." (^) Journal Royal Society of Arts, LX. (^) Report Smithsonian Institution, 1914. ILLUSTRATIONS Barlow, p. 65. Chinese silk loom. Carus, p. 29. A Chinese loom. Draper, p. 29. Japanese weaver. Ephriam, fig. 43. Loom of Japan. 44. Loom of Korea. 45. Loom of China. Magazines. See Magazine Illustration. VIII TWO-SHAFT TREADLE LOOM Distinctive Characteristics Weaving implement : a two-shaft treadle loom ; beams outside of loom frame ; cloth beam pegged to ground, or attached to posts, or to belt of weaver ; without warp beam, or when with it fastened to distant post, to roof, or high on side wall. Developing beams and frame. WEAVING TYPES 159 i6o YARN AND CLOTH MAKING WEAVING TYPES l6l Warp devices : non-revolving, or revolving cloth beam ; non-revolving warp beam, or bunched warp ends with cord attachment. Weft devices : two or more shaf t-heddles worked by treadle cords; stick-shuttle, or short boat-shaped shuttle with inner bobbin ; for battening, the stick- batten, or a suspended reed batten. Outline Examples : India outdoor, and simpler indoor weaving ; W. African coast ; Medieval Egypt. Implement — Two-shaft treadle loom. 1. frame (29, 29e, g). a. none, branch of overhead tree supports heddle and batten. b. two trees, or two high posts, between which is a crossbar for suspending heddle and batten. c. four-post, or tripod frame. 2. beams, free from frame (19, 20, 21, 21b, 22, 23). (i) cloth beam. a. revolving, pegged to ground. b. revolving, fastened to weaver's belt. c. non-revolving, fastened to post. (2) warp beam, non-revolving. a. none, warp ends bunched, attached to post. b. beam attached to distant post. c. beam fastened to ceiUng, or high on side wall. l62 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING WEAVING TYPES 163 3. heddles, two shaft-heddles suspended by cord gear which connects with foot power in pit below ground (24, 25, 26e). a. treadle cord loops. h. inverted halves of cocoanut shell, or bits of bamboo sticks. c. long wooden treadles. 4. shuttle (27, 27c, d). a. stick-shuttle. h. boat-shape shuttle with weft bobbin. 5. batten (28, 28b, d, f). a. stick-batten; comb. b. suspended reed-batten. Fig. 63. — Stake Warping, India Two warps are laid at one time. Warping device (30, 30b, c). a. row of stakes set in pairs. h. warping frame. Power — Hand and Foot (31, 31a). 1 64 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING Process — Loom mounting. Warping, warp interlaced through and around parallel row of stakes, or pegs, and so crossed as to form the leases. Beaming, Heddling. 1. warp attached to one beam. 2. one series of alternate warp strands entered through eyelets of one heddle-shaf t, and second series through eyelets of second shaft. 3. warp attached to second beam. Wefting. Shedding, Picking, Battening. 1. first treadle lowers first heddle, opening first shed ; shuttle inserts weft in first shed ; batten beats up first line of weft. 2. second treadle lowers second heddle, opening second shed ; shuttle inserts weft in second shed ; batten beats up second line of weft. 3. process repeated. Warp adjusting. 1. warp let in from distant post. 2. finished web wound on cloth beam. Economic Gain In production : ' Foot power for both heddles. Unified shedding device, with both sheds opened by a like device. The suspended reed batten of firmer, stronger con- struction. Fig. 64. — Egyptian Loom, Middle Ages Revolving cloth beam, warp extended to side wall. Fig. 65. — A Shawl Loom, Asia Revolving cloth beam, warp extended upward to ceiling. WEAVING TYPES 1 65 In product : A close and even web, although fabrics from this type are of many grades and materials. BIBLIOGRAPHY I Baines, E. "Cotton manufacture," 69. I Banerjei, N. N.(2) "Cotton fabrics of Bengal," 46. I Barlow, A. "History and principles of weaving," 60. - Butterworth, B. "The growth of industrial art." (Illustra- tion.) 1 Coomaraswamy, A. K. "Medieval Sinhalese art," 234. - Draper, G. O. "Labor saving machines." (Illustration.) 2 Encyclopaedia Britannica. "Weaving, archaeology and art." - Ephraim, H. "Entwicklungder Webetechnik." (Illustration.) I Foreman, S. E. "Stories of useful inventions." 4 Garstang, J. "Burial customs of ancient Egypt." 3 Gilroy, C. G.(^) "History of silk, cotton, linen, wool," 342. 4 Hooper, L.(^) "Hand-loom weaving," 27, 87. 3 Hooper, L. "The loom and spindle: past, present and future." (^) Journal Royal Society of Arts, LX, 3120. (*) Report Smithsonian Institution, 19 14. Journal of Indian Art. 1 VIII, Banerjei, N. N.(3) " Cotton fabrics of Bengal." 2 X, Brendon, B. A. "Woolen fabrics in Bombay." I X, Dewar, F. "Silk fabrics in Central Provinces." 1 X, Edwards, S. M. "Silk fabrics in Bombay." 2 X, Entoven, R. E. "Cotton fabrics in Bombay." I, Gupte, B. A. "Thana silks." (Illustration.) I V, Mookerjei, N. G. " Silk industries of Moorshedabad." I X, Silberrad, C. A. " Cotton fabrics of N. W. Provinces." - Klose, H. "Togo." (lUustration.) I Marsden, R.(^) "Cotton weaving," 41, 249. 3 Mill.J. "History of British India," i ed., V. I; 2 ed., V. II; 4 ed., V. l66 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING 1 Murphy, J. "Art of weaving," I, 8; IV, io6. - Oppel, A. "Die Baumwolle." (Illustration.) - Paulitschke, P. " Ethnographie Nordost-Afrikas." (Illustra- tion.) 2 Powell, B. H. "Handbook of manufactures of Punjab," 36. - Revoil, G. "Reise im Lande der Benadir, Somali und Bajun." Globus, 47. (Illustration.) - Schurtz, H. " Urgeschichte der Kultur." (Illustration.) I Simmonds, P. D. "Ure's cotton manufacture," I, 112, II, 207. I Tomlinson, C. Cyclopaedia useful arts, II. "Weaving." I Ure, A.(^) "Cotton manufacture," I, 39, II, 256. 1 Ure, A.(^) Dictionary of arts, manufactures and mines, II. "Weaving." 4 Walton, P. "Story of textiles." 2 Walton, W. "Cotton in the Bombay Presidency," 149. 1 Watson, J. F. "Textile manufacture and customs of people of India," 67. 2 Watson, J. "Art of weaving." ILLUSTRATIONS Baines, p. 70. Loom of India. Banerjei (^), PL 10. Weaver at loom. Barlow, fig. 6. Loom of India (interior). Butterworth, p. 176, fig. 3. Hindoo loom. Coomaraswamy. PL 6, I Cloth- weaver separating warp threads. 6, 2 Cloth-weaver throwing shuttle. 29, I Front view of loom. 29, 2 Side view of loom. Draper, p. 24. Hindoo weaver. Encyclopaedia Britannica. fig. 30. Indian Hill tribesman's loom. Ephraim, fig. 29. Loom of Haussa. 30. Loom of the Vey. . 31. Loom of the Ehve. WEAVING TYPES 167 Ephriam, fig. 32. 32a. 48. Foreman, p. 115. Garstang, p. 134. Gilroy (2), PL 2. 5- Globus, 47, p. 325 Hooper Q), p. 87. Loom of Somali. Loom of Galla. Loom of India. Old African loom. Hand-loom weaving at Abu-Kirkes. Egyptian factory. Indian loom (interior). . Cotton weaver in Mogduschu. Loom of India. Hooper (^) ('*), fig. 29. Primitive loom. (India.) Journal Indian Art and Industry. VIII, Banerjei, PI. 83. Weaver working at loom. X, Brendon, X, Dewar, X, Edwards, Woolen hand loom. Beaming. Warping. Warping-machine. Warping-frame. Weaving. Cloth loom of Bombay. Thana silk weaver. Weaving. I, Enthoven, I, Gupte, X, Siiberrad, 14. Klose, p. 152. A weaver of Assahun. Magazines. See Magazine Illustration. Marsden, p. 42. Loom of India. 43. Loom in interior. 249. Indian warper. Murphy, Frontispiece. Loom within doors. Murphy, I, p III,p Oppel, p. 208 215 565 591 595 8. Indian hand loom. 60. Weaving a Cashmere shawL Indischer weber. Haussa Webevorrichtung. Malayischer Webstuhl. Weber an der Goldkiiste. Suaheli am Webstuhl. Paulitschke, PL 25. Two weavers of northeast Africa. 1 68 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING Powell, p. 35- Shawl loom. Revoil, p. 327. Loom of the Somali. Schurtz, p. 275. Weavers of the Gold coast. 410. Loom of east Africa. Simmonds, I, 102. Outdoor loom of India. Ure C), I, 33. Outdoor loom of India. Walton, p. 60. Ancient Egyptian weaving. 72. Hindu weaver at his loom (exterior). Walton, 28. The "Magga" or loom with weaver. Watson, 64, fig. 2. Warping. 4. Applying the reed. 6. Forming the heddles. 5. Weaving Dacca muslins. IX PERFECTED HAND LOOM Distinctive Characteristics First weaving • implement with its entire mechanism united within the frame and working in unison : a two or more shaft treadle loom with its two beams set in ends of frame. Warp devices : revolving warp and cloth beams. Weft devices : two or more shaft heddles worked by treadles ; bobbin-shuttle, fly-shuttle or drop-box- shuttle ; stick-batten, or suspended reed-batten. Outline Examples : Medieval Greek ; Colonial ; French (two weavers) ; English fly-shuttle looms. WEAVING TYPES 1 69 Implement — Perfected hand loom. I. frame including all working parts (29, 29e, h). Fig. 66. — Greek Loom of Middle Ages An early Perfected hand loom with all parts united within the frame. It differs from the later form in its vertical warp and horizontal heddles. a. two cross-shape side boards joined above and below. b. four posts joined by bars at sides and ends. lyo YARN AND CLOTH MAKING 2. cylindrical revolving beams, warp and cloth (19, 20, 21, 21c, 22, 22d). a. with vertical warp. b. with horizontal warp. Fig. 67. — Perfected Hand Loom with Fly-shuttle A rectangular frame supports all working parts. Horizontal warp, W, extends between the revolving warp beam, A, and the cloth beam, B ; two treadles, T, raise and lower alternately the two shaft heddles, H, to open the warp sheds. The swinging batten, E, beats home the weft ; while at its two ends the shuttle-boxes, G, receive the shuttle as it is thrown from box to box by a jerk of the black peg attached to a string loop. heddles, two or more shaft-heddles constructed with thread eyelets stretched between two laths (24, 25, 26e). a. horizontal heddles. b. vertical heddles balanced by cords over pulleys and attached below to treadles. WEAVING TYPES 171 Reproduced by permission from Hooper's " Hand-loom Weaving." Macmillan, U. S. A., and John Hogg, London- Fig. 68. — Hand Shuttle I, Boat-shaped shell and inside bobbin. 2, Section of shell and bobbin. 3, Spring for holding quill. 4, Bobbin, a quill with yarn wound on. 5, Side of shuttle showing center eye where yarn escapes from the shuttle. 4. treadles. a. worked by balance weights. h. worked by direct treading process. Fig. 69. — Fly-shuttle A longer, deeper, broader, heavier shuttle. 5. shuttle, revolving bobbin within boat-shape hol- low box (27, 27d, e, f). a. hand bobbin-shuttle. b. fly-shuttle with wheels upon which to travel and a shuttle-race with end boxes. 172 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING c. drop-box shuttle with tiers of end boxes which rise and fall to bring compartments to shuttle-race level. 6. batten C28, 28d, f, h). a. free stick batten. h. reed-batten set in pendulous frame, or lathe. Warping device (30, 30c, d). a. warping board or frame with pegs. h. warping mill, reel and bobbin frame. Power — Hand and Foot (31, 31a). Process — Loom mounting. Warping, warp threads measured off in equal lengths and crossed to form the two leases on warping frame or mill. Beaming, Heddling. 1. warp ends spread across warp beam and strands wound on, carefully preserving leases. 2. ends of alternate strands entered through eyes of first heddle, ends of second set of alternate strands entered through eyes of second heddle to prepare for shedding. 3. ends of all strands entered in regular order through reed-batten. 4. ends attached to cloth beam, stretching warp between two beams. Wefting. Shedding, Picking, Battening. I . foot presses down first treadle which draws down first heddle with the first series of alternate warp strands threaded through it, and simul- WEAVING TYPES 173 -^Y_:^^:_:Q:_4|- ,-[}• %^fi-_ 174 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING Fig. 71. — Hungarian Peasant Warping This warping reel similar in form to the mill is turned by the left hand as the right lays on two strands at a time. taneously raises second heddle with the second series of alternate strands threaded through it, thus opening the first shed. (Simpler method, p. 164.) WEAVING TYPES 175 hand shuttle thrown by hand through open shed ; fly-shuttle and drop-box-shuttle driven, by a quick jerk given the picking device, along the shuttle-race through the open shed ; in each instance the shuttle leaves behind a line of weft between the divided warp. Reproduced hy permission from Hooper's " Hand-loom Weaving." Macmillan, U. S. A., and John Hogg, London. Fig. 7.2. — Loom Prepared for Entering Warp through Heddles AND Reed-batten Entering need only be done when a harness is new ; after the first entering the new warp strands are tied to old strands of the previous web left long enough to still pass through the heddles and reed. For entering, the warp coiled on the beam is gently unwound, preserving the two leases by the rods, B. Then the slender hook, 2, draws each strand through the heddle eyelets, D, and the flat hook, 3, between the dents of the reed, 4. 3. stick-batten is run into shed to beat up weft, or lathe reed-batten is forcefully swung against the line of weft just put in. 4. depression of the second treadle reverses the order of heddles opening the second shed, and 176 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING Reproduced by permisston from Hooper's " Hand-loom Weaving." Macmillan, V. S. A., and John Hogg, London. Fig. 73. — -Shed Opening Mechanism. Treadles and Heddles at Work A, warp beam; B, cloth beam; C, lease rods; D, heddle harness pulley; E, treadles ; F, shed opened by heddles and treadles. Fig. 74. — Hand-shuttle at Work The shuttle is thrown from one hand to the other, leaving a line of weft through the open shed when the reed-batten will beat close the line of weft. Fig. 75. — Fly-shxjttle at Work With each jerk of the peg in the right hand the shuttle flies through the open shed to the shuttle box at the other end, leaving in its trail a line of weft. Then the left hand, freed from helping as required by the hand-shuttle, beats up the weft with the reed-batten. 178 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING at the same time if the drop-box-shuttle is in use, drops or raises the end boxes so that the shuttle desired is on a level with shuttle-race. 5. shuttle deposits another line of weft. 6. batten beats up second line of weft. 7. process is then repeated. Adjustment of warp when some distance of web is woven : wef ting is stopped and fresh warp is "let off " from warp beam and woven web " taken up " on cloth beam. Fig. 76. — Drop-box Fly-shuttle The shuttle here works as in Fig. 75, but there are added for shuttles of different colored yarns two tiers of end boxes with a contrivance for raising and lowering the boxes to bring them level with the warp shed as each color is needed. Economic Gain In production : Developed frame unites loom mechanism. Steadier beams. Longer web on revolving beams with " take up " let off " motions. and WEAVING TYPES 179 In later varieties with fly-shuttle, a wider web and greater speed. In product : More uniform texture from smooth running mechanism. More parallel warp from perfectly stretched warp. More even weft from refined shedding, picking and battening devices. BIBLIOGRAPHY I Barlow, A. "History and principles of weaving." I Beaumont, R-C) "Wool manufacture." (Loom mounting), IIS- I Beaumont, R.(^) "Woollen and worsted." (Loom mounting), 325- I Blount, Mrs. G. "Story of a homespun web." - Brooks, C. P. "Cotton." (Illustration.) - Brooks, E. C. "Story of cotton." (Illustration.) - Butter worth, B. "The growth of industrial art." (Illustra- tion.) 1 Champlin, J. D. "Young folks' cyclopaedia of common things." - Clapham, J. H. "Woollen and worsted industries." (Illus- tration.) 2 Dooley, W. H. "Textiles," 53. - Draper, G. O. "Labor saving looms." (Illustration. )_^ - Ducousso, G. "L'industrie de la sole en Syrie et au Liban." (Illustration.) I Earle, A. M. "Home life in colonial days." I Encyclopaedia Britannica. "Weaving machinery, technology." - Ephraim, H. "Entwicklungder Webetechnik." (Illustration.) 3 Foreman, S. E. "Stories of useful invention," 116-119. - Gibbs, C. "Household textiles." (Illustration.) I Gilroy, C. G.Q) "Art of weaving." l8o YARN AND CLOTH MAKING - Gilroy, C. G.(^) "History of silk, cotton, linen, wool." (Illus- tration.) I Guest, R. " Cotton manufacture," 7. I Hooper, L.^) "Hand-loom weaving," 9, 49, 224, 227. I Hooper, L. "The loom and spindle: past, present and future." (^) Journal of Royal Society of Arts, London, LX, 955- (^) Rept. Smithsonian Institution 1914, 648. 3 James, J. "History of worsted manufacture in England," 14. Journal Indian Art. I X, Hardiman, J. P. "Silk in Burma." 3 X, Samman, H. F. "Cotton of Assam." - Manchester, H. H. "The story of silk and Cheney silks." (Illustration.) I Marsden, R.(^) "Cotton weaving," 27, 37, 48, 250. - Megraw, R. H. "Textiles and the origin of their names." (Illustration.) I Murphy, W. S. "The textile industries," IV, 106. I New International Encyclopedia. "Looms." 3 Nystrom, P. H. "Textiles," 23, 76. - Olivier, L. "La Tunisie." (Illustration.) - Oppel, A. "Die Baumwolle." (Illustration.) I Potter, G. R. "SUk manufacture," 1831-214, 1832-180. - Rock, D. "Textile fabrics." . (Illustration.) I Schams, J. "Handbuch der Weberei." I Simmonds, P. D. "Ure's cotton manufacture," II, 203. I Tomlinson, C. Cyclopaedia useful arts, II. "Weaving." I Ure, A.(^) "Cotton manufacture," II, 257. I Ure, A.(^) "Dictionary arts, manufactures and mines," II. (Weaving.) r Walton, P. "Story of textiles." (Picture text, p. 130.) I Warden, A. J. "Linen, ancient and modern," 218, 227, 700, 702. 3 Watson, K. "Textiles and clothing," 19. I Woolman and McGowan. "Textiles." WEAVING TYPES l8l ILLUSTRATIONS Barlow, p. 6i. Medieval Greek loom. pp. 76-93. English hand loom. Beaumont^), figs. 74-77. English hand loom. Beaumont(^), pp. 352-359. English hand loom. Blount, p. 17, 21, 25. Hand loom and parts. Brooks, C. P., p. 120. Hand spinning and weaving. Brooks, E. C, p. 56. Old time loom. 107. Weaving in Alabama. 262. Hand loom weaving in Japan. Butterworth, p. 176, fig. 4. Hand loom. Champlin, fig. 2. Hand cloth-loom. 3. Shuttle. Clapham, p. 58. Irish cottage hand loom. Dooley, p. 55. A simple hand loom. 59. Drawing warp ends through reed. Draper, p. 25. Flemish weaver. 26. Loom as used before Kay. 26. Hand loom with fly-shuttle. 30. Old colonial loom. Ducousso, p. 198. Tisserand en Sole Syrian. Earl, p. 225. Loom shuttles. 238. Weaving rag carpet. Encyclopaedia Britannica. fig. 24. Hand loom. 25. Weaver's reed. 26. Section of plain web. 31. Medieval loom. Ephraim, fig. 2. Type loom. 28. North African treadle loom. 29. Loom of Hausa. 30. Loom of the Vey. 31. Loom of the Ehoe. 49. Kashmir loom. 50. Treadle loom of Inner India. I»2 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING Farrer, p. 7. Medieval loom. Foreman, p. 117. Loom of the sixteenth century. 118. Kay's fly-shuttle. Gibbs, p. 30. Hand loom of colonial days. Gilroy 0), pp. 75, 76. Working parts of the plain loom. Gilroy (^), PL V. Indoor loom of India. Guest, PL 4. Table loom, Mr. Kay's lathe shuttle. Hooper Q). Frontispiece. Domestic loom, from a Lyonnese woodcut, 1510. figs. 14-2 1 a. Warping on warping board. 22-27. Warping mill. 28-38. Beaming. 39-40. Shedding. 41. Loom of India. 42. Old English loom. 44. Section of open warp. 45, 46. The reed-batten. 47. Loom prepared for entering. 50. Heddle frame. ■ 51. Hand-shuttle. 52. Method of handling one or two shuttles. 53. Fly-shuttle. 54. Fly-shuttle batten. 55. Temple. Hooper (^) 0), fig. 30. Reed fitted in its frame. 31. Section of open warp. 32. Bethual Green silk weaver. 2,s. English hand loom. 34. English silk weaver, 14 century. 57. Fly-shuttle batten. James, fig. 7. Medieval Greek loom. 8. Early European loom. Journal of Indian Art, X, Hardiman, PL 17 a. Warpirig machine. b. Warping machine. WEAVING TYPES 183 Hardiman, PI. 17 c. Warping on stakes. iS b. Warping on stakes. c. Warping frame. d. Loom frame. ig a. Warp ready for loom. b. Burma loom. c. Entering warp through reed. Samman, PL 13 a. Weaving in Assam. c. Loom. Magazine. See Magazine Illustration. Manchester, p. 16. Ancient Chinese weaving. Marsden {^), p. 28. Greek loom. 37. Flemish loom. 38, 39. French loom. 43. Indoor loom of India. 51. Kay's fly-shuttle loom. 227. Hand-loom lay with drop-boxes. 251. Peg warping, an ancient English method. Megraw, p. 9. A weaver. Murphy, IV, p. 104. Ancient loom. 108. Plain loom with hand shuttle. 112. Hand loom and Scotch weaver at work. 113. Plain loom. New International Encyclopedia. "Looms." fig. I. Hand loom. Nystrom, p. 25. Passage of the shuttle through the warp. 214 a. Entering warp ends through reed. b. Examining warp threads. Olivier, p. 246. Weaving shop. Oppel, p. 467. Spinning und Webe im Handbetrieb im Siiden. 685. Ein Webkeller im Toggenburg. Porter (183 1), p. 215. English hand loom (1832), p. 180. 217. Fly shuttle. 182 219. Warping mill. YARN AND CLOTH MAKING Porter (1831), p. 221. Shuttle. (1832), p. 185 228. Side elevation of ribbon loom. Rock, p. 34. Weaving and spinning in 1 5 century. Schams Tafel 4, fig. 36. Loom frame. 35. Loom frame with extra beams for warp and cloth. 37, 38. Another loom frame. 5, fig. 47. Reed-batten. 48 a. Batten with fly-shuttle. 48 b. Batten with drop-box shuttle. Simmonds, p. 202. Tomlinson, fig Ure C), p. 256 258 259 261 262 271 Ure (2), p. 931 931 Walton, p. 16 52 68 118 124 130 147 49-51. Shuttles. 59, 60. Heddles, treadles and harness. Ancient Greek loom. 204. German loom of 16 century. 205. Warping machine. 206. Loom of India. 208. English loom with fly-shuttle. 214. Movable shuttle-box apparatus. 2305. The common loom. 2313. Warping mill. Ancient Greek loom. Frankfort-on-Main weaver in 1568. Hand- warping for the muslin- weaver. Hindu weaver. Common fly-shuttle loom. Movable shuttle-box apparatus. Indoor loom of India. Old English loom. Roman weaving in Middle Ages. Japanese weaving. Hindu weaving. Peg warping. Warping. The loom that preceded the power loom. A handicraft weaver at her loom. Fig. 77. — Chinese Draw Loom The warp strands stretch from the cloth beam through the swinging reed-batten ; through the first heddle harness worked by treadles ; then through the free leashes worked by the drawboy above ; when they pass to the warp beam beyond the picture at the right. WEAVING TYPES 185 Watson, p. 19. Simple colonial loom. 20. Japanese loom. 2 1 . Four-harness hand loom. 22. Colonial loom. 23. Diagram of hand loom. 24. Swedish loom. 25. Diagram of working parts of loom. 26. Fly-shuttle hand looin. Woolman and McGowan. p. 52. Hand loom. 54 55 56 57 58 60 61 63 64 67 Healds. Heald shaft. Detail of harness. Temple. Throwing the shuttle through the shed. Raddle. Reed. Warping bars. Taking off the warp. Fly-shuttle. X DRAW LOOM Distinctive Characteristics First mechanism for elaborate figured weaving : one operating a compound system of shedding on the same warp strands ; the system applied to the Perfected hand loom. Weft device for shedding : two separate shedding systems with distinct functions — • a shaft mounting worked by treadles for forming the pattern edges ; and a drawboy mounting or harness with tails and simples 1 86 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING worked by the drawboy for forming the texture of the web. D Fig. 79. — Diagram Showing Action of Two Harness Systems A, Work accomplished by first harness which outlines on a large scale the pattern. B, Work accomplished by second harness which breaks up this pattern in detail. Outline Examples : Chinese draw loom ; French draw loom. Implement — Draw loom. 1. frame (29, 29e, i). 2. beams (19, 20, 21c, 22, 22d). 1 Similar to the 4. shuttle (27, 27d, e). \ Perfected 5. batten (28d, 28f). • J hand loom. 3. shedding mechanism (24, 26e, f). (i) front harness of shaft heddles with long eyes. (2) back harness of free heddling strings (managed by assistant), leashes with lingoes, hangers, mails, sleepers. WEAVING TYPES 187 comber board (hole board). necking cords. pulley box. tail cords. simple cords on which pattern is tied up. 1 88 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING Power — Hand and Foot, weaver (31, 31a, b). Hand, drawboy assistant. Process — Loom mounting. Warping, Beaming similar to the Perfected hand loom. Heddling, warp strands entered through both shedding systems : the shaf t-heddles and the free heddling strings. Wefting. Shedding. 1. weaver with treadles operates shaf t-heddles for outlining pattern. 2. drawboy adjusts string-heddles for web texture. Picking, Battening, as on Perfected hand loom. Economic Gain Comparison here is with the many-shaft loom of the previous type used in elaborate pattern weaving. In production : Less floor space needed for free leashes. A loss in production because of more elaborate fabric. In product : Elaborate pattern of fine texture. BIBLIOGRAPHY I Barlow, A. "History and principles of weaving." 1 Bell, T. F. " Jacquard weaving and designing." - Bushell, S. W. "Chinese art," II, 95. (Illustration.) - Butterworth, B. "The growth of industrial art." (Illustration.) 2 Encyclopaedia Britannica. "Weaving machinery." I Ephraim, H. "Entwicklung der Webetechnik ausserhalb Eu- ropas." WEAVING TYPES 189 B S g ■^ g, ts l-l -^ 0) ^ ^ ca ^ ^ a> < — y ^ Q a^^ M — e: 55 K >. a < ^ .n w ^ - ^ fu >> cu S :=! 0.-0 ng at the s ked th eashes. >. 'S T, < <- ;;o =^.2 Q o-|g 1 •2 S S-g 5 'S ts 3 00 fi S aS-g ■^ 2 !:! ^ Q cS .^° a ni <\i C^ igo YARN AND CLOTH MAKING WEAVING TYPES 191 2 Gilroy, C. G. C) "Art of weaving." - Gilroy, C. G. {^) "History of silk, cotton, linen, wool." (Il- lustration.) - Heiden, M. " Handworterbuch der Textilkunde." (Illustra- tion.) I Hooper, L.(^) "Hand-loom weaving." I Hooper, L.(2) "Silk." 1 Hooper, L. "The loom and spindle: past, present and future." (^) Journal of Royal Society of Arts, London, LX. ('') Report Smithsonian Institution, 1914. - Lindner, G. "Spinnerei und Weberei." (Illustration.) 2 Marsden, R.(^) "Cotton weaving," 184. 1 Mookerji, W. S. "Silk industries of Moorshedabad." Indian Jour. Art, V, p. 7. "Naksha loom." 2 Murphy, W. S. "The textile industries," IV, 140. - Pariset, E. "Industries de la soie." (Illustration.) 3 Simmonds, P. L. "Cotton manufacture," II, 222. 3 Ure, A. "Cotton manufacture," II, 281. ILLUSTRATIONS Barlow, p. 129. Diagram of shedding process. 130. Healds. 131. Mechanism of draw loom. 132. Comber board. 135. Mechanical drawboy. 138. French draw loom for velvet figured damask. BeU, fig. 2. Draw loom with simples over weaver. ■3. Draw loom harness. 5. Mechanical drawboy. Butterworth, p. 178, fig. i. Primitive draw loom. Encyclopaedia Britannica. fig. 32. Chinese loom for figured weaving, 121 a.d. Ephraim, fig. 51. Chinese draw loom. Gilroy (}), fig. 63. Draw loom harness. 192 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING Gilroy, C), fig. 64. Pulley box. 65. Shedding process of draw loom. 66. Comberboard. GUroy (2). Frontispiece. Chinese draw looms. Heiden, p. 263. Draw loom factory. Hooper Q) p. 239. Drawboy machine. 240. Details of drawboy. 2 53 . Diagram of monture and harness, point repeat 256. Comber repeat. 258. Mechanism of the draw-loom. 263. Draw-loom fork. Hooper (^) p. 74. Chinese draw-loom. Hoopel- (^) (^), fig. 35. Chinese silk- weavers' loom. 44 Chinese draw-loom. 45 Draw-loom diagrams. 46 Drawboy's fork. 47 Mechanical drawboy. Murphy, IV, p. 141. Draw-loom harness. Pariset, p. 256. Chinese draw loom. 281. Chinese draw loom. 234. Beaming silk warp. 235. Warping. Simmonds p. 223. Harness of draw loom. Ure, p. 28; 5. Harness of draw loom. XI JACQUARD HAND LOOM Distinctive Characteristics The most universally employed mechanism for elaborate pattern making: a shedding attachment which sim- pHfies the complex mechanism of the Draw loom with WEAVING TYPES 193 its extensive tie-up and drawboy ; it was first adjusted to the hand loom and later to the power loom. Fig. 83. — ^Jacquard Hand Loom, 1804 A hand loom mounted with a hook and needle harness worked by an endless band of pattern cards for elaborate pattern weaving. Weft device for shedding : an endless band of pattern cards worked with a hook and needle harness. Outline Example : Jacquard hand loom. Implement — Jacquard mechanism attached to hand loom. 1. frame (29, 29e, i). 2. beams (19, 20, 21, 21c, 22, 22d). j Similar to Per- 4. shuttle (27, 27d, e, f). \ fected hand 5. batten (28, 28d, f). J loom. 194 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING b'iG. 84. — Jacquard Mechanism A series of vertical hooks {H) connect with the heddles of the loom. These are raised according to a pattern punctured on pattern cards (PC) by a series of horizontal needles (N) attached to them at their points of crossing. When the pattern cards press back certain horizontal needles they carry the hooks with them beyond the griff (G). This allows the grifi to rise and carry up the remaining hooks which raise the heddles. WEAVING TYPES shedding apparatus placed on top of loom to take the place of the drawboy and pulley-box (24,26e,f,g). (i) shaft-heddles. (2) string-heddles. endless chain of perforated pattern cards, revolving prism or cylinder which swings. series of hori- zontal needles with eyelets, n-eedle board, series of verti- cal hookspass- ing through needles and controlled by them, bottom board, griff, necking cords. A Fig. 85. — The Jacquard AT Work Action of horizontal needle on vertical hook when it is pushed back by pattern card. The needle carries the hook off the griff. 196 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING leash, or leash strings with mails and lingoes. comber board. Power — Hand and Foot (31, 31a). Process — Shedding. 1. pattern card passed over cylinder and pressed against needles. 2. blank spaces on cards push back certain needles, giving attached hooks an incKnation. 3. griff rises, carrying up hooks remaining vertical. 4. rising hooks carry up leash cord with warp strand it controls. 5. cyHnder bearing pattern card moves away and turns one fourth revolution, while springs return needles to normal position. Economic Gain In production : Less time for simpler " tie-up " of shedding mechanism, More rapid weaving possible. Less floor space needed. One worker instead of two. In product : Still more elaborate pattern. Greater width of web. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1 Barlow, A. "History and principles of weaving." 2 Beaumont, R.^) "Wool manufacture." 2 Beaumont, R.O "Woollen and worsted." 1 Bell, T. F. "Jacquard weaving and designing." 2 Brockett, P. L. "Silk industry in the United States," 109. WEAVING TYPES 1 97 - Butterworth, B. "The growth of industrial art." (Illustration.) 3 Cowan, J. L. "Story of silk." Scientific American Supp., April 23, 19 10. - Dooley, W. H. "Textiles." (Illustration.) I Encyclopaedia Britannica, "Weaving, Industrial technology." - Foreman, S. E. "Stories of useful inventions." (Illustration.) I Fox, T. W. "The mechanism of weaving," 129-145. - Gibbs, C. "Household textiles." (Illustration.) 3 Gilroy, C. G.(i) "Art of weaving." 4 Hooper, L. (2) "Silk." 1 Hooper, L. "Loom and spindle." (^) Journal Royal Society of Arts, LX. (*) Rept. Smithsonian Institution, 1914. - Lindner, G. "Spinnerei und Weberei." (Illustration.) 2 Marsden, R.(2) "Cotton weaving," 148. I Murphy, W. S. "The textile industries," V, 54-60. I New International Encyclopedia. "Looms." - Nystrom, P. H. "Textiles." (Illustration.) - Pariset, E. "Industries de la sole." (Illustration.) I Porter, G. R.(0 "Silk manufacture," 1831, 245. I Porter, G. R.(^) Same as above but 1832 edition, 201. - Schams, J. "Handbuch der Weberei." (Illustration.) 5 Walton, P. "Story of textiles," 97. I Warden, A. J. "Linen, ancient and modern," 707. I Woolman and McGowan. "Textiles." ILLUSTRATIONS Barlow, fig. 130-131. Action of hooks. 140-142. Action of cylinder. 143. Jacquard loom (hand loom). Beaumont Q), fig. 87-91. Jacquard machine and parts. Beaumont (^) 242-247. Jacquard machine and parts, Brockett, p. 108. The Jacquard machine. Butterworth, p. 178, fig. 2. Jacquard hand loom. fig. 4. Jacquard power loom, 1842. 198 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING Cowan, p. 264, 265. Jacquard loom. 265. Warping machine. Dooley, p. 187. Jacquard silk loom. Encyclopaedia Britannica, fig. 27. Diagram of Jacquard harness. Foreman, p. 121. Jacquard loom. Fox, fig. 58. Single lift Jacquard machine. • Gibbs, p. 35. Jacquard power loom. Hooper (^) {*), fig. 49. Jacquard machine. 50. Sections of Jacquard machine. 51. Hooks and needles. 53. Jacquard cylinder and cards. Lindner, p. 154. Jacquard machine and harness. Magazines. See Magazine Illustration. Marsden, p. 151. Jacquard harness. 153. Jacquard harness for handkerchiefs. Murphy, V, p. 56. Jacquard mechanism. 86. Harness of Jacquard. 86. Pressure Jacquard weaving mill. New International Encyclopedia. "Looms." fig. 4. Jacquard attachment. Nystrom, p. 28. Jacquard loom. Pariset, p. 271. Hooks and needles. 274. Jacquard machine. Porter 0), p. 246. Jacquard harness (^) 202. 247. Needle 202. 248. Cylinder 203. 248. Pattern card 204. 250. Mechanism in action 205. Schams, Taf. 19. Jacquard loom and loom parts. Woolman and McGowan. p. 73. Jacquard power loom. 75. Jacquard harness. 76. Cylinder and pattern card. 77. Lacing of cards. WEAVING TYPES XII PLAIN POWER LOOM 199 Fig. 86. — Cajrtwright's First Power Loom, 1785 A loom with vertical warp. The web wound gradually as it was woven. The shuttle was propelled mechanically through the long trough-shaped form extending out at the sides. Distinctive Characteristics First weaving machine : a loom run by power and so adjusted that beams, heddles, shuttles and batten work automatically and in unison. 200 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING Warp devices : cloth and warp beams that automatically " take on " cloth and " let off " warp. Weft devices: shaft-heddles that automatically open sheds ; shuttles that automatically insert weft and a reed-batten that automatically beats up weft. Fig. 87. — Cartwright's Second Power Loom, 1786 A frame of yam bobbins served in place of a warp beam. The lathe or slay is reversed to oscillate from below. Outline Example : Roberts' power loom. Implement — power loom. 1. frame, solid square structure of iron (29, 29e, i). 2. beams. (i) warp beam with pulley, cord and weight attachment for automatic "let off" (19, 20, 21, 21c, 22, 22d, e). WEAVING TYPES 20I (2) warp roller. (3) cloth beam with toothed wheel, pinion and ratchet wheel for automatic " take on." (4) breast beam. heddle-shaf ts suspended from pulleys and worked from below by tappets and levers. (Other looms may use dobbie) (24, 25, 26e). Fig. Working Parts of Power Loom Left, doth beam, breast beam. Center, reed-batten oscillating from below ; four shaft-heddles two down two up opening shed. Right, warp beam. 4- 5- 6. 7- bobbin-shuttle thrown by levers (27, 27d, e, f). batten with shuttle-race, shuttle-boxes and pickers is swung from below (28, 28d, g). driving gear, stop motion devices. 202 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING Power — Steam (31, 31c). Process — Loom mounting (30, 30e). Warping, Beaming — ■ by mill and frame. Heddling — warp entered by hand. Fig. 89. — • Roberts' Loom, Side Elevation, 1830 The warp passes from warp beam (/), over roller (K), through heddles (L), through reed of batten (H) ; here the cloth continues over breast beam and is rolled upon cloth beam (A''). WEAVING TYPES 203 Wefting. Shedding, Picking, Battening. These processes proceed as in the Drop-box-shuttle hand loom, but automatically and in uni- son, with an additional automatic beam motion, and stop weaving motion. Economic Gain In production : Introduction of steam power. Automatic and continuous shedding, picking, batten- ing and " letting-off " and " taking-on " motions. In product : Uniformly even and perfect web. BIBLIOGRAPHY - Baines, E. "Cotton manufacture." (Illustration.) I Barlow, A. "History and principles of weaving." I Beaumont, R-C) "Wool manufacture." (Modern loom.) I Beaumont, R.(^) "Woollen and worsted." (Modern loom.) - Brooks, E. C. "Story of cotton." - Butterworth, B. "The growth of industrial art." (Illustra- tion.) - Chamberlain, J. F. "How we are clothed." (Illustration.) - Dooley, W. H. "Textiles." (Illustration.) - Draper, G. 0. "Labor saving looms." (Illustration.) I Encyclopaedia Britannica. "Weaving machinery." - Falcot, P. "Encyclopedic et methodique de la fabrication des tissus." (Illustration.) - Farrar, F. A. " Factories and great industries." . (Illustration.) 4 Foreman, S. E. "Stories of usefiil inventions." I Fox, T. W. "The mechanism of weaving." I Gilroy, C. G.Q) "Art of weaving," p. 345. 204 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING 3 Heylin, H. B. "The cotton weaver's hand book." - Hooper, L. "Loom and spindle." (Illustration.) (^) Journal Royal Society of Arts, LX. {*) Report Smithsonian Institution, 1914. - Lindner, G. "Spinnerei und Weber ei." (Illustration.) I Marsden, R.(2) "Cotton weaving." I Murphy, W. S. "The textile industries," IV. I New International Encyclopedia. "Looms." I Simmonds, P. L. "Cotton manufacture." I Tomlinson, C. " Cyclopedia useful arts," II. "Weaving." I Ure, A. "Cotton manufacture." - Walton, P. "The story of textiles." (Illustration.) I Warden, A. J. "Linen trade, ancient and modern," 712. - Watson, K. "Textiles and clothing." I Woolman and McGowan. "Textiles," 70. ILLUSTRATIONS Baines, p. 234. Power loom. 239. Power loom weaving. Barlow, p. 230. The first power loom. 232. Barbar's loom. 236. Cartwright's second loom. 239, 240. Horrocks's loom. 245 a. Almond's loom. 245 b. Radcliff's loom. Beaumont (}), p. 207. Shedding motion. Tappet loom. 216. Shedding, vertical lever Dobbie. Beaumont (^), p. 331. Combined warping, sizing, and beaming machine. 394. Shedding motion. Tappet loom. 406. Shedding, vertical lever Dobbie. 423. Shedding, ordinary Dobbie. Brooks, p. 57. Modern loom. Butterworth, p. 176, figs. 5-8. Power loom. Chamberlain, p. 77. The woolen loom. WEAVING TYPES 205 Dooley, p. 112. Fancy cotton loom. Draper, p. 28. Roberts' loom. Encyclopaedia Britannica. "Weaving." fig. 28. Vertical section of power loom. Falcot, PI. Ill, IV. Warping. V, VI. Beaming. VIII. Preserving sheds. Farrar, p. 21. Early power loom. Gilroy 0), pp. 346, 347, 348. Roberts' loom. Heylin, p. 5. Ready for heddling. 8. Tappet loom. II. Tappet shedding. Hooper (^) (^), fig. 58. Cartwright's second machine loom. Horrocks's machine loom. Almond's loom. Austin's machine loom. Modern silk loom. Whalley's circular machine loom. Section of WhaUey's loom. 59- 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. Lindner, p. 145. Loom room. 147. Power loom. 148, 149, 150. Diagrams of power looms. 151. Shaft apparatus, Chain for shaft working. 152. Crompton's shaft apparatus. 153. Power loom. Marsden (^), p. 61. Cartwright's first power loom, 1785. 64. Cartwright's second loom and details, 1876. 74, 75, 76. Roberts' loom. 78. Roberts' loom shuttle. Murphy, IV, pp. 172, 173. Sharp and Roberts' power loom. 174. Complete power loom. New International Encyclopedia. "Looms." fig. 2. Power loom. 3. Northrop loom. Simmonds, pp. 230, 231, 232. Sharp and Roberts' power loom. 2o6 YARN AND CLOTH MAKING Simmonds, p. 233. Power loom shuttle. Tomlinson, fig. 2321. Working parts of power loom. Ure, pp. 292, 293, 294. Sharp and Roberts' power loom. 296. Power loom shuttle. Walton, p. 92. Cartwright's loom. 238. A modern weave room. 244. Modern automatic looms. Watson, p. 68. Plain power loom. Woolman and McGowan. p. 68. Power loom. 79. Power loom with drop boxes and dobby attachment. APPENDIX A GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY Andree, E. "A naturalist in the Guianas." 1904. Baines, E. " Cotton manufacture." 1835. Bancroft, H. H. "Native races," I, II. 1874. Banerjei, N. N.^) "Woollen fabrics of Bengal." 1899. Banerjei, N. N.(2) "Cotton fabrics of Bengal." 1898. Banerjei, N. N.(^) Same as above in Journal Indian Art, VIII. Barker, A. F. "Textiles." 1910. Barlow, A. "History and principles of weaving." 1879.- Bartlett, J. R. "Personal narratives," II. 1854. Beaumont, R.C) "Wool manufacture." 1890. Beaumont, R.(^) "WooUen and worsted." 1915. Bell, T. F. " Jacquard weaving and designing." 1895. Blount, Mrs. G. "The story of a home spun web." 1913. Boas, F.(^) "Indians of British Columbia." Rept. British Asso. Adv. Science, 1890. Boas, F.(2) "Kwakiutl Indians." Mem. American Museum, V, Pt. II. Braulik, A. " Altagyptische Weberei." Dingler's polytech. Journal, No. 311. (Illustration.) Brockett, P. L. "Silk industry in the United States." 1876. Brooks, E. C. "Story of cotton." 1911. Brooks, C. P. "Cotton." 1898. (Illustration.) Briiggemann, H. "Die Spinnerei." 1899. Burton, F. R. '-'Ultima Thule ; or, A summer in Iceland." 1875. BusheU, S. W. " Chinese art," II. (Illustration.) Butterworth, B. "The growth of industrial art." 1892. 207 2o8 APPENDIX A Cailliaud, F. "Recherchessurles arts et metiers." 1831. (Illus- tration.) Carter, H. R. "Modern flax, hemp and jute spinning." 1907. Carter, H. R. . "Spinning and twisting long vegetable fibers," 1904. Carus, P. "Chinese life and customs." 1907. (Illustration.) Cavendish, A. C. J. "Korea and the sacred white mountain." 1894. (Illustration.) Chamberlain, J. F. "How we are clothed." 1904. (Illustration.) Champlin, J. D. "Young folks' cyclopedia of common things." 1908. ChampoUion, J. F. "Monuments de I'Egypte," IV. 1835. (Illustration.) Chapman, S. J. "Cotton industry and trade." 1904. Chase and Clow. "Stories of industries," II. 1909. (Illustra- tion.) Clapham, J. H. "The woollen and worsted industries." 1907. (Illustration.) Cole, F. C. "Bagobos of Davas gulf." Philippine Jour. Science. D. 6, 191 1. (Illustration.) Coles, F. R. "Scottish spindles." Reliquary and lUus. Archae- ologist, V, (Illustration.) Coomaraswamy, A. K. "Mediaeval Sinhalese art." 1908. Cowan, J. L. "Story of silk." Scientific American Sup., April 23, 1910. Crawford, M. D. C.(i) "Peruvian textiles." Am. Museum An- thropological Papers, XII, 3. Crawford, M. D. C.{^) "Master weavers of the desert empire." Harpers, July, 1916. Cyclopedia of textile work. 1907. Davies, N. de G. "Five Theban tombs." 1913. (Illustration.) Dellenbaugh, F. S. "North Americans of yesterday." 1901. Dewar, J. C. "Voyage to Nyanza, Salomon Islands." (Illus- tration.) Dooley, W. H. "Textiles." 1910. APPENDIX A 209 Draper, G. O. "Labor saving looms." 1907. (Illustration.) Du Chaillu, P. B. "A journey to Ashangoland, W. Africa." 1867. Ducousso, G. "L'industrie de la sole en Syria et au Liban." 1913. (Illustration.) Earl, A. M. "Home life in colonial days." 1913. Edge-Partington. "Album of weapons, tools and ornaments of natives of Pacific Island," I. 1890. (Illustration.) Emery, M. S. "How to enjoy pictures." 1898. (Illustration.) Emmons, G. T. "The Chilkat blanket." American Museum, Mem. III. Encyclopaedia Britannica. "Spinning," "Weaving," "Cotton manufacture," "Woolen and worsted." Ephraim, H. "Entwicklung der Webetechnik ausserhalb Eu- ropas." Mus. fiir Volkerkunde zu Leipzig, Band I, Heft I. (Illustration.) Erman, A. "Life in ancient Egypt." 1894. Falcot, P. "Encyclopedia et methodique de la fabrication des tissus." 1844. (Illustration.) Farrar, F. A. "Factories and great industries." 1916. (Illus- tration.) Foreman, S. E. "Stories of useful inventions." 1915. Forrer, R. ReaUexikon. "Webstuhl," "Webstuhlgewicht," "Gewebe," "Spindln." 1907. (Illustration.) Fox, T. W. "Mechanism of weaving." 1900. Garnett, A. "Hand spinning." 1896. Garstang, J. "Burial customs of ancient Egypt." 1907. General guide to American Museum Natural History. 19 16. (Illustration) . Gibbs, C. "Household textiles." 191 2. Gibbs, G. "Tribes of west Washington and northwest Oregon." Contributions to N. A. Ethnology, I. Gilroy, C. G.(i) "Art of weaving." 1844. Gilroy, C. G.{^) "History of silk, cotton, linen, wool." 1845. Goddard, P. E.(^) "Indians of the Southwest." American Mus. Handbook 2, 1913. 2IO APPENDIX A Goddard, P. E.(2) "Navajo blankets." American Mus. Journal, Nov. 1910. Gosse, A. B. "The civilization of ancient Egyptians." 191 5. (Illustration.) Guest, R. "Cotton-manufacture." 1823. Guide to Anthropological collections, Provincial Mus., Victoria, B. C. 1909. Hamilton, A. "Maori art." New Zealand Institute. 1901. Handbook of American Indians. "Weaving." Bureau Arn. Eth- nology, Bull. 30, II. Handbook of ethnographical collections, British Museum. 1910. Heiden, M. " Handworterbuch der Textilkunde." 1904. (Il- lustration.) Heylin, H. B. "The cotton weaver's handbook." 1916. Hitchcock, R. "The Ainos of Yezo." National Mus. Report, 1890. Hoffman, W. J. "The Menomonee Indians." 14 Rept. Bureau Am. Ethnology. HoUister, U. S. "The Navajo and his blanket." 1903. Holmes, W. H.(i) "Prehistoric textile fabrics in U. S." 3 Rept. Bureau Am. Ethnology. Holmes, W. H.(^) "Prehistoric textile art of eastern U. S." 13 Rept. Bureau Am. Ethnology. Holmes, W. H.(^) "Textile fabrics of ancient Peru." Report Bu. Am. Ethnology. 1889. Hooper, 'L.Q) "Hand-loom weaving." 1910. Hooper, L.(2) "Silk." 1911. Hooper, L. " The loom and spindle : past, present and future." (^) Journal Royal Society of Arts, LX. (*) Report Smithsonian Institution. 1914. Hooper, L.(^) "Technique of Greek and Roman weaving." Burlington Mag. 18, 191 1. Horner collection, Belfast Municipal Museum. "Spinning Wheels." 1909. Homiman Museum handbook, 11. APPENDIX A 211 Hunter, J. A. "Wool." 1912. Im Thurn, E. F. "Indians of British Guiana." 1883. James, G. W. "Indian blankets and their makers." 1914. James, J. "History of worsted manufacture." 1857. Jannasch, R. "Die Textilindustrie bei Ur- und Naturvolkern." Berliner GeseUschaft fiir Anthropologie, XX. s. 88. Jochelson, W. "The Koryak." American Mus. Mem. X. Journal of Indian Art. VIII, Banerjei, N. N. "Cotton fabrics of Bengal." X, Brandon, B. A. "Woolen fabrics of Bombay." X, Dewar, F. "Silk fabrics, Central Provinces." X, Edwards, S. M. "Silk fabrics of Bombay." X, Enthoven, R. E. " Cotton fabrics of Bombay." I, Gupte, B. A. "Thana silks." X, Hardiman, J. P. " SHk of Burma." V, Mookerji, N. G. "Silk industries of Moorshedabad." X, Samman, H. F. "Cotton of Assam." X, Silberrad, C. A. "Cotton of Northwestern Provinces." Kane, P. "Wanderings." 1859. Keller, F. " The lake dwellers of Switzerland." 1878. Kimakowicz-Winnicki. "Spinn- und Webewerkzeuge in vorge- schichtlicher Zeit Europas." Darstellungen iiber friih und vorgeschichtliche Kultur-Kunst und Volkerentwicklung, 2 Heft. (Illustration.) Kissell, M. L.O) "Aboriginal weaving in America." Rept. Cotton Manuf. Asso. 1910. (Illustration.) Kissell, M. L.(2) "A new type of spinning in North America." American Anthropologist, 18, No. 2, April, 1916. Kissell, M. L.(^) "Fabrics from primitive looms." (In prep- aration.) Klose, H. "Togo." 1899. (Illustration.) Lepsius, K. R. "Denkmaler." 1859-1860. (Illustration.) Lindner, G. "Spinnerei und Weberei." 1913. Manchester, H. H. "The story of silk and Cheney silks." 1916. (Illustration.) 212 APPENDIX A Marsden, R.(^) "Cotton spinning." 1891. Marsden, R.(2) "Cotton weaving." 1905. Mason, O. T.(i) "Origin of inventions." 1901. Mason, O. T.(^) "Woman's share in primitive culture." 1894. Mason, O. T.(^) "A primitive frame for weaving narrow fabrics." Rapt. Nat. Mus., 1899. Mason, O. T.('*) Same article in Scientific American Sup. 51, sup. 1324. Maspero, G.C) "Manual of Egyptian archaeology." 1902. Maspero, G.(^) "Dawn of civilization in Egypt and Chaldaea." 1894. (Illustration.) Matthews, W. "Navajo weavers." 3 Rept. Bureau Am. Eth- nology. McLaren, W. S. B. "Spinning woollen and worsted." 1893. Megraw, R. H. "Textiles and the origin of their names." 1906. (Illustration.) MiU, J. "History of British India," i edition, V. I ; 2 edition, V. II ; 4 edition, V. 181 7-1848. Miller, M. L. "The Mangyans of Mindora." Philippine Jour. Science D. 7, 191 2. Montelius, O. "Civilization of Sweden in heathen times." Tr, 1888. Montgomery, J. "Cotton spinning." 1836. Morris and Wilkinson. "Elements of cotton spinning."' 1897. Mundorf, E. "Die Appretur der WoU- und Halbwollwaren." 1912. Miintz, E.(i) "Short history of tapestry." Tr. 1885. (Illus- tration.) Muntz, E.(2) "La tapisserie." 1883. Miintz, E.(3) "Tapisseries." 1890. (Illustration.) Murphy, W. S. "The textile industries," II, III, IV, V. 191 2. Nasmith, J. "Student's cotton spinning." 1896. Nelson, E. W. "The Eskimo." 18 Rept. Bu. American Eth- nology, Pt. I. Newberry, P. C. "Beni Hassan," I, II. 1893. (Illustration.) APPENDIX A 213 Newberry, P. C. " El Bersheh," I. 1895. (Illustration.) New International Encyclopedia. "Looms." Nystrom, P. H. "Textiles." 1916. Olivier, L. "La Tunisie." 1899. (Illustration.) Oppel, A. "Die Baumwolle." 1902. (Illustration.) Pariset, E. "Industries de la sole." 1890. (Illustration.) Paiilitschke, P. " Ethnographic Nordost-Afrikas." 1893. (Illus- tration.) Peake, R. J. "Cotton." 1910. PenhaUow, D. P. "Fabrication of Aino cloth." Scientific Am. Sup., No. 244. Pepper, G. H. "The making of the Navajo blanket." Every- body's Mag., Jan. 1902. Perrot and Chipiez. "A history of art in ancient Egypt." Tr. 1883. Pictorial Gallery of Arts, I. (Illustration.) Pinckerton, J. "Voyages and travels," I. 1808. Porter, G. R. " Silk manufacture." 1831, 1832. Powell, B. H. "Handbook of manufactures and arts of Punjab." 1872. Priestman, H. "Principles of cotton spinning." 1908. Radcliffe, J. W. "Manufacture of woollen and worsted yarn." 1913- Ratzel, F. "History of mankind," II. Tr. 1896-98. (Illustration.) Reliquary and Illustrated Archaeologist, V, 80. Revoil, G. "Reise in Lande der Benadir, Somali und Bajun." Globus. 47. (Illustration.) Rock, D. "Textile fabrics." 1876. (Illustration.) Rohn, G. "Die Spinnerei." 1910. (Illustration.) Ronchaud, L. de. "La tapisserie." 1884. (Illustration.) Rosellini, I. "Monumenti," II. 1834. (Illustration.) Roth, H. L.(i) "Ancient Egyptian and Greek looms." Bankfield Museum Notes, Second series, No. 2. Roth, H. L.(^) "Studies in primitive looms." Part I. Bank- field Museum Notes, Second series. No. 8. 214 APPENDIX A Roth, H. L.(') "Studies in primitive looms." Part II. Bank- field Museum Notes, Second series, No. 9. Roth, H. L.C) " Natives of Sarawak." 1896. Russell, F. "The Pima Indians." 26 Report Bureau Am. Ethnology. Schams, J. "Handbuch der Weberei." 1900. Schurtz, H. " Urgeschichte der Kultur." 1900. (Illustration.) Simmonds, P. L. "lire's cotton manufacture." 1861. Smith, W. Dictionary Greek and Roman antiquities. "Tela." 1870. Smith, Wayte and Marindin. Diet. Greek and Roman antiquities. "Tela." 1891. Starr, L. B. "Ancient and modern looms." Art and Decoration, 1911, 2, 208. Stevenson, M. "Zuni Indians." 23 Rept. Bureau American Ethnology. Swan, J. G. "Indians of Cape Flattery." Smithsonian Contribu- tions, XVI. Taggart, W. S. "Cotton spinning." 1911. Teit, J. "Shuswap Indians." American Museum, Mem. IV, Pt. VII. Thomson, W. G. "History of tapestry." 1906. Thornley, T. "Cotton spinning." 1901. Todd, J. A. "The world's cotton crop." 1915. Tomlinson, C. Cyclopedia useful arts, II. "Weaving." 1854. "Tops, A new American industry." Arlington MiUs, Lawrence, Mass. 1898. (Illustration.) Tylor, E. B. "Anthropology." 1904. Ure, A. "Cotton manufacture." 1836. Ure, A. Dictionary arts, manufactures, mines, II. "Weaving." 1862. Vickermann, C. "Woolen spinning." 1894. Walton, P. "Story of textiles." 1912. Walton, W. "History of cotton of Bombay Presidency." 1880. Warden, A. J. "Linen trade, ancient and modern." 1864. APPENDIX A 215 Watson, J. "Art of weaving." 1864. Watson, J. F. " Textile manufactures and costumes of people of India." 1866. Watson, K. "Textiles and clothing." 1907, 1916. Weeden, W. B. "The art of weaving." Rept. Am. Historical Association. 1902. Wilkinson, F. "Story of the cotton plant." 1899. Wilkinson, J. G. "Ancient Egyptians." 1837, 1879. (Illus- tration.) Willoughby, C. C. "New type of ceremonial blanket." Am. Anthropologist, XII, No. i. Woolman and McGowan. "Textiles." 1913. Worcester, D. C. "Non-Christian tribes of northern Luzon." Philippine Journal of Science, I. 1906. Zipser, J. "Raw textile materials." 1901. APPENDIX B MAGAZINE ILLUSTRATIONS Compiled with the assistance of Anna la Tourette Blauvelt. Note. — i = best examples. F = famous paintings. Spinning I National Geographical Magazine. I V. 23, Sept. 1912, p. 914. Young Bontoc Igorot girl spin- ning. Spinning III National Geographical Magazine. V. 15, Aug. 1904, p. 345. Indian woman spinning, S. W. Mexico. Indian woman spinning, Mound builders. Girl spinning, Tinguianes, Phil- ippines. Woman of Tiahuanoco, Peru. Native spinner of Tunis. Lacondone women spinning cotton. P- 345- 16, Apr. 1905, p. 163. 19, Sept. 1908, p. 601. I 22, Sept. 1911, p. 804. I 25, June 1914, p. 628. Everybody's Magazine. V. 6, Jan. 1902, p. 38. Records of the Past, slide and print, No. 4500, Navaho woman spinning. Indian woman spinning and weaving. 216 APPENDIX B 217 Spinning IV F Angelo, Michael. F Millet, Jean Frangois. Records of the Past. slide and print, No. 379. National Geographical Mag- azine. V. 17, Mar. 1906, p. 145. I 19, Nov. 1908, p. 768. 20, Aug. 1909, p. 780. I 25, Mar. 1914, p. 299. 25, Mar. 1914, p. 313. I 28, Oct. 1915, p. 370. 28, Nov. 191 5, p. 473. 30, Nov. 1916, p. 107. 30, Sept. 1916, p. 198. 31, June 1917, p. 563. F Simmons, Edward. The Three Fates. orig. Pitti Palace, Florence. repro. 375 Brown's Famous Pictures. The Spinner. 562 Cosmos Picture Co. 562 University Prints. Girl Spinning. 1362 Brown's. 505 Perry Pictures. Gypsy spinning as she goes along the road, Asia Minor. Slave spinning. Bulgarian woman spinning as she walks to town. Cretan woman spinning. A spinning woman. Holy Land (colored). Man spinning in Jerusalem (colored). Roumanian woman with spindle. Distaff spinner of Gourdin, France. Domestic scene, Sardinia, So. Europe. Roumanian girls making thread. The Hungarian gypsy mother. The Three Fates. New York Criminal Court House. Copley Prints. 2l8 APPENDIX B Underwood and Underwood. Stereograph and slide, Nega- Home duties of the Hopi In- tive, No. 6178. dians, Ariz. F Unknown Artist, Dutch, Old Woman holding distaflf. XVII Cent. Soule Art Co. Spinning V F Breton, Mme. Demont. Country Life. July 1903, p. 199. I Dec. 1905, p. 864. Craftsman. Jan. 1902, p. 47. The Divine Apprentice. Salon, 1897. L'lUustration, Apr. 1879. 1669, Brown's. Product of Kentucky mountain spinner. Irish peasant spinnet. Girl spinning on wool wheel, Kentucky. An Aran woman and her wheel. Harper's Magazine. May 1910, p. 894. International Studio V. 58, Apr. 1916, p. LVII. Types of spinning wheels. Illustrated London News Supplement. Oct. 20, 1855, p. 474. Keystone View Co. Stereograph, No. 14752. 13496. 13497- F Liebermann, Max. Spinning. Native silk spinning plant, Japan. Carding and spinning wool, Telemarken. Spinning in Telemarken. Flax spinning in Laren. National Gallery, Berlin. Century Mag. frontispiece, July 1905. APPENDIX B 219 Mcintosh Stereopticon Co. Slide No. E 1047.9. Tibetan man spinning wool. Modern Mexico. July 1904, p. 21. Mexican spinner. National Geographical Magazine. V. 16, Apr. 1905, p. 182. Ilocanos spinning cotton, Phil- ippines. 17, Mar. 1906, p. 145. Moorish woman at spinning wheel. 20, Feb. 1909, p. 190. Spinner of Asia Minor. 22, Aug. 191 1, p. 711. Dyak girl spinning, Borneo. Records of the Past. slide and print, No. 11027. Silk spinning. Scientific American Supplement. V. 40, Oct. 1895, sup. no. Fig. 5. Spinning the tussah. 1033 53, June 1902, sup. no. Fig. 8. Spinning istle by hand. 1382 F Velasquez, Diego Rodriguez. Tapestry weavers (las Hilan- deras) . Mus. of Prado, Madrid. 664 Perry. Rhine Prints (colored). Spinning VI F Brekelenkam, Quiryn. Camp, the spinner. Metropolitan Museum, N. Y. Met. Mus. Photo. F Barse, George R. Priscilla spinning. 1444 Brown's. Craftsman. V. I, Jan. 1902, p. 25. • Flax wheel and loom from old cut. p. 29. Flax wheels. F Davey, Randall. The courtship (J. Alden and Priscilla) . 1634 Brown's. 220 APPENDIX B F Gay, Walter. The spinners (les fileuses), Irish spinner. Hull House Mus. postals, Chicago. Illustrated London News Supplement. Aug. 26, 1905, p. 305, Figs. 4, 5- Dec. 2, 1871, p. 533. International Studio. V. 58, Apr. 1916, p. LVIII. F Maes, Nicholaas. F Marr, Carl. F McEwen, Walter. Spinning. A winter evening in the Tyrol. Types of spinning wheels. The old spinner. Museum Amsterdam. 750 Brown's. Gossip. MetropoHtan Mus. N. Y. Copley. 103 Emery. Telling ghost stories. 112 Emery. Mcintosh Stereopticon Co. Slide No. E 1047.8. French peasant spinner. National Geographical Magazine. I V. 24, Aug. 1913, p. 933. 26, Sept. 1914, p. 206. p. 292. I 28, Nov. 1915, p. 417. F Rembrandt, van Ryn. F Romney, George. Underwood and Underwood. Stereograph and slide neg. no. 6572. A Swiss wheel and distaff. A spinner of Britanny. Spinning bee near Berlin. Aged spinner of France. Old woman spinning. Albertina Gallery, Vienna. Harper's Black and White Prints. At the spinning wheel (portrait of Lady Hamilton) . Artistic photo. Co. Spinning, Breton home. APPENDIX B 221 Spinning IX Scientific American Supplement. V. 31, Jan. 1891, sup. no. Crompton's mule in Chadwick's 785. Weaving II Art and Decoration. I V. I, Mar. 1911, p. 208. The Studio. I autumn 1910, fig. 345. Weaving IV Leslie's Weekly. Aug. 18, 1904, p. 153. July 28, 1904, p. 83. Keystone View Co. Stereograph, No. 1005 1. Weaving V F AUen, Frances and Mary. F Brush, George de Forest. Country Life in America. Feb. 1906, p. 413. p. 414. Everybody's Magazine. I V. 6, Jan. 1902, p. 35. I P- 39- I p. 40. I p. 41. Mcintosh Stereopticon Co. Slide No. E 1047.14. Museum, Boston. Ancient and modern looms. Weighted warp loom. Igorote, weaving blanket. Igorote, weaving cloth. Weaving hemp into cloth, native method, Philippines. Navajo weaver. An Indian weaver. Harper's black and white, 1899. Warping. Weaving the rug. Navajo woman weaving at hogan. Warping. The loom ready for work. The loom with design. Weaving Navajo blanket. 222 APPENDIX B National Geographical Magazine. V. 15, Aug. 1904, p. 346. Indian weaver, S. W. Mexico. 19, Oct. 1908, p. 688. Poncho weaver of Cuzco, Peru. I 23, Sept. 191 2, p. 889. An Ifugao woman making cloth. 23, Dec. 191 2, p. 1280. Bedouin women weaving woolen cloth. 29, May 1916, p. 454. Making blankets on hand looms, Peru. 30, July 1916, p. 21. Weaving a blanket in Indian Mexico. Underwood and Underwood. Stereograph and slide neg. Blanket weaving of Hopi In- No. 6188. dians, Arizona. Records of the Past. Slide and print. No. 4500. Navajo woman spinning and weaving. 1 1826. Navajo woman, Oraibe, Ariz. 4530. Navajo woman completing rug. 4501. Navajo blanket weaver. Scientific American Supplement. I V. 10, Sept. 1880, sup. no. Instruments used in weaving I 244, PL I. Aino cloth. PL 2. Methods of stretching and tying threads. I . PL 3. Weaving Aino cloth. V. 53, June 1902, sup. no. 1382, Fig. 7. Weaving istle bagging by hand. Weaving VI Illustrated London News Supplement. May 28, 1881, p. 525. Native loom at Mangauya,E. C. Africa. Penny Magazine. Aug. 24, 1883, p. 325. Weaving in Ceylon. APPENDIX B 223 Scientific American Supplement. I V. 51, May 1901, Figs. i-io. Heddle frames. Pueblo woman sitting on ground working heddle in weaving a belt. Zufii woman weaving cere- monial belt. Chinese cotton cloth weaver. ae. Woman of Korea weaving. Woman unwinding thread for loom. Starching thread and preparing it for loom, Korea. Weaving in Senegalais. Illustrated London News Supplement. May 17, 1879, p. 473. Weaving in Jellalabad. Underwood and Underwood. Stereograph and shde neg. No. 3453. Shawl weavers at Cashmere. Weaving IX F Cooper, Emma L. The Weaver, Canada. Phila. Water Color exhibit, June, 1906. American Water Color Co. No. 449. Country Life in America. V. 4, July 1903, p. 198. Loom warped for weaving, p. 199. Weaving. 10, June 1906, p. 863. A silk loom. p. 254. Old hand loom. I Fig. II. I Fig. 12. Weaving VII Magazine of Art. April 1900, p. 269. National Geographical Ma: V. 19, Dec. 1908, p. 874. I p. 875. I p. 876. Weaving VIII Figaro Aug. lUustre. 1900, p. 180. 224 APPENDIX B Craftsman. V. I, Jan. 1902, p. 28. p. 46. 16, May 1909, p. 227. 29, Nov. 1915, p. 224. p. 224. 29, Dec. 1915, p. 323- Hand looms, Halsemere, Eng. Colonial loom, Kentucky. Low warp loom, Herter tapes- tries. "Aunt Debby." Warps ready to be entered through heddles. Blind Tom weaving rag rugs.^ Starting a coverlid with five heddles. At the loom. 1030 Perry. Illustrated London News Supplement. Feb. 6, 1875, p. 128. Weaving Sarango, Java. May 28, 1881, p. 521. ' Matting weavers, Glasgow. Royal tapestry looms at Wind- sor. Weaving, warping and repairing. Weaving cloth-of-gold for the King and Queen. International Studio. v. 58, Apr. 1916, p. LVIII. Colonial hand loom. Keystone View Co. Stereograph, No. 13499. F Gay, Walter. I Apr. 29, 1882, p. 413. June 17, 1911, p. 945. 14754- Mcintosh Stereopticon Co. Slide, No. 1046.15. E 1047.10. E 1047.19. E 1047.20. E 1078. 74. Weaving woolen blankets on primitive hand loom, Tele- marken. Native loom, Kirju, Japan. Japanese looms. Weaving at loom in Norway. Weaving Gobelin tapestries, France. Weaving Gobelin tapestries, France. Weaving Persian rugs. APPENDIX B 225 Modern Mexico. June 1903, p. 27. Weaving. National Geographical Magazine. Looms of the Ilocanos, Luzon. A Swedish home. Benguet Igorot girls weaving. Armenian rug weavers at Van. Factory weaving in Japan. V. 16, Apr. 1905, p. 182. 20, May 1909, p. 470. 24, Nov. 1913, p. 1241. 28, Oct. 191S, p. 340. Records of the Past. Slide and print, No. 11028. Scientific American Supplement. V. 48, Aug. 1899, Sup. No. The carpet workers, Gobelin. 1232. Southern Workman. Apr. 1903, p. 211. June 1903, p. 278. The Studio. Autumn 1910, fig. 345. Underwood and Underwood. Stereograph and slide neg. No. 9574. 4639- 6419. 3886. 11467. I 1468. Weaving X International Studio. V. 42, Nov. 1910, p. 40. Hand loom. Weaving in Macedonia. Crude loom Nn. Museum, Stock- holm. Weaving royal Gobelin, France. Weaving Pima cloth, Philip- pines. Natives weaving matting, Mexico. Peasant weaving cotton, Japan. Arab weaver, Syria. Weaving, Syria. Ancient Japanese loom for weav- ing brocades from the Sho- kurin Burni by Minko. 226 APPENDIX B Weaving XI Mcintosh Stereopticon Co. Slide No. E 1049.14. Jacquard for linen. Scientific American Supplement. V. 69, Apr. 1 9 10, sup. no. Building up the Jacquard har- 1790. ness. 1790. Jacquard figured goods. Underwood and Underwood. • Stereograph and slide neg. No. 1 1446. Warping mill — silk. 1 1448. Entering silk through heddles. 145 19. Jacquard weaving. APPENDIX C BOOKS FOR JUVENILES WITH ADDITIONAL ILLUS- TRATIONS Compiled by Anna la Tourette Blauvelt. Adams, Cyrus W., Commercial geography. D. Apple ton & Co. 1911. Allen, Nellie B., Geographical and industrial reader. Ginn & Co. 1916. Baker, Emile Kip, Stories of old Greece and Rome. MacmOlan, 1913- Baldwin, James, Old Greek stories. American Book Co. 1895. Beard, L. and A. B., Recreation for girls. Chas. Scribner & Sons. 1 9 14. Bonawitz and Coleman, Little travellers around the world. A. S. Barnes & Co. 1907. Bulfinch, Thos., Golden age of myth and legend. F. A. Stokes &Co. Bulfinch, Thos., Mythology. T. F. Crowell Co. 1913. Carpenter, Frank G., How the world is clothed. Amer. Book Co. 1908. Chamberlain, James F., How we are clothed. Macmillan Co. 1904. Champlain, J. D., Young folks cyclopedia of common things. Henry Holt Co. 1908. Chase, and Clow, Stories in industry, II. Educational Pub. Co. 1909. Colonial Stories retold from the St. Nicholas. Century Co. Customs of the world. Paternoster Row, London. Davis, John W., Evenings with Grandma. D. C. Heath. 1911. Emory, Mabel S., How to enjoy pictures. Prang Co. 1898. 227 228 APPENDIX C Gayley, Charles Mills. The classic myths in English literature and art. Ginn 8: Co. 191 1. Grover, Eulalie Osgood, Art literature readers, I. Atkinson, Mentzer Co. 1904. Guerber, H. A., Myths in northern lands. Amer. Book Co. 189s. Hancock, Mary S., The children of history. Little, Brown, & Co. I Harding, Samuel B., The story of England. Scott, Foresman Sz Co. 1909. Hilton and RoUins, Industrial work for public schools. Rand & McNally. 1904. I Holbrook, Florence, Round the year in myth and song. Amer. Book Co. 1897. I Keller and Bishop, Commercial and industrial geography. Ginn & Co. 1916. Kingsley, Charles, The heroes. E. P. Button & Co. I Kinne and Cooley, Clothing and health. Macmillan Co. 1916. I Kinne and Cooley, Shelter and clothing. Macmillan Co. 1913- Lang, Jean, Book of myths. Putnam. Morris, Charles, Home life in all lands. Lippincott Co. 1909. Poulsson, Emily, In the child world. M. Bradley. 1898. Richmond, Celia, England, Scotland and Ireland. Ginn & Co. 1914. Rocheloau, W. F., Great American industries. A. Flanagan Co. 1906. Shillig, Eleanor E., The four wonders. Rand & McNally. 1913. Warner, Charles F., Home decoration. Doubleday Page & Co. 1911. I Williams, Archibald, How it is made. Thomas Nelson & Sons. I Wilmot-Buxton, Stories of Norse heroes. T. Y. Crowell Co. N. Y. INDEX African, spinning, lo, 2g-3i, figs. 3, 6, g weaving, 89, 99, 107, iii, 126-129, 136-141, 158-165, figs. 44, 50, 51, 62, 64 Ainu weaving, 83, 106, 136-141, 154 Alaskan Indian, spinning, 18-20 weaving, 114-116, figs. 30-34 Algerian spinning, fig. 9 Alpine, spinning, 29-31, fig. 8 weaving, 119-121, fig. 35 American Indian, N. A., Alaskan, 18-20, 114-116, figs. 30-34 Hopi, 149-151, fig. 56 Kwakiutl, 24-26, fig. 5 Mexican, 130-134, figs. 46-49 Navajo, 24-26, 91, loi, 107, no, 130-134, 136-141, figs. 4. 45, 47- 49, 53, 54 Northwest coast, 9, 18-20, 83, 94, 109, 114-116, figs. 30-34 Pima, 24-26 Salish, 21-23, 86, 126-129, figs. 2, 43 Slave, fig. 52 Tlinget, 18-20, 114-116, figs. 30-34 Zuni, 149-151, fig. 55 American Indian, S. A., British Guiana apron weaving, 126- 128 Holamux Indian loom, 126-128, fig. 41 Tereno Indian loom, 126-128, fig. 42 Ancient textiles, 1-3 spinning, 3, 4, 10, 29-31, figs. 3, 6, 8 weaving, 81, 87, 90, 91, 92, 96, 98, 99, loi, 104, 107, III, 119-121, 136-141, figs. 35-38, so, 51 2 Arkwright's Water frame, 56-59, figs. 21, 22 Asiatic, spinning, 8, 10, 11, 12, 14, 16, 24-26, 29-31, 36-39, fig- 10 weaving, 83, 98, 99, 106, 136-140, 153-157, 158-165, 185-189, figs. 57-61, 63, 65, 77, 78, 82 Asiatic wheel (see Jersey wheel) Attenuating, 4, 6-9, 19, 22, 25, 30, 39, 48, 53, 57, 61, 66, 74 Attenuating device, hand, 6-8, 18, 24, 36, 43, figs. 4, 5, 12, 13 hand and spindle, 6-8, 29, 30, fig. 7 moving carriage, 8-9, 51, 52, figs. 17- 19 rollers, 8-9, 56, 71, 72, figs. 22, 26-28 rollers and moving carriage, 8-9, 59, 60, 64, figs. 23-25 spindle and ring, 21, 22 Attenuating ring, 21, 22 Automatic, beams, 91, 199-201, figs. 87—89 spinning, 17, 64-67, 71-75, figs. 25-29 weaving, 91, 113, 199-203, figs. 87-89 Bar looms, 86, 88, 107, 108, 126-130, 130-135, fig- 41-49 Bark mat weaving, 83, 114-115, fig. 30 Basketry technics, 82, 83 Batten, 104-106 comb, 105, 131, 136, 138, 163, fig. 60 needle-shuttle, loi, 102, 105, 128, 138 none, 104, 114, 126, 127, 131, 136, 138., 150, figs. 30, 31, 41-43 reed, 106, 153, 154, 156, 161, 163, 168, 172, 186, 193, 200, 201, figs. 52, 57-59, 61, 62, 64, 65, 67, 72-76, 77, 78, 87-89 29 230 INDEX Batten, stick, los, 119, 120, 128, 131, 136, 138, 149, 150, 161, 163, • 168, 172, figs. 39, 40, 44-46, 48, so. 51- 54-56, 60, 66 Battening, 84, loi, 102, 104-106, 114, IIS, 121, 129, 133, 139, 151, 157, 164, 172, 188, 203 Beaming, 84, 86, no, 1x5, 121, 128, 132, 139, 150, 164, 172, 188, 202 Beams, 86-92 {see Warp arrangement) automatic, 91, 199-201, figs. 87-89 non-revolving, 90-92 one only, 86, 90, 114, figs. 31-33 revolving cloth beam, 88, 90-92 revolving warp beam, 89-92 Bedouin weaving, 98 Beni Hassan, 92 Bibliography, general, 207 (Appendix A) Bibliography, spinning, Flyer, Cap and Ring sp. frames, 75 Grasped hand spindle, 23 Hand mule, 62 Hand spinning, 20 Jenny frame, 54 Jersey and Asiatic wheels, 40 Saxony wheel, 48 Self-acting mule, 67 Supported hand spindle, 26 Suspended hand spindle, 32 Water frame, 57 Bibliography, weaving. Draw loom, 188 Frameless two-bar loom, 134 Jacquard loom, 196 One-beam loom, 117 One-shaft loom, 151 One-shaft treadle loom, 158 Perfected hand loom, 179 Power loom, 203 Two-bar loom, 129 Two-beam loom, 144 Two-shaft treadle loom, 165 Weighted warp loom, 122 Bobbin creel (spinning), 52, 53, 56, 60, 61, 72, 74, figs. 17, 18, 19, 26 Bobbin shuttle, 102, 131, 154, 156, 161, 163, 168, 171, 186, 193, 201, figs. 58, 59. 61. 66, 68, 74, 77 Bobbin spindle on Flyer, Cap and Ring frames, 12, 14, 71-74. figs. 26-29 on Saxony wheel, 11, 13, 43-48, figs. 12-16 on Water frame, 12, 13, 56, 57, figs. 21, 22 Bone and muscle, 83 Books for Juveniles with illustrations, 227 (Appendix C) British Guiana apron weaving, 126-129 Brunswick spinning wheel, 36-39 {see Jersey wheel) Bunched warp ends, 88 Calabar, W. Africa, loom, 126-129, fig- 44 Cap spinning frame, 8, 12, 14, 71-79, figs. 26, 29 {see Flyer spinning frame) Cartwright's power looms, figs. 86, 87 Ceylon loom, 98, 154-157, fig. 57 Chilkat blanket weaving, 114-116, figs. 31-34 Chinese treadle wheel, 11, 36-39 Chinese weaving, draw loom, 185-188, figs. 77, 82 early loom, 98, 106, 153-158, fig. 59 Chronological sequence, 2 Circe loom, 119-121, figs. 36, 37 Cloth beam, 86-92 {see W. types) attached to weaver's belt, 88, 91, 107, 130, 132, 137, 148-150, 154, 156, figs. 45, 55, 56, 58. 59 automatic, 91, 199-201, figs. 87-89 identical with warp beam, 86, 90, 114, figs. 31-33 Navajo, 91 non-revolving, 90-92 revolving, 88, 90-92 Cloth making, 80-206 {sec Weaving, W. implement, W. processes, W. types) age, 80 ancient, 81, 87, 90, 91, 92, 96, 99, loi, 104, 107, III, 119-121, 136- 141, figs, 35-38, so, 51 beginnings, i, 2, 80 defined, 82, 83 INDEX 231 Cloth making, developments, 2, 81, 85-113 {see W. types) early, i, 2, 4, 80, 81 first implements for, 85 implement for {see Looms) into garments, 82 into piece goods, 82 invention in, 80-113 {see W. types) loom weaves, 82, 83 mastery in, 81 native materials for, 81, 83 native weavers, 2 origin of, 80, 81 primitive, 1-3, 80-82 {see ibid.) processes, 84-113 {see W. processes) simplest, 94, 114-116, fig. 30 source, 80 structure, 83 Clove bars, 52, 53, figs. 17-19 Colonial loom, 168-179 Comberboard, 187, 196, figs. 81, 84, 8s Combining processes, 14, 15 Conserving energy, 15, 17 Continuous spinning, 13, 15, 43, 56, 72, figs. 12-16, 21, 22, 26-29 Continuous weaving, 91, 199-203, figs. 86-89 Counter faller-wire, 64-66, fig. 25 Creel of rove bobbins (spinning), 52, S3, 56, 60, 61, 72, 74, figs. 17, 18, 19, 26 Crompton's hand mule, 59-62, figs. 23, 24 Dacca yarn, 7, 10, 11, 24-26 Design making, 93, 94, 95, 99, 100, 105, 185-188, 192-196, figs. 77-81, 83- 8S _ Developing agencies, 14-17, 11 2-1 13 {see Yarn making and Cloth mak- ing) Development, 5-17, 81, 85-113 {see S. and W. types) Direction of technic, 114, 119, 126, 131, 136, 149 Distaff, 8, 29-31, 43, 46-48, figs. 7, 9, 13 Distinctive characteristics, spinning types, 18, 21, 24, 29, 36, 43,51, 56, 59, 64, 71 weaving types, 114, 119, 126, 130, 136, 149, 153, 158, 168, 185, 192, 199 Double drafting, 7-9, 15, 29-31, 59, 61, 64, 66, figs. 7, 23-25 Drafting {see Attenuating) Draw boy, 100, 186, 188, 193, figs. 77, 78 Draw boy mounting, 100, 185, 186, figs. 77-81 Draw loom, 185-192, figs. 77-82, Action of two harness systems, 100, 185-189, fig. 79 bibliography, 188 characteristics, 185 Chinese draw loom, 185-188, fig. 77 compound system of shedding, 100, 185-189, figs. 77-81 Diagram European draw loom, 185- 188, fig. 81 economics, 100 in production, 188 in cloth, 188 examples, 186 first elaborate pattern weaving, 100, 185, figs. 77-81 French draw loom, 100, 185-188, fig. 81 illustration list, 191 implement, 186 batten, 106, 186, figs. 77, 78 beams, 89-91, 186, figs. 77, 78 frame, log, 186, figs. 77, 78 shedding mechanism, 186 shaft mounting, 98-100, 185, 186, figs. 77-81 draw boy mounting, 100, 185, 186, figs. 77-81 shuttle, 102, 103, 186, figs. 68, 69, 74, 75, 77 treadles, 185, 188 warping device, no, in, 188, fig. 82 Japanese draw loom, 185-188, fig. 78 loom mounting, 188 magazine illustration, 225 232 INDEX Draw loom, outline, i86 power, 113, 188 process, 188 battening, 84, 188 beaming, 84, 188 heddling, 84, 188 picking, 84, 188 shedding, 84, 188, 189 warping, 84, 188 warp adjusting, 178 silk warping in ancient China, fig. 82 two systems of harness, 185-189, fig. 80 weft devices, 185 wefting, 188 Draw rollers, on Flyer, Cap and Ring spinning frames, 7, 8, 71, 72, 74, figs. 26-28 on Hand mule, 7-9, 59-61, figs. 23, 24 on Self-acting mule, 7-9, 64, 66, fig- 25 on Water frame, 7-9, 56, 57, fig. 22 Drive wheel, 11, 16, 17, 36-39, 43-48, Si-54, 56, 57, 60, 61, figs. 10-13, 16-19, 22-24 Drop-box shuttle, 104, 168, 172, 178, 193, 201, fig. 76 Dunbar mat weaving, 98, 153-157. fig- 57 Early spinners, 2 Early weavers, 2 Early yarn, 3, 4 Eastern weavers, 98, 99, 112 Economic progress {see S. and W. development. Increased production and Improved product) Egyptian spinning, yarn, 10, 29-31, fig. 6 twine, fig. 3 Egyptian weaving, Ancient mat loom, 90, 91, 104, 136- 141, fig. 50 Middle Age loom, 92, 158-165, fig. 64 Middle Kingdom hnen loom, 90, 91, 92, 96, loi, 136-141, fig. 51 New Kingdom linen loom, 90, 92, 96, loi, 107, III, 136-141 EngHsh fly-shuttle weaving, 168-179, fig- 67, 75 Entire weavings, 82 European, spinning, 8, 29-31, 36-74, figs. 7, 8, 11-29 weaving, 100, 112, 119-121, 168- 179, 185-189, 192-196, 199-203, figs- 35-40, 66-76, 79-81, 83-89 Extended warp, 88, 89, figs- 60-62, 64, 65 {see Warp arrangement) Faller-wire, 52, 53, 62, 64-66, figs. 19, 25 Flesh and skin, 83 Fly-shuttle, 103, 108, 168, 171, 175- 179, 186, 193, 201, figs. 67, 69, 75, 76 Flyer spinning frame, 71-79, figs- 26-29 bibliography, 75 characteristics, 71 continuous spinning, 72, 74 Cross section. Flax spinning frame, fig. 26 economics, 56 in output, 74 in yarn, 75 example, 72 illustration list, 76 implement, creel of rove bobbins, 72, 74, fig. 26 drawing rollers, 8, 71, 72, figs. 26, 27 Flyer spindle, 12, 14, 71, 72, figs. 26, 27 frame, 72, fig. 26 lifter rail or plate, 72, figs. 26, 27 spindles with bobbins, 12, 14, 71^ 72, figs. 26, 27 modeled after, 71 outline, 72 power, 17, 71, 74 process, attenuating, 7, 8, 74 twisting, 12, 74 winding, 14, 74 Frame {see S. frame and Loom frame) Frameless looms, 86, 88, 107, 130, 131, 137, 149, 150, figs. 45. 46, 50. 51. 55, 56 INDEX 233 Frameless two-bar loom, 130-135, figs. 45-49 bibliography, 134 characteristics, 130 development of simplest shedding, 93-95, 131-133, figs. 46-49 direction of technic, 131 economics, 86, 88, 107 in cloth, 134 in production, 134 example, 131 illustration list, 135 implement, 130, 131 batten, 104, 105, 131, figs. 45, 46, 48 frame, 86, 88, 107, 130, 131, figs. 45. 46 free bars, 86, 88, 130, 131, fig. 45 rod-heddle, 95, 131, 133, figs. 45, 46, 48, 49 shed-rod, 93, 94, 131, 133, figs. 45, 46, 48, 49 shuttle, loi, 102, 131, fig. 46 warping device, no, 131, 132, fig. 47 warp post, 86, 88, 107, 130, 132 weaver's belt, 86, 88, 107, 130- 132, fig. 45 weaver's comb, 105, 131, fig. 60 loom mounting, 84, 132 magazine illustration, 221 Mexican belt loom, 130, 134, fig. 46 modern Navajo belt loom frame, 131 Navajo woman weaving belt, 130- i34> fig- 45 outline, 131 power, 112, 131 process, 132 battening, 84, 133 beaming, 84, 86, 132 heddhng, 84, 132 picking, 84, 133 shedding, 84, 133 warp adjusting, 133, 134 warping, 84, 132 Rod-heddle and shed-rod at work, 95. 133, fig- 49 Shed-rod and rod-heddle, 95, fig. 48 warp devices, 86, 130 Warping for Navajo belt, 132, fig. 47 Frameless two-bar loom, warp lengthening, 88 warp stretching, 86, 130, 132, figs. 45, 49 weft devices, 94, 95, 102, 105, 131 wefting, 84, 133 Free spindle, 10, 11, 18-32, figs. 2-9 French loom, draw, 185-188, fig. 81 hand, 168-179 Grasped hand spindle, 21-24, figs. 2, 3 Egyptian twine maker, fig. 3 bibliography, 23 characteristics, 21 economics, 14—16 in production, 22 in yarn, 23 example, 21 illustration list, 24 implement, 21 drafting ring, 21,22 hand spindle, 9, 10, 21, fig. 2 intermittent spinning, 12, 21 largest hand spindle, 10, 21, fig. 2 most elemental spindle spinning, 10, 12, 16, 22, fig. 2 outline, 21 power, 16, 22 process, 22 attenuating, 7, 22 twisting, 10, 16, 22, fig. 2 winding, 12, 22 simplest attenuating device, 21, 22 Simplest spindle spinning, Salish Indian, fig.' 2 Greek, ancient spinning, 10 ancient weaving, 103, iig-121, figs. 36-38 medieval weaving, 168-179, fig. 66 Grifi", 195, 196, figs. 84, 85 Hand crank, 38, 52, figs. 18, 19, 23, 24 Hand drafting, 6-8, 19, 22, 25, 30, 39, 48, figs. 4, 7, 12, 13 Hand mule, 59-64, figs. 23, 24 bibliography, 62 characteristics, 59 234 INDEX Hand mule, compound of Water frame and Jenny, 59, 60 Crompton's mule, 59-62, fig. 23 Cross section, Hand mule, fig. 24 double drafting, 8, 9, 15, 59, 61 earliest mechanical double attenua- tion, 59-62 earliest mechanically spun fine yarn, economics, 15 in output, 62 in yarn, 62 example, 60 illustration list, 63 implement, 59, 60 carriage with spindles, 9, 59, 60, figs. 23, 24 creel of rove bobbins, 61, figs. 23, 24 draft rollers, 8, g, 59, 60, fig. 24 drive wheel, 60. figs. 23, 24 faller-wire, 62 frame, 60, figs. 23, 24 headstock, 60, figs. 23, 24 spindles, 12, fig. 24 intermittent spinning, 59, 60 magazine, illustration, 221 outline, 60 power, 17, 60 process, 61 attenuating, 7, 8, 9, 61 twisting, 12, 61 winding, 13, 61 Hand shuttle (see Bobbin shuttle) Hand spindle spinning, 6-8, 9-1 1, 12, 21-23, 24-26, 29-31, figs. 2-9 Hand spinning, 18-21, fig. i bibliography, 20 characteristics, 18 early, 4 economics, 5, 14, 15 in production, 20 in yarn, 20 examples, 18 Hand-on-thigh spinning, Philippine Islands, fig. i illustration list, 21 implement, 18, ig, fig. i Hand spinning, intermittent spinning, 12, 18- magazine illustration, 216 outline, 18 power, 19 process, 19 drafting, 6, 7, 18, 19 twisting, 9, 18, ig, fig. i winding, 12, 18, ig simplest spinning, 7, g, 18, fig. i Hangers, 186, fig. 80, 81 Hargreaves' Jenny, 51-55, figs. 18-20 Harness, double, 100, i85-i8g, figs. 77-81 Jacquard, g3, 100, ig2-ig5, figs. 83- . ^5 single, gg, 156, 161, 163, 170, figs. 57- 62, 64-67, 72, 73 Heddles {see Shedding device) Heddling, 84, 115, 121, 132, 139, 150, 157, 164, 172, 188, 202 High's Jenny, fig. 17 Holamux Indian loom, i26-i2g, fig. 41 Hook and Needle Harness, 100, ig3, igS, ig6, figs. 83-85 Hopi Indian belt weaver, 149-151, fig. 56 Hungarian, Peasant warping, fig. 71 Suspended spindle spinning, fig. 7 Iceland loom, iig-121, fig. 40 Illustration lists, spinning, Flyer, Cap and Ring spinning frames, 76 Grasped hand spindle, 24 Hand mule, 63 Hand spinning, 21 Jenny frame, 55 Jersey and Asiatic wheels, 41 Saxony wheel, 49 Self-acting mule, 69 Supported hand spindle, 28 Suspended hand spindle, 34 Water frame, 58 Illustration Usts, weaving Draw loom, igi Frameless two-bar loom, 135 Jacquard loom, ig7 INDEX 235 Illustration lists, weaving One-beam loom, 118 One-shaft loom, 152 One-shaft treadle loom, 158 Perfected hand loom, 181 Power loom, 204 Two-bar loom, 130 Two-beam loom, 144 Two-shaft treadle loom, i65 Weighted warp loom, 124 Implement for spinning, ancient, 4, g awkward, 2 early, 4 free spindle, g-ii, 21-23, 24-26, 29-32, figs. 2-9 hand only, 2, s, g, 18-20, fig. i improvements in, 6 mounted spindle, 11, 12 on frames, 5, 7, 8, 51-54. 56-57, 59-62, figs. 17-24 on machines, 5, 7, 8, 64-67, 71-74, figs. 25-29 on wheels, 5, 6, 8, 36-39, 43-48, figs. 10-16 self-acting tool, 2, 5, 7, 64-67, 71-74, figs. 25-29 Implement for weaving, 85-113 {see W. types) Improved product, 1-3 cloth, 85-111, 115, 121, 129, 134, 141, 151, 158, 165, 179, 188, 196, 203 yarn, 4-14, 20, 23, 26, 31, 40, 48, 54, 57, 62, 67, 75 Increased production, 1-3 in cloth, 85-111, 112-113, 115, 121, 129, 134, 141, 151, 157, 164, 178, 188, ig6, 203 in yarn, 5, 6, 14-17, 20, 22, 26, 31, 39, 48, 53, 57, 62, 67, 74 India, spinning, 7, lo-ii, 36-39, fig. 10 weaving, 89, 92, 98, 99, no, 153- 157, 158-165, figs. 57, 60, 61, 63, 70 Indian {see American Indian, N. and S.) Industrial Revolution, 6, 100 Intermittent spinning, 12, 13, 15, 18, 24, 30, 37, 51, 59, 64 Invention, activity in, 2 beginnings, 2 incentive to, i mastery in, 2 primitive, 2 spinning, 3-75 spirit of, I textile, I, 2 weaving, 80-203 Iron pin, 91, 150, 151 Ishogo weaving, 136-141 Jacquard hand loom, ig2-ig8, figs. 83- 85 bibliography, ig6 characteristics, 192 developing pattern shedding, 100 economics, gg, 100 in cloth, 196 in production, 196 example, 193 illustration list, 197 implement, 193 batten, 106, 193, figs. 67, 74-76 beams, 89-gi, 193, fig. 83 frame, 109, 193, fig. 83 shedding device, shaft-heddles, 98-100, 192-196 string-heddles and mechanism, 100, 192-196, figs. 83-85 shuttle, 102-104, 193, figs. 68, 6g, 74-76 Jacquard at work, fig. 85 Jacquard hand loom of 1804, 192- 196, fig. 83 Jacquard mechanism, 192-196, fig. 84 magazine illustration, 226 outline, 193 perfected pattern shedding, 100, 192- 196, figs. 83-85 power, 113, 196 process, ig6 shedding, 84, 196 Jacquard harness, 93, 99, 100, 192-196, figs. 83-Ss 236 INDEX Japanese weaving, draw loom, 185-188, fig. 78 early loom, 98, 153-158 Jenny spinning frame, 51-55, figs. 17-20 acceleration by multiple spinning, SI, 53 all mechanical processes, 51, 53 bibliography, 54 characteristics, 51 Cross section of Hargreaves' Jenny, SI-S3, fig- 19 earliest mechanical attenuation, 7, 8, 51-54 earliest multiple spinning device, 51 economics, 8 in output, 53 in yarn, 54 example, 51 Hargreaves' Jenny, 51-54, fig. 18 High's Jenny, fig. 17 illustration list, 55 implement, 51 clove bars, 51-53, figs. 17-1Q creel with rove bobbins, 51-53, figs. 17-19 drive wheel, 51-53, figs. 17-19 endless band and cylinder, 51, 52, figs. 17-19 faller-wire, 52, 53 frame, 51, 52, figs. 17-19 moving carriage, 8, 51-53, figs. 17- 19 row of spindles, 51-53, figs. 17, 18 intermittent spinning, 15, 51, 53 multiple spinning frame, 51 outline, 51 power, 52 principle of, 51 process, 53 attenuating, 8, 51-53 twisting, 12, 5 1-53 winding, 13, 51-53 Spindle of Jenny, fig. 20 Jersey wheel, 36-43, figs. 10, 11, accelerating wheel, 36 bibliography, 40 characteristics, 36 developing agencies, 14, 16 Jersey wheel, earliest mechanical spinning, 36 Earliest spinning wheel, India, 11. fig. 10 economics, 11, 14, 16 in production, 39 in yarn, 40 examples, 37 first mechanical twisting and wind- ing, 11-13, 36, 37 first mounted spindle, 11, 12, 36-39 illustration list, 41 implement, 37 crank, 38, fig. 10 drive band, 11, 38, figs. 10, 11 drive stick, 38, figs. 10, 11 drive wheel, 11, 36-39, figs. 10, II spindle, 11, 13, 36-39, figs. 10, 11 standard, 11, 37, figs. 11 treadle, 11, 37, 38 intermittent spinning, 12, 13, 37, 38 Jersey hand wheel, Europe, fig. 11 magazine illustration, 218 motion, 14, 37, 38 one-hand spinning wheel, 36-39, figs. 10, II outline, 37 power, 16, 38 principle, 36 process, 39 attenuating, 8, 36, 38, 39 twisting, II, 12, 36, 38, 39 winding, 12, 37-39 Korean loom, 98, 153-158, fig. 58 Koryak native spinning, 18-20 Kwakiutl Indian spinner, 24-26, fig. 5 Lake-dwellers, spinning, fig. 8 weaving, g6, 119-121, fig. 35 Lease, 95, 109, no, in, 164, 172, figs. 67. 72. 73 Lease-rod, 95, figs. 67, 72, 73 Leashes, 100, 186, 196, figs. 77, 78, 80, 81, 84, 85 Leonardo da Vinci's spindle, fig. 14 INDEX 237 "Let-off," 84, 91, 112, 157, 164, 178, 200 Lingoes, 186, 196, figs. 80, 81, 84, 85 Looms {see W. types), African, 89, 98, 99, 107, 126-129, 136-141, 158-165, figs. 44, 50, 51, 62, 64 {see Egy. w.) Ainu, 83, 106, 136-141 Alaskan, 114-116, figs. 30-34 Alpine, 119-121, fig. 35 Asiatic, 83, 89, 92, 98, 99, 106, no, 136-141, 153-158, 158-165, 185- 189, figs. 57-61, 63, 65, 77-80 Bedouin, 98 British Guiana apron, 126-129 Calabar, 126-129, fig. 44 Cartwright's, figs. 86, 87 Ceylon, 98, 154-157, fig. 57 Chilkat, 114-116, figs. 31-34 Chinese, 98, 106, 153-158, 185-188, figs. 5Q. 77. 82 Circe, 119-121, figs. 36, 37 Colonial, 168-179 Draw loom, 91, 99, 100, 109, 113, 185-189, figs. 77-82 Dunbar, 98, i53-iS7, fig- 57 Egyptian, 90-92, 96, loi, 104, 107, III, 136-141, 158-165, figs. 50, 51, 64 English, 168-179, figs. 67-76 European, 100, 112, 119-121, 168- 203, figs. 35-40, 67-76, 81, 83-89 Frameless, two-bar, 86, 88, 107, 130- 135, figs. 45-49 French, 168-179, 185-188, fig. 81 Greek, 103, 119-121, 168-179, figs. 36-38, 66 Holamux, 126-129, fig. 41 Hopi, 149-151- fig. 56 Icelandic, 11 9-1 21, fig. 40 India, 89, 92, 98, no, 153-157, 158- 165, figs. 57, 60, 61, 6j, 70 Ishogo, 136-141 Jacquard, 91, 93, 99, 100, 109, 113, 192-198, figs. 83-85 Japanese, 98, 153-158, 185-188, fig. 78 Korean, 98, 153-158, fig. 58 Lake-dweller, 96, 119-120, fig. 35 Looms, Mexican, 130-134, figs. 46-49 Most elementary, 86, 87, 94, loi, 104, 109, 114-116, figs. 30-34 Navajo, 91, loi, 107, no, 130-134, 136-141, figs. 45, 47-4Q. Si, 54 Northwest coast, 83, 94, 109, 114- n6, figs. 30-34 One-beam, 86, 87, 88, 94, loi, 107, 108, no, 114-119, figs. 30-34 One-shaft, 88, 91, 96, 107, 149-153, figs- 55, 56 One-shaft treadle, 91, 97, 98, ic6, 108, n3, 153-157, figs. 58, 59 Penelope's, 103, 119-121, fig. 38 Perfected hand, 87, 91, 100, ic6, 108, 109, 113, 168-179, figs. 67-76 Power, 91, 109, 113, 193, 199-203, figs. 86-89 Robert's, 199-203, fig. 89 Salish, 86, 126-129, fig- 43 Scandinavian, fig. 39 Slave, fig. 52 Tereno, 126-129, fig- 42 Two-bar, 86, 88, 107, 108, 126-130, figs. 41-44 Two-beam, 87, 90, 107, 108, 136- 149, figs. 50-54 Two-shaft treadle, 91, 98, 99, ic6, 108, 113, 158-168, figs. 60-65' Weighted warp, 86-88, 94, 107, 108, n9-i25, figs. 35-40 Zuni, 149-151, fig. 55 Loom beams, 86-92 {see W. types) automatic, 91, 199-201, figs. 87-89 non-revolving, 89-92 one only, 86, go, 114, figs. 31-33 revolving cloth beam, 88, 90-92 revolving warp beam, 89-92 Loom frame, 106-109, beginnings, 107, 108, 114, 120, 126, 127, 137, 161, figs. 30, 31, 36, 37, 39, 40, 41-43, 50-52, 57, 60, 61 horizontal, 108, 154, 156, 158, 161, 168, 169, 185, 186, 193, 200, figs. 58, 59, 60, 62, 64, 65, 67, 72, 77, 78, 83, 87, 89 vertical rectangular, 107, 108, 138, 168, i6g, figs. 44, 54, 66, 86 238 INDEX Loom mounting, 84, 114, 121, 128, 132, 130, 150, 157, 164, 172, 188, 202 Loom weights, 86, 119, 120, figs. 35-40 Machine, spinning, 5, 7, 64-67, 71-75, figs. 25- 29 warping, iii, 202 weaving, 81, 91, 112, 113, 199, 203, figs. 86-89 Magazine illustration, 216 (Appendix B) Spinning I, 216; II, 216; IV, 217; V, 218; VI, 219; IX, 221 Weaving, II, 221; IV, 221; V, 2 2 1 ; VI, 222; VII, 223; VIII, 223; IX, 223 ; X, 225 ; XI, 226 Mails, 186, 196, figs. 80, 81, 84, 85 Malay Island shuttle, 103 Matting, 87, 90, 91, 98, 104, 136-141, 153-157, figs, so, 57 Measuring stafi, 109, 114, 115, fig. 32 Mechanical drafting {see Attenuating) 7, 8, 9, 30, 51, 56, 61, 66, 74. figs. 6-9, 17-19, 21-29 Mechanical science, in spinning {see Yarn making and S. types) in weaving (.see Cloth making and W. types) Medieval weaving, 92, 99, 100, 158- 165, 168-179, fig. 64, 66 Mexican, belt weaving, 130-134, figs. 46-49 spinning, 24-26 Mill warping, in, 139, 172, 202, figs. 81, 82 Modern weaving, 81, 82 Most rudimentary weaving implement, 114, figs. 30, 31 Mounted spindle, 11, 12, 36-79, figs. 10-29 Moving carriage, 8-9 on Hand mule, 8, 9, 64-67, figs. 23, 24 on Jenny, 8, 51-53, figs. 17-19 on Self-acting mule, 8, 9, 64-67, fig. 25 Mule spinning, Crompton's Hand mule, fig. 23 Cross section Hand mule, fig. 24 Four stages of mule spinning, fig. 25 Hand mule, 59-62, figs. 23, 24 Self-acting mule, 64-67, fig. 25 Navajo Indian, belt weaving, no, 130-134, figs. 45, 47-49 blanket weaving, 91, loi, 107, no, 136-141, figs. 53- 54 spinning, 24-26, fig. 4 Necking cords, 187, 195, figs. 81, 84, 85 Needle board, 195, figs. 84, 85 Needle-shuttle, loi, 102, 105, 128, 138, 156, figs. 39, 57 Neolithic weavers, 81 Northwest coast Indian, spinning, 9, 18-20 weaving, 83, 94, 109, 114-116, figs. 30-34 One-band wheel {see Asiatic wheel) (and Jersey wheel) One-beam loom, 114-119, figs. 30-34 Am. Indian of northwest, 83, 94, 109, n4-n6, figs. 30-34 Bark mat weaving, 83, 114-115, fig. 30 bibliography, 117 characteristics, 114 Chilkat blanket, 114-116, figs. 31-34 developing agencies, 85 beam, 86 frame, 107 warping, 109 direction of technic, 114 economics, 86, 87, 94, loi in cloth, 115 in production, 115 example, 114 illustration list, 118 implement, 114 batten, 104, 114 beam, 86, 114-115, figs. 30, 31. 33 frame, 107, 108, 114, figs. 30, 31 shedding device, 94, 114, 115 INDEX 239 One-beam loom, shuttle, loi, 114 warping device, log, 114, fig. 32 loom mounting, 84, 109, 114 Measuring stafi, 109, 114, fig. 32 Method of attaching warp, 86, no, IIS, fig. 33 most rudimentary loom, 114, figs. 30, 31 outline, 114 over and under weaving, 114, 115 power, 112, 114 process, 114 battening, 84, 104, 114, 115 beaming, 84, 86, no, 115, fig. ^3 heddling, 84, 115 picking, 84, 94, loi, 114, 115 shedding, 84, 94, 114, 115 warping, 84, log, 115 suspended warp, 114, figs. 30, 31, ss Twilled twining, 115, figs. 33, 34 twine weaving, 115, figs. 33, 34 warp length, 87, 88, 114, 115 warp stretching, 86, 114, 115 weaving technics, 114, 115, figs. 33, 34 weft devices, 94, loi, 104, 114 wefting, 84, 115 Wool weaving, fig. 3 1 One-shaft loom, 149-153, figs. 55, 56 bibliography, 151 characteristics, 149 development, 85 improved shedding, 96, 97 direction of technic, 149 economics, in cloth, 151 in production, 151 examples, 149 frameless loom, 88, 107, 149-151 Hopi belt weaver, 149-151, fig. 56 illustration list, 152 implement, 149 batten, 105, 149, 150, figs. 55- S6 beams, 88, 89 cloth, 88, 91, 149, 150, figs. 55, 56 warp, 88, 149, 150, figs. 55, 56 warp post, 88, 107, 149, 150, fig- 56 frame, 88, 107, 149, figs. 55, 56 One-shaft loom, implement, shaft-heddle, 96, 97, 149, 150, figs. 55, 56 shuttle, 102, 149, 150, fig. 55 warping device, 150, fig. 47 weaver's belt, 88, 107, 149, 150, figs. 45, 58, 59 loom mounting, 150 ■ magazine illustration, 222 outline, 149 power, 112, 150 process, 150 battening, 84, 151 beaming, 84, 150 heddling, 84, 150 picking, 84, 151 shedding, 84, 151 warping, 84, 150 warp adjusting, 151 simplest shaft shedding, 149 warp devices, 149 warp extension, 88, 91, 149 warp stretching, 88, 149 weft devices, 96, 102, 105, 149, 150 wefting, 84, 151 Zuni belt making, 149-151, fig. 55 One-shaft treadle loom, 153-158, figs. 57-59 bibhography, 158 characteristics, 153 development, 85 batten, 106 beams, 89-91 frame, 108 power, 98 shedding, 97, 98 shuttle, loi, 102 Early Chinese loom, 98, 106, 153- 158, fig. 59 Early Korean loom, 98, 153-158, fig. 58 economics, 8g, 98, 99 in cloth, 157 in production, 157 Evolving heddle harness, 98, 154, fig- 57 examples, 154 illustration list, 158 240 INDEX One-shaft treadle loom, implement, 156 batten, 106, 153, 154, 156, figs. 57- 59 beams, 89-91 cloth, 90, 91, 154, 156, figs. 57-59 warp, 89, 91, IS4. 156, figs. 57^59 frame, 108, 154, 156, figs. 58, 59 shed-rod, 97, 153, 154, 156, figs. 57-59 shaft-heddle, 97, 98, 153, 154, 156, figs. 57-59 shuttle, loi, 102, 154, 156, figs. 57- 59 treadle, 98, 153, 156, figs. 58, 59 warping device, no, 156 weaver's belt, 91, 108, 154, 156, 157 in Bedouin desert, 98 in India, 89, 154 Japanese loom, 98, 153-158 loom mounting, 84, 157 magazine illustration, 223 most elementary use of foot power, 98, 153 outline, 154 power, 97, 98, 113, 153, 154, 156 process, 157 battening, 84, 157 beaming, 84, 157 heddling, 84, 157 picking, 84, 157 shedding, 84, 157 warping, 84, 157 warp adjusting, 157 transitional loom, 98, 108, 153 warp devices, 154 warp lengthening, 89-91, 154 weft devices, 154 wefting, 84, 157 Origin of textiles, spinning, i, 2, 3 weaving, i, 2, 4, 80 Outline studies, of spinning, 18, 21, 25. 30, 37, 43, SI, 56, 60, 64, 72 of weaving, 114, 119, 126, 130, 136, 149, 153, 158, 168, 185, 192, 199 Over and under weaving, 93, 114, 115 Pattern cards, 100, 195, 196, figs. 83-85 Pattern shedding, 93, 100, 185-187, 192-196, figs. 77-81, 83-85 Pattern weaving, 93, 94, 95, 99, 100, IDS, 185-188, 192-196, figs. 77-Si, 83-85 Peg warping, no, 139, 163, 172, 202, fig. 70 Penelope's loom, 103, 119-121, fig. 38 Perfected hand loom, 168-185, figs. 66- 76 • bibliography, 179 characteristics, 168 developing, 112 beams, 87, go, 91 frame, 108, 168 general mechanism, 112, 168 shuttle, 102-104, 168 Drop box shuttle, 104, 175, 178, fig. 76 economics, 87, 108, 112 in cloth, 178 in production, 178 examples, 168 first stretched warp for long webs, 87, 178 first united mechanism, 112, 168, 178 Fly-shuttle, 103, 168, 171, fig. 69 Fly-shuttle at work, 103, 171, 175, fig- 75 Greek loom of Middle Ages, 168- 179, fig. 66 Hand shuttle (bobbin shuttle), 102, 168, 171, fig. 68 Hand shuttle at work, 102, 175, fig. 74 Hungarian peasant warping, in, 172, fig. 71 illustration list, 181 implement, 169 batten, 105, 106, 168, 172, figs. 66, 67, 73-76 beams, 168 cloth, 90, 91, 168, 170, figs. 66, 67, 73 warp, 89, 168, 170, figs. 66, 67, 72, 73 frame, 107, 108, 168, 169, figs. 66, 67, 72 INDEX 241 Perfected hand loom, implement, shaft-heddles, 98-100, 168, 170, figs. 66, 67, 72, 73 shuttle, 102-104, 168, 171, 172, figs. 66, 68, 69, 74-76 treadles, 99, 113, 168, 171, fi.gs. 66, 67, 73 warping device, no, in, 172, figs. 70, 71 Loom prepared for entering, fig. 72 magazine illustration, 223 outhne, 168 Peg warping in India, no, fig. 70 Perfected hand loom with fly-shuttle, fig. 67 power, 100, 113, 172 process, 172 battening, 84, 172-178 beaming, 84, 172 heddling, 84, 172 picking, 84, 172-178 shedding, 84, 172-178 warp adjusting, 84, 178 warping, 84, 172 Shed opening mechanism, fig. 73 warp devices, 168 warp lengthening, 89, 91 weft devices, 168 wefting, 172-178 Philippine spinning, 18-21, 24-26, fig. i Picardy wheel, 46 Picking, 84, 93, 100-104, 114. lis. 121. 128, 133, 139, 151, 157, 164, 172, 188, 203 Piece goods, 82 Pima Indian spinning, 24-26 Plain power loom, 199-206, figs. 86- 89 _ automatic revolving beams, 91, 200 bibliography, 203 Cartwright's first power loom, fig. 86 Cartwright's second power loom, fig. 87 characteristics, 199 continuous weaving, 91, 199-203 development, beams, heddles, shuttle, batten, 91, 112, 113 power, 113, 199, 202 Plain power loom, economics, 91, 108, 109, 112 in cloth, 203 in production, 203 example, 200 first weaving machine, 199 illustration list, 204 implement, 200 batten, 106, 119-201, figs. 87-89 beams, 91, 1 19-201, figs. 87-89 driving gear, 201 frame, 109, 200, figs. 87, 89 shaft-heddles, 200, 201, figs. 87-89 shuttle, 200, 201 stop motion devices, 201 warping device, in, 202 loom mounting, 202 outline, 200 power, 113, 202 process, 202 battening, 84, 203 beaming, 84, 202 heddling, 84, 202 picking, 84, 203 shedding, 84, 203 warping, in, 202 Roberts' power loom, 119-203, fig. 89 Working parts of power loom, fig. 88 Plaiting, 82 Power loom (see Plain p. 1.) Power for spinning, hand, 6, 9, 12, 15, 16, 19, 22, 25, 30, 38, 52, 60, figs, i-ii, 17-20, 23, 24 hand and foot, 11, 16, 17, 38, 47, figs. 12-16 mechanical, 6-8, 17, 56, 60, 65, 74, figs. 21-29 Power for weaving, foot, 100, 113, IS3, 156, 163, 172, 188, 192, figs. 58, 59, 61, 62, 64-67, 73, 77, 78 hand, 97, 98, 112, 114, 120, 128, 132, 139, ISO, 153, 154, 156, 163, 172, 188, 192, figs. 57-62, 64-67, 74- 78 mechanical, in, 112, 113, 199, 202 Primitive, spinning, 1-3, 7, 9, 12, 14, iS-32, figs. i-S 242 INDEX Primitive, weaving, 1-3, 80-82, 86, 93, 94, loi, 104, 109, 114-116, 126-151, figs. 30-34, 4i-49> 52-57, 62 Processes {see S. and W. types), spinning, 4-17 weaving, 83-113 Pulley box, 187, fig. 81 Reed batten, free, 106, 156, figs. 52, 57, 58, 62 supported, 106, 200, 201, figs. 87-89 suspended, 106, 153, 154, 156, 161, 163, i58, 172, 186, 193, figs. 59, 6[, 64,65, 67, 74-78 Ring spinning frame, 71-74, fig. 28 Roberts' loom, 199-203, fig. 89 Rod-heddle, 95-96, 105, 119, 120, 127, 131, 133, 136, 138, figs. 35-40, 44- 46, 48, 49, SI, 54 Rove bobbins, 51-53, 56, 57, 60, 61, 64, 66, 72, 74, figs. 17-19, 26 Salish Indian, spinning, 21-23, fig- 2 weaving, 86, 126-129, fig. 43 Saxony wheel, 43-51, figs. 12-16 accelerating spindle, 13, 43, 48 accelerating treadle, 16, 17, 43, 48 automatic winding, 13, 43, 48 bibliography, 48 characteristics, 43 developing agencies, 15-17 earliest continuous spinning, 13, 15, 43 economics, 13, 15-17 in production, 48 in yarn, 48 example, 43 illustration list, 49 implement, 43 distaff, 8, 43, 46, 47, fig. 13 drive bands, 11, 46, 47, figs. 12, 16 drive wheel, 11, 46, figs. 12, 13, 16 flyer and bobbin spindle, 12, 13, 43, 46, figs. 12, 14-16 one spindle, 46 two spindles, 46 standard, 46 treadle, 11, 16, 46 Saxony wheel, Leonardo da Vinci's spindle, fig. 14 magazine illustration, 219 motion, 15, 43, 47 outline, 43 Picardy wheel, 46 power, 17, 43, 47 process, 48 attenuating, 8, 48 twisting, II, 12, 48 winding, 13, 48 Saxony spindle at work, fig. 16 Saxony spindle, fig. 15 Spinning cotton on Saxony wheel, fig. 12 Spinning flag on Saxony wheel, fig. 13 Scandinavian loom, fig. 39 Self-acting mule, 64-70, fig. 25 bibliography, 67 characteristics, 64 economics, 8, 9, 15 in output, 67 in yarn, 67 example, 64 first fine yarn spun without manual help, 64 Four stages of mule spinning, fig. 25 Hand mule enlarged and perfected, 64 _ illustration list, 69 implement, 64, 65 carriage with spindles, 8, 64, fig. 25 counter-faller wire, 64, fig. 25 creel with rove bobbins, 66 draft rollers, 8, 64, fig. 25 faller-wire, 64, fig. 25 frame, 64, fig. 25 headstock, 64, 65 spindles, 12, 13, 64, fig. 25 intermittent spinning, 12, 13, 15, 66 outline, 64 power, 17, 65 process, 66 attenuating, 8, 9, 66 twisting, 12, 13, 66 winding, 13, 66 Roberts' mule, 64-67 Sequence in chronology, 2 Sequence of motions, 112 INDEX 243 Serape, 82 Shaft-heddle, 93, 96-100, 105, 106, 149, 150, 153. 154, 156, IS7. 161, 163, 164, 168, 170, 172, 185-188, 200, 201, figs. 55-62, 64-67, 72, 73, 77, 78, 80, 81, 87-89 Shedding, 84, 93-100, 114, 115, 121, 128, 133, 139, 151, 157, 164, 172, 188, 196, 203 Shedding device, 84, 93-100 double harness, 100, 185-189, figs. 77-81 Jacquard harness, 93, 100, 192-196, figs. 83-85 none, 93, 94, 114, 126, 127, 131, 136, 138, figs. 30, 31. S3, 34. 41-43. SO. 52 one-shaft heddle, 96, 149, 150, figs. 55. 56 shed-rod, 94, 119, 120, 131, 133 shed-rod and rod-heddle, 94-97, 105, 119, 120, 126, 127, 131, 133, 136, 138, 139, figs. 35-40. 44-46. 48, 49, 51, 54 shed-rod and one shaft-heddle, 97, 153, 154. 156, figs. 57-5Q two shaft-heddles, 93, 98-100, 161, 163, 168, 170, 200, 201, figs. 60-62, 64-67, 72, 73, 87-89 Shedding harness, double, 100, 185-187, figs. 77-81 Jacquard, 93, 100, 192-196, figs. 83- 85 single, 99, 156, 161, 163, 170, figs. 57-62, 64-67, 72, 73 Shed-rod (stick), 94-98, 119-121, 127, 128, 131-133. 136, 138. 139. 153. 154, 156, 157, figs. 35-40, 44-46. 48, 49, SI, 54. S7-SQ Shuttle, 100-104 bobbin, 102, 131, 154-157, 161, 163, 168, 171, 175-179, 186, 193, figs. 58, 59, 61, 66, 68, 74, 77 drop-box, 104, 168, 172, 178, 193, 201, fig. 76 fly, 103, 108, 168, 171, 175-179, 186, 193, 201, figs. 67, 69, 75 needle, loi, 102, 105, 128, 138, 156, figs. 39. 57 Shuttle, none, loi, 114, 126, 127, 131, 136, 138, figs. 30-34, 41-43. 50, SI. 54 stick, 102, 103, 119, 120, 128, 131, 136, 138, 149, ISO, 156, 161, 163, figs. 35. 37. 38, 40, 46, 52, 55. S6, 60, 62 Shuttle-race, 103, 104, 171, 172, 175, 178, 201, figs. 74-76 Siberia, Koryak spinning, 18-20 Sicilian peasant spinning, 18-20 Silk warping in ancient China, fig. 82 Simple cords, 185, 187, fig. 81 Slave Indian belt loom, fig. 52 Sleepers, 186, figs. 80, 81 Spindle, 4-6 automatic winding (bobbin spindle), 13-14. 43-48, 56-57, 72-74, figs- 12-16, 21, 22, 26-29 early, 4, 9, 10 free, 7-12, 14-16, 21-22, 24-25, 29- 30, figs. 2-9 mounted, 11 on frame, 5-9, 12, 13, 15, Si-S4. 56-57. 59-62, figs. 17-24 on machine, 7-9, 12-15, 64-67, 72-74, figs. 25-29 on wheel, 8, 11-17, 36-39, 43-48, figs. 10-16 non-winding, 12, 21-22, 24-26, 29- 31, figs. 2-9 winding, 12-14 bobbin sp., 43-48, 56-57. 7i-7S. figs. 12-16, 21, 22, 26-29 shaft sp., 36-39. Si-54. 59-67. figs. 10, II, 17-20, 23-25 Spindle bobbins, 12, 13, 43, 48, 56, 57, 72, figs. 14-16, 27-29 Spinning, 1-79 ancient, 3, 4, 10 beginnings, 5 bibliographies of (see ibid.) continuous, 13, 15, 43, 5 6, 72, figs. 12-16, 21, 22, 26-29 definition, 4, 5 development, 5, 6, 14-17 early, 3, 4, ideals, 5 244 INDEX Spinning, illustration lists {see ibid.) intermittent, 12, 13, 15, 18, 21, 24, 30, 37, 51. 59, 64 origin, 3, 10 prehistoric, 1-4 tribes and peoples, African, figs. 3, 6, g Alaskan Indian, 18-21 Algerian, fig. g Alpine, 2g-3i, fig. 8 Am. Indian of N. W., g, 18-20 Asiatic, 8, 10—12, 14, 16, 24-26, 29-31, 36-39, fig. 10 Brunswick, 36-3g Chinese, 11, 36-3g Dacca, 7, 10, 11, 24-26 Egyptian, 10, 2g-3i, figs. 3, 6 European, 8, 11, 2g-3i, 36-74, figs. 7, 8, ii-2g Greek, 10 Hungarian, 29-31, fig. 7 India, 7, lo-ii, 36-39, fig. 10 Koryak, 18-20 Kwakiutl Indian, 24-26, fig. 5 Lake-dwellers, 29-31, fig. 8 Mediterranean countries, 8 Mexican, 24-26 Navajo, 24-26, fig. 4 New World, 10 Old World, 10 Philippine, 18-20, 24-26, fig. i Picardy, 46 Pima Indian, 24-26 Salish Indian, 21-23, %• 2 Siberian, 18-20 Sicilian, 18-20 Tlinget Indian, 18-20 Spinning, 1000 B.C., fig. 8 Spinning development {sec S. types), in attenuation, 6-9 in twisting, 9-12 in weaving, 12-14 Spinning frame, 5, 7, 51-62, figs. 17-24 Hand mule, 9, 12, 13, 15, 59-62, figs. 23, 24 Jenny, 8, 12, 13, 15, 51-54, figs. 17-20 Water frame, 8, 12, 13, 15, 56-57, figs. 21, 22 Spinning implement {see spindle) Spinning machine, 5, 7, 64-75, figs. 25-29 Cap spinning frame, 8, 12, 14, 15, 71-74, figs. 26, 29 Flyer spinning frame, 8, 12, 14, 15, 71-74, figs. 26, 27 Ring spinning frame, 8, 12, 14, 15, 71-74, fig. 28 Self-acting mule, 9, 12, 13, 15, 64- 67, fig- 25 Spinning motion, continuous, 13, 15, 43, 56, 72 intermittent, 12, 13, 15, 18, 21, 24, 30, 37, SI, 59i 64 Spinning processes, 4-17 attenuating, 4-6 by carriage and rollers, 7-g, sg- 62, 64-67 by drawing, 6-g, 18-20, 56-57, 71- 74 by drawing and stretching, 6-g, 29-31, 59-62, 64-67 by hand, 6-8, 18-19, 24-26, 36- 39, 43-47 by hand and spindle, 6-8, 29-31 by moving carriage, 7-g, 51-53 by rollers, 7-9, 56-57, 7i-74 by spindle and ring, 6-7, 21-23 by stretching, 6-8, 18-19, 21-23, 24-26, 36-39, 43-47, 51-53 twisting, 4-6 by free spindle, 10, 21-23, 24-26, 29-31 by hand, 9, 18-19 by mounted spindle, 11-12, 36- 39, 43-47, 51-53, 56-57, 59- 62, 64-67, 71-74 winding, 4 by hand, 12, 18-19, 21-23, 24-26, 29-31 by hand and spindle, 12-13, 29-31 by spindle, 13-14, 43-47, 56-57, 71-74 by spindle and moving carriage, 13, 51-53, 59-62, 64-67 Spinning types, XI Flyer, Cap and Ring spinning frames, 71 INDEX 245 Spinning types, II Grasped hand spindle, 21 IX Hand mule, 59 I Hand spinning, 18 VII Jenny frame, 51 V Jersey and Asiatic wheels, 36 VI Saxony wheel, 43 X Self-acting mule, 64 III Supported hand spindle, 24 IV Suspended hand spindle, 29 VIII Water frame, 56 Spinning wheel, 5, 6, 36-48, figs. 10-16 Asiatic, 8, 11-14, 16, 36-39, fig. 10 Brunswick, 36-39 Chinese, 11, 36-39 driven by hand, 11, 36-39, figs. 10, II driven by hand crank, 38, fig. 10 driven by treadle, ii, 16, 37, 38, 46, 48, figs. 12, 13 for cotton, fig. 10 for flax, fig. 13 for wool, fig. II Jersey, 8, 11-14, 16, 36-39, fig. 11 of India, 11, 36-39, fig. 10 one-band, 36-39, 43-48, figs. 10, 11 Picardy, 46 Saxony, 8, 11-13, 15-17, 43-48, figs. 12-16 two-band, 43-48, figs. 12-16 Stake warping, no, 121, 128, 131, 138, ISO, 156, 163, figs. 47, 53, 63 Stick-batten, 105, 119-120, 128, 131, 136, 138, 149, 150, 161, 163, 168, 172, figs. 39, 40, 44-46, 48, 50, 51, 54-56, 60, 66 Stick-shuttle, 102, 103, 119, 120, 128, 131, 136, 138, 149, 150, 156, 161, 163, figs. 35, 37, 38, 40, 46, 52, 55, 56, 60, 62 Stone Age, 81, 96 Supported hand spindle, 24-28, figs. 4, 5 A Kwakiutl Indian spinner, fig. 5 bibliography, 26 characteristics, 24 economics, 5, 14, 16 in production, 26 in yarn, 26 Supported hand spindle, examples, 25 illustration Ust, 28 implement, 7, 8, 10, 24, 25 intermittent spinning, 12, 24 magazine illustration, 216 outhne, 25 power, 16, 25 process, 25 attenuating, 7, 8, 25 twisting, 10, 16, 25 winding, 12, 25 The Navajo method of twisting, fig- 4 Suspended hand spindle, 29-36, figs. 6-9 Ancient Egyptian spinners. Middle Kingdom, fig. 6 bibliography, 32 characteristics, 29 distaff, 8, 29, 30, fig. 7 double drafting, 7, 29-31 economics, 5, 7, 14, 16 in production, 31 in yarn, 31 examples, 30 illustration list, 34 implement, 7, 10, 12, 29, 30, figs. 6-9 intermittent spinning, 12, 30 magazine illustration, 217 most perfect hand drafting, 7 most perfect hand spinning, 10 outhne, 30 power, 16, 30 process, 30 attenuating, 7, 29, 30 twisting, 10, 29, 31 winding, 12, 31 Spinning in the Alps, about 1000 B.C., fig. 8 Suspended-spindle spinning, Hun- gary, fig. 7 Winding yarn on spindle, Algeria, fig. 9 Tail cords, 185, 187, fig. 81 "Take-on," 84, 91, 112, 157, 164, 178, 200 Teakwood spinning wheel, 37 Tereno-Indian loom, 126-129, fig. 42 246 INDEX Textile beginnings, 1-4, 80-82 Textile industry, ancient, i, 80 beginnings, 1-4, 80, 81 doth making, 80-113 early, 1-4, 80-82 Industrial Revolution, 6, 100 progress in, 5-17, 81, 85-113 spinning types, 18-79 stimulating force in, i story of, 1-17, 80-113 weaving types, 114-206 yarn making, 3-17 Tlinget Indian, spinning, 18-21 weaving, 114-116, figs. 30-34 Treadle (of loom), 98, 100, 113, 153, 156, 161, 163, 164, 168, 171, 185, 188, figs. s8, 59, 62, 64, 65-67, 73, 77, 78 Treadle (of spinning wheel), 11, 16, 17, 37, 38, 46, 48, fig- 12 Treadle board, 98, 156, 171, figs. 59, 66 Treadle ring, 98, 156, 163, figs. 58, 65 Treadle wheels, 11, 16, 17, 36-39, 43- 48, figs. 12-16 Tribes and Peoples, Spinning, African, 10, 29-31, figs. 3, 6, 9 Alaskan, 18-20 Algerian, fig. 9 Alpine, 29-31, fig. 8 Am. Indian, 9, 18-20, 21-23, 24-26, figs. 2, 4, 5 Asiatic, 8, 10-12, 14, 16, 24-26, 29- 31. 36-39, fig. 10 Chinese, 11, 36-39 Egyptian, 10, 29-31, figs. 3, 6 English, 36-79, figs. 10-29 European, 8, 29-79, figs. 7, 8, 11-29 Greek, 10 Hungarian, fig. 7 India, 7, lo-n, 36-39, fig. 10 Koryah, 18-20 Kwakiutl, 24-26, fig. 5 Lake-dwellers, fig. 8 Mediterranean peasants, 8 Mexican, 24-26 Natives of New World, 10 Natives of Old World, 10 Navajo Indian, 24-26, fig. 4 Tribes and Peoples, Spinning, Northwest coast Indian, 9, 18-20 PhiHppine, 18-21, 24-26, fig. i Pima Indian, 24-26 Salish Indian, 21-23, fig- 2 Siberian, iS-20 Sicilian peasant, 18-20 Tlinget, 18-20 Tribes and Peoples, Weaving, African, 89, 90, 107, 126-129, 136- 141, 158-165, figs. 44, 50, 51, 62, 64 Ainu, 83, 106, 136-141, 154 Alaskan Indian, 114-116, figs. 30-34 Alpine, 119-121, fig. 35 American Indian, 83, 91, loi, 107, 116, 114-116, 126-151, figs. 30-34, 41-49, 52-56 Asiatic, 98, 99, 106, 112, 136-140, 153-165, 185-189, figs. 57-61, 63, 65, 70, 77, 78, 82 Bedouin desert, 98 British Guiana Indian, 126-129 Calabar, W. Africa, 126-129, fig. 44 Ceylon, 98, 154-1S7, fig- 57 Chilkat, 114-116, figs. 31-34 Chinese, 98, 106, 153-158, 1S5-188, figs. 59, 77, 82 Colonial, 168-179 Dunbar, India, 98, 153-157, fig. 57 Eastern, 98, 99, 112 Egyptian, 90, 91, 92, 96, loi, 104, 107, III, 136-141, 158-165, figs. 50, 51, 64 English, 168-179, 199-203, figs. 67, 75, 86-89 European, 100, 112, 119-121, 168- 202, figs. 35-40, 66-76, 79-81, 83- 89 French, 100, 168-179, 185-188, fig. 81 Greek, 103, 119-121, 168-179, figs. 36-38, 66 Holamux Indian, 126-129, fig. 41 Hopi Indian, 149-15 1, fig. 56 Hungarian, fig. 71 Iceland, fig. 40 India, 89, 92, 98, 99, no, 153-157, 158-165, figs. 57, 60, 61, 63, 70 Ishogo, 136-141 INDEX 247 Tribes and Peoples, Weaving, Japanese, qS, 153-158, 185-188, fig. 78 Korean, 98, 153-158, fig. 58 Lake-dwellers, 81, 96, 119-121, fig. 35 Malay Islands, 103 Mexican, 130-134, figs. 46-49 Navajo Indian, 91, loi, 107, no, 130-134, 136-141, figs. 45, 47-49, 53, 54 Neolithic, 81 Northwest coast Indian, 83, 11 4-1 16, figs. 30-34 Salish Indian, 86, 126-129, fig. 43 Scandinavian, fig. 39 Slave Indian, fig. 52 Tereno Indian 126-128, fig. 42 Tlinget Indian, 114-116, figs. 30-34 Zuni, 14Q-151, fig- 55 T'ipod support, 98, figs. 57, 62 Twilled twine weaving, fig. 34 Twined weaving, loi, 115, figs. 31, 33, 34 Twist, early use, 3, 4 ■ effect of, 4, 5 function, 4, 5 importance to spinning, 4 origin, 3 Twisted cords, 3, fig. 3 Twisting, 4, 5, 9-12, 19, 22, 25, 26, 31, 39,48, 53, 57, 61, 62, 66, 74 Twisting implement, earliest, 3, 9 free spindle, 9, 10, 21, 24, 25, 29, 30, figs. 2-9 hand, 4, 5, 9, 18, 19, fig. i mounted spindle, 11, 12, 36-38, 43- 45, SI, 52, 56, 59, 60, 64, 71, 72, figs. 10-29 Two-band wheel, 43-48, figs. 12-16 (see Saxony wheel) Two-bar loom, 126-130, figs. 41-44 Another crude two-bar loom, 126- 129, fig- 42 a transitional type, 126, figs. 41-44 bibliography, 129 British Guiana apron weaving, 126- 129 Two-bar loom. Calabar loom, 126-129, fig- 44 characteristics, 126 developing agency, 85 warp stretching, 85, 86 evolving cloth and warp beams, 85-87 direction of technic, 126 economics, 85-87 in cloth, 129 in production, 129 examples, 126 Holamux Indian loom, 126-129, fig. 41 illustration list, 130 implement, 126 batten, 104, 105, 126, 128, fig. 44 bars, 86, 126, 127, figs. 41-44 frame, 107, 108, 126, 127, figs. 41- 44 shedding devices, 93-95, 126, 127, fig- 44 shuttle, loi, 102, 126-128, figs. 57, 60 warping device, no, 128 loom mounting, 84, 128 outline, 126 power, 112, 128 process, 128 battening, 84, 104, 105, 129 beaming, 84, 86, 128 heddhng, 84, 127, 132 picking, 84, loi, 102, 128 shedding, 84, 93-95, 128 warp adjusting, 129 warping, 84, 86, 128 SaUsh Indian loom, 86, 126-128, fig. 43 Simple two-bar loom, 126-129, fig. 41 Tereno Indian loom, 126-128, fig. 42 warp devices, 86, 126 warp length, 88 warp stretching, 85, 86, 126 weft devices, 93-95, 100-102, 104, 126-128 wefting, 84, 128 West African loom, 126-129, fig- 44 Two-beam loom, 136-149, figs. 50-54 Ainu loom, 106, 136-141 248 INDEX Two-beam loom, bibliography, 141 characteristics, 136 development, 85 beams for stretching, 87, beams for lengthening, go, 91, frame, 107, 108 heddle, and shuttle, 93-95, loi, 102 direction of technic, 136 economics, 86, 94, 95, 107 in cloth, 141 in production, 141 Egyptian loom of Middle Kingdom, 96, 92, 96, loi, 136-141, fig. 51 Egyptian loom of New Kingdom, 90, 92, 96, loi, 107, III, 136-141 Egyptian mat loom, 90, 91, 104, 136- 141, fig. so examples, 137 first perfectly stretched warp, 87, 136 illustration list, 144 implement, 137 batten, 104-106, 136, 138, figs. 50- 52, 54 beams, 87-gi cloth, 90, 91, 136, 138, figs, so, 51,54 warp, 90, 136, 138, figs. 50, 51, 54 frame, 86, 106-108, 137, 138, fig. 50-52, 54 rod-heddle, 95, 136, 138, figs. 51, 54 shed-rod, 93-95, 136, 138, figs. 51. 54 shuttle, loi, 102, 136, 138, fig. 52 warping-device, 109— in, 138, 139, fig- 53 warp post, 86, 88, 107, 137 weaver's belt, 86, 88, 107, 137, fig- 4S> S8, 59 weaver's comb, 105, 136, 138, fig. 60 Ishogo loom, 136-141 loom mounting, 139 magazine illustration, 221 Navajo loom, 91, loi, 107, no, 136- 141, figs. 53, 54 outline, 137 Two-beam loom, power, 112, 139 process, 139 battening, 84, 139 beaming, 84, 139 heddhng, 84, 139 picking, 84, 139 shedding, 84, 133, 139 warp adjusting, 140 warping, 84, 139 simplest loom for stretched warp, 87, 136 Slave Indian belt loom, fig. 52 warp devices, 87, 136 warp lengthening, 87-90 warp stretching, 85, 87, 136 weft devices, 94, 95, loi, 102, 104, 105, 136, 13S wefting, 84, 139 Two-shaft treadle loom, 158-168, figs. 60-65 Another crude loom from India, 158- 168, fig. 60 bibliography, 165 characteristics, 158 ■ developing, 85 battening, 105, 106 beams, 89-92 frame, 108 shedding, 98, 99 Egyptian loom. Middle Ages, 92, 158-165, fig. 64 economics, 98, 99, 108, 113 in cloth, 165 in production, 164 examples, 161 first perfect shedding, 98, 99, 161 illustration list, 166 implement, batten, 106, 161, 163, figs. 6i-6j2, 64, 65 beams, 158 cloth, 90, 158, 161, figs. 60, 61, 64, 65 warp, 89, 158, 161, figs. 61, 64 frame, 108, 158, 161, figs. 60-62, 64, 65 shaft-heddles, 98, 99, 161, 163, figs. 60-62, 64, 65 INDEX 249 Two-shaft treadle loom, implement, shuttle, 102, 161, 163, figs. 60-62 treadles, 100, 113, 161, 163, figs. 62, 65 warping device, no, 163, fig. 63 warp post, 8g, 15S, fig. 61 weaver's belt, 108, 158, 161 weaver's comb, 105, 163, fig. 60 loom mounting, 84, 164 magazine illustration, 223 Outdoor loom of the hills, 158-165, fig. 61 outline, 161 power, 113, 163 process, battening, 84, 105, 106, 164 beaming, 84, 164 heddling, 84, g8, 164 picking, 84, 102, 164 shedding, 84, 93, 98, 99, 164 warp adjustment, 164 warping, 84, no, 164 Shawl loom, Asia, 158-165, fig. 65 Stake warping, India, no, fig. 63 warp devices, 161 warp lengthening, 89 weft devices, 161 wefting, 164 West African loom, 89, 158-165, fig. 62 Warp, 82—92, 109-111 {see W. types) Warp adjusting, 86, 89, 91, 112, 129, ^ii, 134. 140, 151, 157, 164, 178, 200, 201 Warp arrangement, 85-92 {see W. types) devices for, 86, 88 earliest, 85, 114, 115 for lengthening, 87-92 by automatic revolving beams, 91 "let-off" and "take-on," 91 by extension, 88, 89 by revolving beams, 89-92 cloth, 90-92 warp, 89, 91, 92 restrictions, 87, 88 for stretching, 85-87 Warp arrangement, for stretching. loose hanging, 86, 114, 115, figs. 30-32 stretched between beams, 87- 92, 136-203, figs. 50-89 weighted, 86, 87, 1 19-120, figs. 35-40 wrapped over bars, 86, 126-134, figs. 41-49 in Africa, 89, 158-164, fig. 62 in Egypt, 90-92, 136-141, figs. 50, 51 in India, 89, 92, 158-164, figs. 57, 60, 61, 65 on Navajo looms, 91, figs. 54, 45, 46,49 on Northwest coast looms, 11 4-1 16, figs. 30, 31 on Salish looms, 86, 126-129, fig. 43 Warp beam, 86-92 {see W. types) automatic, 91, 199-201, figs. 87-89 identical with cloth beam, 86, 90, 114, figs. 31-33 Navajo, 91 non-revolving, 90-92 revolving, 89-92 Warp devices, 85 Warp post, 86, 88, 89, 107, 130, 132, 137, 149, 150, 151, 158, 161, 164, figs. 45, 56, 61, 62 Warp stretching, 85-89, 114, 115, 119, 120, 126-203, figs. 30-32, 35-47. 49-67, 70-73, 77, 78, 82, 83, 86-89 Warp weights, 86, iig, 120, figs. 35-40 Warping, 84, 86, 109-111 115, 121, 128, 132, 139, 150, 157, 164, 172, 188, 202 Warping creel, in, 172, 202, fig. 82 Warping device, 109-111 machine, in, 202 measuring staff, 109, 114, fig. 32 mill, III, 139, 172, 202, figs. 71, 82 none, 86, 128 pegs, no, 139, 163, 172, 202, fig. 70 stakes, no, 121, 128, 131, 138, 150, 156, 163, figs. 47, 53, 63 Warping machine, in, 202 Warping mill, in, 139, 172, 202, figs. 71, 82 Warping pegs, no, in, 139, 163, 172, 202, fig. 70 250 INDEX Warping reel, iii, 139, 172, 202, figs. 71. 82 Warping staff, 109, 114, fig. 32 Warping stakes, no, 121, 128, 131, 138, ISO, 156, 163, figs. 47, 53, 63 Water frame, 56-59, figs. 21, 22 Arkwright's first Water frame, 56, 57, fig. 21 Arkwright's improved Water frame, 56, 57, fig. 22 bibliography, 57 characteristics, 56 copied by, 59, 71 earliest draft by drawing, 56 earliest mechanical continuous spin- ning, 56 earliest sp. mechanism driven from one point, 56 economics, 8, 13, 15 in output, 57 in product, 57 example, 56 illustration list, 58 implement, 56 cog wheel, shaft and drum, 56, fig. 22 creel of rove bobbins, 56 draft rollers, 8, 56, fig. 22 flyer-spindles, 12, 13, 56, fig. 22 frame, 56, fig. 22 outline, 56 power, 56 principle of, 56 process, attenuating, 8, 9, 56 presses all mechanical, 56, 57 twisting, 12, 57 winding, 13, 14, 57 Weaver's belt, 86, 88, 91, 107, 108, 130- 132, 137, 149, ISO, 154, 156, 157, 158, 161, figs. 45, 55, 56, 58, 59 Weaver's comb, 105, 106, 131, 136, 138, 163, fig. 60 Weaving (see W. types), age of, 80 ancient, 81, 87, 99 (see Egyptian, Greek, Lake-dweller) basket, 82 beginnings, i, 2, 80 Weaving, bibliography (see ibid.) continuous, 91, 199-203, figs. 86-89 defined, 82, 83 development, 81, 85, 112 early, 4, 80, 81 entire weaving, 82 filling (weft), 82-85, 93-106 {see W. types) first essential in, 85, 86 first implements, 85 foundation (warp), 82-92, 109-111 {see W. types) illustration list {see ibid.) implement {see Looms) invention, 80, 81, 85-113 {see W. types) loom {see ibid.), 82, 83 loom weaves, 82, 83 mastery in, 81 modern, 81, 82 native materials, 81, 83 native weavers, 2 origin, 80, 81 piece goods, 82 primitive, 1-3, 80-82, 86, 93, 94, loi, 104, 109, 114-116, 126-151, figs. 30-34, 41-49, 52-57, 62 principles of, 83, 112 source, 80 structure, 83 tribes and peoples {ibid.) warp manipulation, 85, 92, 109-111 warp stretching, 85-87 warp weights, 86, 119,120, figs. 35-40 weaver's belt {see ibid.) web lengthening, 87-92 weft manipulation, 85, 93-109 Weaving, 1000 B.C., 119, fig. 35 Weaving, 500 B.C., 120, 121, figs. 36-38 Weaving development {see W. types), in battening, 104-106 in loom frame, 106-109 in picking, 100-104 in power, 112, 113 in shedding, 93-100 in unifying mechanism, 85, 112 in warp arrangement, 85-92 in warping, 109-in INDEX 251 Weaving implement {see Looms) Weaving processes, 83-113 battening {see ibid.) beaming {see ibid.) direction of technic {see ibid.) heddling {see ibid.) " letting-off " and "taking-on" {see ibid.) loom mounting {see ibid.) picking {see ibid.) shedding {see ibid.) warp adjusting {see ibid.) warping {see ibid.) wefting {see ibid.) Weaving types, 81 X Draw loom, i8s-ig2 IV Frameless two-bar loom, 130- 135 XI Jacquard loom, 192-108 I One-beam loom, 114-iig VI One-shaft loom, 149-^153 VII One-shaft treadle loom, 153- 158 IX Perfected hand loom, 168-185 XII Plain power loom, 199-206 III Two-bar loom, 126-130 V Two-beam loom, 136-149 VIII Two-shaft treadle, 158-168 II Weighted warp loom, 1 19-125 Web lengthening, 87-92 Weft, 82-85, 93-106 {see W. types) Weft devices, 85, 93-106, 114, 119, 126, 131 Wefting, 84, 93-106, 115, 121, 128, 133, 139, 151, 157, 164, 172, 188, 203 Weighted warp loom, 1 19-125, figs. 35-40 Alpine weaver, fig. 35 bibliography, 122 characteristics, 119 Circe loom, Ashmolean Mus., fig. 37 development, 85 warp stretching, 86, 119 wefting, 93-96, 100-102, 104, 105, 119 direction of technic, 119 economics, 85, 86, 94 in cloth, 121 in production, 121 Weighted warp loom, examples, 119 Greek loorri, 119-121, figs. 36-38 Greek weaver, British Mus., fig. 36 Icelandic loom, 11 9-1 21, fig. 40 illustration list, 124 implement, 119, 120 batten, 104, 105, 119, 120, figs. 39, 40 beam, 86-88, 119, 120, figs. 36-40 frame, 107, 108, 120, figs. 36-40 rod-heddle, 95, 119, 120, figs. 35-40 shed-rod, 94, 119, 120, figs. 35-40 shuttle, loi, 102, 119, 120, figs. 37- 39 warping device, no, 121 weights, 86, 119, 120 Lake-dweller loom, 96, 119-121 loom mounting, 84, 121 magazine illustration, 221 outline, 119 Penelope's loom, 103, 119-121, fig. 38 power, 112, 120 process, 121 battening, 84, 105, 121 beaming, 84, 121 heddling, 84, 132 picking, 84, 102, 121 shedding, 84, 94, 95, 121 , warping, 84, no, 121 Scandinavian loom, fig. 39 warp devices, 86, 119 warp lengthening, 87, 88 warp stretching, 86, 119 weft devices, 93-96, 100-102, 105, 119 wefting, 84, 121 Winding, 4, 12-14, 19, 22, 25, 26, 31, 39, 48, S3, 57, 61, 62, 66, 74 defined, 4 Winding device hand, 12, 18, 19, 21, 22, 24, 25, 30, 31, fig- 9 hand and spindle, 12, 13, 37, 39 spindle, 13, 14, 43, 48, 56, 72-73, figs. 12, 22, 26-29 spindle and moving carriage, 13, 51, 53, 59, 61, 62, 64, figs. 18, 25 252 INDEX Wool wheel {see Jersey wheel) Wrapped weaving, loi, 115 Yarn, characteristics, 4, 5 early, 3, 4 economic aims, 5 frame spun, 51-62 gain factors, 8, 14-16, 19, 22, 26, 31, 39, 48, 53, 57, 62, 67, 74 hand spindle spun, 21-32 hand spun, 18-20 improved quality, 5, 6, 20, 23, 26, 31, 4*0, 48, 54, fl, 62, 67, 75 increased production in, 5, 6, 20, 22, 26, 31, 30, 48, S3, 57, 62, 67, 74 machine spun, 64-75 prehistoric, 4 story of, 1-17 uses of, 3, 4 wheel spun, 36-48 Yarn making, 1-79 {see Spinning, S. processes, S. types and Spindle) beginnings, i, 2 chronological sequence, 2 Yam making, defined, 4 development n, i 2, 5-17 {see In- creased production) early, 3, 4 economic progress in, 5-17 {see Im- proved product) implement {see Spindle) incentive to, i means for {see S. implement) mechanical science involved, 5-17 {see S. types) native materials for, 3 native spinners, 2 obstacles to, i, 2 origin of, 3, 4 periods of invention, 5, 6 processes of {see S. processes) requirements, 4 stimulating force in, i story of, I -1 7 yarn essentials, 4, 5 Zuni Indian belt weaver, 149-151, fig. 55 Printed in the United States of America. 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The growing emphasis upon textile study in college departments of home economics or household arts, and the increasing use of the textile industry as teaching material in other departments and other grades of schools, shows a recognition of the part that the textiles are playing in the development of civilization and in our everyday life. Interest in the subject is still further accentuated by the movements now on foot to regulate the social-economic conditions in the textile and clothing industries and to secure standardization and honest labeling of textile products, as is being done for food products by the " pure food laws." To meet the existing need the authors have attempted to prepare a text suitable for use in college classes or by the public, shorter and more readable than the technical handbooks, yet sufficiently thorough and comprehensive to give a sound grasp of the subject as a whole with so much of the technology as is directly helpful to the consumei and as should be included in general courses in colleges and technical or vocational schools. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York Woolen and Worsted By ROBERTS BEAUMONT Formerly Professor of Textile Industries at Leeds University. Octavo, III., XXXV + 640 pp., $10.00 The theory and technology of the manufacture of woolen, worsted, and union yarns and fabrics, covering the whole range of technicalities, processes and schemes of mechanism related to their production. The illustrations of yarns, fabrics, patterns and machines are particularly valuable. Jute and Linen Weaving ' By THOMAS WOODHOUSE and THOMAS MILNE i2mo, III., xxvii-\- SQO pp., $4.23 Although prepared for the jute and linen trades, it will be found useful in other branches of weaving. Textile Design By THOMAS WOODHOUSE and THOMAS MILNE i2mo. III., 515 pp., $j 50 A very complete and technical treatment covering the whole field of textile design as applied commercially to various branches of their industry. Every weave simple and elaborate is fully discussed. Dress Design By TALBOT HUGHES i2nio, III., 362 pp., $4.00 An historical account of costume intended as a book of suggestions to artists and dressmakers. The treatment is divided into centuries and reigns, as far as possible, and male and female attire are treated separately, thus simplifying reference. Photographic illustrations and line sketches by the author add great value and interest to the book. Footwear, coiffure, and other details are illustrated, also, a feature which makes the book invaluable to the designer of historical costume in any period or to the illustrator. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York Shelter and Clothing A Textbook of the Household Arts BY HELEN KINNE Professor of Household Arts Education AND ANNA M. COOLEY Assistant Professor of Household Arts Education, Teachers' College, Columbia University. Cloth, i2mo, III., 277 PP-, $i-io This book and the volume, Foous AND Household Management, that follows it, make up a full course in domestic matters not confined to details of cooking and sewing. The books treat fully, but with careful balance, every phase of home-making. The authors hold that Harmony will be the keynote of the home in proportion as the makers of the home regard the plan, the sanitation, the decora- tion of the house itself, and as they exercise economy and wisdom in the provision of food and clothing. The plan of the book is flexible. Parts may be omitted or shifted to meet the necessity or the convenience of different schools. The chapter headings in some measure disclose the breadth, the variety, and the practicability of the book. The Home. — Its plan and construction: heating, ventilating, lighting, water supply, and the disposal of waste ; decoration; furnishing. TEXTILES. — Materials and how they are made. Garment-making.— Patterns ; cutting and making garments; embroidery. Dress. — History of costume; hygiene of clothing ; eco- nomics of dress ; care and repair of clothing; millinery. Clothing and Health By HELEN KINNE and ANNA M. COOLEY Cloth, i2mo. III., J02 pp., $.65 Designed especially for use in elementary schools outside large cities. Describes simply such items as the source and manufacture of cotton, linen, silk and wool, the hygiene of clothing, purchasing, making and repairing of clothing, color combination, and the clothing budget. Other volumes in this elementary series are Foods and HEALTH and THE Home and the Family. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York 459 - 90 c°'VB.%°- ./.'^iX cO^:^^^% /\- ". 1> • A^"^ •• ' ^^^ .'?' "'^u.c,^' ^^^c,^^ !^^^ ^v HECKMAN BINDERY INC. A^-% ^ DEC 90 % »y^y/ ^'^'^ % '-I^IS?.- ^*«'