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FARROW'S MANUAL 
 
 OF 
 
 MILITARY 
 TRAINING 
 
 BY 
 
 EDWARD S. FARROW 
 
 LATE ASSISTANT INSTRUCTOR OP TACTICS, AT THE UNITED 
 3TATES MILITARY ACADEMY, WEST POINT, NEW YORK 
 
 Author of Farrow's Military Encyclopedia, American Small Arms 
 Farrow's Dictionary of Military Terms, etc. 
 
 "What is obvious is not always known, 
 what is known is not always present." 
 
 — Johnson 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN PUBLISHING CO. 
 
 MUNN & CO. 
 
 1920 
 
.F3 
 
 VI 
 
 Copyright, 1919 
 
 BY 
 
 Scientif c American Publishing Co. 
 
 All Rights Reserved 
 
 SEP 25 1919 
 
 Printed in the 
 United States of America 
 
 QCLA585014 
 
PREFACE 
 
 IN the preparation of this work I have closely keyed it to the 
 latest developments in the art and science of war and have 
 treated in detail all matters of military information of value to 
 the personnel of our American Army. Military training, general 
 and tactical organization of the land forces, schools covering from 
 the grenadier to the regiment, ceremonies and courtesies, marches 
 and march discipline, camps and sheltering of troops, interior 
 guard duty and military police, the service of the interior and 
 theater of operations, field maneuvers, basic principles of combat 
 tactics, arms and ammunition, ordnance equipment, conduct of 
 fire and fire for effect, gunnery and explosives, topographical 
 reconnaissance, military information and service of security, army 
 signaling and radio-telegraphy, transport and convoys by land 
 and water, pack and motor transportation, bridges and crossing 
 of rivers, field fortification and demolitions, map reading and 
 military sketching, military jurisdiction and the laws of war, land 
 warfare and treatment of enemy property, military gymnastics, 
 personal hygiene and military surgical treatment, the army ration 
 and feeding of armies, the construction and critique of fire prob- 
 lems, riots and riot duty, liaison and trench warfare are treated in 
 the simplest and most effulgent manner. 
 
 I have endeavored to cover the whole field of military knowl- 
 edge and action in the great final war, marking the passage from 
 the Fourth to the Fifth (and last) of the World's Great Empires. 
 I have recorded recognized rules and methods of instruction, 
 and acknowledge with sincere thanks assistance of government 
 officials and the use of the libraries of the War Department, War 
 College and Army Service Schools. 
 
 Edward S. Farrow. 
 
 New York City, August 1, 1919. 
 
ft 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 I. Military Training, the Right of Seniority and 
 
 Discipline 9 
 
 II. General and Tactical Organization of the Land 
 
 Forces of the United States 2i 
 
 III. The School of the Grenadier, Squad, Platoon, Com- 
 
 pany, Battalion and Regiment 33 
 
 IV. Ceremonies, Inspections, Honors and Courtesies 108 
 
 V. Marches and March Discipline in Peace and in 
 
 Campaign 146 
 
 VI. Camps, Cantonments, Camp Sanitation and the 
 
 Sheltering of Troops 164 
 
 VII. Interior Guard Duty, Guards and Military Police. . 183 
 
 VIII. The Service of the Interior and the Theater of 
 
 Operations 218 
 
 IX. Field Maneuvers and the Military Operations of 
 
 the Combined Arms 236 
 
 X. Basic Principles of Combat Tactics as Applied to 
 
 Infantry and to Special Units 252 
 
 XL Offensive and Defensive Combat and the Infantry 
 
 Attack of a Position 277 
 
5 TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 XII. Small Arms, Field Artillery and Ammunition 296 
 
 XIII. Small Arms Firing, Combat Practice and Training 
 
 With the Rifle 320 
 
 XIV. The Care and Preservation of Ordnance Equipment, 
 
 Small Arms, Ammunition and Explosives 371 
 
 XV. The Conduct of Fire, Fire for Effect, Field Artillery 
 
 and Machine Guns 392 
 
 XVI. Gunnery and Explosives, the Accuracy of Fire and 
 
 Causes Affecting it 431 
 
 XVII. Topographical Reconnaissance and Production of 
 
 Maps for Military Needs 457 
 
 XVIII. Military Information, Reconnaissance and the Ser- 
 vice of Security 497 
 
 XIX. Army Signaling, Codes, Radio-Telegraphy and Trans- 
 mission of Military Information 519 
 
 XX. Transport, Embarkation, Debarkation and Convoys 
 
 by Land and Water 569 
 
 XXI. . Wheel, Pack and Motor Transportation and Trans- 
 port Equipment 593 
 
 XXII. Bridges, Pontoons, Methods of Construction and 
 
 the Crossing of Rivers 621 
 
 "XXIII. Field Fortification, General Construction, Mining 
 
 and Demolitions 646 
 
 XXIV. Map Reading, Orientation, Conventional Signs and 
 
 Military Sketching 688 
 
 i 
 
 XXV. Military Jurisdiction, Courts Martial and the Laws 
 
 of War 705 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 7 
 
 ^ CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 XXVI. Land Warfare, Conduct of Hostilities and Treat- 
 ment of Enemy Property 746 
 
 XXVII. Military Gymnastics and Physical Training in the 
 
 Military Service 803 
 
 XXVIII. Manual of the Bayonet, Combined Movements and 
 
 Bayonet Combat 840 
 
 XXIX. The Army Ration, Its Issue and Substitutive Equiva- 
 lent Articles 858 
 
 XXX. Orders, Letters of Instruction and Official Cor- 
 respondence 871 
 
 XXXI. Personal Hygiene, First Aid and Military Surgical 
 
 Treatment 885 
 
 XXXII. The Construction, Solution and Critique of a Fire 
 
 Problem With Ball Ammunition 907 
 
 XXXIII. Trench Warfare, Trench Raids and the Service of 
 
 the Trenches 92 1 
 
 XXXIV. Liaison, or Maintenance of Communication Between 
 
 Units, and Signalling 955 
 
 Appendix 1 — Important Definitions of Military Terms Appear- 
 ing in the Text 972 
 
 Appendix 2 — Gas Tactics and Its Use in Attack 1009 
 
 Appendix 3 — Railway Artillery 1013 
 
 Appendix 4 — Sound and Flash Ranging 1015 
 
 Index 1019 
 

CHAPTER I 
 
 MILITARY TRAINING, THE RIGHT OF SENIORITY 
 AND DISCIPLINE 
 
 Today we put a girdle of thought around the earth in the 
 twinkling of an eye, and in war as in peace, there are changed 
 methods of intelligent communication. Chemistry and the me- 
 chanical arts have given us aircraft in varying forms, the search- 
 light, the heliograph, the acetylene light, pyrotechnics and many 
 other useful devices. Every branch of science is playing its part, 
 and the fighting world no longer moves only on the surface of 
 land and water. 
 
 Under the conditions of today success in war can be 
 achieved only by all branches and arms of the service mutually 
 helping and supporting one another in the common effort to at- 
 tain the desired end. 
 
 The basic principles of the combat tactics of the different 
 arms are set forth in the drill regulations of those arms for units 
 as high as brigades. It is the function of higher troop leading 
 to so combine and coordinate the combat tactics of all the arms 
 as to develop in the combined forces the teamwork essential to 
 success. 
 
 While the fundamental principles of war are neither very 
 numerous nor complex, their application may be difficult and must 
 not be limited by set rules. Departure from prescribed methods 
 is at times necessary. A thorough knowledge of the principles of 
 war and their application enables the leader to decide when such 
 departure should be made and to determine what methods should 
 bring success. 
 
 Officers and men of all ranks and grades are given a certain 
 independence in the execution of the tasks to which they are as- 
 signed and are expected to show initiative in meeting the differ- 
 ent situations as they arise. Every individual, from the highest 
 commander to the lowest private, must always remember that in- 
 action and neglect of opportunities will warrant more severe cen- 
 sure than an error in the choice of the means. 
 
10 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 THE COMMANDING OFFICER 
 
 The action of the commanding officer has a decisive influ- 
 ence on the morale of the command. He should be well trained, 
 be an example to his men, and really " command " them. 
 
 Instruction. — The lack of knowledge in one who should 
 create confidence among the men is a misfortune, for it causes 
 timidity. The commanding officer " who knows his business " de- 
 mands only useful efforts from his men; he does not use them 
 prematurely or expose them to useless loss in battle. 
 
 The 1 example. — Any organization is the reflection of its 
 commanding officer. It is the most severe judge of him; it pays 
 attention to his lightest word and observes all his actions. It 
 only asks to be able to admire him and to follow him blindly. 
 The best reward of a commanding officer is the fine behavior 
 of his command under fire. 
 
 To command. — The commanding officer leads his organiza- 
 tion because he knows how to be the most ardent man in it; but he 
 is also its master, because he always knows how to keep cool 
 and to use good judgment. Nothing should be hidden from him 
 and the command should give him its entire confidence. To com- 
 mand does not consist in merely giving orders. To command 
 is to give an order and to see that it is executed. It also consists in 
 being constantly on the alert; in originating orders if none are 
 received, or in taking the initiative; in giving the necessary in- 
 structions at the proper time; and in keeping his inferiors con- 
 stantly informed of existing conditions. 
 
 The authority of a commanding officer makes itself apparent 
 first of all by the discipline of his command — execution of orders, 
 bearing, outward signs of respect, cleanliness, good condition of 
 arms, and correctness at drill. 
 
 In battle a disciplined command fights well, but undisciplined 
 troops escape from their chiefs, throw away their arms, surrender, 
 or run away. 
 
 Influence. — A commanding officer should impress himself on 
 his command by his superior qualities. There is no single type of 
 commander which young officers can take as a model, but each 
 one should reflect and try to determine what natural or acquired 
 qualities give to the best commanders of his acquaintance their 
 influence over their commands. An officer recently promoted 
 should not be content with thinking that he has been made a 
 commander simply to secure obedience under ordinarily daily 
 circumstances. That would only indicate that his rank is re- 
 spected. He should not be satisfied until he has patiently gained 
 the confidence and the heart of his men; until he is certain that 
 
THE RIGHT OF SENIORITY AND DISCIPLINE 11 
 
 they have given themselves absolutely to him, and that they will 
 obey him even to the death. 
 
 A young commander should remember that in critical times 
 the authority that emanates solely from his own personality will 
 always be far more efficacious than that which comes from the 
 regulations. 
 
 Moral qualities. — A commander raises himself in the esteem 
 of his men above all by the qualities of his character, and 
 rightly so, for energy, initiative, will power, perseverance, 
 precision, judgment, self-control, sense of duty, and self-denial 
 are qualities without which the finest gifts of intelligence remain 
 of no value. 
 
 Among the qualities of mind, a general and extended military 
 education is not produced in the course of a campaign; but every 
 officer can and should possess himself of a thorough knowledge 
 of everything that concerns his duties. If he has precise knowl- 
 edge, he has confidence in himself, proper decisions will come 
 readily to his mind, he will express himself calmly and without 
 hesitation, and he will command the attention of the men; on 
 the contrary, inappropriate or contradictory orders, given in an 
 uncertain or nervous manner, inspire doubt as to their efficiency. 
 
 A commander is loved by his soldiers when he has a sense 
 of justice, an absolute uprightness, is concerned with their well- 
 being and pays personal attention to it. The soldier submits 
 readily to all severities for which there is a reason, and, in 
 his heart, he gives to excessive indulgence and weakness the 
 consideration which they deserve. Justice does not consist in 
 treating all men exactly alike, but in exacting from each the 
 full exercise of his faculties and powers, and in rewarding 
 meritorious actions in accordance with the efforts which they 
 have cost. 
 
 The habitual attitude of the officer is also of importance; 
 lack of dignity in bearing and language, vulgarity, and famil- 
 iarity are never proper for an officer; everyone can be correct, 
 simple, and dignified without holding his inferiors at a distance, 
 and without preventing good humor and gayety, which, like hope 
 and absolute faith in victory, are so readily and so happily im- 
 parted to others. 
 
 During bad days, when the men are discouraged, the officers 
 and non-commissioned officers form the foundation on which the 
 spirit of the company is rebuilt; they remember that "no matter 
 what comes, one must never despair"; that there is no good 
 reason why the enemy is not as badly decimated and depressed 
 as our own troops; that in war, Dame Fortune has astonishing 
 rewards for those who do not give up; and that complete victory 
 
12 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 belongs to him who is able to hold out a quarter of an hour longer 
 than the other. 
 
 The spirit of precision. — In addition to those moral qualities 
 necessary at all times, it is important that the officer go deeply 
 into the new requirements of war, which, at the present time, de- 
 pend so largely on scientific qualities. 
 
 Today every attack, every stubborn resistance, risks failure 
 if the force engaged has not prepared its ground, its materiel, 
 and its personnel with a minuteness superior to that of the enemy. 
 In this preparation, where every detail is important, the least 
 neglect must be paid for in the end. 
 
 The non-commissioned officers and the chief of platoon of 
 infantry should realize that no matter how brave they are per- 
 sonally, their task will not be accomplished if they do not con- 
 stantly apply themselves to the details which no other officer can 
 attend to for them. Order, method, mechanical precision, and 
 horror of the terms "almost" and "unfinished" have become es- 
 sential qualities, the absence of which will surely expose a com- 
 mander to the most serious disappointments. 
 
 Orders received and the initiative. — Command is exercised in 
 accordance with the following principle: The superior deter- 
 mines the object to be attained, indicates his intentions, and 
 defines the tasks to be executed by the subordinate elements; 
 he leaves to the latter the choice of means for their execution. 
 Officers and non-commissioned officers should make good use of 
 that initiative in choosing the best means leading to the desired 
 end. 
 
 Initiative does not consist, as is sometimes thought, in the 
 right to modify an order that has been received, when it is thought 
 that the result obtained will be better; such action is disobedience. 
 
 However, a non-commissioned officer should act on his own 
 initiative: 
 
 First. To complete and develop an order when intentionally 
 or otherwise the commander who has given it to him is silent on 
 certain measures of detail which it is intended to be left to his 
 judgment. 
 
 Second. When, for any reason, an order is not received and 
 a decision is necessary. In this case he must give an order and 
 report his action. He may be mistaken as to the urgency of the 
 case, but the commander will always consider that " the only 
 faults which merit reproach are those of inaction and fear of re- 
 sponsibility." 
 
 Finally, in very exceptional cases, for example, when the 
 situation is entirely changed between the time when an order 
 was issued and the time it was received, initiative may lead one 
 to act in an entirely or partly different way from that ordered; 
 
THE RIGHT OF SENIORITY AND DISCIPLINE U 
 
 it is necessary then to be absolutely certain that " in disobeying 
 the text of the order the intention of the commander is carried 
 out," and a report of the action taken must be made without 
 delay. 
 
 In all other cases discipline demands that orders be obeyed 
 promptly to the smallest details which the commander has thought 
 necessary to mention. Initiative is only exercised in regard to 
 those details which have not been mentioned, and action on these 
 should be in accordance with what is known of the commander's 
 intentions and manner of thought. 
 
 Orders given. — The principal quality of an order is clearness. 
 In war, misunderstanding is a more dangerous enemy than lack 
 of discipline; more frequently than otherwise it destroys the strict 
 execution of orders. 
 
 A subaltern officer often has the advantage of being able to 
 explain and comment on the orders which he gives his men; their 
 intelligence is thus brought into play, and they are more willing 
 to carry out orders of which they understand the necessity. 
 
 But it is also necessary that the command understands that 
 this is only done for the best interests of the service. It should 
 be none the less ready to execute strictly, without hesitation or 
 question, an order given without explanation. That is the very 
 basis of discipline, and one can not revert to it too often, even if 
 only as an exercise. 
 
 Frequently the orders of a non-commissioned officer are not 
 properly obeyed because he gives orders to a lot of men collec- 
 tively when only a few are required to do the work; each man 
 then looks to his neighbor to carry out the order. The one 
 giving the order should always divide the work up and assign 
 it by name to the men who are to execute it. It seldom happens 
 that a man who has personally received a clear and positive 
 order will disobey it, but he will often try to evade an ambigu- 
 ous order. Before formulating an order one must be sure that 
 it can be carried out and is not capable of evasion; it must say 
 exactly what is desired and no more; the system of demanding 
 more than is desired in order to be sure to have enough must 
 be avoided. Whatever is ordered must be obtained; the difficulty 
 is to properly estimate what is reasonable and profitable. 
 
 When a precise and correct order has been given, an immedi- 
 ate and severe penalty should follow its non-execution. 
 
 It is not admissable for an officer or a non-commissioned 
 officer to fail to pay attention to a flagrant fault that he sees com- 
 mitted, under the pretext that the guilty person is not under 
 his direct orders. This frequently happens, either through in- 
 dolence or through fear of wounding the sensibilities of the com- 
 mander of the man at fault. A non-commissioned officer is the 
 
14 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 superior of all persons in the military service who are of inferior 
 rank. He should realize his authority and not make himself an 
 accomplice of a man who misconducts himself in his presence. He 
 should intervene tactfully and firmly and insist that the orders and 
 regulations be carried out at all times and in all places. All slack- 
 ness in camp and in the trenches arises from the failure to observe 
 this principle. 
 
 In the company the non-commissioned officers should be the 
 mainstays of their squads or sections, and they should never 
 refuse advice to a man who asks it, or a solution of a difficulty 
 which he brings before them. An excellent means of having 
 little to repress in the interior management of the company is 
 to lay down the principle that a man is never at fault when he 
 is covered by the previous approval of a non-commissioned officer, 
 but that he is always to blame when he has not referred to him 
 if he has any doubt as to what he should do. On the other 
 hand, a non-commissioned officer will be considered as unfit to 
 command if he avoids accepting his responsibility of giving a 
 direct reply. 
 
 Therefore, officers ana non-commissioned officers should 
 never forget that they hold a part of the principle of authority, 
 and that it has been confided to them with the understanding that 
 they will not allow it to suffer under any circumstances. 
 
 Relations of officers among themselves. — Officers of the same 
 company mess together; meal hours are hours of relaxation dur- 
 ing which it is proper that they become sociable, but whatever 
 the familiarity that exists then, the deference due to experience, 
 age, and rank must never be forgotten. 
 
 The respect shown by the lieutenant to his captain, his atten- 
 tion and punctuality in observing all his instructions, will be 
 quickly observed by the command and will teach it obedience and 
 military experience by the best method — example. 
 
 THE DIFFERENT GRADES IN THE COMPANY 
 
 The company is the organization which appeals most to the 
 soldier. It is the largest unit in which all the grades and men 
 can be personally acquainted. It is the smallest one that can be 
 charged with elementary tactical operation. 
 
 It has its own number, and its customs; it differs from its 
 neighboring company. Also the captain is the real commander 
 of his men; he is the confidant of their troubles as well as the 
 compulsory intermediary of their requests. Nothing that concerns 
 them is done without his advice. He has, in a way, a universal 
 role. He is responsible for every one in the company, and conse- 
 quently has entire charge of all his subordinates. 
 
THE RIGHT OF SENIORITY AND DISCIPLINE 15 
 
 The chief of platoon. — The chief of platoon is purely a mili- 
 tary chief; he is the head of the strongest unit that can be 
 controlled by the voice and kept in view when deployed. The 
 platoon is the elementary group in battle; it engages, fires, and 
 fights as a unit; it always acts as if its power was concentrated 
 under a single head — that of the chief of platoon. The role of the 
 latter is therefore most important. 
 
 Having under his orders only 50 men whom he never leaves, 
 the chief of platoon is the only officer who can know in detail the 
 character and aptitude of each one, and he is best qualified 
 to judge of their daily morale and of the tactical situation, which 
 he should always keep in mind (security, liaisons, observation,, 
 damage done to the enemy, etc.). On account of his other 
 duties, he should require that the non-commissioned officers give 
 him full support so that he may maintain his moral and tactical role. 
 
 The sergeant commanding a half platoon. — The sergeant is, 
 in practice, the first non-commissioned officer who has considerable 
 authority, and, besides, he commands a sufficiently small number 
 of men so that he can remember or note all the details concern- 
 ing them — clothing, equipment, armament, supplies, etc. This is 
 his role. His many duties can be expressed in the following 
 words: To do whatever is necessary in order that the personnel 
 and materiel of his half platoon shall always be present and in 
 good condition. In a well-disciplined half platoon the officers need 
 only make several daily inspections and do not have to do the 
 work of the sergeant. 
 
 In battle the sergeant commanding a section has an import- 
 ant role, that of file closer. His superiors must speak to him often; 
 tell him that fear is contagious; that the safety of the country 
 requires that any weakness or the beginning of any confusion 
 must be immediately suppressed; that to hesitate to kill a coward 
 is perhaps to preserve 20 enemies or to cause the death of 20 
 comrades. 
 
 In advance the sergeant does not put himself in the firing 
 line, but sees that all the others are there. 
 
 In order that he may perform his duties in the most energetic 
 manner it is necessary to give him much greater authority in the 
 field than in peace time. 
 
 The corporal. — The corporal lives intimately with his men; 
 he is their mess chief and justice of the peace. 
 
 The best corporal is the one who always has hot soup and 
 food for his squad under all circumstances. The sergeant should 
 not delegate to him any part of the permanent responsibilities 
 which he should assume himself. The proper employment of a 
 corporal consists in confiding to him the execution of successive 
 and well-outlined tasks. From the grade of corporal those men 
 2 
 
16 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 who have shown the best qualifications for command are chosen as 
 sergeants. 
 
 SENIORITY— RIGHT OF COMMAND 
 
 It is important that the relative seniority of the sergeants, 
 corporals, and first-class privates be always definitely fixed, so 
 that, if the case arises, there will never be any hesitation on the 
 part of the one who should automatically take command and 
 become responsible. The lists of seniority by rank should be made 
 up, and the newly arrived informed. 
 
 The rule is that when two or more military persons assemble 
 for service there is always one who is in command, the highest 
 in rank, or if of equal grade the one of longest service; the lieuten- 
 ant will thus establish the order of rank among the men of his 
 platoon-. J 
 
 ( But in battle, when the lower non-commissioned officers have 
 
 disappeared, it is necejf&ry ' to take from the ranks the bravest 
 private, and one vho is not necessarily the senior. He leads the 
 vothers; h<t is the commander. 
 
 ft It is necessary to impress this on the command; if the rules 
 
 of seniority are correct in ordinary life, during battle they cease 
 to exist among soldiers. 
 
 In the same grade, officers with permanent rank take com- 
 mand over those with temporary rank. 
 
 Between officers of the active army and officers of the 
 new complement, of the same grade, seniority is established as 
 follows: 
 
 Both count as active service, as regards their right to com- 
 mand, the time they have actually served with the colors in their 
 present grade since the date of mobilization; those who have pre- 
 viously served in the active army with their present rank are 
 credited with the seniority they had in that grade at the time they 
 left the army. 
 
 In the same grade and with the same date of seniority, 
 officers of the active army take command over officers of the new 
 complement. Seniority between sergeants and corporals of the 
 active army is fixed in the same manner. 
 
 Exception to the rule of seniority. — The authority which 
 orders the formation of a detachment can designate its com- 
 mander, provided that no one in the military service is placed under 
 the orders of a person of inferior rank. t 
 
 " Command," properly speaking (command of a detachment, 
 encampment, etc.), never belongs to officers who are of a corps 
 or personnel which has a " hierarchy " of its own, even though such 
 
THE RIGHT OF SENIORITY AND DISCIPLINE 17 
 
 officers have assimilated rank (that is, medical officers, officers of 
 administration, subintendants, etc.). 
 
 However, these officers have certain powers resulting from 
 their special regulations, for example, a surgeon in his infirmary 
 or in his dressing station. 
 
 Study, drill, and practical application form the bases of 
 training. By study, knowledge of principles and methods is 
 acquired; by drill, skill in the mechanism of methods and in the 
 performance of habitual duties is gained. It is by practical applica- 
 tion that officers and men learn to adapt to actual cases the knowl- 
 edge and skill they have acquired. Facility in so doing is of the ut- 
 most importance, since on service a great variety of practical prob- 
 lems present themselves, each of which must be solved on the basis 
 of its own particular requirements. Hence, as soon as proficiency in 
 elementary methods is attained, the applicatory system will be 
 employed, commencing with simple problems and gradually widen- 
 ing the scope so as to introduce the greatest possible variety of 
 conditions. To this end all tactical exercises, whether theoretical 
 or practical, whether with or without troops, will be based upon 
 an assumed situation. In all exercises in the field a concrete case 
 will be stated, calling for the actual employment of the organiza- 
 tion concerned, and the organization is then employed to meet the 
 requirements of this case. The strength and character of the oppo- 
 sition to be expected, the nature of the terrain, the obstacles to be 
 overcome being known or developed as the solution proceeds, the 
 opportunity is afforded not only of applying appropriate general 
 principles and tactical methods, but also of putting to practical use 
 many minor phases of instruction which had previously been the 
 subject of drill-ground training. Thus, the service of security and 
 information, signaling, field fortifications, pioneer work, the pas- 
 sage of obstacles may all be incidents of the operation involved, 
 and, being natural incidents, the purpose of the previous drill and 
 instruction becomes apparent, as well as the difficulties liable to 
 arise under the varied conditions of service. The more nearly the 
 conditions of service are simulated and the greater the variety of 
 the incidents introduced, the more instructive will these exercises 
 be. Such exercises may be conducted at first as map problems or 
 terrain exercises for the training of officers and selected enlisted 
 men. 
 
 Study, drill, and practical illustration follow a generally 
 progressive order as indicated below; but instructions of the three 
 kinds should be in a measure concurrent, to the end that the 
 reasons for instruction, the purposes to be attained, and the con- 
 ditions under which the duties will have to be performed may be 
 continually kept in mind. 
 
 The prime immediate need of our magnificent Army is cor- 
 
18 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 rect tactical training of officers and non-commissioned officers in 
 handling commands appropriate to their rank. In this training the 
 study of strategic combinations on a large scale should be avoided, 
 except in so far as such study may bear upon the solution of the 
 problems under consideration, and all such study should be inci- 
 dent to, and form the basis for, the tactical training of officers and 
 their commands. 
 
 In order that study and training may be properly directed 
 and that a unified doctrine of tactics may be taught the entire 
 service, all tactical instruction of the mobile army is conducted in 
 accordance with the principles taught at the Service Schools and 
 the Army War College, as set forth in the books employed and as 
 illustrated in the approved solutions at those institutions. 
 
 GARRISON TRAINING 
 
 Garrison training is devoted especially to theoretical and 
 practical instruction in the various garrison schools, and to drill 
 and practical instruction preparatory to field training. 
 
 War Department orders prescribing regulations to govern 
 post and garrison schools lay down specifically the course to be 
 followed in the more elementary schools for officers and enlisted 
 men. Brigade commanders devote special attention to the post- 
 graduate scheme of instruction, which runs through the entire 
 period of garrison training. The postgraduate course of instruction 
 includes such map problems, terrain exercises, tactical or staff 
 walks or rides, or other work pertaining to the local terrain as 
 brigade commanders may prescribe; this portion of the course may 
 he made to amplify the work of the elementary schools for officers 
 and enlisted men, as well as the drill and practical instruction 
 preparatory to field training. 
 
 t: : . Drill and practical instruction preparatory to field training 
 
 embraces specially: Drill of the company, battery, and troop and 
 all of the units thereof, mounted and dismounted; the preliminary 
 training for fire action and firing exercises on a represented or 
 actual terrain with targets represented to scale or actually desig- 
 nated, thus giving opportunity to train the personnel both in the 
 mechanisms of fire and in appropriate methods of directing, con- 
 trolling and adjusting fire; the rudiments of the service of security 
 and information, including the preparation and transmission of 
 orders and messages; map making and map reading for officers, 
 non-commissioned officers, and selected privates; exercises in leav- 
 ing the post with a part or all of the command equipped for pro- 
 longed service in the field; bayonet combat; swordmanship, 
 mounted and dismounted; visual signaling; gymnastics, athletics, 
 
THE RIGHT OF SENIORITY AND DISCIPLINE 19 
 
 and swimming, including swimming with arms and equipment 
 under proper precautions as to safety; equitation, horse training, 
 and packing; tent pitching; guard duty and ceremonies; first aid 
 and the hygienic care of the person; care of equipment of all 
 descriptions. 
 
 FIELD TRAINING 
 
 Field training, in its technical meaning, comprises the tactical 
 or war training of units to fit them for the field against an enemy. 
 
 (1) In order to secure the best results possible, officers must 
 be systematic in their instruction and be quite clear in their own 
 minds as to the lessons they wish each day to teach. The daily 
 detail of instruction should, therefore, be carefully thought out 
 beforehand, and consideration given as to how the time is to be 
 allotted. Subalterns and non-commissioned officers should be 
 informed of the next day's program of work so that the proper 
 manuals may be studied and other necessary preparations made in 
 advance. 
 
 (2) Practical work in the field should be varied with short 
 talks by the company commander or other instructor, the men in 
 the meanwhile being allowed to rest on the ground, every effort 
 being made to interest them and to keep their minds on the 
 instruction in hand. Non-commissioned officers should, as far as 
 possible, receive special training in troop leading and command in 
 the field. 
 
 (3) Men must be made to understand the object and mean- 
 ing of the exercise about to be practiced, and their individual intel- 
 ligence and self-reliance fostered, so that in the absence of a leader, 
 action will not be paralyzed. 
 
 (4) To lend reality to field training, each exercise should be 
 based on a simple tactical idea, which should be thought out before- 
 hand and explained to all taking part before commencing the 
 exercise. 
 
 (5) In the solution of tactical exercises, interest is greatly 
 stimulated if the enemy is at least outlined. 
 
 DISCIPLINE 
 
 In new regiments, discipline will be best taught and more 
 easily attained on the part of both the official and enlisted person- 
 nel by the inculcation of a patriotic determination on the part of 
 every one to make the most of the training given and to give un- 
 questioning and cheerful obedience to all orders and instructions 
 emanating from above. 
 
20 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 The meaning of discipline in its highest and most important 
 sense should be explained and taught early in the soldier's career, 
 as first impressions are generally lasting ones. This can best be 
 done in the form of talks and lectures by the higher officers of 
 the regiment, and especially by the colonel who, in the eyes of the 
 soldier, is the embodiment of military knowledge and virtue. 
 
 The dogma, that military discipline can only be sustained 
 by the aid of severe and unpitying punishment, is far removed 
 from the idea here suggested. That unpitying military discipline 
 seems to have prompted Peter the Great, when he sacrificed a 
 young officer, who triumphantly fought the Swedes without 
 orders. Thus also thought Frederic the Great, when he executed 
 the unfortunate Zietten, who violated an order by keeping a light 
 a little too long in his tent. But such harsh principles are no 
 longer inculcated in the best governed armies. Passive discipline 
 is the fusion of individual interest in national interest. The first 
 military virtue is esprit de corps, with fidelity to the oath taken 
 upon assuming the military character. These duties exact obedi- 
 ence to the laws, and to the lawful orders of the President of the 
 United States, and officers set over us according to law. These 
 laws should command obedience from all inferiors, and distinctly 
 define the extent of all authority. They ought to bind the Presi- 
 dent or commander-in-chief as well as the simple soldier. Rights 
 and Duties must be reciprocal, and be alike established by law. 
 
 Discipline is sometimes used as meaning "system of instruc- 
 tion," but its signification is much broader. Its technical military 
 sense includes not only the means provided for exercise and in- 
 struction, but subjection to all laws framed for the government 
 and regulation of the army. The good or bad discipline of an 
 army depends primarily upon the laws established for its creation, 
 as well as its government and regulation. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 GENERAL AND TACTICAL ORGANIZATION OF 
 THE LAND FORCES OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 The land forces of the United States consist of the regular 
 army, the organized land militia when called into the service of 
 the United States, and such volunteer forces as Congress may 
 authorize. 
 
 In peace the Army of the United States consists, ordinarily, 
 of the regular army; but whenever the United States is invaded or 
 in danger of invasion from any foreign nation, or of rebellion 
 against the authority of the Government of the United States, or 
 the President is unable with the regular forces at his command to 
 execute the laws of the Union, he may call into the military service 
 of the United States all or any part of the militia organized as a 
 land force. 
 
 In war, or when war is imminent, the Army of the United 
 States, after the whole or part of the organized land militia has 
 been called into service, may be further augmented by the employ- 
 ment of volunteers. When the raising of a volunteer force has 
 been authorized by Congress, and after the organized land militia 
 of any arm or class has been called into the military service of the 
 United States, volunteers of that particular arm or class may be 
 raised and accepted into said service regardless of the extent to 
 which other arms or classes of militia may have been called into 
 service. 
 
 The land forces are grouped under two general heads — the 
 Mobile Army and Coast Artillery. The mobile army is primarily 
 organized for offensive operations against an enemy, and on this 
 account requires the maximum degree of mobility. The basis of 
 organization for the mobile army is the division. A division is a 
 self-contained unit made up of all necessary arms and services, 
 and complete in itself with every requirement for independent 
 action incident to its ordinary operations. When several divisions 
 are acting together they may be grouped into field armies. To 
 the field army there are attached certain organizations of an 
 auxiliary character, called field army troops. 
 
 When the number of field army troops attached to a field 
 army make it necessary, they are organized into a separate brigade 
 
22 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 for purposes of supply and administration, and a commander is 
 designated and the necessary staff is assigned to him. Infantry, 
 cavalry, or military police may be attached to this separate brigade 
 for defensive purposes on the march. The number of troops so 
 assigned depends on the condition of the service and the number 
 of field army troops in the brigade. Troops for the protection of 
 field army troops are preferably furnished from troops assigned 
 to the line of communications. 
 
 If the conditions of the particular service require it, divisions 
 operating independently may be furnished with the necessary field 
 army troops. A brigade operating independently, when so desig- 
 nated by competent authority, is known as a separate brigade, and 
 when so operating may be supplied with the necessary special and 
 field army troops. When several field armies are operating in the 
 same theater of war and if conditions so require it, they may be 
 organized into armies. 
 
 The coast artillery is charged with the care and use of the 
 fixed and movable elements of land and coast fortifications, includ- 
 ing submarine mine and torpedo defense. The military prepara- 
 tions for the defense of a coast line include: (1) The construction 
 of permanent fortifications and the provision of submarine de- 
 fenses for defense against naval attack. Such defenses are manned 
 and operated by coast artillery troops. (2) The construction of 
 semi-permanent fortifications and field works for the protection of 
 the permanent fortifications against capture by small raiding par- 
 ties landing from ships, or, in the case of an island, in boats from 
 the adjacent shore. Troops assigned to this duty are known as 
 coast artillery supports. They may be troops of the coast artillery 
 or troops of the mobile army. (3) Divisions and field armies con- 
 centrated and held at strategic centers of value with reference to 
 the coast line. 
 
 By a recent Act of Congress the United States Army is 
 divided into three classes — the Regular Army, the National Guard 
 and the National Army (drafted). The President of the United 
 States is the commander-in-chief, the functions being delegated to 
 the Secretary of War, who is assisted by the chief of the genera! 
 staff. In case of war, the command of armies in the field is given 
 to a general, assisted by one or more lieutenant generals. In 
 time of peace, the National Guard units are under the orders of 
 the Governors of their respective States, although under the con- 
 trol of the Federal War Department in so far as instruction is 
 concerned. 
 
 THE ARMY CORPS 
 
 An army corps consists of the general headquarters, the 
 troops, and the administrative departments. The headquarters 
 
GENERAL AND TACTICAL ORGANIZATION 23 
 
 includes the general officer commanding the corps, staff, an 
 artillery staff, an engineer staff, and the commanders or heads 
 of the various administrative departments (supply, sanitary, 
 veterinary, pay, post office, provost, and judge advocate). The 
 troops include the infantry divisions, the corps artillery (which 
 includes trench artillery, light artillery, and heavy artillery), the 
 corps cavalry (a regiment), some companies of corps engineers, 
 an aero squadron, and a balloon company. 
 
 The administrative departments are those of the following 
 organizations and services: The artillery park, including the 
 artillery and the infantry ammunition trains; the engineer train, 
 including the corps engineer park, the searchlight section, and 
 the bridge train; the military telegraph unit; the supply train (in- 
 cluding the motor transport company for the supply of fresh meat 
 and the herd of live animals); the sanitary train (one group of 
 corps litter bearers, two sections of motor ambulances, and four 
 ambulances); the pay department; the post office department; the 
 military police; the department of military justice; and the veteri- 
 nary service and remount depot. 
 
 THE INFANTRY DIVISION 
 
 An infantry division also consists of the headquarters, the 
 troops, and the administrative departments. 
 
 The headquarters includes the general officer commanding 
 the division, his staff, the general commanding the infantry, the 
 artillery commander, the commander of the engineers of the divi- 
 sion, and the chiefs of the administrative departments, viz., supply, 
 sanitary (one group of divisional litter bearers and two ambu- 
 lances), pay and post office, military police, and military justice 
 (court-martial of the division). The troops are: Three regiments 
 of infantry or two brigades of two regiments each, the divisional 
 artillery (including one regiment of light artillery, heavy artillery, 
 and trench artillery), the divisional cavalry and some companies 
 of divisional engineers. The division has a motor department 
 (where bicycles also are repaired); a divisional artillery park, 
 including a department for repairing machine guns; a telegraph 
 unit; a supply train; a department for the supply of fresh meat 
 and a park of beef on the hoof. It also includes the depot of the 
 division, which has one infantry company for each battalion in 
 the division. These are the fourth companies of these battalions, 
 which remain behind with their officers, non-commissioned officers, 
 men, and vehicles, but which continue to form part of their organ- 
 izations, from which they are regarded as detached. The command 
 of the group of companies pertaining to each organization is ordi- 
 narily exercised by the senior captain present. 
 
24 MILITARY 'IR.ILXING 
 
 THE INFANTRY BRIGADE 
 
 The infantry brigade is not an administrative unit. It in- 
 cludes a general officer commanding the brigade, a military staff, 
 and two regiments of infantry. It does not exist in a division of 
 three regiments. 
 
 THE INFANTRY REGIMENT 
 
 The infantry regiment includes the regimental staff, one 
 headquarters company, three battalions (normal organization), one 
 platoon of 37-mm. (1.5-inch) guns (one gun for each battalion) 
 attached for rations only to the first machine-gun company, the 
 combat trains, and the field train. 
 
 The regimental staff. — The regimental staff includes the 
 colonel, 1 lieutenant colonel or 1 major (assisting the colonel), 
 1 captain (adjutant), 1 telephone officer, 1 lieutenant commanding 
 the platoon of sappers and grenadiers, 1 color bearer, 1 utility 
 officer (who commands the combat trains when they are as- 
 sembled), 1 supply officer (who commands the field train of the 
 regiment), 1 regimental surgeon (chief of the sanitary service), 1 
 chief musician, and 1 information officer (who is detached from 
 a company). 
 
 The headquarters company. — The headquarters company in- 
 cludes the colonel's clerks and cyclists (one of whom is messenger 
 for the regimental surgeon); the assistants of the supply officer, 
 including 1 warrant officer; 1 sergeant major, 2 sergeants, 1 ser- 
 geant and 5 men (butchers), cyclists, and teamsters; the assistants 
 of the quartermaster, including one sergeant major artificer, 1 cor- 
 poral clerk, some clerks and teamsters; the assistants of the tele- 
 phone officer, including a telephone detachment of 3 sergeants, 
 8 corporals, 40 privates (8 stations); a signal detachment of 1 
 sergeant, 1 corporal, and 8 signalmen; 1 platoon of sappers and 
 grenadiers, viz., 1 non-commissioned officer (commanding the sec- 
 tion), trained sappers, including 1 corporal and 12 privates, the 
 pioneer detachment, including 2 sergeants, 4 corporals, and 48 
 pioneers, the bombing section of 1 sergeant, 3 corporals, and 24 
 grenadiers; 1 assistant chief musician, 1 drum major, and 38 musi- 
 cians; 1 chief armorer and 3 armorers; 1 veterinarian (for each 
 brigade), 1 farrier corporal, 5 farriers and 2 saddlers; 1 litter-bearer 
 sergeant; the postmasters (1 postmaster and 1 assistant for each 
 battalion); the mounted scouts (2 sergeants, 2 corporals, and 8 
 troopers); the non-commissioned officers belonging to the head- 
 quarters company; the cooks: laborers; the orderlies of the officers 
 of the regimental staff; 1 tailor; 1 shoemaker. 
 
GENERAL AND TACTICAL ORGANIZATION 25 
 
 The sergeant major is a company non-commissioned officer] 
 almost the equivalent of the first sergeant in the United States 
 Army. 
 
 THE INFANTRY BATTALION 
 
 A battalion consists of a staff, a non-commissioned staff, three i I 
 companies, and one machine gun company. The fourth company I 
 is usually detached and remains at the depot of the division. 
 
 The staff includes the battalion commander, 1 captain (adju-, J 
 tant), and 1 surgeon. 
 
 The non-commissioned staff is rationed with the first com-'l 
 pany of the battalion. It includes 1 sergeant (assistant of the bat-J| 
 talion commander); I cavalry sergeant (attached); 1 assistant sur- 
 geon; 1 artificer sergeant (commanding the combat train of thejii 
 battalion); 1 chief bugler (a corporal) ;-l chief litter bearer (a cor- J 
 poral) and some litter bearers; 5 signalmen (one of them a cor- I 
 poral); 3 cyclists (one of whom is the surgeon's messenger or) 
 liaison agent); the drivers of the 3 wagons belonging to the bat-1 
 talion (baggage wagon, medical supply wagon, and caisson); and| 
 the orderlies of the 3 officers. 
 
 The litter bearers number 16 or 28, depending upon whether!', 
 the regiment has or has not a band. 
 
 THE INFANTRY COMPANY 
 
 The company consists of a captain; 3 lieutenants or seconc 
 lieutenants; 1 warrant officer (adjutant); 1 first sergeant (sergean 
 major); 1 quartermaster sergeant; 8 sergeants; 1 quartermaste 
 corporal; 16 corporals; 4 drummers or buglers; 1 soldier of th 
 medical corps (in the first company he is a corporal); 1 cyclist; 
 tailor; 1 shoemaker; the drivers of the three wagons of the com 
 pany; 4 sappers and pioneers; 4 orderlies; 2 signalers; and th< 
 soldiers of the company (grenadiers and riflemen), divided into 
 platoons. 
 
 MACHINE GUN COMPANY 
 
 Machine gun companies are of two types, either on wheel 
 (gun carriages and caissons) or alpine type (all pack mules). 
 
 A company consists of the captain; 2 lieutenants; a sergean 
 in charge of a liaison; a non-commissioned officer accountant; 
 supply corporal; a range finder; an armorer corporal; a medicz 
 corps private; a cook; 3 or 4 firing platoons with their ammuni 
 tion; and the company combat train. 
 
26 MILITARY* TRAINING 
 
 Firing platoon. — Each platoon has a lieutenant or a sergeant 
 in command; a non-commissioned assistant to the platoon com- 
 mander; 2 corporals, each commanding a machine gun; two gun- 
 ners; 2 loaders; 2 assistant loaders; an armorer; and a liaison 
 agent. 
 
 Ammunition supply. — Two supply corporals; 4 ammunition 
 carriers for each platoon, the carriages or mules for the machine 
 guns and ammunition. For a company of 4 platoons there will be 
 16 light carriages, 8 for the guns and 8 for the ammunition, or 36 
 pack mules. 
 
 Company combat train. — Two corporals, and, theroretically, 
 1 caisson or 6 mules for each platoon. But since the adoption of 8 
 j automatic rifles per company the combat train of the machine gun 
 ! company has been reduced to 2 caissons for 3 sections and 3 
 : caissons for 4 sections. As soon as every infantry company has 
 been supplied with 16 automatic rifles, the machine gun companies 
 ; will lose another caisson apiece. The caisson holds about 25,000 
 i cartridges on rigid strips and a few spare ammunition cases. 
 
 The 37-mm. gun platoon. — This platoon is rationed with 
 machine gun company No. 1. It includes 1 lieutenant and 1 liaison 
 agent (both mounted on bicycles), and has as many guns as there 
 are battalions in the regiment. Each gun has a detachment con- 
 sisting of 1 sergeant, 1 corporal, 1 gunner, 1 loader, 2 ammunition 
 | carriers, 3 cannoneers (2 with ammunition cart and 1 teamster, 
 not mounted). The combat train of one gun or of one platoon of 
 two guns is one caisson with 2 mounted drivers; for a platoon of 
 three or four guns, 2 caissons and 4 mounted drivers. 
 
 The combat train. — The combat train is commanded by the 
 regimental supply officer and includes: 
 
 For the regiment, 2 light tool wagons; 3 wagons of materials 
 (telephones, wire, sandbags, and bombs); 6 water wagons; 1 ambu- 
 jlance; 1 medical supply wagon (carrying wheel litters and gas 
 masks); 2 forges; 2 ration and baggage wagons; 1 kitchen; and 
 the led horses. 
 
 For each battalion, 1 medical supply wagon; 1 ration and 
 baggage wagon; and 1 four-horse ammunition wagon carrying 
 25,000 rounds of small-arms ammunition and 48 haversacks. The 
 ammunition wagon of the detached company at the depot of the 
 division carries 14,000 rounds of small-arms ammunition and 24 
 haversacks. The ammunition transport is doubled when each 
 company has 16 automatic rifles. 
 
 For each company, 1 ammunition wagon, 1 ration and bag- 
 gage wagon, and 1 rolling kitchen. 
 
 For each machine gun company, some ammunition wagons; 
 1 ration and baggage wagon; 1 rolling kitchen; and the ammuni- 
 tion wagons belonging to the 37-mm. guns. 
 
GENERAL AND TACTICAL ORGANIZATION 27 
 
 The combat train is generally divided into two echelons: 
 
 The first echelon is commanded by the artificer sergeant 
 major, and includes the medical supply wagons, the filled ammuni- 
 tion wagons, the wagons of tools and materials, and all the led 
 horses. 
 
 The second echelon is commanded by the utility officer, and 
 includes the ration and baggage wagons, the water wagons, the 
 kitchens, the forge, and the empty ammunition wagons. 
 
 The field train. — The field train is commanded by the supply 
 officer and consists of three sections. Two sections of 5 wagons 
 each bring up and distribute alternately one day's rations to the 
 regiment (each of these sections is commanded by a sergeant). 
 One reserve section of 3 wagons is commanded by the sergeant 
 major of the field train. The field train also includes 2 forage 
 wagons, 2 wagons or 1 three-horse van carrying oats, 3 fresh- 
 meat wagons, and 6 led horses. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS DETAILS OF INFANTRY 
 ORGANIZATIONS 
 
 The medical corps detachment of the battalion is ordinarily 
 with the battalion medical supply wagon, but when a company is 
 detached its quota of the medical corps detachment goes with it. 
 
 The chief litter bearer (corporal) is with the medical supply 
 wagon of the battalion. 
 
 Litter bearers are ordinarily with the companies to which 
 they belong, but when the battalion goes into action they are 
 assembled by the chief litter bearer. 
 
 The drummers and buglers ordinarily act as liaison agents 
 of the captain. 
 
 The artificer sergeant (of the battalion) is in charge of the 
 ammunition wagons of the battalion so long as they are full. 
 When they are emptied and sent to the rear he joins the artificer 
 sergeant major (of the regiment) in order to supervise the am- 
 munition supply from the ammunition train. 
 
 The mounted orderlies are assembled with their horses, by 
 battalion or by regiment, in rear of a designated unit. 
 
 The specialists of the company: In addition to those already 
 mentioned, the companies provide the liaisons to the company and 
 the battalion commander. Each company sends to the major a 
 supply sergeant or supply corporal, and generally also a squad of 
 messengers, composed of one corporal and four riflemen. The 
 machine gun company sends the sergeant in charge of liaison. 
 
 Pigeon caretakers, when they are necessary, are also detailed 
 from the companies. 
 
 Observers and signalers: There are two signalers in each 
 
28 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 company. For substitutes they have two observers (riflemen), 
 who, like themselves, are trained by the telephone officer. In 
 addition, in each company 1 officer, 2 sergeants, the liaison agents, 
 and at least 6 substitutes must be able to send and receive the 
 Morse code. 
 
 Specialist officers: The company may include in its effective 
 strength the grenadier officer of the battalion, the automatic rifle 
 officer of the battalion, or the intelligence officer of the regiment. 
 The two first-named remain in charge of their platoons. A ser- 
 geant is detailed to accompany the battalion commander as intel- 
 ligence sergeant. 
 
 Cavalry. — The regular fighting unit of cavalry is the troop, 
 which corresponds to the company of infantry, consisting of 3 
 officers and 105 men. The squadron, corresponding to the bat- 
 talion of infantry, has 4 troops. The regiment of cavalry, con- 
 sisting of 3 squadrons, has a war strength of 1,579 officers and 
 men (including the medical department), 37 wagons, 1,541 riding 
 horses and 187 mules. These figures include a headquarters com- 
 pany, a supply company and a machine gun company of 6 guns. In 
 column of fours the net length of a cavalry regiment is 2,134 yards 
 (or 2,478 yards with its trains). 
 
 Artillery. — This arm is divided into coast artillery and field 
 artillery. Coast artillery consists of foot companies whose prin- 
 cipal duties are to plant mines in harbors, etc., and to serve 
 stationary guns of the coast defense. The companies of coast 
 artillery are grouped into districts which cover the entire line of 
 sea coasts of the United States, the Philippine Islands, and Hawaii. 
 Each unit has many specialists, such as electricians, radio-ser- 
 geants, observers, plotters, coxswains, etc. Field artillery prepares 
 and supports the attack, and by its curtain of fire, in trench 
 warfare, prevents hostile reinforcements from reaching the firing 
 line. It is mobile and accompanies the army in all of its move- 
 ments, and for that purpose is divided into light, heavy, horse and 
 mountain batteries. Most light batteries are armed with the three- 
 inch rapid fire gun. The regular fighting unit of field artillery is 
 the battery, which corresponds to the company of infantry, and 
 is divided into sections commanded by non-commissioned officers. 
 The first four sections are each in charge of a gun, forming two 
 platoons of 2 guns; the platoon is generally commanded by a 
 lieutenant. The field battery usually consists of 5 officers and 190 
 men, but may vary according to war conditions. An artillery regi- 
 ment, besides its batteries, has a headquarters company and a 
 supply company. 
 
 Engineers. — Under the organization which took place in 
 1917, the regiment of engineers which is attached to each division 
 of infantry numbers 1,666 officers and men. Besides its regimental 
 
GENERAL AND TACTICAL ORGANIZATION 29 
 
 wagons, the regiment has a special train, which forms a part of the 
 divisional train, and consists of a headquarters and supply section. 
 In case of a war of movement or operations in the open, without 
 trenches, the engineer trains of each division comprises also 1 
 ponton section and 1 searchlight section. 
 
 Engineer Combat Trains. — Each engineer regimental head- 
 quarters has two tool wagons, each drawn by four mules; one is a 
 tool wagon of the escort-wagon type, carrying map-reproduction 
 equipment and supplies. The other regimental headquarters 
 wagon is a spring tool wagon of a special design similar to the 
 ambulance. It is provided with lockers, drawers, and compart- 
 ments, in which are carried the drafting, photographic, reconnais- 
 sance, surveying, and miscellaneous equipment and supplies. 
 
 Each battalion headquarters of an engineer regiment has one 
 tool wagon of the escort-wagon type, carrying blacksmith and 
 pioneer equipment and supplies, with sufficient space remaining 
 for the headquarters baggage. 
 
 Each engineer mounted battalion has two tool wagons, each 
 drawn by four mules; one is a tool wagon of the escort-wagon 
 type, carrying blacksmith and pioneer equipment and supplies. 
 The other is a spring tool wagon, same as provided for regimental 
 headquarters, and carrying drafting, photographic, reconnaissance, 
 surveying, and miscellaneous equipment and supplies. These 
 equipments and supplies are the same as in regimental spring tool 
 wagon, except that the surveying outfit of the mounted battalion is 
 about one-half that of the engineer regiment. 
 
 For the tool wagon of the escort-wagon type provided for 
 regimental and battalion headquarters a special body, longer than 
 that of the standard escort wagon and provided with special com- 
 partments, is under consideration, this body to be placed on the 
 standard escort-wagon running gear, modified only by provision 
 of a longer reach. 
 
 Each engineer company, regimental, has two tool wagons, 
 and a company of mounted engineers has one tool wagon. Each 
 wagon is drawn by four mules and has the running gear of the 
 standard escort wagon, except that the reach is 1 foot longer than 
 in the standard escort wagon. All company tool wagons are 
 identical, having a special body containing drawers, racks, and 
 compartments. The loads of all company tool wagons of both 
 regimental and mounted companies are also identical, except that 
 the photographic outfit of an engineer company, regimental, is not, 
 like the other equipment and supplies, divided equally between 
 the two wagons, but is all carried on one of the wagons. Both 
 wagons have space for the photographic outfit; it may be carried 
 on either wagon, but will normally be carried on the odd-numbered 
 wagon. 
 
30 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 The requirements of overseas operations have brought about 
 the formation of various regiments, separate battalions and com- 
 panies. Each army or group of army corps has a gas and flame 
 service (1 regiment), a mining service (1 regimental headquarters 
 and 6 companies), a water supply service (1 regimental head- 
 quarters and 6 companies), a general construction service (1 regi- 
 mental headquarters and 6 companies), an engineer supply service 
 (1 regimental headquarters, 1 battalion (supply) of 3 companies, 1 
 battalion (work shop) of 3 companies, 1 service battalion of 4 
 companies), a surveying and printing service (1 topographical 
 battalion), a road service (1 regimental headquarters, 4 battalions 
 (road) of 3 companies each, 6 service battalions of 4 companies 
 each, 10 truck companies (31 trucks each), 5 wagon companies of 
 61 wagons each) and an army ponton pack (3 ponton divisions, 1 
 supply division). In addition to the foregoing there is the service 
 of the line of communications, which comprises a general con- 
 struction service, an engineer supply service, a forestry service, a 
 quarry service, a light railway service and a standard gauge railway 
 service. Subsequently other units were created, including 4 fortifica- 
 tion battalions, 5 electrical regiments, 5 inland waterway companies 
 and 3 map reproduction detachments, together with an engineer 
 depot supply service. The service battalions (each composed of 
 1,021 officers and men) are made up of unskilled men whose duties 
 do not require special engineering knowledge and, hence, these 
 units are transferred from one service to another as may be 
 necessary. Provision is made for mounted battalions of engineers 
 to accompany the cavalry divisions. 
 
 Signal Corps. — Like all staff and auxiliary troops, the signal 
 corps is essentially an adjunct to the line of the army and can have 
 no separate existence. It has charge of everything pertaining to 
 the transmission of orders and information by means of signals, 
 including telegraph, wireless and telephone. The field signal bat- 
 talion consists of 1 headquarters company, 1 supply company, 1 
 wire company, 1 radio company and 1 outpost company. The 
 normal composition of the battalion (one for each division) is 262 
 officers and men (including the medical department), 16 wagons, 
 170 riding horses, 16 draft horses and 53 mules. These figures may 
 vary to meet the requirements of trench warfare, etc. Depot 
 companies for the Regular Army and the signal reserve corps are 
 organized from which men are taken to keep the active units at 
 full war strength. In principle, there is one field signal battalion 
 and one aero squadron attached to each infantry division, but the 
 divisional organization, for overseas service, does not include the 
 aero squadron, as the different aircraft units, in a war of position, 
 are more efficient if grouped so as to form a separate command. 
 Besides the divisional units, there are some, such as the telegraph 
 
GENERAL AND TACTICAL ORGANIZATION 31 
 
 battalions, which belong to the corps troops or troops at large. 
 There are also signal corps reserve field battalions assigned to the 
 divisions of the National Army and attached to the field signal 
 battalions of these divisions. Likewise signal corps reserve tele- 
 graph battalions are assigned as corps troops to different canton- 
 ments. Besides the speedy dissemination of military intelligence 
 or information, the signal corps has other duties, but the exchange 
 of ideas in military affairs is the real reason for its existence. In 
 peace it is concerned with the management of military affairs; in 
 war with the control of troops and the conduct of campaigns. 
 
 Military Aeronautics. — This division has control of the train- 
 ing of aviators and the military use of aircraft. The aero squadron 
 is the unit of organization and has 12 aeroplanes. It is divided into 
 1 headquarters section, 1 supply section, 1 engineering section and 
 12 aero-sections, with a total of 173 officers and men (including the 
 medical department) and 50 motors or trailers. Each aeroplane is 
 provided with a machine gun. In addition to the influence exerted 
 by aircraft on grand operations the airplane is most useful in find- 
 ing concealed positions, in locating hidden howitzers or mortars, 
 in rear guard and pursuit actions, and in reconnaissance and the 
 collection and transmission of information in the theater of mili- 
 tary operations. 
 
 Medical Corps. — This service consists of the medical depart- 
 ments attached to the different units, and the sanitary formations 
 which include the ambulance companies, the field hospitals and 
 other units. There are usually 4 ambulance companies and 4 field 
 hospital companies attached to each infantry division, with a total 
 effective of 949 officers and men. An ambulance company generally 
 has 12 ambulances, either animal drawn or motor driven, and a 
 personnel of about 150 men. Besides these there are army am- 
 bulance sections, intended for the transportation of the sick and 
 wounded and to man hospital railroad trains or boats, and base 
 hospitals located in rear of the zone of operations to which the 
 sick and the wounded are transferred from the field hospitals. 
 
 Quartermaster Corps and Trains. — The problem of supplies 
 is most intricate and the organization of trains very elaborate, their 
 operation requiring a large personnel. The trains are of two 
 kinds — the special train of each unit and the divisional or general 
 train. The special train is composed of regimental wagons and 
 is divided into two parts; (a) the combat train, composed of 
 ammunition or supply wagons which the unit may need during a 
 battle, and (b) the field train, for rations and baggage. The 
 supply company of a regiment is in charge of the greatest part of 
 these trains. The divisional train is a branch of the quartermaster 
 service, is commanded by a colonel and consists of 2 companies of 
 military police and headquarters, 1 ammunition train (6 com- 
 
32 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 parries), 1 supply train (3 sections), 1 engineer train and 1 sanitary 
 train (4 ambulance companies and 4 field hospital companies.) 
 When the train is motorized the above mentioned companies are 
 designated as motor companies and the train complete, for a single 
 division, on the road, covers a little over four miles. With a view 
 to overseas service the quartermaster corps is called upon to form 
 numerous additional units, such as motorcycle companies, motor 
 truck companies, bakery companies, ice plant companies, supply 
 companies, mechanical repair shops, machine shop truck com- 
 panies, motor supply trains, pack train companies, field remount 
 depots, auxiliary remount depots, animal embarkation department, 
 embarkation guard and 5 companies, 5 truck and horse companies, 
 graves' designation companies, stevedore regiments and labor com- 
 panies. Veterinary corps, consisting approximately of 1 officer and 
 16 enlisted men for each 400 animals in service, are organized in 
 the National Army for the period of any existing emergency. 
 
 LINE OF COMMUNICATIONS 
 
 Steps to be taken preliminary to the establishment of a line 
 of communication are: (1) The location of storehouses, yards, 
 shops, and their immediate construction, with special facilities for 
 explosives. (2) The location of hospital facilities and preparation 
 for their use. (3) The location of camps and their preparation, 
 including roads, water supply, drainage, etc., for organizations, 
 casuals, and prisoners. (4) Taking over and preparing for opera- 
 tion the railway and terminal facilities. (5) The establishment of 
 an employment bureau and a military police and secret service 
 bureau. (6) The taking over of the water supply, telephone, and 
 electric lighting systems, wireless stations, and other public utili- 
 ties. (7) The establishment of a bureau of information. (8) Inven- 
 tory of supplies locally available. (9) Plan for military govern- 
 ment, and control of all government bureaus. (10) Plans for 
 unloading troops, animals, supplies, etc., and for their disposal until 
 the move to the front. (11) Taking the census. (12) If the base 
 is a seaport, application for a navy officer as captain of the port. 
 (13) Determination of amount of civil traffic that will be necessary 
 <>n railways. 
 
 The approximate tonnage that will have to be supplied to 
 troops by the line of communications is 50 pounds per man per day 
 
 There are four units that account for most of the items of 
 supply, viz., a man, an animal, a vehicle, and a field gun. In a 
 well-balanced army these items can be reduced to the single unit 
 of the number of pounds per man per day. This amount of 50 
 pounds per man per day is what is to be provided for under normal 
 conditions. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 THE SCHOOLS OF THE GRENADIER, SQUAD, 
 COMPANY, BATTALION AND REGIMENT 
 
 Commanding officers are accountable for the proper train- 
 ing of their respective organizations and the excellence of an 
 organization is judged by its field efficiency. Thoroughness and 
 uniformity in the training of the units of an organization are in- 
 dispensable to the efficiency of the whole, and it is by such means 
 alone that the requisite teamwork may be developed. Simple 
 movements and elastic formations are essential to correct training 
 for battle. The principles of combat as here set down in con- 
 nection with the various schools indicate the functions of the 
 various commanders and the division of responsibility between 
 them. The amplification necessary to a proper understanding 
 of their application is shown in Chapter XI. The following im- 
 portant distinctions must be observed: 
 
 (a) Drills executed at attention and the ceremonies are 
 disciplinary exercises designed to teach precise and soldierly move- 
 ment, and to inculcate that prompt and subconscious obedience 
 which is essential to proper military control. To this end, smart- 
 ness and precision should be exacted in the execution of every de- 
 tail. Such drills should be frequent but short. 
 
 (b) The purpose of extended order drill is to teach the 
 mechanism of deployment, of the firings, and, in general, of the 
 employment of troops in combat. Such drills are in the nature of 
 disciplinary exercises and should be frequent, thorough, and exact 
 in order to habituate men to the firm control of their leaders. 
 Extended order drill is executed at ease. The company is the 
 largest unit which executes extended order drill. 
 
 (c) Field exercises are for instruction in the duties incident 
 to campaign. Assumed situations are employed. Each exercise 
 should conclude with a discussion, on the ground, of the exercise 
 and principles involved. 
 
 (d) The combat exercise, a form of field exercise of the com- 
 pany, battalion, and larger units, consists of the application of 
 tactical principles to assumed situations, employing in the exe- 
 
34 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 cution of the appropriate formations and movements of close and 
 extended order. 
 
 Combat exercises must simulate, as far as possible, the battle 
 conditions assumed. In order to familiarize both officers and 
 men with such conditions, companies and battalions are fre- 
 quently consolidated to provide war-strength organizations. Of- 
 ficers and non-commissioned officers not required to complete the 
 full quota of the units participating are assigned as observers or 
 umpires. 
 
 The firing line can rarely be controlled by the voice alone; 
 thorough training to insure the proper use of prescribed signals 
 is necessary. 
 
 In field exercises the enemy is said to be imaginary when 
 his position and force are merely assumed; outlined when hi9 
 position and force are indicated by a few men; represented when a 
 body of troops acts as such. 
 
 GENERAL RULES FOR DRILLS AND FORMATIONS 
 
 When the preparatory command consists of more than one 
 part, its elements are arranged as follows: 
 
 (1) For movements to be executed successively by the sub* 
 divisions or elements of an organization: (a) Description of the 
 movement; (b) how executed, or on what element executed. 
 
 (2) For movements to be executed simultaneously by the 
 subdivisions of an organization: (a) The designation of the sub- 
 divisions; (b) the movement to be executed. 
 
 Movements that may be executed toward either flank are ex- 
 plained as toward but one flank, it being necessary to substitute 
 the word " left " for " right," and the reverse, to have the explana- 
 tion of the corresponding movement toward the other flank. The 
 commands are given for the execution of the movements toward 
 either flank. The substitute word of the command is placed within 
 parentheses. 
 
 Any movement may be executed either from the halt or 
 when marching, unless otherwise prescribed. If at a halt, the 
 command for movements involving marching need not be prefaced 
 by forward, as 1. Column right (left), 2. MARCH. 
 
 Any movement not specifically excepted may be executed in 
 double time. If at a halt, or if marching in quick time, the com- 
 mand double time precedes the command of execution. 
 
 In successive movements executed in double time the leading 
 or base unit marches in quick time when not otherwise prescribed; 
 the other units march in double time to their places in the forma- 
 tion ordered and then conform to the gait of the leading or base 
 
SCHOOLS- 35 
 
 unit. If marching in double time, the command double time is 
 'omitted. The leading or base unit marches in quick time; the other 
 units continue at double time to their places in the formation 
 ordered and then conform to the gait of the leading or base unit. 
 
 To hasten the execution of a movement begun in quick time, 
 the command: 1. Double time, 2. MARCH, is given. The leading or 
 base unit continues to march in quick time, or remains at halt if 
 already halted; the other units complete the execution of the 
 movement in double time and then conform to the gait of the 
 leading or base unit. 
 
 To stay the execution of a movement when marching, for 
 the correction of errors, the command: 1. In place, 2. HALT, is 
 given. All halt and stand fast, without changing the positions of 
 the pieces. To resume the movement the command: 1. Resume, 2. 
 MARCH, is given. 
 
 To revoke a preparatory command, or, being at a halt, to 
 begin anew a movement improperly begun, the command, AS YOU 
 WERE, is given, at which the movement ceases and the former 
 position is resumed. 
 
 Unless otherwise announced,, the guide of a company or sub- 
 ' division of a company in line is right; of a battalion in line or 
 line of subdivisions or of a deployed line, center; of a rank in col- 
 umn of squads, toward the side of the guide of the company. 
 
 In successive formations into line, the guide is toward the 
 point of rest; in platoons or larger subdivisions it is so announced. 
 The announcement of the guide, when given in connection with a 
 movement, follows the command of execution for that movement. 
 Exception: 1. As skirmishers, guide right (left or center), 2. 
 MARCH. 
 
 The turn on the fixed pivot by subdivisions is used in all 
 formations from line into column and the reverse. The turn on 
 the moving pivot is used by subdivisions of a column in executing 
 changes of direction. 
 
 Partial changes of direction may be executed: By inter- 
 polating in the preparatory command the word half, as Column 
 half right (left), or Right (left) half turn. A change of direction 
 of 45° is executed. By the command: INCLINE TO THE RIGHT 
 (LEFT). The guide, or guiding element, moves in the indicated 
 direction and the remainder of the command conforms. This 
 i movement effects slight changes of direction. 
 
 The designations line of platoons, line of companies, line of 
 battalions, etc., refer to the formations in which the platoons, com- 
 panies, battalions, etc., each in column of squads, are in line. 
 
 Full distance in column of subdivisions is such that in form- 
 ing line to the right or left the subdivisions will have their proper 
 intervals. In column of subdivisions the guide of the leading sub- 
 
36 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 division is charged with the step and direction; the guides in rear 
 preserve the trace, step, and distance. 
 
 In close order,, all details, detachments, and other bodies of 
 troops are habitually formed in double rank. To insure uniformity 
 of interval between files when falling in, and in alignments, each 
 man places the palm of the left hand upon the hip, fingers pointing 
 downward. In the first case the hand is dropped by the side when 
 the next man on the left has his interval; in the second case, a* 
 the command front. 
 
 The posts of officers, non-commissioned officers, special 
 units (such as band or machine gun company), etc., in the various 
 formations of the company, battalion, or regiment, are shown in 
 plates. In all changes from one formation to another involving & • 
 change of post on the part of any of these,, posts are promptly 
 taken by the most convenient route as soon as practicable after 
 the command of execution for the movement; officers and non- 
 commissioned officers who have prescribed duties in connection 
 with the movement ordered, take their new posts when such 
 duties are completed. As instructors, officers and non-commis- 
 sioned officers go wherever their presence is necessary. As fik. 
 closers it is their duty to rectify mistakes and insure steadiness 
 and promptness in the ranks. 
 
 Except at ceremonies, the special units have no fixed places. 
 They take places as directed; in the absence of directions, they 
 conform as nearly as practicable to the plates, and in subsequent 
 movements maintain their relative positions with respect to the 
 flank or end of the command on which they were originally 
 posted. 
 
 General, field, and staff officers are habitually mounted. The 
 staff of an officer forms in single rank 3 paces in rear of him 
 the right of the rank extending 1 pace to the right of a point 
 directly in rear of him. Members of the staff are arranged in 
 order from right to left as follows: General staff officers, adju- 
 tant, aide, other staff officers, arranged in each classification in 
 order of rank, the senior on the right. The flag of the general 
 officer and the orderlies are 3 paces in rear of the staff, the flag 
 on the right. When necessary to reduce the front of the staff and 
 orderlies, each line executes twos right or fours right, and fol- 
 lows the commander. When not otherwise prescribed, staff offi- 
 cers draw and return saber with their chief. 
 
 In making the about, an officer, mounted, habitually turns to 
 the left. When the commander faces to give commands, the staff., 
 flag and, orderlies do not change position. 
 
 When making or receiving official reports, or on meeting out 
 of doors, all officers salute. Military courtesy requires the junior 
 to salute first, but when the salute is introductory to a report 
 
SCHOOLS 37 
 
 made at a military ceremony or formation, to the representative 
 of a common superior (as, for example, to the adjutant, officer of 
 the day, etc.), the officer making the report, whatever his rank, 
 salutes first; the officer to whom the report is made acknowledges 
 by saluting that he has received and understood the report. 
 
 For ceremonies, all mounted enlisted men of a regiment or 
 smaller unit, except those belonging to the machine gun organi- 
 zations, are consolidated into a detachment; the senior present 
 commands if no officer is in charge. The detachment is formed 
 as a platoon or squad of cavalry in line or column of fours; non- 
 commissioned staff officers are on the right or in the leading 
 ranks. For ceremonies, such of the non-commissioned staff offi- 
 cers as are dismounted are formed 5 paces in rear of the color, in 
 order of rank from right to left. In column of squads they march 
 as file closers. 
 
 Other than for ceremonies, non-commissioned staff officers 
 and orderlies accompany their immediate chiefs unless otherwise 
 directed. If mounted, the non-commissioned staff officers are 
 ordinarily posted on the right or at the head of the orderlies. 
 
 In all formations and movements a non-commissioned officer 
 commanding a platoon or company carries his piece as the men do, 
 if he is so armed, and takes the same post as an officer in like 
 situation. When the command is formed in line for ceremonies,, 
 a non-commissioned officer commanding a company takes post on 
 the right of the right guide after the company has been aligned. 
 
 ORDERS, COMMANDS, AND SIGNALS 
 
 Commands only are employed in drill at attention. Other- 
 wise either a command, signal, or order is employed, as best suits 
 the occasion, or one may be used in conjunction with another. 
 
 Signals should be freely used in instruction, in order that 
 officers and men may readily know them. In making arm signals 
 the saber, rifle, or headdress may be held in the hand. 
 
 Officers and men fix their attention at the first word of com- 
 mand, the first note of the bugle or whistle,, or the first motion oi 
 the signal. A signal includes both the preparatory command and 
 the command of execution; the movement commences as soon 
 as the signal is understood, unless otherwise prescribed. 
 
 Except in movements executed at attention, commanders or 
 leaders of subdivisions repeat orders, commands, or signals when- 
 ever such repetition is deemed necessary to insure prompt and cor- 
 rect execution. Officers, battalion non-commissioned staff officers,, 
 platoon leaders, guides, and musicians are equipped with whistles. 
 The major and his staff use a whistle of distinctive tone; the cap- 
 
38 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 tain and company musicians a second and distinctive whistle; the » 
 platoon leaders and guides a third distinctive whistle. 
 
 Prescribed signals are limited to such as are essential as a 
 substitute for the voice under conditions which render the voice 
 inadequate. Before or during an engagement special signals may- 
 be agreed upon to facilitate the solution of such special difficulties 
 as the particular situation is likely to develop, but it must be ^ 
 remembered that simplicity and certainty are indispensable quali- 
 ties of a signal. 
 
 ORDERS 
 
 Commands are deployed and enter the combat by the orders 
 
 of the commander to the subordinate commanders. The initial 
 combat orders of the division are almost invariably written; those 
 of the brigade are generally so. The written order is preferable 
 and is used whenever time permits. If time permits, subsequent 
 orders are likewise written, either as field orders or messages. 
 
 The initial combat orders of regiments and smaller units are 
 given verbally. For this purpose the subordinates for whom the ' 
 orders are intended are assembled, if practicable, at a place from 
 which the situation and plan can be explained. Subsequent orders 
 are verbal or in the form of verbal or written messages. Verbal 
 messages should not be used unless they are short and unmis- 
 takable. 
 
 The initial combat order of any commander or subordinate - 
 is based upon his definite plan for executing the task confronting 
 him. Whenever possible the formation of the plan is preceded by 
 a personal reconnaissance of the terrain and a careful consideration 
 of all information of the enemy. 
 
 The combat order gives such information of the enemy 
 and of neighboring or supporting friendly troops as will enable 
 subordinates to understand the situation. The general plan of - 
 action is stated in brief terms, but enough of the commander's 
 intentions is divulged to guide the subsequent actions of the 
 subordinates. 
 
 Clear and concise instructions are given as to the action to 
 be taken in the combat by each part of the command. In this 
 way the commander assigns tasks, fronts, objectives, sectors or 
 areas, etc., in accordance with his plan. If the terms employed 
 convey definite ideas and leave no loopholes, the conduct of subor- 
 dinates will generally be correspondingly satisfactory. Such mis- 
 cellaneous matter relating to special troops, trains, ammunition, 
 and future movements of the commander is added as concerns the 
 combat itself. Combat orders should prescribe communication, 
 reconnaissance, flank protection, etc., when some special disposi- 
 
SCHOOLS 39 
 
 tion is desired or when an omission on the part of a subordinate 
 may reasonably be feared. 
 
 When issuing orders, a commander should indicate clearly 
 what is to be done by each subordinate, but not how it is to be 
 done. He should not encroach upon the functions of a subordinate 
 by prescribing details of execution unless he has good reason to 
 doubt the ability or judgment of the subordinate, and can not 
 substitute another. Although general in its terms, an order must 
 be definite and must be the expression of a fixed decision. Ambig- 
 uity or vagueness indicates either vacillation or the inability to 
 formulate orders. 
 
 Usually the orders of a commander are intended for, and are 
 given to, the commanders of the next lower units,, but in an 
 emergency a commander should not hesitate to give orders directly 
 to any subordinate. In such case he should promptly inform the 
 intermediate commander concerned. 
 
 COMMANDS 
 
 Commands are preparatory and of execution. The pre- 
 paratory command, such as forward, indicates the movement that 
 is to be executed. The command of execution, such as MARCH, 
 HALT, or ARMS, causes the execution. Preparatory commands 
 are distinguished by black letters, lower case, those of execution 
 by CAPITALS. 
 
 The preparatory command should be given at such an in- 
 terval of time before the command of execution as to admit of 
 being properly understood; the command of execution should be 
 given at the instant the movement is to commence. The tone of 
 command is animated, distinct, and of a loudness proportioned to 
 the number of men for whom it is intended. Each preparatory 
 command is enunciated distinctly, with a rising inflection at the 
 end, and in such manner that the command of execution may be 
 more energetic. The command of execution is firm in tone and 
 brief. 
 
 Majors and commanders of units larger than a battalion re- 
 peat such commands of their superiors as are to be executed by 
 their units, facing their units for that purpose. The battalion is 
 the largest unit that executes a movement at the command of exe- 
 cution of its commander. Indifference in giving commands must 
 be avoided, as it leads to laxity in execution. Commands should 
 be given with spirit at all times. 
 
 BUGLE SIGNALS 
 
 Bugle signals may be used in field exercises and practice 
 firing; their use on the battle field is prohibited. 
 
40 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 WHISTLE SIGNALS 
 
 Attention to Orders. — A short blast of the whistle. This 
 signal is used on the march or in combat when necessary to fix 
 the attention of troops, or of their commanders or leaders, pre- 
 paratory to giving commands, orders, or signals. When the firing 
 line is firing, each squad leader suspends firing and fixes his atten- 
 tion at a short blast of his platoon leader's whistle. The platoon 
 leader's subsequent commands or signals are repeated and enforced 
 by the squad leader. If a squad leader's attention is attracted by a 
 whistle other than that of his platoon leader, or if there are no 
 orders or commands to convey to his squad he resumes firing at 
 once. Suspend firing: A long blast of the whistle. All other 
 whistle signals are prohibited. 
 
 ARM SIGNALS 
 
 The following arm and hand signals are prescribed. Leaders 
 or members of their staffs who receive these signals " repeat back " 
 at once to prevent misunderstanding. 
 
 Company. — Extend both arms horizontally, palms toward 
 the company addressed, thumbs locked, fingers extended and 
 joined. (Used between battalion commanders and company com- 
 manders.) 
 
 Platoon. — Extend the arm horizontally toward the platoon 
 leader; describe small circles with the hand. 
 
 Group. — Extend the arm horizontally toward the platoon 
 leader; describe large circles with the entire arm. 
 
 Squad. — Extend the arm horizontally toward the platoon 
 leader; swing the hand up and down from the wrist. 
 
 Forward, March; Right Oblique, March; Left Oblique, March. 
 — Extend the arm vertically to its full extent and lower it to the 
 front (right front, left front) until horizontal; at the same time 
 move in the indicated direction. 
 
 Quick Time, March. — Raise the right elbow to a position 
 above and to the right of the right shoulder; extend the forearm 
 to the left, right hand above the head. 
 
 Halt. — Carry the hand to the shoulder; thrust the hand up- 
 ward and hold the arm vertically. 
 
 Double Time, March; Rush. — Carry the hand to the shoulder; 
 rapidly thrust the hand upward the full extent of the arm several 
 times. 
 
 By the Right Flank, March (in extended order); Squads 
 Right, March. — Raise the arm laterally until horizontal; carry it 
 to a vertical position above the head and swing it several times 
 between the vertical and horizontal positions. 
 
SCHOOLS 41 
 
 By the Left Flank, March (in extended order) ; Squads Left, 
 March. — Raise the arm laterally until horizontal; carry it down- 
 ward to the side and swing it several times between the downward 
 ind horizontal positions. 
 
 To the Rear, March (in extended order); Squads Right 
 &bout, March (in close order). — Extend the arm vertically above 
 .he head; carry it laterally downward to the side and swing it 
 several times between the vertical and downward positions. 
 
 Change Direction, or, Column Right (Left), March. — The 
 land on the side toward which the change of direction is to be 
 nade is carried across the body to the opposite shoulder, forearm 
 lorizontal; then swing in a horizontal plane, arm extended, point- 
 ng in the new direction. 
 
 As Skirmishers, March. — Raise both arms laterally until hori" 
 :ontal. 
 
 As Skirmishers, Guide Center, March. — Raise both arms later- 
 illy until horizontal; swing both simultaneously upward until ver- 
 ical and return to the horizontal; repeat several times. 
 
 As Skirmishers, Guide Right (Left), March. — Raise both 
 irms laterally until horizontal; hold the arm on the side of the 
 juide steadily in the horizontal position; swing the other upward 
 intil vertical and return it to the horizontal; repeat several times. 
 Advance by Thin Lines. — Hand at side, draw it back, then 
 nove it to the front. 
 
 Squad Columns, March. — Signal squad, followed by thin lines. 
 Platoon Columns, March. — Signal platoon, followed by thin 
 ines. 
 
 Assemble, March. — Raise the arm vertically to its full extent 
 nd describe large horizontal circles. 
 
 Range, or change elevation. — To announce range, extend the 
 rm toward the leaders or men for whom the signal is intended^ 
 st closed; by keeping the fist closed battle sight is indicated; open 
 he fist once for 500 yards, twice for 1,000 yards, etc., and thrust 
 he fist upward once for each additional 100 yards; to add 50 yards 
 escribe a short horizontal line with the forefinger. To change 
 levation the fire controller indicates the complete new range, 
 "he fire observer indicates, as above, the amount of increase or 
 ecrease by pointing upward for increase, downward for decrease. 
 Swing Cone of Fire to the Right (Left). — Extend arm in full 
 ;ngth to the front; palm to the right; swing the arm to the right 
 left) and point in the direction of the new target; strike in the 
 irection of the target with open hand, once for each " sight leaf " 
 leasured from old to new target. 
 
 What Range Are You Using? or What Is the Range?— Ex- 
 snd the arms toward the person addressed, one hand open, palm to 
 he front, resting on the other hand, fist closed. 
 
42 
 
 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Are You Ready? or I Am Ready. — Raise the hand, 
 extended and joined, palm toward the person addressed. 
 
 Commence Firing.— Move the arm extended in full length, 
 hand palm down, several times through a horizontal arc in front of 
 the body. 
 
SCHOOLS 43 
 
 Fire Slower. — Execute slowly the signal commence firing. 
 
 Fire Faster. — Execute rapidly the signal commence firing. 
 
 Fix Bayonets. — Simulate" the movement of the right hand in 
 fix bayonets. 
 
 Suspend Firing. — Raise and hold the forearm steadily in a 
 horizontal position in front of the forehead, palm of the hand to 
 the front. 
 
 Cease Firing. — Raise the forearm as in suspend firing and 
 swing it up and down several times in front of the face. 
 
 The Finger, or The Sight Leaf.— The width of the finger held 
 at such a distance from the eye that it subtends 50 mils (1/20 of 
 the range) ; used in conjunction with swing cone of fire to right or 
 left. 
 
 Line of Half Platoon from Platoon in Column of Squads. — 
 Signal platoon followed by two sweeps of the arm in a vertical 
 plane perpendicular to the front. 
 
 Line of Groups, Automatics (Right, Left, Center, Flanks.) — 
 Signal squad, signal "A" (Morse, code), point toward the right 
 (left) for automatics right (left), extend both arms laterally for 
 automatics flanks and sweep both arms forward and across the 
 body for automatics center. 
 
 As Skirmishers in Two Waves, March. — Signal as skirmish- 
 ers. (Deployment at this command or signal will ordinarily be 
 made in two waves.) 
 
 As Skirmishers in One Wave, March. — Signal as skirmishers, 
 then raise either arm, extended vertically, and immediately repeat 
 the signal as skirmishers. 
 
 The signals, platoon, group, and squad are intended pri- 
 marily for communication betweena unit commander and one of 
 his subdivision commanders. The signal, platoon, group, or squad, 
 given by a company commander to one of his platoon leaders, 
 indicates that the platoon leader is to cause the signal given to 
 be executed by platoon, group, or squad, respectively. 
 
 The Field Artillery arm signals are represented in the 
 drawing. 
 
 SCHOOL OF THE SOLDIER 
 
 The instructor explains briefly each movement, first execut- 
 ing it himself if practicable. He requires the recruits to take the 
 proper positions unassisted and does not touch them for the pur- 
 pose of correcting them, except they are unable to correct them- 
 selves. He avoids keeping them too long at the same movement, 
 although each should be understood before passing to another. He 
 exacts by degrees the desired precision and uniformity. 
 
44 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 POSITION OF THE SOLDIER, OR ATTENTION 
 
 Heels on the same line and as near each other as the con- 
 formation of the man permits. 
 
 Feet turned out equally and forming an angle of about 45°. 
 
 Knees straight without stiffness. 
 
 Hips level and drawn back slightly; body erect and resting 
 equally on hips; chest lifted and arched; shoulders square and 
 falling equally. 
 
 Arms and hands hanging naturally, thumb along the seam 
 of the trousers. 
 
 Head erect and squarely to the front, chin drawn.in so that 
 the axis of the head and neck is vertical; eyes straight to the front. 
 
 Weight of the body resting equally upon the heels and balls 
 of the feet. 
 
 THE RESTS 
 
 Being at a halt, the commands are: FALL OUT; REST; 
 AT EASE; and, 1, Parade, 2. REST. 
 
 At the command fall out, the men may leave the ranks, but 
 are required to remain in the immediate vicinity. They resume 
 their former places, at attention, at the command fall in. 
 
 At the command rest each man keeps one foot in place, but 
 is not required to preserve silence or immobility. 
 
 At the command at ease each man keeps one foot in place 
 and is required to preserve silence but not immobility. 
 
 1. Parade, 2. REST. Carry the right foot 6 inches straight 
 to the rear, left knee slightly bent; clasp the hands, without con- 
 straint, in front of the center of the body, fingers joined, left hand 
 uppermost, left thumb clasped by the thumb and forefinger of the 
 right hand; preserve silence and steadiness of position. 
 
 To resume the attention: 1. Squad, 2. ATTENTION. 
 
 The men take the position of the soldier. 
 
 EYES RIGHT OR LEFT 
 
 1. Eyes, 2. RIGHT (LEFT), 3. FRONT. 
 
 At the command right, turn the head to the right oblique, 
 eyes fixed on the line of eyes of the men in, or supposed to be in, 
 the same rank. At the command front, turn the head and eyes to 
 the front. 
 
 FACINGS 
 
 To the flank: 1. Right (left), 2. FACE. 
 
 Raise slightly the left heel and right toe; face to the right, 
 turning on the right heel, assisted by a slight pressure on the ball 
 of the left foot; place the left foot by the side of the right. Left 
 face is executed on the left heel in the corrsponding manner. 
 
SCHOOLS 45 
 
 Right (left) half face is executed similarly, facing 45°. 
 
 "To face in marching" and advance, turn on the ball of 
 either foot and step off with the other foot in the new line of di- 
 rection; to face in marching without gaining ground in the new 
 direction, turn on the ball of either foot and mark time. 
 
 To the rear: 1. About, 2. FACE. 
 
 Carry the toe of the right foot about a half foot-length to 
 the rear and slightly to the left of the left heel without changing 
 the position of the left foot; face to the rear, turning to the right 
 on the left heel and right toe; place the right heel by the side of 
 the left. 
 
 SALUTE WITH THE HAND 
 
 1. Hand, 2. SALUTE. 
 
 Raise the right hand smartly till the tip of the forefinger 
 touches the lower part of the headdress or forehead above the 
 right eye, thumb and fingers extended and joined, palm to the left, 
 forearm inclinecLat about 45°, hand and wrist straight; at the same 
 time look toward the person saluted. (TWO) Drop the arm 
 smartly by the side, 
 
 STEPS AND MARCHINGS 
 
 All steps and marchings executed from a halt, except right 
 step, begin with the left foot. 
 
 The length of the full step in quick time is 30 inches, meas- 
 ured from heel to heel, and the cadence is at the rate of 120 steps 
 per minute. 
 
 The length of the full step in double time is 36 inches; the 
 cadence is at the rate of 180 steps per minute. 
 
 ***•«•> The instructor, when necessary, indicates the cadence of 
 the step by calling one, two, three, four, or left, right, the instant 
 the left and right foot, respectively, should be planted. 
 
 All steps and marchings and movements involving march 
 are executed in quick time unless the squad be marching in double 
 time or double time be added to the command; in the latter case 
 double time is added to the preparatory command. Example: 1. 
 Squad right, double time, 2. MARCH (School of the Squad). 
 
 QUICK TIME 
 
 Being at a halt, to march forward in quick time: 1. Forward, 
 2. MARCH. 
 
 At the command forward, shift the weight of the body to 
 the right leg, left knee straight. 
 
46 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 At the command march, move the left foot smartly straight 
 forward 30 inches from the right, sole near the ground, and plant 
 it without shock; next, in like manner, advance the right foot and 
 plant it as above; continue the march. The arms swing naturally. 
 
 Being at a halt, or in march in quick time, to march in double 
 time: 1. Double time, 2. MARCH. 
 
 If at a halt, at the first command shift the weight of the body 
 to the right leg. At the command march, raise the forearms, fin- 
 gers closed, to a horizontal position along the waist line; take up 
 an easy run with the step and cadence of double time, allowing 
 a natural swinging motion to the arms. 
 
 If marching in quick time, at the command march, given as 
 either foot strikes the ground, take one step in quick time, and 
 then step off in double time. 
 
 To resume the quick time: 1. Quick time, 2. MARCH. 
 
 At the command march, given as either foot strikes the 
 ground, advance and plant the other foot in double time; resume 
 the quick time, dropping the hands by the sides. 
 
 TO MARK TIME 
 
 Being in march: 1. Mark time, 2. MARCH. 
 
 At the command march, given as either foot strikes the 
 ground, advance and plant the other foot; bring up the foot in 
 rear and continue the cadence by alternately raising each foot 
 about 2 inches and planting it on line with the other. 
 
 Being at a halt, at the command march, raise and plant the 
 feet as described above. 
 
 THE HALF STEP 
 
 1. Half step, 2. MARCH. 
 
 Take steps of 15 inches in quick time, 18 inches in double 
 time. 
 
 Forward, half step, halt, and mark time may be executed 
 one from the other in quick or double time. 
 
 To resume the full step from half step or mark time: 1. 
 Forward, 2. MARCH. 
 
 SIDE STEP 
 
 Being at a halt or marking time: 1. Right (left) step, 
 2. MARCH. 
 
 Carry and plant the right foot 15 inches to the right; bring 
 the left foot beside it and continue the movement* in the cadence of 
 quick time. 
 
SCHOOLS 47 
 
 The side step is used for short distances only and is not exe- 
 cuted in double time. 
 
 If at order arms, the side step is executed at trail without 
 command. 
 
 BACK STEP 
 
 Being at a halt or mark time: 1. Backward, 2. MARCH. 
 
 Take steps of 15 inches straight to the rear. 
 
 The back step is used for short distances only and is not 
 executed in double time. 
 
 If at order arms, the back step is executed at trail without 
 command. 
 
 TO HALT 
 
 To arrest the march in quick or double time. 1. Squad, 2. 
 HALT. 
 
 At the command halt, given as either foot strikes the ground, 
 plant the other foot as in marching; raise and place the first foot 
 by the side of the other. If in double time, drop the hands by the 
 sides. 
 
 TO MARCH BY THE FLANK 
 
 Being in march: 1. By the right (left) flank, 2. MARCH. 
 
 At the command march, given as the right foot strikes the 
 ground, advance and plant the left foot, then face to the right in 
 marching and step off in the new direction with the right foot. 
 
 TO MARCH TO THE REAR 
 
 Being in march: 1. To the rear, 2. MARCH. 
 
 At the command march, given as the right foot strikes the 
 ground, advance and plant the left foot; turn to the right about on 
 the balls of both feet and immediately step off with the left foot. 
 
 If marching in double time, turn to the right about, taking 
 four.steps in place, keeping the cadence, and then step off with the 
 left foot. 
 
 CHANGE STEP 
 
 Being in march: 1. Change step, 2. MARCH. 
 
 At the command march, given as the right foot strikes the 
 ground, advance and plant the left foot; plant the toe of the right 
 foot near the heel of the left and step off with the left foot. 
 4 
 
48 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 The change on the right foot is similarly executed, the com-, 
 mand march being given as the left foot strikes the ground. 
 
 MANUAL OF ARMS 
 
 As soon as practicable the recruit is taught the use, nomen- 
 clature and care of his rifle; when fair progress has been made in 
 the instruction without arms, he is taught the manual of arms; 
 instruction without arms and that with arms alternate. 
 
 The following rules govern the carrying of the piece: 
 
 First. The piece is not carried with cartridges in either the 
 chamber or the magazine except when specifically ordered. When 
 so loaded, or supposed to be loaded, it is habitually carried locked; 
 that is, with the safety lock turned to the "safe." At all other times 
 it is carried unlocked, with the trigger pulled. 
 
 Second. Whenever troops are formed under arms, pieces 
 are immediately inspected at the commands: 1. Inspection, 2. 
 ARMS; 3. Order (Right shoulder, port), 4. ARMS. 
 
 A similar inspection is made immediately before dismissal. 
 
 If cartridges are found in the chamber or magazine they 
 are removed and placed in the belt. 
 
 Third. The cut-off is kept turned "off" except when car- 
 tridges are actually used. 
 
 Fourth. The bayonet is not fixed except in bayonet exer- 
 cise, on guard, or for combat. 
 
 Fifth. Fall in is executed with the piece at the order arms. 
 Fall out, rest, and at ease are executed as without arms.* On re- 
 suming attention the position of order arms is taken. 
 
 Sixth. If at the order, unless otherwise prescribed, the piece 
 is brought to the right shoulder at the command march, the three 
 motions corresponding with the first three steps. Movements may 
 be executed at the trail by prefacing the preparatory command 
 with the words at trail; as, 1. At trail, forward, 2. MARCH; the 
 trail is taken at the command march. 
 
 When the facings, alignments, open and close ranks, taking 
 interval or distance, and assemblings are executed from the order, 
 raise the piece to the trail while in motion and resttme the order 
 on halting. 
 
 Seventh. The piece is brought to the order on halting. The 
 execution of the order begins when the halt is completed. 
 
 Eighth. A disengaged hand in double time is held as when 
 without arms. 
 
 The following rules govern the execution of the manual of 
 arms: 
 
 First. In all positions of the left hand at the balance (center 
 
SCHOOLS 49 
 
 of gravity, bayonet unfixed) the thumb clasps the piece; the sling 
 is included in the grasp of the hand. 
 
 Second. In all positions of the piece "diagonally across the 
 body" the position of the piece, left arm and hand are the same 
 as in port arms. 
 
 Third. In resuming the order from any position in the 
 ■manual, the motion next to the last concludes with the butt of 
 the piece about 3 inches from the ground, barrel to the rear, the 
 left hand above and near the right, steadying the piece, fingers ex- 
 tended and joined, forearm and wrist straight and inclining down- 
 ward, all fingers of the right hand grasping the piece. To complete 
 the order, lower the piece gently to the ground with the right hand, 
 drop the left quickly by the side, and take the position of order 
 arms. 
 
 Allowing the piece to drop through the right hand to the 
 ground, or other similar abuse of the rifle to produce effect in exe- 
 cuting the manual, is prohibited. 
 
 Four. The cadence of the motions is that of quick time; 
 the recruits are first required to give their whole attention to the 
 details of the motions, the cadence being gradually acquired as 
 they become accustomed to handling their pieces. The instructor 
 may require them to count aloud in cadence with the motions. 
 
 Fifth. The manual is taught at a halt and the movements 
 are, for the purpose of instruction, divided into motions and exe- 
 cuted in detail; in this case the command of execution determines 
 the prompt execution of the first motion, and the commands, two, 
 three, four, that of the other motions. 
 
 To execute the movements in detail, the instructor first cau- 
 tions: By the numbers; all movements divided into motions are 
 then executed as above explained until he cautions: Without the 
 numbers; or commands movements other than those in the manual 
 of arms. 
 
 Sixth. Whenever circumstances require, the regular posi- 
 tions of the manual of arms and the firings may be ordered without 
 regard to the previous position of the piece. 
 
 Under exceptional conditions of weather or fatigue the rifle 
 may be carried in any manner directed. 
 
 Position of Order Arms, Standing. The butt rests evenly 
 on the ground, barrel to the rear, toe of the butt on a line with 
 toe of, and touching, the right shoe, arms and hands hanging nat- 
 urally, right hand holding the piece between the thumb and fingers. 
 
 Being at order arms: 1. Present, 2. ARMS. 
 
 With the right hand carry the piece in front of the center of 
 the body, barrel to the rear and vertical, grasp it with the left hand 
 at the balance, forearm horizontal and resting against the body. 
 (TWO) Grasp the small of the stock with the right hand. 
 
50 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Being at order arms: 1. Port, 2. ARMS. With the right 
 hand quickly raise and throw the piece diagonally across the body, 
 grasp it smartly with both hands; the right hand, palm down, at 
 the small of the stock; the left hand, palm up, at the balance; 
 barrel up, sloping to the left and crossing opposite the junction of 
 the neck with the left shoulder; right forearm horizontal; left fore- 
 arm resting against the body; the piece in a vertical plane parallel 
 to the front. 
 
 Being at present arms: 1. Port, 2. ARMS. 
 
 Carry the piece diagonally across the body and take the 
 position of port arms. 
 
 Being at. port arms: 1. Present, 2. ARMS. 
 
 Carry the piece to a vertical position in front of the center 
 of the body and take the position of present arms. 
 
 Being at present or port arms: 1. Order, 2. ARMS. 
 
 Let go with the right hand; lower and carry the piece to the 
 right with, the left hand; regrasp it with right hand just above-' 
 the lower band; let go with the left hand, and take the next to j 
 the last position in coming to the order. (TWO) Complete the u 
 order. 
 
 Being at order arms: 1. Right shoulder, 2. ARMS. 
 
 With the right hand raise and throw the piece diagonally J 
 across the body; carry the right hand quickly to the butt, embrac- I 
 ing it, the heel between the first two fingers. (TWO) Without j 
 changing the grasp of the right hand, place the piece on the right 
 shoulder, barrel up and inclined at an angle of about 45° from the f 
 horizontal, trigger guard in the hollow of the shoulder, right elbow 
 near the side, the piece in a vertical plane perpendicular to the 
 front, carry the left hand, thumb and fingers extended and joined, 
 to the small of the stock, tip of the forefinger touching the cock- ] 
 ing piece, wrist straight and elbow down. (THREE) Drop the | 
 left hand by the side. 
 
 Being at right shoulder arms: 1. Order, 2. ARMS. 
 
 Press the butt down quickly and throw the piece diagonally 
 across the body, the right hand retaining the grasp of the butt, j 
 (TWO), (THREE) Execute order arms as described from port j 
 arms. 
 
 Being at port arms: 1. Right shoulder, 2.- ARMS. 
 
 Change the right hand to the butt. (TWO), (THREE), As 
 in right shoulder arms from order arms. 
 
 Being at right shoulder arms: 1. Port, 2. ARMS. 
 
 Press the butt down quickly and throw the piece diagonally 
 across the body, the right hand retaining its grasp of the butt. 
 (TWO) Change the right hand to the small of the stock. 
 
 Being at right shoulder arms: 1. Present, 2. ARMS. 
 
 Execute port arms. (THREE) Execute present arms. 
 
SCHOOLS 51 
 
 Being at present arms: 1. Right shoulder, 2. ARMS. Execute 
 port arm*. (TWO), (THREE), (FOUR) Execute right shoulder 
 arms as from port arms. 
 
 Being at port arms: 1. Left shoulder, 2. ARMS. 
 
 Carry the piece with the right hand and place it on the 
 left shoulder, barrel up, trigger guard in the hollow of the shoulder; 
 at the same time grasp the butt with the left hand, heel between 
 first and second fingers, thumb and fingers closed on the stock. 
 (TWO) Drop the right hand by the side. 
 
 Being at left shoulder arms: 1. Port, 2. ARMS. 
 
 Grasp the piece with the right hand at the small of the stock. 
 (TWO) Carry the piece to the right with the right hand, regrasp 
 it with the left, and take the position of port arms. 
 
 Left shoulder arms may be ordered directly from the order, 
 right shoulder or present, or the reverse. At the command arms 
 execute port arms and continue in cadence to the position ordered. 
 
 Being at order arms: 1. Parade, 2. REST. 
 
 Carry the right foot 6 inches straight to the rear, left knee 
 slightly bent; carry the muzzle in front of the center of the body, 
 barrel to the left; grasp the piece with the left hand just below 
 the stacking swivel, and with the right hand below and against the 
 left. 
 
 Being at parade rest: 1. Squad, 2. ATTENTION. 
 
 Resume the order, the left hand quitting the piece opposite 
 >he right hip. 
 
 Being at order arms: 1. Trail, 2. ARMS. 
 
 Raise the piece, right arm slightly bent, and incline the muz- 
 zle forward so that the barrel makes an angle of about 30° with 
 the vertical. 
 
 When it can be done without danger or inconvenience to 
 others, the piece may be grasped at the balance and the muzzle 
 Jowered until the piece is horizontal; a similar position in the left 
 hand may be used. 
 
 Being at trail arms: 1. Order, 2. ARMS. 
 
 Lower the piece with the right hand and resume the order. 
 
 RIFLE SALUTE 
 
 Being at right shoulder arms: 1. Rifle, 2. SALUTE. 
 Carry the left hand smartly to the small of the stock, fore- 
 arm horizontal, palm of hand down, thumb and fingers extended 
 ind joined, forefinger touching end of cocking piece; look toward 
 he person sainted. (TWO) Drop left hand by the side; turn head 
 ind eyes to the front. 
 
 Being at order or trail arms: 1. Rifle, 2. SALUTE. 
 
52 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Carry the left hand smartly to the right side, palm of the 
 hand down, thumb and fingers extended and joined, forefinger 
 against piece near the muzzle; look toward the person saluted. 
 (TWO) Drop the left hand by the side; turn the head and eyes 
 to the front. 
 
 THE BAYONET 
 
 Being at order arms: 1. Fix, 2. BAYONET. 
 
 If the bayonet scabbard is carried on the belt: Execute pa- 
 rade rest; grasp the bayonet with the right hand, back of hand 
 toward the body; draw the bayonet from the scabbard and fix it 
 on the barrel, glancing at the muzzle; resume the order. 
 
 If the bayonet is carried on the haversack: Draw the bayonet 
 with the left hand and fix it in the most convenient manner. 
 
 Being at order arms: 1. Unfix, 2. BAYONET. 
 
 If the bayonet scabbard is carried on the beltr Execute pa- 
 rade rest; grasp the handle of the bayonet firmly with the right 
 hand, pressing the spring with the forefinger of the right hand; 
 raise the bayonet until the handle is about 12 inches above the 
 muzzle of the piece; drop the point to the left, back of the hand 
 toward the body, and, glancing at the scabbard, return the bayonet, 
 the blade passing between' the left arm and the body; regrasp the 
 piece with the right hand and resume the order. 
 
 If the bayonet scabbard is carried on the haversack: Take 
 the bayonet from the rifle with the left hand and return it to the 
 scabbard in the most convenient manner. 
 
 If marching or lying down, the bayonet is fixed and unfixed 
 in the most expeditious and convenient manner and the piece re- 
 turned to the original position. 
 
 Fix and unfix bayonet are executed with promptness and 
 regularity but not in cadence. 
 
 CHARGE BAYONET. Whether executed at halt or in 
 motion, the bayonet is held toward the opponent as in the position 
 of guard in Bayonet Exercise. 
 
 THE INSPECTION 
 
 Being at order arms: 1. Inspection, 2. ARMS. 
 
 At the second command take the position of port arms. 
 (TWO) Seize the bolt handle with the thumb and forefinger of 
 the right hand, turn the handle up, draw the bolt back, and glance 
 at the chamber. Having found the chamber empty, or having 
 emptied it, raise the head and eyes to the front. 
 
 Being at inspection arms: 1. Order (Right shoulder, port), 
 2. ARMS. 
 
SCHOOLS 53 
 
 At the preparatory command push the bolt forward, turn the 
 handle down, pull the trigger, and resume port arms. At the com- 
 mand arms, complete the movement ordered. 
 
 SCHOOL OF THE SQUAD 
 
 Soldiers are grouped into squads for purposes of instruction, 
 discipline, control and order. The squad proper consists of a cor- 
 poral and seven privates. The movements in the School of the 
 Squad are designed to make the squad a fixed unit and to facilitate 
 the control and movement of the company. If the number of men 
 grouped is more than 3 and less than 12, they are formed as a 
 squad of 4 files, the excess above 8 being posted as file closers. If 
 the number grouped is greater than 11, 2 or more squads are formed 
 and the group is termed a platoon. For the instruction of recruits, 
 these rules may be modified. 
 
 The corporal is the squad leader, and when absent is re- 
 placed by a designated private. If no private is designated, the 
 senior in length of service acts as leader. The corporal, when in 
 ranks, is posted as the left man in the front rank of the squad. 
 When the corporal leaves the ranks to lead his squad, his rear 
 rank man steps into the front rank, and the file remains blank until 
 the corporal returns to his place in ranks, when his rear rank man 
 steps back into the rear rank. 
 
 In battle, officers and sergeants endeavor to preserve the 
 integrity of squads; they designate new leaders to replace those 
 disabled, organize new squads when necessary, and see that every 
 man is placed in a squad. Men are taught the necessity of re- 
 maining with the squad to which they belong and, in case it be 
 broken up or they become separated therefrom, to attach them- 
 selves to the nearest squad and platoon leaders, whether these be 
 of their own or of another organization. 
 
 The squad executes the halt, rests, facings, steps and march- 
 ings, and the manual of arms as explained in the School of the 
 Soldier. 
 
 
 TO FORM THE SQUAD 
 
 To form the squad the instructor places himself 3 paces in 
 front of where the center is to be and commands: FALL IN. 
 
 The men assemble at attention, pieces at the order, and are 
 arranged by the corporal in double rank, as nearly as practicable 
 in order of height from right to left, each man dropping his left 
 hand as soon as the man on his left has his interval. The rear 
 rank forms with distance of 40 inches. 
 
S4 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 The instructor then commands: COUNT OFF. 
 
 At this command all except the right file execute eyes right, 
 and beginning on the right, the men in each rank count one, two, 
 three, four; each man turns his head and eyes to the front as he 
 counts. 
 
 TO DISMISS THE SQUAD 
 
 Being at halt: 1. Inspection, 2. ARMS, 3. Port, 4. ARMS, 5. 
 DISMISSED. 
 
 ALIGNMENTS 
 
 To align the squad, the base file or files having been estab- 
 lished: L Right (left), 2. DRESS, 3. FRONT. 
 
 At the command dress all men place the left hand upon the 
 hip (whether dressing to the right or left); each man, except the 
 base file, when on or near the new line executes eyes right, and, 
 taking steps of 2 or 3 inches, places himself so that his right arm 
 rests lightly against the arm of the man on his right, and so tha t 
 4iis eyes and shoulders are in line with those of the men on his 
 right; the rear rank men cover in file. 
 
 The instructor verifies the alignment of both ranks from the 
 right flank and orders up or back such men as may be in rear, 
 or in advance, of the line; only the men designated move. 
 
 At the command front, given when the ranks are aligned, 
 •each man turns his head and eyes to the front and drops his left 
 hand by his side. 
 
 In the first drills the basis of the alignment is established on, 
 or parallel to, the front of the squad; afterwards, in oblique direc- 
 tions. 
 
 Whenever the position of the base file or files necessitates a 
 'considerable movement by the squad, such movement is executed 
 by marching to the front or oblique, to the flank or backward, as 
 the case may be, without other command, and at the trail. 
 
 To preserve the alignment when marching: GUIDE RIGHT 
 (LEFT). 
 
 The men preserve their intervals from the side of the guide, 
 yielding to pressure from that side and resisting pressure from 
 the opposite direction; they recover intervals, if lost, by gradually 
 opening out or closing in; they recover alignment by slightly 
 lengthening or shortening the step; the rear-rank men cover their 
 file leaders at 40 inches. 
 
 In double rank, the front-rank man on the right, or desig- 
 nated flank, conducts the march; when marching faced to the flank, 
 the leading man of the front rank is the guide. 
 
SCHOOLS 55- 
 
 TO TAKE INTERVALS AND DISTANCES 
 
 Being in line at a halt: 1. Take interval, 2. To the right (left), 
 3. MARCH, 4. Squad, 5. HALT. 
 
 At the second command the rear-rank men march backward, 
 4 steps and halt; at the command march all face to the right and 
 the leading man of each rank steps off; the other men step off in 
 succession, each following the preceding man at 4 paces, rear-rank 
 men marching abreast of their file leaders. 
 
 At the command halt, given when all have .their intervals, all; 
 halt and face to the front. 
 
 Being at intervals, to assemble the squad: 1. Assemble, to- 
 the right (left), 2. MARCH. 
 
 The front-rank man on the right stands fast, the rear-rank 
 man on the right closes to 40 inches. The other men face to the 
 right, close by the shortest line, and face to the front. 
 
 Being in line at a halt and having counted off: 1. Take disr 
 ♦ance, 2. MARCH, 3. Squad, 4. HALT. 
 
 At the command march No. 1 of the front rank moves 
 straight to the front; Nos. 2, 3, and 4 of the front rank and Nos. l v 
 2, 3, and 4 of the rear rank, in the order named, move straight 
 to the front, each stepping off so as to follow the preceding man 
 at 4 paces. The command halt is given when all have their dis- 
 tances. 
 
 ,« In case more than one squad is in line, each squad executes 
 
 the movement. The guide of each rank of numbers is right. 
 
 Being at distances, to assemble the squad: 1. Assemble, 2. 
 MARCH. 
 
 No. 1 of the front rank stands fast; the other numbers move 
 forward to their proper places in line. 
 
 TO STACK ARMS AND TAKE ARMS 
 
 Being in line at a halt: STACK ARMS. 
 
 Each even number of the front rank grasps his piece with 
 he left hand at the upper band and rests the butt between his feet, 
 Wrel to the front, muzzle inclined slightly to the front and oppo- 
 site the center of the interval on his right, the thumb and fore- 
 finger raising the stacking swivel; each even number of the rear 
 ank then passes his piece, barrel to the rear, to his file leader, who 
 rasps it between the bands with his right hand and throws the 
 utt about 2 feet in advance of that of his own piece and opposite 
 he right of the interval, the right hand slipping to the upper band,, 
 be thumb and forefinger raising the stacking swivel, which he en- 
 
56 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 gages with that of his own piece; each odd number of the front 
 rank raises his piece with the right hand, carries it well forward, 
 barrel to the front; the left hand, guiding the stacking swivel, en- 
 gages the lower hook of the swivel of his own piece with the 
 free hook of that of the even number of the rear rank; he then 
 turns the barrel outward into the angle formed by the other two 
 pieces and lowers the butt to the ground, to the right of and 
 against the toe of his right shoe. 
 
 The stacks made, the loose pieces are laid on them by the 
 even numbers of the front rank. When each man has finished 
 handling pieces, he takes the position of the soldier. 
 
 Being in line behind the stacks: TAKE ARMS. 
 
 The loose pieces are returned by the even numbers of the 
 front rank; each even number of the front rank grasps his own 
 piece with the left hand, the piece of his rear-rank man with his 
 right hand, grasping both between the hands; each odd number 
 of the front rank grasps his piece in the same way with the right 
 hand, disengages it by raising the butt from the ground and then, 
 turning the piece to the right, detaches it from the stack; each ever 
 number of the front rank disengages and detaches his piece by 
 turning it to the left, and then passes the piece of his rear-rank 
 man to him, and all resume the order. 
 
 Should any squad have Nos. 2 and 3 blank files, No. 1 rear 
 rank takes the place of No. 2 rear rank in making and breaking 
 the stack; the stacks made or broken, he resumes his post. Pieces 
 not used in making the stack are termed loose pieces. 
 
 THE OBLIQUE MARCH 
 
 For the instruction of recruits, the squad being in column or 
 correctly aligned, the instructor causes the squad to face half 
 right or half left, points out to the men their relative positions, and 
 explains that these are to be maintained in the oblique march. 
 
 1. Right (left) oblique, 2. MARCH. Each man steps off in 
 a direction 45° to the right of his original front. He preserves 
 his relative position, keeping his shoulders parallel to those of the 
 guide (the man on the right front of the line or column), and so 
 regulates his steps that the ranks remain parallel to their original 
 front. At the command halt the men halt faced to the front. 
 
 To resume the original direction: 1. Forward, 2. MARCH. 
 
 The men half face to the left in marching and then move 
 straight to the front. 
 
 If at half step or mark time while obliquing, the oblique 
 march is resumed by the commands: 1. Oblique, 2. MARCH. 
 
SCHOOLS 57 
 
 TO TURN ON MOVING PIVOT 
 
 Being in line, to turn and march: 1. Right (left) turn, 
 2. MARCH. 
 
 The movement is executed by each rank successively and on 
 the same ground. At the second command, the pivot man of the 
 front rank faces to the right in marching and takes the half step; 
 the other men of the rank oblique to the right until opposite their 
 places in line, then execute a second right oblique and take the 
 half step on arriving abreast of the pivot man. All glance toward 
 the marching flank while at half step and take the full step without 
 command as the last man arrives on the line. 
 
 Right (left) half turn is executed in a similar manner. The 
 pivot man makes a half change of direction to the right and the 
 other men make quarter changes in obliquing. 
 
 TO TURN ON FIXED PIVOT 
 
 Being in line, to turn and march: 1. Squad right (left), 2. 
 MARCH. 
 
 At the second command, the right flank man in the front 
 rank faces to the right in marching and marks time; the other 
 front rank men oblique to the right, place themselves abreast of the 
 pivot, and mark time. In the rear rank the third man from the 
 right, followed in column by the second and first, moves straight 
 to the front until in rear of his front-rank man, when all face to 
 the right in marching and mark time; the other number of the 
 rear rank moves straight to the front four paces and places himself 
 abreast of the man on his right. Men on the new line glance 
 toward the marching flank while marking time and, as the last 
 man arrives on the line, both ranks execute forward, march, with- 
 out command. 
 
 Being in line, to turn and halt: 1. Squad right (left), 2. 
 MARCH, 3. Squad, 4. HALT. 
 
 The third command is given immediately after the second. 
 The turn is executed as prescribed in the preceding paragraph ex- 
 cept that all men, on arriving on the new line, mark time until 
 the fourth command is given, when all halt. The fourth command 
 should be given as the last man arrives on the line. 
 
 Being in line, to turn about and march: 1. Squad right (left) 
 about, 2. MARCH. 
 
 At the second command, the front rank twice executes squad 
 right, initiating the second squad right when the man on the 
 marching flank has arrived abreast of the rank. In the rear rank 
 the third man from the right, followed by the second and first in 
 
58 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 column, moves straight to the front until on the prolongation of 
 the line to be occupied by the rear rank; changes direction to the 
 right; moves in the new direction until in rear of his front-rank 
 man, when all face to the right in marching, mark time, and glance 
 toward the marching flank. The fourth man marches on the left 
 of the third to his new position; as he arrives on the line, both 
 ranks execute forward, march, without command. 
 
 Being in line, to turn about and halt: 1. Squad right (left) 
 about, 2. MARCH, 3. Squad, 4. HALT. 
 
 The third command is given immediately after the second. 
 The turn is executed as prescribed in the preceding paragraph ex- 
 cept that all men, on arriving on the new line, mark time until the 
 fourth command is given, when all halt. The fourth command 
 should be given as the last man arrives on the line. 
 
 Being in line, to turn about and march: 1. Squad right (left) 
 about, 2. MARCH. 
 
 At the second command, the front rank twice executes squad 
 right, initiating the second squad right when the man on the 
 marching flank has arrived abreast of the rank. In the rear rank 
 the third man from the right, followed by the second and first in 
 column, moves straight to the front until on the prolongation of the 
 line to be occupied by the rear rank; changes direction to the 
 right; moves in the new direction until in rear of his front-rank 
 man, when all face to the right in marching, mark time, and glance 
 toward the marching flank. The fourth man marches on the left 
 of the third to his new position; as he arrives on the line, both 
 ranks execute forward, march, without command. 
 
 Being in line, to turn about and halt: 1. squad right (left) 
 about, 2. MARCH, 3. Squad, 4. HALT. 
 
 The third command is given immediately after the second. 
 The turn is executed as prescribed in the preceding paragraph ex- 
 cept that all men, on arriving on the new line, mark time until 
 the fourth command is given, when all halt. The fourth command 
 should be given as the last man arrives on the line. 
 
 TO FOLLOW THE CORPORAL 
 
 Being assembled or deployed, to march the squad without 
 unnecessary commands, the corporal places himself in front of it 
 and commands: FOLLOW ME. 
 
 If in line or skirmish line, No. 2 of the front rank follows in 
 the trace of the corporal at about 3 paces; the other men conform 
 to the movements of No. 2, guiding on him and maintaining their 
 relative positions. If in column, the head of the column follows 
 the corporal. 
 
SCHOOLS 59 
 
 TO DEPLOY AS SKIRMISHERS 
 
 Being in any formation, assembled: 1. As skirmishers, 2. 
 MARCH. 
 
 The corporal places himself in front of the squad, if not al- 
 ready there. Moving at a run, the men place themselves abreast 
 of the corporal at half-pace intervals, Nos. 1 and 2 on his right, 
 Nos. 3 and 4 on his left, rear-rank men on the right of their file 
 leaders, extra men on the left of No. 4; all then conform to the 
 corporal's gait. 
 
 When the squad is acting alone, skirmish line is similarly 
 fsrmed on No. 2 of the front rank, who stands fast or continues 
 the march, as the case may be; the corporal places himself in front 
 of the squad when advancing and in rear when halted. 
 
 When deployed as skirmishers, the men march at ease, pieces 
 at the trail unless otherwise ordered. 
 
 The corporal is the guide when in the line; otherwise No. 2 
 front rank is the guide. 
 
 The normal interval between skirmishers is one-half pace, 
 resulting practically in one man per yard of front. The front of 
 a squad thus deployed as skirmishers is about 10 paces. 
 
 TO INCREASE OR DIMINISH INTERVALS. 
 
 If assembled, and it is desired to deploy at greater than the 
 normal interval; or if deployed, and it is desired to increase or de- 
 crease the interval: 1. As skirmishers, (so many) paces, 2. MARCH. 
 
 Intervals are taken at the indicated number of paces. If 
 already deployed, the men move by the flank toward or away from 
 the guide. 
 
 THE ASSEMBLY 
 
 Being deployed: 1. Assemble, 2. MARCH. 
 
 The men move toward the corporal and form in their proper 
 places. If the corporal continues to advance, the men move in 
 double time, form, and follow him. The assembly while marching 
 to the rear is not executed. 
 
 KNEELING OR LYING DOWN 
 
 If standing: KNEEL. 
 
 Half face to the right; carry the right toe about 1 foot to 
 the left rear of the left heel; kneel on right knee, sitting as nearly 
 
60 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 as possible on the right heel; left forearm across left thigh; piece 
 remains in position of order arms, right hand grasping it above the 
 lower band. 
 
 If standing or kneeling: LIE DOWN. 
 
 Kneel, but with right knee against left heel; carry back the I 
 left foot and lie flat on the belly, inclining body about 35° to the | 
 right; piece horizontal, barrel up, muzzle off the ground and pointed 
 to the front; elbows on the ground; left hand at the balance, right 
 hand grasping the small of the stock opposite the neck. This is 
 the position of order arms, lying down. " 
 
 If kneeling or lying down: RISE. 
 
 If kneeling, stand up, faced to the front, on the ground 
 marked by the left heel. If lying down, raise body on both knees; 
 stand up, faced to the front, on the ground marked by the knees. 
 
 If lying down: KNEEL. 
 
 Raise the body on both knees; take the positions of kneel. 
 
 In double rank, the positions of kneeling and lying down 
 are ordinarily used only for the better utilization of cover. 
 
 When deployed as skirmishers, a sitting position may be 
 taken in lieu of the position kneeling. 
 
 LOADINGS AND FIRINGS 
 
 The commands for loading and firing are the same whether 
 standing, kneeling, or lying down. The firings are always executed 
 at a halt. When kneeling or lying down in double rank, the rear 
 rank does not load, aim, or fire. The instruction in firing is pre- 
 ceded by a command for loading. Loadings are executed in line 
 and skirmish line only. 
 
 Pieces having been ordered loaded are kept loaded without 
 command until the command unload, or inspection arms, fresh 
 clips being inserted when the magazine is exhausted. 
 
 The aiming point or target is carefully pointed out. This 
 may be done before or after announcing the sight setting. Both 
 are indicated before giving the command for firing, but may be 
 omitted when the target appears suddenly and is unmistakable; 
 in such case battle sight is used if no sight setting is announced. 
 
 The target or aiming point having been designated and the 
 sight setting announced, such designation or announcement need 
 not be repeated until a change of either or both is necessary. 
 Troops are trained to continue their fire upon the aiming point or 
 target designated, and at the sight setting announced, until a 
 change is ordered. 
 
 If the men are not already in the position of load, that posi- 
 tion is taken at the announcement of the sight setting; if the an- 
 
SCHOOLS 61 
 
 nouncement is omitted, the position is taken at the first command 
 for firing. 
 
 When deployed, the use of the sling as an aid to accurate 
 firing is discretionary with each man. 
 
 TO LOAD 
 
 Being in line or skirmish line at halt: 1. With dummy (blank 
 or ball) cartridges, 2. LOAD. 
 
 At the command load each front-rank man or skirmisher 
 faces half right and carries the right foot to the right, about 1 foot, 
 to such position as will insure the greatest firmness and steadiness 
 of the body; raises, or lowers, the piece and drops it into the left 
 hand at the balance, left thumb extended along the stock muzzle at 
 the height of the breast, and turns the cut-off up. With the right 
 hand he turns and draws the bolt back, takes a loaded clip and in- 
 serts the end in the clip slots, places the thumb on the powder 
 space of the top cartridge, the fingers extending around the piece 
 and tips resting on the magazine floor plate; forces the cartridges 
 into the magazine by pressing down with the thumb; without 
 removing the clip, thrusts the bolt home, turning down the handle; 
 turns the safety lock to the "safe" and carries the hand to the small 
 of the stock. Each rear rank man moves to the right front, takes 
 a similar position opposite the interval to the right of his front 
 rank man, muzzle of the piece extending beyond the front rank, 
 and loads. 
 
 A skirmish line may load while moving, the pieces being held 
 as nearly as practicable in the position of load. 
 
 If kneeling or sitting, the position of the piece is similar; if 
 kneeling, the left forearm rests on the left thigh; if sitting the el- 
 bows are supported by the knees. If lying down, the left hand 
 steadies and supports the piece at the balance, the toe of the butt 
 resting on the ground, the muzzle off the ground. 
 
 For reference, these positions (standing, kneeling, and ly- 
 ing down) are designated as that of load. 
 
 For instruction in loading: 1. Simulate, 2. LOAD. 
 
 Executed as above described except that the cut-off remains 
 "off" and the handling of cartridges is simulated. The recruits are 
 first taught to simulate loading and firing; after a few lessons 
 dummy cartridges may be used. Later, blank cartridges may be 
 used. 
 
 The rifle may be used as a single loader by turning the maga- 
 zine "off." The magazine may be filled in whole or in part while 
 "off" or "on" by pressing cartridges singly down and back until 
 
62 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 they are in the proper place. The use of the rifle as a single loader 
 is, however, to be regarded as exceptional. 
 
 TO UNLOAD 
 
 Take the position of load, turn the safety lock up and move 
 bolt alternately back and forward until all the cartridges are 
 -ejected. After the last cartridge is ejected the chamber is closed 
 by first thrusting the bolt slightly forward to free it from the stud 
 holding it in place when the chamber is open, pressing the follower 
 down and back to engage it under the bolt and then thrusting the 
 bolt home; the trigger is pulled. The cartridges are then picked 
 up, cleaned, and returned to the belt and the piece is brought to» 
 the order. 
 
 TO FIRE BY VOLLEY 
 
 1. READY, 2. AIM, 3. Squad, 4. FIRE. 
 
 At the command ready turn the safety lock to the "ready"; 
 at the command aim raise the piece with both hands and support 
 the butt firmly against the hollow of the right shoulder, right 
 thumb, clasping the stock, barrel horizontal, left elbow well under 
 the piece, right elbow as high as the shoulder; incline the head 
 slightly forward and a little to the right, cheek against the stock, 
 left eye closed, right eye looking through the notch of the rear 
 sight so as to perceive the object aimed at, second joint of fore- 
 finger resting lightly against the front of the trigger and taking 
 up the slack; top of front sight is carefully raised into, and held in, 
 the line of sight. 
 
 Each rear-rank man aims through the interval to the right 
 of his file leader and leans slightly forward to advance the muzzle 
 of his piece beyond the front rank. 
 
 In aiming kneeling, the left elbow rests on the left knee, 
 point of elbow in front of kneecap. In aiming sitting, the elbows 
 are supported by the knees. . 
 
 In aiming lying down, raise the piece with both hands; rest 
 on both elbows and press the butt firmly against the right shoulder. 
 
 At the command fire press the finger against the trigger; 
 fire without deranging the aim and without lowering or turning 
 the piece; lower the piece in the position of Load and load. 
 
 To continue the firing: 1. AIM, 2. Squad, 3. FIRE. 
 
 Each command is executed as previously explained. Load 
 (from magazine) is executed by drawing back and thrusting home 
 the bolt with the right hand, leaving the safety lock at the "ready." 
 
SCHOOLS 63 
 
 TO FIRE AT WILL 
 
 Each man, independently of the others, comes to the ready, 
 aims carefully and deliberately at the aiming point or target, fires, 
 loads, and continues the firing until ordered to suspend or cease 
 firing. 
 
 To increase (decrease) the rate of fire in progress the in- 
 structor shouts: FASTER (SLOWER). 
 
 Men are trained to fire at the rate of about three shots per 
 minute at effective ranges and five or six at close ranges, devoting 
 the minimum of time to loading and the maximum to deliberate 
 aiming. To illustrate the necessity for deliberation, and to habit- 
 uate men to combat conditions, small and comparatively indistinct 
 targets are designated. 
 
 TO FIRE BY CLIP 
 
 Executed in the same manner as fire at will, except that 
 each man, after having exhausted the cartridges then in the piece 
 suspends firing. 
 
 TO SUSPEND FIRING 
 
 The instructor blows a long blast of the whistle and repeats 
 same, if necessary, or commands: SUSPEND FIRING. 
 
 Firing stops; pieces are held, loaded and locked, in a posi- 
 tion of readiness for instant resumption of firing, rear sights un- 
 changed. The men continue to observe the target or aiming point, 
 or the place at which the target disappeared, or at which it is ex- 
 pected to reappear. This whistle signal may be used as a prelimi- 
 nary to cease firing. 
 
 TO CEASE FIRING 
 
 Firing stops; pieces not already there are brought to the po- 
 sition of load; those not loaded, are loaded; sights are laid, pieces 
 are locked and brought to the order. 
 
 Cease firing is used for long pauses, to prepare for changes 
 of position, or to steady the men. 
 
 Commands for suspending or ceasing fire may be given at 
 any time after the preparatory command for firing whether the 
 firing has actually commenced or not. 
 
 THE USE OF COVER 
 
 The recruit should be given careful instruction in the indi- 
 vidual use of cover. It should be impressed upon him that, in tak- 
 
64 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 ing advantage of natural cover, he must be able to fire easily and 
 effectively upon the enemy; if advancing on an enemy, he must 
 do so steadily and as rapidly as possible; he must conceal himself 
 as much as possible while firing and while advancing. While set- 
 ting his sight, he should be under cover or lying prone. 
 
 To teach him to fire easily and effectively, at the same time 
 concealing himself from the view of the enemy, he is practiced in 
 simulated firing in the prone, sitting, kneeling, and crouching posi- 
 tions, from behind hillocks, trees, heaps of earth or rocks, from 
 depressions, gullies, ditches, doorways, or windows. He is taught 
 to fire around the right side of his concealment whenever possible, 
 or, when this is not possible, to rise enough to fire over the top 
 of his concealment. When these details are understood, he is re- 
 quired to select cover with reference to an assumed enemy and to 
 place himself behind it in proper position for firing. 
 
 The evil of remaining too long in one place, however good 
 the concealment, should be explained. He should be taught to ad- 
 vance from cover to cover, selecting cover in advance before leav- 
 ing his concealment. It should be impressed upon him that a man 
 running rapidly toward an enemy furnishes a poor target. He 
 should be trained in springing from a prone position behind 
 concealment, running at top speed to cover and throwing him- 
 self behind it. He should also be practiced in advancing from 
 cover to cover by crawling, or by lying on the left side, rifle 
 grasped in the right hand, and pushing himself forward with the 
 right leg. 
 
 He should be taught that, when fired on while acting inde- 
 pendently, he should drop to the ground, seek cover, and then en- 
 deavor to locate his enemy. 
 
 The instruction of the recruit in the use of cover is continued 
 in the combat, exercises of the company, but he must then be 
 taught that the proper advance of the platoon or company and 
 the effectiveness of its fire is of greater importance than the ques- 
 tion of cover for individuals. He should also be taught that he 
 may not move about or shift his position in the firing line except 
 the better to see the target. 
 
 OBSERVATION 
 
 The ability to use his eyes accurately is of great importance 
 to the soldier. The recruit should be trained in observing his sur- 
 rounding from positions and when on the march. He should be 
 practiced in pointing out and naming military features of the 
 ground; in distinguishing between living beings; in counting dis- 
 tant groups of objects or beings; in recognizing colors and forms. 
 
SCHOOLS 65 
 
 In the training of men in the mechanism of the firing line, 
 they should be practiced in repeating to one another target and 
 aiming point designations and in quickly locating and pointing out 
 a designated target. They should be taught to distinguish, from 
 a prone position, distant objects, particularly troops, both with 
 the naked eye and with field glasses. Similarly, they should be 
 trained in estimating distances. 
 
 SCHOOL OF THE COMPANY 
 
 The captain is responsible for the theoretical and practical 
 instruction of his officers and non-commissioned officers, not only 
 in the duties of their respective grades, but in those of the next 
 higher grades. 
 
 The company in line is formed in double rank with the men 
 arranged, as far as practicable, according to height from right to 
 left, the tallest on the right. The original division into squads is 
 
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 CAPTAIN 
 THE PROPER WAY TO FORM A COMPANY. 
 
 effected by the command: COUNT OFF. The squads, successively 
 from the right, count off as in the School of the Squad, corporals 
 placing themselves as Nos. 4 of the front rank. If the left squad 
 contains less than six men, it is either increased to that number by 
 transfers from other squads or is broken up and its members as- 
 signed to other squads and posted in the line of file closers. These 
 squad organizations are maintained, by transfers if necessary, until 
 the company becomes so reduced in numbers as to necessitate a 
 new division into squads. No squad contains less than six men. 
 
 The company is further divided into two, three, or four pla- 
 toons, each consisting of not less than two nor of more than four 
 squads. In garrison or ceremonies the strength of platoons may 
 exceed four squads. At the formation of the company the pla- 
 
 PtGHT 
 WOE 
 
66 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 toons or squads are numbered consecutively from right to left and 
 these designations do not change. For convenience in giving com- 
 mands and for reference, the designations, right, center, left, when 
 in line, and leading, center, rear, when in column, are applied to 
 platoons or squads. These designations apply to the actual right, 
 left, center, head or rear in whatever direction the company may 
 be facing. The center squad is the middle or right middle squad 
 of the company. The designation "So-and-so's" squad or platoon 
 may also be used. 
 
 Platoons are assigned to the lieutenants and non-commis- 
 sioned officers, in order of rank, as follows: 1, right; 2, left; 3, cen- 
 ter (right center); 4, left center. The non-commissioned officers 
 next in rank are assigned as guides, one to each platoon. If ser- 
 geants still remain, they are assigned to platoons, as additional 
 guides. When the platoon is deployed, its guide, or guides, accom- 
 pany the platoon leader. During battle, these assignments are not 
 changed; vacancies are filled by non-commissioned officers of the 
 platoon, or by the nearest available officers or non-commissioned 
 officers arriving with reenforcing troops. 
 
 The first sergeant is never assigned as a guide. When not 
 commanding a platoon, he is posted as a. file closer opposite the 
 third file from the outer flank of the first platoon; and when the 
 company is deployed he accompanies the captain. The quarter- 
 master sergeant, when present, is assigned according to his rank as 
 a sergeant. Enlisted men below the grade of sergeant, armed with 
 the rifle, are in ranks unless serving as guides; when not so armed, 
 they are posted in the line of file closers. Musicians, when required 
 to play, are at the head of the column. When the company is de- 
 ployd, they accompany the captain. 
 
 The company executes the halt, rests, facings, steps and 
 marchings, manual of arms, loadings and firings, takes intervals 
 and distances and assembles, increases and diminishes intervals, 
 resumes attention, obliques, resumes the direct march, preserves 
 alignments, kneels, lies down, rises, stacks and takes arms, as ex- 
 plained in the Schools of the Soldier and the Squad, substituting 
 in the commands company for squad. 
 
 The same rule applies to platoons, detachments, details, etc., 
 substituting their designation for squad in the commands. In the 
 same manner these execute the movements prescribed for the Com- 
 pany, whenever possible, substituting their designation for com- 
 pany in the commands. 
 
 A company so depleted as to make division into platoons im- 
 practicable is led by the captain as a single platoon, but retains 
 the designation of company. The lieutenants and first sergeants 
 assist in fire control; the other sergeants place themselves in the 
 firing line as skirmishers. 
 
SCHOOLS 67 
 
 CLOSE ORDER 
 
 The guides of the right and left, or leading and rear, pla- 
 toons, are the right and left, or leading and rear, guides, respec- 
 ticely, of the company when it is in line or in column of squads. 
 Other guides are in the line of file closers. In platoon movements 
 the post of the platoon guide is at the head of the platoons, if the 
 platoon is in column, and on the guiding flank if in line. When a 
 platoon has two guides their original assignment to flanks of the 
 platoon does not change. 
 
 The guides of a column of squads place themselves on the 
 flank opposite the file closers. To change the guides and file 
 closers to the other flank, the captain commands: 1. File closers on 
 left (right) flank; 2. MARCH. The file closers dart through the 
 column; the captain and guides change. In column of squads, each 
 rank preserves the alignment toward the side of the guide. 
 
 Men in the line of file closers do not execute the loadings 
 or firings. Guides and enlisted men in the line of file closers 
 execute the manual of arms during the drill unless specially ex- 
 cused, when they remain at the order. During ceremonies they 
 execute all movements. 
 
 In taking intervals and distances, unless otherwise directed, 
 the right and left guides, at the first command, place themselves 
 in the line of file closers, and, with them, take a distance of 4 
 paces from the rear rank. In taking intervals, at the command 
 march, the file closers face to the flank and each steps off with the 
 file nearest him. In assembling the guides anel file closers resume 
 their positions in line. 
 
 In movements executed simultaneously by platoons (as 
 platoons right or platoons, column right), platoon leaders repeat 
 the preparatory command (platoon right, etc.), applicable to their 
 respective platoons. The command of execution is given by the 
 captain only. 
 
 TO FORM THE COMPANY 
 
 At the sounding of the assembly the first sergeant takes 
 position 6 paces in front of where the center of the company is to 
 be, faces it, draws saber, and commands: FALL IN. 
 
 The right guide of the company places himself, facing to the 
 front, where the right of the company is to rest, and at such point 
 that the center of the company will be 6 paces from and opposite 
 the first sergeant; the squads form in their proper places on the 
 left of the right guide, superintended by the other sergeants, who 
 then take their posts. 
 
68 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 The first sergeant commands: REPORT. Remaining in 
 position at the order, the squad leaders, in succession from the 
 
 right, salute and report: All present; or, Private (s) absent. 
 
 The first sergeant does not return the salutes of the squad leaders; 
 he then commands: 1. Inspection, 2. ARMS, 3. Order, 4. ARMS, 
 faces about, salutes the captain, reports: Sir, all present or ac- 
 counted for, or the names of the unauthorized absentees, and, with- 
 out command, takes his post. 
 
 If the company can not be formed by squads, the first ser- 
 geant commands. 1. Inspection, 2. ARMS, 3. Right shoulder, 4. 
 ARMS, and calls the roll. Each man, as his name is called an- 
 swers here and executes order arms. The sergeant then effects 
 the division into squads and reports the company as prescribed 
 above. 
 
 The captain places himself 12 paces in front of the center of, 
 and facing, the company in time to receive the report of the first 
 sergeant*, whose salute he returns and then draws saber. The 
 lieutenants take their posts when the first sergeant has reported 
 and draw saber with the captain. The company, if not under 
 arms, is formed in like manner omitting reference to arms. 
 
 For the instruction of platoon leaders and guides, the com- 
 pany, when small, may be formed in single rank. In this forma- 
 tion close order movements only are executed. The single rank 
 executes all movements as explained for the front rank of a com- 
 pany. 
 
 TO DISMISS THE COMPANY 
 
 Being in line at a halt, the captain directs the first sergeant: 
 Dismiss the company. The officers fall out; the first sergeant 
 places himself faced to the front, 3 paces to the front and 2 paces 
 from the nearest flank of the company, salutes, faces toward oppo- 
 site flank of the company and commands: 1. Inspection, 2. ARMS, 
 3. Port, 4. ARMS, 5. DISMISSED. 
 
 ALIGNMENTS 
 
 The alignments are executed as prescribed in the School of 
 the Squad, the guide being established instead of the flank file. 
 The rear-rank man of the flank file keeps his head and eyes to 
 the front and covers his file leader. 
 
 At each alignment the captain places himself in prolongation 
 of the line, 2 paces from and facing the flank toward which the 
 dress is made, verifies the alignment, and commands: FRONT. 
 Platoon leaders take a like position when required to verify align- 
 ments. 
 
SCHOOLS 69 
 
 MOVEMENTS ON THE FIXED PIVOT 
 
 Being in line, to turn the company: 1. Company right (left), 
 2. MARCH, 3. Company, 4. HALT; or, 3. Forward, 4. MARCH. 
 
 At the second command the right-flank man in the front 
 rank faces to the right in marching and marks time; the other 
 front-rank men oblique to the right, place themselves abreast of 
 the pivot, and mark time; in the rear rank the third man from the 
 right, followed in column by the second and first, moves straight 
 to the front until in rear of his front-rank man, when all face to 
 the right in marching and mark time; the remaining men of the 
 rear rank move straight to the front 4 paces, oblique 'to the right, 
 place themselves abreast of the third man, cover their file leaders, 
 and mark time; the right guide steps back, takes post on the flank, 
 and marks time. The fourth command is given when the last man 
 is 1 pace in rear of the new line. 
 
 The command halt may be given at any time after the move- 
 ment begins; only those halt who are in die new position. Each 
 of the others halts upon arriving on the line, aligns himself'to the 
 right, and executes front without command. 
 
 Being in line, to form column of platoons, or the reverse: 
 
 1. Platoons right (left), 2. MARCH, 3. Company, 4. HALT; or 3. 
 Forward, 4. MARCH. 
 
 Executed by each platoon as described for the company. 
 Before forming line the captain sees that the guides on the flank 
 toward which the movement is to be executed are covering. This 
 is effected by previously announcing the guide to that flank. 
 
 Being in line, to form column of squads, or the reverse; or, 
 being in line of platoons, to form columns of platoons, or the 
 reverse: 1. Squads right (left), 2. MARCH; or, 1. Squads right 
 (left), 2. MARCH, 3. Company, 4. HALT. 
 
 Executed by each squad as described in the School of the 
 Squad. If the company or platoons be formed in line toward the 
 side of the file closers, they dart through the column and take posts 
 in rear of the company at the second command. If the column of 
 squads be formed from line, the file closers take posts on the pivot 
 flank, abreast of and 4 inches from the nearest rank. 
 
 MOVEMENTS OF THE MOVING PIVOT 
 
 Being in line, to change direction: 1. Right (Left) turn, 
 
 2. MARCH, 3. Forward, 4. MARCH. 
 
 Executed as described in the School of the Squad, except 
 that the men do not glance toward the marching flank and that 
 all take the full steps at the fourth command. The right guide 
 
70 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 is the pivot of the front rank. Each rear-rank man obliques on 
 the same ground as his file leader. 
 
 Being in column of 2 platoons, to change direction: 1. 
 Column right (left), 2. MARCH. 
 
 At the first command the leader of the leading platoon com- 
 mands: Right turn. At the command march the leading platoon 
 turns to the right on moving pivot; its leader commands: 1. For- 
 ward, 2. MARCH, on completion of the turn. Rear platoons march 
 squarely up to the turning point of the leading platoon and turn 
 at command of their leaders. 
 
 Being in column of squads, to change direction: 1. Column 
 right (left), 2. MARCH. 
 
 At the second command the front rank of the leading squad 
 turns to the right on moving pivot as in the School of the Squad; 
 the other ranks, without command, turn successively on the same 
 ground and in a similar manner. 
 
 Being in column of squads, to form line ®f platoons or the 
 reverse; 1. Platoons, column right (left). 2. MARCH. 
 
 Executed by each platoon as described for the company. 
 
 Being in line, to form column of squads and change direc- 
 tion: 1. Squads right (left), column right (left), 2. MARCH; or, 
 
 1. Right (Left) by squads, 2. MARCH. 
 
 In the first case the right squad initiates the column right 
 as soon as it has completed the squad right. In the second case, 
 at the command march, the right squad marches forward; the re- 
 mainder of the company executes squads right, column left, and 
 follows the right squad. The right guide, when he has posted him- 
 self in front of the right squad, takes four steps, then resumes the 
 full step; the right squad conforms. 
 
 Being in line, to form line of platoons: 1. Squads right 
 (left), platoons, column right (left), 2. MARCH; or, 1. Platoons, 
 right (left) by squads, 2. MARCH. 
 
 Executed by each platoon as described for the company in 
 the preceding paragraph. 
 
 FACING OR MARCHING TO THE REAR 
 
 Being in line, line of platoons, or in column of platoons or 
 squads, to face or march to the rear: *1. Squads right (left) about, 
 
 2. MARCH; or, 1. Squads right (left) about, 2. MARCH, 3. Com- 
 pany, 4. HALT. 
 
 Executed by each squad as described in the School of the 
 Squad. If the company or platoons be in column of squads, the file 
 closers turn about toward the column and take their posts; if in 
 line, each darts through the nearest interval between squads. 
 
SCHOOLS 71 
 
 To march to the rear for a few paces: 1. About, 2. FACE, 
 
 3. Forward, 4. MARCH. 
 
 If in line, the guides place themselves in the rear rank, now 
 the front rank; the file closers, on facing about, maintain their rela- 
 tive positions. No other movement is executed until the line is 
 faced to the original front. 
 
 ON THE RIGHT (LEFT) INTO LINE 
 
 Being in column of platoons or squads, to form line on right 
 or left; 1. On right (left) into line, 2. MARCH, 3. Company, 
 
 4. HALT, 5. FRONT. 
 
 At the first command the leader of the leading unit com- 
 mands: Right turn. The leaders of the other units command: 
 Forward, if at a halt. At the second command the leading unit 
 turns to the right on moving pivot. The command halt is given 
 when the leading unit has advanced the desired distance in the new 
 direction; it halts; its leader then commands: Right dress. 
 
 The units in rear continue to march straight to the front; 
 each, when opposite the right of its place in line, executes right 
 turn at the command of its leader; each is halted on the line at 
 the command of its leader, who then commands: Right dress. All 
 dress on the first unit in line. 
 
 If executed in double time, the leading squad marches in 
 double time until halted. 
 
 FRONT INTO LINE 
 
 Being in column of platoons or squads, to form line to the 
 front: 1. Right (Left) front into line, 2. MARCH, 3. Company, 
 
 4. HALT, 5. FRONT. 
 
 At the first command the leaders of the units in rear of the 
 leading one command: Right oblique. If at a halt, the leader of 
 the leading unit commands: Forward. At the second command the 
 leading unit moves straight forward; the rear units oblique as in- 
 dicated. The command halt is given when the leading unit has 
 advanced the desired distance; it halts; its leader then commands: 
 Left dress. Each of the rear units, when opposite its place in line, 
 resumes the original direction at the command of its leader; each 
 is halted on the line at the command of its leader, who then com- 
 mands: Left dress. All dress on the first unit in line. 
 
 Being in column of squads to form column of platoons, or 
 being in line of platoons, to form the company in line: 1. Platoons, 
 right (left) front into line, 2. MARCH, 3. Company, 4. HALT, 
 
 5. FRONT. 
 
72 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Executed by each platoon as described for the company. In 
 forming the company in line, the dress is on the left squad of the 
 left platoon. In forming column of platoons, platoon leaders 
 verify the alignment before taking their posts; the captain com- 
 mands front when the alignments have been verified. 
 
 When front into line is executed in double time the com- 
 mands for halting and aligning are omitted and the guide is toward 
 the side of the first unit in line. 
 
 AT EASE AND ROUTE STEP 
 
 The column of squads is the habitual column of route, but 
 route step and at ease are applicable to any marching formation. 
 
 To march at route step: 1. Route step, 2. MARCH. 
 
 Sabers are carried at will or in the scabbard; the men carry 
 their pieces at will, keeping the muzzles elevated; they are not 
 required to preserve silence, nor to keep the step. The ranks 
 cover and preserve their distance. If halted from route step, the 
 men stand at rest. 
 
 To march at ease: 1. At ease, 2. MARCH. 
 
 The company marches as in route step, except that silence 
 is preserved; when halted, the men remain at ease. 
 
 Marching at route step or at ease: 1. Company, 2. ATTEN- 
 TION. 
 
 At the command attention the pieces are brought to the 
 right shoulder and the cadenced step in quick time is resumed. 
 
 TO DIMINISH THE FRONT OF A COLUMN OF SQUADS 
 
 Being in column of squads: 1. Right (Left) by twos, 
 2. MARCH. 
 
 At the command march, all files except the two right files 
 of the leading squad execute in place halt; the two left files of the 
 leading squad obiique to the right when disengaged and follow tl*e 
 right files at the shortest practicable distance. The remaining 
 squads follow successively in like manner. 
 
 Being in column of squads or twos: 1. Right (Left) by file, 
 2. MARCH. 
 
 At the command march, all files execute in place halt, except 
 the right file of the leading two or squad. The left file or files of 
 the leading two or squad oblique successively to the right when 
 disengaged and each follows the file on its right at the shortest 
 practicable distance. The remaining twos or squads follow suc- 
 cessively in like manner. 
 
 Being in column of files or twos, to form column of squads; 
 
SCHOOLS 73 
 
 or, being in column files, to form column of two: 1. Squads 
 (Twos), right (left) front into line, 2. MARCH. 
 
 At the command march, the leading file or files halt. The 
 remainder of the squad, or two, obliques to the right and halts 
 on line with the leading file or files. The remaining squads of 
 twos close up and successively form in rear of the first in like 
 manner. 
 
 Marching by twos or files can not be executed without seri- 
 ous delay and waste of road space. Every reasonable precaution 
 will be taken to obviate the necessity for these formations. 
 
 EXTENDED ORDER 
 
 The command guide right (left or center) indicates the base 
 squad for the deployment; if in line it designates the actual right 
 (left or center) squad; if in column the command guide right 
 (left) designates the leading squad, and the command guide center 
 designates the center squad. After the deployment is completed, 
 the guide is center without command, unless otherwise ordered. 
 
 At the preparatory command for forming skirmish line, 
 from either column of squads or line, each squad leader (ex- 
 cept the leader of the base squad, when his squad does not ad- 
 vance), cautions his squad, Follow me or By the right (left) 
 flank, as the case may be; at the command march, he steps in front 
 of his squad and leads it to its place in line. 
 
 Having given the command for forming skirmish line, the 
 captain, if necessary, indicates to the corporal of the base squad the 
 point on which the squad is to march; the corporal habitually 
 looks to the captain for such directions. 
 
 The base squad is deployed as soon as it has sufficient 
 interval. The other squads are deployed as they arrive on the 
 general line; each corporal halts in his place in line and commands 
 or signals, as skirmishes; the squad deploys and halts abreast of 
 him. If tactical considerations demand it, the squad is deployed 
 before arriving on the line. 
 
 Deployed lines preserve a general alignment toward the 
 guide. Within their respective fronts, individuals or units march 
 so as best to secure cover or to facilitate the advance, but the 
 general and orderly progress of the whole is paramount. On 
 halting, a deployed line faces to the front (direction of the enemy) 
 in all cases and takes advantage of cover, the men lying down if 
 necessary. 
 
 The company in skirmish line advances, halts, moves by the 
 flank, or to the rear, obliques, resumes the direct march, passes 
 from quick to double time and the reverse by the same commands 
 
74 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 and in a similar manner as in close order; if at a halt, the move- 
 ment by the flank or to the rear is executed by the same commands 
 as when marching. Company right (left, half right, half left) is 
 executed as explained for the front rank, skirmish intervals being 
 maintained. A platoon or other part of the company is deployed 
 and marched in the same manner as the company, substituting in 
 the commands, platoon (detachment, etc.) for company. 
 
 DEPLOYMENTS 
 
 Being in line, to form skirmish to the front: 1. As skirmish- 
 ers, guide right (left or center), 2. MARCH. 
 
 If marching, the corporal of the base squad moves straight 
 to the front; when that squad has advanced the desired distance, 
 the captain commands: 1. Company, 2. HALT. If the guide be 
 right (left), the other corporals move to the left (right) front, 
 and, in succession from the base, place their squads on the line; 
 if the guide be center, the other corporals move to the right or 
 left front according as they are on the right or left of the center 
 squad, and in succession from the center squad place their squads 
 on the line. If at a halt, the base squad is deployed without ad- 
 vancing; the other squads may be conducted to their proper 
 places by the flank; interior squads may be moved when squads 
 more distant from the base have gained comfortable marching 
 distance. 
 
 Being in column of squads, to form skirmish line to the 
 front: 1. As skirmishers, guide right (left or center), 2. MARCH. 
 
 If marching, the corporal of the base squad deploys it and 
 moves straight to the front; if at a halt, he deploys his squad 
 without advancing. If the guide be right (left), the other cor- 
 porals move to the left (right) front, and, in succession from the 
 base, place their squads on the line; if the guide be center, the 
 corporals in front of the center squad move to the right (if at 
 halt, to the right rear), the corporals in rear of the center squad 
 move to the left front, and each, in succession from the base, 
 places his squad on the line. The column of twos or files is de- 
 ployed by the same commands and in like manner. 
 
 The company in line or in column of squads may be de- 
 ployed in an oblique direction by the same commands. The cap- 
 tain points out the desired direction; the corporal of the base 
 squad moves in the direction indicated; the other corporals con- 
 form. 
 
 To form skirmish line to the flank or rear the line or the 
 column of squads is turned by squads to the flank or rear and then 
 deployed as described. 
 
SCHOOLS 75 
 
 The intervals between men are increased or decreased as 
 described in the School of the Squad, adding to the preparatory 
 commands, guide right (left or center) if necessary. 
 
 THE ASSEMBLY 
 
 The captain takes his post in front of, or designates the 
 element on which the company is to assemble and commands: 
 1. Assemble, 2. MARCH. 
 
 If in skirmish line the men move promptly toward the desig- 
 nated point and the company is re-formed in line. If assembled 
 by platoons, these are conducted to the designated point by pla- 
 toon leaders, and the company is reformed in line. 
 
 Platoons may be assembled by the command: 1. Platoons, 
 assemble, 2. MARCH. 
 
 Executed by each platoon as described for the company. 
 
 One or more platoons may be assembled by the command: 
 1. Such platoon (s), assemble, 2. MARCH. 
 
 Executed by the designated platoon or platoons as described 
 for the company. 
 
 THE ADVANCE 
 
 The advance of a company into an engagement (whether 
 for attack or defense) is conducted in close order, preferably 
 column of squads, until the probalility of encountering hostile 
 fire makes it advisable to deploy. After deployment, and before 
 opening fire, the advance of the company may be continued in 
 skirmish line or other suitable formation, depending upon circum- 
 stances. The advance may often be facilitated, or better advantage 
 taken of cover, or losses reduced by the employment of the platoon 
 or squad columns or by the use of a succession of thin lines. The 
 selection of the method to be used is made by the captain or major^ 
 the choice depending upon conditions arising during the progress 
 of the advance. If the deployment is found to be premature, it 
 will generally be best to assemble the company and proceed in 
 close order. Patrols are used to provide the necessary security 
 against surprise. 
 
 Being in skirmish line: 1. Platoon columns, 2. MARCH. 
 
 The platoon leaders move forward through the center of 
 their respective platoons; men to the right of the platoon leader 
 march to the left and follow him in file, those to the left march 
 in like manner to the right; each platoon leader thus conducts the 
 march of his platoon in double column or files; platoon guides 
 
76 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 follow in rear of their respective platoons to insure prompt and 
 orderly execution of the advance. 
 
 Being in skirmish line: 1. Squad columns, 2. MARCH. 
 
 Each squad leader moves to the front; the members of each 
 squad oblique toward and follow their squad leader in single file 
 at easy marching distances. 
 
 Platoon columns are profitably used where the ground is so 
 difficult or cover so limited as to make it desirable to take advan- 
 tage of the few favorable routes; no two platoons should march 
 within the area of burst of a single shrapnel. Squad columns are 
 of value principally in facilitating the advance over rough or brush- 
 grown ground; they afford no material advantage in securing 
 cover. 
 
 To deploy platoon or squad columns: 1. As skirmishers, 
 2. MARCH. 
 
 Skirmishers move to the right or left front and successively 
 place themselves in their original positions on the line. 
 
 Being in platoon or squad columns: 1. Assemble, 2. MARCH. 
 
 The platoon or squad leaders signal assemble. The men of 
 each platoon or squad, as the case may be, advance and, moving 
 to the right and left, take their proper places in line, each unit 
 assembling on the leading element of the column and re-forming 
 in line. The platoon or squad leaders conduct their units toward 
 the element or point indicated by the captain, and to their places 
 in line; the company is re-formed in line. 
 
 Being in skirmish line, to advance by a succession of thin 
 lines: 1. (Such numbers), forward, 2. MARCH. 
 
 The captain points out in advance the selected position in 
 front of the line occupied. The designated number of each 
 squad moves to the front; the line thus formed preserves the 
 original intervals as nearly as practicable; when this line has ad- 
 vanced a suitable distance (generally from 100 to 250 yards, de- 
 pending upon the terrain and the character of the hostile fire), a 
 second is sent forward by similar commands, and so on at irregu- 
 lar distances until the whole line has advanced. Upon arriving at 
 the indicated position, the first line is halted. Successive lines, 
 upon arriving, halt on line with the first and the men take their 
 proper places in the skirmish line. 
 
 Ordinarily each line is made up of one man per squad and 
 the men of a squad are sent forward in order from right to left 
 as deployed. The first line is led by the platoon leader of the 
 right platoon, the second by the guide of the right platoon, and so 
 on in order and from right to left. The advance is conducted in 
 quick time unless conditions demand a faster gait. The company 
 having arrived at the indicated position, a further advance by the 
 same means may be advisable. 
 
SCHOOLS 77 
 
 The advance in a succession of thin lines is used to cross a 
 wide stretch swept, or likely to be swept, by artillery fire or 
 heavy, long-range rifle fire which cannot profitably be returned. 
 Its purpose is the building up of a strong skirmish line preparatory 
 to engaging in a fire fight. This method of advancing results in 
 serious (though temporary) loss of control over the company. Its 
 advantage lies in the fact that it offers a less definite target, hence 
 is less likely to draw fire. 
 
 THE FIRE ATTACK 
 
 The principles governing the advance of the firing line in 
 attack are considered in the School of the Battalion. When it be- 
 comes impracticable for the company to advance as a whole by 
 ordinary means, it advances by rushes. 
 
 Being in skirmish line: 1. By platoon (two platoons, squad, 
 four men, etc.), from the right (left), 2. RUSH. 
 
 The platoon leader on the indicated flank carefully arranges 
 the details for a prompt and vigorous execution of the rush and 
 puts it into effect as soon as practicable. If necessary, he desig- 
 nates the leader for the indicated fraction. When about to rush, 
 he causes the men of the fraction to cease firing and to hold them- 
 selves flat, but in readiness to spring forward instantly. (The 
 leader of the rush at the signal of the platoon leader, if the latter 
 be not the leader of the rush) commands: Follow me, and, running 
 at top speed, leads the fraction to the new line, where he halts it 
 and causes it to open fire. The leader of the rush selects the new 
 line if it has not been previously designated. 
 
 The first fraction having established itself on the new line, 
 the next like fraction is sent forward by its platoon leader, without 
 further command of the captain, and so on, successively, until the 
 entire company is on the line established by the first rush. If 
 more than one platoon is to join in one rush, the junior platoon 
 leader conforms to the action of the senior. A part of the line 
 having advanced, the captain may increase or decrease the size of 
 the fractions to complete the movement. 
 
 When the company forms a part of the firing line, the rush 
 of the company as a whole is conducted by the captain, as de- 
 scribed for a platoon in the preceding paragraph. The captain 
 leads the rush; platoon leaders lead their respective platoons; pla- 
 toon guides follow the line to insure prompt and orderly execu- 
 tion of the advance. 
 
 When the foregoing method of rushing, by running, becomes 
 impracticable, any method of advance that brings the attack closer 
 to the enemy, such as crawling, should be employed. 
 
7S MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 THE COMPANY IN SUPPORT 
 
 To enable it to follow or reach the firing line, the support 
 adopts suitable formations. It should be kept assembled as long 
 as practicable. If after deploying a favorable opportunity arises to 
 hold it for some time in close formation, it should be reassembled. 
 It is deployed when necessary. 
 
 The movements of the support as a whole and the dispatch 
 of reenforcements from it to the firing line are controlled by the 
 major. A reenforcement of less than one platoon has little influ- 
 ence and will be avoided whenever practicable. The captain of a 
 company in support is constantly on the alert for the major's sig- 
 nals or commands. 
 
 A reenforcement sent to the firing line joins it deployed as 
 skirmishers. The leader of the reenforcement places it in an inter- 
 val in the line, if one exists, and commands it thereafter as a unit. 
 If no such suitable interval exists, the reenforcement is advanced 
 with increased intervals between skirmishers; each man occupies 
 the nearest interval in the firing line, and each then obeys the 
 orders of the nearest squad leader and platoon leader. A re- 
 enforcement joins the firing line as quickly as possible without 
 exhausting the men. 
 
 The original platoon division of the companies in the firing 
 line should be maintained and should not be broken up by the ming- 
 ling of reenforcements. Upon joining the firing line, officers and 
 Sergeants accompanying a reenforcement take over the duties of 
 others of like grade who have been disabled, or distribute them- 
 selves so as best to exercise their normal functions. Conditions 
 will vary and no rules can be prescribed. It is essential that all 
 assist in mastering the increasing difficulties of control. 
 
 THE COMPANY ACTING ALONE 
 
 In general, the company, when acting alone, is employed 
 ^according to the principles applicable to the battalion acting alone; 
 the captain employs platoons as the major employs companies, 
 making due allowance for the difference in strength. The support 
 may be smaller in proportion or may be dispensed with. 
 
 The company must be well protected against surprise. 
 Combat patrols on the flanks are specially important. Each leader 
 of a flank platoon details a man to watch for the signals of the 
 patrol or patrols on his flank. 
 
 FIRE 
 
 Ordinarily pieces are loaded and extra ammunition is issued 
 before the company deploys for combat. In close order the com- 
 
SCHOOLS 79 
 
 pany executes the firings at the comand of the captain, who posts 
 himself in rear of the center of the company. Usually the firings 
 in close order consist of saluting volleys only. 
 
 When the company is deployed, the men execute the firings 
 at the command of their platoon leaders; the latter give such com- 
 mands as are necessary to carry out the captain's directions, and, 
 from time to time, add such further commands as are necessary to 
 continue, correct, and control the fire ordered. 
 
 The voice is generally inadequate for giving commands dur- 
 ing fire and must be replaced by signal of such character that 
 proper fire direction and control is assured. To attract attention, 
 signals must usually be preceded by the whistle signal (short 
 blast). A fraction of the firing line about to rush should, if prac- 
 ticable, avoid using the long blast signal as an aid to cease firing. 
 Officers and men behind the firing line can not ordinarily move 
 freely along the line, but must depend on mutual watchfulness and 
 the proper use of the prescribed signals All should post them- 
 selves so as to see their immediate superiors and subordinates. 
 
 The musicians assist the captain by observing the enemy, 
 the target, and the fire effect, by transmitting commands or signals, 
 and by watching for signals. 
 
 Firing with blank cartridges at an outlined or represented 
 enemy at distances less than 100 yards is prohibited. 
 
 RANGES 
 
 For convenience of reference, ranges are classified as fol- 
 lows: to 600 yards, close range; 600 to 1,200 yards, effective 
 range; 1,200 to 2,000 yards, long range; 2,000 yards and over, dis- 
 tant range. 
 
 The distance to the target must be determined as accurately 
 as possible and the sights set accordingly. Aside from training 
 and morale, this is the most important single factor in securing 
 effective fire at the longer ranges. 
 
 Except in a deliberately prepared defensive position, the 
 most accurate and only practicable method of determining the 
 range will generally be to take the mean of several estimates. 
 
 Five or six officers or men, selected from the most accurate 
 estimators in the company, are designated as range estimators and 
 are specially trained in estimating distances. 
 
 Whenever necessary and practicable, the captain assembles 
 the range estimators, points out the target to them, and adopts 
 the mean of their estimates. The range estimators then take their 
 customary posts. 
 6 
 
80 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 CLASSES OF FIRING 
 
 Volley firing has limited application. In defense it may be 
 used in the early stages of the action if the enemy presents a large, 
 compact target. It may be used by troops executing fire of posi- 
 tion. When the ground near the target is such that the strike of 
 bullets can be seen from the firing line, ranging volleys may be 
 used to correct the sight setting. In combat, volley firing is exe- 
 cuted habitually by platoon. 
 
 Fire at will is the class of fire normally employed in attack 
 or defense. Clip fire has limited application. It is principally 
 used: 1. In the early stages of combat, to steady the men by 
 habituating them to brief pauses in firing. 2. To produce a short 
 burst of fire. 
 
 THE TARGET 
 
 Ordinarily the major assigns to the company an objective in 
 attack or sector in defense; the company's target lies within the 
 limits so assigned. In the choice of target, tactical considerations 
 are paramount; the nearest hostile troops within the objective or 
 sector are thus the usual target. This is ordinarily the hostile 
 firing line; troops in rear are ordinarily proper targets for artillery, 
 machine guns, or, at times, infantry employing fire of position. 
 
 Change of target should not be made without excellent 
 reasons therefor, such as the sudden appearance of hostile troops 
 under conditions which make them more to be feared than the 
 troops comprising the former target. 
 
 The distribution of fire over the entire target is of special 
 importance. The captain allots a part of the target to each platoon, 
 or each platoon leader takes as his target that part which corre- 
 sponds to his position in the company. Men are so instructed that 
 each fires on that part of the target which is directly opposite him. 
 
 All parts of the target are equally important. Care must be 
 exercised that the men do not slight its less visible parts. A sec- 
 tion of the target not covered by fire represents a number of the 
 enemy permitted to fire coolly and effectively. 
 
 If the target can not be seen with the naked eye, platoon 
 leaders select an object in front of or behind it, designate this as 
 the aiming target, and direct a sight setting which will carry the 
 cone of fire into the target. 
 
 When the company is large enough to be divided into pla- 
 toons, it is impracticable for the captain to command it directly in 
 combat. His efficiency in managing the firing line is measured by 
 
SCHOOLS 81 
 
 his ability to enforce his will through the platoon leaders. Having 
 indicated clearly what he desires them to do, he avoids interfering 
 except to correct serious errors or omissions. 
 
 The captain directs the fire of the company or of designated 
 platoons. He designates the target, and, when practicable, allots a 
 part of the target to each platoon. Before beginning the fire action 
 he determines the range, announces the sight setting, and indicates 
 the class of fire to be employed and the time to open fire. There- 
 after, he observes the fire effect, corrects material errors in sight 
 setting, prevents exhaustion of the ammunition supply, and causes 
 the distribution of such extra ammunition as may be received from 
 the rear. 
 
 FIRE CONTROL 
 
 In combat the platoon is the fire unit. From 20 to 35 rifles 
 are as many as one leader can afford to control effectively. 
 
 Each platoon leader puts into execution the commands or 
 direction of the captain, having first taken such precautions to in- 
 sure correct sight setting and clear description of the target or 
 aiming target as the situation permits or requires; thereafter, he 
 gives such additional commands or directions as are necessary to 
 exact compliance with the captain's will. He corrects the sight 
 setting when necessary. He designates an aiming target when the 
 target can not be seen with the naked eye. 
 
 In general, platoon leaders observe the target and the effect 
 of their fire and are on the alert for the captain's commands or sig- 
 nals; they observe and regulate the rate of .fire. The platoon 
 guides watch the firing line and check every breach of fire dis- 
 cipline. Squad leaders transmit commands and signals when 
 necessary, observe the conduct ot their squads and abate excite- 
 ment, assist in enforcing fire discipline and participate in the firing. 
 
 The best troops are those that submit longest to fire control. 
 Loss of control is an evil which robs success of its greatest results. 
 To avoid or delay such loss should be the constant aim of all. 
 Fire control implies the ability to stop firing, change the sight set- 
 ting and target, and resume a well directed fire. 
 
 FIRE DISCIPLINE 
 
 Fire discipline implies, besides a habit of obedience, a con- 
 trol of the rifle by the soldier, the result of training, which will 
 enable him in action to make hits instead of misses. It embraces 
 taking advantage of the ground; care in setting the sight and de- 
 livery of fire; constant attention to the orders of the leaders, and 
 
82 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 careful observation of the enemy; an increase of fire when the 
 target is favorable, and a cessation of fire when the enemy disap- 
 pears; economy of ammunition. In combat, shots which graze 
 the enemy's trench or position and thus reduce the effectiveness 
 of his fire have the approximate value of hits; such shots only, or 
 actual hits, contribute toward fire superiority. Fire discipline 
 implies that, in a firing line without leaders, each man retains his 
 presence of mind and directs effective fire upon the proper target. 
 
 To create a correct appreciation of the requirements of fire 
 discipline, men are taught that the rate of fire should be as rapid 
 as is consistent with accurate aiming; that the rate will depend 
 upon the visibility, proximity, and size of the target; and that the 
 proper rate will ordinarily suggest itself to each trained man, 
 usually rendering cautions or commands unnecessary. In at- 
 tack the highest rate of fire is employed at the halt preceding the 
 assault, and in pursuing fire. 
 
 In an advance by rushes, leaders of troops in firing positions 
 are responsible for the delivery of heavy fire to cover the advance 
 of each rushing fraction. Troops are trained to change slightly 
 the direction of fire so as not to endanger the flanks of advanced 
 portions of the firing line. 
 
 In defense, when the target disappears behind cover, platoon 
 leaders suspend fire, prepare their platoons to fire upon the point 
 where it is expected to reappear, and greet its reappearance in- 
 stantly with vigorous fire. 
 
 SCHOOL OF THE BATTALION 
 
 The battalion being purely a tactical unit, the major's dutie9 
 are primarily those of an instructor in drill and tactics and of a 
 tactical commander. He is responsible for the theoretical and 
 practical training of the battalion. He supervises the training of 
 the companies of the battalion with a view to insuring the thor- 
 oughness and uniformity of their instruction. 
 
 In the instruction of the battalion as a whole, his efforts 
 are directed chiefly to the development of tactical efficiency, de- 
 voting only such time to the mechanism of drill and to the cere- 
 monies as may be necessary in order to insure precision, smartness, 
 and proper control. 
 
 The movements explained are on the basis of a battalion of 
 four companies; they may be executed by a battalion of two or 
 more companies, not exceeding six. 
 
 The companies are generally arranged from right to left 
 according to the rank of the captains present at the formation. 
 The arrangement of the companies may be varied by the major or 
 
SCHOOLS 83 
 
 higher commander. After the battalion is formed, no cognizance 
 is taken of the relative order of the companies. 
 
 In whatever direction the battalion faces the companies are 
 designated numerically from right to left in line, and from head 
 to rear in column, first company, second company^ etc. The terms 
 right and left apply to actual right and left as the line faces; if the 
 about by squads be executed when in line, the right company 
 becomes the left company and the right center becomes the left 
 center company. The designation center company indicates the 
 right center or the actual center company according as the number 
 of companies is even or odd. 
 
 The band and other special units, when attached to the 
 battalion, take the same post with respect to it as if it were the 
 nearest battalion. 
 
 CLOSE ORDER 
 
 Captains repeat such preparatory commands as are to be im- 
 mediately executed by their companies, as forward, squads right, 
 etc.; the men execute the commands march, halt, etc., if applying 
 to their companies when given by the major. In movements exe- 
 cuted in route step or at ease the captains repeat the command 
 of execution, if necessary. Captains do not repeat the major's 
 commands in executing the manual of arms, nor those commands 
 which are not essential to the execution of a movement by their 
 companies, as column of squads, first company, squads right, etc. 
 
 In giving commands or cautions captains may prefix the 
 proper letter resignation of their companies, as A Company, 
 HALT; B Company, squads right, etc. 
 
 At the command guide center (right or left), captains com- 
 mand: Guide right or left, according to the positions of their 
 companies. Guide center designates the left guide of the center 
 company. 
 
 When the companies are to be dressed, captains place them- 
 selves on that flank toward which the dress is to be made, as 
 follows: 
 
 The battalion in line: Beside the guide (or the flank file of 
 the front rank, if the guide is not in line) and facing to the front. 
 
 The battalion in column of companies: Two paces from the 
 guide, in prolongation of and facing down the line. 
 
 Each captain, after dressing his company, commands: 
 FRONT, and takes his post. 
 
 The battalion being in line and unless otherwise prescribed, 
 at the captain's command dress, or at the command halt, when it 
 ib prescribed that the company shall dress, the guide on the flank 
 
84 
 
 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 away from the point of rest, with his piece at right shoulder, 
 dresses promptly on the captain and the companies beyond. Dur- 
 fng the dress he moves, if necessary, to the right and left only; 
 the captain dresses the company on the line thus established. The 
 guide takes the position of order arms at the command front. 
 
 The battalion executes the halt, rests, facings, steps and 
 marchings, manual of arms, resumes attention, kneels, lies down, 
 rises, stacks and takes arms, as explained in the Schools of the 
 Soldier and Squad, substituting in the commands battalion for 
 squad. It executes squads right (left), squads right (left) about, 
 
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 4.4 
 
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 LINE (Cos. in Line) 
 
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 eioe OF GUIDE 
 
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 LINE Of COMPANIES (Cos. In Col, of SqdS.) 
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 KCO. FRONT* 5*, 
 
 CLOSE COLUMN 
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 CLOSE fCos.ln Col. 
 
 LINE if of Sqds.) 
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 THE BATTALION . 
 Bn. C (with Staff etc.) 4 Guide and Direction t The Color £ 
 Numerals are Distances or Intervals in Paces 
 
 route step and at ease, and obliques and resumes the direct march, 
 as explained in the School of the Company. 
 
 The battalion in column of platoons, squads, twos, or files 
 changes direction; in column of squads forms column of twos or 
 files and re-forms columns of twos or squads, as explained in the 
 School of the Company. 
 
 When the formation admits of the simultaneous execution 
 by companies or platoons or movements in the School of the 
 Company the major may cause such movement to be executed by fm 
 prefixing, when necessary, companies (platoons) to the commands 
 prescribed therein: as 1. Companies, right front into line, 2, 
 
 ' 
 
SCHOOLS 85 
 
 MARCH. To complete such simultaneous movements, the com- 
 mands halt or march, if prescribed, are given by the major. The 
 command front, when prescribed, is given by the captains. 
 
 The battalion as a unit executes the loadings and firings 
 only in firing saluting volleys. The commands are as for the com- 
 pany, substituting battalion for company. At the first command 
 for loading, the captains take post in rear of the center of their 
 respective companies. At the conclusion of the firing, the captains 
 resume their posts in line. 
 
 On other occasions, when firing in close order is necessary, 
 it is executed by company or other subdivision under instructions 
 from the major. 
 
 TO FORM THE BATTALION 
 
 For purposes other than ceremonies: The battalion is 
 formed in column of squads. The companies having been formed, 
 the adjutant posts himself so as. to be facing the column, when 
 formed, and 6 paces in front of the place to be occupied by the 
 leading guide of the battalion; he draws saber; adjutant's call is 
 sounded or the adjutant signals assemble. The companies are 
 formed, at attention, in column of squads in their proper order. 
 Each captain, after halting his company, salutes the adjutant; the 
 adjutant returns the salute and, when the last captain has saluted, 
 faces the major and reports: Sir, the battalion is formed. He then 
 joins the major. 
 
 For ceremonies or when directed: The battalion is formed 
 in line. 
 
 The companies having been formed, the adjutant posts him- 
 self so as to be 6 paces to the right of the right company when 
 line is formed, and faces in the direction in which the line is to 
 extend. He draws saber; adjutant's call is sounded; the band plays 
 if present. 
 
 The right company is conducted by its captain so as to 
 arrive from the rear, parallel to the line; its right and left guides 
 precede it on the line about 20 paces, taking post facing to the 
 right at order arms, so that their elbows will be against the breasts 
 of the right and left files of their company when it is dressed. The 
 guides of the other companies successively prolong the line to the 
 left in like manner and the companies approach their respective 
 places in line as explained for the right company. The adjutant, 
 \from his post, causes the guides to cover. 
 
 2 When about 1 pace in rear of the line, each company is 
 
 halted and dressed to the right against the arms of the guides. 
 
 The band, arriving from the rear, takes its place in line 
 
86 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 when the right company is halted; it ceases playing when the left 
 company has halted. 
 
 When the guides of the left company have been posted, 
 the adjutant, moving by the shortest route, takes post facing the 
 battalion midway between the post of the major and the center 
 of the battalion. The major staff, non-commissioned staff and 
 orderlies take their posts. 
 
 When all parts of the line have been dressed, and officers 
 and others have reached their posts, the adjutant commands: 
 1. Guides, 2. POSTS, 3. Present, 4. ARMS. At the second com- 
 mand guides take their places in the line. The adjutant then turns 
 about and reports to the major: Sir, the battalion is formed; the 
 major directs the adjutant: Take your post, Sir, draws saber and 
 brings the battalion to the order. The adjutant takes his post, 
 passing to the right of the major. 
 
 TO DISMISS THE BATTALION 
 
 Staff and non-commisioned staff officers fall out; each cap- 
 tain marches his company off and dismisses it. 
 
 TO RECTIFY THE ALIGNMENT 
 
 Being in a line at a halt, to align the battalion: 1. Center 
 (right or left), 2. DRESS. 
 
 The captains dress their companies successively toward the 
 center (right or left) guide of the battalion, each as soon as the 
 captain next toward the indicated guide commands: Front. The 
 captains of the center companies (if the dress is center) dress them 
 without waiting for each other. 
 
 To give the battalion a new alignment: 1. Guides center 
 (right or left) company on the line, 2. Guides on the line, 3. Cen- 
 ter (right or left), 4. DRESS, 5. Guides, 6. POSTS. 
 
 At the first command, the designated guides place them- 
 selves on the line facing the center (right or left). The major | 
 establishes them in the direction he wishes to give the battalion. 
 
 At the second command, the guides of the other companies 
 take posts, facing the center (right or left), so as to prolong the 
 line. 
 
 At the command dress, each captain dresses his company to 
 the flank toward which the guides of his company face. 
 
 At the command posts, given when all companies have com- 
 pleted the dress, the guides return to their posts. 
 
 I 
 
SCHOOLS 87 
 
 TO RECTIFY THE COLUMN 
 
 Being in column of companies, or in close column, at a 
 halt, if the guides do not cover or have not their proper distances, 
 and it is desired to correct them, the major commands: 1. Right 
 (left), 2. DRESS. 
 
 Captains of companies in rear of the first place their right 
 guides so as to cover at the proper distance; each captain aligns 
 his company to the right and commands: FRONT. 
 
 ON RIGHT (LEFT) INTO LINE 
 
 Being in column of squads or companies: 1. On right (left) 
 into line, 2. MARCH, 3. Battalion, 4. HALT. 
 
 Being in column of squads; At the first command, the captain 
 of the leading company commands: Squads right. If at a halt 
 each captain in rear commands: Forward. At the second command 
 the leading company marches in line to the right; the companies 
 in rear continue to march to the front and form successively on 
 the left, each, when opposite its place, being marched in line to 
 the right. 
 
 The fourth command is given when the first company has 
 advanced the desired distance in the new direction; it halts and is 
 dressed to the right by its captain; the others complete the move- 
 ment, each being halted 1 pace in rear of the line established by the 
 first company, and then dressed to the right. 
 
 Being in column of companies: At the first command, the 
 captain of the first company commands: Right turn. If at a halt, 
 each captain in rear commands: Forward. Each of the captains 
 in rear of the leading company gives the command: 1. Right turn, 
 in time to add, 2. MARCH, when his company arrives opposite the 
 right of its place in line. 
 
 The fourth command is given and the movement completed 
 as explained above. 
 
 Whether executed from column of squads or column of com- 
 panies, each captain places himself so as to march beside the right 
 guide after his company forms line or changes direction to the 
 right. 
 
 If executed in double time, the leading company marches 
 in double time until halted. 
 
 FRONT INTO LINE 
 
 Being in column of squads or companies: 1. Right (Left) 
 front into line, 2. MARCH. 
 
 Being in column of squads: At the first command, the cap- 
 
88 MILITARY TRAIN IN G 
 
 tain of the leading company commands: Column right; the cap- 
 tains of the companies in rear, column half right. At the second 
 command the leading company executes column right, and as the 
 last squad completes the change of direction, is formed in line 
 to the left, halted, and dressed to the left. Each of the companies 
 in rear is conducted by the most convenient route to the rear of 
 the right of the preceding company, thence to the right, parallel to 
 and 1 pace in rear of the new line; when opposite its place, it is,.i 
 formed in line to the left, halted, and dressed to the left. 
 
 Being in column of companies: If marching, the captain of 
 the leading company gives the necessary commands to halt his 
 company at the second command; if at a halt, the leading company 
 stands fast. At the first command, the captain of each company 
 in rear commands: Squads right or Right by squads, and after the 
 second command conducts his company by the most convenient 
 route to its place in line. 
 
 Whether executed from column of squads or column of 
 companies, each captain halts when opposite or at the point where 
 the left of his company is to rest. 
 
 TO FORM COLUMN OF COMPANIES SUCCESSIVELY TO 
 THE RIGHT OR LEFT 
 
 Being in column or squads: 1. Columns of companies, first 
 company, squads right (left), 2. MARCH. 
 
 The leading company executes squads right and moves for- 
 ward. The other companies move forward in colmun of squads 
 and successively march in line to the right on the same ground 
 as the leading company and in such manner that the guide covers 
 the guide of the preceding company. 
 
 TO FORM COLUMN OF SQUADS SUCCESSIVELY TO THE 
 RIGHT OR LEFT 
 
 Being in column of companies: 1. Column of squads, first 
 company, squads right (left), 2. MARCH. 
 
 The leading company executes squads right and moves for- 
 ward. The other companies move forward in columns of com- 
 panies and successively march in column of squads to the right 
 on the same ground as the leading company. 
 
 TO CHANGE DIRECTION 
 
 Being in column of companies or close column: 1. Column 
 right (left), 2. MARCH. 
 
SCHOOLS 89 
 
 The captain of the first company commands: Right turn. 
 
 The leading company turns to the right on the moving pivot, 
 the captain adding: 1, Forward, 2. MARCH, upon its completion. 
 
 The other companies march squarely up to the turning 
 point; each changes direction by the same commands and means 
 as the first and in such manner that the guide covers the guide of 
 the preceding company. 
 
 Being in line of companies or close line: I. Battalion right 
 (left), 2. MARCH, 3. Battalion, 4. HALT. 
 
 The right company changes direction to the right; the other 
 companies are conducted by the shortest line to their places 
 abreast of the first. 
 
 The fourth command is given when the right company has 
 advanced the desired distance in the new direction; that company 
 halts; the others halt successively upon arriving on the line. 
 
 Being in column of squads, the battalion changes direction 
 by the same commands and in the manner prescribed for the com- 
 pany. 
 
 MASS FORMATIONS 
 
 Being in line, line of companies, column of companies or 
 column of squads: 1. Close on first (fourth company, 2. MARCH. 
 
 If at a halt, the indicated company stands fast; if marching, 
 it is halted; each of the other companies is conducted toward it and 
 is halted in proper order in close column if the indicated company 
 be in line, or in close line if the indicated company be in column 
 of squads. 
 
 If the battalion is in line, companies form successively in 
 rear of the indicated company; if in column of squads, companies 
 in rear of the leading company form on the left of it. 
 
 In close column formed from line on the first company, the 
 left guides cover; formed on the fourth company, right guides 
 cover. If formed on the leading company, the guide remains as 
 before the formation. In close line, the guides are halted abreast 
 of the guide of the leading company. 
 
 The battalion in column closes on the leading company 
 only. 
 
 TO EXTEND THE MASS 
 
 Being in close column or in close line: 1. Extend on first 
 (fourth) company, 2. MARCH. 
 
 Being in close line: If at a halt, the indicated company 
 stands fast; if marching, it halts; each of the other companies is 
 
90 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 conducted away from the indicated company and is halted in its 
 proper order in line of companies. 
 
 Being in close column, the extension is made on the fourth 
 company only. If marching, the leading company continues to 
 march; companies in rear are halted and successively resume the 
 march in time to follow at full distance. If at halt, the leading 
 company marches; companies in rear successively march in time to 
 follow at full distance. Close column is not extended in double 
 time. 
 
 Being in close column: 1. Right (Left) front into line, 
 2. MARCH. Executed as from column of companies. 
 
 Being in close column: 1. Column of squads, first (fourth) 
 company, squads right (left), 2. MARCH. 
 
 The designated company marches in column of squads to 
 the right. Each of the other companies executes the same move- 
 ment in time to follow the preceding company in column. 
 
 Being in close line: 1. Column of squads, first (fourth) 
 company, forward, 2. MARCH. 
 
 The designated company moves forward. The other com- 
 panies (halting if in march) successively take up the march and 
 follow in column. 
 
 ROUTE STEP AND AT EASE 
 
 The battalion marches in route step and at ease as pre- 
 scribed in the School of the Company. When marching in column 
 of companies or platoons, the guides maintain the trace and dis- 
 tance. 
 
 In route marches the major marches at the head of the col- 
 umn; when necessary, the file closers may be directed to march at 
 the head and rear of their companies. 
 
 ASSEMBLY 
 
 The battalion being wholly or partially deployed, or the 
 companies being separated: 1. Assemble, 2. MARCH. 
 
 The major places himself opposite to or designates the 
 element or point on which the battalion is to assemble. Com- 
 panies are assembled and marched to the indicated point. As the 
 companies arrive the major or adjutant indicates the formation to 
 be taken. 
 
 COMBAT PRINCIPLES 
 
 In extended order, the company is the largest unit to execute 
 movements by prescribed commands or means. The major, assem- 
 
SCHOOLS 91 
 
 bling his captains if practicable, directs the disposition of the bat- 
 talion by means of tactical orders. He controls its subsequent 
 movements by such orders or commands as are suitable to the 
 occasion. 
 
 In every disposition of the battalion for combat the major's 
 order should give subordinates sufficient information of the enemy, 
 of the position of supporting and neighboring troops, and of the 
 object sought to enable them to conform intelligently to the gen- 
 eral plan. The order should then designate the companies which 
 are to constitute the firing line and those which are to constitute 
 the support. In attack it should designate the direction or the 
 objective, the order and front of the companies on the firing line, 
 and should designate the right or left company as base company. 
 In defense, it should describe the front of each company, and, if 
 necessary, the sector to be observed by each. 
 
 When the battalion is operating alone, the major provides 
 for the reconnaissance and protection of his flanks; if part of a 
 larger force, the major makes similar provisions, when necessary, 
 without orders from higher authority, unless such authority has 
 specifically directed other suitable reconnaissance and protection. 
 
 When the battalion is deployed upon the initiative of the 
 major, he indicates whether extra ammunition shall be issued; if 
 deployed in pursuance of orders of higher authority, the major 
 causes the issue of extra ammunition, unless such authority has 
 given directions to the contrary, 
 
 DEPLOYMENT 
 
 A premature deployment involves a long, disorganizing and 
 fatiguing advance of the skirmish line, and should be avoided. A 
 greater evil is to be caught by heavy fire when in dense column 
 or other close order formation; hence advantage should be taken 
 of cover in order to retain the battalion in close order formation 
 until exposure to heavy hostile fire may reasonably be anticipated. 
 
 The major regulates the depth of the deployment and the 
 extent and density of the firing line, subject to such restrictions as 
 a senior may have imposed. Companies or designated subdivisions 
 and detachments are conducted by their commanders in such man- 
 ner as best to accomplish the mission asigned to them under the 
 major's orders. Companies designated for the firing line march 
 independently to the place of deployment, form skirmish line, and 
 take up the advance. They conform in general, to the base com- 
 pany. 
 
 The commander of a battalion, whether it is operating alone 
 or as part of a larger force, should hold a part of his command out 
 
VI MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 of the firing line. By the judicious use of this force the major 
 can exert an influence not otherwise possible over his firing line 
 and can control, within reasonable limits, an action once begun. 
 So if his battalion be assigned to the firing line the major causes 
 one, two, or three companies to be deployed on the firing line, 
 retaining the remaining companies or company as a support for 
 that firing line. The division of the battalion into firing line and 
 support will depend upon the front to be covered and the nature 
 and anticipated severity of the action. 
 
 If the battalion be part of a larger command, the number 
 of companies in the firing line is generally determinable from the 
 regimental commander's order; the remainder constitutes the sup- 
 port. If the battalion is acting alone, the support must be strong 
 enough to maintain the original fire power of the firing line, to 
 protect the flanks, and to perform the functions of a reserve, what- 
 ever be the issue of the action. 
 
 If the battalion is operating alone, the support may, according 
 to circumstances, be held in one or two bodies and placed behind 
 the center, or one or both flanks of the firing line, or echeloned 
 beyond a flank. If the battalion is part of a larger force, the sup- 
 port is generally held in one body. 
 
 The distance between the firing line and the supporting 
 group or groups varies between wide limits; it should be as short 
 as the necessity for protection from heavy losses will permit. 
 When cover is available, the support should be as close as 50 to 
 100 yards; when such cover is not available, it should not be closer 
 than 300 yards. It may be as far as 500 yards in rear if good cover 
 is there obtainable and is not obtainable at a lesser distance. 
 
 In exceptional cases, as in a meeting engagement, it may be 
 necessary to place an entire battalion or regiment in the firing 
 line at the initial deployment, the support being furnished by other 
 troops. Such deployment causes the early mingling of the larger 
 units, thus rendering leadership and control extremely difficult. 
 The necessity for such deployment increases with the inefficiency 
 of the commander and of the service of information. 
 
 FIRE 
 
 Fire direction and fire control are functions of company 
 and platoon commanders. The major makes the primary appor- 
 tionment of the target — in defense, by assigning sectors of fire; 
 in attack, by assigning the objective. In the latter case each com- 
 pany in the firing line takes as its target that part of the general 
 objective which lies in its front. 
 
 The major should indicate the point or time at which the 
 fire fight is to open. He may do this in his order for deployment 
 
SCHOOLS 93 
 
 or he may follow the firing line close enough to do so at the proper 
 fime. If it be impracticable for him to do either, the senior officer 
 with the firing line, in each battalion, selects the time for opening 
 fire. 
 
 ATTACK 
 
 The battalion is the attack unit, whether operating alone 
 or as part of a larger unit. 
 
 If his battalion be one of several in the firing line, the major, 
 in executing his part of the attack, pushes his battalion forward 
 as vigorously as possible within the front, or section, assigned to it. 
 The great degree of independence allowed to him as to details 
 demands, in turn, the exercise of good judgment on his part. Bet- 
 ter leadership, better troops, and more favorable terrain enable 
 one battalion to advance more rapidly in attack than another less 
 fortunate, and such a battalion insures the further attack of the 
 others. The leading battalion should not, however, become iso- 
 lated; isolation may lead to its destruction, and must be guarded 
 against at all times. 
 
 The deployment having been made, the firing line advances 
 without firing. The predominant idea must be to close with the 
 enemy as soon as possible without ruinous losses. The limited 
 supply of ammunition and the uncertainty of resupply, the neces- 
 sity for securing fire superiority in order to advance within the 
 shorter ranges, and the impossibility of accomplishing this at inef- 
 fective ranges, make it imperative that fire be not opened as long 
 as the advance can be continued without demoralizing losses. The 
 attack which halts to open fire at extreme range (over 1,200 yards) 
 is not likely ever to reach its destination. Every effort should 
 be made, by using cover or inconspicuous formations, or by ad- 
 vancing the firing line as a whole, to arrive within 800 yards of 
 the enemy before opening fire. 
 
 Except when the enemy's artillery is able to effect an un- 
 usual concentration of fire, its fire upon deployed infantry causes 
 losses which are unimportant when compared with those inflicted 
 by his infantry; hence the attacking infantry should proceed to a 
 position, from which an effective fire can be directed against the 
 hostile infantry with a view to obtaining fire superiority. The 
 effectiveness of the enemy's fire must be reduced so as to 
 permit further advance. The more effective the fire to which the 
 enemy is subjected the less effective will be his fire. 
 
 Occasionally the fire of adjacent battalions, or of infantry 
 employing fire of position, or of supporting artillery, will permit 
 the further advance of the entire firing line from this point, but 
 it will generally be necessary to advance by rushes of fractions 
 
94 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 of the line. The fraction making the rush should be as large a} 
 the hostile fire and the necessity for maintaining fire superiority 
 will permit. Depending upon circumstances, the strength of the 
 fraction may vary from a company to a few men. The advance 
 is made as rapidly as possible without losing fire superiority. 
 The smaller the fraction which rushes, the greater the number 
 of rifles which continue to fire upon the enemy. On the other 
 hand, the smaller the fraction which rushes, the slower will be 
 the progress of the attack. ^ 
 
 Enough rifles must continue in action to insure the suc- 
 cess of each rush. Frequently the successive advances of the 
 firing line must be effected by rushes of fractions of decreased 
 size; that is, advances by rushes may first be made by company, 
 later by half company or platoon, and finally by squads or files; 
 but no subsequent opportunity to increase the rate of advance, 
 such as better cover or a decrease of the hostile fire, should be 
 overlooked. Whenever possible, the rush is begun by a flank 
 fraction of the firing line. In the absence of express directions 
 from the major, each captain of a flank company determines when 
 ^n advance by rushes shall be attempted. A flank company which 
 inaugurates an advance by rushes becomes the base company, if 
 not already the base. An advance by rushes having been inaug- 
 urated on one flank, the remainder of the firing line conforms; 
 fractions rush successively from that flank and halt on the line 
 •established by the initial rush. The fractions need not be uniform 
 in size; each captain indicates how his company shall rush, having 
 due regard to the ground and the state of the fire fight. 
 
 A fraction about to rush is sent forward when the remainder 
 of the line is firing vigorously; otherwise the chief advantage of 
 this method of advancing is lost. The length of the rush will vary 
 from 30 to 80 yards, depending upon the existence of cover, posi- 
 tions for firing, and the hostile fire. 
 
 When the entire firing line of the battalion has advanced 
 to the new line, fresh opportunities to advance are sought as 
 before. 
 
 Two identical situations will never confront the battalion; 
 hence at drill it is prohibited to arrange the details of an advance 
 before the preceding one has been concluded, or to employ a fixed 
 or prearranged method of advancing by rushes. 
 
 The major posts himself so as best to direct the reenforc- 
 ing of the firing line from the support. When all or nearly all 
 of the support has been absorbed by the firing line, he joins, and 
 takes full charge of, the latter. 
 
 The reenforcing of the firing line by driblets of a squad 
 or a few men has no appreciable effect. The firing line requires 
 either no reenforcement or a strong one. Generally one or two 
 
SCHOOLS 95 
 
 platoons are sent forward under cover of a heavy fire of the firing 
 line. 
 
 To facilitate control and to provide intervals in which re- 
 enforcements may be placed, the companies in the firing line should 
 be kept closed in on tneir centers as they become depleted by 
 casualties during the advance. When this is impracticable, re- 
 enforcements must mingle with and thicken the firing line. In 
 battle the latter method is the rule rather than the exception, and 
 to familiarize the men with such conditions the combat exercises 
 of the battalion should include both methods of reenforcing. 
 Occasionally, to provide the necessary intervals for reenforcing 
 by either of these methods, the firing line should be thinned by 
 causing men to drop out and simulate losses during the various 
 advances. Under ordinary conditions the depletion of the firing 
 line for this purpose is from one-fifth to one-half of its strength. 
 
 The major or senior officer in the firing line determines 
 when bayonets are fixed and gives the proper command or signal. 
 It is repeated by all parts of the firing line. Each man who was 
 in the front rank prior to deployment, as soon as he recognizes 
 the command or signal, suspends firing, quickly fixes his bayonet, 
 and immediately resumes firing; after which the other men sus- 
 pend firing, fix bayonets, and immediately resume firing. The 
 support also fixes bayonets. The concerted fixing of the bayonet 
 by the firing line at drill does not simulate battle conditions and 
 should not be required. It is essential that there be no marked 
 pause in the firing. Bayonets are fixed generally before or during 
 the last, or second last, advance preceding the charge. 
 
 Subject to orders from higher authority, the major deter- 
 mines the point from which the charge is to be made. The firing 
 line having arrived at that point and being in readiness, the major 
 causes the charge to be sounded. The signal is repeated by the 
 musicians of all parts of the line. The company officers lead the 
 charge. The skirmishers spring forward shouting, run with bayo- 
 nets at charge, and close with the enemy. 
 
 The further conduct of the charging troops will depend upon 
 circumstances; they may halt and engage in bayonet combat or 
 in pursuing fire; they may advance a short distance to obtain 
 a field of fire or to drive the enemy from the vicinity; they may 
 assemble or reorganize, etc. If the enemy vacates his position 
 every effort should be made to open fire at once on the retreat- 
 ing mass, reorganization of the attacking troops being of secon- 
 dary importance to the infliction of further losses upon the enemy 
 and to the increase of his confusion. In combat exercises the 
 major assumes a situation and terminates the assault accordingly. 
 
96 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 DEFENSE 
 
 In defense, as in attack, the battalion is the tactical unit 
 best suited to independent assignment. Defensive positions are 
 usually divided into sections and a battalion assigned to each. 
 
 The major locates such fire, communicating, and cover 
 trenches and obstacles as are to be constructed. He assigns com- 
 panies to construct them and details the troops to occupy them. 
 
 The major reenforces the firing line in accordance with the 
 principles applicable to, and explained in connection with, the 
 attack, maintaining no more rifles in the firing line than are 
 necessary to prevent the enemy's advance. 
 
 The supply of ammunition being usually ample, fire is 
 opened as soon as it is possible to break up the enemy's for- 
 mation, stop his advance, or inflict material loss, but this rule 
 must be modified to suit the ammunition supply. 
 
 The major causes the firing line and support to fix bayo- 
 nets when an assault by the enemy is imminent. Captains direct 
 this to be done if they are not in communication with the major 
 and the measure is deemed advisable. Fire alone will not stop 
 a determined, skillfully conducted attack. The defender must 
 have equal tenacity; if he can stay in his trench or position and 
 cross bayonets, he will at least have neutralized the hostile first 
 line, and the combat will be decided by reserves. 
 
 If ordered or compelled to withdraw under hostile infantry 
 fire or in the presence of hostile infantry, the support is posted 
 so as to cover the retirement of the firing line. 
 
 When the batallion is operating alone, the support must 
 be strong and must be fed sparingly into the firing line, especially 
 if a counter-attack is planned. Opportunities for counter-attack 
 6hould be sought at all times. 
 
 THE REGIMENT 
 
 Normally, the regiment consists of three battalions. Special 
 units, such as band, machine gun company and mounted scouts, 
 have special formations for their own use. Movements herein pre- 
 scribed are for the battalions; special units conform thereto unless 
 otherwise prescribed or directed. 
 
 The colonel is responsible for the theoretical instruction 
 and practical training of the regiment as a whole. Under his im- 
 mediate supervision the training of the units of the regiment 19 
 conducted by their respective commanders. 
 
 The colonel either gives his commands or orders orally, 
 by bugle or by signal, or communicates them by .staff officers or 
 
SCHOOLS 
 
 97 
 
 orderlies. Each major gives the appropriate commands or orders, 
 and, in close-order movements, causes his battalion to execute the 
 necessary movements at his command of execution. Each major 
 ordinarily moves his battalion from one formation to another, in 
 column of squads, in the most convenient manner, and, in the 
 presence of the enemy, in the most direct manner consistent with 
 
 i 
 
 LINE (Bns. In Line 
 
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 Amb. M.G. Pn. 
 
 
 
 
 LINE of MASSES (Bns. In Close Column) 
 
 
 
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 THE REGIMENT 
 
 
 
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 80 
 
 80 30 
 
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 -f-M.G. 
 
 Rg.C. (with Staff etc.) £ 
 Band 
 
 
 CO 
 
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 — 2— Amb. 
 COLUMN of 
 
 The Color accompanies Center 
 (Right Center) Battalion, see Flg.2 
 Numerals are Distances or Inter* 
 vals in Paces 
 
 
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 MASSES 
 
 
 
 z 
 
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 81 
 
 (Bns. In Close 
 Column) 
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 M.G. 
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 THE REGIMENT. 
 
 icover. Commanders of the special units observe the same princi- 
 ples as to commands and movements. They take places in the 
 ,aew formation as directed by the colonel, maintaining their rela- 
 tive positions with respect to the flank or end of the regiment on 
 which they are originally posted. 
 
98 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 When the regiment is formed, and during ceremonies, the 
 lieutenant colonel is posted 2 paces to the left of, and 1 pace 
 less advanced than the colonel. In movements subsequent to the 
 formation of the regiment and other than ceremonies, the lieu- 
 tenant colonel is on the left of the colonel. 
 
 In whatever formation the regiment may be, the battalions 
 retain their permanent administrative designations of first;, second 
 third battalion. For convenience, they may be designated, when 
 in line, as right, center, or left battalion; when in column, as 
 leading, center, or rear battalion. These designations apply to 
 the actual positions of the battalions in line or column. 
 
 Except at ceremonies, or when rendering honors, or when 
 otherwise directed, after the regiment is formed, the battalions 
 march and stand at ease during subsequent movements. 
 
 CLOSE ORDER 
 
 Unless otherwise directed,, the battalions are posted from 
 right to left, or from head to rear, according to the rank of the 
 battalion commanders present, the senior on the right or at the 
 head. A battalion whose major is in command of the regiment 
 retains its place. 
 
 For ordinary purposes, the regiment is formed in column of 
 squads or in column of masses. The .adjutant informs the majors 
 what the formation is to be. The battalions and special units 
 having been formed, he posts himself and draws saber. Adju-i 
 tant's call is sounded, or the adjutant signals assemble. 
 
 If forming in column of squads, the adjutant posts himself 
 so as to be facing the column when formed, and 6 paces in front 
 of the place to be occupied by the leading guide of the regiment; 
 if forming in column of masses, he posts himself so as to be fac 
 ing the right guides of the column when formed, and 6 paces in 
 front of the place to be occupied by the right guide of the leading 
 company. Later, he moves so as best to observe the formation. 
 
 The battalions are halted, at attention, in column of squads., 
 or close column, as the case may be, successively from the front 
 in their proper order and places. The band takes its place when 
 the leading battalion has halted. Other special units take their 
 places in turn when the rear battalion has halted. 
 
 The majors and the commanders of the machine gun com- 
 pany and mounted scouts (or detachment) each, when his com- 
 mand is in place, salutes the adjutant and commands: At ease; the 
 adjutant returns the salutes. When all have saluted and the band 
 is in place, the adjutant rides to the colonel, reports: Sir, the regi- 
 ment is formed, and takes his post. The colonel draws saber. 
 
 The formation in column of squads may be modified to the 
 
SCHOOLS 99 
 
 extent demanded by circumstances. Prior to the formation the 
 adjutant indicates the point where the head of the column is to 
 rest and the direction in which it is to face; he then posts him- 
 self so as best to observe the formation. At adjutant's call or 
 assemble the leading battalion marches to, and halts at, the indi- 
 cated point. The other battalions take positions from which they 
 may conveniently follow in their proper places. 
 
 For ceremonies, or when directed,, the regiment is formed in 
 line or line of masses. The adjutant posts himself so as to be 6 
 paces to the right of the right or leading company of the right 
 battalion when the regiment is formed and faces in the direction in 
 which the line is to extend. Adjutant's call is sounded; the band 
 plays. 
 
 The adjutant indicates to the adjutant of the right battalion 
 the point of rest and the direction in which the line is to extend, 
 and then takes post facing the regiment midway between the 
 post of the colonel and the center of the regiment. Each of the 
 other battalion adjutants precedes his battalion to the line and 
 marks its point of rest. 
 
 The battalions, arriving from the rear, each in line or close 
 column as the case may be, are halted on the line successively 
 from right to left in their proper order and places. Upon halting, 
 each major commands: 1. Right, 2. DRESS. The battalion ad- 
 jutant assists in aligning the battalion and then takes his post. 
 
 The band, arriving from the rear, takes its place in line 
 when the right battalion has halted; it ceases playing when the left 
 battalion has halted. The machine gun company and the mounted 
 scouts (or detachments) take their places in line after center 
 battalion has halted. The colonel and those who accompany him 
 take post. 
 
 When all parts of the line have been dressed, and officers 
 and all others have reached their posts, the adjutant commands: 
 1. Present, 2. ARMS. He then turns about and reports to the 
 colonel: Sir, the regiment is formd; the colonel directs the adju- 
 tant: Take your post, Sir, draws saber and brings the regiment to 
 the order. The adjutant takes his post, passing to the right of the 
 colonel. 
 
 TO DISMISS THE REGIMENT 
 
 Being in any formation: DISMISS YOUR BATTALIONS. 
 Each major marches his battalion off and dismisses it. 
 
 MOVEMENTS BY THE REGIMENT 
 
 The regiment executes the halt, rests, facings, steps and 
 marchings, manual of arms, resumes attention, kneels, lies down, 
 
100 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 rises, stacks and takes arms, as explained in the Schools of the 
 Soldier and Squad, substituting in the commands, when necessary, 
 battalions for squad. It executes squads right (left), squads 
 right (left), about, route step and at ease, obliques and resumes 
 the direct march is explained in the school of the Company. 
 The regiment in column of files, twos, squads, or platoons, changes 
 direction, and in column of squad forms column of twos or files 
 .and re-forms column of twos or squads, as explained in the School 
 of the Company. In column of companies, it changes direction as 
 .explained in the School of the Battalion. 
 
 When the formation admits of the simultaneous execution, 
 by battalions, companies,, or platoons, of movements prescribed in 
 the School of the Company or Battalion, the colonel may cause 
 such movements to be executed by prefixing, where necessary, 
 battalions (companies, platoons) to the commands prescribed 
 therein. 
 
 The column of squads is the usual column of march; to 
 shorten the column, if conditions permit, a double column of 
 squads may be used, the companies of each battalion marching 
 abreast in two columns. Preliminary to an engagement, the regi- 
 ment or its units are placed in the formation best suited to its 
 subsequent tactical employment. 
 
 To assume any formation, the colonel indicates to the 
 majors the character of the formation desired, the order of the 
 battalions, and the point of rest. Each battalion is conducted by 
 its major, and is placed in its proper order in the formation,, by 
 the most convenient means and route. Having halted in a forma- 
 tion, no movements for this purpose of correcting minor discrep- 
 ancies in alignments, intervals, or distances are made unless 
 specially directed by the colonel or necessitated by conditions of 
 cover. 
 
 To correct intervals, distances, and alignments, the colonel 
 directs one or more of the majors to rectify their battalions. Each 
 major so directed causes his battalion to correct its alignment, 
 intervals and distances, and places it in its proper position in the 
 formation. 
 
 COMBAT PRINCIPLES 
 
 The regiment is deployed by the colonel's order to the 
 commanders of battalions and special units. The order should give 
 them information of the situation and of the proposed plan of 
 action. In attack, the order should assign to each battalion not 
 in reserve its objective or line of advance. In defense, it should 
 assign to each its sector. In either case it should designate the 
 troops for, and the position of, the reserve and prescribe the em- 
 
SCHOOLS 101 
 
 ployment of the machine guns and mounted scouts. Both in attack 
 and defense the order may fix the front to be covered in the de- 
 ployment. Encroachment upon the proper functions of subordi- 
 nates and unnecessary details should be studiously avoided. When 
 the regiment deploys, the colonel habitually places the band at the 
 disposal of the surgeon for employment in caring for the wounded. 
 
 The regiment, when operating alone and attacking, should 
 undertake an enveloping attack if it does not result in overexten- 
 sion. Assuming a regiment of 1,500 rifles, an extension of more 
 than 1,000 yards between its extreme flanks when making an en- 
 veloping attack alone is seldom justifiable; when part of a battle 
 line, a front of 500 yards can rarely be exceeded. 
 
 In defense the front occupied when acting alone or posted on 
 or near the flank of a battle line should seldom exceed 600 yards; 
 when posted as an interior regiment, the front may be increased 
 to 800 yards. The front may be somewhat longer than in the 
 attack, since smaller battalion supports are justifiable. When 
 the regiment is operating alone, however, the regimental reserve 
 should be as strong in the defense as in the attack unless the flanks 
 are secure. 
 
 The colonel should always hold out a reserve — generally 
 one battalion; but when the regiment is operating alone, it is 
 generally advisable to hold out more at first. 
 
 Whereas the support held out in each battalion of the firing 
 line is intended to thicken the diminishing firing line at the proper 
 times and sometimes to lengthen it, the reserve held out in a 
 regiment operating alone is used for this purpose only as a last 
 resort. Its primary functions are: In attack, to protect the flanks, 
 to improve fully the advantage following a victory, or to cover 
 defeat; in defense, to prolong the firing line, to effect a counter- 
 attack, or to cover withdrawal. It is the colonel's chief means 
 of influencing an action once begun. It should be conserved to 
 await the proper moment for its employment; the combat seldom 
 comes to a successful issue without its employment in some form. 
 
 The reserve of a regiment operating as part of a large force 
 becomes a local reserve. It replaces depleted supports and in 
 attack strengthens and protects the firing line in the charge. 
 
 THE BRIGADE 
 
 The brigade does not engage in prescribed drills. It en- 
 gages in route marches and battle or other tactical exercises. 
 These are conducted pursuant to commands or orders formulated 
 to suit the conditions of the proposed movement or exercise, and, 
 in general, in accordance with the principles applicable to the 
 regiment. 
 
102 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 A brigade of about 4,000 rifles, as part of a general battle 
 line, would be deployed on a front of not more than 1,200 yards in 
 attack or 1,600 yards in defense. When acting alone the distance 
 between extreme flanks in an enveloping attack should not exceed 
 2,000 yards at the time the attacking infantry opens fire. When 
 acting alone, the front in defense should not exceed 1,600 yards. 
 These limits apply to the original deployment of the brigade for 
 combat and presuppose an enemy of equal or nearly equal training 
 and morale. The limits necessitated by the subsequent progress 
 of the combat can not be foreseen. 
 
 Units larger than the brigade are generally composed of all 
 arms. Combined tactics are considered in the Field Service Regu- 
 lations. 
 
 SCHOOL OF THE GRENADIER 
 
 This school includes exercises in throwing grenades and also 
 theoretical instruction concerning the manufacture, dismounting, 
 and manipulation of grenades. The " throwing of grenades " is 
 the basis of the instruction of the grenadier. Accuracy in throw- 
 ing is of the greatest importance, for besides the advantage it 
 gives in battle it diminishes the risk of accidents and wasting 
 of grenades. The moral effect of a grenade bursting in a trench 
 is added to its destructive effect. The grenade should never be 
 thrown scraping the ground or with the elbow bent. The fire 
 should be plunging. 
 
 The object of squad instruction is to teach any squad of 
 grenadiers (particularly the first squad of each platoon) to pre- 
 pare for grenade combat and to pass quickly to that mode of 
 fighting whenever circumstances permit and to teach the squad 
 to effect a surprise attack with grenades. As a rule, the men 
 comprising a squad of grenadiers are divided for battle and 
 classed as throwers, carriers and assistant grenadiers (formerly 
 called riflemen). 
 
 SQUAD TRAINING 
 
 The command is taught to divide itself quickly into as- 
 sistant grenadiers, throwers and carriers, and they are instructed 
 in the part that each of these should take under the different 
 circumstances of combat. 
 
 The men should always work in complete silence, commu- 
 nicating as far as possible by gestures and signals. 
 
 It is much more important to have squads of grenadiers of 
 average ability but trained to work together, than to have a num- 
 
SCHOOLS 103 
 
 ber of highly developed individuals. It is a great mistake to 
 pay attention only to the individual instruction of the grenadier 
 and to believe that the efficiency of the squad will follow naturally. 
 Nothing is more difficult than to properly coordinate the action of 
 the men in the same group, or of groups in the same combat. 
 
 TACTICAL EMPLOYMENT OF GRENADIERS 
 
 A trained grenadier can throw a grenade 35 to 45 yards with 
 an error of 2 or 3 yards at the outside. His rapidity varies, de- 
 pending upon whether he is using the metal fuse, which needs 
 only a blow before it is thrown, or the automatic fuse, which has 
 a protective covering to be removed. Under the most favorable 
 conditions he can throw about 10 grenades per minute. The use 
 of the O. F. (offensive fusante) grenade is becoming the rule in 
 attacks over open ground. The F. 1 grenade is a trench grenade 
 and is dangerous for men not protected by shelters of some kind 
 within a radius of 165 yards. The O. F. grenade is frequently 
 preferred to it, as it is quite effective and twice as many can be 
 carried by the same number of men. 
 
 Rifle grenades can be fired to a distance of from 35 to 220 
 yards; but they can not be handled as rapidly as the hand gre- 
 nades, and their tactical employment is therefore different. 
 
 ORGANIZATION 
 
 Hand Grenades and the Grenadier's Equipment. — The first 
 squad of each platoon includes 1 grenadier corporal and 7 grena- 
 diers. It may fight as a unit (1 corporal, 2 throwers, 2 car- 
 riers, 2 assistant grenadiers, and 1 connecting file) or in two 
 groups (1 leader,, 1 thrower, 1 carrier, and 1 assistant). All mem- 
 bers of the squad should be trained in throwing grenades. In 
 each battalion one officer, detailed from one of the companies, 
 has charge of the instruction and training of the grenade squads; 
 he should be prepared, if necessary, to take command of all of the 
 grenade squads of the battalion and handle them in action as a 
 unit. The squads are assembled for instruction or combat at the 
 order of the company or battalion commander; otherwise the 
 grenadiers remain with their platoons. 
 
 The equipment of the grenadier includes the rifle and 
 bayonet, the trench knife, and the automatic pistol. The throwers 
 are not always required to carry their rifles when the attack is not 
 to be followed up, for example, in a trench raid. With this excep- 
 tion, the tendency of grenadiers to get rid of their rifles and to 
 
104 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 lay them aside during a combat must be firmly opposed. The 
 grenadier should take a pride in his specialty, in the fact that he 
 is an advance guard soldier, and in the effecitve work which 
 he can accomplish in cases where the rifle fails. But he should 
 understand also that a grenadier who is out of grenades must not 
 think that his work is done; he must fight with his rifle until 
 more grenades come up. Attacks with limited objectives do not 
 give an idea of what the supply of grenades will be during an ad- 
 vance of several miles or of several days' marches. It would be 
 a mistake not to foresee that there will be a shortage in the 
 supply for several days in succession and to separate the grenadier 
 from his rifle at a time when the attack should be pushed to the 
 utmost, with or without the grenades. 
 
 Grenade squads are furnished a number of baskets for 
 carrying grenades or are equipped with belts for carrying them. 
 A grenadier can carry, in addition to 6 boxes of cartridges,, 10 F. 1 
 grenades or 20 O. F. grenades. 
 
 Rifle Grenades. — Grenadiers should be trained in the use of 
 rifle grenades. V. B. (Viven Bessieres) grenade tubes are issued 
 to two men of everv infantry squad. They are carried on the 
 belt in a leather case. V. B. grenades are carried by these two 
 men and by one carrier for each two firers. They have the ad- 
 vantage of being a very small encumbrance. The supply of 
 grenades, relatively easy in the defense of a position, will be 
 hard to keep up on the offensive, until the approach trenches 
 have been constructed. The men equipped with the grenade 
 tubes and their carriers must, on this account, be furnished at 
 the outset with as many grenades as they can carry. 
 
 TACTICAL EMPLOYMENT OF HAND GRENADES 
 
 Grenade fighting may have for its object: 1. The defense of 
 a trench in close-range trench fighting. 2. Taking possession, step 
 by step, of a trench or an approach occupied by the enemy. 3. 
 Preparation for an assault on a hostile trench. 4. Close-range 
 righting within a hostile position and "mopping up" the trenches 
 and bomb proofs. 5. A trench raid. 
 
 In the Defense of a Trench. — Some positions for grenadiers 
 and for accumulations of grenadiers should be provided for in 
 advance in arranging the defensive sectors of the company and 
 the battalion. Grenadiers are distributed in groups along the 
 line; the number is increased on exposed fronts (in salients and 
 parts which are very near the enemy's trenches). It is better, 
 in the latter case, to double these portions of the trench by other 
 lines very close to the first, so as to form substantially two 
 ranks of grenadiers in these places. 
 
SCHOOLS 105 
 
 All soldiers who have had any training in this work should 
 be able to take part in forming a barrier with grenade fire at a 
 distance of 30 yards; this can be done by one grenadier to 12 
 yards of front using O. F. grenades, and by one grenadier to 3(X 
 yards of front using F. 1 grenades. In order to avoid continual 
 losses in places where the hostile trenches are very close to our 
 own, a decided superiority should be seized in the throwing o£ 
 grenades and the hostile trenches rendered untenable. 
 
 "Some grenadiers' positions and grenade depots should be pro- 
 vided in the covering trench, at the entrance of the approaches, 
 at the angles of long communicating trenches and in the cave 
 shelters, in order to cover exit from them when the trench 19 
 invaded by the enemy, and also behind barricades. The differ- 
 ent squads should be trained to make counter-attacks with gre- 
 nades quickly, and retake any part of the trench which may have 
 been taken by the enemy. 
 
 Step-by-Step Progress in a Trench or in a Communicating 
 Trench. — In the dispositions taken in the communication trenches 
 bunching up is always to be avoided. Only the minimum of men 
 actually needed for the work should be exposed to the enemy's 
 grenades, and they should not be so crowded as to prevent free 
 movement. This form of fighting is very severe and frequent 
 reliefs should be provided for; and the squad leader should be 
 able to replace immediately an injured man, and to reinforce, if 
 necessary, the leading group by fresh riflemen or throwers. 
 
 A profound silence should be maintained, so that all sounds 
 coming from the direction of the enemy, and which might serve 
 as an indication as to what he is doing, can be heard; commu- 
 nications should therefore be, as far as possible, by gestures and 
 signals. 
 
 The throwers are constantly kept supplied by the carriers. 
 They keep up their grenade throwing continuously; one throw- 
 ing at the nearest group of the enemy, the other throwing as far 
 as he can to the enemy's rear to block his supply of grenades, 
 Barriers of sandbags are torn to pieces as much as possible by 
 explosive charges. When the leading group has reason to be- 
 lieve that the enemy has been overwhelmed (by a slackening or 
 discontinuance of his grenade throwing or by significant sounds) 
 the grenade thrower's assistant should creep under cover of the 
 smoke to a point from which he can see into the next angle of the 
 trench and signal to his comrades; and progress is made in this 
 manner from one angle of the trench to another or from one trav- 
 erse to the next. 
 
 When the assistant perceives the entrance of a lateral trench 
 he makes a signal to the throwers. Grenades are thrown into it, 
 and it is then reconnoitered in order to avoid surprises. If 
 
106 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 ground is not to be gained in the new direction, a barrier of sand- 
 bags is constructed far enough from the main trench to be out 
 of the range of grenades and a guard placed upon it. A squad is 
 specially detailed to fill sandbags so that barriers can be put up 
 without delay. 
 
 It is a good plan to make use of rifle grenades or trench 
 mortars of low power to block the enemy's supply of grenades. 
 
 If the enemy gains a momentary superiority, his advance 
 should be contested step by step until the superiority can be 
 wrested from him. For this purpose the number of sandbag bar- 
 riers should be multiplied to retard his progress, the trench should 
 be obstructed by heaps of sandbags,, or should be blown up so as 
 to compel the enemy to show himself in the open before our 
 rifles. 
 
 The enemy may be drawn to a point where we are able to get 
 into action a greater number of grenadiers than he possesses. 
 The cries of wounded men may be simulated to draw the enemy 
 under rifle fire and surprise him. 
 
 Preparation for a Grenade Assault on a Hostile Trench. — An 
 assault is usually a combined action executed under cover of at 
 powerful artillery fire. But sometimes a part of our line comes 
 very close to the enemy and artillery preparation can not be 
 made. An attempt is then made to overwhelm the enemy with 
 grenades before rushing on him with the bayonet. 
 
 The throwers approach the enemy, taking advantage of all 
 cover afforded by the ground; the remainder of the squad awaits 
 under cover the moment for making the rush. The throwers 
 overwhelm the enemy with a shower of well-directed grenades 
 and compel him either to vacate the trench or to take cover in 
 his bombproof s; the assault is then made. 
 
 Close Fighting in the Enemy's Position and Mopping Up 
 Trenches. — An assault is followed by a struggle within the hostile 
 position. Preparations may be made in advance for this struggle 
 by a reconnaissance of the enemy's defensive organization. Cer- 
 tain groups of grenadiers can then be assigned to definite tasks; 
 for instance, mopping up the trenches and bombproofs, or gain- 
 ing ground through the communicating trenches toward the 
 enemy's second or third line. The units which are assigned these 
 tasks are required to rehearse them before making the attack. 
 
 Mopping up trenches requires two kinds of work which are 
 quite distinct and which should not be assigned to the same 
 units: (a) The crushing of hostile units which continue the re- 
 sistances at certain parts of the trench, and (b) the mopping up 
 proper; that is to say, searching the trenches and bombproofs 
 with a view to making sure that none of the enemy is left in 
 them. 
 
SCHOOLS 107 
 
 The units which overcome the final resistance of the enemy 
 are composed for the most part, if not exclusively, of grenadiers. 
 They advance with the first or second wave; they are continually 
 on the alert and seek out the points of resistance, skirting the 
 trenches in order to approach them on their weakest side. 
 
 The units charged only with mopping up the trenches have a 
 definite task; they skirt the trenches and approaches rapidly and 
 arrange their work in such a way that no part of the hostile 
 position shall be neglected. In order to lose no time the moppers 
 up do not go down into the trenches and approaches; they shower 
 grenades along their route and they give especial attention to 
 bombproofs whose openings may have been covered up by the 
 artillery bombardment so completely as to hide them. 
 
 Trench Raids. — Grenades are freely used in trench raids. 
 These are executed (a) by small groups of selected men, who have 
 confidence in one another and are specially trained in handling 
 grenades, or (b) by a selected unit, sometimes reinforced by addi- 
 tional officers or non-commissioned officers, leaving the unreliable 
 element behind. 
 
 The object of trench raids may be to throw grenades into 
 an occupied portion of a hostile trench, to attack the head of a 
 sap, to seize and hold an excavation, or to capture an outpost or 
 small trench in order to obtain prisoners. The success of opera- 
 tions of this kind depends chiefly upon the preparations which: 
 have been made beforehand in the way of careful reconnaissances 
 and by rehearsing in rear all phases of the operation under con- 
 ditions as nearly like the real ones as possible. 
 
 Meticulous care should be exercised in preparing for trench 
 raids and the officers who command them should personally direct 
 the units performing the main tasks. Subordinates should be 
 specially detailed to supervise the replenishment of grenades. 
 
 The troops making the trench raid approach the hostile 
 trench silently: if preparation has been made by artillery fire the 
 approach should be rapid. When they reach the points selected 
 for crossing the obstacles (which are supposed to have been de- 
 stroyed) a volley of grenades is thrown into the hostile trench; as 
 soon as they burst the grenadiers rush the trench. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 CEREMONIES, INSPECTIONS, HONORS AND 
 COURTESIES 
 
 When forming for ceremonies the companies of the battalion 
 and the battalions of the regiment are posted from right to left in 
 line and from head to rear in column, in the order of rank of their 
 respective commanders present in the formation, the senior on the 
 right or at the head. The commander faces the command; subordi- 
 nate commanders face to the front. 
 
 At the command present arms, given by the colonel, the lieu- 
 tenant colonel, and the colonel's staff salute; the major's staff sa- 
 lute at the major's command. Each staff returns to the carry or 
 order when the command order arms is given by its chief. 
 
 At the assembly for a ceremony companies are formed on 
 their own parades and informally inspected. At adjutant's call, 
 except for ceremonies involving a single battalion, each battalion 
 is formed on its own parade, reports are received, and the battalion 
 presentd to the major. At the second sounding of adjutant's call! 
 the regiment is formed. 
 
 REVIEWS 
 
 The adjutant posts men or otherwise marks the points where | 
 the column changes direction in such manner that its flank in pass- 
 ing will be about 12 paces from the reviewing officer. The post 
 of the reviewing officer, usually opopsite the center of the line, is 
 indicated by a marker. Officers of the same or higher grade, and 
 distinguished personages invited to accompany the reviewing offi- 
 cer, place themselves on his left; their staffs and orderlies place 
 themselves respectively on the left of the staff and orderlies of the 
 reviewing officer; all others who accompany the reviewing officer 
 place themselves on the left of his staff, their orderlies in rear. A 
 staff officer is designated to escort distinguished personages and 
 to indicate to them their proper positions. 
 
 While riding around the troops, the reviewing officer may 
 direct his staff, flag and orderlies to remain at the post of the re- 
 
CEREMONIES, INSPECTIONS, HONORS, CO URTESIES 109 
 
 viewing officer, or that only his personal staff and flag shall accom- 
 pany him; in either case the commanding officer alone accompanies 
 the reviewing officer. If the reviewing officer is accompanied by 
 his entire staff, the staff officers of the commander place them- 
 selves on the right of the staff of the reviewing officer. The re- 
 viewing officer and others at the reviewing stand salute the color 
 as it passes; when passing around the troops, the reviewing officer 
 and those accompanying him salute the color when passing in 
 front of it. The reviewing officer returns the salute of the com- 
 manding officer of the troops only. Those who accompany the re- 
 viewing officer do not salute. In passing in review, each staff sa- 
 lutes with its commander. 
 
 After saluting the reviewing officer, the commanding officer 
 of the troops turns out of the column, takes post on the right of 
 the reviewing officer, and returns saber; the members of his staff 
 accompanying him take post on the right of the reviewing officer's 
 staff and return saber. When the rear element of his command has 
 passed, without changing his position, the commanding officer of 
 the troops salutes the reviewing officer; he and the members of 
 his staff accompanying him then draw saber and rejoin his com- 
 mand. The com-manding officer of the troops and the members of 
 his staff are the only ones who turn out of the column. 
 
 If the person reviewing the command is not mounted, the 
 commanding officer and his staff on turning out of the column 
 after passing the reviewing officer dismount preparatory to taking 
 post. In such case, the salute of the commanding officer, prior 
 to rejoining his command, is made with the hand before remount- 
 ing. 
 
 When the rank of the reviewing officer entitles him to the 
 honor, each regimental color salutes at the command present arms, 
 given or repeated by the major of the battalion with which it is 
 posted; and again in passing in review. 
 
 The band of an organization plays while the reviewing offi- 
 cer is passing in front of and in rear of the organization. Each 
 band, immediately after passing the reviewing officer, turns out of 
 the column, takes post in front of and facing him, continues to play 
 until its regiment has passed, then ceases playing and follows in 
 rear of its regiment; the band of the following regiment com- 
 mences to play as soon as the preceding band has ceased. While 
 marching in review but one band in each brigade plays at a time, 
 and but one band at a time when within 100 paces of the reviewing 
 iofficer. 
 
 If the rank of the reviewing officer entitles him to the honor, 
 ithe band plays the prescribed national air or the field music 
 sounds to the color, march, flourishes, or ruffles when arms are 
 presented. When passing in review at the moment the regimental 
 
110 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 color salutes, the musicians halted in front of the reviewing offi- 
 cer, sound to the color, march, flourishes, or ruffles. 
 
 The formation for review may be modified to suit the ground, 
 and the present arms and the ride around the line by the reviewing 
 officer may be dispensed with. 
 
 If the post of the reviewing officer is on the left of the col- 
 umn, the troops march in review with the guide left; the command- 
 ing officer and his staff turn out of the column to the left, taking 
 post as prescribed above, but to the left of the reviewing officer; 
 in saluting, the captains give the command: 1. Eyes, 2. LEFT. 
 
 Except in the review of a single battalion, the troops pass 
 in review in quick time only. 
 
 In reviews of brigades or larger commands, each battalion, 
 after the rear has passed the reviewing officer 50 paces, takes the 
 double time for 100 yards in order not to interfere with the march 
 of the column in rear; if necessary, it then turns out of the column 
 and returns to camp by the most practicable route; the leading 
 battalion of each regiment is followed by the other units of the 
 regiment. 
 
 In a brigade or larger review a regimental commander may 
 cause his regiment to stand at ease, rest, or stack arms and fall 
 out and resume attention, so as not to interfere with the ceremony. 
 
 When an organization is to be reviewed before an inspector 
 junior in rank to the commanding officer, the commanding officer 
 receives the review and is accompanied by the inspector, who takes 
 post on his left. 
 
 BATTALION REVIEW 
 
 The battalion having been formed in line the major faces 
 to the front; the reviewing officer moves a few paces toward the 
 major and halts; the major turns about and commands: 1. Present, 
 2. ARMS, and again turns about and salutes. 
 
 The reviewing officer returns the salute; the major turns 
 about, brings the battalion to order arms, and again turns to the 
 front. 
 
 The reviewing officer approaches to about 6 paces from the 
 major, the latter salutes, takes post on his right, and accompanies 
 him around the battalion. The band plays. The reviewing officer 
 proceeds to the right of the band, passes in front of the captains 
 to the left of the line and returns to the right, passing in rear of 
 the file closers and the band. 
 
 On arriving again at the right of the line, the major salutes, 
 halts, and when the reviewing officer and staff have passed moves 
 directly to his post in front of the battalion, faces it, and com- 
 mands: 1. Pass in review, 2. Squads right, 3. MARCH. 
 
CEREMONIES, INSPECTIONS, HONORS, CO URTESIES 1 1 1 
 
 At the first command the band changes direction if neces- 
 sary, and halts. 
 
 At the third command, given when the band has changed di- 
 rection, the battalion moves off, the band playing; without com- 
 mand from the major the column changes, direction at the points 
 indicated, and column of companies at full distance is formed suc- 
 cessively to the left at the second change of direction; the major 
 takes his post 30 paces in front of the band immediately after the 
 second change; the band having passed the reviewing officer, turns 
 to the left out of the column, takes post in front of and facing the 
 reviewing officer, and remains there until the review terminates. 
 
 The major and staff salute, turn the head as in eyes right, 
 and look toward the reviewing officer when the major is 6 paces 
 from him; they return to the carry and turn the head and eyes 
 to the front when the major has passed 6 paces beyond him. 
 
 Without facing about, each captain or special unit com- 
 mander, except the drum major, commands: 1. Eyes, in time to 
 add 2, RIGHT, when at 6 paces from the reviewing officer, and 
 commands FRONT when at 6 paces beyond him. At the com- 
 mand eyes the company officers armed with the saber execute the 
 first motion of present saber; at the command right all turn head 
 and eyes to the right, the company officers complete present saber 
 and the non-commissioned officers armed with the saber execute 
 the first motion of present saber; at the command front all turn 
 head and eyes to the front, and officers and non-commissioned of- 
 ficers armed with the saber resume the carry saber; without arms 
 in hand the first motion of the hand salute is made at the com- 
 mand right and the second motion at the command front. 
 
 Non-commissioned staff officers, non-commissioned officers 
 in command of subdivisions, and the drum major salute, turn the 
 head and eyes, return to the front, resume the carry or drop the 
 hand, at the points prescribed for the major. Officers and dis- 
 mounted non-commissioned officers in command of subdivisions 
 with arms in hand render the rifle or saber salute. Guides charged 
 with the step, trace, and direction do not execute eyes right. 
 
 If the reviewing officer is entitled to a salute from the color 
 the regimental color salutes when at 6 paces from him, and is 
 raised when at 6 paces beyond him. 
 
 The major, having saluted, takes post on the right of the 
 reviewing officer, returns saber and remains there until the rear 
 of the battalion has passed, then salutes, draws saber, and rejoins 
 his battalion. The band ceases to play when the column has com- 
 pleted its second change of direction after passing the reviewing 
 officer. 
 
 When the battalion arrives at its original position in column, 
 the major commands: 1. Double time, 2. MARCH. 
 
112 . MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 The band plays in double time. The battalion passes in re- 
 view as before, except that in double time the command eyes right 
 is omitted and there is no saluting except by the major when he 
 leaves the reviewing officer. 
 
 The review terminates when the rear company has passed 
 the reviewing officer; the band then ceases to play, and, unless 
 otherwise directed by the major, returns to the position it occu- 
 pied before marching in review, or is dismissed; the major rejoins 
 the battalion and brings it to quick time. The battalion then exe- 
 cutes such movements as the reviewing officer may have directed, 
 or is marched to its parade ground and dismissed. 
 
 Marching past in double time may, in the discretion of the 
 reviewing officer, be omitted; the review terminates when the 
 major rejoins his battalion. 
 
 At battalion review the major and his staff may be dis- 
 mounted in the discretion of the commanding officer. 
 
 REGIMENTAL REVIEW 
 
 The regiment is formed in line or in line of masses. In 
 line the review proceeds as in the battalion, substituting "colonel" 
 for " major " and " regiment " for " battalion." 
 
 To march the regiment in review, the colonel commands: 
 PASS IN REVIEW. The band changes direction, if necessary, 
 and halts. Each major then commands: 1. Squads right, 2. 
 MARCH. 
 
 The band marches at the command of the major of the lead- 
 ing battalion. 
 
 At the second change of direction each major takes post 20 
 paces in front of his leading company. 
 
 The rear of the column having passed the reviewing officer, 
 the battalions, unless otherwise directed, are marched to their 
 parades and dismissed. 
 
 In line of masses, when the reviewing officer has passed 
 around the regiment, the colonel commands: PASS IN REVIEW. 
 The band changes direction, if necessary, and halts. The major 
 of the right battalion then commands: 1. Column of squads, first 
 company, squads right, 2. MARCH. At the command march the 
 band and the leading company of the right battalion move off. 
 Each company and battalion in rear moves off in time to follow 
 at its proper distance. 
 
 The review of a small body of troops composed of different 
 arms is conducted on the principles laid down for the regiment. 
 The troops of each arm are formed and marched according to the 
 drill regulations for that arm. 
 
CEREMONIES, INSPECTIONS, HONORS, CO URTESIES 113 
 REVIEW OF LARGE COMMANDS 
 
 A command consisting of one regiment, or less, and detach- 
 ments of other arms is formed for review as ordered by the com- 
 manding officer. The principles of regimental review will be ob- 
 served whenever practicable. 
 
 In the review of a brigade or larger command the present 
 arms and the right around the line by the reviewing officer are 
 omitted. The troops form and march in the order prescribed by 
 the commanding officer. 
 
 PARADES. 
 
 When dismounted the officer receiving the parade, and his 
 staff, stand at parade rest, with arms folded, while the band is 
 sounding off; they resume attention with the adjutant. If mounted, 
 they remain at attention. 
 
 At the command report, given by a battalion adjutant, the 
 captains in succession from the right salute and report: A (or 
 other) company, present or accounted for; or, A (or other) com- 
 pany, (so many) officers or enlisted men absent, and resume the 
 order saber; at the same command given by the regimental 
 adjutant, the majors similarly report their battalions. 
 
 BATTALION PARADE. 
 
 At adjutant's call the battalion is formed in line but not 
 presented. Lieutenants take their posts in front of the center of 
 their respective platoons at the captain's command for dressing his 
 company on the line. The major takes post at a convenient dis- 
 tance in front of the center and facing the battalion. 
 
 The adjutant, from his post in front of the center of the 
 battalion, after commanding: 1. Guides, 2. Posts, adds: 1. Parade, 
 2. REST; the battalion executes parade rest. The adjutant directs 
 the band: SOUND OFF. 
 
 The band, playing in quick time, passes in front of the line of 
 officers to the left of the line and back to its post on the right, 
 when it ceases playing. At evening parade, when the band ceases 
 playing, retreat is sounded by the field music and, following the last 
 note and while the flag is being lowered, the band plays the Star 
 Spangled Banner. 
 
 Just before the last note of retreat, the adjutant comes to 
 attention and, as the last note ends, commands 1. Battalion, 2. 
 ATTENTION. When the band ceases playing he commands 
 1. Present, 2 ARMS. He then turns about and reports Sir, the 
 
114 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 parade is formed. The major directs the adjutant: Take your post, 
 Sir. The adjutant moves at a trot (if dismounted, in quick time), 
 passes by the major's right, and takes his post. 
 
 The major draws saber and commands: 1. Order, 2. ARMS, 
 and adds such exercises in the manual of arms as he may desire. 
 Officers, non-commissioned officers commanding companies or 
 armed with the saber, and the color guard, having once executed 
 order arms, remain in that position during the exercises in the 
 manual. 
 
 The major then directs the adjutant: Receive the reports, 
 Sir. The adjutant, passing by the major's right,, advances at a 
 trot (if dismounted, in quick time) toward the center of the line, 
 halts midway between it and the major, and commands: REPORT. 
 
 The reports received, the adjutant turns about and reports: 
 Sir, all are present or accounted for; or Sir, (so many) officers or 
 enlisted men are absent, including in the list of absentees those 
 from the band and field music reported to him by the drum major 
 prior to the parade. 
 
 The major directs: Publish the orders, Sir. 
 
 The adjutant turns about and commands: Attention to or- 
 ders; he' then reads the orders, and commands: 1. Officers, 2. 
 CENTER, 3. MARCH. 
 
 At the command center, the company officers carry saber 
 and face to the center. At the command march they close to the 
 center and face to the front; the adjutant turns about and takes 
 his post. 
 
 The officers having closed and faced to the front, the senior 
 commands: 1. Forward, 2. MARCH. The officers advance, the 
 band playing; the left officer of the center or right center com- 
 pany is the guide, and marches on the major; the officers are 
 halted at 6 paces from the major by the senior who commands: 
 1. Officers, 2. HALT. They halt and salute, returning to the 
 carry saber with the major. The major then gives such instruc- 
 tions as he deems necessary, and commands; 1. Officers, 2. 
 POSTS, 3. MARCH. 
 
 At the command posts, company officers face about. 
 
 At the command march, they step off with guide as before, 
 and the senior commands 1. Officers, 2. HALT, so as to halt 
 3 paces from the line; he then adds 1. POSTS, 2. MARCH. 
 
 At the command posts, officers face outward and, at the 
 command march, step off in succession at 4 paces distance, resume 
 their posts and order saber; the lieutenants march directly to 
 their posts in rear of their companies. 
 
 The music ceases when all officers have resumed their posts. 
 
 The major then commands: 1. Pass in review, 2. Squads 
 right, 3. MARCH, and returns saber. 
 
CEREMONIES, INSPECTIONS ,HONORS, COURTESIES 115 
 
 The battalion marches according to the principles of review; 
 when the last company has passed, the ceremony is concluded. 
 
 The band continues to play while the companies are in march 
 upon the parade ground. Companies are formed in column of 
 squads, without halting, and are marched to their respective parades 
 by their captains. 
 
 When the company officers have saluted the major,, he 
 may direct them to form line with the staff, in which case they 
 individually move to the front, passing to the right and left of the 
 major and staff, halt on the line established by the staff, face 
 about, and stand at attention. The music ceases when the officers 
 join the staff. The major causes the companies to pass in review 
 under the command of their first sergeants by the same commands 
 as before. The company officers return saber with the major 
 and remain at attention. 
 
 REGIMENTAL PARADE. 
 
 The regiment is formed in line or in line of masses; the for- 
 mation having proceeded up to, but not including the present, the 
 parade proceeds as described for the battalion, with the following 
 exceptions: 
 
 "Colonel" is substituted for "major," "regiment" for "bat- 
 talion," in the description, and "battalions" for "battalion" in the 
 commands. 
 
 Lieutenants remain in the line of file closers. 
 
 After publishing the orders, the adjutant commands: 1. 
 Officers, center, 2. MARCH. 
 
 The company commanders remain at their posts with their 
 companies. 
 
 The field and staff officers form one line, closing on the 
 center. The senior commands: 1. Forward, 2. MARCH. 
 
 The second major is the guide and marches on the colonel. 
 
 After being dismissed by the colonel, each major moves 
 individually to the front, turns outward, and followed by his staff 
 resumes his post by the most direct line. The colonel directs the 
 lieutenant colonel to march the regiment in review; the latter 
 moves to a point midway between the colonel and the regiment 
 and marches the regiment in review as prescribed. If the lieu- 
 tenant colonel is not present the colonel gives the necessary com- 
 mands for marching the regiment in review. 
 
 ESCORT OF THE COLOR 
 
 The regiment being in line, the colonel details a company 
 other than the color company, to receive and escort the national 
 
116 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 color to its place in line. During the ceremony the regimental 
 color remains with the color guard at its post with the regiment. 
 
 The band moves straight to its front until clear of the line 
 of field officers, changes direction to the right, and is halted; the 
 designated company forms column of platoons in rear of the 
 band, the color bearer or bearers between the platoons. 
 
 The escort then marches without music to the colonel's office 
 or quarters and is formed in line facing the entrance, the band on 
 the right, the color bearer in the line of file closers. 
 
 The color bearer, preceded by the first lieutenant and 
 followed by a sergeant of the escort, then goes to obtain the color. 
 
 When the color bearer comes out, followed by the lieutenant 
 and sergeant, he halts before the entrance, facing the escort; the 
 lieutenant places himself on the right, the sergeant on the left of 
 the color bearer; the escort presents arms, and the field music 
 sounds to the color; the first lieutenant and sergeant salute. 
 
 Arms are brought to the order; the lieutenant and sergeant 
 return to their posts; the company is formed in column of platoons, 
 the band taking post in front of the column; the color bearer 
 places himself between the platoons; the escort marches in quick 
 time, with guide left, back to the regiment, the band playing; the 
 march is so conducted that, when the escort arrives at 50 paces 
 in front of the right of the regiment, the direction of the march 
 shall be parallel to its front; when the color arrives opposite its 
 place in line, the escort is formed in line to the left; the color 
 bearer, passing between the platoons, advances and halts 12 paces 
 in front of the colonel. 
 
 The color bearer having halted, the colonel, who has taken 
 post 30 paces in front of the center of his regiment, faces about, 
 commands: 1. Present, 2. ARMS, resumes his front, and salutes; 
 the field music sounds to the color; and the regimental color 
 bearer executes the color salute at tthe command present arms. 
 
 The colonel then faces about, brings the regiment to the 
 order, at which the color bearer takes his post with the color com- 
 pany. 
 
 The escort presents arms and comes to the order with the 
 regiment, at the command of the colonel, after which the captain 
 forms it again in column of platoons, and, preceded by the band, 
 marches it to its place in line, passing around the left flank of the 
 regiment. 
 
 The band plays until the escort passes the left of the line, 
 when it ceases playing and returns to its post on the right, passing 
 in rear of the regiment. 
 
 The regiment may be brought to a rest when the escort 
 passes the left of the line. 
 
CEREMONIES, INSPECTIONS, HONORS, COURTESIES 117 
 
 Escort of the color is executed by a battalion according to 
 the same principles. 
 
 ESCORTS OF HONOR 
 
 Escorts of honor are detailed for the purpose of receiving 
 and escorting personages of high rank, civil or military. The 
 troops for this purpose are selected for their soldierly appearance 
 and superior discipline. 
 
 The escort forms in line, opposite the place where the 
 personage presents himself, the band on the flank of the escort 
 toward which it will march. On the appearance of the personage, 
 he is received with the honors due to his rank. The escort is 
 formed into column of companies, platoons or squads, and takes 
 up the march, the personage and his staff or retinue taking 
 positions in rear of the column; when he leaves the escort, line is 
 formed and the same honors are paid as before. 
 
 When the position of the escort is at a considerable distance 
 from the point where tthe personage is to be received, as for in- 
 stance, where a courtyard or wharf intervenes, a double line of 
 sentinels is posted from that point to the escort, facing inward; 
 the sentinels successively salute as he passes and are then relieved 
 and join the escort. 
 
 An officer is appointed to attend him and bear such com- 
 munication as he may have to make to the commander of the 
 escort. 
 
 FUNERAL ESCORT 
 
 The composition and strength of the escort are prescribed 
 in Army Regulations. 
 
 The escort is formed opposite the quarters of the deceased; 
 the band on that flank of the escort toward which it is to march. 
 
 Upon the appearance of the coffin, the commander com- 
 mands: 1. Present, 2. ARMS, and the band plays an appropriate 
 air; arms are then brought to the order. 
 
 The escort is next formed into column of companies, 
 platoons, or squads. If the escort be small, it may be marched in 
 line. The procession is formed in the following order: 1. Music, 
 2. Escort, 3. Clergy, 4. Coffin and pallbearers, 5. Mourners, 6. Mem- 
 bers of the former command of the deceased, 7. Other officers and 
 enlisted men, 8. Distinguished persons, 9. Delegations, 10. Societies, 
 11. Civilians. Officers and enlisted men, with side arms, are in 
 the order of rank, seniors in front. 
 
 The procession being formed, the commander of the escort 
 puts it in march. 
 
118 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 The escort marches slowly to solemn music; the column 
 having arrived opposite the grave, line is formed facing it. 
 
 The coffin is then carried along the front of the escort to 
 the g'rave; arms are presented, the music plays an appropriate air; 
 the coffin having been placed over the grave, the music ceases 
 and arms are brought to the order. 
 
 The commander next commands: 1. Parade, 2. REST. The 
 escort executes parade rest, officers and men inclining the head. 
 
 When the funeral services are completed and the coffin 
 lowered into the grave the commander causes the escort to resume 
 attention and fire three rounds of blank cartridges, the muzzles of 
 the pieces being elevated. When the escort is greater than a 
 battalion, one battalion is designated to fire the volleys. A mu- 
 sician then sounds taps. 
 
 The escort is then formed into column, marched in quick 
 time to the point where is was assembled, and dismissed. The 
 band does not play until it has left the inclosure. 
 
 When the distance to the place of, internment is con- 
 siderable, the escort, after having left the camp or garrison, may 
 march at ease in quick time until it approaches the burial ground, 
 when it is brought to attention. The music does not play while 
 marching at ease. 
 
 In marching at attention, the field music may alternate with 
 the band in playing. 
 
 When arms are presented at the funeral of a person entitled 
 to any of the following honors, the band plays the prescribed 
 national air, or the field music sounds to the color, march, flour- 
 ishes, or ruffles, according to the rank of the deceased, after which 
 the band plays an appropriate air. The commander of the escort, 
 in forming column, gives the appropriate commands for the 
 different arms. 
 
 At the funeral of a mounted officer or enlisted man, his 
 horse, in mourning caparison, follows the hearse. 
 
 Should the entrance of the cemetery prevent the hearse ac- 
 companying the escort till the latter halts at the grave, the column 
 is halted at the entrance long enough to take the coffin from the 
 hearse, when the column is again put in march. The cavalry and 
 artillery, when unable to enter the inclosure, turn out of the column, 
 face the column, and salute the remains as they pass. 
 
 When necessary to escort the remains from the quarters of 
 the deceased to the church before the funeral service, arms are 
 presented upon receiving the remains at the quarters and also as 
 they are borne into the church. 
 
 The commander of the escort, previous to the funeral, gives 
 the clergyman and pallbearers all needful directions. 
 
CEREMONIES, INSPECTIONS, HONORS, CO URTESIES 1 19 
 COMPANY INSPECTION 
 
 Being in line at a halt: 1. Open ranks, 2. MARCH. 
 
 At the command march the front rank executes right dress; 
 the rear rank and the file closers march backward 4 steps, halt 
 and execute right dress; the lieutenants pass around their respec- 
 tive flanks and take post facing to the front, 3 paces in front of 
 the center of their respective platoons. The captain aligns the 
 front rank, rear rank, and file closers, takes post 3 paces in front 
 of the right guide, facing to the left, and commands: 1. FRONT, 
 2. PREPARE FOR INSPECTION. 
 
 At the second command the lieutenants carry saber; the 
 captain returns saber and inspects them, after which they face 
 about, order saber, and stand at ease; upon the completion of the 
 inspection they carry saber, face about and order saber. The 
 captain may direct the lieutenants to accompany or assist him, in 
 which case they return saber and, at the close of the inspection 
 resume their posts in front of the company, draw and carry saber. 
 
 Having inspected the lieutenants, the captain proceeds to the 
 right of the company. Each man, as the captain approaches him, 
 executes inspection arms. 
 
 The captain takes the piece grasping it with his right hand 
 just above the rear sight, the man dropping his hands. The captain 
 inspects the piece, and, with the hand and piece in the same posi- 
 tion as in receiving it, hands it back to the man, who takes it with 
 the left hand at the balance and executes order arms. 
 
 As the captain returns the piece the next man executes in- 
 spection arms, and so on through the company. 
 
 Should the piece be inspected without handling, each man 
 executes order arms as soon as the captain passes to the next man. 
 
 The inspection is from right to left in front, and from left 
 to right in rear, of each rank and of the line of file closers. 
 
 When approached by the captain the first sergeant executes 
 inspection saber. Enlisted men armed with the pistol execute in- 
 spection pistol by drawing the pistol from the holster and holding 
 it diagonally across the body, barrel up, and 6 inches in front of 
 the neck, muzzle pointing up and to the left. The pistol is returned 
 to the holster as soon as the captain passes. 
 
 Upon completion of the inspection the captain takes post 
 facing to the left in front of the right guide and on line with the 
 lieutenants and commands: 1. Close ranks, 2. MARCH. 
 
 At the command march the lieutenants resume their posts in 
 line; the rear rank closes to 40 inches, each man covering his file 
 leader; the file closers close to 2 paces from the rear rank. 
 
 If the company is dismissed, the rifles are put away. In 
 quarters, headdress and accouterments are removed and the men 
 
120 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 stand near their respective bunks; in camp they stand covered, but 
 without accouterments, in front of their tents. 
 
 If the personal field equipment has not been inspected in 
 ranks and its inspection in quarters or camp is ordered, each man 
 arranges the prescribed articles on his bunk, if in quarters or 
 permanent camp, or in front of his half of the tent, if in shelter 
 tent camp. 
 
 The captain, accompanied by the lieutenants, then inspects 
 the quarters or camp. The first sergeant precedes the captain and 
 calls the men to attention on entering each squad room or on ap- 
 proaching the tents; the men stand at attention but do not salute. 
 
 If the inspection is to include an examination of the equip- 
 ment while in ranks, the captain, after closing ranks, causes the 
 company to stack arms, to march backward until 4 paces in rear 
 of the stacks and to take intervals. He then commands: 1. UN- 
 SLING EQUIPMENT, 2. OPEN PACKS. 
 
 At the first command, each man unslings his equipment and 
 places it on the ground at his feet, haversack to the front end of 
 the pack 1 foot in front of toes. 
 
 At the 'second command, pack carriers are unstrapped, packs 
 removed and unrolled, the longer edge of the pack along the lower 
 edge of the cartridge belt. Each man exposes shelter tent pins, 
 removes meat can, knife, fork and spoon from the meat-can pouch 
 and places them on the right of the haversack, knife, fork and 
 spoon in the open meat can; removes the canteen and cup from 
 the cover and places them on the left side of the haversack; un- 
 straps and spreads out haversack so as to expose its contents; folds 
 up the carrier to uncover the cartridge pockets; opens same; 
 unrolls toilet articles and places them on the outer flap of the 
 haversack; places underwear carried in pack on the left half of 
 the open pack, with round fold parallel with front edge of pack; 
 opens first-aid pouch and exposes contents to view. Special 
 articles carried by individual men, such as flag kit, field glasses, 
 compass, steel tape, notebook, etc., are arranged on the right half 
 of the open pack. Each man then resumes the attention. 
 
 The captain then passes along the ranks and file closers as 
 before, inspects the equipment, returns to the right, and commands: 
 CLOSE PACKS. 
 
 Each man rolls up his toilet articles and underwear, straps 
 up his haversack and its contents, replaces the meat can, knife, fork 
 and spoon, and the canteen and cup; closes cartridge pockets and 
 first-aid pouch; restores special articles to their proper receptacles; 
 rolls up and replaces pack in carrier; and, leaving the equipment 
 in its position on the gi-ound, resumes the attention. 
 
 All equipments being packed, the captain commands: SLING 
 EQUIPMENT. 
 
CEREMONIES, INSPECTIONS, HONORS, COURTESIES 121 
 
 The equipments are slung and belts fastened. The captain 
 then causes the company to assemble and take arms. The in- 
 spection is completed as already explained. 
 
 When the rations are not carried in the haversack the in- 
 spection proceeds as described, except that the toilet articles and 
 bacon and condiment cans are displayed on the unrolled packs. 
 
 The captain then passes along the ranks and file closers as 
 before, inspects the equipment, returns to the right and commands: 
 CLOSE PACKS. 
 
 Each man rolls up his toilet articles, straps up his haversack 
 and its contents, replaces the meat can, knife, fork and spoon, and 
 the canteen and cup; closes cartridge pockets and first-aid pouch; 
 rolls up and replaces pack in carrier, and, leaving the equipment 
 in its position on the ground, resumes the position of attention. 
 
 All equipments being packed, the captain commands: SLING 
 EQUIPMENT. 
 
 The equipments are slung and belts fastened. The captain 
 then causes the company to assemble and take arms. The inspec- 
 tion is completed as already explained. 
 
 Should the inspector be other than the captain, the latter, 
 after commanding front, adds REST, and faces to the front. When 
 the inspector approaches, the captain faces to the left, brings the 
 company to attention, faces to the front, and salutes. The salute 
 acknowledged, the captain carries saber, faces to the left, com- 
 mands: PREPARE FOR INSPECTION, and again faces to the 
 front. 
 
 The inspection proceeds as before; the captain returns saber 
 and accompanies the inspector as soon as the latter passes him. 
 
 BATTALION INSPECTION 
 
 If there be both inspection and review, tfte inspection may 
 either precede or follow the review. 
 
 The battalion being in column of companies at full distance, 
 all officers dismounted, the major commands: 1. Prepare for inspec- 
 tion, 2. MARCH. 
 
 At the first command each captain commands: Open ranks. 
 
 At the command march the ranks are opened in each com- 
 pany, as in the inspection of the company. The field musicians 
 join their companies. 
 
 The drum major conducts the band to a position 30 paces in 
 rear of the column, if not already there, and opens ranks. 
 
 The major takes post facing to the front and 20 paces in front 
 of the center of the leading company. The staff takes post as if 
 mounted. The color takes post 5 paces in rear of the staff. 
 
122 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Field and staff officers senior in rank to the inspector do 
 not take post in front of the column but accompany him. 
 
 The inspector inspects the major, and, accompanied by the 
 latter, inspects the staff officers. 
 
 The major then commands: REST, returns saber, and, with 
 his staff, accompanies the inspector. 
 
 If the major is the inspector he commands: REST, returns 
 saber, and inspects his staff, which then accompanies him. 
 
 The inspector, commencing at the head of the column, then 
 makes a minute inspection of the color guard, the non-commis- 
 sioned staff, and the arms, accouterments, dress, and ammunition 
 of each soldier of the several companies in succession, and inspects 
 the band. 
 
 The adjutant gives the necessary commands for the inspec- 
 tion of the color guard, non-commissioned staff, and band. 
 
 The color guard and non-commissioned staff may be dis- 
 missed as soon as inspected. 
 
 As the inspector approaches each company its captain com- 
 mands: 1. Company, 2. ATTENTION, 3. PREPARE FOR IN- 
 SPECTION, and faces to the front; as soon as inspected he re- 
 turns saber and accompanies the inspector. The inspection pro- 
 ceeds as in company inspection. At its completion the captain 
 closes ranks and commands: REST. Unless otherwise directed 
 by the inspector, the major directs that the company be marched 
 to its parade and dismissed. 
 
 If the inspection will probably last a long time the rear 
 companies may be permitted to stack arms and fall out; before the 
 inspector approaches they fall in and take arms. 
 
 The band plays during the inspection of the companies. 
 When the inspector approaches the band the adjutant commands.'* 
 PREPARE FOR INSPECTION. 
 
 As the inspector approaches him each man raises his instru- 
 ment in front of the body, reverses it so as to show both sides, and 
 then returns it. Company musicians execute inspection similarly. 
 
 At the inspection of quarters or camp the inspector is ac- 
 companied by the captain, followed by the other officers or by such 
 of them as he may designate. The inspection is conducted as de- 
 scribed in the company inspection. 
 
 REGIMENTAL INSPECTION 
 
 The commands, means, and principles are the same as de- 
 scribed for a battalion. 
 
 The colonel takes post facing to the front anl 20 paces in 
 front of the major of the leading battalion. His staff takes post 
 as if mounted. The color takes post 5 paces in rear of the staff. 
 
CEREMONIES, INSPECTIONS, HONORS, CO URTESIES 123 
 
 The inspector inspects the colonel and the lieutenant colonel, 
 and, accompanied by the colonel, inspects the staff officers. 
 
 The colonel then commands: REST, returns saber, and, with 
 the lieutenant colonel and staff, accompanies the inspector. 
 
 If the colonel is the inspector he commands: REST, returns 
 saber, and inspects the lieutenant colonel and staff, all of whom 
 then accompany him. 
 
 The inspector, commencing at the head of the column, makes 
 a minute inspection of the color guard, non-commissioned staff, 
 each battalion in succession, and the band. 
 
 On the approach of the inspector each major brings his bat- 
 talion to attention. Battalion inspection follows, 
 
 REGIMENTAL, BATTALION, OR COMPANY MUSTER 
 
 Muster is preceded by an inspection, and, when practicable, 
 by a review. The adjutant is provided with the muster roll of the 
 field, staff, and band, the surgeon with the hospital roll; each cap- 
 tain with the roll of his company. A list of absentees, alphabeti- 
 cally arranged, showing cause and place of absence, accompanies 
 each roll. 
 
 Being in column of companies at open ranks, each captain, 
 as the mustering officer approaches, brings his company to right 
 shoulder arms, and commands: ATTENTION TO MUSTER. 
 
 The mustering officer or captain then calls the names on the 
 roll; each man ,as his name is called, answers Here and brings his 
 piece to order arms. 
 
 After muster, the mustering officer, accompanied by the com- 
 pany commanders and such other officers as he may designate, 
 verifies the presence of the men reported in hospital, on guard, 
 etc. 
 
 A company may be mustered in the same manner on its Own 
 parade ground, the muster to follow the company inspection. 
 
 HONORS AND SALUTES 
 
 Salutes are exchanged between officers and enlisted men not 
 in a military formation, nor at drill, work, games, or mess, on every 
 occasion of their meeting, passing near or being addressed, the offi- 
 cer junior in rank or the enlisted man saluting first. 
 
 When an officer enters a room where there are several en- 
 listed men, the word " attention " is given by some one who per- 
 ceives him, when all rise, uncover, and remain standing at attention 
 until the officer leaves the room or directs otherwise. Enlisted 
 men at meals stop eating and remain seated at attention. 
 
124 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 An enlisted man, if seated, rises on the approach of an officer, 
 faces toward him, stands at attention, and salutes. Standing he 
 faces an officer for the same purpose. If the parties remain in the 
 same place or on the same ground, such compliments need not be 
 repeated. Soldiers actually at work do not cease work to salute 
 an officer unless addressed by him. 
 
 Before addressing an officer, an enlisted man makes the 
 prescribed salute with the weapon with which he is armed, or, if 
 unarmed, with the right hand. He also makes the same salute after 
 receiving a reply. 
 
 In uniform, covered or uncovered, but not in formation, 
 officers* and enlisted men salute military persons as follows: With 
 arms, in hand, the salute prescribed for that arm (sentinels on 
 interior guard duty excepted) ; without arms, the right-hand salute. 
 
 In civilian dress, covered or uncovered, officers and enlisted 
 men salute military persons with the right-hand salute. 
 
 Officers and enlisted men render the prescribed salutes in a 
 military manner, the officer junior in rank, or the enlisted men, 
 saluting first. When several officers in company are saluted, all 
 entitled to the salute return it. 
 
 Except in the field under campaign or simulated campaign 
 conditions, a mounted officer (or soldier) dismounts before ad- 
 dressing a superior officer not mounted. 
 
 A man in formation does not salute when directly addressed, 
 but comes to attention if at rest or at ease. 
 
 Saluting distance is that within which recognition is easy. 
 In general, it does not exceed 30 paces. 
 
 When an officer entitled to the salute passes in rear of 
 a body of troops, it is brought to attention while he is opposite 
 the post of the commander. 
 
 In public conveyances, such as railway trains and street cars, 
 and in public places, such as theaters, honors and personal salutes 
 may be omitted when palpably inappropriate or apt to disturb or 
 annoy civilians present. 
 
 Soldiers at all times and in all situations pay the same com- 
 pliments to officers of the Army, Navy, Marine Corps, and Volun- 
 teers, and to officers of the National Guard as to officers of their 
 own regiment, corps, or arm of service. 
 
 Sentinels on post during interior guard duty conform to the 
 foregoing principles, but salute by presenting arms when armed 
 with the rifle. They do not salute if it interferes with the proper 
 performance of their duties. 
 
 Commanders of detachments or other commands salute 
 officers of grades higher than the person commanding the unit, by 
 first bringing the unit to attention and then saluting as required. 
 If the person saluted is of a junior or equal grade, the unit need not 
 
CEREMONIES ^INSPECTIONS, HONORS, COURTESIES 125 
 
 be at attention in the exchange of salutes. If two detachments or 
 other commands meet, their commanders exchange salutes, both 
 commands being at attention. 
 
 Salutes and honors, as a rule, are not paid by # troops actually- 
 engaged in drill, on the march, or in the field under campaign or 
 simulated campaign conditions. Troops on the service of security 
 pay no compliments whatever. 
 
 If the command is in line at a halt (not in the field) and 
 armed t with the rifle, or with sabers drawn, it is brought to 
 present arms or present sabers before its commander salutes in 
 the following cases: When the National Anthem is played, or 
 when to the color or to the standard is sounded during ceremonies, 
 or when a person is saluted who is its immediate or higher com- 
 mander or a general officer, or when the national or regimental 
 color is saluted. 
 
 At parades and other ceremonies, under arms, the command 
 renders* the prescribed salute and remains in the position of salute 
 while the National~Anthem is being played; also at retreat and dur- 
 ing ceremonies when to the color is played, if no band is present. 
 If not under arms, the organizations are brough to attention at the 
 first note of the National Anthem, to the color or to the standard, 
 and the salute rendered by the officer or non-commissioned officer 
 in command. 
 
 When the National Anthem is played at any place when 
 persons belonging to the military service are present, all officers 
 and enlisted men not in formation stand at attention facing toward 
 the music (except at retreat, when they face toward the flag). If 
 in uniform, covered or uncovered, or in civilian clothes, uncovered, 
 they salute at the first note of the anthem, retaining the position of 
 salute until the last note of the anthem. If not in uniform and 
 covered, they uncover at the first note of the anthem, holding the 
 headdress opposite the left shoulder and so remain until its close, 
 except that in inclement weather the headdress may be slightly 
 raised. 
 
 The same rules apply when to the color or to the standard is 
 sounded as when the National Anthem is played. 
 
 When played by an Army band, the National Anthem i9 
 played through without repetition of any part not required to be 
 repeated to make it complete. 
 
 The same marks of respect prescribed for observances during 
 the playing of the National Anthem of the United States are 
 shown toward the national anthem ot any other country when 
 played upon official occasions. 
 
 Officers and enlisted men passing the uncased color render 
 honors as follows: If in uniform, they salute as required above; 
 if in civilian dress and covered, they uncover, holding the headdres9 
 
126 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 opposite the left shoulder with the right hand; if uncovered they 
 salute with the right-hand salute. 
 
 THE COLOR 
 
 Army Regulations prescribe the rules for colors to be carried 
 by regiments and battalions on all occasions. 
 
 In garrison the colors, when not in use, are kept in the office 
 or quarters of the colonel, and are escorted thereto and therefrom 
 by the color guard. In camp the colors, when not in use, are in 
 front of the colonel's tent. From reveille to retreat, when the 
 weather permits, they are displayed uncased; from retreat to rev- 
 eille and during inclement weather they are cased. Colors are 
 said to be cased when furled and protected by the oil-cloth 
 covering. 
 
 The regimental color salutes in the ceremony of escort of the 
 color, and when saluting an officer entitled to the honor, but in no 
 other case. If marching, the salute is executed when at 6 paces 
 from the officer entitled to the salute; the carry is resumed when 
 6 paces beyond him. The national color renders no salute. 
 
 THE COLOR GUARD 
 
 The color guard consists of two color sergeants, who are 
 the color bearers, and two experienced privates selected by the 
 colonel. The senior color sergeant carries the national color; the 
 junior color sergeant carries the regimental color. The regimental 
 color, when carried, is always on the left of the national color, in 
 whatever direction they may face. 
 
 The color guard is formed and marched in one rank, the 
 color bearers in the center. It is marched in the same manner and 
 by the same commands as a squad, substituting., when necessary, 
 guard for squad. 
 
 The color company is the center or right center company 
 of the center or right center battalion. The color guard remains 
 with that company unless otherwise directed. 
 
 In line the color guard is in the interval between the inner 
 guides of the right and left center companies. 
 
 In line of columns or in close line, the color guard is mid- 
 way between the right and left center companies and on line 
 with the captains. 
 
 In column of companies or platoons the color guard is mid- 
 way between the color company and the company in rear of the 
 color company and equidistant from the flanks of the column. 
 
CEREMONIES, INSPECTIONS, HONORS, CO URTESIES 127 
 
 In close column the color guard is on the flank of the color 
 company. 
 
 In column of squads the color guard is in the column be- 
 tween the color company and the company originally on its left. 
 
 When the regiment is formed in line of masses for cere- 
 monies, the color guard forms on the left of the leading company 
 of the center (right center) battalion. It rejoins the color com- 
 pany when the regiment changes from line of masses. 
 
 The color guard, when with a battalion that takes the battle 
 formation, joins the regimental reserve, whose commander directs 
 the color guard to join a certain company of the reserve. 
 
 The color guard executes neither loadings nor firings; in 
 rendering honors, it executes all movements in the manual; in 
 drill, all movements unless specially excused. 
 
 TO RECEIVE THE COLOR 
 
 The color guard, by command of the senior color sergeant, 
 presents arms on receiving and parting with the color. After 
 parting with the color, the color guard is brought to order arms 
 by command of the senior member who is placed as the right 
 man of the guard. 
 
 At drills and ceremonies, excepting escort of the color, 
 the color, if present, is received by the color company after its 
 formation. 
 
 The formation of the color company completed, the captain 
 faces to the front; the color guard, conducted by the senior ser- 
 geant, approaches from the front and halts at a distance of 10 paces 
 from the captain, who then faces about, brings the company to the 
 present, faces to the front, salutes, again faces about and brings the 
 company to the order. The color guard comes to the present and 
 order at the command of the captain, and is then marched by the 
 color sergeant directly to its post on the left of the color com- 
 pany. 
 
 When the battalion is dismissed the color guard escorts the 
 color to the office or quarters of the colonel. 
 
 MANUAL OF THE COLOR 
 
 At the carry the heel of the pike rests in the socket of the 
 sling; the right hand grasps the pike at the height of the shoulder. 
 
 At the order the heel of the pike rests on the ground near 
 the right toe, the right hand holding the pike in a vertical po- 
 sition. 
 
128 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 At parade rest the heel of the pike is on the ground, as at 
 the order; the pike is held with both hands in front of the center 
 of the body, left hand uppermost. 
 
 The order is resumed at the command attention. The left 
 hand assists the right when necessary. The carry is the habitual 
 position when the troops are at a shoulder, port or trail. The 
 order and parade rest are executed with the troops. 
 
 The color salute: Being at a carry, slip the right hand up 
 the pike to the height of the eye, then lower the pike by straighten- 
 ing the arm to the front. 
 
 THE BAND 
 
 The band is formed in two or more ranks, with sufficient 
 intervals between the men and distances between the ranks to per- 
 mit of a free use of the instruments. 
 
 The field music, when united, forms with and in rear of the 
 band; when the band is not present the posts, movements, and 
 duties of the field music are the same as prescribed for the band; 
 when a musician is in charge his position is on the right of the 
 front rank. When the battalion or regiment turns about by squads, 
 the band executes the countermarch; when the battalion or regi- 
 ment executes right, left or about face, the band faces in the 
 same manner. 
 
 In marching each rank dresses to the right. In executing 
 open ranks each rank of the band takes the distance of 3 paces 
 from the rank next in front; the drum major verifies the align- 
 ment. 
 
 The field music sounds the march, flourishes, or ruffles, and 
 to the color at the signal of the drum major. 
 
 The drum major is 3 paces in front of the center of the front 
 rank, and gives the signals or commands for the movements of the 
 band as for a squad, substituting in the commands band for squad. 
 
 SIGNALS OF THE DRUM MAJOR 
 
 Preparatory to a signal the staff is held with the right hand 
 near the head of the staff, hand below the chin, back to the front, 
 ferrule pointed upward and to the right. 
 
 Prepare to play: Face toward the band and extend the 
 right arm to its full length in the direction of the staff. Play: 
 Bring the arm back to its original position in front of the body. 
 
 Prepare to cease playing: Extend the right arm to its full 
 length in the direction of the staff. Cease playing: Bring the arm 
 back to its original position in front of the body. 
 
CEREMONIES, INSPECTIONS, HONORS, CO URTESIES 129 
 
 To march: Turn the wrist and bring the staff to the front, 
 the ferrule pointing upward and to the front; extend the arm 
 to its full length in the direction of the staff. 
 
 To halt: Lower the staff into the raised left hand and raise 
 the staff horizontally above the head with both hands, the arms 
 extended; lower the staff with both hands to a horizontal position 
 at the height of the hips. 
 
 To countermarch: Face toward the band and give the 
 signal to march. The countermarch is executed by each front- 
 rank man to the right of the drum major turning to the right 
 about, each to the left, turning to the left about, each followed by 
 the men covering him. The drum major passes through the 
 center. 
 
 To oblique: Bring the staff to a horizontal position, the 
 head of the staff opposite the neck, the ferrule pointing in the 
 direction the oblique is to be made; extend the arm to its full 
 length in the direction of the staff. 
 
 To march by the right flank: Extend the arm to the right, 
 the staff vertical, ferrule upward, back of the hand to the rear. 
 
 To march by the left flank: Extend the arm to the left, 
 the staff vertical, ferrule upward, back of the hand to the front. 
 
 To diminish front: Let the ferrule fall into the left hand 
 at the height of the eyes, right hand at the height of the hip. 
 
 To increase front: Let the ferrule fall into the left hand at 
 the height of the hip, right hand at the height of the neck. 
 
 The march, flourishes or ruffles: Bring the staff to a vertical 
 position, hand opposite the neck, back of the hand to the front, 
 ferrule pointing down. 
 
 To the color: Bring the staff to a horizontal position at the 
 height of the neck, back of the hand to the rear, ferrule pointing to 
 the left. 
 
 When the band is playing, in marching, the drum major 
 beats the time with his staff and supports the left hand at the 
 hip, fingers in front, thumb to the rear. 
 
 The drum major, with staff in hand, salutes by bringing his 
 staff to a vertical position, head of the staff up and opposite the 
 left shoulder. 
 
 The drum major, marching in review with staff in hand, 
 salutes by bringing his staff to a vertical position, head of the 
 staff up and opposite the left shoulder. 
 
 At a halt, and the band not playing, the drum major holds 
 his staff with the ferrule touching the ground about 1 inch from 
 toe of right foot, at an angle of about 60°, ball pointing upward to 
 the right, right hand grasping staff near the ball, back of the hand 
 to the front; left hand at the hip, fingers in front, thumb to the 
 rear. 
 
130 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 MANUAL OF THE SABER 
 
 1. Draw, 2. SABER. At the command draw unhook the 
 saber with the thumb and first two fingers of the left hand, thumb 
 on the end of the hook, fingers lifting the upper ring; grasp the 
 scabbard with the left hand at the upper band, bring the hilt a 
 little forward, seize the grip with the right hand, and draw the 
 blade 6 inches out of the scabbard, pressing the scabbard against 
 the thigh with the left hand. 
 
 At the command saber draw the saber quickly, raising the 
 arm to its full extent to the right front, at an angle of about 45° 
 with the horizontal, the saber, edge down, in a straight line with 
 the arm; make a slight pause and bring the back of the blade 
 against the shoulder, edge to the front, arm nearly extended, 
 hand by the side, elbow back, third and fourth fingers back of the 
 grip; at the same time hook up the scabbard with the thumb and 
 first two fingers of the left hand, thumb through the upper ring, 
 fingers supporting it; drop the left hand by the side. This is the 
 position of carry saber dismounted. 
 
 Officers and non-commissioned officers armed with the 
 saber unhook the scabbard before mounting; when mounted, in 
 the first motion of draw saber they reach with the right hand 
 over the bridle hand and without the aid of the bridle hand draw 
 the saber as before; the right hand at the carry rests on the 
 right thigh. On foot the scabbard is carried hooked up. 
 
 When publishing orders, calling the roll, etc., the saber is 
 held suspended from the right wrist by the saber knot; when the 
 saber knot is used it is placed on the wrist before drawing saber 
 and taken off after returning saber. 
 
 Being at the order or carry: 1. Present, 2. SABER (or 
 ARMS). At the command present raise and carry the saber to the 
 front, base of the hilt as high as the chin and 6 inches in front of 
 the neck, edge to the left, point 6 inches farther to the front than 
 the hilt, thumb extended on the left of the grip, all fingers grasp- 
 ing the grip. At the command saber, or arms, lower the saber, 
 point in prolongation of the right foot and near the ground, edge 
 to the left, hand by the side, thumb on the left of grip, arm ex- 
 tended. If mounted, the hand is held behind the thigh, point a 
 little to the right and front of the stirrup. In rendering honors 
 with troops officers execute the first motion of the salute at the 
 command present, the second motion at the command arms; en- 
 listed men with the saber execute the first motion at the command 
 arms and omit the second motion. 
 
 Being at a carry: 1. Order, 2. SABER (or ARMS). Drop 
 the ooint of the saber directly to the front, point on or near the 
 
CEREMONIES, INSPECTIONS, HONORS, COURTESIES 131 
 
 ground, edge down, thumb on* back of grip. Being at the present 
 saber, should the next command be order arms, officers and non- 
 commissioned officers armed with the saber order saber; if the 
 command be other than order arms, they execute carry saber. 
 When arms are brought to the order the officers or enlisted men 
 with the saber drawn order saber. 
 
 The saber is held at the carry while giving commands, 
 marching at attention, or changing position in quick time. When at 
 the order sabers are brought to the carry when arms are brought 
 to any position except the present or parade rest. 
 
 Being at the order: 1. Parade, 2. REST. Take the position 
 of parade rest except that the left hand is uppermost and rests on 
 the right hand, point of saber on or near the ground in front of 
 the center of the body, edge to the right. 
 
 At the command attention resume the order saber and the 
 position of the soldier. 
 
 In marching in double time the saber is carried diagonally 
 across the breast, edge to the front; the left hand steadies the 
 scabbard. 
 
 Officers and non-commissioned officers armed with the saber, 
 on all duties under arms draw and return saber without waiting 
 for command. All commands to soldiers under arms are given 
 with saber drawn. 
 
 Being at a carry: 1. Return, 2. SABER. 
 
 At the command return carry the right hand opposite to 
 and 6 inches from the left shoulder, saber vertical, edge to the left; 
 at the same time unhook and lower the scabbard with the left 
 hand and grasp it at the upper band. 
 
 At the command saber drop the point to the rear and pass 
 the blade across and along the left arm; turn the head slightly to 
 the left, fixing the eyes on the opening of the scabbard, raise the 
 right hand, insert and return the blade; free the wrist from the 
 saber knot (if inserted in it), turn the head to the front, drop the 
 right hand by the side; hook up the scabbard with the left hand, 
 drop the left hand by the side. 
 
 Officers and non-commissioned officers armed with the saber, 
 when mounted, return saber without using the left hand; the scab- 
 bard is hooked up on dismounting. 
 
 At inspection enlisted men with the saber drawn execute tne 
 first motion of present saber and turn the wrist to show both sides 
 of the blade, resuming the carry when the inspector has passed. 
 
 HONORS. 
 
 The President of the United States is received with regi- 
 mental standards or colors, officers and troops saluting, the drums 
 
132 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 giving four ruffles and the bugles spunding four flourishes. The | 
 ruffles and flourishes are followed by the National Anthem, or, in 
 the absence of a band, the field music or bugles sound " To the 
 Color." 
 
 An ex-President and the Vice President of the United States 
 are received with the same honors as prescribed for the President, 
 except that the flourishes are followed by a march in lieu of the 
 National Anthem. 
 
 The President of a foreign republic, a foreign sovereign, or 
 a member of a royal family is received with the same honors as 
 prescribed above, except that the National Anthem of his country 
 is played. 
 
 Officers of the following grades of rank are received with 
 regimental standards or colors, officers and troops saluting, and 
 field music playing as follows: General, four ruffles and flourishes; 
 lieutenant general, three ruffles and flourishes; major general, two 
 ruffles and flourishes; brigadier general, one ruffle and flourish. 
 
 In tendering honors to a general officer or official of like 
 rank, the Generals' March is played immediately after the 
 flourishes. 
 
 To the members of the Cabinet, the Chief Justice, the Presi- 
 dent pro tempore of the Senate, the Speaker of the House of 
 Representatives, American or foreign ambassadors, and governors 
 within their respective States and Territories the same honors are 
 paid as to the general, except that a foreign ambassador is received 
 with the National Anthem of his country, and that the number of 
 guns fired as personal salute will be as prescribed; to the Assistant 
 Secretary of War and to American or foreign envoys or ministers 
 the same honors as to lieutenant general; to officers of the Navy 
 the honors due to their relative rank; to officers of marine and 
 volunteers, and militia when in the service of the United States, 
 the honors due to like grades in the regular service; to officers of 
 a foreign service the honors due to their rank. 
 
 In rendering personal honors, when the command presents 
 arms, officers and men in uniform who are not in formation and 
 are in view and within saluting distance salute and remain in the 
 position of salute until the end of ruffles and flourishes, or, if none, 
 until " order arms." 
 
 The national or regimental color or standard, uncased, pass- 
 ing a guard or other armed body is saluted, the field music sound- 
 ing " To the Color " or " To the Standard." Officers or enlisted 
 men passing the uncased color, render the prescribed salute; with 
 no arms in hand, the salute is the hand salute using the right 
 hand, the headdress not to be removed. 
 
 Whenever the National Anthem is played at any place when 
 persons belonging to the military service are present, all officers 
 
CEREMONIES, INSPECTIONS, HONORS, CO UR TESIES 133 
 
 and enlisted men not in formation shall stand at attention facing 
 toward the music (except at retreat, when they face toward the 
 flag). If in uniform, covered or uncovered, or in civilian clothes, 
 uncovered, they salute at the first note of the anthem, retaining the 
 position of salute until the last note of the anthem. If not in uni- 
 form and covered, they shall uncover at the first note of the 
 anthem, holding the headdress opposite the left shoulder and so 
 remain until its close, except that in inclement weather the head- 
 dress may be held slightly raised. The same rules apply when " To 
 the Color " or " To the Standard " is sounded as when the National 
 Anthem is played. When played by an Army band, the National 
 Anthem is played through without repetition of any part not re- 
 quired to be repeated to make it complete. The same marks of 
 respect prescribed for observance during the playing of the National 
 Anthem of the United States are shown toward the National 
 Anthem of any other country when played upon official occasions. 
 
 No honors are paid by troops when on the march or in 
 trenches, except that they may be called to attention, and no salute 
 is rendered when marching in double time or at the trot or gallop. 
 
 The commanding officer is saluted by all commissioned offi- 
 cers in command of troops or detachments. Troops under arms 
 salute as prescribed in drill regulations. 
 
 When making or receiving official reports or on meeting out 
 of doors all officers salute. Military courtesy requires the junior to 
 salute first, but when the salute is introductory to a report made at 
 a military ceremony or formation to the representative of a com- 
 mon superior — as, for example, to the adjutant, officer of the day, 
 etc. — the officer making the report, whatever his rank, salutes first; 
 the officer to whom the report is made acknowledges, by saluting, 
 that he has received and understood the report. 
 
 Salutes are exchanged between officers and enlisted men not 
 in a military formation, nor at drill, work, games, or mess, on every 
 occasion of their meeting, passing near, or being addressed, the 
 officer junior in rank or the enlisted man saluting first. 
 
 When an officer enters a room where there are several 
 enlisted men, the word " attention " is given by some one who per- 
 ceives him, when all rise, uncover, and remain standing at atten- 
 tion until the officer leaves the room or directs otherwise. En- 
 listed men at meals stop eating and remain seated at attention. 
 
 An enlisted man, if seated, rises on the approach of an 
 officer, faces toward him, stands at attention, and salutes. Stand- 
 ing, he faces an officer for the same purpose. If the parties remain 
 in the same place or on the same ground, such compliments need 
 not be repeated. Soldiers actually at work do not cease work to 
 salute an officer unless addressed by him. 
 
 Before addressing an officer, an enlisted man making the pre- 
 
134 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 scribed salute with the weapon with which he is armed, or, if 
 unarmed, with the right hand. He also makes the same salute after 
 receiving a reply. 
 
 In uniform covered or uncovered, but not in formation, offi- 
 cers and enlisted men salute military persons as follows: With 
 arms in hand, the salute prescribed for that arm (sentinels on in- j 
 terior guard duty excepted); without arms, the right-hand salute. J 
 
 In civilian dress covered or uncovered, officers and enlisted j 
 men salute military persons with the right-hand salute. 
 
 Officers and enlisted men render the prescribed salutes in J 
 a military manner, the officer junior in rank or the enlisted man \ 
 saluting first. When several officers in company are saluted, all j 
 entitled to the salute return it. 
 
 Except in the field under campaign or simulated campaign 1 
 conditions, a mounted officer (or soldier) dismounts before ad- | 
 dressing a superior officer not mounted. 
 
 A man in formation does not salute when directly addressed, 1 
 but comes to attention if at rest or at ease. 
 
 Saluting distance is that within which recognition is easy. 
 In general, it does not exceed 30 paces. When an officer entitled 
 to the salute passes in rear of a body of troops it is brought to 
 attention while he is opposite the post of the commander. In public ] 
 conveyances, such as railway trains and street cars, and in public 
 places, such as theaters, honors and personal salutes may be | 
 omitted when palpably inappropriate or apt to disturb or annoy 
 civilians present. 
 
 Salutes to the National Anthem or when " To the Color" (oi 
 " Standard ") is sounded during ceremonies are as prescribed in 
 regulations. 
 
 Officers and enlisted men passing the uncased color render 
 honors as follows: If in uniform they salute as above when in 
 uniform covered; if in civilian dress and covered they uncover, 
 holding the headdress opposite the left shoulder with the rigfit 
 hand, if uncovered they salute with the right-hand salute. 
 
 Sentinels on post doing interior guard duty conform to the 
 foregoing principles, but salute by presenting arms when armed 
 with the rifle. They do not salute if it interferes with the proper 
 performance of their duties. Troops under arms salute as pre- 
 scribed in drill regulations. 
 
 Commanders of detachments or other commands salute 
 officers of grades higher than the person commanding the unit by 
 first bringing the unit to attention and then saluting as above when 
 in uniform covered. If the person saluted is of a junior or equal 
 grade the unit need not be at attention in the exchange of salutes. 
 If two detachments or other commands meet, their commanders 
 exchange salutes, both commands being at attention. 
 
CEREMONIES, INSPECTIONS, HONORS, COURTESIES 135 
 
 Salutes and honors as a rule are not paid by troops actually 
 engaged in drill, on the march, or in the field under campaign or 
 simulated campaign conditions. Troops on the service of security 
 pay no compliments whatever. 
 
 If the command is in line at halt (not in the field) and armed 
 with the rifle, or with sabers drawn, it is brought to " present 
 arms " or " present sabers " before its commander salutes in the 
 following cases: When the "National Anthem is played, or when 
 "To the Color" or "To the Standard" is sounded during cere- 
 monies, or when a person is saluted who is its immediate or higher 
 commander or a general officer, or when the national or regimental 
 color is saluted. 
 
 At parades and other ceremonies, under arms, the command 
 renders the prescribed salute and remains in the position of salute 
 while the National Anthem is being played; also at retreat and dur- 
 ing ceremonies when " To the Color " is played if no band is 
 present. If not under arms, the organizations are brought to atten- 
 tion at the first note of the National Anthem, " To the Color," or 
 " To the Standard," and the salute rendered by the officer or non- 
 commissioned officer in command as prescribed in regulations. 
 
 No officer in civilian clothes or present informally in uniform 
 is saluted with guns or has a guard paraded in his honor. 
 
 Guards do not turn out on Sundays as a matter of compliment 
 for officers of the United States Army, Navy, or Marine Corps. 
 
 Soldiers at all times and in all situations pay the same 
 compliments to officers of the Army. Navy, Marine Corps, and 
 Volunteers, and to officers of the National Guard in uniform as to 
 officers of their own Regiment, corps or arm of service. 
 
 SALUTES WITH CANNON 
 
 Salutes with cannon are fired under charge of commissioned 
 officers, who are present at the'firing and direct it. 
 
 Guns using metallic-case ammunition are used whenever 
 practicable; in their absence other breech-loading guns should 
 preferably be used. Muzzle-loaders are used only when breech- 
 loaders are not available. When using muzzle-loading guns a 
 sufficient number should be employed, if practicable, to avoid the 
 necessity of firing the same gun a second time. 
 
 For muzzle-loading guns, or breechloaders using cartridge 
 bags, the bags are made of silk, measuring in length at least one 
 and one-half times their diameter, and care is taken that the 
 sponges are not worn and that they thoroughly fill the chamber 
 or bore of the gun, and when the same gun is fired more than 
 once, that the intervals between the discharges are sufficient to 
 
136 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 allow the chamber or bore to be thoroughly sponged and chamber 
 of breechloaders examined. Unless all of these conditions be ful- 
 filled salutes are not fired with these classes of guns. 
 
 The minimum number of pieces with which salutes may be 
 fired is 1 for rapid-fire and field guns using metallic-case ammuni- 
 tion, 2 for breechloaders using cartridge bags, 4 for siege, and 6 for 
 seacoast guns. When practicable, rapid-fire guns are used for 
 saluting purposes. 
 
 The rapidity with which pieces are discharged during a salute 
 depends upon their caliber. Subject to the restrictions of the pre- 
 ceding paragraph, guns of 4-inch caliber or less should have inter- 
 vals of 5 seconds between discharges; guns of over 4-inch caliber, 
 10 seconds. When a single field gun is used to fire a salute the 
 interval between charges should be 10 seconds. 
 
 When muzzle-loading guns are used, the pieces for a salute 
 should, if* possible, be of the same or equivalent caliber. If the 
 number of guns in the saluting battery admits of it, the entire 
 number required and two .or three over should be loaded and made 
 ready previous to commencing the salute; the detachments are then 
 dispensed with, and a single cannoneer at each piece discharges it 
 at the proper time. When the number of pieces is insufficient for 
 the entire salute, as many as possible should be used so as to avoid 
 frequent reloadings. The pieces are numbered from 'right to left — 
 1, 2, 3, and so on — and each detachment or the cannoneer, as the 
 case may be, is made clearly to understand the number of the 
 piece. 
 
 At the proper moment the officer in charge commands: 
 "Number 1, fire!" and observing the proper interval, "Number 2, 
 fire!" and so on to the left piece, when he returns to the first and 
 repeats the same commands until the entire number required for 
 the salute is discharged. In order to preserve regularity in the 
 fires he does not concern himself with the running number, but 
 has a capable person to keep count and notify him when the re- 
 quired number of discharges is made. In giving the command 
 " Fire! " he looks toward the piece to be fired, and gives it in such 
 a pronounced manner, accompanied by a signal with his sword, 
 as to be unmistakable. The cannoneer discharging a piece when 
 its number is called casts his eye to the officer and, observing the 
 signal as well as the command, fires the piece promptly. Should a 
 piece miss fire, the officer immediately commands the next to fire 
 and allows the piece that has missed to remain undischarged until 
 its proper turn comes again. Immediately after each piece is 
 discharged it is reloaded and made ready if there is probability 
 of its being fired again. • 
 
 When troops are drawn up for the reception of a dignitary, 
 and it is practicable to have a battery of field guns on the ground, 
 
CEREMONIES, INSPECTIONS, HONORS, CO URTESIES 137 
 
 a salute from it should form a part of the ceremony; otherwise guns 
 in position are used. When field guns are used, it is most appro- 
 priate to fire the salute at the place of review, and at the time 
 just previous to the review when the personages arrive on the 
 ground. 
 
 Salvos are simultaneous discharges from several cannon; 
 they correspond to volleys of musketry and are fired by way of 
 salute only over the graves of officers at the time of burial. The 
 order designating a funeral escort prescribes whether the fire shall 
 be three volleys of 'musketry or three salvos of artillery. 
 
 Salutes are not fired between sunset and sunrise, and not on 
 Sunday unless required by international courtesy. As a general 
 rule, salutes are fired between 8 a. m. and sunset. The national 
 flag is always displayed at the time of firing a salute. 
 
 NATIONAL SALUTES 
 
 The national salute is 21 guns. It is also the salute to a 
 national flag. 
 
 The salute to the Union, commemorative of the Declaration 
 of Independence and consisting of 1 gun for each State, is fired 
 at noon on July 4 at every post provided with suitable artillery. 
 
 It is the custom of foreign ships of war, on entering a harbor 
 or passing near a fortification, to display at the main the 'flag of 
 the country in whose waters they are, and to salute it. It is the 
 rule, however, in our own and foreign navies to fire salutes only 
 between 8 a. m. and sunset. On the completion of the salute to 
 the flag, a salute of the same number of guns will be promptly 
 returned by the designated saluting station. United States vessels 
 return salutes to the flag in United States waters only when there 
 is no fort or battery designated to do so. United States vessels do 
 not salute United States forts or posts, and the converse. 
 
 Saluting stations for the purpose of returning the salutes of 
 foreign men-of-war in the ports and territorial waters of the United 
 States are designated in orders from time to time by the War De- 
 partment. 
 
 The salute to the flag is the only salute that is returned and 
 this is invariably done as soon as possible. The time intervening 
 should never exceed 24 hours. The failure to return such salutes 
 is regarded as a discourtesy or lack of friendship justifying the 
 other party in asking an explanation. 
 
 Notice of an intention to salute the flag is sometimes given 
 by the vessel direct to the fort, but as giving notice involves delay, 
 vessels generally salute without it. Surveying vessels, storeships, 
 and transports do not salute. If notice of intention to salute the 
 
138 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 flag be received by a fort not the saluting station, such fort im- 
 mediately notifies the saluting station and informs the vessel of 
 the fact. 
 
 PERSONAL SALUTES 
 
 The President, both on his arrival at and departure from a 
 military post, or when in its vicinity, receives a salute of 21 guns. 
 No other personal salute is fired in his presence. 
 
 The sovereign or chief magistrate of a foreign country re- 
 ceives the salute prescribed for the President; and members of a 
 royal family receive the salute due their sovereign. No salute to 
 a personage of lesser degree is fired iti their offical presence. 
 
 An ex-President of the United States receives a salute of 21 
 guns, and the Vice President receives a salute of 19 guns. 
 
 When officials other than those named visit military posts, 
 they receive salutes as follows: 
 
 Ambassadors, members of the Cabinet, and the president 
 
 pro tempore of the Senate 19 guns 
 
 The Chief Justice, the Speaker of the House of Repre- 
 sentatives, a committee of Congress officially visiting a 
 military post, governors within their respective States 
 or Territories, or a governor general, and the civil 
 
 governor of the Philippine Islands 17 guns 
 
 The Assistant Secretary of War or the Assistant Secre- 
 tary of the Navy, when officially visiting a military 
 post; the vice governor of the Philippine Islands, and 
 
 American or foreign envoys or minister....... 15 guns 
 
 Ministers resident accredited to the United States 13 guns 
 
 Charges d'affaires 11 guns 
 
 Consuls general accredited to the United States 11 guns 
 
 The General 17 guns 
 
 The Lieutenant General 15 guns 
 
 Major General 13 guns 
 
 Brigadier general 11 guns 
 
 As a rule, a personal salute is to be fired when the personage 
 entitled to it enters a post. When several persons, each of whom 
 is entitled to a salute, arrive together at a post, the highest in rank 
 or position is alone saluted. If they arrive successively, each is 
 saluted in turn. An officer assigned to duty according to his brevet 
 rank is entitled to the salute prescribed for the grade to which he 
 is assigned. A retired general officer making an official visit is 
 saluted according to his rank. An officer, whether civil, military, 
 or naval, holding two or more positions either of which entitles him 
 to a salute, receives only the salute due to the highest grade. In 
 no event is the same person to be saluted in more than one 
 
CEREMONIES, INSPECTIONS, HONORS, COURTESIES 139 
 
 capacity. Personal salutes at the same place and in compliment 
 to the same person, whether civil, diplomatic, military, or naval, 
 are never to be fired oftener than once a year, unless such person 
 shall have been in the meantime advanced in rank. 
 
 Officers of the Navy are saluted according to their relative 
 rank; officers of marines and of the volunteer forces or militia in 
 the service of the United States, and officers of foreign service, 
 are saluted according to rank. 
 
 When a civil functionary entitled to a salute arrives at a 
 military post, the commanding officer meets or calls upon him as 
 soon as practicable, and tenders him a review if the garrison con- 
 sists of not less than four companies. When a general officer visits" 
 a post within his command, the troops are paraded for review, 
 unless he directs otherwise. When a salute is to be given an officer 
 junior to another present at a post, the senior is notified to that 
 effect by the commanding officer. 
 
 In addition to the foregoing, occasions of a public nature 
 frequently arise when salutes are both desirable and proper. Orders 
 are given in such cases. 
 
 The flag of a military post is not dipped by way of salute 
 or compliment. 
 
 VISITS AND COURTESIES 
 
 An officer arriving at the headquarters of a military com- 
 mand, station, or post, calls upon the commander thereof as soon 
 as practicable and registers his name, address, and the probable 
 time of his stay. If the visiting officer be senior to the com- 
 mander, the former may send his card and his address for regis- 
 tration, in which case it becomes the duty of the commander to 
 make the first call. 
 
 When any officer arrives at Washington, D. C, or at the 
 headquarters of a territorial department, he reports at the office 
 of the Adjutant General, or of the department adjutant, and 
 registers his name and address, and the authority for his presence 
 there. 
 
 An officer arriving for duty with an organization, a staff 
 department, at the Military Academy, or any of the service schools, 
 makes both an official and a call of courtesy upon the head or 
 commander thereof as soon as practicable. If the arriving officer 
 is the senior, the first call is made by the junior. 
 
 In case of large commands or posts, an arriving officer pay9 
 such additional visits as his post, station, or regimental commander 
 may prescribe. Under normal conditions it is considered desirable 
 that at least the arriving field officers should call at the various 
 organization headquarters. 
 
140 MILITARY TRAINING^ 
 
 Official calls are made at the office of the commanding 
 officer. If made after office hours and the commanding officer is 
 not present, the visiting officer registers, leaves his ca*i, and re- 
 peats the call informally the following morning during office hours. 
 Social calls are made at some convenient time at the quarters of 
 the commanding officer. 
 
 As a rule, juniors give way to seniors, and at all times 
 juniors show deference to their seniors and do not ignore their 
 presence. These rules apply whether in vehicles, on horseback, 
 or on foot. In accompanying officers, juniors walk or ride on the 
 left of their seniors, unless there be special reason to the contrary. 
 
 In case of an organization reporting at a post or station for 
 duty, the commanding officer thereof, accompanied by his staff 
 (if there be one), immediately makes an offical call upon the com- 
 mander of the post or station, as above prescribed. The command- 
 ing officer of the arriving troops may, at his discretion, be accom- 
 panied by the other officers of his command. If not accompanied 
 by them at this first visit, he arranges to present them officially at 
 some convenient time to the post or station commander, unless 
 otherwise directed. A similiar procedure is observed on the depar- 
 ture of an organization from a post or station. 
 
 A subordinate officer, after reporting officially to the com- 
 manding officer of the post, headquarters, or station, reports as 
 soon as practicable to his intermediate commanding officers, pre- 
 senting to them copies of his assignment or other duty order. An 
 officer returning from leave or detached service makes an official 
 call, without delay, on the post or station commander and upon his 
 intermediate commanders. An officer about to leave the post or 
 station for any length of time makes an official call upon the 
 commander thereof and also upon his intermediate commanding 
 officers. 
 
 Newly arrived officers are called upon promptly by the other 
 officers of the post or station. In case of large commands, where 
 the conditions are such as to make this usual custom burdensome 
 or impracticable, the commanding officer may prescribe that visits 
 shall only be exchanged between senior officers, or he may desig- 
 nate officers to make the visits, who extend the usual civilities on 
 behalf of all the others, or he may prescribe that no visits of 
 courtesy be required. A general officer is not required to return 
 the official visits of officers of his command, except in the case of 
 general officers or colonels; but when he considers it advisable, 
 return calls on officers of grades junior to colonel are made at his 
 direction by aids or other staff officers. 
 
 The interchange of compliments and visits between officers 
 of the service is of great importance. Failure to pay the civilities 
 customary in official and polite society is to the prejudice of the 
 
CEREMONIES, INSPECTIONS, HONORS, COURTESIES 141 
 
 best interests of the service. The well-established customs of the 
 Army in this regard should be carried out. 
 
 The interchange of official compliments and visits between 
 military and naval officers is international in character and opens 
 the way to official and social courtesies. In cases of vessels of 
 war and transports carrying troops, foreign or otherwise, recently 
 arrived, it is the duty of the post or station commander to send a 
 suitable officer to offer civilities and assistance. This is called the 
 " boarding visit," and it is expected that this civility be returned. 
 Within 24 hours thereafter, weather permitting, the officer in chief 
 command of the ship or ships or the senior general officer on 
 board the transport or, in case a general officer is not present, then 
 the commanding officer of the troops should visit the commanding 
 officer of the post or station should the latter be his equal or 
 superior in grade. This visit is returned within 24 hours. Should 
 the naval officer in command or the general officer on board the 
 transport, or in case a general officer is not present, the command- 
 ing officer of the troops be superior in grade to the officer com- 
 manding the post or station, the first visit is paid by the latter. 
 
 In ports of the United States, whether within the continental 
 limits, outlying Territories, or in the insular possessions, visits of 
 ceremony between officers of the United States Army and Navy 
 are governed by the rules laid down above. 
 
 In the interchange of visits between officers in command of 
 Army posts, Territorial or other departments and the naval officers 
 in command of naval stations on shore, whether within the con- 
 tinental limits, outlying Territories, or insular possessions of the 
 United States, the officer already established sends an aid to offer 
 the customary courtesies on the arrival for duty of a newcomer of 
 the other service. The latter then makes the first visit if of equal or 
 inferior grade to the former. The officer junior in grade makes the 
 first visit, whether he is the last comer or not. 
 
 The following rules prescribed by Navy Regulations are 
 observed in regard to the interchange of visits between officers 
 of the United States Navy, United States Army, and the governors 
 of the United States insular possessions, and outlying territories. 
 
 1. When a naval vessel or group of vessels arrives at a port 
 of an island or group of islands or outlying possessions of the 
 United States where there is a governor general or governor, hold- 
 ing a commission -or appointment as such from the President of 
 the United States, the commander in chief or senior commanding 
 officer of such vessel or group of vessels within 24 hours of arrival 
 makes the first visit upon such governor general or governor. 
 
 2. In case of the temporary absence of such governor general 
 or governor from his post the official duly acting in his stead 
 receives the same courtesies. 
 
142 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 3. Should such governor general or governor find that from 
 indisposition or pressure of important business he is unable to make 
 or return the prescribed visits in person, he deputes his aid or some 
 other official to do so. In like manner should naval commander 
 in chief or senior commanding officer find that from indisposition 
 or pressing occupation he is unable to make the prescribed visits, 
 he deputes an officer of his staff to do so. In each case the officer 
 failing to make the prescribed visit in person reports the circum- 
 stances and states the reasons fully and in detail which led to 
 the omission of the visit to the department under which he is 
 acting. 
 
 For the purpose of developing efficiency in intercommunica- 
 tion between signal stations of the Army and the Navy, both on 
 ship and ashore, commanding officers of seacoast fortifications at 
 all times encourage the interchange of messages and signals be- 
 tween signal stations at their posts and ships of the Navy or naval 
 stations making use of radio-telegraphy and visual signaling. 
 Whenever, upon entering a harbor of the United States, vessels 
 of the Navy come within signal distance of fortifications and open 
 communication with them, suitable acknowledgment is made by the 
 Army stations. As far as practicable, the name of the fort, the 
 name and rank of the commanding officer, and such other informa- 
 tion as may be of interest will be communicated. A similar appro- 
 priate exchange of signals will be made when a naval vessel leaves 
 a harbor, the initiative being taken by the Navy. Commanding 
 officers of forts provided with radio equipment issue the necessary 
 orders requiring their stations to co-operate with and communicate 
 with all naval radio stations in their vicinity, both on shipboard 
 and ashore, but Army coast radio stations are not used in the trans- 
 mittal of official messages in any case where commercial or military 
 telegraph lines are available. 
 
 When a military commander officially visits a vessel of war he 
 gives notice in advance of his intention to do so. He is received 
 at the gangway by the commander of the vessel and is accom- 
 panied there by the same officer when leaving. The officer who is 
 sent with the customary offer of civilities is met at the gangway of 
 a vessel of war by the officer of the deck, and is presented by the 
 latter to the commander of the vessel. 
 
 On the occasion of the official reception or departure of a 
 civil, diplomatic, or consular official or of any commissioned officer 
 of the Navy, Army, Marine Corps, Naval Militia, or Coast Guard, 
 the side shall be piped. The side shall not be piped for shore 
 boats, but officers in them, if in uniform, shall be so saluted on 
 reaching or leaving the deck. Piping the side for officers not 
 wearing side arms may, by order of the commanding officer, be 
 
CEREMONIES, INSPECTIONS, HONORS, COURTESIES 143 
 
 dispensed with, without distinction of rank or grade, on board the 
 ships to which they are attached. 
 
 Side boys shall attend at the side when the side is piped, as 
 follows, except as noted in (e) below: (a) For officials saluted 
 with 15 or more guns, eight, (b) For officials saluted with 11 or 
 13 guns, six. (c) For other officers of and above the rank of com- 
 mander and for officials entitled to corresponding honors, four, 
 (d) For other commissioned officers of the Navy or Marine Corps 
 and officials entitled to corresponding honors, two. 
 
 (1) All honors, except such as social courtesy may demand, 
 shall be dispensed with at the reception or departure of all officers 
 under the following circumstances: (a) When they are in plain 
 clothes, (b) When the departure or reception takes place after 
 sunset and before 8 a. m. (except that for foreign officers the side 
 shall be piped), (c) During the meal hours of the crew for officers 
 of the United States Navy or Marine Corps, (d) When coaling 
 ship, for officers of the United States Navy or Marine Corps, (e) 
 On board ships having a complement, exclusive of the engineer 
 force, of 125 men or less the attendance of side boys for officers 
 of the United States Navy shall be required on occasions of cere- 
 mony, but shall not be required on ordinary occasions. When the 
 side is piped for officers of the United States Army or of foreign 
 services, side boys shall be in attendance between 8 a. m. and 
 sunset. 
 
 The guard and band shall not be paraded on Sundays for 
 ships or officers of the United States Navy and Marine Corps. 
 
 In case of vessels of war of foreign powers at peace with the 
 United States lying in our ports or harbors and celebrating their 
 national festivities the commander of each fort, battery, or military 
 post may participate in the celebration by firing salutes, parading 
 commands, etc. In such a case the flag of the United States is 
 hoisted and lowered simultaneously with that of the ship on board 
 of which the celebration occurs. 
 
 A vessel of war on which the President of the United States 
 is traveling displays the President's flag at the main. In case of 
 foreign sovereigns, vessels display the royal standards of the sov- 
 ereign in like maner. 
 
 FUNERAL HONORS 
 
 On the receipt at any post or camp of official notice of the 
 death of the President of the United States, the commanding offi- 
 cer, on the following day, causes a gun to be fired every half hour, 
 beginning at sunrise and ending at sunset. When posts are in sight 
 or within 6 miles of each other the firing takes place only at the 
 post commanded by the senior officer. 
 10 
 
144 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 The orders announcing the death of a Secretary of War, 
 Assistant Secretary of War, or a general officer on the active or 
 retired list, or other person entitled to a salute of cannon, specify 
 the number of guns to be fired at half-hour intervals, commencing 
 at 8 o'clock a. m. on the day after the receipt of the order, and the 
 posts at which they are fired. During the firing the flag is displayed 
 at halfstaff. 
 
 When the funeral of an officer who was entitled to a salute 
 takes place at or near a military post, minute guns are fired while 
 the remains are being borne to the place of interment, but the 
 number of guns do not exceed that to which the officer was entitled 
 as a salute. After the remains are deposited in the grave a salute 
 corresponding to the rank of the deceased is fired, in addition to 
 three salvos of artillery or three volleys of musketry. 
 
 If the remains of a flag officer of the Navy or a general 
 officer are brought ashore in the vicinity of a military post, the flag 
 will be displayed at halfstaff and minute guns are fired as the pro- 
 cession moves. The number of guns is that to which the officer 
 was entitled as a salute. • 
 
 During the funeral at or near a military post of a civil func- 
 tionary who was entitled to a salute, the flag is displayed at half- 
 staff and minute guns are fired. The number of guns is that to 
 which the functionary was entitled as a salute. 
 
 On the death of an officer at a military post the flag is dis- 
 played at halfstaff and so remains, between reveille and retreat, 
 until the last salvo or volley is fired over the grave; or if the re- 
 mains are not interred at the post, until they are removed therefrom. 
 
 During the funeral of an enlisted man at a military post the 
 flag is displayed at halfstaff. It is hoisted to the top after the final 
 volley or gun is fired, or after the remains are taken from the post. 
 The same honors are paid on the occasion of the funeral of a retired 
 enlisted man. 
 
 All military posts in sight of each other display their flags 
 at halfstaff upon the occasion of one doing so. The same rule is 
 observed toward all vessels of war. 
 
 When the flag is displayed at halfstaff it is lowered to that 
 position from the top of the staff. It is afterwards hoisted to the 
 top before it is finally lowered. 
 
 The funeral escort of the Secretary of War or General of 
 the Army consists of a regiment of infantry, a squadron of cavalry, 
 and a battalion of field Artillery; of the Assistant Secretary of 
 War or the Lieutenant General, a regiment of infantry, a squadron 
 of cavalry, and a battery of field artillery; of a Major General, a 
 regiment of infantry, two troops of cavalry, and a battery of field 
 artillery; of a Brigadier General, a regiment of infantry, a troop of 
 cavalry, and a platoon of field artillery of a Colonel, a regiment; a 
 
CEREMONIES, INSPECTIONS, HONORS, CO URTESIES 145 
 
 Lieutenant Colonel or Major, a battalion or squadron; a Captain, 
 one company; a Subaltern, a platoon. The funeral escort of a gen- 
 eral officer, or of any other officer either on the active or retired list, 
 when the funeral occurs at any other place than a military post or 
 camp, is ordered by the War Department, and is composed of such 
 bodies of troops, not exceeding the number prescribed in this para- 
 graph, as the interests of the service will permit. But in all cases 
 where the funeral ceremonies take place at or in the immediate 
 vicinity of a military post, or where the remains are conveyed 
 through a military post en route to the place of burial, the above 
 regulation relative to escort is complied with so far as the strength 
 of the garrison will allow. The flag is at halfstaff while the re- 
 mains are at or in the immediate vicinity of the post, and the 
 department or post commander gives the necessary orders. 
 
 The funeral escort of an officer is commanded by an officer 
 of the same grade; if none such be present, by one of the next 
 tower grade available. 
 
 The funeral escort of a non-commissioned staff officer con- 
 sists of 16 men, commanded by a sergeant; of a sergeant, of 14 
 men, commanded by a sergeant; of a corporal, of 12 men, com- 
 manded by a corporal; of a private, of 8 men, commanded by a 
 corporal; of an enlisted man of the field artillery, one section. Six 
 pallbearers are selected, as far as practicable, from the grade of 
 the deceased. 
 
 Officers and enlisted men attending military funerals wear 
 uniform and side arms and in the funeral procession follow the 
 mourners in order of rank, seniors in front. The funeral of an 
 officer is attended by such officers of the post or organization in 
 the field as other duties will permit. The funeral of a non-com- 
 missioned officer is attended by the non-commissioned officers and 
 privates of the regiment, or such part of it as may be present and 
 can be spared from other duties; that of a private by the non-com- 
 missioned officers and privates of his company. 
 
 The badge of military mourning consists of a straight band 
 of black crape or plain black cloth 5 inches wide, worn around the 
 left arm above the elbow; also, when the sword is worn, a knot 
 of black crape on the hilt; but no badge of military mourning is 
 worn with the uniform except at funerals or for occasions pre- 
 scribed by the War Department. As family mourning, officers may 
 wear the arm band. 
 
 The drums of a funeral escort are covered with black crape 
 or thin black serge, furnished by the quartermaster. 
 
 The colors of a regiment are not placed in mourning or 
 draped, except when ordered from the War Department. Two 
 streamers of crape 7 feet long and about 12 inches wide attached 
 to the ferrule below the spearhead are used for the purpose. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 MARCHES AND MARCH DISCIPLINE IN PEACE 
 AND IN CAMPAIGN 
 
 Good marching is secured by careful preparation, strict dis- 
 cipline, and the due observance of march sanitation. A success- 
 ful march, whether in peace or war, is one that places the troops 
 at their destination at the proper moment and in the best possible 
 condition. In war, marches are of daily occurrence, and success 
 depends in a great measure upon the skill with which they are 
 conducted. While conforming to other requirements, marches 
 are conducted so as to reduce to a minimum the hardships of the 
 troops. 
 
 The march is habitually at route order and the men are not 
 kept under arms longer than necessary, nor required to carry 
 heavy burdens when transportation is available. Special care is 
 paid to the feet of the men and to the hoofs and backs of animals. 
 
 The conduct of a march (forming the column or columns, 
 distribution of troops, the start, rate, length of march, etc.) is 
 controlled by the situation and object to be accomplished. 
 
 CONDUCT OF MARCHES 
 
 It is the duty of the commander to see that the necessary 
 preparations are made — that the men and animals are in fit con- 
 dition and that they are properly equipped; that all trains accom- 
 panying the command are loaded as prescribed; that proper meas- 
 ures have been inaugurated for the replenishment of supplies, 
 and that the necessary arrangements have been made for the care 
 and evacuation of the sick and wounded. 
 
 Forming the Column. — To form the column for a march, 
 the commander issues the necessary orders (march order). 
 
 The march order states the object of the march, gives the 
 distribution of the troops, order of march of the main body, 
 manner of forming the column, etc. If the command consists of 
 two or more columns, the order of the supreme commander gen- 
 erally indicates the march to be made by each column, and the 
 column commanders issue corresponding march orders. 
 
 When troops are encamped or bivouacked at some distance 
 
MARCHES AND MARCH DISCIPLINE 147 
 
 from the road, columns are formed by the successive arrival of 
 the fractions at an initial or starting point, which, as a rule, is 
 located in the direction of the proposed march. The commander 
 fixes the initial point after considering the position of the troops 
 and the roads by which they can join the column. He also pre- 
 scribes the hour at which the leading fraction or fractions clear 
 the initial point, and, if necessary, the routes to be followed in 
 reaching it. To prevent needless marching, he may designate 
 special initial points for parts of the command. As a general 
 rule, the larger units of a command should be camped in the 
 order in which they will march on the following day. 
 
 In drafting march orders, the road space and rate of march 
 of the different fractions of the command and their distances from 
 the initial point must be considered. With foot troops and cava 1 ™ 
 marching four abreast, artillery and trains in single column of 
 carriages, the following may be assumed for approximate calcula- 
 tions: Two men per yard for foot troops, one man per yard for 
 each mounted man, 20 yards for each gun, caisson, or wagon, and 
 12 yards for each autotruck. 
 
 Commanders of subordinate units examine the route to be 
 followed, calculate the time required, and start their commands 
 accordingly. They may designate initial points for their own 
 commands. In every case the initial point should be of easy 
 access. 
 
 When troops are located on or near the roads to be fol- 
 lowed, the commander prescribes the hour of starting for the 
 larger units; the subordinate commanders issue corresponding 
 orders for their commands. 
 
 Distribution of Troops. — The order of march of a column 
 is controlled mainly (1) by tactical considerations, which are para- 
 mount in the presence of the enemy, and (2) by the rule requiring 
 the hardships of troops to be reduced to a minimum. 
 
 During an advance the order of march of a column is gen- 
 erally as follows, the necessary security being provided: Com- 
 batant troops (with combat trains). 1. Cavalry and horse artillery. 
 2. Infantry and light or mountain artillery. 3. Engineers and 
 signal troops. 4. Trains, etc. During a retreat the order of march 
 is practically the reverse of the above. 
 
 In mixed commands, large bodies of cavalry and horse 
 artillery should not be intermingled with foot troops. A detach- 
 ment of engineers usually marches near the head of each column 
 to repair roads, strengthen bridges, etc. The order of brigades 
 in divisions, regiments in brigades, battalions or squadrons in 
 regiments, and company units in battalions or squadrons is gen- 
 erally changed from day to day — the leading unit one day taking 
 its place at the tail the following, and so on. 
 
148 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 On the march, troops, as far as practicable, keep to the 
 right of the road, leaving the left free. When the roads are 
 narrow, space should still be left for messengers to pass freely 
 along the column. When roads are soft with mud or heavy with 
 sand or very dusty, it may be advisable to divide the column 
 longitudinally, thus permitting men and animals to pick their way, 
 the middle of the road being left clear. Care should be taken not 
 to permit straggling or undue lengthening of the column. 
 
 Infantry usually marches in column of squads, column of 
 twos when necessary; cavalry, in column of fours on good roads 
 or when compact formation is desirable, otherwise in column of 
 twos; artillery in section column (single column of carriages), or 
 in double section column if the width of the road permits. On 
 trails, troops march in column of files or troopers. In marching 
 across country, the commander adopts the most advantageous 
 formation. 
 
 The Start. — When practicable, marches begin in the morn- 
 ing, ample time being allowed for the men to breakfast, animals 
 to feed, and the wagons or animals to be packed. The time for 
 reveille and stables should be designated the evening before. 
 Canteens are filled, fires put out, latrines covered, and the camp 
 policed before departure. The hour for the start depends upon 
 circumstances. As a rule foot troops do not start before broad 
 daylight; mounted troops, when practicable, about an hour after 
 broad daylight. Both men and animals rest well in the early 
 morning hours. 
 
 The signals for striking camp and putting the command in 
 march, such as the general, boots and saddles, etc., are ordered 
 by the commanders of the larger units at the proper time. After 
 the general, one or more officers of each organization superin- 
 tend the preparations of the march. The different units of the 
 column, including those of the train, are separated at the start by 
 distances prescribed in regulations or by the commander. These 
 distances are temporarily increased or diminished, according to 
 circumstances, thus facilitating uniform progress without checks, 
 and with a continual tendency to the gradual resumption of 
 normal distances. 
 
 Rate and Length of Marches. — The rate of march of a 
 mixed command is regulated by that of the foot troops. It varies 
 with the length of the march, size of the command, condition of 
 the troops, and other circumstances; sandy, rough, muddy, or 
 slippery roads, great heat and dust, strong headwinds, storms and 
 broken country, reduce the rate. If the hills are to be climbed 
 or swampy country is to be crossed, or defiles passed, liberal 
 allowances are made in time calculations. 
 
 For infantry the rate prescribed for drill is 100 yards a 
 
MARCHES AND MARCH DISCIPLINE 149 
 
 minute or 3.4 miles an hour; on the road the maximum to be 
 counted on is 88 yards a minute or 3 miles an hour, including 
 halts 2 l / 2 to 2^4 miles. The rate of infantry columns, under 
 average conditions, may be assumed at l 1 /^ to 2y 2 miles an hour. 
 
 The average march of infantry, and of mixed commands 
 consisting partly of foot troops, is 15 miles a day; but in extensive 
 operations, involving large bodies of troops, the average is about 
 12 miles a day. Small commands of seasoned infantry marching 
 on good roads in cool weather can average 20 miles a day. It is 
 of great importance that a uniform rate of march be maintained 
 throughout the column. When a change in the rate is to be made, 
 warning is sent along the column. 
 
 For cavalry the rates prescribed for drill are: The walk 
 4 miles, the trot 8 miles, and the gallop 12 miles an hour. The 
 average walk of a horse is at the rate of a mile in 16 minutes or 
 3^4 miles an hour; the average trot, a mile in 8 minutes or 7 l /> 
 miles an hour. In the field the usual gait is the walk of 3^4 miles 
 an hour; including halts, 3% to 3 l / 2 miles an hour. The average 
 march of cavalry, after men and animals are hardened, is 25 miles 
 a day. 
 
 The daily march of field artillery is the same as that of the 
 command of which it forms a part; if alone it covers from 15 to 20 
 miles. The rate of horse artillery is the same as that of the cavalry 
 to which it is attached. 
 
 The rate of a wagon train varies with the class and condition 
 of the draft animals, the load, length of the column, and the con- 
 dition of the roads. While large mules drawing light loads on 
 good roads can cover nearly 4 miles an hour, in long column a 
 rate of 2 miles, including halts, is all that can be expected even 
 under favorable conditions; small trains may make 2 l / 2 miles an 
 hour. The daily march of a wagon train is about the same as that 
 of infantry. 
 
 The average load of a pack mule is 250 pounds, and a train 
 thus loaded can travel from 20 to 25 miles a day on ordinary roads 
 or trails; over rough country, from 10 to 15 miles. 
 
 The rate of march, the load, and the distance that may be 
 covered in a day with autotrucks or with tractors drawing wagons 
 are dependent on the character and condition of the roads and the 
 carrying or pulling power of the trucks or tractors. 
 
 Halts. To rest the men and animals and for other purposes, 
 a command on the march is occasionally halted. The first halt is 
 made after marching about three-quarters of an hour, and is about 
 15 minutes long. 
 
 After the first rest, there is for foot troops a halt of about 10 
 minutes every hour — that is, the troops march 50 minutes and then 
 halt 10. In very hot weather the halts may be longer and more 
 
150 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 frequent. The men are allowed to fall out, but remain in the im- 
 mediate vicinity of their places. 
 
 For cavalry the hourly halts are shorter — 5 minutes; the men 
 examine the horses' feet, adjust saddles, etc. 
 
 For artillery the hourly halts are from 5 to 10 minutes; har- 
 ness is adjusted, girths are tightened, etc. 
 
 As a rule troops prefer to finish a day's march as soon as 
 possible. In good weather, with favorable temperature, long halts 
 are not desirable on marches of less than 15 miles for infantry or 
 25 miles for cavalry. When the day's march will run well into the 
 afternoon, a halt of about one hour near meal time is advantageous. 
 Places for long halts should be selected with care; wood, water, 
 grass, dry ground, and shade are desirable features. Arms are 
 stacked and equipments removed; mounted troops dismount and 
 loosen cinches. 
 
 In hot weather, especially in the tropics, it may be desirable 
 to avoid the midday heat. If the march is long, the command may 
 make an earlier start, or it may rest for three or four hours during 
 the hottest part of the day and finish the march in the evening. As 
 a general proposition, however, it is undesirable to arrive at a 
 strange place after nightfall or even late in the afternoon. 
 
 Halts are not made in or near towns or villages unless to 
 procure water or supplies, and when so made, the men remain in 
 column, details being sent for whatever is necessary. In com- 
 mands not exceeding a regiment, and in wagon trains of less than 
 a mile in length'; the units may halt simultaneously, the signal from 
 the head being promptly repeated. This may also be accomplished 
 in longer columns by the commanders of units setting their watches 
 at the same hour before starting, and agreeing when the halts 
 shall be made. 
 
 Crossing Bridges, Fords, and Ferries. — When a cause of de- 
 lay — for example, a damaged bridge — is encountered, the troops in 
 rear are notified of the minimum length of the delay; they then 
 conduct themselves as at regular halt. 
 
 In ascending or descending slopes, crossing streams or other 
 obstacles, or passing through defiles requiring a reduction of front, 
 every precaution is taken to prevent interruption of the march of 
 the troops in rear. If the distances are not sufficient to prevent 
 check, units are allowed to overlap; if necessary, streams are 
 crossed at two or more places at the same time; in passing through 
 short defiles the pace is accelerated and the exit cleared at once. 
 If a company unit is delayed while crossing an obstacle, the head 
 slackens the pace or halts until all of that unit has passed; it then 
 resumes its place in the column, increasing the pace if necessary. 
 
 Before attempting to cross with bodies of troops, careful 
 examination is made of fords, boggy places, bridges of doubtful 
 
MARCHES AND MARCH DISCIPLINE 151 
 
 character, ice, etc., as the case may be. When necessary, an officer 
 is designated to superintend the crossing; his instructions must be 
 strictly observed, the troops crossing in formation prescribed by 
 him. Foot troops crossing bridges march without cadence. 
 
 Whenever a military bridge is constructed with the bridge 
 equipage, or if deemed necessary, in cases where improvised mate- 
 rial is employed, a bridge guard under an engineer officer is de- 
 tailed for its care and maintenance during the period of its use. 
 All orders, regulations, and instructions issued by this engineer 
 officer relative to the care, protection, and use of the bridge are 
 considered as emanating from the commander of the force crossing 
 the bridge. 
 
 When roads lead through swamps or quicksand, or across 
 streams with treacherous bottoms, their limits are marked with 
 stakes or bushes, or warnings are placed at dangerous points. At 
 night lanterns are hung from the stakes, and a fire is built or a 
 lantern hung to mark the landing. 
 
 When the current is strong and the water deep, foot troops 
 cross on as broad a front as possible, the men marching abreast 
 and holding hands. They should not look at the water, but at the 
 opposite shore. If the ford is wide enough, mounted troops may 
 cross at the same time on the upstream side, thus breaking the 
 force of the current. 
 
 Fords that are at all difficult delay long columns unless the 
 troops cross at several places at once. The crossing of many ani- 
 mals or wagons may deepen a ford and render it impassable; new 
 places may thus become necessary. 
 
 The men enter pontoons or barges singly at the bow or stern 
 and gradually move toward the stern or bow; larger vessels may 
 be entered in column of twos; the men retain the places assigned 
 them so as not to interfere with the handling of the boat; in small 
 boats when the water is rough they sit down; when there is danger 
 they are directed to remove their equipments. 
 
 Horses are loaded one at a time. When there is room for a 
 single row only they alternate heads and tails; if in two rows they 
 face inward. If a horse falls into the water it is turned loose. 
 Guns, caissons, and wagons are generally loaded by hand; if prac- 
 ticable the teams are sent on the same vessel. Unloading is also 
 from the bow, in good order, without crowding; men sitting down 
 do not rise before their turn. 
 
 When rafts are used, special precautions are necessary. The 
 center of the raft is first occupied and then the load uniformly 
 distributed. Unloading is carried out in inverse order, the center 
 of the load being last to leave. The crossing of beef cattle on 
 boats or rafts is dangerous. When practicable they are crossed by 
 swimming. 
 
152 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Care of Troops. — On the march, commanders of the larger 
 units keep themselves informed of the condition of their commands 
 and of the progress of subordinate units in rear. Sources of water 
 supply are examined by experts and marked good or bad. In 
 countries infected with cholera or other harmful bacteria, this is 
 imperative. 
 
 Precaution is taken to prevent excess in eating and drinking. 
 The drinking of water is often a matter of habit; under ordinary 
 conditions a canteen of water should last one man a day's march. 
 Soldiers should be trained to be economical in the use of water, 
 and to keep a small supply until their canteens can be replenished. 
 If water is plentiful they may drink often, but only a small quan- 
 tity at a time. 
 
 Commanders afford the men ample opportunity for replenish- 
 ing their canteens, but it is done by order, not by straggling from 
 the command. In certain cases, the advance guard may require the 
 inhabitants to place water in vessels along the line of march for 
 the convenient use of troops. On long marches through country 
 deficient in water, or where the water is bad, it may be necessary 
 to carry a supply in wagons. 
 
 The watering of cavalry horses upon the march depends 
 largely on the facilities available. In hot weather, or if nothing is 
 known about the water supply of the day's march, the horses are 
 watered before leaving camp. Good opportunities for watering on 
 the road should not be neglected. To avoid delay, as many troops 
 as possible are watered at the same time; as the head of a command 
 approaches a place suitable for watering, the several units are con- 
 ducted, according to their position in column, to the different water- 
 ing places. 
 
 One of the greatest sources of hardship on a march, espe- 
 cially for infantry, is hot weather. Every precaution is taken to 
 prevent suffering from this cause. Halting places are selected when 
 practicable where there are shade and free circulation of air, and 
 the men are cautioned against drinking too much water. Green 
 leaves or a moist handkerchief in the hat affords relief from the hot 
 rays of the sun. If the men are overheated, care is taken to prevent 
 them being chilled by exposure to cold winds or drafts. 
 
 Straggling. — No man leaves the ranks without permission; it 
 is the duty of all officers and non-commissioned officers to prevent 
 straggling. Enlisted men found . away from their organizations 
 without authority are arrested by the military police. Military 
 prisoners held by military police are returned to their units at the 
 first opportunity, with a statement of the circumstances of their 
 apprehension. All persons found pillaging, marauding, or com- 
 mitting crimes are arrested and dealt with according to law. 
 
 Camp or Bivouac. — As a command approaches the camping 
 
MARCHES AND MARCH DISCIPLINE 153 
 
 place the commander issues a halt order. This order provides for 
 the outpost, if necessary, and gives instructions for the encampment 
 of the command. 
 
 MARCHES IN PEACE 
 
 The march order is issued from day to day, or it may cover 
 marches of several days. It prescribes the distribution of troops, 
 time of starting, camping places, service calls, and such other de- 
 tails as the commander deems necessary. To accord greater free- 
 dom of movement, the distances between the elements of a column 
 may be materially increased. In wet weather, to avoid cutting up 
 the road in advance, mounted troops of small mixed commands may 
 follow the infantry; in going through high vegetation or snow, 
 they may lead to break the way. Field trains may follow immedi- 
 ately in rear of their regiments, and the supply trains be placed to 
 facilitate issues. 
 
 Practice Marches. — The practical training of troops is divided 
 into two phases, namely, garrison training and field training. Prac- 
 tice marches form a part of field training and are made with two 
 objects in view: (1) That of hardening the men and animals and 
 of keeping them in proper physical condition; (2) that of in- 
 structing officers and men in duties incident to a campaign — • 
 marching, camping, cooking, etc. — and the principles of tactics, 
 including the services of information and security. A practice 
 march conforms to the conditions it is intended to simulate. That 
 the maximum benefit may be obtained, practice marches should 
 always include instruction in field duties of some character. In 
 maneuvers, and in exercises where the presence of the enemy is 
 assumed, regular field orders are issued. 
 
 MARCHES IN CAMPAIGN 
 
 Concentration. — Marches of concentration are made for the 
 purpose of assembling at a certain time and place bodies of troops 
 from different localities. Such marches require an accurate com- 
 putation of the time required for marching and of the road space 
 occupied by the troops. The condition of the roads, weather, etc., 
 must be considered. A column of troops on the march should not 
 be cut by another. If the heads of two columns meet at a distance 
 from the enemy, the senior commander has the right of way; 
 if near the enemy, the senior determines what measures are to 
 be taken. If a column in march overtakes another at a halt, it 
 may pass on, provided its commander be the senior, or the other 
 commander gives his consent. 
 
154 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Marches in the Presence of the Enemy. — The order of march 
 of these bodies is controlled^by tactical considerations. The order 
 of march of the main body is determined by the contemplated em- 
 ployment of the troops. When contact with the enemy is probable, 
 columns are closed up and march on broad fronts; communication 
 is maintained between the columns on parallel roads, and all im- 
 pedimenta not necessary in the conflict are kept in rear. If a part 
 of a unit of infantry is assigned to the advance guard, the re- 
 mainder of that unit usually marches at the head of the main body. 
 
 During the advance, the artillery, in order to expedite its 
 entry into action, is generally near the head of the main body, suffi- 
 cient infantry leading to insure proper security. Its commander 
 usually accompanies the commander of the column. If there is 
 danger to the flanks from small* bodies of the enemy, the artillery 
 may be broken into columns not longer than a regiment; it then 
 marches like a convoy with infantry in front, in or opposite the 
 center, and at the rear. This form of necessity delays the entry 
 into action of a part of the infantry; to reduce this delay, the 
 artillery marches, if possible, in double column, and its combat 
 train follows immediately in rear of the last infantry unit. When 
 moving into action the artillery has the right of way. 
 
 On marches through long defiles, or dense forests, or on 
 night marches, it may be advisable to place the artillery near the 
 rear of the column. 
 
 Trains. — Military trains are at all times provided with the 
 necessaryjguards. Field trains are guarded as far as practicable by 
 men on duty with the train, by convalescents and other non- 
 effectives, by dismounted men of the cavalry and by men from the 
 battery reserves in the artillery. Supply, ammunition, and engi- 
 neer trains are guarded by the military police. In marches into 
 action the trains are # held far enough in rear not to interfere with 
 the movements of troops or to check withdrawal in case of defeat. 
 
 If a pontoon battalion is attached to a division and is to be 
 used during the day's march, it is assigned a place in column as 
 far forward as practicable. 
 
 If a wagon breaks down or is stalled, its load is transferred 
 to other wagons and the road cleared as soon as practicable. 
 
 Forced Marches. — The conduct of forced marches is con- 
 trolled by the distance to be covered and the time in which the 
 march is to be accomplished. As they seriously impair the fighting 
 power of even the best troops, forced marches are undertaken 
 only in cases of necessity. Long forced marches can not be made 
 without injury unless the command is in good condition and the 
 march is made with good judgment. The difficulties of the problem 
 rapidly increase with the size of the command and length of the 
 
 . 
 
MARCHES AND MARCH DISCIPLINE 155 
 
 march, but in any case the completion of the march should find 
 the troops in condition to accomplish the object of the march. 
 
 With foot troops forced marches are generally made by in- 
 creasing the number of marching hours, the halts and periods for 
 cooking and sleep being arranged so as to afford the maximum 
 benefit. The rules prescribed for the average march are followed 
 as closely as possible. For large columns of infantry, marching 
 long distances, increase of pace is seldom of value. 
 
 A maximum day's march for infantry and trains is about 28 
 to 30 miles. A march of this character cannot, as a rule, be pro- 
 longed more than 36 hours. If a forced march is to continue for 
 several days, it becomes practically a succession of daily marches 
 of more than average length. 
 
 Foot droops are favored in every way possible. They are 
 assigned the best roads, and not intermingled with vehicles or 
 mounted men. If transportation is available, their packs are light- 
 ened. With mounted troops the gait, as well as the number of 
 marching hours, may be increased. 
 
 Under favorable conditions of road and weather a rate of 
 50 miles in 24 hours can be maintained for three or four days. On 
 such marches the usual hourly halts are made; in addition, a halt 
 of 2 hours is made at the end of the first half of each day's march,, 
 during which the horses are unsaddled and permitted to roll, feed, 
 and lie down. The rate is about 5 miles an hour, excluding halts, 
 
 On forced marches where the road is level or nearly so and 
 the footing good, the men are occasionally required to dismount 
 and march for short distances at a fast walk or slow double time, 
 leading their horses. They are also permitted to loosen or remove 
 their sweaters and overcoats, if their comfort will be materially 
 increased thereby. 
 
 Night Marches. — Night marches are sometimes made in hot 
 weather; generally, however, they are made as the result of a 
 forced march to surprise the enemy or to secure a favorable posi- 
 tion from which he may be attacked at night or at dawn. Moonlight 
 and good roads are favorable for night marches. A waning moon 
 is of advantage in marches beginning early in the morning. As 
 all-night marches rapidly impair the efficiency of a command, a few 
 hours' rest should be taken if practicable. Special effort is neces- 
 sary to maintain good march discipline. 
 
 Precaution is taken that the proper road is followed and that 
 contact between units is maintained, men being stationed to mark 
 changes of direction. If necessary guides are secured and charged 
 with the duty of following the right road. When, due to unfavor- 
 able conditions, units can not be kept well closed, men will be 
 placed at forks and crossing of roads, especially on dark nights 
 and at times of dense fogs or storms, and always when passing 
 
156 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 through cities or towns from which roads diverge in many direc- 
 tions. 
 
 When the march is secret, additional precautions are neces- 
 sary. Silence is maintained; mouthpieces of bugles are removed, 
 and articles of equipment secured to prevent rattling; smoking is 
 not permitted; villages and farm-houses are avoided on account 
 of warning given by dogs. If the troops are compelled to leave 
 the roads, their progress will be slow, and additional time allow- 
 ance must be made. 
 
 If cavalry forms a part of the column at night, it ordinarily 
 marches in rear of the infantry; if there is artillery, it generally 
 follows the cavalry and has a special infantry escort. 
 
 PROTECTION OF THE MARCH 
 
 A column on the march in the vicinity of the enemy is 
 covered by detachments called " advance guards," " rear guards," 
 or "flank guards." The object of these covering detachments is 
 to facilitate the advance of the main body and to protect it from 
 surprise or observation. 
 
 They facilitate the advance of the main body by promptly 
 driving off small bodies of the enemy who seek to harass or 
 delay it; by removing obstacles from the line of advance, by re- 
 pairing roads, bridges, etc., thus enabling the main body to advance 
 uninterruptedly in convenient marching formations. 
 
 They protect the main body by preventing the enemy from 
 firing into it when in close formation; by holding the enemy and 
 enabling the main body to deploy before coming under effective 
 fire; by preventing its size and condition from being observed by 
 the enemy; and, in retreat, by gaining time for it to make its 
 escape or to reorganize its forces. 
 
 The march order of the whole command should explain the 
 situation, and, among other things, detail the commander and 
 troops for each covering detachment. It should specify the route 
 to be taken and the distance to be maintained between the main 
 body and its covering detachments. It should order such recon- 
 naissances as the commander specially desires to have made. 
 
 The order of the commander of a covering detachment 
 should clearly explain the situation to subordinates, assign the 
 troops to the subdivisions, prescribe their distances, and order 
 such special reconnaissance as may be deemed necessary in the 
 beginning. 
 
 An advance or flank guard commander marches well to the 
 front and, from time to time, orders such additional reconnaissance 
 or makes such changes in his disposition as the circumstances of 
 the case demand. 
 
MARCHES AND MARCH DISCIPLINE 157 
 
 ADVANCE GUARDS 
 
 An advance guard is a detachment of the main body which 
 precedes and covers it on the march. 
 
 The advance guard commander is responsible for its forma- 
 tion and conduct. He should bear in mind that its purpose is to 
 facilitate and protect the march of the main body. Its own security 
 must be effected by proper dispositions and reconnaissance, not by 
 timid or cautious advance. It must advance at normal gait and 
 search aggressively for information of the enemy. Its action when 
 the enemy attempts to block it with a large force depends upon 
 the situation and plans of the commander of the troops. 
 
 The strength of the advance guard varies from one-twentieth 
 to one-third of the main body, depending upon the size of the 
 main body and the service expected of the advance guard. 
 
 The formation of the advance guard must be such that the 
 enemy will be met first by a patrol, then in turn by one or more 
 larger detachments, each capable of holding the enemy until the 
 next in rear has time to deploy before coming under effective fire. 
 
 Generally an advance guard consisting of a battalion or 
 more is divided primarily into reserve and the support. When 
 the advance guard consists of less than a battalion, the reserve is 
 generally omitted. 
 
 In an advance guard consisting of two battalions or less, 
 the reserve and support, if both are used, are approximately equal; 
 in larger advance guards, the reserve is approximately two-thirds 
 of the whole detachment. In advance guards consisting of one 
 battalion, the machine guns, if any, form part of the reserve. In 
 an advance guard consisting of two or more battalions, the machine 
 guns form part of the support. 
 
 The support sends forward an advance party. The advance 
 party, in turn, sends a patrol, called a point, still farther to the 
 front. Patrols are sent out to the flanks when necessary. When 
 the distance between parts of the advance guard or the nature of 
 the country is such as to make direct communication difficult, con- 
 necting files march between the subdivisions to keep up communi- 
 cation. Each element of the column sends the necessary connecting 
 files to its front. 
 
 A battalion acting as an advance guard should be formed 
 about as follows: The reserve, two companies; the support, two 
 companies; the advance party, three to eight squads (about a half 
 company), depending upon the strength of the companies and the 
 reconnaissance to be made; the point, a non-commissioned officer 
 and three or four men. Or the reserves may be omitted. In such 
 case the advance party consists of one company preceded by a 
 strong point. The remaining companies form the support. 
 
158 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 The distances separating the parts of an advance guard vary- 
 according to the mission of the whole force, the size of the advance 
 guard, the proximity and character of the enemy, the nature of the 
 country, etc. They increase as the strength of the main body in- 
 creases; they are less when operating in rolling, broken country 
 than in open country; when in pursuit of a defeated enemy than 
 against an aggressive foe; when operating against cavalry than 
 when against infantry. If there be a mounted point, it should pre- 
 cede the dismounted point by 250 to 600 yards. The advance party- 
 may be stronger when there is a mounted point in front. The in- 
 fantry maintains its gait without reference to the mounted point, 
 the latter regulating its march on the former. 
 
 To afford protection to an infantry column, the country 
 must be observed on each side of the road as far as the terrain 
 affords positions for effective rifle fire upon the column. If the 
 country that is necessary to observe be open to view from the road, 
 reconnaissance is not necessary. 
 
 The advance guard is responsible for the necessary recon- 
 naissance of the country on both sides of the line of march. 
 Special reconnaissance may be directed by the commander of 
 the troops, or cavalry may be reconnoitering at considerable dis- 
 tances to the front and flanks, but this does not relieve the ad- 
 vance guard from the duty of local reconnaissance. 
 
 This reconnaissance is effected by patrols sent out by the 
 leading subdivisions of the advance guard. In a large ad- 
 vance guard the support commander orders the necessary 
 reconnaissance. Patrols should be sent to the flanks when 
 necessary to reconnoiter a specified locality and should 
 rejoin the column and their proper subdivision as soon as 
 practicable. When the advance party is strong enough, the 
 patrols should be sent out from it. When depleted by the patrols 
 sent out, the advance party should be reenforced during a halt 
 by men sent forward from the support. If it be impracticable to 
 send patrols from the advance party, they will be sent from the 
 support. Where the country is generally open to view, but locali- 
 ties in it might conceal an enemy of some size, reconnaissance is 
 necessary. Where the road is exposed to fire and the view is re- 
 stricted a patrol should be sent to examine the country in the 
 direction from which danger threatens. The object may be ac- 
 complished by sending patrols to observe from prominent points. 
 When the ground permits and the necessity exists, patrols may 
 be sent to march abreast of the column at distances which permit 
 them to see important features not visible from the road. Mounted 
 scouts or cavalry, when available, should be used for flank patrols. 
 
 Cases may arise where the best means of covering the head 
 and flanks of the column will be by a line of skirmishers extend- 
 
MARCHES AND MARCH DISCIPLINE 159 
 
 ing for several hundred yards to both sides of the road, and de- 
 ployed at intervals of from 10 to 50 yards. A column may thus 
 protect itself when passing through country covered with high 
 corn or similar vegetation. In such case the vegetation forms a 
 natural protection from rifle fire beyond very short ranges. 
 
 Fixed rules for the strength, formation, or conduct of ad- 
 vance guards can not be given. Each case must be treated to 
 meet conditions as they exist. That solution is generally the best 
 which, with the fewest men and unbroken units, amply protects 
 the column and facilitates the advance. 
 
 REAR GUARDS 
 
 A rear guard is a detachment detailed to protect the main 
 body from attack in rear. In a retreat, it checks pursuit and 
 enables the main body to increase the distance between it and the 
 enemy and to re-form if disorganized. The general formation is 
 that of an advance guard reversed. 
 
 Its commander should take advantage of every favorable 
 opportunity to delay the pursuers by obstructing the road or by 
 taking up specially favorable positions from which to force the 
 enemy to deploy. In this latter case care must be taken not to 
 become too closely engaged as to render withdrawal unnecessarily 
 difficult. The position taken should be selected with reference to 
 ease of withdrawal and ability to bring the enemy under fire at 
 long range. 
 
 In large commands artillery and cavalry form a very im- 
 portant part of the rear guard. 
 
 FLANK GUARDS 
 
 A flank guard is a detachment detailed to cover the flank 
 of a column marching past, or across the front of, an enemy. It 
 may be placed in position to protect the passage, or it may be so 
 marched as to cover the passage. 
 
 The object of the flank guard is to hold the enemy in check 
 long enough to enable the main body to pass, or, like the advance 
 guard, to enable the main body to deploy. Like all other de- 
 tachments, it should be no larger than is necessary, and should 
 not be detailed except when its protection is required. 
 
 When a flank guard consists of a regiment or less, its dis- 
 tance from the main body should not exceed a mile and a half. 
 Practicable communication must exist between it and the main 
 body. 
 
160 
 
 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 The flank guard is marched as a separate command; that is, 
 with advance or rear guards or both, as circumstances demand, 
 and with patrolling on the exposed flank. 
 
 At times it may be necessary for an advance guard com- 
 mander to send out large reconnoitering parties which temporarily 
 assume the character and duties of a flank guard. Such parties 
 should be given specific orders as to when and where they are to 
 rejoin the column. 
 
 VETERINARY SERVICE ON THE MARCH 
 
 Veterinarians are assigned to certain units while on the 
 march; but, frequently, veterinary advice is not available. In such 
 times some of the following list of common ailments and injuries 
 with symptoms and treatment may be found useful: 
 
 Ailment or Injury. 
 1. Abrasions: bruises... 
 
 2. Bit injuries 
 
 3. Blind staggers 
 
 4. Broken knees 
 
 5. Bullet or shell wounds 
 
 6. Colic 
 
 Symptoms, Treatment, etc. 
 
 Treatment: White lotion, 1 ounce each sugar of lead and 
 sulphate of zinc to 1 quart of water. 
 
 Caution: Do not mistake a soft puffy swelling near joints 
 and tendons or on the abdomen for abscesses. 
 
 Treatment for true pus abscess: Poultice (if not open), 
 cut through skin with knife, then insert blunt instru- 
 ment to pus cavity, flush twice daily, provide for drain- 
 age. Inject 5 per cent, salt solution. 
 
 Treatment: Rest mouth, work in snaffle; improvise 
 martingale, if necessary. Wrap bit with 1-inch 
 
 bandage at point of contact. Apply white lotion or 
 5 per cent. alum. 
 
 Treatment: Throw cold water on animal's head, remove 
 collar, give an active physic. Place animal in a cool, 
 dark, well ventilated stable. _ Keep him quiet and give 
 cooling diet. Call veterinarian. 
 
 Treatment: Wash clean. Apply loose cotton and bandage 
 or wash with 5 per cent, salt solution and bandage. 
 
 Treatment: Of lower legs — Check bleeding by compres- 
 sion or packing and bandage. Later apply 5 per cent, 
 salt water solution by injection or bathing. Of upper- 
 leg regions and body — Stop bleeding by packing with 
 cotton, gauze, or oakum, or take up bleeding vessel 
 with forceps, tie with thread. Sewing up wound not 
 necessary first few days, but keep clean and stimulate 
 flow of blood with salt-solution (5 per cent.). Cleanse 
 parts of hair, dirt, pieces of flesh, and all foreign 
 matter. Improvised forceps for this purpose can be 
 made with 2 flat splinters of wood (disinfected) tied 
 at one end. 
 
 Symptoms: Horse looks round at his sides, tries to He 
 down and roll, paws, stamps with hind legs, and kicks 
 at beriy. 
 
 Treatment: Walk about, give chloral hydrate ball if avail- 
 able, or 2 ounces turpentine, well shaken up, either 
 with a pint of linseed oil. If not relieved in an hour 
 repeat the dose and give in addition an aloes ball, or 
 Cannabis indica 2 to 4 drams, aromatic spirits of am- 
 monia 1 ounce, water to make 1 pint; or fluid extract 
 of belladonna 2 drams, nitrous ether 2 ounces, water to 
 make 1 pint. In the absence of drugs give half 
 
MARCHES AND MARCH DISCIPLINE 
 
 161 
 
 Ailment or Injury. 
 
 Symptoms, Treatment, etc. 
 
 7. Constipation 
 
 8. Coughs, colds, nasal 
 catarrh. 
 
 9. Cracked heels and mud 
 fever. 
 
 10. Diarrhea 
 
 11. Dirty sheath 
 
 12. Exhaustion after hard 
 work. 
 
 13. Epizootic lymphangitis. 
 
 14. Farcy 
 
 15. Fever, pneumonia, 
 
 16. Girth galls 
 
 tumbler of rum or whisky in. a pint of warm water, 
 or hot ginger or pepper tea. Hand rub belly and .give 
 frequent enemas of soapy water. (See " Sand colic ") 
 
 Treatment: Soft food and green also, if available; regular 
 work and frequent enemas. Withhold alfalfa hay; 
 dampen clover or timothy hay, bran mashes, pasture, 
 cold-water enemas, linseed oil, 1 pint, night and 
 morning. 
 
 Any animal with a nasal discharge should be' isolated, 
 and veterinary aid obtained as soon as possible. 
 
 Treatment: Steam head with 2 ounces creolin in one-half 
 bucket water, and apply linament or mustard mixed, a9 
 for the table, to throat from ear to ear, and leave on 
 for 15 minutes. Give soft food. Keep body warm 
 with blankets and bandages, and give plenty of fresh 
 air. 
 
 Prevention: Do not wash legs when muddy, but leave 
 until dry, and then brush dirt out. 
 
 Treatment: Cleanse and dry (if greasy, apply dry bran 
 poultice), dust on boric acid or powdered starch. Stand 
 in dry place. 
 
 Treatment: Examine feed for molds. Dry food; remove 
 salt, restrict water. Clean out bowels: 1 pint linseed 
 oil night and morning. Give 1 ounce dose white lotion 
 3 times a day. 
 
 Draw out pents and wash it and sheath with soap and 
 warm water. Attendant should clean and trim his 
 own nails before the operation. 
 
 Treatment: Complete rest, dry standing, blanket and leg 
 bandage. Stimulate with whisky or aromatic spirits 
 of ammonia, 2 ounces of each in l /& pint cold water. 
 Bran mashes, steamed oats, oatmeal gruel. Strych- 
 nine', 1 grain in 2 ounces aromatic spirits of ammonia 
 three times a day. Place in paddock. 
 
 Symptoms: Sores similar to and in similar situations to 
 farcy. They have a greater tendency to heal. Usually 
 originates from a wound, from which point cordlike 
 swellings appear and on the course of which these 
 sores form. 
 
 Treatment: Isolate. Very contagious. Proceed as for 
 farcy. Call for services of veterinarian. 
 
 Symptoms: Skin form of glanders. Appears as a string 
 of running sores, usually on inside of hind legs, oc- 
 casionally neck and face. No tendency to heal. 
 
 Treatment: As for glanders. Be careful to distinguish 
 from epizotic lymphangitis. Seek veterinary aid at 
 once. 
 
 Symptoms: Horse off feed, dull, temperature over 100 
 degrees Fahrenheit. 
 
 Treatment: Isolate and apply for veterinary aid. Give 
 soft food and green stuff when available. Keep water 
 always by and change frequently. Blister chest walls 
 with thin mustard paste and cover up. If procurable, 
 give a handful of epsom salts in each 'bucket of water. 
 Keep body warm with blankets and bandages and give 
 plenty of fresh air. 
 
 Treatment: If simply a swelling, lightly smooth over the 
 swollen surface with the hand in the direction of the 
 hair, as if to smooth it out, for 15 minutes at a time, 
 supply white lotion. If skin is chafed, treat as for 
 wounds. To work horse strap girth back, tying it 
 under the belly to surcingle, which should be placed 
 over fans of saddle. When healed, place piece of 
 sheepskin under .girth. 
 
162 
 
 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Ailment or Injury. 
 
 Symptoms, Treatment, etc. 
 
 17. Glanders 
 
 18. Influenza 
 
 19. Mange 
 
 20. Ringworm 
 
 21. Rope, harness, or sad 
 die galls. 
 
 22. Sand colic , 
 
 23. Scratches; grease..., 
 
 Symptoms: Thick, gluey discharge from one or both 
 nostrils, ulcers on the membrane, inside nostrils, 
 glands between lower jaws enlarged, tender and hard. 
 
 Treatment: Very contagious. Rigid isolation of affected 
 cases, in contacts and whole unit t if possible. On 
 suspicion, immediately obtain veterinary aid. If un- 
 doubted " glanders " animal should be shot. Very 
 contagious to man, and fatal. 
 
 Symptoms: Same as in fever; also animal holds head low. 
 staggers when walking, visible mucous membrane of 
 yellowish tinge. When digestive organs affected, con- 
 stipation the rule at first. Eyelids swollen, hot and 
 sensitive to touch. 
 
 Treatment: Isolate, as very contagious. Give quinine sul- 
 phate, 1 dram, gentian 2 drams, in ball, three times a 
 day; add Y% ounce saltpeter to drinking water twice 
 daily. Fever may be reduced by rectal injections of 
 cool water. Intestinal troubles may be relieved by giv- 
 ing bicarbonate of soda in one dram doses three times 
 a day. Bathe eyes in warm water, anoint with cos- 
 moline. 
 
 Symptoms: Marked skin irritation. Horse bites and rubs 
 himself against any available object. Hair comes off in 
 patches and skin becomes thickened and corrugated 
 
 Treatment: Isolate. Clip, burn clippings, dress with warm 
 5/100 creolin solution one-third surface of body daily 
 milder solution may be used all over. Thoroughly dis> 
 infect all stables, harness, utensils. Discontinue cloth- 
 ing. Exercise to sweating daily, if possible, and apply 
 warm solution immediately on return. Seek veterinary 
 aid. Suspect rash on man in contact with affected 
 animals; treat man by frequent application. 2/100 
 creolin solution. 
 
 Symptoms: Hair falls out in circular patches. 
 
 Treatment: Wash region affected with common laundry 
 soap and water, then apply creolin 2 parts, water 100 
 parts; or paint patches with tincture iodine or 1/000 
 bichloride of mercury, alcohol or water solution. Disin- 
 fect harness, brushes, curry combs, rubbing posts, picket 
 lines with strong soap solution, then 5/100 creolin 
 solution. 
 
 Prevention: Head rope short. Care in fitting saddlery, 
 use pads where irritation exists; keep pads washed 
 clean. Keep saddle off while healing. 
 
 Treatment: Grease when marching; protect if possible, 
 with light bandage; on return to camp wash with soap 
 and water; dry and apply bran poultice. Apply methy- 
 lene blue. 
 
 Prevention: Feed off blankets, etc. Clean food. 
 
 Treatment: Give chloral hydrate balls and linseed oil in 
 quart doses. 
 
 Both due to uncleanliness as a rule. Scratches run into 
 grease if not attended to. 
 
 Treatment: for scratches: Cleanse with castile soap and 
 water; dry and apply sulphate zinc 1 ounce, acetate of 
 lead 1 ounce, water 1 quart, or oxide of zinc 1 part, 
 lanolin 10 parts. In bad case of grease, proud flesh 
 must be cut and burned, better call the veterinarian. 
 Marked skin irritation of heels, tenderness, lame at 
 first. May follow "mud fever" in wet seasons and 
 usually due to neglect. To treat scratches always use 
 cotton and bandage drawn lightly. Don't use water but 
 clean dry and dust with boric acid, starch or apply 
 white lotion or zinc ointment; use cotton and bandage. 
 Grease heel requires hospital and veterinary aid. 
 
 : 
 
MARCHES AND MARCH DISCIPLINE 
 
 163 
 
 Ailment or Injury. 
 
 24. Sore backs and saddle 
 galls. 
 
 25. Sore withers 
 
 26. Sprained tendons or 
 joints, etc. 
 
 27. Strangles 
 
 28. Sunstroke or heat- 
 stroke. 
 
 29. Thrush 
 
 30. Ticks, lice. 
 
 Symptoms, Treatment, etc. 
 
 Prevention: Careful supervision and fitting of saddlery. 
 
 Treatment: If swelling only, treat as for (20) or batho 
 with cold salt water. Apply white lotion. If skin 
 chafed, treat as for wounds. Keep saddle off back until 
 healed. Apply methylene blue. 
 
 Treatment: Keep arch of saddle clear of withers. If 
 swelling, only bathe with cold salt water. If skin 
 broken, treat as for wounds. 
 
 Treatment: Rest, examine foot for possible injury. For 
 sprain apply wet cotton pad and bandage lightly; keep 
 wet or use white lotion; i. e., lead acetate 1 ounce, zinc 
 sulphate 1 ounce, water 1 quart; apply direct and cover 
 with wet bandage. In absence of medicines, etc., use 
 cold salt water or clay poultice. 
 
 Symptoms: High fever and nasal discharge. Swelling at 
 the back of or under the jaw. May be some difficulty 
 in swallowing. 
 
 Treatment: Isolate and obtain veterinary aid. Rest, soft 
 food, blanket and bandage; plenty of fresh air and 
 foment swelling. Lance swelling, or if it bursts treat 
 as for wounds. Give l /i ounce saltpeter in drinking 
 water. 
 
 Reduce temperature by cold water or ice on head and 
 cold water injections. Give 2 ounces aromatic spirits of 
 ammonia or 4 ounces alcohol in 8 ounces (1 pint) of 
 water. Repeat dose in 1 hour if necessary. 
 
 Treatment: Clean frog, dress cleft with boric acid or salt, 
 and then plug with piece of tow. If severe, poultice or 
 eoak foot before applying dressing. Powdered calomel 
 sprinkled over diseased part will dry up thrush in 2 or 
 3 days. Keep foot dry for several hours after adminis- 
 tering. Stand on driest ground available. Open heels 
 with knife. 
 
 Treatment: Pull out only when dead; apply strong de- 
 coction tobacco in saturated (all water will dissolve) 
 solution of salt. Soak affected parts every other day. 
 Look out for lice; nits readily seen fastened to hair; 
 hatch in 7 to 10 days. Coal oil, alcohol, turpentine very 
 useful. 
 
 Horses on sick report are under the immediate charge of 
 the stable sergeant. When a veterinarian is present he should 
 prescribe the treatment to be given to sick horses, and he should 
 inspect all sick horses at least once daily. He should also visit 
 each organization at least once a day at one of the stated 
 " stables," and should be freely consulted as to minor ailments 
 and as to the means of keeping the horses in fit condition. In the 
 absence of a veterinarian the sick horses are treated by the stable 
 sergeant under the direction of the captain. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 CAMPS, CANTONMENTS, CAMP SANITATION AND 
 THE SHELTERING OF TROOPS 
 
 In campaign, tactical necessity may leave little choice in the 
 selection of camp sites, but under any conditions the requirements 
 of sanitation should be given every consideration consistent with 
 the tactical situation. 
 
 Great care should be exercised in selecting sites. In general, 
 the following principles govern: The site should be convenient 
 to an abundant supply of pure water. Good roads should lead to 
 the camp. Interior communication throughout the camp should be 
 easy. A camp near a main road is undesirable on account of dust 
 and noise. Wood, grass, forage, and supplies should be at hand or 
 easily obtainable. The ground should accommodate the command 
 without crowding and without compelling the troops of one unit to 
 pass through the camp of another. 
 
 The site should be sufficiently high and rolling to drain off 
 storm water readily, and, if the season be hot, to catch the breeze. 
 In cold weather it should preferably have a southern exposure, 
 with woods to the north to break the cold winds. In warm weather 
 an eastern exposure, with the site moderately shaded by trees, is 
 desirable. The site should be dry. For this reason, porous soil, 
 covered with stout turf and underlaid by a sandy or gravelly sub- 
 soil, is best. A site on clay soil, or where the ground water 
 approaches the surface, is damp, cold, and unhealthful. 
 
 Alluvial soils, marshy ground, and ground near the base of 
 hills, or near thick woods or dense vegetation, are undesirable as 
 camp sites on account of dampness. Ravines and depressions are 
 likely to be unduly warm and to have insufficient or undesirable 
 air currents. Proximity to marshes or stagnant water is unde- 
 sirable on account of the dampness, mosquitoes, and the diseases 
 which the latter transmit. The high banks of lakes or large streams 
 often make desirable camp sites. Dry beds of streams should be 
 avoided; they are subject to sudden freshet. 
 
 The occupation of old camp sites is dangerous, since these 
 are often permeated by elements of disease which persists for con- 
 siderable periods. Camp sites must be changed promptly when 
 there is evidence of soil pollution or when epidemic disease threat- 
 
CAMPS AND SHELTERING OF TROOPS 165 
 
 ens, but the need for frequent changes on this account may be a 
 reflection on the sanitary administration of the camp. 
 
 A change of camp site is often desirable in order to secure a 
 change of surroundings and to abandon areas which have become 
 dusty and cut up. 
 
 WATER SUPPLY 
 
 Immediately on making camp a guard should be placed over 
 the water supply. If the water be obtained from a stream, places 
 should be designated foi* drawing water (1) for drinking and cook- 
 ing, (2) for watering animals, (3) for bathing and washing clothing. 
 The first named should be drawn farthest up.the stream; the others, 
 in the order named, downstream. 
 
 If the stream be small, the water supply may be increased 
 by building a dam. Small springs may be dug out and each lined 
 with a gabion, or a barrel or box with both ends removed, or with 
 stones, the space between the lining and the earth being filled 
 with puddled clay. A rim of clay should be built to keep out sur- 
 face drainage. The same method may be used near swamps, 
 streams, or lakes to increase or clarify the water supply. 
 
 Water that is not known to be pure should be boiled 20 
 minutes; it should then be cooled and aerated by being poured 
 repeatedly from one clean container to another, or it may be puri- 
 fied by approved apparatus supplied for the purpose. 
 
 Arrangements should be made for men to draw water from 
 the authorized receptacles by means of a spigot or other similar 
 arrangement. The dipping of water from the receptacles, or the 
 use of a common drinking cup, should be prohibited. 
 
 KITCHENS 
 
 Camp kettles can be hung on a support consisting of a 
 green pole lying in the crotches of two upright posts of the same 
 character. A narrow trench for the fire, about 1 foot deep, dug 
 under the pole, not only protects the fire from the wind, but saves 
 fuel. A still greater economy of fuel can be effected by digging a 
 similar trench in the direction of the wind and slightly narrower 
 than the diameter of the kettles. The kettles are then placed on the 
 trench and the space between the kettles filled in with stones, clay, 
 etc., leaving the flue running beneath the kettles. The draft can be 
 improved by building a chimney of stones, clay, etc., at the leeward 
 end of the flue. Four such trenches radiating from a common 
 central chimney will give one flue for use whatever may be the 
 
166 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 direction of the wind. A slight slope of the flue, from the chimney 
 down, provides for drainage and improves the draft. 
 
 The lack of portable ovens can be met by ovens constructed 
 of stone and covered with earth to better retain the heat. If no 
 stone is available, an empty barrel, with one head out, is laid on 
 its side, covered with wet clay to a depth of 6 or more inches and 
 then with a layer of dry earth equally thick. A flue is constructed 
 with the clay above the closed end of the barrel, which is then 
 burned out with a hot fire. This leaves a baked clay covering 
 for the oven. A recess can be similarly constructed with boards 
 or even brushwood, supported on a horizontal pole resting on 
 upright posts, covered and burnt out as in the case of the barrel. 
 When clay banks are available, an oven may be excavated therein 
 and used at once. To bake in such ovens, first heat them and then 
 close flues and ends. 
 
 Food must be protected from flies, dust, and sun. Facilities 
 must be provided for cleaning and scalding the mess equipment of 
 the men. Kitchens and the ground around them must be kept 
 scrupulously clean. 
 
 Solid refuse should be promptly burned, either in the kitchen 
 fire or in an improvised crematory. 
 
 In temporary camps, if the soil is porous, liquid refuse from 
 the kitchens may be strained through gunnysacking into seepage 
 pits dug near the kitchen. Flies must not have access to these pits. 
 Boards or poles, covered with brush or grass and a layer of earth, 
 may be used for this purpose. The strainers should also be pro- 
 tected from flies. Pits of this kind, dug in clayey soil, will not 
 operate successfully. All pits should be filled with earth before 
 marching. 
 
 DISPOSAL OF EXCRETA 
 
 Immediately on arriving in camp sinks should be dug. This 
 is a matter of fundamental sanitary importance, since the most 
 serious epidemics of camp diseases are spread from human excreta. 
 One sink is usually provided for each company and one for the 
 officers of each battalion. Those for the men are invariably located 
 on the side of camp opposite the kitchens. All sinks should 
 be so placed that they cannot pollute the water supply or camp 
 site as a result of drainage or overflow. To insure this, their loca- 
 tion and their distance from camp may be varied. When camp is 
 made for a single night, shallow trenches, 12 inches deep and 15 
 to 18 inches wide, which the men may straddle, will suffice. In 
 more permanent camps, the trenches should be about 2 feet wide, 
 6 feet deep, and 15 feet long. They should be provided with seats 
 
CAMPS AND SHELTERING OF TROOPS 167 
 
 and back rests made of poles, and should be screened by brush or 
 old tent flys. 
 
 In cold weather the contents of sinks should be covered once 
 daily with quicklime, ashes, or dry earth. When filled to within 
 2 feet of the top, sinks should be discontinued and filled in. Open 
 pits are dangerous during the fly season. However, the danger may 
 be greatly reduced by covering the excreta with earth or by a 
 thorough daily burning of the entire area of the trench. Combus- 
 tible sweepings or straw, saturated with oil, may be used for this 
 purpose. In fly season, trenches may be closed with seats covered 
 down to the ground with muslin and supplied with self-closing 
 lids. Urinal troughs, made of muslin and coated with oil or paint, 
 should discharge into the trenches. 
 
 In permanent camps special sanitary facilities for the dis- 
 posal of excreta are ordinarily provided. If necessary, urinal tubs 
 may be placed in the company streets at night and removed at 
 reveille. Their location should be plainly marked and thoroughly 
 and frequently disinfected. 
 
 When troops bivouac for the night the necessity for exten- 
 sive sanitary precautions is not great; however, shallow sink 
 trenches should be dug to prevent general pollution of the vicinity. 
 If the cooking be collective, shallow kitchen sinks should be dug. 
 If the cooking be individual, the men should be required to build 
 their fires on the leeward flank of the camp or bivouac. Before 
 marching, all trenches should be filled in. 
 
 PROTECTION OF CAMP OR BIVOUAC 
 
 The outpost is a covering detachment detailed to secure the 
 camp or bivouac against surprise and to prevent an attack upon it 
 before the troops can prepare to resist. 
 
 The size and disposition of the outpost depends upon many 
 circumstances, such as the size of the whole command, the prox- 
 imity of the enemy and the situation with respect to him, the 
 nature of the terrain, etc. A suitable strength may vary from 
 a very small fraction to one-third of the whole force. For a single 
 company in bivouac a few sentinels and patrols will suffice; for a 
 large command a more elaborate outpost system must be provided. 
 It should be no stronger than is consistent with reasonable security. 
 The most economical protection is furnished by keeping in close 
 contact with the enemy by means of outpost patrols, in conjunction 
 with resisting detachments on the avenues of approach. The out- 
 post should be composed of complete organizations. 
 
 In a brigade or smaller force on the march toward the 
 enemy, the outpost is generally formed from the advance guard, 
 
168 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 and is relieved the following day when the new advance guard 
 crosses the line of outguards. In a retreat, the detail for outpost 
 duty is generally made from the main body. The new outpost 
 becomes the rear guard the following day. 
 
 When, as in large forces, an advance and rear guard per- 
 forms such duty for several days, the outpost, during this period, 
 is furnished by the advance or rear guards. When the command 
 is small and stationary for several days, the outpost is relieved 
 daily. In large commands, the outpost is, as a rule, relieved at 
 intervals of several days. 
 
 The positions held by the subdivisions of the outpost should 
 generally be prepared for defense, but conditions may render this 
 unnecessary. Troops on outpost keep concealed as much as is 
 consistent with the proper performance of their duties; especially 
 do they avoid appearing on the sky line. Outpost troops do not 
 render honors. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF OUTPOST TROOPS 
 
 The outpost is generally divided into three parts. These, in 
 order from the main body, are the reserve, the line of supports, and 
 the line of outguards. The distances separating these parts, and 
 their distance from the main body, will depend upon the object 
 sought, the nature of the terrain, and the size of the command. 
 There can be no uniformity in the distance between supports and 
 reserve, nor between outguards and supports, even in the same 
 outpost. The avenues of approach and the important features of 
 the terrain will largely control their exact positions. The outpost 
 of a small force should ordinarily hold the enemy beyond effective 
 rifle range of the main body until the latter can deploy. For the 
 same purpose the outpost of a large force should hold the enemy 
 beyond artillery range. 
 
 The reserve constitutes the main body of the outpost and is 
 held at some central point from which it can readily support the 
 troops in front or hold a rallying position on which they may retire. 
 The reserve may be omitted when the outpost consists of less than 
 two companies. The reserve may comprise one-fourth to two- 
 thirds of the strength of the outpost. 
 
 The supports constitute a line of supporting and resisting 
 detachments varying in size from a half company to a battalion. 
 They furnish the line of outguards. The supports are numbered 
 consecutively from right to left. They are placed at the more 
 important points on the outpost line, usually in the line on which 
 resistance is to be made in case of attack. 
 
 As a general rule, roads exercise the greatest influence on 
 the location of supports, and a support will generally be placed on 
 
CAMPS AND SHELTERING OF TROOPS 169 
 
 or near a road. The section which is to cover should be clearly- 
 denned by means of tangible lines on the ground and should be 
 such that the support is centrally located therein. 
 
 The outguards constitute the line of small detachments 
 farthest to the front and nearest to the enemy. For convenience 
 they are classified as pickets, sentry squads, and cossack posts. 
 They are numbered consecutively from right to left in each support. 
 
 A picket is a group consisting of two or more squads, 
 ordinarily not exceeding half a company, posted in the line of 
 outguards to cover a given sector. It furnishes patrols and one or 
 more sentinels, double sentinels, sentry squads; or cossack posts 
 for observation. Pickets are placed at the more important points 
 in the line of outguards, such as road forks. The strength of each 
 depends upon the number of small groups required to observe 
 properly its sector. 
 
 A sentry squad is a squad posted in observation at an indi- 
 cated point. It posts a double sentinel in observation, the remain- 
 ing men resting near by and furnishing the reliefs of sentinels. 
 In some cases it may be required to furnish a patrol. 
 
 A cossack post consists of four men. It is an observation 
 group similar to a sentry squad, but employs a single sentinel. 
 
 At night, it will sometimes be advisable to place some of the 
 outguards or their sentinels in a position different from that which 
 they occupy in the daytime. In such case the ground should be 
 carefully studied before dark and the change made at dusk. How- 
 ever, a change in the position of the outguard will be exceptional. 
 
 Sentinels are generally used singly in daytime, but at night 
 double sentinels are required in most cases. Sentinels furnished 
 by cossack posts or sentry squads are kept near their group. Those 
 furnished by pickets may be as far as 100 yards away. Every 
 sentinel should be able to communicate readily with the body to 
 which he belongs. 
 
 Sentinel posts are numbered consecutively from right to left 
 in each outguard. Sentry squads and cossack posts furnished 
 by pickets are counted as sentinel posts. 
 
 Instead of using outguards along the entire front of observa- 
 tion, part of this front may be covered by patrols only. These, 
 should be used to cover such sections of the front as can be crossed 
 by the enemy only with difficulty and over which he is not likely 
 to attempt a crossing after dark. In daylight much of the local 
 patrolling may be dispensed with if the country can be seen from 
 the posts of the sentinels. However, patrols should frequently be 
 pushed well to the front unless the ground in that direction is 
 exceptionally open. 
 
 Patrols or sentinels must be the first troops which the enemy 
 meets, and each body in rear must have time to prepare for the 
 
*/V MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 blow. These bodies cause as much delay as possible without sacri- 
 ficing themselves, and gradually retire to the line where the out- 
 post is to make its resistance. 
 
 Patrols must be used to keep up connection between the 
 parts of the outpost except when, during daylight, certain frac-. 
 tjons or groups are mutually visible. After dark this connection 
 must be maintained throughout the outpost except where the 
 larger subdivisions are provided with wire communication. 
 
 In addition to ordinary outguards, the outpost commander 
 may detail from the reserve one or more detached posts to cover 
 roads or areas not in the general line assigned to the supports. 
 In like manner the commander of the whole force may order 
 detached posts to be sent from the main body to cover important 
 roads or localities not included in the outpost line. The number 
 and strength of detached posts are reduced to the absolute needs 
 of the situation. 
 
 ESTABLISHING THE OUTPOST 
 
 The outpost is posted as quickly as possible so that the 
 troops can the sooner obtain rest. Until the leading outpost troops 
 are able to assume their duties, temporary protection, known as 
 the march outpost, is furnished by the nearest available troops. 
 
 The halt order of the commander, besides giving the neces- 
 sary information and assigning camp sites to the parts of the 
 command, details the troops to constitute t*te outpost, assigns a 
 commander therefor, designates the general line to be occupied, 
 and, when practicable, points out the position to be held in case of 
 attack. 
 
 The outpost commander, upon receipt of this order, should 
 issue the outpost order with the least practicable delay. In large 
 commands it may often be necessary to give the order from the 
 map, but usually the outpost commander will have to make some 
 preliminary reconnaissance, unless he has an accurate and detailed 
 map. The order gives such available information of the situation 
 as is necessary to the complete and proper guidance of sub- 
 ordinates; designates the troops to constitute the supports; assigns 
 their location and the sector each is to cover; provides for the 
 necessary detached posts; indicates any special reconnaisance 
 that is to be made; orders the location and disposition of the 
 reserve; disposes of the train if same is ordered to join the outpost; 
 and informs subordinates where information will be sent. 
 
 Generally it is preferable for the outpost commander to give 
 verbal orders to his support commanders from some locality 
 which overlooks the terrain. The time and locality should be so 
 
CAMPS AND SHELTERING OF TROOPS 171 
 
 selected that the support commanders may join their commands 
 and conduct them to their positions without causing unnecessary 
 delay to their troops. The reserve commander should, if pos- 
 sible, receive his orders at the same time as the support com- 
 manders. Subordinates to whom he gives orders separately should 
 be informed of the location of other parts of the outpost. After 
 issuing the initial orders, the outpost commander inspects the out- 
 post, orders the necessary changes or additions, and sends his 
 superior a report of his dispositions. 
 
 The reserve is marched to its post by its commander, who 
 then sends out such detachments as have been ordered and 
 places the rest in camp or bivouac, over which at least one sentinel 
 should be posted. Connection must be maintained with the main 
 body, the supports and nearby detached posts. 
 
 The supports march to their posts, using the necessary cov- 
 ering detachments when in advance of the march outpost. A 
 support commander's order should fully explain the situation to 
 subordinates, or to the entire command, if it be small. It should 
 detail the troops for the different outguards and, when necessary, 
 define the sector each is to cover. It should provide the neces- 
 sary sentinels at the post of the support, the patrols to be sent 
 therefrom, and should arrange for the necessary intrenching. Con- 
 nection should be maintained with adjoining supports and with 
 the outguards furnished by the support. 
 
 ? In posting his command the support commander must seek 
 
 to cover his sector in such manner that the enemy can not reach, 
 in dangerous numbers and unobserved, the position of the support 
 or pass by it within the sector intrusted to the support. On the 
 other hand, he must economize men on observation and patrol 
 duty, for these duties are unusually fatiguing. He must practice 
 the greatest economy of men consistent with the requirements 
 of practical security. 
 
 As soon as the posting of the support is completed, its com- 
 mander carefully inspects the dispositions and corrects defects, if 
 any, and reports the dispositions of his support, including the 
 patrolling ordered, to the outpost commander. This report is 
 preferably made by means of a sketch. 
 
 Each outguard is marched by its commander to its assigned 
 station, and, especially in the case of a picket, is covered by the 
 necessary patrolling to prevent surprise. Having reached the posi- 
 tion, the commander explains the situation to his men and estab- 
 lishes reliefs for each sentinel, and, if possible, for each patrol 
 to be furnished. Besides these sentinels and patrols, a picket must 
 have a sentinel at its post. The commander then posts the sentinels 
 and points out to them the principal features, such as towns, roads, 
 and streams, and gives their names. He gives the direction and 
 
172 
 
 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 location of the enemy, if known, and of adjoining parts of the 
 outpost. He gives to patrols the same information and the neces- 
 sary orders as to their routes and the frequency with which the 
 same shall be covered. Each patrol should go over its route once 
 before dark. 
 
 Every picket should maintain connection by patrols with 
 
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 CAMP OF A REGIMENT OF INFANTRY. 
 
 outguards on its right and left. Each commander takes precaution 
 to conceal his outguard and generally strengthens his position by 
 intrenching. 
 
 Batteries and squadrons usually camp in cotumn of com- 
 panies. Between adjacent tents, center to center, in a row, 8 yards 
 are allowed for large pyramidal (16 by 16 feet), 5 or 6 yards for 
 
CAMPS AND SHELTERING OF TROOPS 173 
 
 small pyramidal (9 by 9 feet), and 10 yards for storage (17 feet 
 10 inches by 20 feet 5 inches). Between adjacent company rows, 
 picket line, and gun or carriage parks, center to center, 20 yards; 
 but this distance may be reduced. From latrines 50 yards to nearest 
 occupied tent; but, when a smaller camp is desired, the space 
 between company latrines and the men's tents may be used to 
 park carriages and animals. For picket lines and parks, allow 1 
 yard per animal and 4 yards per vehicle; but, for shelter for animals 
 in a double row, 2 l /2 lineal feet of structure per animal will suffice. 
 No fixed type of camp is prescribed for use in the theater of 
 operations. In the presence of the enemy, camps and bivouacs 
 must be modified to afford the best protection for men, animals, 
 and trains. This will frequently necessitate the juxtaposition of 
 shelter for the men and picket lines for the animals. The illus- 
 tration shows the Camp of an Infantry Division at war strength. 
 
 TENT PITCHING 
 
 Being in line or in columns of platoons, the captain causes 
 the company to take intervals as described in the School of the 
 Squad, and commands: Pitch Tents. 
 
 At the command pitch tents, each man steps off obliquely to 
 the right with the right foot and lays his rifle on the ground, the 
 butt of the rifle near the toe of the right foot, muzzle to the front, 
 barrel to the left, and steps back into his place; each front-rank 
 man then draws his bayonet and sticks it in the ground by the 
 outside of the right* heel. 
 
 Equipments are unslung, packs opened, shelter half and pins 
 removed; each man then spreads his shelter half, small triangle 
 to the rear, flat upon the ground the tent is to occupy, the rear- 
 rank man's half on the right. The halves are then buttoned 
 together; the guy loops at both ends of the lower half are passed 
 through the buttonholes provided in the lower and upper halves; 
 the whipped end of the guy rope is then passed through both guy 
 loops and secured, this at both ends of the tent. Each front- 
 rank man inserts the muzzle of his rifle under the front end of 
 the ridge and holds the rifle upright, sling to the front, heel of 
 butt on the ground beside the bayonet. His rear-rank man pins 
 down the front corners of the tent on the line of bayonets, 
 stetching the tent taut; he then inserts a pin in the eye of the 
 front guy rope and drives the pin at such a distance in front of 
 the rifle as to hold the rope taut; both men go to the rear of the 
 tent, each pins down a corner, stretching the sides and rear of 
 the tent before securing; the rear-rank man then inserts an in- 
 trenching tool, or bayonet in its scabbard, under the rear end 
 
174 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 of the ridge inside the tent, the front-rank man pegging down 
 the end of the rear guy ropes; the rest of the pins are then driven, 
 by both men, the rear-rank man working on the right. 
 
 The front flaps of the tent are not fastened down, but thrown 
 back on the tent. 
 
 As soon as the tent is pitched each man arranges his equip- 
 ment and the contents of his pack in the tent and stands at atten- 
 tion in front of his own half on line with the front guy-rope pin. 
 
 To have a uniform slope when the tents are pitched, the guy 
 ropes should all be of the same length. 
 
 In shelter-tent camps, in localities where suitable material is 
 procurable, tent poles may be improvised and used in lieu of the 
 rifle and bayonet or intrenching tool as supports for the shelter 
 tent. 
 
 When the pack is not carried the company is formed for 
 shelter tents, intervals are taken, arms are laid aside or on the 
 ground, the men are dismissed and proceed to the wagon, secure 
 their packs, return to their places, and pitch tents. 
 
 Double shelter tents may be pitched by first pitching one 
 tent as heretofore described, then pitching a second tent against 
 the opening of the first, using one rifle to support both tents, 
 and passing the front guy ropes over and down the sides of 
 the opposite tents. The front corner of one tent is not pegged 
 down, but is thrown back to permit an opening into the tent. 
 
 SINGLE SLEEPING BAG 
 
 Spread the poncho on the ground, buttoned end at the 
 feet, buttoned side to the left; fold the blanket once across its 
 short dimension and lay it on the poncho, folded side along the 
 right side of the poncho; tie the blanket together along the left 
 side by means of tapes provided; fold the left half of the 
 poncho over the blanket and button it together along the side and 
 bottom. 
 
 DOUBLE SLEEPING BAG 
 
 Spread one poncho on the ground, buttoned end at the 
 feet, buttoned side to the left; spread the blankets on top of the 
 poncho; tie the edges of the blankets together with the tapes 
 provided; spread a second poncho on top of the blankets, but- 
 toned end at the feet, buttoned side to the right; button the two 
 ponchos together along both sides and across the end. 
 
 The drawing on opposite page shows the position, number, 
 
CAMPS AND SHELTERING OF TROOPS 
 
 175 
 
 and length of tapes with which blankets should be provided when 
 required to be used in forming the sleeping bag. 
 
 TO STRIKE SHELTER TENTS 
 
 The men standing in front of their tents: Strike Tents. 
 Equipments and rifles are removed from the tent; the tents are 
 
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 i 
 
 .Z 
 
 lowered, packs made up, and equipment slung, and the men stand 
 at attention in the places originally occupied after taking intervals. 
 
 COMMON AND WALL TENTS 
 
 To pitch all types of Army tents, except shelter and conical 
 wall tents: Mark line of tents by driving a wall pin on the spot 
 to be occupied by the right (or left) corner of each tent. For 
 pyramidal tents the interval between adjacent pins should be about 
 30 feet, which will give a passage of two feet between tents. 
 Spread tripod on the ground where the center of tent is to be, if 
 tripod is used. Spread the tent on the ground to be occupied, door 
 to the front, and place the right (or left) front wall loop over the 
 12 
 
176 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 pin. The door (or doors, if more than one) being fastened and 
 held together at the bottom, the left (or right) corner wall loop is 
 carried to the left (or right) as far as it will go and a wall pin 
 driven through it, the pin being placed in line with the right (or 
 left) corner pins already driven. At the same time the rear 
 corner wall loops are pulled to the rear and outward so that the 
 rear wall of the tent is stretched to complete the rectangle. Wall 
 pins are then driven through these loops. Each corner pin should 
 be directly in rear of the corresponding front corner pin, making a 
 rectangle. Unless the canvas be wet, a small amount of slack 
 should be allowed before the corner pins are driven. According 
 to the size of the tent, one or two men, crawling under the tent if 
 necessary, fit each pole or ridge or upright into the ring or ridge 
 pole holes, and such accessories as hood, fly, and brace ropes are 
 adjusted. If a tripod be used an additional man goes under the 
 tent to adjust it. The tent, steadied by the remaining men, one 
 at each corner guy rope, is then raised. If the tent is a ward or 
 storage type, corner poles are now placed at the four corners. 
 The four corner guy ropes are then placed over the lower notches 
 of the large pins driven in prolongation of the diagonals at such 
 distance as to hold the walls and ends of the tent vertical and 
 smooth when the guy ropes are drawn taut. A wall pin is then 
 driven through each remaining wall loop and a large pin for each 
 guy rope is driven in line with the corner guy pines already driven. 
 The guy ropes of the tent are placed over the lower notches, while 
 the guy ropes of the fly are placed over the upper notches, and are 
 then drawn taut. Brace ropes, when used, are then secured to 
 stakes or pins suitably placed. 
 
 CONICAL WALL TENTS 
 
 Drive the door pin and center pin 8 feet 3 inches apart. 
 Using the hood lines with center pin as center, describe two con- 
 centric circles with radii 8 feet 3 inches and 11 feet 3 inches. 
 In the outer circle drive two door guy pins 3 feet apart. At 
 intervals of about 3 feet drive the other guy pin. 
 
 In other respects conical tents are erected practically as in 
 the case of pyramidal tents. 
 
 TO STRIKE COMMON, WALL, PYRAMIDAL AND 
 CONICAL WALL TENTS 
 
 The men first remove all pins except those of the four corner 
 guy ropes, or the four quadrant guy ropes in the case of the conical 
 wall tent. The pins are neatly piled or placed in their receptacle. 
 
CAMPS AND SHELTERING OF TROOPS 177 
 
 One man holds each guy, and when the ground is clear the 
 tent is lowered, folded, or rolled and tied, the poles or tripod 
 and pole fastened together, and the remaining pins collected. 
 
 TO FOLD TENTS 
 
 For folding common, wall, hospital, and storage tents: 
 Spread the tent flat on the ground, folded at the ridge so that 
 bottoms of side walls are even, ends of tent forming triangles 
 to the right and left; fold the triangular ends of the tent in 
 toward the middle, making it rectangular in shape; fold the top 
 over about 9 inches; fold the tent in two by carrying the top 
 fold over clear to the foot; fold again in two from the top to the 
 foot; throw all guys on tent except the second from each end; 
 fold the ends in so as to cover about two-thirds of the second 
 cloths; fold the left end over to meet the turned-in edge of the 
 right end, then fold the right end over the top, completing the 
 bundle; tie with the two exposed guys. 
 
 METHOD OF FOLDING PYRAMIDAL TENT 
 
 The tent is thrown toward the rear and the back wall and 
 roof canvas pulled out smooth. This may be most easily accom- 
 plished by leaving the rear-corner wall pins in the ground with 
 the wall loops attached, one man at each rear-corner guy, and 
 one holding the square iron in a perpendicular position and pulling 
 the canvas to its limit away from the former front of the tent. 
 This leaves the three remaining sides of the tent on top of the 
 rear side, with the door side in the middle. 
 
 Now carry the right-front corner over and lay it on the left- 
 rear corner. Pull all canvas smooth, throw guys toward square 
 iron, and pull bottom edges even. Then take the right-front 
 corner and return to the right, covering the right-rear corner. 
 This folds the right side of the tent on itself, with the crease in 
 the middle and under the front side of tent. 
 
 Next carry the left-front corner to the right and back as 
 described above; this when completed will leave the front and 
 rear sides of the tent lying smooth and flat and the two side walls 
 folded inward, each on itself. 
 
 Place the hood in the square iron which has been folded 
 downward toward the bottom of tent, and continue to fold around 
 the square iron as a core, pressing all folds down flat and smooth, 
 and parallel with the bottom of the tent. If each fold is com- 
 pactly made and the canvas kept smooth, the last fold will exactly 
 
178 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 cover the lower edge of the canvas. Lay all exposed guys along 
 the folded canvas except the two on the center width, which should 
 be pulled out and away from bottom edge to their extreme length 
 for tying. Now, beginning at one end, fold toward the center on 
 the first seam (that joining the first and second widths) and fold 
 again toward the center so that the already folded canvas will 
 come to within about 3 inches of the middle width. Then fold 
 over to the opposite edge of middle width of canvas. Then begin 
 folding from opposite end, folding the first width in half, then 
 making a second fold to come within about 4 or 5 inches of that 
 already folded, turn this fold entirely over that already folded. 
 Take the exposed guys and draw them taut across each other, turn 
 bundle over on the under guy, cross guys on top of bundle drawing 
 tight. Turn bundle over on the crossed guys and tie lengthwise. 
 
 When properly tied and pressed together this will make a 
 package 11 by 23 by 34 inches, requiring about 8,855 cubic inches 
 to store or pack. 
 
 SHELTER IN THE SERVICE OF THE INTERIOR 
 
 In mobilization and concentration camps, troops are shel- 
 tered under canvas or in temporary barracks, and proper provision 
 is made for their health, comfort, and instruction. As a rule, such 
 camps or cantonments should fulfill the following conditions: 
 
 1. The grounds should be easily drained, naturally healthful, 
 large enough for depots, corrals, hospitals, etc., and the encamp- 
 ment of the troops without crowding, and with ample space for 
 exercise and instruction. 
 
 2. The water supply should be excellent and abundant and 
 not liable to contamination from any source. 
 
 3. There should be ample railroad and switching facilities 
 and suitable arrangements for loading and unloading, as the funda- 
 mental reasons for the mobilization or concentration will be de- 
 feated if ample rail or water facilities are not available to promptly 
 receive and dispatch troops and supplies. 
 
 4. All parts of the camp should be readily accessible by 
 good wagon roads. 
 
 All arrangements for the accommodation and supply of the 
 troops should be completed before their arrival by the permanent 
 camp personnel sent ahead for the purpose. Camps are laid out 
 so as to preserve the integrity of units, the headquarters of each 
 being centrally or conveniently located with respect to its troops; 
 tents are pitched and aligned, kitchens equipped, water and fuel 
 supply arranged, latrines prepared, hospitals erected, and arrange- 
 ments made for ample mail, telegraph, and telephone service. The 
 
CAMPS AND SHELTERING OF TROOPS 179 
 
 general headquarters should be centrally located and connected by 
 wire with the principal subordinate headquarters. Depots and 
 storehouses are placed at railroad sidings and the hospitals near 
 the railroad station. Trains are placed so as to interfere as little 
 as possible with the comfort and cleanliness of the troops. 
 
 No individuals, troops, or trains of organizations tempo- 
 rarily present should be attached to the permanent camp per- 
 sonnel, if it can be avoided. It is the function of the permanent 
 camp personnel to operate depots, hospitals, to maintain camp 
 telephone and telegraph lines, etc. The troops temporarily present 
 must be in constant readiness to move. 
 
 SHELTER IN THE THEATER OF OPERATIONS 
 
 Tactical considerations demand greater concentration and 
 generally control the location of the camp. 
 
 If troops are actually engaged in field operations, their 
 equipment, including tentage, is necessarily limited to that carried 
 on the men, on animals, and in trains. In certain instances, after 
 proper sanitary inspection, local buildings in the theater of opera- 
 tions may be used to advantage in affording additional shelter to 
 officers, enlisted men, and animals. 
 
 If the length of a halt, during the period of operations, is 
 of some considerable duration, when practicable additional camp 
 equipment (baggage, tents, surplus kits, etc.) is sent up from the 
 line of communication and temporarily placed at the disposition 
 of organizations. In this instance every possible use is made 
 of local buildings and temporary structures, to the end that the 
 troops be made as comfortable as possible during the period of 
 the halt. 
 
 Selection of Site. There is often little choice in the selec- 
 tion of camp sites in war. Troops may have to camp many nights 
 pn objectionable ground. Nevertheless, sanitary considerations 
 ire given all the weight possible consistent with the tactical 
 requirements. 
 
 When tactical questions are not involved, and especially 
 when the camp is to be occupied for some time, great care is 
 exercised in selecting the side. Through no fault of their own 
 troops occupying an unsanitary site may suffer greater losses than 
 ,n the battles of a long campaign. A medical officer assists in the 
 election of camp sites. 
 
 The selection of camp sites while on the march or during 
 ctive operations is governed by the following conditions: 1. The 
 ;round should accommodate the command with as little crowd- 
 ng as possible, be easily drained, and have no stagnant water 
 vithin 300 yards. 2. The water supply should be sufficient, pure,, 
 
180 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 and accessible. 3. There should be good roads to the camp and 
 good interior communication. 4. Wood, grass, forage, and supplies 
 must be at hand or obtainable. 
 
 Closely cropped turf with sandy or gravelly subsoil is best; 
 high banks or rivers are suitable, provided no marshes are near. 
 In hot summer months, the ground selected should be high, free 
 from underbrush, and shaded with trees if possible. In cold 
 weather ground sloping to the south, with woods to break the 
 north winds, is desirable. 
 
 Old camp grounds and the vicinity of cemeteries are unde- 
 sirable. Marshy ground and stagnant water are objectionable on 
 account of the damp atmosphere and the annoyance and infecfion 
 from mosquitoes. Ground near the foot of a hill range generally 
 has a damp subsoil and remains muddy for a long time. Thick 
 forests, dense vegetation, made ground, alluvial soil, punch-bowl 
 depressions, inclosed ravines, and dry beds of streams are un- 
 favorable. 
 
 Camp sites should be selected so that troops of one unit 
 need not pass through the camp grounds of another. As a pro- 
 tection against epidemics, temporary camp sites in the theater of 
 operations should be changed every two or three weeks. 
 
 Form and Dimensions of Camps. The forms of the camp 
 should be such as to facilitate the prompt encampment of troops 
 after a march and their prompt departure when camp is broken. 
 The form of camps will depend upon the tactical situation and 
 the amount and nature of ground available. In certain cases, 
 particularly in one-night halts in the presence of the enemy, 
 camps must of necessity be contracted, While, in other cases, 
 where a more extended halt is contemplated and where tactical 
 reasons will permit, better camp sanitation may be secured, and 
 a more comfortable arrangement made by the expansion of camp 
 areas. 
 
 Establishing the Camp. Camp is established pursuant to 
 the halt order. This order provides for the outpost, if necessary, 
 and gives instructions for the encampment . of the main body. 
 When practicable, large commands are encamped by brigades. 
 
 The camping ground -may be selected by the supreme com- 
 mander, but in large commands is generally chosen by a staff 
 officer sent forward for that purpose. This officer, with a repre- 
 sentative from each brigade and regiment and a medical officer, 
 precedes the command, selects the camping ground, assigns sec- 
 tions thereof to the larger fractions of the command, and causes 
 them to be conducted to their respective sections on arrival. He 
 also designates the place for obtaining drinking and cooking 
 water, for watering animals, for bathing, and for washing cloth- 
 ing, in the order named, from upstream down. 
 
CAMPS AND SHELTERING OF TROOPS 181 
 
 On the arrival of the troops, guards are posted to enforce 
 proper use of the water supply; the interior-camp guards proceed 
 to their places, and after posting sentinels, pitch their tents. The 
 remaining troops pitch tents and secure animals and equipment; 
 kitchens are established and details made to procure fuel, water, 
 forage, etc., and to prepare latrines and kitchen pits; if necessary, 
 tents, company streets, and picket lines are ditched. 
 
 In the presence of the enemy, places of assembly for the 
 troops are designated and directions given for their conduct in 
 case of attack. Lines of information are established with the 
 outpost. 
 
 Billeting. When troops are to be billeted a staff officer and 
 a representative from each brigade and regiment precede the 
 column. The staff officer confers with the civil authorities, if 
 present, makes an equitable division of the available quarters into 
 distinct sections, and assigns a section to each regimental repre- 
 sentative; the latter distributes the quarters to the troops of his 
 regiment and conducts them to their places on arrival. 
 
 Unless the force is small, shelter of this character is usually 
 inadequate, and some of the troops must use shelter tents or 
 bivouac. Villages and large farms often afford facilities, such as 
 wells and cisterns, bakeries, blacksmith shops, material for repairs, 
 fuel, and forage, which contribute to the comfort of the troops; 
 it is therefore advantageous to camp or bivouac near them. 
 
 Bivouac. On marches or in the presence of the enemy 
 troops are frequently forced to bivouac on account of lack of 
 suitable ground or for tactical reasons. On the other hand, in 
 fine weather, in midsummer, or in the dry season in the tropics, 
 the troops may bivouac from choice. 
 
 From the tactical point of view bivouacs are very con- 
 venient, but for sanitary reasons they are resorted to, as a rule, 
 only when necessary. The general principles governing the selec- 
 tion of camp sites apply to bivouacs. The ground should be dry 
 and protected against sun and wind. Light woods are nearly 
 always good sites for infantry bivouacs, on account of the shelter 
 and material available. 
 
 SHELTER DURING BATTLE 
 
 During a lull in an engagement, or when hostilities are 
 suspended for the night, the troops bivouac in line of battle on or 
 near the position they occupy, the officers in rear of the center of 
 their units. Reserves required to remain in instant readiness 
 generally bivouac in column with a flank to the front. After the 
 outposts are established, the commander of the main body decides 
 whether the troops shall use their shelter tents or not. 
 
182 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 SHELTER DURING SIEGES 
 
 On account of the long range of modern fortress artillery 
 the camps or cantonments of the main body of the besiegers 
 unless good cover is available, are generally not less than 5 mile 
 from the enemy's works. To guard against sorties a large par 
 of the command is continually on outpost duty, but when tha 
 duty is completed the troops return to their own camp with th 
 main body in order to recuperate from this arduous work. 
 
 To guard against danger from epidemics in the necessaril; 
 ■crowded camps or cantonments of the besiegers the most carefu 
 attention is paid to the water supply and sanitation. 
 
 Officers and men of all arms must have a knowledge o 
 -sanitation and its importance, to the end that no depletion of th 
 fighting force occurs through avoidable causes. The important 
 of adopting and carrying out proper sanitary measures cannot b< 
 overestimated. 
 
 Commanders— of all grades are responsible for the sanitar} 
 condition of the quarters or localities occupied by their command; 
 and for the enforcement of all sanitary regulations. In addition 
 they are responsible that all sanitary defects reported to them art 
 promptly corrected. 
 
 A medical officer of experience, designated sanitary in 
 ■spector, is charged, under direction of the. division surgeon, with 
 investigating and reporting upon the sanitation of the division tc 
 which he is attached. Sanitary inspectors report the result of theii 
 inspections to local commanders as well as to the division surgeon J 
 
 In camps an ambulance service is furnished from the sani- 
 tary train. Infirmaries are set up at convenient points by order 
 of the division surgeon and operated by the sanitary personnel 
 attached to the organizations which the infirmary serves. Here 
 cases not requiring hospital treatment are cared for, all other cases 
 being promptly removed by the ambulance service. The senior 
 medical officer of the units served by the infirmary assumes charge 
 of the same and is authorized to call directly on the other organi- 
 zations for their proportionate share of medical officers and sani- 
 tary personnel for the infirmary service. The sergeant, Hospital 
 Corps, detailed with the infirmary remains with it in charge of 
 the equipment. If necessary, field hospitals are set up for the 
 reception of the seriously sick and wounded. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 
 INTERIOR GUARD DUTY, GUARDS AND 
 MILITARY POLICE 
 
 Guard duty is one of the most important duties of the 
 soldier and especially so during times of war when the safety of 
 the army or command depends upon the vigilance of the sentinels 
 who watch that others may sleep and are the guardians of the 
 quiet and safety of the camp. Respect for the person and office of 
 a sentinel is strictly enjoined by military law, and invested as 
 he frequently is, while on his post, with grave responsibilities, it 
 is proper that he should be fully protected in the discharge of 
 his duty. To permit any one to molest or interfere with him 
 while thus employed, without becoming liable to severe penalty* 
 would clearly establish a precedent highly prejudicial to the inter- 
 ests of the service. 
 
 Guards are usually classed as exterior guards, interior 
 guards, military police, and provost guards. 
 
 Exterior guards are used only in time of war. They belong 
 :o the domain of tactics and their purpose is to prevent surprise, 
 :o delay attack, and otherwise to provide for the security of the 
 nain body. On the march they take the form of advance guards, 
 ■ear guards, and flank guards. At a halt they consist of outposts. 
 
 Interior guards are used in camp or garrison to preserve 
 [>rder, protect property, and to enforce police regulations. In 
 fime of war such sentinels of an interior guard as may be neces- 
 sary are placed close in or about the camp, and normally there is 
 t'Ji exterior guard further out consisting of outposts. In time of 
 •eace the interior guard is the only guard in a camp or garrison. 
 
 Military police differ somewhat from either of these classes, 
 ^hey are used in time of war to guard prisoners, to arrest strag- 
 lers and deserters, and to maintain order and enforce police 
 egulations in the rear of armies, along lines of communication, 
 nd in the vicinity of large camps. 
 
 Provost guards are used in the absence of military police, 
 enerally in conjunction with the civil authorities at or near large 
 osts or encampments, to preserve order among soldiers beyond 
 le interior guard. 
 
184 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 INTERIOR GUARD 
 
 The various elements of an interior guard classified accord- 
 ing to their particular purposes and the manner in which they per- 
 form their duties are the main guard and special guards, such as 
 stable guards, park guards, prisoner guards, herd guards, train 
 guards, boat guards, watchmen, etc. 
 
 DETAILS AND ROSTERS 
 
 At every military post, and in every regiment or separate 
 command in the field, an interior guard is detailed and duly j 
 mounted. It consists of such number of officers and enlisted men 
 as the commanding officer may deem necessary, and is com- 
 manded by the senior officer or non-commissioned officer there- 
 with, under the supervision of the officer of the day or other 
 officer detailed by the commanding officer. 
 
 The system of sentinels on fixed posts is of value in dis- 
 cipline and training because of the direct individual responsibility 
 which is imposed and required to be discharged in a definite 
 and precise manner. In order, however, that guard duty may not 
 be needlessly irksome and interfere with tactical instruction, the 
 number of men detailed for guard is the smallest possible. Com- 
 manding officers are specifically charged with this matter, and, 
 without entirely dispensing with the system of sentinels on fixed 
 posts, as far as practicable, in time of peace, replace such sentinels 
 with watchmen. 
 
 At posts where there are less than three companies the 
 main guard and special guards may all be furnished by one com- 
 pany or by detail from each company. Where there are three or 
 more companies, the main guard, if practicable is furnished by a 
 single company, and, as far as practicable, the same organization 
 supplies all details for that day for special guard, overseer, and 
 fatigue duty. In this case the officer of the day, and the officer of 
 the guard, if there are any, if practicable, are from the company 
 furnishing the guard. 
 
 At a post or camp where the headquarters of more than 
 one regiment are stationed, or in the case of a small brigade. in the 
 field, if but one guard be necessary for the whole command, the 
 details are made from the headquarters of the command. If 
 formal guard mounting is to be held, the adjutant, sergeant major, 
 and band to attend guard mounting are designated by the com- 
 manding officer. 
 
 When a single organization furnishes the guard, a roster 
 of organizations is kept by the sergeant major under the super- 
 vision of the adjutant. 
 
 
GUARD DUTY AND MILITARY POLICE 185 
 
 When the guard is detailed from several organizations, 
 rosters are kept by the adjutant, of officers of the day and offi- 
 cers of the guard by name; by the sergeant major, under the 
 supervision of the adjutant, of sergeants, corporals, musicians, 
 and privates of the guard by number per organization; and by 
 first sergeants, of sergeants, corporals, musicians, and privates by 
 name. 
 
 When organizations furnish their own stable, or stable and 
 park guards, credit is given each for the number of enlisted men 
 so furnished, as though they had been detailed for main guard. 
 
 Special guards, other than stable or park guards are cred- 
 ited the same as for main guard, credited with fatigue duty, carried 
 on special duty, or credited as the commanding officer may direct. 
 Captains supervise the keeping of company rosters and see that all 
 duties performed are duly credited. 
 
 There is an officer of the day with each guard, unless in the 
 opinion of the commanding officer the guard is so small that his 
 services are not needed. In this case an officer is detailed to 
 supervise the command and instruction of the guard for such 
 period as the commanding officer may direct. 
 
 When more than one guard is required for a command, a 
 field officer of the day is detailed, who receives his orders from the 
 brigade or division commander as the latter may direct. When 
 necessary, captains may be placed on the roster for field officer 
 of the day. 
 
 The detail of officers of the guard is limited to the necessi- 
 ties of the service and efficient instruction; inexperienced officers 
 may be detailed as supernumerary officers of the guard for pur- 
 poses of instruction. 
 
 Officers serving in staff departments are, in the discretion 
 i of the commanding officer, exempt from guard duty. 
 
 Guard details, if practicable, are posted or published the 
 day preceding the beginning of the tour, and officers notified per- 
 | sonally by a written order at the same time. 
 
 1 The strength of guards and the number of consecutive days 
 
 ( for which an organization furnishes the guard are so regulated as 
 to insure privates of the main guard an interval of not less than 
 3 five days between tours. When this is not otherwise practicable, 
 3 extra and special duty men are detailed for night-guard duty, still 
 3 performing their daily duties. When so detailed a roster is kept 
 [ by the adjutant showing the duty performed by them. 
 
 The members of main guards and stable and park guards are 
 
 r habitually relieved every 24 hours. The length of the tour of 
 
 enlisted men detailed as special guards, other than stable or park 
 
 I guards, is so regulated as to permit of these men being held ac- 
 
 • countable for a strict performance of their duty. 
 
186 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Should the officer of the day be notified that men are re- 
 quired to fill vacancies in the guard, he causes them to be sup- 
 plied from the organization to which the guard belongs. If none 
 are available in that organization, the adjutant is notified and 
 causes them to be supplied from the organization that is next for 
 guard. 
 
 The adjutant has posted on the bulletin board at his office 
 all data needed by company commanders in making details from 
 their companies. At first sergeant's call, first sergeants go to 
 headquarters and take from the bulletin board all data necessary 
 for making the details required from their companies; these details 
 are made from their company rosters. 
 
 In order to give ample notice, first sergeants, when prac- 
 ticable, publish at retreat and post on the company bulletin board 
 all details made from the company for duties to be performed. 
 
 THE COMMANDING OFFICER 
 
 The commanding officer exacts a faithful, vigilant and cor- 
 rect performance of guard duty in all of its details, giving his 
 orders to the officer of the day, or causing them to be communi- 
 cated to him with the least practicable delay. He prescribes the 
 strength of the guard, and the necessary regulations for guard, 
 police and fatigue duty. 
 
 The commanding officer receives the reports of the officers 
 of the day immediately after guard mounting, at his office, or at 
 some other place previously designated; carefully examines the 
 guard report and remarks thereon (questioning the old officer of 
 the day, if necessary, concerning his tour of duty), relieves the 
 old officer of the day and gives the new officer of the day such 
 instructions as may be necessary. 
 
 THE OFFICER OF THE DAY 
 
 The officer of the day is responsible for the proper per- 
 formance of duty by the guard with which he marches on and 
 for the enforcement of all police regulations. He is charged with 
 the execution of all orders of the commanding officer relating to 
 the safety and good order of the post or camp. His actual tour 
 begins when he receives the instructions of the commanding officer 
 after guard mounting, and ceases when he has been relieved by the 
 commanding officer. In case of emergency during the interval 
 between guard mounting and reporting to the commanding officer, 
 the senior officer of the day gives the necessary instructions for 
 both guards. 
 
 In the absence of special instructions from the commanding 
 
GUARD DUTY AND MILITARY POLICE 187 
 
 officer, the officer of the day inspects the guard and sentinels 
 during the day and at night at such times as he may deem neces- 
 sary. He visits them at least once between 12 o'clock midnight 
 and daylight. 
 
 He prescribes patrols and visits of inspection to be made 
 by officers and non-commissioned officers of the guard whenever 
 he deems it necessary. 
 
 He sees that the commander of the guard is furnished with 
 the parole and countersign before retreat in case they are to be 
 used, and informs him of the presence, in post or camp of any 
 person entitled to the compliment. 
 
 In case of alarm of any kind he at once takes such steps as 
 may be necessary to insure the safety of life and public property 
 and to preserve order in the command, disposing his guard so as 
 best to accomplish this result. 
 
 In the performance of his duties as officer of the day he is 
 subject to the orders of the commanding officer only, except that 
 in case of an alarm of any kind, and at a time of great danger, 
 the senior line officer present is competent to give necessary orders 
 to the officer of the day for the employment of the guard. 
 
 At the inspections and musters prescribed in Army Regu- 
 lations, the officer of the day is present at the post of the guard,, 
 but all commands to the guard are given by the commander of 
 the guard. 
 
 Both officers of the day together verify the prisoners and 
 inspect the guardhouse and premises. 
 
 In the absence of special instructions, the old officer of the 
 day, at guard mounting, releases all garrison prisoners whose 
 sentences expired that day. If there are any prisoners with no 
 record of charges against them, the old officer of the day reports 
 that fact to the commanding officer who gives the necessary in- 
 structions. 
 
 The old officer of the day signs the report of the commander 
 of the guard. He also enters on it such remarks as may be 
 necessary. 
 
 The officers of the day then report to the commanding 
 officer. On presenting themselves, both salute with the right hand, 
 remaining covered. The old officer of the day, standing on the 
 right of the new, then says: "Sir, I report as old officer of the 
 day," and presents the guard report. As soon as the commanding 
 officer notifies the old officer of the day that he is relieved, the 
 old officer of the day salutes the commanding officer and retires. 
 The new officer of the day again salutes and says: " Sir, I report as 
 new officer of the day," and then receives his instructions. ' 
 
 The officer of the day always keeps the guard informed as 
 to where he may be found at all hours of the day and night. 
 
188 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 COMMANDER OF THE GUARD 
 
 The commander of the guard is responsible for the instruc- 
 tion and discipline of the guard. He sees that all of its members 
 are correctly instructed in their orders and duties, and that they 
 understand and properly perform them. He visits each relief at 
 least once while it is on post, and at least one of these visits is 
 made between 12 o'clock midnight and daylight. He receives and 
 obeys the orders of the commanding officer and the officer of the 
 day, and reports to the latter without delay all orders to the guard 
 not received from the officer of the day; he transmits to his suc- 
 cessor all material instructions and information relating to his 
 duties. 
 
 He is responsible under the officer of the day for the general 
 safety of the post or camp as soon as the old guard marches away 
 from the guardhouse. In case of emergency while both guards 
 are at the guardhouse, the senior commander of the two guards 
 is responsible that the proper action is taken. 
 
 Officers of the guard remain constantly with their guards, 
 except while visiting patrols or necessarily engaged elsewhere in 
 the performance of their duties. The commanding officer allows 
 a reasonable time for meals. 
 
 A commander of a guard leaving his post for any purpose 
 informs the next in command of his destination and probable time 
 of return. 
 
 Except in emergencies, the commander of the guard may 
 divide the night with the next in command, but retains his re- 
 sponsibility; the one on watch must be constantly on the alert. 
 
 When any alarm is raised in camp or garrison, the guard is 
 formed immediately. If the case be serious, the proper call is 
 sounded, and the commander of the guard causes the commanding 
 officer and the officer of the day to be at once notified. 
 
 If a sentinel calls: "The Guard," the commander of the 
 guard at once sends a patrol to the sentinel's post. If the danger 
 be great, in which case the sentinel discharges his piece, the patrol 
 is as strong as possible. 
 
 When practicable, there should always be an officer or 
 non-commissioned officer and two privates of the guard at the 
 guardhouse, in addition to the sentinels there on post. 
 
 Between reveille and retreat, when the guard has been 
 turned out for any person entiled to the compliment, the com- 
 mander of the guard, if an officer, receives the report of the 
 sergeant, returning the salute of the latter with the right hand. 
 He then draws his saber and places himself two paces in front of 
 the center of the guard. When the person for whom the guard 
 has been turned out approaches he faces his guard and com- 
 
GUARD DUTY AND MILITARY POLICE 189 
 
 mands: 1. Present, 2. ARMS; faces to the front and salutes. 
 When his salute is acknowledged he resumes the carry, faces about 
 and commands: 1. Order, 2. ARMS; and faces to the front. 
 
 If it be an officer entiled to inspect the guard, after saluting 
 and before bringing his guard to an order, the officer of the guard 
 reports: " Sir, all present or accounted for"; or, "Sir (so and so), 
 is absent"; or, if the rollcall has been omitted: "Sir, the guard is 
 formed," except that at guard mounting the commanders of the 
 guards present their guards and salute without making any re- 
 port. 
 
 Between retreat and reveille, the commander of the guard 
 salutes and reports, but does not bring the guard to a present. 
 
 To those entitled to have the guard turned out but not en- 
 titled to inspect it, no report is made; nor is a report made to any 
 officer, unless he halts in front of the guard. 
 
 When a guard commanded by a non-commissioned officer 
 is turned out as a compliment or for inspection, the non-commis- 
 sioned officer, standing .at a right shoulder on the right of the 
 right guide, commands: 1. Present, 2. ARMS. He then executes 
 the rifle salute. If a report be also required he, after saluting, and 
 before bringing his guard to an order, reports as prescribed for 
 the officer of the guard. 
 
 When a guard is in line, not under inspection, and com- 
 manded by an officer, the commander of the guard salutes his 
 regimental, battalion and company commander by bringing the 
 guard to attention and saluting in person. For all other officers, 
 excepting those entitled to the compliment from a guard, the 
 commander of the guard salutes in person but does not bring the 
 guard to attention. When commanded by a non-commissioned 
 officer the guard is brought to attention in either case, and the 
 non-commissioned officer salutes. The commander of a guard 
 exchanges salutes with the commanders of all other bodies of 
 troops; the guard is brought to attention during the exchange. 
 " Present arms " is executed by a guard only when it has turned 
 out for inspection or as a compliment, and at the ceremonies of 
 guard mounting and relieving the old guard. 
 
 If a person entiled to the compliment, or the regimental, 
 battalion, or company commander, passes in rear of a guard, 
 neither the compliment nor the salute is given, but the guard is 
 brought to attention while such person is opposite the post of the 
 commander. After any person has received or declined the com- 
 pliment, or received the salute from the commander of the guard, 
 official recognition of his presence thereafter while he remains in 
 the vicinity will be taken by bringing the guard to attention. 
 
 The commander of the guard inspects the guard at reveille 
 and retreat, and at such other times as may be necessary, to assure 
 
190 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 himself that the men are in proper condition to perform their 
 duties and that their arms and equipments are in proper condi- 
 tion. For inspection by other officers, he prepares the guard in 
 each case as directed by the inspecting officer. The guard is not 
 paraded during ceremonies unless directed by the commanding 
 officer. 
 
 The commander of the guard sees that all sentinels are 
 habitually relieved every two hours, unless the weather or other 
 cause makes it necessary that it be done at shorter or longer 
 intervals, as directed by the commanding officer. 
 
 He will question his non-commissioned officers and sentinels 
 relative to the instructions they may have received from the old 
 guard; he sees that patrols and visits of inspection are made as 
 directed by the officer of the day. 
 
 He sees that the special orders for each post and member of 
 the guard, either written or printed, are posted in the guardhouse, 
 anjl, if practicable, in the sentry box or other sheltered place to 
 which the member of the guard has constant access. 
 
 He sees that the proper calls are sounded at the hours ap- 
 pointed by the commanding officer. 
 
 Should a member of the guard be taken sick, or be arrested, 
 or desert, or leave his guard, he at once notifies the officer of 
 the day. 
 
 When the countersign is used, he communicates it to the 
 non-commissioned officers of the guard and sees that it is duly 
 communicated to the sentinels before the hour for challenging; the 
 countersign is not given to sentinels posted at the guardhouse. 
 
 He has the details for hoisting the flag at reveille, and lower- 
 ing it at retreat, and for firing the reveille and retreat gun, made in 
 time for the proper performance of these duties. He sees that the 
 flags are kept in the best condition possible, and that they are 
 never handled except in the proper performance of duty. 
 
 He may permit members of the guard while at the guard- 
 house to remove their headdress, overcoats, and gloves; if they 
 leave the guardhouse for any purpose whatever he requires that 
 they be properly equipped and armed according to the character of 
 the service in which engaged, or as directed by the commanding- 
 officer. 
 
 He enters in the guard report a report of his tour of duty, 
 and, on completion of his tour, presents it to the officer of the day. 
 He transmits with his report all passes turned in at the post of the 
 guard. 
 
 Whenever a prisoner is sent to the guardhouse or guard tent 
 for confinement, he causes him to be searched, and, without un- 
 necessary delay, reports the case to the officer of the day. 
 
 Under war conditions, if any one is to be passed out of 
 
GUARD DUTY AND MILITARY POLICE 191 
 
 camp at night, he is sent to the commander of the guard, who has 
 him passed beyond the sentinels. 
 
 The commander of the guard detains at the guardhouse all 
 suspicious characters or parties attempting to pass a sentinel's 
 post without authority, reporting his action to the officer of the 
 day, to whom persons so arrested are sent, if necessary. 
 
 He will inspect the guard rooms and cells, and the irons of 
 such prisoners as may be ironed, at least once during his tour, and 
 at such other times as he may deem necessary. 
 
 He causes the corporals of the old and new reliefs to verify 
 together, immediately before each relief goes on post, the number 
 of prisoners who should then properly be at the guardhouse. 
 
 He sees that the sentences of prisoners under his charge are 
 executed strictly in accordance with the action of the reviewing 
 authority. 
 
 When no special prisoner guard has been detailed, he, as far 
 as practicable, assigns as guards over working parties of prisoners 
 sentinels from posts guarded at night only. 
 
 The commander of the guard inspects all meals sent to the 
 guardhouse and sees that the quantity and quality of food are in 
 accordance with regulations. 
 
 At guard mounting he reports to the old officer of the 
 day all cases of prisoners whose terms of sentence expire on that 
 day, and also all cases of prisoners concerning whom no statement 
 of charges has been received. 
 
 The commander of the guard is responsible for the security 
 of the prisoners under the charge of his guard; he becomes respon- 
 sible for them after their number has been verified and they have 
 been turned over to the custody of his guard by the old guard or 
 by the prisoner guard or overseers. 
 
 The prisoners are verified and turned over to the new guard 
 without parading them, unless the commanding officer or the 
 officer of the day directs otherwise. 
 
 To receive the prisoners at the guardhouse where they have 
 been paraded and after they have been verified by the officers of 
 the day, the commander of the new guard directs his sergeant to 
 form his guard with an interval, and commands: 1. Prisoners, 
 2. Right, 3. FACE, 4, Forward, 5. MARCH. The prisoners having 
 arrived opposite the interval in the new guard, he commands: 
 1. Prisoners, 2. HALT, 3. Left, 4. FACE, 5. Right (or left), 
 6. DRESS, 7. FRONT. The prisoners dress on the line of the 
 new guard. 
 
 SERGEANT OF THE GUARD 
 
 The senior non-commissioned officer of the guard always 
 acts as sergeant of the guard, and if there be no officer of the 
 
192 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 guard, performs the duties prescribed for the commander of the 
 guard. 
 
 The sergeant of the guard has general supervision over 
 the other non-commissioned officers and the musicians and pri- 
 vates of the guard, and must be thoroughly familiar with all of 
 their orders and duties. 
 
 He is directly responsible for the property under charge of 
 the guard, and sees that it is properly cared for. He makes lists 
 of articles taken out by working parties, and sees that all such 
 articles are duly returned. If they are not, he immediately reports 
 the fact to the commander of the guard. 
 
 Immediately after guard mounting he prepares duplicate 
 lists of the names of all non-commissioned officers, musicians, and 
 privates of the guard, showing the relief and post or duties of each. 
 One list is handed as soon as possible to the commander of the 
 guard; the other is retained by the sergeant. 
 
 He sees that all reliefs are turned out at the proper time, 
 and that the corporals thoroughly understand, and are prompt 
 and efficient in, the discharge of their duties. 
 
 During the temporary absence from the guardhouse of the 
 sergeant of the guard, the next in rank of the non-commissioned 
 officers performs his duties. 
 
 Should the corporal whose relief is on post be called away 
 from the guardhouse, the sergeant of the guard designates a non- 
 commissioned officer to take the corporal's place until his return. 
 
 The sergeant of the guard is responsible at all times for the 
 proper police of the guardhouse or guard tent, including the 
 ground about them and the prison cells. 
 
 At " first sergeant's call " he proceeds to the adjutant's office 
 and obtains the guard report book. 
 
 When the national or regimental colors are taken from the 
 stacks of the color line, the color bearer and guard, or the sergeant 
 of the guard, unarmed, and two armed privates as a guard, escort 
 the colors to the colonel's quarters, as prescribed for the color 
 guard in the drill regulations of the arm of the service to which 
 the guard belongs. 
 
 He reports to the commander of the guard any suspicious 
 or unusual occurrence that comes under his notice, warns him of 
 the approach of any armed body, and sends to him all persons 
 arrested by the guard. 
 
 When the guard is turned out, its formation is as follows: 
 The senior non-commissioned officer, if commander of the guard, 
 is on the right of the right guide; if not the commander of the 
 guard, he is in the line of file closers, in rear of the right four 
 of the guard; the next in rank is right guide; the next left guide; 
 the others in the line of file closers, usually, each in rear of his 
 
GUARD DUTY AND MILITARY POLICE 193 
 
 relief; the field music, with its left three paces to the right of the 
 right guide. The reliefs form in the same order as when the guard 
 was first divided, except that if the guard consists of dismounted 
 cavalry and infantry, the cavalry forms on the left. 
 
 The sergeant forms the guard, calls the roll, and, if not in 
 command of the guard, reports to the commander of the guard 
 as prescribed for a first sergeant forming a troop or company; 
 the guard is not divided into platoons or sections, and, except when 
 the whole guard is formed prior to marching off, fours are not 
 counted. 
 
 The sergeant reports as follows: "Sir, all present or ac- 
 counted for, or Sir, (so-and-so) is absent"; or if the roll call has 
 been omitted, "Sir, the guard is formed." Only men absent without 
 proper authority are reported absent. He then takes his place 
 without command. 
 
 At night, the roll may be called by reliefs and numbers in- 
 stead of names; thus, the First relief being on post: Second relief; 
 No. 1; No. 2, etc. Third relief, Corporal; No. 1, etc. 
 
 Calling the roll is dispensed with in forming the guard 
 when it is turned out as a compliment, on the approach of an armed 
 body, or in any sudden emergency; but in such cases the roll may 
 be called before dismissing the guard. If the guard be turned out 
 for an officer entitled to inspect it, the roll is, unless he directs 
 otherwise, always called before a report is made. 
 
 The sergeant of the guard has direct charge of the prisoners, 
 except during such time as they may be under the charge of the 
 prisoner guard or overseers, and is responsible to the commander 
 of the guard for their security. 
 
 He carries the keys of the guardroom and cells, and does 
 not suffer them to leave his personal possession while he is at the 
 guardhouse, except as hereinafter provided. Should he leave the 
 guardhouse for any purpose, he turns the keys over to the non- 
 commissioned officer who takes his place. 
 
 He counts the knives, forks, etc., given to the prisoners with 
 their food, and sees that none of these articles remain in their 
 possession. He sees that no forbidden articles of any kind are con- 
 veyed to the prisoners. 
 
 Prisoners, when paraded with the guard, are placed in line 
 in its centre. The sergeant, immediately before forming the guard, 
 turns over his keys to the non-commissioned officer at the guard- 
 house. Having formed the guard, he divides it into two nearly 
 equal parts. Indicating the point of division with his hand, he 
 commands: 
 
 1. Right (or left), 2. FACE, 3. Forward, 4. MARCH, 5. 
 Guard, 6. HALT, 7. Left (or right), 8. FACE. 
 
 If the first command be right face, the right half of the guard 
 
194 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 only executes the movements; if left face, the left half only exe- 
 cutes them. The command halt is given when sufficient interval 
 is obtained to admit the prisoners. The doors of the guardroom 
 and cells are then opened by the non-ocmmissioned officer having 
 the keys. The prisoners file out under the supervision of the ser- 
 geant, the non-commissioned officer, and sentinel on duty at the 
 guardhouse, and such other sentinels as may be necessary; they 
 form in line in the interval between the two parts of the guard. 
 
 To return the prisoners to the guardroom and cells, the ser- 
 geant commands: 
 
 1. Prisoners, 2. Right (or left), 3. FACE, 4. Column right (or 
 left), 5. MARCH. 
 
 The prisoners, under the same supervision as before, return 
 to their proper rooms or cells. ^ 
 
 To close the guard, the sergeant commands: 
 
 I. Left (or right), 2. FACE, 3. Forward, 4. MARCH, 5. Guard, 
 6. HALT, 7. Right (or left), 8. FACE. 
 
 The left or right half only of the guard, as indicated, exe- 
 cutes the movement. 
 
 If there be but few prisoners, the sergeant may indicate the 
 point of division as above, and form the necessary interval by the 
 commands: 
 
 1. Right (or left) step, 2. MARCH, 3. Guard, HALT, and 
 close the intervals by the commands: 
 
 1. Left (or right) step, 2. MARCH, 3. Guard, 4. HALT. 
 
 If sentinels are numerous, reliefs may, at the discretion of 
 the commanding officer, be posted in detachments, and sergeants, 
 as well as corporals, required to relieve and post them. 
 
 CORPORAL OF THE GUARD 
 
 A corporal of the guard receives and obeys orders from none 
 but non-commissioned officers of the guard senior to himself, the 
 officers of the guard, the officer of the day, and the commanding 
 officer. 
 
 It is the duty of the corporal of the, guard to post and re- 
 lieve sentinels, and to instruct the members of his relief in their 
 orders and duties. 
 
 Immediately after the division of the guard into reliefs the 
 corporals assign the members of their respective reliefs to. posts 
 by number, and a soldier so assigned to his post is not changed 
 to another during the same tour of guard duty, unless by direction 
 of the commander of the guard or higher authority. Usually, ex- 
 perienced soldiers are placed over the arms of the guard, and at 
 remote and responsible posts. 
 
 Each corporal then makes a list of the members of his re- 
 
GUARD DUTY AND MILITARY POLICE 195 
 
 lief, including himself. This list contains the number of the re- 
 lief, the name, the company, and the regiment of every member 
 thereof, and the post to which each is assigned. The list is made in 
 duplicate, one copy to be given to the sergeant of the guard as 
 soon as completed, the other to be retained by the corporal. 
 
 When directed by the commander of the guard, the corporal 
 of the first relief forms his relief, and then commands: CALL OFF, 
 
 Commencing on the right, the men call off alternately rear 
 and front rank, "one," "two," "three," "four," and so on; if in sin- 
 gle rank, they call off from right to left. The corporal then com- 
 mands: 
 
 1. Right, 2. FACE, 3. Forward, 4. MARCH. 
 
 The corporal marches on the left, and near the rear file, in 
 order to observe the march. The corporal of the old guard 
 marches on the right of the leading file, and takes command when 
 the last one of the old sentinels is relieved, changing places with 
 the corporal of the new guard. 
 
 When the relief arrives at six paces from a sentinel the cor- 
 poral halts it and commands, according to the number of the post: 
 No. ( — ). Both sentinels execute port arms or saber; the new 
 sentinel approaches the old, halting about one pace from him. 
 
 The corporals advance and place themselves, facing each 
 other, a little in advance of the new sentinel, the old corporal on 
 his right, the new corporal on his left, both at a right shoulder, 
 and observe that the old sentinel transmits correctly his instruc- 
 tions. 
 
 The instructions relative to the post having been communi- 
 cated, the new corporal commands, POST; both sentinels then re- 
 sume the right shoulder, face toward the new corporal, and step 
 back so as to allow the relief to pass in front of them. The new 
 corporal then commands, 1, Forward, 2. MARCH; the old sentinel 
 takes his place in rear of the relief as it passes him, his piece in 
 the same position as those of the relief. The new sentinel stands 
 fast at a right shoulder until the relief has passed six paces be- 
 yond him. when he walks his post. The corporals take their places 
 as the relief passes them. Mounted sentinels are posted and re- 
 lieved in accordance with the same principles. 
 
 On the return of the old relief, the corporal of the new 
 guard falls out when the relief halts; the corporal of the old guard 
 forms his relief on the left of the old guard, salutes, and reports to 
 the commander of his guard: "Sir, the relief is present"; or "Sir, 
 (so and so) is absent," and takes his place in the guard. 
 
 To post a relief other than that which is posted when the 
 old guard is relieved, its corporal commands: 
 
 1. (Such) relief, 2. FALL IN; and if arms are stacked, they 
 are taken at the proper commands. 
 
196 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 The relief is formed facing to the front, with arms at an or- 
 der; the men place themselves according to the numbers of their 
 respective posts, viz.: two, four, six, and so on, in the front rank, 
 and one, three, five, and so on, in the rear rank. The corporal, 
 standing about two paces in front of the center of his relief, then 
 commands: CALL OFF. 
 
 The men call off as prescribed. The corporal then com- 
 mands: 1. Inspection, 2. ARMS, 3. Order, 4. ARMS; faces the com- 
 mander of the guard, executes the rifle salute, reports: "Sir, the re- 
 lief is present," or "Sir (so and so), is absent"; he then takes his 
 place on the right at order arms. 
 
 When the commander of the guard directs the corporal: 
 "Post your relief," the corporal salutes and posts his relief as pre- 
 scribed; the corporal of the relief on post does not go with the 
 new relief, except when necessary to show the way. 
 
 To dismiss the old relief, it is halted and faced to the front 
 at the guardhouse by the corporal of the new relief, who then falls 
 out; the corporal of the old relief then steps in front of the relief 
 and dismisses it by the proper commands. 
 
 Should the pieces have been loaded before the relief was 
 posted, the corporal, before dismissing the relief, sees that no 
 cartridges are left in the chambers or magazines. The same rule 
 applies to sentinels over prisoners. 
 
 Each corporal thoroughly acquaints himself with all the 
 special orders of every sentinel on his relief, and sees that each 
 understands and correctly transmits such orders in detail to his 
 successor. 
 
 There should be at least one non-commissioned officer con- 
 stantly on the alert at the guardhouse, usually the corporal whose 
 relief is on post. This non-commissioned officer takes post near 
 the entrance of the guardhouse and does not fall in with the guard 
 when it is formed. He has his rifle constantly with him. 
 
 Whenever it becomes necessary for the corporal to leave 
 his post near the entrance of the guardhouse, he notifies the ser- 
 geant of the guard, who at once takes his place, or designates an- 
 other non-commissioned officer to do so. 
 
 He sees that no person enters the guardhouse, or guard tent, 
 or crosses the posts of the sentinels there posted without proper 
 authority. 
 
 Should any sentinel call for the corporal of the guard, the 
 corporal, in every case, at once and quickly proceeds to such sen- 
 tinel. He notifies the sergeant of the guard before leaving the 
 guardhouse. 
 
 He at once reports to the commander of the guard any vio- 
 lation of regulations or any unusual occurrence which is reported 
 to him by a sentinel, or which comes to his notice in any other way. 
 
GUARD DUTY AND MILITARY POLICE 197 
 
 Should a sentinel call: "The Guard," the corporal promptly 
 notifies the commander of the guard. 
 
 Should a sentinel call: "Relief," the corporal at once pro- 
 ceeds to the post of such sentinel, taking with him the man next 
 for duty on that post. If the sentinel is relieved for a short time 
 only, the corporal again posts him as soon as the necessity for 
 his relief ceases. 
 
 When the countersign is used, the corporal at the posting 
 of the relief during whose tour challenging is to begin gives the 
 countersign to the members of the relief, excepting those posted 
 at the guardhouse. 
 
 He wakes the corporal whose relief is next on post in time 
 for the latter to verify the prisoners, form his relief, and post it 
 at the proper hour. 
 
 Should the guard be turned out, each corporal calls his own 
 relief, and causes its members to fall in promptly. 
 
 Tents or bunks in the same vicinity are designated for the 
 reliefs so that all the members of each relief may, if necessary, be 
 found and turned out by the corporal in the least time and with 
 the least confusion. 
 
 When challenged by a sentinel while posting his relief, the 
 corporal commands: 1. Relief, 2. HALT; to the sentinel's challenge 
 he answers " Relief," and at the order of the sentinel he advances 
 alone to give the countersign, or to be recognized. When the 
 sentinel says, "Advance relief," the corporal commands: 1. For- 
 ward, 2. MARCH. If to be relieved, the sentinel is then relieved as 
 prescribed. 
 
 Between retreat and reveille, the corporal of the guard chal- 
 lenges all suspicious looking persons or parties he may observe, 
 first halting his patrol or relief, if either be with him. He advances 
 them in the same manner that sentinels on post advance like 
 parties, but if the route of a patrol is on a continuous chain of 
 sentinels, he should not challenge persons coming near him unless 
 he has reasons to believe that they have eluded the vigilance of 
 sentinels. 
 
 Between retreat and reveille, whenever so ordered by an 
 officer entitled to inspect the guard, the corporal calls: "Turn 
 out the guard," announcing the title of the officer, and then, if not 
 otherwise ordered, he salutes and returns to his post. 
 
 As a general rule he advances parties approaching the guard 
 at night in the same manner that sentinels on post advance like 
 parties. Thus, the sentinel at the guardhouse challenges and re- 
 peats the answer to the corporal; the corporal advancing at "port 
 arms," says: "Advance (so and so) with the countersign," or "to 
 be recognized," if there be no countersign used; the countersign 
 being correctly given, or the party being duly recognized the cor- 
 
198 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 poral says: "Advance (so and so)"; repeating the answer to the 
 challenge of the sentinel. 
 
 When officers of different rank approach the guardhouse 
 from different directions at the same time, the senior is advanced 
 first, and is not made to wait for his junior. 
 
 Out of ranks and under arms, the corporal salutes with the 
 rifle salute. He salutes all officers whether by day or night. 
 
 The corporal examines parties halted and detained by senti- 
 nels, and if he has reason to believe the parties have no authority 
 to cross sentinel's posts, will conduct them to the commander of 
 the guard. 
 
 The corporal of the guard arrests all suspicious looking 
 characters prowling about the post or camp, all persons of a dis- 
 orderly character disturbing the peace, and all persons taken in 
 the act of committing crime against the Government on a military 
 reservation or post. All persons arrested by corporals of the 
 guard, or by sentinels, are at once conducted to the commander 
 of the guard by the corporal. 
 
 MUSICIANS OF THE GUARD 
 
 The musicians of the guard sound calls as prescribed by the 
 commanding officer. 
 
 Should the guard be turned out for national or regimental 
 colors or standards, uncased, the field music of the guard, when 
 the guard present arms, sounds, "To the color " or "To the 
 standard"; if, for any person entitled thereto, the march, flourishes, 
 or ruffles. 
 
 ORDERLIES AND COLOR SENTINELS 
 
 When so directed by the commanding officer, the officer 
 who inspects the guard at guard mounting selects from the mem- 
 bers of the new guard an orderly for the commanding officer and. 
 such number of other orderlies and color sentinels as may be 
 required. 
 
 For these positions the soldiers are chosen who are most 
 correct in the performance of duty and in military bearing, neatest 
 in person and clothing, and whose arms and accouterments are in 
 the best condition. Clothing, arms, and equipments must conform 
 to regulations. If there is any doubt as to the relative qualifica- 
 tions of two or more soldiers, the inspecting officer causes them to 
 fall out at the guardhouse and to form in line in single rank. He 
 then, by testing them in drill regulations, selects the most pro- 
 ficient. The commander of the guard is notified of the selection. 
 
I 
 
 GUARD DUTY AND MILITARY POLICE 199 
 
 When directed by the commander of the guard to fall out 
 and report, an orderly gives his name, company, and regiment to 
 the sergeant of the guard, and, leaving his rifle in the arm rack in 
 his company quarters, proceeds at once to the officer to whom he 
 
 is assigned, reporting: "Sir, Private , Company — , reports 
 
 as orderly." 
 
 If the orderly selected be a cavalryman, he leaves his rifle 
 in the arms rack of his troop quarters, and reports with his belt 
 on, but without side arms unless specially otherwise ordered. 
 
 Orderlies, while on duty as such, are subject only to the 
 orders of the commanding officer and of the officers to whom they 
 are ordered to report. 
 
 When an orderly is ordered to carry a message, he is careful 
 to deliver it exactly as it was given to him. 
 
 His tour of duty ends when he is relieved by the orderly 
 selected from the guard relieving his own. 
 
 Orderlies are members of the guard, and their names, com- 
 panies, and regiments are entered on the guard report and lists of 
 the guard. 
 
 If a color line is established, sufficient sentinels are placed 
 on the color line to guard the colors and stacks. 
 
 Color sentinels are posted only so long as the stacks are 
 formed. The commander of the guard divides the time equally 
 among them. 
 
 When stacks are broken, the color sentinels may be per- 
 mitted to return to their respective companies. They are required 
 to report in person to the commander of the guard at reveille and 
 retreat. They fall in with the guard, under arms, at guard 
 mounting. 
 
 Color sentinels are not placed on the regular reliefs, nor are 
 their posts numbered. In calling for the corporal of the guard, 
 they call : " Corporal of the guard. Color line." 
 
 Officers or enlisted men passing the uncased colors render 
 the prescribed salute. If the colors are on the stacks, the salute 
 is made on crossing the color line or on passing the colors. 
 
 A sentinel placed over the colors does not permit them to be 
 moved, except in the presence of an armed escort. Unless other- 
 wise ordered by the commanding officer, he allows no one to touch 
 them but the color bearer. 
 
 He does not permit any soldier to take arms from the stacks, 
 or to touch them, except by order of an officer or non-commis- 
 sioned officer of the guard. 
 
 If any person passing the colors or crossing the color line 
 fails to salute the colors, the sentinel cautions him to do so, and 
 if the caution is not heeded he calls the corporal of the guard and 
 reports the facts. 
 
200 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 PRIVATES OF THE GUARD- 
 
 Privates are assigned to reliefs by the commander of the 
 guard, and to posts, usually, by the corporal of their relief. They 
 do not change from one relief or post to another during the same 
 tour of guard duty unless by proper authority. 
 
 ORDERS FOR SENTINELS 
 
 Orders for sentinels are of two classes: General orders and 
 special orders. General orders apply to all sentinels. Special 
 orders relate to particular posts and duties. 
 
 Sentinels are required to memorize the following: My gen- 
 eral orders are: 1. To take charge of this post and all Government 
 property in view. 2. To walk my post in a military manner, keep- 
 ing always on the alert and observing everything that takes place 
 within sight and hearing. 3. To report all violations of orders I 
 am instructed to enforce. 4. To repeat all calls from posts more 
 distant from the guardhouse than my own. 5. To quit my post 
 only when properly relieved. 6. To receive, obey, and pass on to 
 the sentinel who relieves me all orders from the commanding offi- 
 cer, officer of the day, and officers and non-commissioned officers 
 of the guard only. 7. To talk to no one except in line of duty* 
 8. In case of fire or disorder to give the alarm. 9. To allow no 
 one to commit a nuisance on or near my post. 10. In any case 
 not covered by instructions to call the corporal of the guard. 
 
 11. To salute all officers, and all colors and standards not cased. 
 
 12. To be especially watchful at night, and, during the time for 
 challenging, to challenge all persons on or near my post, and to 
 allow no one to pass without proper authority. 
 
 Sentinels posted at the guard are required to memorize the 
 following special orders: 
 
 Between reveille and retreat to turn out the guard for all 
 persons designated by the commanding officer, for all colors or 
 standards not cased, and in time of war for all armed parties 
 approaching my post, except troops at drill and reliefs and detach- 
 ments of the guard. 
 
 At night, after challenging any person or party, to advance 
 no one but call the corporal of the guard, repeating the answer 
 to the challenge. 
 
 After receiving an answer to his challenge, the sentinel 
 calls, "Corporal of the guard (So and so)," repeating the answer 
 to the challenge. 
 
 He remains in the position assumed in challenging until 
 the corporal has recognized or advanced the person or party 
 challenged, when he resumes walking his post, or, if the person or 
 
 ^ 
 
GUARD DUTY AND MILITARY POLICE 201 
 
 party be entitled thereto, he salutes and, as soon as the salute has 
 been acknowledged, resumes walking his post. 
 
 The sentinel at the post of the guard will be notified by 
 direction of the commanding officer of the presence in camp or 
 garrison of persons entitled to the compliment. 
 
 The following examples illustrate the manner in which the 
 sentinel at the post of the guard will turn out the guard upon the 
 approach of persons or parties entitled to the compliment; "Turn 
 out the guard, Commanding Officer"; "Turn out the guard, Gov- 
 ernor of a Territory"; "Turn out the guard, national colors"; 
 "Turn out the guard, armed party"; etc. 
 
 At the approach of the new guard at guard mounting the 
 sentinel will call "Turn out the guard, armed party." 
 
 Should the person named by the sentinel not desire the 
 guard formed, he will salute, whereupon the sentinel will call 
 "Never mind the guard." 
 
 After having called "Turn out the guard," the sentinel will 
 never call " Never mind the guard," on the approach of an armed 
 party. 
 
 Though the guard be already formed he will not fail to 
 call "Turn out the guard," as required in his special orders, except 
 that the guard will not be turned out for any person while his 
 senior is at or coming to the post of the guard. 
 
 The sentinels at the post of the guard will warn the com- 
 mander of the approach of any armed body and of the presence in 
 the vicinity of all suspicious or disorderly persons. 
 
 In case of fire or disorder in sight or hearing, the sentinel 
 at the guardhouse will call the corporal of the guard and report 
 the facts to him. 
 
 COUNTERSIGNS AND PAROLES 
 
 Seventy-seventh Article of War. — Any person belonging to 
 the armies of the United States who makes known the watchword 
 to any person not entitled to receive it, according to the rules and 
 discipline of war, or presumes to give a parole or watchword 
 different from that which he received, shall suffer death or such 
 other punishment as a court-martial may direct. 
 
 The countersign is a word given daily from the principal 
 headquarters of a command to aid guards and sentinels in identi- 
 fying persons who may be authorized to pass at night. It is given 
 to such persons as may be authorized to pass or repass sentinels' 
 posts during the night, and to officers, non-commissioned officers, 
 and sentinels of the guard. 
 
 The parole is a word used as a check on the countersign in 
 order to obtain more accurate identification of persons. It is 
 imparted only to those who are entitled to inspect guards and to 
 
J 
 
 202 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 commanders of guards. The parole or countersign, or both, are 
 sent sealed in the form of an order to those entitled to them. 
 
 When the commander of the guard demands the parole, 
 he advances and receives it as the corporal receives the counter- 
 sign. 
 
 As the communications containing the parole and counter- 
 sign must at times be distributed by many orderlies, the parole 
 intrusted to many officers, and the countersign and parole to 
 many officers and sentinels, and as both the countersign and 
 parole must, for large commands, be prepared several days in 
 advance, there is always danger of their being lost or becoming 
 known to persons who would make improper use of them; more- 
 over, a sentinel is too apt to take it for granted that any person 
 who gives the right countersign is what he represents himself 
 to be; hence for outpost duty there is greater security in omitting 
 the use of the countersign and parole, or in using them with great 
 caution. The chief reliance should be upon personal recognition 
 or identification of all persons claiming authority to pass. 
 
 Persons whose sole means of identification is the counter- 
 sign, or concerning whose authority to pass there is a reasonable 
 doubt, should not be allowed to pass without the authority of the 
 corporal of the guard after proper investigation; the corporal takes 
 to his next superior any person about whom he is not competent 
 to decide. 
 
 The countersign is usually the name of a battle; the parole, 
 that of a general or other distinguished person. 
 
 When they can not be communicated daily, a series of words 
 for some days in advance may be sent to posts or detachments 
 that are to use the same parole or countersign as the main body. 
 
 If the countersign be lost, or if a member of the guard 
 desert with it, the commander on the spot substitutes another for 
 it and reports the case at once to headquarters. 
 
 In addition to the countersign, use may be made of precon- 
 certed signals, such as striking the rifle with the hand or striking 
 the hands together a certain number of times, as agreed upon. 
 Such signals may be used only by guards that occupy exposed 
 | points. They are used before the countersign is given, and must 
 not be communicated to any one not entitled to know the counter- 
 sign. Their use is intended to prevent the surprise of a sentinel. 
 In the daytime signals such as raising a cap or a handkerchief in a 
 prearranged manner may be used by sentinels to communicate 
 with the guard or with each other. 
 
 GUARD PATROLS 
 
 A guard patrol consists of one or more men detailed for the 
 >erformance of some special service connected with guard duty. 
 
GUARD DUTY AND MILITARY POLICE 203 
 
 If the patrol be required to go beyond the chain of sentinels, 
 the officer or non-commissioned officer in charge is furnished 
 with the countersign, and the outposts and sentinels warned. 
 
 If challenged by a sentinel, the patrol is halted by its com- 
 mander, and the non-commissioned officer accompanying it ad- 
 vances alone and gives the countersign. 
 
 WATCHMEN 
 
 Enlisted men may be detailed as watchmen or as overseers 
 over prisoners, and as such receive their orders and perform their 
 duties as the commanding officer may direct. 
 
 COMPLIMENTS FROM GUARDS 
 
 The compliment from a guard consists in the guard turn- 
 ing out and presenting arms. No compliments are paid between 
 retreat and reveille except as provided below, nor does any person 
 other than those named receive the compliment. 
 
 Though a guard does not turn out between retreat and 
 reveille as a matter of compliment, it may be turned out for in- 
 spection at any time by a person entitled to inspect it. 
 
 Between reveille and retreat the following persons are en- 
 titled to the compliment: The President, sovereign or chief mag- 
 istrate of a foreign country, and members of a royal family; Vice 
 President; President and President pro tempore of the Senate; 
 American and foreign ambassadors; members of the Cabinet; Chief 
 Justice; Speaker of the House of Representatives; committees of 
 Congress officially visiting a military post; governors within their 
 respective States and Territories; governors general; Assistant 
 Secretary of War officially visiting a military post; all general 
 officers of the Army; general officers of foreign services visting 
 a post; naval, marine, volunteer, and militia officers in the service 
 of the United States and holding the rank of general officer; 
 American or foreign envoys or ministers; ministers accredited to 
 the United States; charges d'affaires accredited to the United 
 States; consuls general accredited to the United States; command- 
 ing officer of a coast artillery district, coast defense command post, 
 fort or camp; officer of the day. 
 
 The relative rank between officers of the Army and Navy is 
 as follows: General with admiral, lieutenant general with vice ad- 
 miral, major general with rear admiral, brigadier general with 
 commodore, colonel with captain, lieutenant colonel with com- 
 mander, major with lieutenant commander, captain with lieutenant, 
 first lieutenant with lieutenant (junior grade), second lieutenant 
 
204 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 with ensign. The grade of commodore ceased to exist as a grade 
 on the active list of the Navy of the United States on March 3, 1899. 
 
 Sentinels are not required to memorize the above mentioned 
 persons entitled to the compliment, and except in the cases of gen- 
 eral officers of the Army, the commanding officer, and the officer 
 of the day, they are advised in each case of the presence in camp 
 or garrison of such persons. 
 
 Guards turn out and present arms when the national or regi- 
 mental colors or standards, not cased, are carried past by a guard 
 or an armed party. This rule also applies when the party carrying 
 the colors is at drill. If the drill is conducted in the vicinity of 
 the guardhouse, the guard is turned out when the colors first pass, 
 and not thereafter. 
 
 In case the remains of a deceased officer or soldier are car- 
 ried past, the guard turns out and presents arms. 
 
 In time of war all guards turn out under arms when armed 
 parties, except troops at drill and reliefs or detachments of the 
 guard, approach their post. 
 
 The commander of the guard is notified of the presence in 
 camp or garrison of all persons entitled to the compliment, ex- 
 cept general officers of the Army, the commanding officer, and the 
 officer of the day. Members of the guard salute all persons en- 
 titled to the compliment and all officers in the military or naval 
 service of foreign powers, officers of the Army, Navy, and Marine 
 Corps, officers of volunteers, and officers of militia when in uni* 
 form. 
 
 GENERAL RULES CONCERNING GUARD DUTY 
 
 Any sentinel who is found drunk or sleeping upon his post, 
 or who leaves it before he is regularly relieved, if the offense is 
 committed in war time, suffers death or such other punish* 
 ment as a court-martial may direct. 
 
 Should the guard be formed, soldiers fall in ranks under 
 arms. At roll call, each man, as his name or number and relief 
 are called, answers " Here," and comes to an order arms. 
 
 Whenever the guard or a relief is dismissed, each member 
 not at once required for duty places his rifle in the arms racks, if 
 they be provided, and does not remove it therefrom unless he 
 requires it in the performance of some duty. 
 
 Without permission from the commander of the guard, 
 members of the main guard, except orderlies, do not leave the im- 
 mediate vicinity of the guardhouse. Permission to leave is not 
 granted except in cases of necessity. 
 
 Members of the main guard, except orderlies, do not remove 
 tkeir accouterments or clothing without permission from the 
 commander of the guard. 
 
GUARD DUTY AND MILITARY POLICE 205 
 
 PRISONERS 
 
 The commander of the guard places a civilian in confine- 
 ment on an order from higher authority only, unless such civilian 
 is arrested while in the act of committing some crime within the 
 limits of the military jurisdiction; in which case the commanding 
 officer is immediately notified. 
 
 An officer ordering a soldier into confinement sends, as 
 soon as practicable, a written statement, signed by himself, to the 
 commander of the guard, setting forth the name, company and 
 regiment of such soldier, and a brief satement of the alleged 
 offense. It is a sufficient statement of the offense to give the num- 
 ber and article of war under which the soldier is charged. 
 
 A prisoner, after his first day of confinement, and until his 
 sentence has been duly promulgated, is considered as held in con- 
 finement by the commanding officer. After due promulgation of his 
 sentence, the prisoner is held in confinement by authority of the 
 officer who reviews the proceedings of the court awarding sen- 
 tence. The commander of the guard states in his report, in the 
 proper place, the name of the officer by whom the prisoner wa9 
 originally confined. 
 
 Enlisted men against whom charges have been preferred 
 are designated as "awaiting trial"; enlisted men who have been 
 tried, prior to the promulgation of the result, are designated as 
 "awaiting result of trial"; enlisted men serving sentence of con- 
 finement, not involving dishonorable discharge, are designated as 
 " garrison prisoners." Persons sentenced to dismissal or dishon- 
 orable discharge and to terms of confinement at military posts or 
 elsewhere are designated as " general prisoners." 
 
 The sentences of prisoners are read to them when the order 
 promulgating the same is received. The officer of the guard, or 
 the officer of the day if there be no officer of the guard, reads 
 them unless the commanding officer directs otherwise. 
 
 STABLE GUARDS 
 
 Under the head of stable guards are included guards for 
 cavalry stables, artillery stables and parks, mounted infantry 
 stables, machine gun organization stables and parks and quar- 
 termaster stables and parks. Where the words " troop " and 
 " cavalry " are used they include all of these organizations. 
 
 When troop stable guards are mounted they guard the 
 stables of the cavalry. When no stable guards are mounted, the 
 stables are guarded by sentinels posted from the main guard, under 
 the control of the officer of the day. The instructions given for 
 troop stable guards are observed as far as applicable by the non- 
 
206 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 commissioned officers and sentinels of the main guard when in 
 charge of the stables. 
 
 TROOP STABLE GUARDS 
 
 Troop stable guards are not used except in the field, or 
 when it is impracticable to guard the stables by sentinels from the 
 main guard. 
 
 Troop stable guards are under the immediate control of their 
 respective troop commanders; they are posted in each cavalry 
 stable, or near the picket line, and consist of not less than one 
 non-commissioned officer and three privates. Stable guards are 
 for the protection of the horses, stables, forage,, equipments, and 
 public property generally. They in addition enforce the special 
 regulations in regard to stables, horses, and parks. 
 
 Sentinels of stable guards are posted at the stables or at the 
 picket lines when the horses are kept outside. The troop stable 
 guard may be used as a herd guard during the day time or when 
 grazing is practicable. 
 
 The troop stable guard, when authorized by the post com- 
 mander, is mounted under the supervision of the troop command- 
 er. It is armed, at the discretion of the troop commander, with 
 either rifle or pistol. The tour continues for 24 hours, or until the 
 guard is relieved by a new guard. 
 
 The employment of stable guards for police and fatigue 
 duties at the stables is forbidden; but this does not prohibit them 
 from being required to assist in feeding grain before reveille. 
 
 The troop stable guard attends stables with the rest of the 
 troop and groom their own horses, the sentinel being taken off 
 post for the purpose. 
 
 Neither the non-commissioned officer nor the members of 
 the stable guard absent themselves from the immediate vicinity 
 of the stables except in case of urgent necessity, and then for no 
 longer time than is absolutely necessary. No member of the 
 guard leaves for any purpose without the authority of the non- 
 commissioned officer of the guard. 
 
 The non-commissioned officer and one member of the stable 
 guard go for meals at the proper hour; upon their return the other 
 members of the guard are directed to go by the non-commissioned 
 officer. 
 
 When the horses are herded each troop furnishes its own 
 "herd guard. 
 
 Smoking in the stables or their immediate vicinity is pro- 
 hibited. No fire or light, other than electric light or stable lan- 
 terns, is permitted in the stables. A special place is designated for 
 trimming, filling, and lighting lanterns. 
 
GUARD DUTY AND MILITARY POLICE 207 
 
 NON-COMMISSIONED OFFICER OF THE TROOP STABLE 
 
 GUARD 
 
 The non-commissioned officer receives his orders from his 
 troop commander, to whom he reports immediately after posting 
 his first relief, and when relieved turns over all his orders to his 
 successor. He instructs his sentinels in their general and spe- 
 cial duties; exercises general supervision over his entire guard; 
 exacts order and cleanliness about the guardroom; prevents the 
 introduction of intoxicants into the guardhouse and stables; re- 
 ceives, by count, from his predecessor, the animals, horse equip- 
 ments, and all property (both private and public) pertaining there- 
 to; examines, before relieving his predecessor, all locks, windows, 
 and doors, and should any be found insecure he reports the fact 
 to his troop commander when he reports for orders. He person- 
 ally posts and relieves each sentinel, taking care to verify the 
 property responsibility of the sentinel who comes off post, and sees 
 that the sentinel who goes on post is aware of the property re- 
 sponsibility that he assumes. 
 
 That the non-commissioned officer may be more thorough- 
 ly informed of his responsibility, all horses returning, except those 
 from a regular formation, are reported to him. He then notifies 
 the sentinel on post, and, in the absence of the stable sergeant, 
 sees that the horses are promptly cared for. In case of abuse, 
 he promptly reports to the troop commander. Should the horse 
 be the private property of an officer, he reports such abuse to the 
 owner. 
 
 The non-commissioned officer reports any unusual occur- 
 rence during his tour direct to his troop commander. 
 
 Horses and other property for which the non-commissioned 
 officer is responsible are not taken from the stables without the 
 authority of the post or troop commander. 
 
 Wherever it becomes necessary for the non-commissioned 
 officer to leave his guard, he designates a member of it to take 
 charge and assume his responsibility during his absence, 
 
 SENTINELS OF THE TROOP STABLE GUARD 
 
 The sentinel in the discharge of his duties is governed by the 
 regulations for sentinels of the main guard whenever they are 
 applicable — such as courtesies to officers, walking post in a soldier- 
 ly manner, challenging, etc.; he does not turn out the guard ex- 
 cept when ordered by proper authority. 
 
 The sentinel receives orders from the commanding officer, 
 the troop commander, and the non-commissioned officers of the 
 14 
 
208 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 stable guard only, except when the commanding officer directs the 
 officers of the day to inspect the stable guard. 
 
 In the field and elsewhere when directed by the command- 
 ing officer the sentinel when posted verifies the number of horses 
 for which he is responsible, and when relieved gives the number 
 to his successor. 
 
 The sentinel does not permit any horse or equipments to be ' 
 taken from the stable, except in the presence of the non-commis- 
 sioned officer. 
 
 Should a horse get loose, the sentinel catches him and ties 
 him up. If he be unable to catch the horse, the non-commissioned 
 officer is at once notified. In case a horse be cast, or in any way 
 entangled, he relieves him, if possible; if unable to relieve him, he I 
 calls the non-commissioned officer. Sentinels are forbidden to pun- 
 ish or maltreat a horse. 
 
 When a horse is taken sick, the sentinel notifies the non- j 
 commissioned officer, who in turn calls the farrier, and sees that 
 the horse is properly attended to. 
 
 In case of fire the sentinel gives the alarm by stepping out- 
 side the stable and firing his pistol or piece repeatedly, and calling 
 out at the same time, "Fire, stables, Troop ( )." 
 
 As soon as the guard is alarmed, he takes the necessary pre- 
 cautions in opening or closing the doors so as to prevent the spread- j 
 ing of the fire and make it possible to remove the horses; he drops 
 the chains and bars, and, with the other members of the guard, 
 proceeds to lead out the horses and secure them at the picket line 
 or such other place as may have been previously designated. 
 
 Sentinels over horses, or in charge of prisoners, receive ord- 
 ers from the stable sergeant, so far as the care of the horses and 
 the labor of prisoners are concerned. 
 
 In field artillery and machine gun organizations, the guard 
 for the stables has charge of the guns, caissons, etc., with their 
 ammunition and stores,, as well as the horses, harness and forage. 
 
 FLAGS 
 
 When practicable, a detail consisting of a non-commis- 
 sioned officer and two privates of the guard will raise or lower 
 the flag. This detail wears side arms, or, if the special equipments 
 do not include side arms, then belts only. The non-commissioned 
 officer carrying the flag, forms the detail in line, takes his post 
 in the center, and marches it to the staff. The flag is then se- 
 curely attached to the halyards and rapidly hoisted. The hal- 
 yards are then securely fastened to the cleat on the staff and the 
 detail marched to the guardhouse. 
 
GUARD DUTY AND MILITARY POLICE 209 
 
 When the flag is to be lowered, the halyards are loosened 
 from the staff and made perfectly free. At retreat the flag is 
 lowered at the last note of retreat. It is then neatly folded and 
 the halyards made fast. The detail is then reformed and marched 
 to the guardhouse, where the flag is turned over to the commander 
 of the guard. 
 
 The flag should never be allowed to touch the ground and 
 should always be hoisted or lowered from the leeward side of 
 the staff, the halyards being held by two persons. 
 
 REVEILLE AND RETREAT GUN 
 
 The morning and evening gun are fired by a detachment 
 of the guard, consisting, when practcable,, of a corporal and two 
 privates. The morning gun is fired at the first note of reveille, or,, 
 if marches be played before the reveille, it is fired at the beginning 
 of the first march. The retreat gun is fired at the last note of re- 
 treat. 
 
 The corporal marches the detachment to and from the piece, 
 which is fired, sponged out, and secured under his direction. 
 
 GUARD MOUNTING 
 
 Guard mounting is formal or informal as the command- 
 ing officer may direct. It is held as prescribed in the drill regu- 
 lations of the arm of the service to which the guard belongs; if 
 none is prescribed, then as for infantry. In case the guard is com- 
 posed wholly of mounted organizations, guard mounting may be 
 held mounted. 
 
 When infantry and mounted troops dismounted are united 
 for guard mounting, all details form as prescribed for infantry. 
 
 FORMAL GUARD MOUNTING FOR INFANTRY 
 
 Formal guard mounting is ordinarily held only in posts or 
 camps where a band is present. 
 
 At the assembly, the men designated for the guard fall in on 
 their company parade grounds. The first sergeant then verifies 
 the detail,, inspects it, replaces any man unfit to go on guard, turns 
 the detail over to the senior non-commissioned officer and retires. 
 The band takes its place on the parade ground so that the left of 
 its front rank shall be 12 paces to the right of the front rank of 
 the guard when the latter is formed. 
 
 At adjutant's call, the adjutant, dismounted, and the ser- 
 
210 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 geant major on his left, marches to the parade ground. The 
 adjutant halts and takes post so as to be 12 paces in front of and 
 facing the center of the guard when formed; the sergeant major 
 continues on, moves by the left flank, and takes post, facing to 
 the left, 12 paces to the left of the front rank of the band; the 
 band plays in quick or double time; the details are marched to 
 the parade ground by the senior non-commissioned officers; the 
 detail that arrives first is marched to the line so that, upon halt- 
 ing, the breast of the front-rank man is near to and opposite the 
 left arm of the sergeant major; the commander of the detail 
 halts his detail, places himself in front of and facing the sergeant 
 major, at a distance equal to or a little greater than the front of 
 his detail, and commands: 1. Right, 2. DRESS. The detail dresses 
 up to the line of the sergeant major and its commander, the right 
 front-rank man placing his breast against the left arm of the 
 sergeant major; the non-commissioned officers take posts two 
 paces in rear of the rear rank of the detail. The detail aligned, the 
 commander of the detail commands: FRONT, salutes, and then 
 reports: "The detail is correct"; or "(So many) sergeants, cor- 
 porals, or privates are absent"; the sergeant major returns the 
 salute with the right hand after the report is made; the commander 
 then passes by the right of the guard and takes post in the line 
 of non-commissioned officers in rear of the right file or his detail. 
 
 Should there be more than one detail, it is formed in like 
 manner on the left of the one preceding; the privates, non-com- 
 missioned officers, and commander of each detail dress on those 
 of the preceding details in the same rank or line; each detail com- 
 mander closes the rear rank to the right and fills blank files, as 
 far as practicable, with the men from his front rank. 
 
 Should the guard from a company not include a non-com- 
 missioned officer, one will be detailed to perform the duties of 
 commander of the detail. In this case the commander of the de- 
 tail, after reporting to the sergeant major, passes around the 
 right flank between the guard and the band and retires. 
 
 When the last detail has formed, the sergeant major takes 
 a side step to the right, draws sword, verifies the detail, takes post 
 two paces to the right and two paces to the front of the guard, 
 facing to the left, causes the guard to count off, completes the left 
 squad, if necessary, as in the school of the company, and if there 
 be more than three squads, divides the guard into two platoons, 
 again takes post as described above and commands: 1; Open ranks, 
 2. MARCH. 
 
 At the command march, the rear rank and file closers march 
 backward four steps, halt, and dress to the right. The sergeant 
 major aligns the ranks and file closers and again, taking post as 
 described above, commands: FRONT, moves parallel to the front 
 
GUARD DUTY AND MILITARY POLICE 211 
 
 rank until opposite the center, turns to the right, halts midway 
 to the adjutant, salutes, and reports: "Sir, the details are cor- 
 rect"; or, "Sir, (so many) sergeants, corporals, or privates are 
 absent"; the adjutant returns the salute, directs the sergeant 
 major: Take your post, and then draws saber; the sergeant major 
 faces about, approaches to within two paces of the center of the 
 front rank, turns to the right, moves three paces beyond the left of 
 the front rank, turns to the left, halts on the line of the front 
 rank, faces about, and brings his sword to the order. When the 
 sergeant major has reported, the officer of the guard takes post, 
 facing to the front, three paces in front of the center of the guard, 
 and draws saber. 
 
 The adjutant then commands: 1. Officer (or officers) and 
 non-commissioned officers, 2. Front and center, 3. MARCH. 
 
 At the command center, the officers carry saber. At the 
 command march, the officer advances and halts three paces from 
 the adjutant, remaining at the carry; the non-commissioned officers 
 pass by the flanks, along the front, and form in order of rank 
 from right to left, three paces in rear of the officer, remaining at 
 the right shoulder; if there is no officer of the guard the non- 
 commissioned officers halt on a line three paces from the ad- 
 jutant; the adjutant then assigns the officers and non-commis- 
 sioned officers according to rank, as follows: Commander of the 
 guard, leader of first platoon, leader of second platoon, right guide 
 of first platoon, left guide of second platoon, left guide of first 
 platoon, right guide of second platoon, and file closers, or, if the 
 guard is not divided into platoons: Commander of the guard, right 
 guide, left guide, and file closers. 
 
 The adjutant then commands: 1. Officer (or officers) and 
 non-commissioned officers, 2. POSTS, 3. MARCH. 
 
 At the command posts, all except the officer commanding 
 the guard, face about. At the command march, they take the posts 
 prescribed in the school of the company with open ranks. The 
 adjutant directs: Inspect your guard, sir; at which the officer com- 
 manding the guard faces about, commands: Prepare for inspection, 
 returns saber, and inspects the guard. 
 
 During the inspection, the band plays; the adjutant returns 
 saber, observes the general condition of the guard, and falls out 
 any man who is unfit for guard duty or does not present a credit- 
 able appearance. Substitutes report to the commander of the 
 guard at the guardhouse. 
 
 The adjutant, when so directed, selects orderlies and color 
 sentinels, and notifies the commander of the guard of his selection. 
 
 If there be a junior officer of the guard he takes post at 
 the same time as the senior, facing to the front, 3 paces in front 
 Df the center of the first platoon; in going to the front and center 
 
212 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 he follows and takes position on the left of the senior and is as- 
 signed as leader of the first platoon; he may be directed by the 
 commander of the guard to assist in inspecting the guard. If there 
 be no officer of the guard, the adjutant inspects the guard. A non- 
 commissioned officer commanding the guard takes post on the 
 right of the right guide, when the guard is in line; and takes the 
 post of the officer of the guard, when in column or passing in 
 review. 
 
 The inspection ended, the adjutant places himself about 30 
 paces in front of and facing the center of the guard, and draws 
 saber; the new officer of the day takes post in front of and facing 
 the guard, about 30 paces from the adjutant; the old officer of the 
 day takes post 3 paces to the right of and 1 pace to the rear of the 
 new officer of the day; the officer of the guard takes post 3 paces 
 in front of its center, draws saber with the adjutant and comes to 
 the order; thereafter he takes the same relative positions as a 
 captain of a company. 
 
 The adjutant then commands: 1. Parade, 2. REST, 3. 
 SOUND OFF, and comes to the order and parade rest. The band, 
 playing, passes in front of the officer of the guard to the left of 
 the line, and back to its post on the right, when it ceases playing. 
 
 The adjutant then comes to attention, carries saber, and 
 commands: 1. Guard, 2. ATTENTION, 3. Close ranks, 4. MARCH. 
 
 The adjutant then commands: 1. Present, 2. ARMS, faces 
 toward the new officer of the day, salutes, and then reports: Sir, 
 the guard is formed. The new officer of the day, after the adjutant 
 has reported, returns the salute with the hand and directs the 
 adjutant: March the guard in review, sir. 
 
 The adjutant carries saber, faces about, brings the guard to 
 an order, and commands: 1. At trail, platoons (or guard) right, 
 2. MARCH, 3. Guard, 4. HALT. 
 
 The platoons execute the movement; the band turns to the 
 right and places itself 12 paces in front of the first platoon. 
 
 The adjutant places himself 6 paces from the flank and 
 abreast of the commander of the guard; the sergeant major, 6 
 paces from the left flank of the second platoon. 
 
 The adjutant then commands: 1. Pass in review, 2. FOR- 
 WARD, 3. MARCH. 
 
 The guard marches in quick time past the officer of the day, 
 according to the principles of review, and is brought to eyes right 
 at the proper time by the commander of the guard; the adjutant, 
 commander of the guard, leaders of platoons, sergeant major, and 
 drum major salute. 
 
 The band, having passed the officer of the day, turns to the 
 left out of the column, places itself opposite and facing him, and 
 continues to play until the guard leaves the parade ground. The 
 
GUARD DUTY AND MILITARY POLICE 213 
 
 field music detaches itself from the Dand when the latter turns 
 out of the column, and, remaining in front of the guard, com- 
 mences to play when the band ceases. 
 
 Having passed 12 paces beyond the officer of the day, the 
 adjutant halts; the sergeant major halts abreast of the adjutant 
 and 1 pace to his left; they then return saber, salute, and retire; 
 the commander of the guard then commands: 1. Platoons, right 
 by squads, 2. MARCH, and marches the guard to its post. 
 
 The officers of the day face toward each other and salute; 
 the old officer of the day turns over the orders to the new officer 
 of the day. 
 
 While the band is sounding off, and while the guard is 
 marching in review, the officers of the day stand at parade rest 
 with arms folded. They take this position when the adjutant 
 comes to parade rest, resume the attention with him, again take 
 the parade rest at the first note of the march in review, and resume 
 attention as the head of the column approaches. 
 
 The new officer of the day returns the salute of the com- 
 mander of the guard and the adjutant, making one salute with the 
 hand. 
 
 If the guard be not divided into platoons, the adjutant com- 
 mands: 1. At trail, guard right, 2. MARCH, 3. Guard, 4. HALT, 
 and it passes in review as above; the commander of the guard is 
 3 paces in front of its center; the adjutant places himself 6 paces 
 from the left flank and abreast of the commander of the guard; 
 the sergeant covers the adjutant on a line with the front rank 
 
 INFORMAL GUARD MOUNTING FOR INFANTRY 
 
 Informal guard mounting is held on the parade ground of 
 the organization from which the guard is detailed. If it is detailed 
 from more than one organization, then at such place as the com- 
 manding officer may direct. 
 
 At assembly, the detail for guard falls in on the company 
 parade ground. The first sergeant verifies the detail, inspects 
 their dress and general appearance, and replaces any man unfit to 
 march on guard. He then turns the detail over to the commander 
 of the guard and retires. 
 
 At adjutant's call, the officer of the day takes his place IS 
 paces in front of the center of the guard and commands: 1. Officer 
 (or officers) and non-commissioned officers, 2. Front and center, 
 3. MARCH; whereupon the officers and non-commissioned officers 
 take their positions, are assigned and sent to their posts as pre- 
 scribed in formal guard mounting. 
 
 The officer of the day then inspects the guard with especial 
 ; reference for its fitness for the duty for which it is detailed, and 
 
214 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 selects the necessary orderlies and color sentinels. The men found 
 unfit for guard are returned to quarters and are replaced by others 
 found to be suitable, if available in the company. If none are avail- 
 able in the company, the fact is reported to the adjutant imme- 
 diately after guard mounting. 
 
 When the inspection has been completed, the officer of the 
 day resumes his position and directs the commander of the guard 
 to march the guard to its post. 
 
 RELIEVING THE OLD GUARD 
 
 As the new guard approaches the guardhouse, the old guard 
 is formed in line, with its field music 3 paces to its right; and when 
 the field music at the head of the new guard arrives opposite its 
 left, the commander of the new guard commands: 1. Eyes, 
 2. RIGHT; the commander of the old guard commands: 1. Pre- 
 sent, 2. ARMS; commanders of both guards salute. The new 
 guard marches in quick time past the old guard. 
 
 When the commander of the new guard is opposite the field 
 music of the old guard, he commands: FRONT; the commander 
 of the old guard commands: 1. Order, 2. ARMS, as soon as the 
 new guard has cleared the old guard. 
 
 The field music having marched 3 paces beyond the field 
 music of the old guard, changes direction to the right, and, fol- 
 lowed by the guard, changes direction to the left when on a line 
 with the old guard; the changes of direction are without command. 
 The commander of the guard halts on the line of the front rank 
 of the old guard, allows his guard to march past him, and when 
 its rear approaches forms it in line to the left, establishes the left 
 guide 3 paces to the right of the field music of the old guard, and 
 on a line with the front rank, and then dresses his guard to the 
 left; the field music of the new guard is 3 paces to the right of its 
 front rank. 
 
 The new guard being dressed, the commander of each guard, 
 in front of and facing its center, commands: 1. Present, 2. ARMS, 
 resumes his front, salutes, carries saber, faces his guard and com- 
 mands: 1. Order, 2. ARMS. Should a guard be commanded by a 
 non-commissioned officer, he stands on the right or left of the 
 front rank, according as he commands the old or new guard, and 
 executes the rifle salute. 
 
 After the new guard arrives at its post, and has saluted the 
 old guard, each guard is presented by its commander to its officer 
 of the day; if there be but one officer of the day present, or if 
 one officer acts in the capacity of old and new officer of the day 
 each guard is presented to him by its commander. 
 
GUARD DUTY AND MILITARY POLICE 215 
 
 If other persons entitled to a salute approach, each com- 
 mander of the guard brings his own guard to attention if not 
 already at attention. The senior commander of the two guards 
 then commands " 1. Old and new guards, 2. Present, 3. ARMS." 
 
 The junior salutes at the command " Present arms " given 
 by the senior. After the salute has been acknowledged, the senior 
 brings both guards to the order. 
 
 After the salutes have been acknowledged by the officers of 
 the day, each guard is brought to an order by its commander; the 
 commander of the new guard then directs the orderly or orderlies 
 to fall out and report, and causes bayonets to be fixed if so ordered 
 by the commanding officer; bayonets are not then unfixed during 
 the tour except in route marches while the guard is actually march- 
 ing, or when specially directed by the commanding officer. 
 
 The commander of the new guard then falls out members 
 of the guard for detached posts, placing them under charge of the 
 proper non-commissioned officers, divides the guard into three 
 reliefs, first second, and third, from right to left, and directs a list 
 of the guard to be made by reliefs. When the guard consists of 
 troops of different arms combined, the men are assigned to reliefs 
 so as to insure a fair division of duty, under rules prescribed by 
 the commanding officer. 
 
 The sentinels and detachments of the old guard are at once 
 relieved by members of the new guard; the two guards standing 
 at ease or at rest while these changes are being made. The com- 
 mander of the old transmits to the commander of the new guard 
 all his orders, instructions, and information concerning the guard 
 and its duties. The commander of the new guard then takes 
 possession of the guardhouse and verifies the articles in charge 
 of the guard. 
 
 If considerable time is required to bring in that portion of 
 the old guard still on post, the commanding officer may direct that 
 as soon as the orders and property are turned over to the new 
 guard, the portion of the old guard at the guardhouse may be 
 marched off and dismissed. In such a case, the remaining detach- 
 ments of the old guard are inspected by the commander of the 
 new guard when they reach the guardhouse. He directs the senior 
 non-commissioned officer present to march these detachments off 
 and dismiss them in the prescribed manner. 
 
 In bad weather, at night, after long marches, or when the 
 guard is very small, the field music may be dispensed with. 
 
 When the guard for the day is supplied by more than one 
 organization, the details due from the several companies are de- 
 termined as follows: Take the number of privates for duty in each 
 company from its morning report for the day next preceding 
 that on which the tour of duty is to commence, deducting de- 
 
216 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 tails for detached service of over 24 hours, made after the morn- 
 ing report has been received; the total of these gives the total 
 number of privates available. Then: The total strength is to the 
 strength of a company as the total detail is to the detail from 
 the company. Multiply the total detail by the strength of the 
 company, and divide the result by total strength; carry out to two 
 places of decimals, disregarding all smaller fractions. This rule is 
 applied for each company. 
 
 The whole numbers in the results thus obtained are added 
 together, and if the total is less than the total detail required add 
 one to the whole number in the result that has the largest frac- 
 tion, and so on for each company till the required total is ob- 
 tained. There will thus be a difference between the exact propor- 
 tion and the number detailed from each company; this difference 
 is entered in the credit column and the next day is carried forward 
 and added or subtracted from the first proportion. The number 
 of sergeants, corporals, and musicians will be determined in like 
 manner. 
 
 MILITARY POLICE 
 
 The duty of military police is to enforce all the police regu- 
 lations in the theater of operations and in the mobilization and 
 concentration camps. They protect the inhabitants of the country 
 from pillage and violence and prevent excesses of all kinds; keep 
 all roads clear; arrest all soldiers and civilian employees absent 
 without proper authority from their organizations; arrest all 
 marauders, and collect all stragglers and hand them over to their 
 organizations. They keep a list and description of all camp re- 
 tainers and followers and watch their conduct. They are charged 
 with relieving organizations from the care of prisoners of war 
 and with their safe conduct to places where they are ordered as- 
 sembled. They police all railroad stations, public houses, depots, 
 and public buildings, protect telegraph and telephone lines and rail- 
 ways from damage; keep hostile inhabitants in order, carry out 
 their disarmament, and prevent spying. 
 
 With the division, the commander of trains and the force 
 under his orders, exercise these functions of military police. On 
 the line of communications the commanders of defense districts 
 exercise these functions, following up closely the advance of the j 
 division, taking over all prisoners of war,, and performing the 
 military police duties in rear of the zone policed by the commander 
 of trains. 
 
 The defense commander of the area in and about the base 
 of a line of communications is assigned as provost marshal. The 
 functions of a provost marshal, in addition to those of general 
 
GUARD DUTY AND MILITARY POLICE 217 
 
 military police, are to receive and hold all classes of prisoners. He 
 makes records of the prisoners of war, and collects and records 
 the tags taken from the enemy's dead, as required by the laws and 
 usages of war. The records of prisoners of war and of the enemy's 
 dead are transmitted quarterly to the War Department. 
 
 In mobilization and concentration camps the powers of 
 military police are ordinarily exercised by the commander of trains, 
 though if conditions require, an officer may be assigned as com- 
 mander of military police. 
 
 In cases of emergency the military police may call on any 
 troop to assist them. All persons belonging to the military service 
 are required to give every assistance to the military police in the 
 execution of their duties. 
 
 Officers and enlisted men when actually performing the 
 duty of military police wear a blue brassard on the left arm half 
 way between the elbow and shoulder bearing the letters " M. P." 
 in white. 
 
 As a rule, military police on duty are not reprimanded or 
 placed in arrest except by the superiors under whose command 
 they happen to be. In exceptional cases field officers and officers 
 of higher grades are authorized to order their arrest. Members of 
 the military police when not on duty — that is, when not wearing 
 the blue brassard — have no special privileges. 
 
 During an engagement or a retreat the military police will: 
 
 (1) Maintain order in rear of the troops in action. 
 
 (2) Prevent congestion on roads leading to the front, par- 
 ticularly at road junctions, bridges, etc., collect stragglers and men 
 wandering around without a satisfactory explanation. 
 
 (3) Direct wounded to dressing stations or stations for 
 slightly wounded, if case warrants it. 
 
 (4) Ascertain the position of various units in the neighbor- 
 hood, so as to be able to direct officers and orderlies. 
 
 (5) Patrol evacuated villages in rear of the firing line and 
 arrest all pillagers. 
 
 (6) In case of retreat, they will clear the roads to facilitate 
 the march of troops. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 THE SERVICE OF THE INTERIOR AND THE 
 THEATER OF OPERATIONS 
 
 In time of war the activities of the military establishment 
 embrace the service of the interior and the service of the theater of 
 operations. The service of the interior is carried on by depart- 
 ment commanders and bureau chiefs, having for this purpose 
 general depots of supply, general hospitals, arsenals, etc. The 
 service of the theater of operations is carried on by the com- 
 mander of the field forces, and is divided into the zone of the 
 line of communications and the zone of the advance. The service 
 of the interior functions both in peace and in war; that of the the- 
 ater of operations, in war only. In general the functions of the 
 bureau chiefs and the department commander are as follows: 
 
 Bureau Chiefs. — They are the advisers of the Secretary of 
 War and the Chief of Staff on all matters connected with the 
 operations of their respective departments or corps throughout 
 the entire military establishment. 
 
 They are kept informed of the plans of the field forces and 
 recommend the steps to be taken to insure the successful execution 
 of these plans, as far as their respective corps or departments are 
 concerned. 
 
 They control directly and are responsible for the efficient 
 operation of the general depots of supply, general hospitals, arse- 
 nals, and other military establishments placed under their orders. 
 
 They are charged with the accumulation of the necessary 
 supplies and materiel and with forwarding the same, in accordance 
 with regulations, to the point where they come under the control of 
 the department commander, the commander of the field forces, the 
 commander of the port of embarkation, and in certain instances the 
 commander of a concentration camp. 
 
 They formulate estimates for the necessary appropriations 
 to carry on the operations of their respective departments or 
 corps. 
 
 Department Commander. — He is responsible for the recruit- 
 ment, training, and equipment of all military forces not specially 
 excepted within the limits of his department, and for their mobili- 
 zation and dispatch to concentration camps. 
 
SERVICE OF THE INTERIOR 219 
 
 He is advised by the War Department where troops of his 
 command are to be sent, the time at which they should arrive, and 
 the commander to whom they should report. He is responsible 
 for their movement, transportation, and supply while en route. 
 
 He is responsible that adequate records of physical examina- 
 tions are prepared and that all men going forward to the theater 
 of operations are protected by the prescribed prophylactic treat- 
 ments. 
 
 He keeps the War Department informed of the state of 
 preparedness of the troops under his command. 
 
 He is responsible for the defense of all portions of his de- 
 partment except where an independent commander has been as- 
 signed by War Department orders. In this latter case the respon- 
 sibility of the department commander does not extend to the area 
 of operations of the independent commander. 
 
 MOBILIZATION AND CONCENTRATION 
 
 Mobilization Camps. — A mobilization camp is a place, in the 
 territory from which the troops are drawn, where they are assem- 
 bled to be raised to war strength, equipped, and prepared for 
 service. 
 
 The mobilization of the Regular Army is effected at their 
 permanent stations. Recruits, after being armed, equipped, and 
 trained at the recruit depots, are forwarded to their respective 
 organizations. The mobilization of the organized militia and vol- 
 unteers is effected at the mobilization camps. 
 
 Department commanders are responsible that all military 
 organizations leave mobilization points: (1) with the full equip- 
 ment required by existing orders; (2) with sufficient rations and 
 grain to fully supply them while en route; and (3) with two days' 
 rations and grain for use after their arrival at the concentration 
 camps. 
 
 Concentration Camps. — A concentration camp is a place near 
 the scene of intended operations or near an embarkation point, 
 where troops are assembled for immediate use against the enemy 
 or for transport to an oversea theater of operations. 
 
 The command of troops at a concentration camp lies with 
 the department commander in whose territory the camp is situated, 
 unless these troops pertain or are assigned to a commander not 
 under the department commander's orders prior to the concentra- 
 tion. The commander of the concentration camp deals directly with 
 the War Department. In cases where it is desired to make an ex- 
 ception to the foregoing rule, or where doubt may exist, the author- 
 ity ordering the concentration should define in orders upon whom 
 the command falls and to whom the commander reports. 
 
220 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Concentration Camp at a Port of Embarkation. — In case the 
 concentration is ordered at a port of embarkation already provided 
 by higher authority with a staff for receiving and forwarding 
 troops, the responsibility for camp sites and facilities and the 
 necessary supplies devolves upon the commanding officer of the 
 port of embarkation. Under these circumstances the necessary 
 staff officers will be sent in advance by the commander of the 
 troops ordered to the camp to co-operate in making the detailed 
 arrangements. But in case no such permanent staff is provided 
 at the port of embarkation, the staff of the command concerned 
 must make all provisions for receiving, camping, and supplying the 
 troops. 
 
 Concentration at a Point Near the Scene of Intended Opera- 
 tions. — In case the concentration is ordered at a point near the 
 scene of intended operations when troops are assembled for imme- 
 diate use against the enemy, the necessary line of communications 
 personnel will, if practicable, be ordered by the War Department 
 to report to the commander of these troops and will be sent in ad- 
 vance by him to the camp to make all preliminary arrangements 
 for receiving, camping, and supplying the troops. If, however, no 
 additional personnel for the line of communications is provided by 
 the War Department, the commander of the troops concerned 
 designates the necessary personnel from his own command and 
 sends them ahead to make the preliminary arrangements. 
 
 Duties of the Commander of the Port of Embarkation. — The 
 duties of the commander of the port of embarkation are as follows: 
 
 1. To arrange camps for the troops at or near the port of 
 embarkation. 
 
 2. To accumulate supplies for the maintenance of the expe- 
 ditionary force while at the port of embarkation and until its 
 arrival at the port of debarkation. 
 
 3. To accumulate and ship the necessary supplies for the 
 maintenance of the troops at the oversea base pending the organi- 
 zation of the supply services in the theater of operations. 
 
 4. To make all detailed arrangements for the prompt de- 
 training of troops and material and for their subsequent embarka- 
 tion. 
 
 5. To see that the ships furnished him by the Quartermaster 
 Corps are properly fitted out for use as transports. 
 
 6. To operate and maintain the military shipping and traffic 
 between his port and the oversea base through a superintendent 
 of transport service, who is a member of his staff. 
 
 7. To command all administrative groups assigned to the 
 port of embarkation and to be directly responsible to the War De- 
 partment for the efficient and economical direction of their opera- 
 tions. 
 
SERVICE OF THE INTERIOR 221 
 
 The commander of the port of embarkation prepares the 
 schedules for the embarkation of troops, materiel and supplies on 
 transports, and has charge of such embarkation. The commander 
 of the camp issues the orders necessary to carry out these 
 schedules and details a staff officer to assist the commander of the 
 port of embarkation during the loading. Under all conditions these 
 schedules will be made only after consultation with the superior 
 commander of the troops to be embarked. 
 
 When a landing or disembarkation in the face of opposition 
 is anticipated, the distribution and plan of embarkation will be 
 made to suit the tactical requirements of the situation, and in case 
 of a difference of opinion the final decision will rest with the com- 
 mander of the troops. When no opposition to landing is ex- 
 pected, the final decision will rest with the commander of the 
 port of embarkation. 
 
 Oversea Departments. — The department commander, in addi- 
 tion to his functions above stated, is also charged with the defense 
 of the oversea department, and directs all military operations with- 
 in its limits. Such regulations as are applicable relating to the con- 
 trol and command of the commander of the field forces in the 
 theater of operations are, in time of war, vested in the commander 
 of an oversea department. 
 
 THE SERVICE OF THE THEATER OF OPERATIONS 
 
 In the theater of operations the functions of the War De- 
 partment and those of the various commanders are, in general, as 
 follows: 
 
 The War Department designates the commander of the field 
 forces, assigns him a definite mission, prescribes the zone under his 
 command, and supplies him' with the means necessary to the ac- 
 complishment of his mission. 
 
 The commander of the field forces exercises supreme author- 
 ity over all military and administrative matters within the zone 
 assigned him, organizing the means placed at his disposal so as to 
 insure efficiency, and directing and controlling all operations 
 necessary to the accomplishment of his mission. 
 
 The commander of the line of communications is responsible 
 to the commander of the field forces for the efficient operation 
 and defense of the line of communications and directs and controls 
 all administrative and staff services attached thereto. 
 
 HEADQUARTERS AND STAFFS 
 
 All military units larger than a company have headauarters 
 and staffs. The headquarters of squadrons, battalions, and brigades 
 
222 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 have no administrative functions. The headquarters of an inde- 
 pendent detachment has for the time being administrative func- 
 tions and during such periods is temporarily assigned an adminis- 
 trative staff. 
 
 The commander of an army concerns himself with only the 
 broad questions of strategy and military policy. He assigns gen- 
 eral missions to his subordinate commanders and leaves them to 
 work out the necessary details. On this account he is assigned 
 only such administrative and technical staff as he may require for 
 these broad functions. 
 
 The staff functions of the headquarters of units larger than 
 a brigade may be separated into two groups, (1) general staff 
 group; and (2) a technical and administrative group — record, in- 
 spection, law, supply, sanitary, engineer, ordnance, and signal. 
 
 The General Staff.— The Chief of Staff is the mouthpiece of 
 his commander and should enjoy his complete confidence and a 
 considerable degree of independence in the performance of his 
 duties. He controls and co-ordinates the operations of the troops 
 and all administrative and technical services under the orders of 
 his commander. He is provided with such assistants as are neces- 
 sary. To each such assistant is particularly assigned the work of 
 one or more of the three, general divisions of general staff 
 work, viz.: 
 
 * The first or combat section concerns itself with orders, 
 
 movements, and dispositions of the forces; combats, detachments, 
 war diaries. 
 
 The second or administrative section concerns itself with 
 organization, losses, reinforcements, police and discipline; ques- 
 tions of supplies of all kinds; signal and telegraph service; evacua- 
 tion and care of sick and wounded; relations with the line of 
 communications and all general correspondence. 
 
 The third or intelligence section concerns itself with the 
 movements and dispositions of the enemy, including exploration, 
 reconnaissance, and the gathering and distribution of information; 
 interpreters, newspaper correspondents, and various agents; rela- 
 tions with the enemy, flags of truce, deserters, and prisoners of 
 war; relations with the civil authorities of the occupied territory, 
 requisitions, etc. 
 
 Technical and Administrative Staff. — This includes the repre- 
 sentative of the various staff corps and departments who may be 
 assigned to the headquarters. These officers perform the duties 
 appropriate to their office under the instructions of their com- 
 mander. During the period of grand tactical operations with com- 
 mands larger than a division and when a line of communication is 
 in operation, their functions are advisory. Upon completion of the 
 grand tactical operations and upon the discontinuance of an 
 
SERVICE OF THE INTERIOR 223 
 
 organized line of communications, or if no line of communications 
 has been organized, these staff officers assume a more immediate 
 control of their respective staff personnel, depots, hospitals, etc. 
 
 The functions of the technical and administrative staff of a 
 division are so intimately connected with the maintenance of the 
 division as to preclude the separation of any of its personnel for 
 any extended period of time from its headquarters. These staff 
 officers are the technical advisers of the division commander, and 
 control directly the operation of such portions of their respective 
 corps personnel as may be placed under their immediate orders. 
 
 The Commander of the Line of Communications. — This com- 
 mander reports directly to the commander of the field forces. 
 
 The mission of the tactical units and administrative groups 
 assigned to a line of communications is to relieve the combatant 
 field force, as far as possible, from every consideration except that 
 of defeating the enemy. 
 
 It is necessary that the commander of the field forces be 
 relieved from the consideration of details and thus be free to con- 
 sider the broad lines of action to be followed by his command. 
 
 A line of communications is not organized when a force can 
 safely occupy a territory without military operations of an exten- 
 sive character. In this case administration and supply naturally 
 and properly follow the same general principles as with troops in 
 the service of the interior. 
 
 THE ZONE OF THE LINE OF COMMUNICATIONS 
 
 The zone of the line of communications embraces all ter- 
 ritory from and including the base to the point or points where 
 contact is made with the trains of the combatant field forces. The 
 activities of the line of communications personnel are in general 
 limited to this zone, except that lines of information are extended 
 to contact with the headquarters of the field force, and that ammu- 
 nition, supply, sanitary, and engineer columns are pushed forward 
 beyond this zone when necessary. It is the duty of the commander 
 of the line of communications to advance this line from time to 
 time so as to maintain contact with the trains of the field forces. 
 
 Command. — All troops, military establishments, and person- 
 nel in the zone of the line of communications, are under control 
 of its commander, except such as may be specially exempted by 
 War Department orders. He is responsible for the defense of the 
 line of communications and for the government of that portion of 
 the zone placed under military control. 
 
 Administration and Control. — For administration and control 
 the line of communications is organized as follows: A service of 
 
224 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 defense; a supply, sanitary, and telegraph service; and a service of 
 military railways. The senior staff officer of each group of the 
 base section of the supply, sanitary, and telegraph service of the 
 line of communications on all matters relating to the operation of 
 his corps within the zone of the line of communications. 
 
 Staff officers belonging to organizations assigned to the 
 service of defense have no responsibilities in connection with the 
 operations of the supply, sanitary, and telegraph service other 
 than those directly connected with their organizations. 
 
 Upon arrival at the base, all persons under the War Depart- 
 ment orders or with authority to join the field forces come at once 
 under the orders of the commander of the line of communications 
 and report their arrival at headquarters. 
 
 Suitable troops are assigned to duty under the commander 
 of the line of communications and are charged under his orders 
 with the defense of the line of communications and with the pro- 
 tection of all columns pushed out by the advance section of the 
 supply, sanitary,, and telegraph service. This territory is ordinarily 
 divided into districts, each under a separate commander, who is 
 responsible for the defense and military police of his own district. 
 These commanders have no control over properly authorized 
 movements along the line of communications, of personnel, ani- 
 mals, or materiel, except in case of imminent danger from the 
 enemy. They are then responsible that traffic is stopped until, in 
 their opinion, it may be safely resumed, or until orders from supe- 
 rior authority are received. The action taken is at once reported 
 by telegraph to the chief of staff of the line of communications. 
 Troops, ammunitions, or supplies going to the front are not to be 
 diverted for the use of the line of communications troops, except 
 by authority of the commander of the line of communications. 
 
 When armored trains are used their crews form part of the 
 line of communications troops and are under the direct orders of 
 the commander of the district in which they are operating. Rail- 
 way traffic is not to be interfered with by the use of armored 
 trains, except in lace of imminent danger from the enemy. 
 
 THE ZONE OF THE ADVANCE 
 
 The division is the great administrative unit and forms the 
 model for the organization of the administrative service of smaller 
 units operating independently. To the division alone are regularly 
 attached ammunition, supply, sanitary, and engineer trains. Field 
 army troops may be assigned to divisions for the purpose of supply 
 and for the care and evacuation of their sick and wounded. In this 
 instance the divisional trains of the division to which they are 
 
SERVICE OF THE INTERIOR 225 
 
 assigned must be increased. When field army troops are organized 
 into a separate brigade their administration and supply follows the 
 principles laid down for a division. In this instance the necessary 
 ammunition, supply, and sanitary trains are organized and assigned 
 to the brigade. 
 
 Military administration follows the fundamental principle 
 that troops in action should not have their attention diverted from 
 their task of defeating the enemy by anxiety concerning questions 
 of supply or evacuation of sick or wounded. The impetus in all 
 these matters should be given from rear to front, by the troops or 
 services in the rear.. Normal routine requirements which can be 
 foreseen are replaced automatically and without the preliminary of 
 formal requisitions. This has particular application to furnishing 
 rations, grain, ammunition, and sanitary supplies. 
 
 It is the function of the line of communications to extend its 
 lines so as to make contact with the divisions in advance, and not 
 the latter's function to extend back. During certain periods of 
 time the line of communications will be within a short distance 
 of the division, whereas, during the other periods, for tactical and 
 strategical reasons, this distance may be greatly increased, and 
 often for short periods of time all connection between the line 
 of communications and certain units of the division may be severed. 
 
 In principle, the administrative services of a division must 
 have the same degree of mobility as the division itself. They 
 should not be charged with taking care of supplies which can not 
 be transported in the ammunition, supply, and engineer trains. 
 The equipment of the sanitary train provides only necessities for 
 the sick and wounded pending their immediate evacuation to the 
 rear. 
 
 It is the function of the administrative services of the line 
 of communications or of the administrative services attached to 
 camps, as the case may be, to relieve the division from the care 
 of its sick and wounded, and to take care of all material which 
 the division is not normally equipped to carry. 
 
 TRANSPORTATION 
 
 The functions of combat, field, ammunition, supply, sanitary, 
 and engineer trains is to keep the commands to which they are 
 attached at all times ready for action without hampering their 
 freedom of movement. 
 
 To meet these requirements demands not only well-thought- 
 out orders by the superior authority, but also the highest sense of 
 responsibility on the part of those in command of these trains. 
 
 These officers must be prepared to make any sacrifice in 
 
226 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 order that their trains shall arrive at the destinations appointed at 
 the hours fixed. Baggage and other impedimenta must be reduced 
 to a minimum, and as far as possible, all transport and material not 
 actually required with the combatant field forces must be left in 
 the zone of the line of communications, whence it may be sent 
 forward as required. Trains are always halted on the right-hand 
 side of the road, leaving the left-hand side clear for the passage 
 of troops, ambulances, etc. 
 
 SUPPLY SERVICE 
 
 The zone of activity of a division operating, for an extended 
 period of time, in a country devoid of local resources, is limited 
 by the extreme radius of supply of the available transportation 
 from the line of communications. As the amount of transporta- 
 tion with a division is necessarily limited, contact of such force 
 with the line of communications can be maintained for only a short 
 distance to the rear. This distance is dependent on the character 
 and amount of transportation and the condition of the roads. In 
 territory not wholly devoid of local resources, the radius of supply 
 can be increased to a greater or less extent, depending upon the 
 use that can be made of these resources. 
 
 Refilling Point. — A refilling point is the place where the 
 empty vehicles of the supply train are refilled by the line of com- 
 munications. It may be a rail, automobile, tractor, wagon, or 
 water head, and it may be at or in advance of the advance supply 
 depot of the line of communications. 
 
 Distributing Point. — A distributing point is the place where 
 the ration sections of the field trains are replenished either from 
 the supply train or the line of communications; in the latter case 
 either directly from its depots or by means of its supply columns. 
 When troops are advancing distributing points will usually be 
 pushed forward close behind the troops, if possible, even up to the 
 camping area, so that the ration vehicles may be able to refill with- 
 out marching too far. In a retreat it may be advisable to deposit 
 supplies along the probable line of retreat. 
 
 Rendezvous Point. — A rendezvous point is a place to which 
 line of communications supply columns (usually auto-trucks or 
 tractors with wagons) are dispatched and where they are met by 
 an agent of the commander of the field forces and conducted to 
 distributing points. When it is possible to do so rendezvous points 
 may be fixed with advantage at the actual distributing points. 
 
 Distributing points are fixed by division commanders. The 
 commander of a force larger than a division may delegate to his 
 division commander the duty of fixing the refilling or rendezvous 
 
SERVICE OF THE INTERIOR 227 
 
 points of their respective commands within certain prescribed 
 limitations, or, on the other hand, he may himself fix these points. 
 
 In the first instance the division commander is responsible 
 for sending timely information of the point and hour selected to 
 the assistant chief of staff of the advance section of the line of 
 communications. 
 
 In the second instance the commander of the field forces 
 notifies the division commander and the commander of the line 
 of communications of the 'refilling or rendezvous point and the 
 hour at which contact is to be made. 
 
 Source of Supply. — For troops in campaign there are two 
 sources of supply — the theater of operations and the base. It is 
 generally necessary to utilize to the fullest extent the food, espe- 
 cially the forage, available in the theater of operations. This be- 
 comes practically imperative when the line of communications 
 runs through a country devoid of railroads and waterways. 
 
 When the theater of operations is in the home country or 
 that of an ally, supplies are obtained by purchase; when in hostile 
 territory, by purchase or requisition. It is a fundamental principle 
 that all supplies available in the theater of operations should be 
 utilized to the utmost. 
 
 Requisitions. — Requisitions are either (1) direct (foraging) 
 or (2) by systematic collection into depots. Requisitions are re- 
 sorted to only when authorized in orders of the commander of the 
 field forces, and should be enforced by detachments commanded by 
 a commissioned officer. Unathorized seizure of property is pun- 
 ished as looting. The right to requisition food supplies in a hostile 
 country covers the right to impress labor and means of transporta- 
 tion to facilitate delivery, and to make use of buildings, flour mills, 
 bakeries, blacksimth shops, etc. Property obtained by requisition 
 is either paid for or restored with suitable indemnification. If no 
 reason to the contrary exists, better results are obtained when cash 
 payment is made for supplies taken. If the supplies are not paid for 
 upon delivery, receipts are given, copies or stubs being retained. 
 These receipts are redeemed by the proper officer in accordance 
 with the instructions of the commander of the field forces. 
 
 In the interests of the troops themselves, it is well, even in 
 the enemy's country, to treat the inhabitants with the greatest con- 
 sideration. At the same time, when the gravity of the situation 
 demands it, due severity must be exercised toward hostile inhabi- 
 tants. Leniency and negligence at the wrong time and place may 
 lead to hardships for the troops. 
 
 Food supplies gathered by independent cavalry or advance 
 guards in excess of their needs, are turned over to troops in the 
 rear, and, correspondingly, those in excess of the needs of these 
 latter troops or which can not be used for current issues or carried 
 
228 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 in the field and supply trains, are taken over by the line of com- 
 munications. 
 
 While a well-organized system of requisition is of great 
 service, exclusive reliance can not be placed thereon, even in the 
 most productive countries. As soon as the army halts, or when 
 it advances slowly, recourse must be had to shipments brought up 
 by the line of communications. 
 
 The Ration. — Upon arrival of troops at mobilization and 
 concentration camps, the ration savings privilege is suspended and 
 entirely replaced by issues of rations in kind. This same restric- 
 tion holds during the period of hostilities. The garrison ration is 
 intended to be issued in kind whenever possible. The approximate 
 net weight of the garrison ration is 4.5 pounds. 
 
 AMMUNITION SERVICE 
 
 The system of replacing ammunition differs somewhat from 
 that by which rations and grain are replenished. No ammunition 
 is obtainable locally and, therefore, all the mobile ammunition 
 reserves with the division must be replaced by the line of com- 
 munications. The requirements of rations and grain are continu- 
 ous, whereas the requirements of ammunition are spasmodic and 
 neither the exact quantity nor the time of replenishment can be 
 foreseen. 
 
 The organization and operation of the ammunition service 
 is the duty of the field artillery. The commander of the ammuni- 
 tion train is the immediate subordinate of the divisional artillery 
 commander after the ammunition train has been released from the 
 control of the commander of trains. 
 
 Ammunition carried on the man and on the caissons of the 
 firing batteries is replaced by that carried in organization combat 
 trains. These latter trains are ordinarily refilled from vehicles 
 attached to the ammunition train, though in certain instances they 
 may be refilled directly from the line of communications or from 
 ammunition columns. 
 
 It is the duty of commanders of all grades to see that due 
 economy is exercised in the expenditure of ammunition and to 
 make provision for its timely replenishment. No means should 
 remain untried for bringing up ammunition to troops in action and 
 for keeping up the fire, on the maintenance or cessation of which 
 the success of the action may depend. 
 
 It is the function of the organization commander to which 
 a combat train is assigned to regulate the supply of ammunition 
 from the combat train to the firing line, and to dispatch the empty 
 
SERVICE OF THE INTERIOR 229 
 
 vehicles of the combat train to the distributing station. Battalion 
 commanders are charged with keeping their combat trains properly 
 filled and equipped. 
 
 SANITARY SERVICE 
 
 In general, the functions of the sanitary service are as fol- 
 lows: (a) The institution of all practicable sanitary measures, to 
 the end that the fighting forces suffer no depletion in strength due 
 to avoidable causes, (b) The temporary care and professional 
 treatment of the sick and wounded and their transportation to 
 accessible points where they are transferred with as little delay as 
 possible to the line of communications, (c) The supply of the 
 necessary sanitary equipment. In addition, the sanitary service 
 is charged with the preparation and preservation of individual 
 records of sickness and injury in order that claims may be ad- 
 judicated with justice to the Government and the individual. 
 
 The personnel of the sanitary service in the zone of the 
 advance may be classified into two general groups, as follows: 
 First, that attached to organizations smaller than a brigade, which 
 functions under the immediate orders of the organization com- 
 mander and accompanies its unit into combat; second, that at- 
 tached to the sanitary train, which functions under the orders of the 
 division surgeon in accordance with such general or specific in- 
 structions as he may receive from the division commander. When 
 necessary the sanitary personnel attached to organizations may be 
 temporarily detached, in whole or part, and directed to operate 
 with the sanitary train. 
 
 Sanitation. — Officers and men of all arms must have a 
 knowledge of sanitation and its importance, to the end that no 
 depletion of the fighting force occurs through avoidable causes. 
 The importance of adopting and carrying out proper sanitary 
 measures can not be overestimated. | 
 
 ENGINEER TRAIN 
 
 To each division is attached an engineer train which carries 
 heavy intrenching tools, sandbags, reserve explosives, and other 
 engineer material which may be required by the division during 
 certain periods of combat. 
 
 The organization and operation of the engineer train is the 
 duty of the engineer corps. The engineer train is commanded by 
 the senior engineer officer present with it, who, upon its release 
 from the control of the commander of trains, operates it in accord- 
 
230 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 ance with the instructions of the senior engineer officer of the 
 division. 
 
 The engineer column which is attached to the advance sec- 
 tion of the line of communications includes in it such heavy engi- 
 neer equipment as may be required, depending upon the character 
 of operations reasonably probable, i. e., searchlights, pile drivers, 
 map, reproduction equipment, and reserve of heavy intrenching 
 tools, etc. 
 
 The engineer column may be temporarily assigned in whole 
 or part to divisions or to operate directly under the orders of field 
 army headquarters in the zone of the advance. When so assigned, 
 it is for the time being removed from the control of the commander 
 of the line of communications. If assigned directly to field army 
 headquarters it operates under the immediate orders of the chief 
 engineer; if assigned to a division, it forms part of the engineer 
 train. When no longer required in the zone of the advance, it 
 reverts to the control of the commander of the line of communi- 
 cations. 
 
 LINE OF COMMUNICATIONS 
 
 A line of communications is established for each important 
 force about to engage in field operations involving a movement 
 from a base. When two or more important forces are operating 
 from a single base, they are under the control of a single superior 
 commander, and only one line of communications is operated 
 with a single base, and with such number of advance sections as 
 may be required. 
 
 A line of communications is not organized when a force can 
 safely occupy a territory without military operations of an exten- 
 sive character. In this case administration and supply naturally 
 and properly follow the same general principles as with troops in 
 the home country. The mission of the tactical units and adminis- 
 trative groups assigned to a line of communications is to relieve 
 the combatant field force as far as possible from every considera- 
 tion except that of defeating the enemy. 
 
 The point, at which the base of a line of communication is to 
 t)e established is fixed in War Department orders, upon recom- 
 mendation of the commander of the field forces. The personnel 
 for the line of communications comprises groups from every branch 
 of the army and is sent ahead by the commander of the force to 
 secure the base, and to make all arrangements for receiving, supply- 
 ing, and forwarding the troops. If no additional personnel for this 
 purpose has been assigned to the commander by higher authority, 
 he details the necessary officers and men from the force under his 
 command. 
 
SERVICE OF THE INTERIOR 231 
 
 SERVICE OF MILITARY RAILWAYS 
 
 A service of military railways is organized when extensive 
 military operations of a field force are dependent on a line or lines 
 of railway for its supply in advance of the base. The construction, 
 operation, and maintenance of these railways is a duty of the Corps 
 of Engineers. 
 
 This service takes over from the field force all railways cap- 
 tured, assuming charge of their reconstruction, operation, and main- 
 tenance. It is also charged with the construction of new railway 
 lines necessary for the supply of the field forces. It is controlled 
 and directed by an officer detailed as director of railways, with a 
 military controlling staff and an operating and constructing staff. 
 
 The director of railways is a member of the staff of the 
 commander of the line of communications and is responsible to 
 that commander for the successful operation, maintenance, and 
 construction of the military railways. He receives his orders from 
 that commander and takes the necessary steps to have them exe- 
 cuted by his subordinates. 
 
 No military officer not attached to the service of military 
 railways is allowed to give any orders to subordinates of the latter 
 service ©r to interfere in any manner with the running of trains, 
 except in the case of an impending attack. 
 
 The military controlling staff is composed of such military 
 assistants to the director of railways as the military conditions and 
 the railway facilities require. Their duty is to represent the 
 director of railways in the various departments or subdivisions of 
 the railway to which they may be assigned, to facilitate and insure 
 the execution of the approved plans for the working of the railways, 
 and to supply the military knowledge not possessed by the civilian 
 officials and operators. 
 
 If two or more lines of military railway exist, a member of 
 the military controlling staff, called an assistant director of rail- 
 ways, may be assigned to each line and made responsible to the 
 director of railways for its successful operation, maintenance, and 
 construction. The director of railways in this case is responsible 
 for the supervision of and co-operation between the several lines. 
 
 If any single line becomes long enough to subdivide into 
 divisions, military conditions may require that a member of the 
 controlling staff be assigned to one or more of these divisions. In 
 this case he is responsible to his next military railway superior for 
 its successful operation and maintenance. 
 
 CENSORSHIP 
 
 Censorship within the theater of operations is controlled by 
 the commander of the field forces. An officer is assigned as censor 
 
 1 
 
232 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 and is provided with such assistants as necessary. He performs his 
 duties under the immediate orders of the chief of staff of the com- 
 mander of the field forces. 
 
 Censorship includes (1) censorship over private communica- 
 tions and (2) censorship over press publications and communica- 
 tions. All private communications (post cards, letters, parcels, 
 telegrams, etc.) of officers, soldiers, foreign attaches, newspaper 
 correspondents, and all other individuals, dispatched from the 
 theater of operations are liable to censorship and to such delay in 
 transmission as may be deemed necessary by the military authori- 
 ties. A censor is authorized to suppress any statement which might 
 be of value to the enemy or prejudicial to the welfare of the forces 
 in the field. All newspapers or journals in the theater of operations 
 or in localities where martial law is in force are subject to censor- 
 ship and, if necessary, their publications may be suppressed. 
 
 The press has public functions to perform with respect to 
 the collection and dissemination of news concerning the operations 
 of the army in time of war. The dissemination of falsehoods or 
 distortion of facts, no less than the premature disclosure of move- 
 ments or plans, is so fraught with dangerous consequences that the 
 greatest care should be observed in its prevention. The press 
 occupies a dual and delicate position, being under the necessity of 
 truthfully disclosing to the people the facts concerning the opera- 
 tions of the army and, at the same time, of refraining from dis- 
 closing those things which, though true, would be disastrous if 
 known to the enemy. It is perfectly apparent that these important 
 functions can not be trusted to irresponsible people and can only be 
 properly performed under reasonable rules and regulations with 
 respect thereto. 
 
 CORRESPONDENTS 
 
 Conditions of Acceptance. — Each applicant presents to the 
 Secretary of War credentials from the owner or owners, managing 
 editor, or responsible manager of the publication or publications 
 he represents, giving a brief account of his career, stating exactly 
 the nature of the work he is expected to do at the front, certifying 
 to his trustworthiness as working member of his profession, and 
 his personal fitness to accompany the army. His employer or 
 employers gives a bond for his good conduct in the field, which, in 
 case of the withdrawal of his pass for infraction of any of the 
 regulations shall be forfeited to any charity which the Secretary of 
 War may name. He takes an oath of loyalty of the usual military 
 form and shall agree to abide in letter and spirit by all the regula- 
 tions laid down for his guidance. If at any time the number of 
 correspondents becomes so large as to be an encumbrance, the 
 Secretary of War will refuse other passes until such time as he 
 
SERVICE OF THE INTERIOR 233 
 
 deems expedient; when other applicants who fulfill the conditions 
 will be received in the order of their application. 
 
 Not more than one correspondent is received for any one 
 publication or syndicate of publications or press association with 
 the same field army. Men who have evidently secured credentials 
 with a view to adventure rather than serious work as corre- 
 spondents are not received. Their employers must show that they 
 have been working members of their profession. In addition to 
 the requirements for home correspondents, a foreign correspondent 
 must have served in other campaigns, present credentials as to 
 his character from high officers of the army to which he was at- 
 tached and accompanying the letter from his employers must 
 present a letter from his ambassador in Washington, personally 
 vouching for him. 
 
 Photographs and Photographers. — An official photographer 
 accompanies each field army or other important independent field 
 force. His films and plates are sent promptly to Washington, 
 where prints are issued at a nominal cost to the press. No pro- 
 fessional photographers and moving-picture men are received. No 
 news or professional photographers are received if representing 
 themselves either as news or mail correspondents. The regular 
 correspondents may carry small hand film cameras. The films are 
 sent by the censor at the headquarters of the field force to the 
 chief censor's office in Washington, where they are developed and 
 such of them as pass the censorship sent to any given address 
 promptly. 
 
 Censorship of Press Matter. — A commissioned officer of 
 journalistic experience acts as chief censor in Washington and one 
 is attached as censor to the headquarters of each field army or other 
 important independent field force. All correspondent's news, or 
 private dispatches, mail letters for publication, private letters, draw- 
 ings and photographs must be submitted to this censor and receive 
 his stamp before being sent. After censorship he shows the cor- 
 respondent what, if anything, he has elided from correspondent's 
 MSS. He permits the use of no code words in any private or 
 public communication. He may request a correspondent to rewrite 
 any portion of a dispatch that he may suspect of double meaning 
 without accompanying his request with his reason for it. The 
 correspondent is not allowed to send information concerning the 
 occupation or relinquishment of a position, the news of any victory 
 or defeat, the names of organizations or commanders, the disposi- 
 tions of troops, the state of supply or transport, the number of 
 sick, the extent of losses, or any other matters of information un- 
 less the dispatch or report, containing such information, is passed 
 on and authorized by the censor. Any relaxation in the regulations 
 rests with the commanding general of the field force. 
 
234 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 . Facilities for Work. — Immediately on receiving his pass the 
 correspondent proceeds to the headquarters of the field force to 
 which he is assigned and there reports himself to the censor. His 
 pass gives him transport over all military railways, with the privi- 
 leges of a commissioned officer. All correspondents are officially 
 attached to headquarters of field armies or other important field 
 forces. Their transport has a place with that of the baggage 
 section of the field train of the headquarters staff. No one except 
 the censor at headquarters has the authority of censorship. Corre- 
 spondents have the freedom of the lines of information of the army 
 within such limitations as the censor may, from time to time, indi- 
 cate. The official army wires are open to the correspondents' 
 dispatches when not occupied by official dispatches. Correspon- 
 dents' dispatches are sent in the order of filing. The censor may 
 limit the number of words or otherwise make an equitable adjust- 
 ment of the use of the wire among the different correspondents 
 when the wire is unequal to carrying all the dispatches submitted. 
 Within the censor's discretion, correspondents may send mes- 
 sengers to carry censored dispatches to better wire facilities than 
 those at the immediate front. 
 
 Messengers. — Any correspondent who chooses may have a 
 mounted messenger, who may send neither correspondence nor 
 photographs of his own. Any infraction of the regulations by the 
 messenger is equivalent to an infraction by the correspondent him- 
 self. He must have credentials acceptable to the army and a pass 
 in the correspondents' form, with the privilege of an enlisted man. 
 A similar bond is required for him as for the correspondent. Ex- 
 cept where permission is given by the headquarters censor, he must 
 remain with the correspondents' transport. 
 
 Passes. — Every correspondent is supplied with an official 
 pass, bearing his photograph and his own signature and the signa- 
 ture of the Secretary of War and the commander of the field forces 
 to which he is attached. He shows this upon the demand of any 
 field officer, company commander, or member of the military police, 
 and respects their requests under the penalty of being sent back 
 to army headquarters under guard. 
 
 Garb. — Every correspondent provides himself with olive-drab 
 garb for the field. He wears no accouterments not of a neutral tint/ 
 He is supplied with a white brassard 2 l / 2 inches in width, bearing 
 the letter C in red, to be worn on the left arm, in order that his 
 status with the army may be known at a glance by both officers and 
 privates. Messengers observe the same regulations about garb, 
 with the exception that their brassard bears the letter M. 
 
 Discipline. — No correspondent leaves the army to which he is 
 attached, either to go home or for any other purpose, except by 
 permission of the War Department. A correspondent is suspended 
 
SERVICE OF THE INTERIOR 235 
 
 from all privileges for the distortion of his dispatches in the office 
 of the publication which he represents, and also for the use of 
 language or expressions conveying a hidden meaning which would 
 tend to mislead or deceive the censor or permit the approval by him 
 of otherwise objectionable dispatches or for any other infraction 
 of regulations in letter or in spirit. In extreme cases of offense, 
 where the commanding general thinks it justified, the correspond- 
 ent may be sent to the rear and held under arrest until such time 
 as the War Department may restore his privileges or give him a 
 pass to leave the army. 
 
 Press Regulations for Officers, Enlisted Men, and Civilian 
 Employees of the Army. — No officer, enlisted man, or civilian em- 
 ployee of the army is permitted to correspond for any publication 
 without the consent of the Secretary of War and the majority of 
 the correspondents attached to the field army in which he serves. 
 No censor or censor's assistant may write anything about the cam- 
 paign for publication while he holds a commission in the army. 
 
 FIELD POST OFFICE 
 
 Arrangements are made with the Post Office Department for 
 establishing and maintaining a postal service in the theater of 
 operations. 
 
 This service is directed by an official of the Post Office De- 
 partment who is stationed at the base of the line of communica- 
 tions. He co-operates with the assistant chief of staff of the supply, 
 sanitary, and telegraph service of the line of communications, main- 
 taining post offices, agents, etc., with its advance section, and so 
 far as practicable, throughout the zone of the line of communica- 
 tions. In addition to the foregoing a post-office agent accompanies 
 each division, being supplied by the quartermaster's corps with 
 the necessary vehicles and animals for the prompt dispatch and 
 distribution of mails. 
 
 The commander of trains is responsible for the protection of 
 the postal personnel with divisions and controls their movements. 
 The necessary instructions relative to the distribution and receipt 
 of mail are issued by the division commander. 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 
 FIELD MANEUVERS AND THE MILITARY OPER- 
 ATIONS OF THE COMBINED ARMS 
 
 Field maneuvers complete the course of instruction begun 
 with garrison drills and continued in minor field exercises. They 
 simulate the conditions of war and acquaint troops with the pos- 
 sibilities and difficulties of actual campaign. They afford almost 
 the only opportunity in peace for the exercise of the functions 
 of the higher commanders in the field, and furnish officers of all 
 grades, and enlisted men as well, opportunities to study the mili- 
 tary operations of the arms combined. In maneuvers alone can 
 the importance of time, space and weather conditions be fully 
 realized, and a satisfactory knowledge gained of the labor attending 
 the movement, transportation and supply of troops. 
 
 To secure the maximum benefit from maneuvers, troops 
 should be familiar, not only with the usual extended order and 
 battle exercises, but with the elementary principles and practice of 
 security and information, and the ordinary duties required of offi- 
 cers and men in the field. This knowledge is gained in exercises at 
 their stations, on practice marches and during the annual target 
 practice. When practicable, maneuvers in warm climates are held 
 in September or later. At this season troops suffer less from heat, 
 the greater part of the crops is harvested, less damage results and 
 the country is more open. 
 
 The region selected for maneuvers should fulfill the follow- 
 ing conditions: 
 
 1. It should be large enough to permit the troops to operate 
 as in war. 2. Its location should be central with reference to the 
 stations of participating troops. 3. It should be readily accessible 
 by railroad or water transportation, and there should be good 
 wagon roads to the proposed camp sites. 4. The terrain should be 
 diversified, most of it practicable for troops of all arms, and with 
 large open spaces for camps, etc. Undulating grazing country with 
 scattered woods is most suitable. 5. It should be naturally free 
 from contagious diseases, and have an ample supply of pure water. 
 
 The commanding general of the department in which man- 
 euvers are to be held, causes a timely examination to be made 
 
FIELD MANEUVERS 237 
 
 of the available sites, and submits to the War Department a gen- 
 eral scheme for the proposed maneuvers, including a list of the or- 
 ganizations to participate, a plan of concentration, and an esti- 
 mate of the cost. After approval thereof by the War Department, 
 the commander of maneuvers, chief umpire, and staff officers are 
 designated in ample time to work out the details of encampment, 
 transportation, supply, and sanitation. Request is made for the 
 necessary engineer, signal and sanitary troops, when not available 
 in the department. Suitable maps are prepared by officers detailed 
 for that purpose. The commander of maneuvers prepares the pro- 
 gram of instruction. \ 
 
 For the general use of officers, maps of maneuver grounds 
 are prepared on a scale of 3 inches to 1 mile, with 20-foot contours. 
 In addition, for-the preparation of problems and for the use of the 
 higher commanders, guide maps of the maneuver ground and sur- 
 rounding country, about 1 inch to the mile, are necessary. These 
 can generally be obtained from the United States Geological Sur- 
 vey. For the chief umpire and for use at the discussions, one or 
 two detailed maps, 12 inches to the mile, are prepared on canvas 
 or heavy paper. Reproductions of the 3-inch map, reduced to a 
 scale of 1 inch to the mile, are prepared for general distribution 
 to the troops. 
 
 During maneuvers and other field exercises, the commander 
 from time to time may require the troops to take the field and live 
 as in actual campaign. 
 
 The opposing forces are designated Blue and Red. All 
 troops at maneuvers wear the prescribed field service uniform, ex- 
 cept that in the Red forces a broad red band is worn around the 
 hat. At the discretion of the commander of maneuvers, the ser- 
 vice coat may be omitted, but in this case the rank of officers and 
 non-commissioned officers is indicated on the shirt. 
 
 The headquarters of the opposing forces are marked by blue 
 and red banners, respectively. Headquarters of organizations may 
 be marked, according to the force to which they belong, by 
 blue or red flags or pennants with appropriate insignia. In man- 
 euver combats the national, regimental, or battalion colors or 
 standards are not carried. When desirable the troops may be lo- 
 cated in two camps some miles apart. 
 
 The program of instruction, showing in general terms, the 
 daily work contemplated, is distributed to the troops upon arrival. 
 When the troops have not had suitable preliminary preparation, 
 the program includes instruction by practical demonstrations, regi- 
 mental and brigade drills, exercises in security and information, 
 deployments, small maneuvers, etc. These minor maneuvers 
 should be progressive, beginning with the company and ending 
 with all arms combined. If practicable, there should also be a re- 
 
238 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 view of the entire command. Instruction is also imparted by lec- 
 tures and conferences. 
 
 Under the direction of the commander of maneuvers, the 
 problems are prepared as outlined in the program of instructions. 
 These problems are framed under the assumption of a state of war 
 involving hostile operations, and are usually expressed in general 
 and special situations. 
 
 The general situation is given to both parties and contains 
 the information supposed to be generally known. A special situa- 
 tion is given to each commander and contains full information in 
 regard to his own command, and such information of the enemy 
 as might have been obtained in actual warfare. 
 
 Simple situations generally admit of a number of solutions 
 and are more useful than those based upon numerous and remote 
 suppositions. Unnatural assumptions are avoided. 
 
 With large opposing forces the same general situation may 
 serve for several days, or even for the whole maneuver period; 
 with smaller commands changes are usually necessary. Unreal 
 conditions, permitting a force to discover the actual strength and 
 location of its adversary through means which could not be em- 
 ployed in war, are avoided. 
 
 The technical work of engineer, signal, and sanitary troops 
 is carried out as far as practicable. First-aid and dressing stations 
 are established, and field hospitals set up as in war. 
 
 Combat, field, and supply trains are represented by all the 
 wagons available. 
 
 UMPIRES 
 
 The commander of maneuvers, when not performing the 
 duties of chief umpire, is assisted by an officer bearing that title. 
 This officer has charge of the details of the preparation and con- 
 duct of the problems, and is assisted during the exercises by ad- 
 ditional umpires, sufficient in number to secure proper control. 
 
 Umpires are selected from grades above that of first lieu- 
 tenant. They are staff officers of the commander of maneuvers, 
 and their orders, signals, and decisions are considered as emanat- 
 ing from him. They are therefore promptly obeyed without ques- 
 tion. That they may be readily recognized they wear a broad 
 white band around the hat. Their orderlies or messengers wear 
 a broad white band on the left arm above the elbow. 
 
 Though umpires may accompany particular units, they are 
 not ordinarily assigned thereto, but are distributed by the chief 
 umpire so as to cover all ground involved in the exercise. Know- 
 ing the plans of the commanders, umpires can be at points of con- 
 tact, or where decisions will probably be required, at the proper 
 time. 
 
FIELD MANEUVERS 239 
 
 So far as possible, umpires furnish commanders the informa- 
 tion derived in war from the actual flight of the bullets and pro- 
 jectiles themselves; for instance, that the troops are under fire 
 of a certain kind and volume. With this information the command- 
 ers decide upon their own line of action, namely, to deploy, ad- 
 vance, seek cover, fall back, open fire, etc. Umpires, however, are 
 careful to give no information that troops could not obtain in ac- 
 tual warfare. At important epochs during a maneuver, umpires 
 note on their maps the positions of the troops under their obser- 
 vation. 
 
 When a commander receives information from an umpire 
 which, in the opinion of the latter, should cause a change of for- 
 mation, position, or action of the troops, and the commander does 
 not voluntarily make a change, the umpire renders a decision 
 which causes the troops to do what the umpire thinks they ac- 
 tually would do in war under the circumstances. 
 
 The work of umpires is intended to supply, as far as prac- 
 ticable, the impressions and effects of actual war. Their decisions 
 take the place of bullets and other projectiles, and prevent un- 
 natural or impossible situations. As a rule, maneuver exercises 
 tend to develop too rapidly. This tendency is counteracted by the 
 decisions which produce the delays incident to war. In this man- 
 ner exercises are logically developed and the creation of false im- 
 pressions is prevented. 
 
 In addition, umpires note the leadership and conduct of 
 troops, and thereby enable the chief umpire to call attention to 
 the same at the subsequent discussion and in his final report. 
 
 Umpires give prompt and definite decisions and see that they 
 are carried out. When several umpires meet, the senior announces 
 the decision. If an umpire concludes from further information 
 that he has made an erroneous decision, he so reports to the chief 
 umpire at the earliest practicable moment. 
 
 The orders of an umpire to troops are given, when prac- 
 ticable, through their commander. 
 
 The chief umpire usually assembles the umpires on the aft- 
 ernoon or evening preceding an exercise, furnishes them copies 
 of the problem, and gives the necessary instructions. At the close 
 of an exercise he may assemble them to compare data, receive 
 criticisms, and decide disputed points, or he may require them to 
 submit written reports of their observations and the actions. 
 
 In maneuvers of considerable magnitude the position of the 
 chief umpire is usually indicated by a white flag with a diagonal 
 red cross. 
 
 When practicable, signals to troops and umpires are com- 
 municated by means of a balloon. Notice to commence, suspend, or 
 16 
 
240 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 cease operations, etc., may be given by the use of bombs or rockets; 
 in the absence of other means the trumpet is used. 
 
 When the chief umpire makes use of the trumpet the signal 
 Attention is sounded by his order only, and is used as follows: 
 
 "Attention, cease firing, attention" — all firing ceases and all 
 troops halt in their places. "Attention, commence firing, atten- 
 tion" — operations are resumed. "Attention, recall, attention"-— 
 troops return to their respective camps or bivouacs. 
 
 Officers commanding troops cause the chief umpire's calls 
 to be repeated, but no trumpeter repeats these calls without an 
 order from an officer. 
 
 To control the exercise in particular localities, umpires may 
 make use of whistle signals. Such signals are obeyed by the 
 troops in hearing, but are not repeated in other parts of the 
 field. 
 
 At the close of an exercise the chief umpire prepares data 
 for the subsequent discussion. At the close of the maneuvers he 
 prepares such report as the commander may require. 
 
 DISCUSSIONS 
 
 After the conclusion of an exercise in which the whole or 
 a large part of the command has participated, the officers con- 
 cerned are assembled, weather permitting, for the purpose of dis- 
 cussing the tactical and other military features involved. At such 
 discussions the commander of maneuvers, or some officer desig- 
 nated by him, presides. The discussion is opened by the chief 
 umpire, who reads the general and special situations, gives an 
 outline of the exercise as it actually developed, and offers such 
 criticisms and comments as he deems desirable. The commanders 
 of the opposing forces are then called upon to read or state 
 the orders issued by them, and to give their reason therefor. 
 The discussion is then made general. 
 
 During the discussion assistant umpires, when called upon 
 by the commander of maneuvers or the chief umpire, describe 
 the movements and action of the troops that came under their 
 observation, but make no criticism in regard thereto. 
 
 When the troops are located in two camps and it is not 
 practicable, after a combined maneuver, to assemble the officers 
 at one place, a discussion is held in each camp, an umpire detailed 
 to perform the duties of chief umpire in the latter's absence, the 
 camp commander presiding when the commander of maneuvers is 
 not present. 
 
 Criticisms must be entirely free from remarks having a 
 personal bearing, individuals being referred to by their official 
 
FIELD MANEUVERS 241 
 
 titles and not by name. When errors are pointed out by the 
 chief umpire, he indicates the course of action which, in his 
 opinion, would have been proper under the circumstances. 
 
 Discussions are regarded as confidential, and no person not 
 on duty with the troops, or serving as umpire, is allowed to attend 
 unless invited by the commander of maneuvers. 
 
 Where, for purposes of instruction, smaller exercises are 
 held, an officer is assigned as chief umpire of each, and the dis- 
 cussion is held, when practicable, on the ground at the conclusion 
 of the exercise, the officers concerned being assembled for that 
 purpose. The senior officer presides, and the discussion follows 
 the lines indicated above. 
 
 EFFECT OF FIRE— UMPIRES' DECISIONS 
 
 The effect of fire is influenced by so many considerations 
 that it is impossible to predict the result with accuracy. 
 
 There are many factors whose effects can not be computed. 
 However, by practice in calculating losses in hypothetical cases, 
 a knowledge of the principal factors governing the effect of fire 
 is obtained, and a faculty acquired of quickly estimating their 
 influence or effect upon troops. This faculty umpires are supposed 
 to have acquired by previous study and experience. At maneuvers 
 there is no time to make complicated calculations or to consult 
 a table of losses; the umpires, therefore, decide promptly accord- 
 ing to their best judgment. Such decisions are ordinarily as 
 follows: 
 
 1. That troops can not continue their march. For instance, 
 when in close order they come under a fire which, in war, would 
 compel a deployment or change of direction. 
 
 2. That they can not advance for a certain period of time. 
 For instance, when advancing more rapidly than they would in 
 actual warfare. 
 
 3. That they can not advance at all unless reinforced. 
 For instance, when the enemy's fire is so effective that troops 
 would probably not advance against it in actual warfare. 
 
 4. That they must retire to a designated point affording 
 cover. For instance, when they have been surprised and are 
 more or less demoralized, or have been driven from a position, 
 or have failed in an attack. 
 
 5. That they can not take the offensive for a stated period. 
 For instance, when they have just made an unsuccessful attack, 
 suffered heavy losses, or have made an exhausting march at 
 double time. 
 
 6. That they must retire from the field for a stated period. 
 
242 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 For instance, when a patrol in actual warfare would have been 
 annihilated or captured. Umpires seldom rule whole commands 
 entirely out of action. 
 
 The decision of umpires are based upon the actual strength 
 ©f the troops engaged. 
 
 RULES TO ASSIST UMPIRES 
 
 Small Arms. — The efficacy of infantry fire is influenced by 
 many circumstances, such as distance and form of the target, 
 degree of accuracy in estimating the range, adjustment of sights, 
 fire discipline, physical condition of the soldier, etc. 
 
 At ranges from 1,600 to 1,200 yards the well directed and 
 controlled fire of a considerable force is very effective against 
 stationary targets as large as two companies of infantry in close 
 order. 
 
 Under 1,200 yards skirmish lines without cover and under 
 effective fire can not continue the advance unless supported by a 
 fire superior to that of the enemy. 
 
 Between 1,200 and 900 yards supports or reserves in close 
 order without cover can advance, make short halts standing, or 
 move* by a flank, only when supported by a fire superior to that 
 of the enemy. 
 
 Under 900 yards troops without cover, even though preceded 
 by a strong firing line, can move only to the front or rear over 
 fire-swept ground. 
 
 Under 600 yards a fire fight without cover must terminate in 
 a short time in an assault or a retreat. 
 
 In open country without cover, cavalry mounted should not 
 appear in front of unshaken infantry nearer than 1,200 yards, 
 unless advancing to the attack in proper formation. 
 
 Mounted patrols should not be ordered to the rear or out of 
 action on account of being exposed to long range fire, if they 
 adopt suitable formations and gaits to lessen the chances of 
 being hit. 
 
 The result of an infantry charge depends upon the effect 
 of the preceding infantry and artillery fire, the relative strength 
 of the contending forces, nature of. the ground, direction and 
 execution of the attack, conduct of the defenders, etc. As the 
 losses would probably be severe, the attackers or defenders are 
 generally ordered to the rear for a stated period. 
 
 Enfilading fire, or a well directed fire at close range deliv- 
 ered as a surprise, is given greatly increased weight. 
 
 The fire of dismounted cavalry is considered as effective as 
 that of infantry, but the strength of the unit is reduced at least 
 
FIELD MANEUVERS 243 
 
 one-fourth on account of the horse holders and guard for the 
 led horses. 
 
 Frontal fire of infantry against artillery provided with 
 shields has little effect, but a battalion of infantry firing at a 
 single battery from a position thirty or more degrees removed 
 from the line of fire of the battery, and at a range not exceeding 
 1,200 yards, is sufficient to silence the battery. 
 
 At a distance of 1,200 yards or less, favorable conditions, 
 such as actual cover, are necessary to enable artillery to limbei 
 or unlimber. At less than 1,200 yards it soon loses its mobility. 
 If it accompanies infantry in the advance it suffers corresponding 
 losses. 
 
 Machine Guns. — The fire of machine guns is affected by the 
 following considerations: the suddenness with which it is opened, 
 the size and density of the target, the correctness of the sighting 
 and the facilities for observing its effects. The well-directed fire 
 of machine guns is very effective against bodies of troops in close 
 order at ranges under 1,800 yards; it is also effective against 
 skirmishers standing — making a continuous advance impracticable. 
 With good facilities for observation it is effective against skirmish- 
 ers lying down at ranges up to 1,200 yards, but when the facilities 
 for observation are not good, skirmishers lying down do not con- 
 stitute a favorable target beyond 700 yards. 
 
 Machine gun fire is mechanical infantry fire, of the same 
 range as ordinary infantry fire, but capable, in battle, of supplying 
 a greater power of resistance and producing a greater ultimate 
 effect. 
 
 It has greater moral effect than ordinary infantry fire, 
 because of its nerve-racking rattle and quick action upon exposed 
 targets. 
 
 Machine guns are untrustworthy and comparatively ineffec- 
 tive weapons in the hands of untrained men. 
 
 For all ranges less than 600 yards, 1 machine gun = 16 men; 
 for ranges from 600 to 1,200 yards, 1 machine gun = 22 men; for 
 ranges above 1,200 yards, long and distance, 1 machine gun = 39 
 men. 
 
 At targets and ranges when the lateral dispersion of the 
 machine gun is less than the width of the intervals between the 
 elements composing the targets, as would be the case if firing 
 at a skirmish line with intervals, machine gun fire is much less 
 profitable than infantry. 
 
 At targets and ranges when the dispersion of the machine 
 gun covers a number of the elements composing the target, the 
 fire of one machine gun is superior to the fire of the number of 
 rifles it displaces. 
 
 In firing at ranges where it is a question of covering certain 
 
244 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 points or defined areas with a beaten zone as in fire of position, 
 machine gun fire is greatly superior to infantry fire. 
 
 Artillery. — In judging the effect of artillery fire, the follow- 
 ing circumstances must be considered: Whether the artillery has 
 opened a sudden and effective fire from a concealed position; 
 the number of guns firing upon the same object; the rapidity 
 and duration of the fire; the range; the size and formation of the 
 objective; whether moving or not; and finally, whether the artil- 
 lery itself is under fire. 
 
 A battery opening fire with a knowledge of the range gained 
 from another battery already in action, is assumed to begin effec- 
 tive fire with the first shot; otherwise the time for finding the 
 range must be considered. This time varies with the range, the 
 difficulties of observation, and the degree of training of the 
 battery, but in ordinary cases, at ranges above 2,000 yards, is not 
 less than two minutes, reckoned from the first shot. 
 
 At a distance of about 3,500 yards, artillery which has found 
 the range can make it difficult, and in some cases impossible, for 
 even a superior opposing force of artillery to unlimber. Artillery, 
 unless it is much superior in strength, can rarely produce an 
 effect on opposing artillery at distances over 3,500 yards without 
 the co-operation of other arms. 
 
 At ranges less than 3,000 yards a slight superiority makes 
 itself felt. Enfilade fire from artillery is much more effective than 
 frontal fire. 
 
 In the face of a well sustained and properly directed artil- 
 lery fire at distances of 3,500 yards or less, infantry must deploy 
 and move at a rapid gait. At ranges less than 2,500 yards infantry 
 can move only in line of skirmishers and then only to the front 
 and rear. This rule is modified according to the cover afforded 
 by the ground and the relative size of the forces. 
 
 Indirect fire is generally not effective against bodies of 
 cavalry smaller than a squadron and moving at a trot. 
 
 Attack by Cavalry Mounted. — The rapid course of a cav- 
 alry attack renders correct decisions difficult. The umpire should 
 be on hand to observe the advance, the deploying, the execution 
 of the attack, and the strength of the opposing forces. 
 
 Mounted cavalry receiving a charge at a halt is declared 
 defeated. 
 
 A cavalry force charged while in the act of deployment, 
 or struck in flank, is declared defeated even if numerically some- 
 what superior. 
 
 In the attack on cavalry it is of less importance to pass over 
 long distances rapidly than to deliver the shock with cohesion and 
 force. Envelopment of a flank greatly increases the efficacy of the 
 attack. 
 
FIELD MANEUVERS 245 
 
 When two cavalry forces of equal strength and proper 
 formation meet in mounted action, the victory would probably 
 fall to the side bringing up the last formed reserve. 
 
 In the combat of cavalry against cavalry the defeated force 
 is required to retire 300 yards before the victor is allowed to 
 pursue. The latter may then assemble his forces or continue the 
 pursuit with the force available, preserving a distance of at least 
 100 yards. The defeated force continues to retreat before an 
 effective pursuit without assembling, unless support is received. 
 The umpire prevents a long pursuit and may rule the defeated 
 force out of action for a stated period. 
 
 Against demoralized or badly shaken infantry, a cavalry 
 attack can dispense with deep formations, and comparatively 
 small bodies may do effective work. 
 
 Against unshaken infantry favorable conditions are neces- 
 sary to give a probability of success; for example, cover while 
 approaching, favorable ground, surprise, attack against a flank 
 or while the infantry is changing formation. The cavalry must be 
 in deep formation and cross the fire swept zone at a rapid gait. 
 Great losses to the cavalry are to be expected in such attacks. 
 
 Artillery in motion is considered helpless against a cavalry 
 attack, unless protected by other troops. Artillery in action is 
 most vulnerable on an unsupported flank. Frontal attack against 
 artillery and machine guns requires favorable ground, skillful 
 handling, and an adequate force; the losses would probably be 
 heavy. 
 
 Should the cavalry succeed in reaching the artillery, the 
 result would still depend upon their ability to disable or carry 
 off the pieces, or to secure the victory in some other way. 
 
 CONDUCT OF TACTICAL EXERCISES 
 
 Maps of the maneuver district are issued to troops on or 
 before their arrival at the maneuver grounds. 
 
 The commander of maneuvers issues the necessary orders to 
 secure compliance with the program of instruction. Problems 
 are given out in time to enable commanders to estimate the 
 situation and prepare their initial orders. This time should vary 
 so as to introduce the feature of sudden encounters, and compel 
 commanders to render quick decisions. 
 
 The commanders of the opposing forces are guided by the 
 general and special situations and instructions received by them. 
 They issue orders as in campaign, and furnish the chief umpire, 
 before each exercise, a copy of their initial orders. They also 
 furnish the umpire accompanying them a copy or statement of all 
 
246 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 orders and instructions subsequently issued by them. Com- 
 manders explain their intentions to umpires when requested by 
 the latter. 
 
 It is the duty of commanders of units to take cognizance 
 of the fire of their opponents and govern themselves accordingly. 
 It is especially necessary to counteract the tendency to disregard 
 long range artillery and infantry fire, so difficult to appreciate at 
 maneuvers. 
 
 When not actually constructed, intrenchments, gun pits, 
 obstacles, and the demolition of bridges, loopholing of walls, etc., 
 are outlined or indicated. The position of intrenchments is indi- 
 cated by small flags — blue for the Blue army and red for the 
 Red army. The destruction of bridges, etc., is indicated by 
 suitable inscriptions, the time of destruction being stated. When 
 the construction of works or demolitions is assumed, the com- 
 mander informs the nearest umpire, who decides how much of the 
 work could have been done with the means and in the time avail- 
 able, and causes proper notice to be taken by the opponent. 
 Claims for the construction of works or for demolitions are not 
 allowed unless the necessary tools, material, and troops have 
 actually been available for such work. 
 
 Officers under no circumstances dispute with an umpire at 
 the time a decision is given. Should a decision be deemed errone- 
 ous, officers may, after the close of the exercise, make an appeal 
 in writing, setting forth the facts as they appear to them. It 
 must be remembered, however, that the decision of an umpire is 
 rendered in accordance with his best judgment, and though the 
 decision may appear wrong, the outcome in actual combat, due to 
 the element of chance in war, might have been as he decided. 
 
 During pauses ordered by the commander of maneuvers or 
 the umpires, a complete standstill in the operations is required; 
 messages must not be sent, orders issued, or the positions of 
 troops changed. 
 
 When important decisions are rendered, commanders at 
 once notify their superiors and the commanders of adjoining 
 troops. 
 
 Umpiring. — In a combat exercise the problem is drawn so 
 as to cause the exercise to develop within the limits represented 
 on the chief umpire's map. The chief umpire assigns or distributes 
 his assistants as he deems advisable, and causes them to make as 
 careful a study of the ground and map as time permits. One 
 umpire is assigned to accompany each of the supreme command- 
 ers. For convenience these two umpires are referred to respec- 
 tively as the senior umpire, Blues, and the senior umpire, Reds. 
 
 At the proper time the chief umpire establishes his head- 
 quarters at some central or convenient point (central station) and 
 
FIELD MANEUVERS 247 
 
 opens communication with the senior umpires. The latter estab- 
 lish communication with their assistants who report the progress 
 of events in their parts of the field. By this means the plans of 
 commanders, locations and movements of troops, targets and 
 character of fire, etc., can be forwarded to the central station, 
 and, when necessary, passed on to the opposite side to enable the 
 local umpires to impart proper information to the troops and to 
 render logical decisions. 
 
 In extensive maneuvers where signal troops are available, 
 information between the umpires may be transmitted as follows: 
 
 A line is established connecting the central station with the 
 senior umpires on each side; communication between the senior 
 umpires and their assistants is maintained by messenger service 
 and by using the signal lines established between the supreme 
 commanders and the principal fractions of their commands (for 
 instance, in case of attack, connecting headquarters with the 
 artillery, the main and secondary attacks and with the reserve); 
 the umpires use the nearest signal stations, or send information 
 by messenger. Messengers are used to supplement the wire 
 service. For short distances or where long orders or messages are 
 sent, information is generally carried by messenger. For instance, 
 at urgent speed and for distances up to about half a mile, a 
 mounted messenger can deliver a message of ten words in less 
 time than it can be delivered by wire. 
 
 If an assistant umpire can send a message more easily to 
 the central station than to his senior umpire, he does so. As the 
 troops approach more closely, assistant umpires may be able to 
 "cross over," or communicate more easily with the opposing side 
 than through the central stations, but important decisions made 
 under such circumstances must be promptly reported to the 
 central station. 
 
 At the central station the chief umpire is assisted by a 
 typewriter and three officers, one to keep a record of events, the 
 others to assist in receiving and sending messages, and in follow- 
 ing the progress of events on the map, which is done by means of 
 "troop signs." The chief umpire is not necessarily confined to 
 the central station, but goes wherever he deems his presence 
 necessary, the work at the central station being carried on by his 
 assistants. 
 
 Due to the fact that umpires are required to use the lines 
 of information established by the opposing forces, troops are 
 forbidden to cut signal wires unless authorized to do so by the 
 commander of maneuvers. Umpires, however, make the proper 
 rulings in regard to lines captured or "destroyed." All umpires' 
 messages are confidential. 
 
 When signal troops are used, the central station should be 
 
248 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 provided with two mounted or cyclist orderlies, and each senior 
 and assistant umpire with one mounted orderly. Without signal 
 troops these numbers should be doubled. The central station is 
 also provided with a light wagon for use in case a change of posi- 
 tion becomes necessary. 
 
 By this method of umpiring, troops are informed of the kind, 
 volume and direction of fire to which they are subjected (informa- 
 tion acquired in war from the projectiles themselves), their com- 
 manders given an opportunity to make the necessary dispositions, 
 and the umpire enabled to render intelligent decisions. 
 
 Ammunition. — The supply of ammunition is usually limited, 
 and it often happens that firing ceases because the supply is 
 exhausted. In such cases the troops simulate firing, and the 
 opposing troops are notified through the umpires that firing of a 
 certain character and volume continues. When ammunition is 
 limited the time of actual firing may be prolonged by permitting 
 only a fraction of the troops engaged to fire at a time, for instance, 
 one man in four. In such cases it is assumed that all of the 
 troops concerned are engaged. 
 
 Unless contrary orders are given by the commander of 
 maneuvers, all troops march fully armed and equipped — except 
 as to ammunition. Blank ammunition only is carried, the number 
 of rounds being regulated in orders. It is of such great import- 
 ance, however, to accustom troops to the amount of ammunition 
 used in war, to instruct officers in regulating its expenditure, and 
 to solve practically the problem of ammunition supply, some, 
 at least, of the tactical exercises should be conducted with the full 
 service allowance of cartridges. 
 
 Before leaving the camp or bivouac, an inspection is made 
 to ascertain that no ball cartridges are carried. These inspections 
 are made by officers and reports thereof are made to the senior 
 umpires on each side. All members, of a command taking part 
 in, or attending a field exercise, are forbidden to carry on their 
 persons, or horses, or with field pieces, caissons, or other means 
 of transportation, fixed ammunition or ball cartridges of any 
 kind whatever. No weapons, other than those constituting part 
 of the regulation equipment of officers and men, are carried. 
 
 Contact. — The actual collision of opposing forces must be 
 prevented, commanders of units being held responsible. When the 
 combat reaches the stage just preceding the crisis, the commander 
 of maneuvers or the chief umpire gives the signal for suspension 
 of operation, and the relative numbers and positions of the con- 
 tending forces are carefully noted. The chief umpire or com- 
 mander of maneuvers then decides whether to continue the exer- 
 cise or not. If continued one or both of the opposing forces may 
 be required to withdraw to a suitable distance before hostilities 
 
FIELD MANEUVERS 249 
 
 are resumed. Local combats are similarly controlled by the local 
 umpires. 
 
 Firing by opposing parties is discontinued when they arrive 
 within 100 yards of each other, and the umpires then make a 
 decision. Usually a definite decision is reached before the troops 
 come to such close contact. When, as a result of close contact 
 in wooded country, the opposing forces are intermingled or the 
 troops out of hand, it may be advisable for the umpires to order 
 a suspension of operations until the lines are reestablished. 
 
 Should a force succeed in approaching within 100 yards of 
 another without being discovered, captures may be made by 
 giving the command "Halt, surrender." The umpire considers the 
 strength of the opposing forces, the nature of the ground, and 
 other circumstances, and decides whether actual capture was 
 possible. 
 
 Commanders of opposing dismounted forces approaching 
 within 100 yards of each other, in the absence of umpires, order 
 firing to cease, halt their men and direct them to hold their rifles 
 vertically, butt uppermost, as a signal that the decision of an 
 umpire is awaited. Troops in this situation must not be attacked. 
 
 Cavalry charges against dismounted troops must be brought 
 to a full stop at 100 yards from the troops attacked. Against 
 mounted troops the charge stops at 50 yards; in the charge as 
 foragers cavalry is permitted to ride up to and through wagon 
 trains and batteries not firing, but no revolver firing is permitted 
 at less than 50 yards. 
 
 When patrols of equal strength meet, the umpire decides 
 which has the advantage and causes the other to withdraw. If a 
 patrol meets a stronger force, it retires unless the umpire decides 
 that superior leading entitles it to advance,, in which case the 
 other force retires to the distance prescribed by the umpire. 
 
 An individual, mounted or dismounted, when halted and 
 called upon to surrender, or when fired upon, by two or more 
 dismounted men at a distance of 100 yards or less, gives himself 
 up. The same rule applies up to 150 yards for an individual fired 
 upon while at a halt and in good view. In the case of moving 
 individuals, mounted or dismounted, at a distance greater than 
 100 yards, the umpire decides according to the amount of fire 
 and other circumstances. 
 
 Mounted men who find their retreat cut off by superior 
 numbers of mounted opponents, surrender when it is evident that 
 they can not escape without being closely pursued. 
 
 In all exercises the greatest attention is given to fire dis- 
 cipline. Violation of the rules and a waste of ammunition is the 
 subject of unfavorable report by the umpires. 
 
 An effective method of conducting a maneuver or combat 
 
250 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 exercise is to outline the enemy with a few men equipped with 
 flags. The umpire or inspector states the situation, and the com- 
 mander leads his troops with due regard to the assumptions made. 
 Changes in situation, the results of reconnaissance, the character 
 of artillery fire, etc., are made known to the commander when 
 necessary by the umpire or inspector, who, in order to observe 
 and influence the conduct of the exercise, remains in rear of the 
 firing line. From this position he indicates, with the aid of pre- 
 arranged signals, the character of the fire and movements of the 
 hostile infantry. These signals are intended for the men outlining 
 the enemy. These men repeat the signals; all the officers and men 
 engaged in the exercise and in sight of the outlined enemy are 
 thus informed of the enemy's action, and the exercise is con- 
 ducted accordingly. An outlined enemy may be made to attack 
 or defend. 
 
 Recall. — Exercises are terminated by the proper signal from 
 the commander of maneuvers or the chief umpire. The troops 
 then return to their camps or bivouacs. At the conclusion of an 
 exercise the commanders of the opposing forces submit such 
 data to the chief umpire as the latter may require for the subse- 
 quent discussion and for his final report. 
 
 PRIVATE PROPERTY 
 
 There must be no firing in the immediate vicinity of houses, 
 barns, haystacks, ricks of fodder, etc. No camps or bivouacs are 
 established in orchards, parks, or fields under cultivation, without 
 the owner's consent. 
 
 Troops at maneuvers confine themselves to the maneuver 
 grounds; they do not enter houses or other buildings, yards, 
 gardens, lawns, tobacco fields, vineyards, nurseries, or orchards in 
 fruit season, without the owner's consent. Other fields or grounds 
 from which troops are excluded are marked by white flags. 
 Marching troops not engaged in tactical exercises confine them- 
 selves to the public roads. 
 
 Officers and non-commissioned officers on duty with troops 
 and umpires prevent unnecessary injury to property. 
 
 They are held responsible for wanton damage committed in 
 their presence. Offenders are immediately placed under guard and 
 brought to trial. In all cases of depredation or wanton damage, 
 boards of officers are appointed by the commanding officer to 
 assess damages. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS PROVISIONS 
 
 The chief surgeon, under the direction of the commander of 
 maneuvers, supervises the hygiene of the maneuver camps. Under 
 
FIELD MANEUVERS 251 
 
 nis charge daily sanitary inspections are made; if faults are found 
 the attention of regimental commanders is called to them, and 
 the necessary steps are taken by the latter for their correction. 
 Any failure to remedy unsanitary conditions is reported to tho 
 commander of maneuvers. All drinking water on the maneuver 
 ground is examined and marked "good" or "bad" before the 
 exercises begin. 
 
 When necessary a provost marshal with a suitable mounted 
 force is detailed to act as police during the exercises. It is the 
 duty of the marshal to see that spectators are directed to points 
 affording good view, and that they do not interfere with the 
 exercise or damage property. Spectators are requested not to 
 precede the advance guard of either force, nor gather in positions 
 liable to mislead the combatants. 
 
 Military attaches, duly accredited military and naval observ- 
 ers from foreign countries, and from the organized militia, and 
 officers of the Regular Army attending the maneuvers in an 
 official capacity, either accompany the commander of maneuvers 
 or are otherwise suitably disposed of. Such persons wear a broad 
 white band on the right arm above the elbow. 
 
 Military attaches and duly accredited military or naval 
 observers are provided with suitable mounts and orderlies and 
 an officer is detailed to see that they are properly cared for. They 
 are furnished with such shelter, messing facilities, transportation 
 and information as the commander of maneuvers directs, and are 
 saluted and accorded the honors due their rank. 
 
 Properly accredited correspondents of newspapers and other 
 publications accompanying United States troops in the field or 
 attending maneuvers, are afforded information and other facilities 
 not inconsistent with the success of the operations. Such corre- 
 spondents wear a red band on the right arm above the elbow. 
 
CHAPTER X 
 
 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF COMBAT TACTICS AS 
 
 APPLIED TO INFANTRY AND TO 
 
 SPECIAL UNITS 
 
 Modern combat demands the highest order of training, dis- 
 cipline, leadership and morale on the part of the infantry. Com- 
 plicated maneuvers are impracticable; efficient leadership and a 
 determination to win by simple and direct methods must be de- 
 pended upon for success. 
 
 The duties of infantry are many and difficult. All infantry 
 must be fit to cope with all conditions that may arise. Modern 
 war requires but one kind of infantry — good infantry. 
 
 The infantry must take the offensive to gain decisive results. 
 Both sides are therefore likely to attempt it, though not necessarily 
 at the same time or in the same part of a long battle line. 
 
 In the local combats which make up the general battle the 
 better endurance, use of ground, fire efficiency, discipline and 
 training will win. It is the duty of the infantry to win the local 
 successes which enable the commanding general to win the battle. 
 
 The infantry must have the tenacity to hold every advantage 
 gained, the individual and collective discipline and skill needed to 
 master the enemy's fire, the determination to close with the enemy 
 in attack, and to meet him with the bayonet in defense. Infantry 
 must be trained to bear the heaviest burdens and losses, both of 
 combat and march. Good infantry can defeat an enemy greatly 
 superior in numbers, but lacking in training, discipline, leadership 
 and morale. 
 
 It is impossible to establish fixed forms or to give general 
 instructions that will cover all cases. Officers and non-commis- 
 sioned officers must be so trained that they can apply suitable 
 means and methods to each case as it arises. Study and practice 
 are necessary to acquire proper facility in this respect. Theoreti- 
 cal instruction can not replace practical instruction; the former 
 supplies correct ideas and gives to practical work an interest, pur- 
 pose and definiteness not otherwise obtainable. 
 
 After the mechanism of extended order drill has been learned 
 with precision in the company, every exercise should be, as far 
 
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF COMBAT TACTICS 253 
 
 as practicable, in the nature of a maneuver (combat exercise) 
 against an imaginary; outlined or represented enemy. Company 
 extended order drill may be conducted without reference to a 
 tactical situation, but a combat exercise, whatever may be the size 
 of the unit employed, should be conducted under an assumed 
 tactical situation. 
 
 An effective method of conducting a combat exercise is to 
 outline the enemy with a few men equipped with flags. The 
 umpire or inspector states the situation and the commander leads 
 his troops with due regard to the assumptions made. 
 
 Changes in the situation, the results of reconnaissance, the 
 character of artillery fire, etc., are made known to the commander 
 when necessary by the umpire or inspector, who, in order to ob- 
 serve and influence the conduct of the exercise, remains in rear of 
 the firing line. From this position he indicates, with the aid of 
 prearranged signals, the character of the fire and movements of 
 the hostile infantry. These signals are intended for the men out- 
 lining the enemy. These men repeat the signals; all officers and 
 men engaged in the exercise and in sight of the outlined enemy are 
 thus informed of the enemy's action and the exercise is conducted 
 accordingly. 
 
 Assistant umpires, about one for each company in the firing 
 line, may assist in indicating hostile fire and movements and in ob- 
 serving the conduct of the exercise. An outlined enemy may be 
 made to attack or defend. 
 
 Situations should be simple and natural. During or after the 
 exercise the umpire or inspector should call attention to any im- 
 proper movements or incorrect methods of execution. He pro- 
 hibits all movements of troops or individuals that would be im- 
 possible if the enemy were real. The slow progress of events to 
 be expected on the battle field can hardly be simulated, but the 
 umpire or inspector prevents undue haste and attempts to enforce 
 a reasonably slow rate of progress. 
 
 The same exercise should not be repeated over the same 
 ground and under the same situation. Such repetitions lead to the 
 adoption of a fixed mode of attack or defense and develop mere 
 drill masters. Fixed or prearranged systems are prohibited. 
 
 LEADERSHIP 
 
 The art of leadership consists of applying sound tactical 
 principles to concrete cases on the battle field. Self-reliance, ini- 
 tiative, aggressiveness and a conception of teamwork are the funda- 
 mental characteristics of successful leadership. 
 
 A correct grasp of the situation and a definite plan of action 
 
254 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 form the soundest basis for a successful combat. A good plan 
 once adopted and put into execution should not be abandoned 
 unless it becomes clear that it can not succeed. Afterthoughts are 
 dangerous, except as they aid in the execution of details in the 
 original plan. 
 
 Combats that do not promise success or some real ad- 
 vantage to the general issue should be avoided; they cause un- 
 necessary losses, impair the morale of one's own troops and raise 
 that of the enemy. 
 
 Complicated maneuvers are not likely to succeed in war. 
 All plans artd the methods adopted for carrying them into effect 
 must be simple and direct. 
 
 Order and cohesion must be maintained within the units if 
 success is to be expected. 
 
 Officers must show themselves to be true leaders. They 
 must act in accordance with the spirit of their orders and must 
 require of their troops the strictest discipline on the field of battle. 
 
 The best results are obtained when leaders know the ca- 
 pacity and traits of those whom they command; hence in making 
 detachments units should not be broken up, and a deployment that 
 would cause an intermingling of the larger units in the firing line 
 should be avoided. 
 
 Leading is difficult whejn troops are deployed. A high de- 
 gree of training and discipline and the use of close order forma- 
 tions to the fullest extent possible are therefore required. 
 
 In order to lighten the severe physical strain inseparable 
 from infantry service in campaign, constant efforts must be made 
 to spare the troops unnecessary hardship and fatigue; but when 
 necessity arises, the limit of endurance must be exacted. 
 
 When officers or men belonging to fighting troops leave 
 their proper places to carry back, or to care for, wounded during 
 the progress of the action, they are guilty of skulking. This of- 
 fense must be repressed with the utmost vigor. 
 
 The complete equipment of the soldier is carried into ac- 
 tion unless the weather or physical condition of the men renders 
 such measure a severe hardship. In any event, only the pack will 
 be laid aside. The determination of this question rests with the 
 regimental commander. The complete equipment affords to men 
 lying prone considerable protection against shrapnel. 
 
 The post of the commander must be such as will enable him 
 to observe the progress of events and to communicate his orders. 
 Subordinate commanders, in addition, must be in position to trans- 
 mit the orders of superiors. Before entering an action the com- 
 mander should be as far to the front as possible in order that he 
 personally may see the situation, order the deployment and begin 
 the action strictly in accordance with his own wishes. During the 
 
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF COMBAT TACTICS 255 
 
 action, he must, as a rule, leave to the local leaders the detailed 
 conduct of the firing line, posting himself either with his own 
 reserve or in such a position that he is in constant, direct and easy 
 communication with it. A commander takes ^ull and direct 
 charge of his firing line only when the line has absorbed his whole 
 command. When their troops are victorious all commanders 
 should press forward in order to clinch the advantage gained and 
 to use their reserves to the best advantage. 
 
 The latitude allowed to officers is in direct proportion to the 
 size of their commands. Each should see to the general execution 
 of his task, leaving to the proper subordinates the supervision of 
 details and interfering only when mistakes are made that threaten 
 to seriously prejudice the general plan. 
 
 TEAMWORK 
 
 The comparatively wide fronts of deployed units increase 
 the difficulties of control. Subordinates must therefore be given 
 great latitdude in the execution of their tasks. The success of the 
 whole depends largely upon how well each subordinate co- 
 ordinates his work with the general plan. A great responsibility 
 is necessarily thrown upon subordinates, but responsibility stimu- 
 lates the right kind of an officer. 
 
 In a given situation it is far better to do any intelligent thing 
 consistent with the aggressive execution of the general plan than 
 to search hesitatingly for the ideal. This is the true rule of con- 
 duct for subordinates who are required to act upon their own 
 initiative. A subordinate who is reasonably sure that his intended 
 action is such as would be ordered by the commander, were the 
 latter present and in possession of the facts, has enough encour- 
 agement to go ahead confidently. He must possess the loyalty to 
 carry out the plans of his superior and the keenness to recognize 
 and to seize opportunities to further the general plan. 
 
 Independence must not become license. Regardless of the 
 number of subordinates who are apparently supreme in their own 
 restricted spheres, there is but one battle and but one supreme 
 will to which all must conform. Every subordinate must therefore 
 work for the general result. He does all in his power to insure 
 co-operation between the subdivisions under his command. He 
 transmits important information to adjoining units or to superiors 
 in rear and, with the assistance of information received, keeps 
 himself and his subordinates duly posted as to the situation. 
 
 When circumstances render it impracticable to consult the 
 authority issuing an order, officers should not hesitate to vary 
 from such order when it is clearly based upon an incorrect view of 
 the situation, is impossible of execution or has been rendered im- 
 
256 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 practicable on account of changes which have occurred since its 
 promulgation. In the application of this rule the responsibility for 
 mistakes rests upon the subordinate, but unwillingness to assume 
 responsibility on proper occasions is indicative of weakness. Su- 
 periors should be careful not to censure an apparent disobedience 
 where the act was done in the proper spirit and to advance the 
 general plan. 
 
 When the men of two or more units intermingle in the firing 
 line, all officers and men submit at once to the senior. Officers and 
 platoon guides seek to fill vacancies caused by casualties. Each 
 seizes any opportunity to exercise the functions consistent with 
 his grade, and all assist in the maintenance of order and control. 
 Every lull in the action should be utilized for as complete restora- 
 tion of order in the firing line as the ground or other conditions 
 permit. 
 
 Any officer or non-commissioned officer who becomes sepa- 
 rated from his proper unit and can not rejoin must at once place 
 himself and his command at the disposal of the nearest higher 
 commander. Anyone having completed an assigned task must 
 seek to rejoin his proper command. Failing in this, he should join 
 the nearest troops engaged with the enemy. 
 
 Soldiers are taught the necessity of remaining with their 
 companies, but those who become detached must join the nearest 
 company and serve with it until the battle is over or reorganization 
 is ordered. 
 
 COMMUNICATION 
 
 Communication is maintained by means of staff officers, 
 messengers, relay systems, connecting files, visual signals, tele- 
 graph or telephone. 
 
 The signal corps troops of the division establish lines of in- 
 formation from division to brigade headquarters. The further ex- 
 tension of lines of information in combat by signal troops is ex- 
 ceptional. 
 
 Each regiment, employing its own personnel, is responsible 
 for the maintenance of communication from the colonel back to 
 the brigade and forward to the battalions. For this purpose the 
 regiment uses the various means which may be furnished it. The 
 staff and orderlies, regimental and battalion, are practiced in the 
 use of these means and in messenger service. Orderlies carry 
 signal flags. 
 
 Connection between the firing line and the major or colonel 
 is practically limited to the prescribed flag, arm and bugle signals. 
 Other means can only be supplemental. Company musicians carry 
 company flags and are practiced in signaling. 
 
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF COMBAT TACTICS 257 
 
 The artillery generally communicates with the firing line by 
 means of its own staff officers or through an agent who accom- 
 panies some unit in or near the front. The infantry keeps him 
 informed as to the situation and affords him any reasonable as- 
 sistance. When the infantry is dependent upon the artillery for 
 fire support, perfect co-ordination through this representative 
 is of great importance. 
 
 COMBAT RECONNAISSANCE 
 
 Combat reconnaissance is of vital importance and must not 
 be neglected. By proper preliminary reconnaissance, deployments 
 on wrong lines, or in a wrong direction, and surpises may gener- 
 ally be prevented. 
 
 Troops deployed and under fire can not change front and 
 thus they suffer greatly when enfiladed. Troops in close order 
 formation may suffer heavy losses in a short time if subjected to 
 hostile fire. In both formations troops must be protected by 
 proper reconnaissance and warning. 
 
 The difficulty of reconnaissance increases in proportion to 
 the measures adopted by the enemy to screen himself. The 
 strength of the reconnoitering party is determined by the char- 
 acter of the information desired and the nature of the hostile 
 screen. In exceptional cases as much as a battalion may be nec- 
 essary in order to break through the hostile screen and enable the 
 commander or officer in charge to reconnoiter in person. A large 
 reconnoitering party is conducted so as to open the way for small 
 patrols, to serve as a supporting force or rallying point for them, 
 and to receive and transmit information. Such parties maintain 
 signal communication with the main body if practicable. 
 
 Each separate column moving forward to deploy must recon- 
 noiter to its front and flank and keep in touch with adjoining 
 columns. The extent of the reconnaissance to the flank depends 
 upon the isolation of the columns. 
 
 Before an attack a reconnaissance must be made to deter- 
 mine the enemy's position, the location of his flanks, the character 
 of the terrain, the nature of the hostile field works, etc., in order 
 to prevent premature deployment and the resulting fatigue and loss 
 of time. It will frequently be necessary to send forward a thin 
 skirmish line in order to induce the enemy to open fire and reveal 
 his position. 
 
 It will frequently be impossible to obtain satisfactory infor- 
 mation until after the action has begun. The delay that may be 
 warranted for the purpose of reconnaissance depends upon the 
 nature of the attack and the necessity for promptness. For ex- 
 ample, in a meeting engagement, and sometimes in a holding at- 
 
258 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 tack, the reconnaissance may have to be hasty and superficial, 
 whereas in an attack against an enemy carefully prepared for de- 
 fense there will generally be both time and necessity for thorough 
 reconnaissance. 
 
 In defense, reconnaissance must be kept up to determine 
 the enemy's line of advance, to ascertain his dispositions, to pre- 
 vent his reconnaissance, etc. Patrols or parties posted to prevent 
 hostile reconnaissance should relieve the main body of the neces- 
 sity of betraying its position by firing on small bodies of the 
 enemy. 
 
 Reconnaissance continues throughout the action. A firing 
 or skirmish line can take care of its front, but its flanks are es- 
 pecially vulnerable to modern firearms. The moral effect of flank- 
 ing fire is as great as the physical effect. Hence, combat patrols 
 to give warning or covering detachments to give security are in- 
 dispensable on exposed flanks. This is equally true in attack or 
 defense. 
 
 The fact that cavalry patrols are known to be posted in 
 a certain direction does not relieve infantry commanders of the 
 responsibility for reconnaissance and security. To be surprised 
 by an enemy at short range is an unpardonable offense. 
 
 The commander of a battalion on a flank of a general line 
 invariably provides for the necessary reconnaissance and security 
 on that flank unless higher authority has specifically ordered it. 
 In any event, he sends out combat patrols as needed. Where his 
 battalion is on a flank of one section of the line and a considerable 
 interval lies between his battalion and the next section, he makes 
 similar provision. 
 
 Battalion commanders in the first line establish patrols to 
 observe and report the progress or conduct of adjoining troops 
 when these can not be seen. 
 
 FIRE SUPERIORITY 
 
 In a decisive battle success depends on gaining and main- 
 taining fire superiority. Every effort must be made to gain it 
 «arly and then to keep it. Attacking troops must first gain fire 
 superiority in order to reach the hostile position. Over open 
 ground attack is possible only when the attacking force has a de- 
 cided fire superiority. With such superiority the attack is not only 
 possible, but success is probable and without ruinous losses. De- 
 fending troops can prevent a charge only when they can master 
 the enemy's fire and inflict heavy losses upon him. 
 
 To obtain fire superiority it is necessary to produce a heavy 
 volume of accurate fire. Every increase in the effectiveness of 
 
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF COMBAT TACTICS 259 
 
 the fire means a corresponding decrease in the effectiveness of 
 the enemy's fire. 
 
 The volume and accuracy of fire depends upon several con- 
 siderations: 
 
 1. The number of rifles employed. On a given front the 
 greatest volume of fire is produced by a firing line having only 
 sufficient intervals between men to permit the free use of their 
 rifles. The maximum density of a firing line is therefore about 
 one man per yard of front. 
 
 2. The rate of fire affects its volume; an excessive rate 
 reduces its accuracy. 
 
 3. The character of the target influences both volume and 
 accuracy. Larger dimensions, greater visibility, and shorter range 
 increase the rate of fire; greater density increases the effect. 
 
 4. Training and discipline have an important bearing on 
 the rate or volume of fire, but their greatest influence is upon 
 accuracy. The firing efficiency of troops is reduced by fatigue and 
 adverse psychological influences. 
 
 5. Fire direction and control improve collective accuracy. 
 The importance of fire direction increases rapidly with the range 
 Control exerts a powerful influence at all ranges. 
 
 FIRE DIRECTION AND CONTROL 
 
 Beyond effective ranges important results can be expected 
 only when the target is large and distinct and much ammuni- 
 tion is used. Long-range fire is permissible in pursuit on account 
 of the moral effect of any fire under the circumstances. At other 
 times such fire is of doubtful value. 
 
 In attack, the desire to open fire when losses are first felt 
 must be repressed. Considerations of time, target, ammunition 
 and morale make it imperative that the attack withhold its fire 
 and press forward to a first firing position close to the enemy. 
 The attacker's target is smaller and fainter than the one he 
 presents to the enemy. 
 
 In defense, more ammunition is available, ranges are more 
 easily determined, and the enemy usually presents a larger target. 
 The defender may therefore open fire and expect results at longer 
 ranges than the attacker, and particularly if the defenders intend 
 a delaying action only. 
 
 If the enemy has a powerful artillery, it will often be best 
 for the defending infantry to withhold its fire until the enemy 
 offers a specially favorable target. Vigorous and well-directed 
 bursts of fire are then employed. The troops should therefore be 
 given as much artificial protection as time and means permit, and at 
 
260 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 an agreed signal expose themselves as much as necessary and 
 open fire. 
 
 In unexpected,, close encounters a great advantage accrues 
 to the side which first opens rapid and accurate fire with battle 
 sight. 
 
 USE OF GROUND 
 
 The position of the firers must afford a suitable field of fire. 
 The ground should permit constant observation of the enemy, and 
 yet enable the men to secure some cover when not actually 
 firing. Troops whose target is for the moment hidden by un- 
 favorable ground, either move forward to better the ground or 
 seek to execute cross fire on another target. 
 
 The likelihood of a target being hit depends to a great ex- 
 tent upon its visibility. By skillful use of ground, a firing line 
 may reduce its visibility without loss of fire power. Sky lines 
 are particularly to be avoided. 
 
 CHOICE OF TARGET 
 
 The target chosen should be the hostile troops most dan- 
 gerous to the firers. These will usually be the nearest hostile 
 infantry. When no target is specially dangerous, that one should 
 be chosen which promises the most hits. 
 
 Frequent changes of target impair the fire effect. Random 
 changes to small, unimportant targets impair fire discipline and 
 accomplish nothing. Attention should be confined to the main 
 target until substantial reason for change is apparent. 
 
 An opportunity to deliver flanking fire, especially against 
 artillery protected in front by. shields, is an example warranting 
 change of target and should never be overlooked. Such fire 
 demoralizes the troops subjected to it, even if the losses inflicted 
 are small. In this manner a relatively small number of rifles 
 can produce important results. 
 
 THE RANGE 
 
 Beyond close range, the correct setting of the rear sight 
 is of primary importance, provided the troops are trained and 
 well in hand. The necessity for correct sight setting increases 
 rapidly with the range. Its importance decreases as the quality 
 of the troops decrease, for the error in sight setting, except pos- 
 sibly at very long ranges,, becomes unimportant when compared 
 with the error in holding and aiming. 
 
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF COMBAT TACTICS 261 
 
 In attack, distances must usually be estimated and cor- 
 rections made as errors are observed. Mechanical range finders 
 and ranging volleys are practicable at times. In defense, it is 
 generally practicable to measure more accurately the distances 
 to visible objects and to keep a record of them for future use. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF FIRE AND TARGET 
 
 The purpose of fire superiority is to get hits whenever 
 possible, but at all events to keep down the enemy's fire and 
 render it harmless. To accomplish this the target must be cov- 
 ered with fire throughout its whole extent. Troops who are not 
 fired upon will fire with nearly peace-time accuracy. 
 
 The target is roughly divided and a part is assigned to each 
 unit. No part of the target is neglected. In attack, by a system 
 of overlapping in assigning targets to platoons, the entire hostile 
 line can be kept under fire even during a rush. 
 
 OBSERVATION 
 
 The correctness of the sight setting and the distribution of 
 fire over the target can be verified only by careful observation 
 of the target, the adjacent ground, and the effect upon the enemy. 
 
 Observation only can determine whether the fire fight is 
 being properly conducted. If the enemy's fire is losing in ac- 
 curacy and effect, the observer realizes that his side is gaining 
 superiority. If the enemy's fire remains or becomes effective and 
 persistent, he realizes that corrective measures are necessary to 
 increase either volume or accuracy, or both. 
 
 DISCIPLINE 
 
 Discipline makes good direction and control possible and is 
 the distinguishing mark of trained troops. 
 
 The discipline necessary in the firing line will be absent 
 unless officers and non-commissioned officers can make their will 
 known to the men. In the company, therefore,, communication 
 must be by simple signals which, in the roar of musketry, will at- 
 tract the attention and convey the correct meaning. 
 
 EXPENDITURE OF AMMUNITION 
 
 In attack the supply is more limited than in defense. Better 
 judgment must be exercised in expenditure. Ordinarily, troops 
 in the firing line of an attack can not expect to have that day 
 
262 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 more ammunition than they carry into the combat, except such 
 additions as come from the distribution of ammunition of dead 
 and wounded and the surplus brought by reenforcements. 
 
 When a certain fire is required, the necessary ammunition 
 must be expended without hesitation. Several hours of firing 
 may be necessary to gain fire superiority. True economy can be 
 practiced only by closing on the enemy before first opening fire 
 and thereafter suspending fire when there is nothing to shoot at. 
 
 SUPPORTING ARTILLERY 
 
 Artillery fire is the principal aid to the infantry in gain- 
 ing and keeping fire superiority, not only by its hits, but by the 
 moral effect it produces on the enemy. 
 
 In attack, artillery assists the forward movement of the 
 infantry. It keeps down the fire of the hostile artillery and seeks 
 to neutralize the hostile infantry by inflicting losses upon it, de- 
 stroying its morale, driving it to cover, and preventing it from 
 using its weapons effectively. In defense, it ignores the hostile 
 artillery when the enemy's attack reaches a decisive stage and 
 assists in checking the attack, joining its fire power to that of the 
 defending infantry. 
 
 Troops should be accustomed to be fired over by friendly 
 artillery and impressed with the fact that the artillery should 
 continue firing upon the enemy until the last possible moment. 
 The few casualties resulting from shrapnel bursting short are 
 trifling compared with those that would result from the increased 
 effectiveness of the enemy's infantry fire were the friendly artil- 
 lery to cease firing. Casualties inflicted by supporting artillery are 
 not probable until the opposing infantry lines are less than 200 
 yards apart. 
 
 When the distance between the hostile infantry lines be- 
 comes so short as to render further use of friendly artillery inad- 
 visable, the commander of the infantry firing line, using a pre- 
 concerted signal, informs the artillery commander. The latter 
 usualiy increases the range in order to impede the strengthening 
 of the enemy's foremost line. 
 
 FIRE OF POSITION 
 
 Infantry is said to execute fire of position when it is posted 
 so as to assist an attack by firing over the heads, or off the flank, 
 of the attacking troops and is not itself to engage in the advance; 
 or when, in defense, it is similarly posted to augment the fire of 
 the main firing line. Machine guns serve a like purpose. In a 
 
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF COMBAT TACTICS 263 
 
 decisive action, fire of position should be employed whenever the 
 terrain permits and reserve infantry is available. 
 
 DEPLOYMENT 
 
 Troops are massed preparatory to deployment when the 
 nature of their deployment can not be foreseen or it is desirable 
 to shorten the column or to clear the road. Otherwise,, in the 
 deployment of large commands, whether in march column, in 
 bivouac, or massed, and whether forming for attack or for defense, 
 they are ordinarily first formed into a line of columns to facilitate 
 the extension of the front prior to deploying. The rough line or 
 lines of columns thus formed enable troops to take advantage of 
 the terrain in advance and shorten the time occupied in forming 
 the firing line. 
 
 In deploying the division each brigade is assigned to a defi- 
 nite task or objective. On receipt of his orders, the brigade 
 commander conducts his brigade in column or in line of regiments 
 until it is advisable that it be broken into smaller columns. He 
 then issues his order, assigning to each regiment its task, if prac- 
 ticable. In a similar manner the regimental commanders lead 
 their regiments forward in column, or in line of columns, until 
 the time arrives for issuing the regimental order. It is seldom 
 advisable to break up the battalion before issuing orders for its 
 deployment. 
 
 Each subordinate commander, after receiving his order for 
 the action, should precede his command as far as possible, in 
 order to reconnoiter the ground personally, and should prepare 
 to issue his orders promptly. 
 
 Each commander of a column directs the necessary recon- 
 naissance to front and flank; by this means and by a judicious 
 choice of ground he guards against surprise. 
 
 The premature formation of the firing line causes unneces- 
 sary fatigue and loss of time, and may result in a faulty direction 
 being taken. Troops once deployed make even minor changes of 
 direction with difficulty, and this difficulty increases with the 
 length of the firing line. 
 
 In the larger units, when the original deployment is found 
 to be in the wrong direction, it is usually necessary to deploy 
 the reserve on the correct front and withdraw and assemble 
 the first line. 
 
 To gain decisive results, it is generally necessary to use 
 all the troops at some stage of the combat. But in the beginning, 
 while the situation is uncertain, care should be taken not to 
 engage too large a proportion of the command. On the other 
 
264 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 hand, there is no greater error than to employ too few and to 
 sacrifice them by driblets. 
 
 When it is intended to fight to a decision, fire superiority is 
 essential. To gain this two things are necessary: A heavy fire 
 and a fire well directed and controlled. Both of these are best 
 obtained when the ring line is as dense as practicable,, while leav- 
 ing the men room for the free use of their rifles. If the men 
 are too widely separated, direction and control are very difficult, 
 often impossible, and the intensity of fire is slight in proportion 
 to the front occupied. 
 
 In an attack or stubborn defense the firing line should have 
 a density of one man per yard of front occupied. Where the 
 tactical situation demands the holding of a line too long to be 
 occupied throughout at this density, it is generally better to deploy 
 companies or platoons at one man per yard,, leaving gaps in the 
 line between them, than to distribute the men uniformly at in- 
 creased intervals. 
 
 A relatively thin firing line may be employed when merely 
 covering the movements of other forces; when on the defensive 
 against poor troops; when the final action to be taken has not 
 yet been determined, and, in general, when fire superiority is not 
 necessary. 
 
 The length of the firing line that the whole force may 
 employ depends upon the density of the line and the strength 
 in rear required by the situation. Supports and reserves con- 
 stitute the strength in rear. In a decisive attack they should be 
 at least strong enough to replace a heavy loss in the original 
 firing line and to increase the charging line to a density of at 
 least one and one-half men per yard and still have troops in rear 
 for protection and for the other purposes mentioned above. 
 
 In the original deployment the strength of the reserve held 
 out by each commander comprises from one-sixth to two-thirds 
 of his unit, depending upon the nature of the service expected of 
 the reserve. A small force in a covering or delaying action re- 
 quires very little strength in rear, while a large force fighting a 
 decisive battle requires much. Therefore, depending upon cir- 
 cumstances, the original deployment, including the strength in rear, 
 may vary from 1 to 10 men per yard. Against an enemy poorly 
 disciplined and trained, or lacking in morale, a thinner deploy- 
 ment is permissible. 
 
 The density of the whole deployment increases with the 
 size of the command, because the larger the command the greater 
 the necessity for reserves. Thus, a battalion acting alone may 
 attack with two men per yard of front, but a regiment, with three 
 battalions, may only double the front of the one battalion. 
 
 Bit the assignment of divisions or larger units to parts of 
 
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF COMBAT TACTICS 265 
 
 a line of battle several miles long, a series of semi-independent 
 battle, or local combat, districts are created. The density of de- 
 ployment in these districts may vary greatly, depending upon the 
 activity expected in each. Within these battle districts, as well 
 as in smaller forces acting alone, parts of the line temporarily of 
 less importance may be held weakly, in order to economize troops 
 and to have more at the decisive point. 
 
 The front that a unit may occupy when deployed depends 
 also upon whether its flanks are secured. If both flanks are 
 secured by other troops, the unit may increase its front materially 
 by reducing its reserve or supports. If only one flank is so 
 secured, the front may still be somewhat increased, but the ex- 
 posed flank must be guarded by posting the supports or reserve 
 toward that flank. Natural obstacles that secure the flanks have 
 practically the same effect upon deployment. 
 
 Except when assigned as supports or reserve, regiments in 
 the brigade, battalions in the regiment, and companies in the 
 battalion are, when practicable, deployed side by side. 
 
 In the deployment, battalions establish the firing line, each 
 furnishing its own support. In each unit larger than the battalion 
 a reserve is held out, its strength depending upon circumstances. 
 In general, the reserve is employed by the commander to meet 
 or improve conditions brought about by the action of the firing 
 line. It must not be too weak or too split up. It must be posted 
 where the commander believes it will be needed for decisive action, 
 or where he desires to bring about such action. When necessary, 
 parts of it re-enforce or prolong the firing line. 
 
 ATTACK 
 
 An attack is bound to succeed if fire superiority is gained and 
 properly used. To gain this superiority generally requires that 
 the attack employ more rifles than the defense; this in turn means 
 a longer line, as both sides will probably hold a strong firing 
 line. 
 
 With large forces, a direct frontal attack gives the attacker 
 little opportunity to bring more rifles to bear. However, if the 
 enemy is unduly extended, a frontal attack may give very decisive 
 results. 
 
 Owing to the difficulty of control and the danger of the 
 parts being defeated in detail, wide turning movements are seldom 
 allowable except in large forces. 
 
 If the attack can be so directed that, while the front is 
 covered, another fraction of the command strikes a flank more 
 or less obliquely (an enveloping attack) the advantages gained 
 
266 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 are a longer line and more rifles in action; also a converging fire 
 opposed to the enemy's diverging Are. 
 
 An envelopment of both flanks should never be attempted 
 without a very decided superiority in numbers. 
 
 The enveloping attack will nearly always result locally in a 
 frontal attack, for it will be met by the enemy's reserve. The 
 advantage of envelopment lies in the longer concentric line, with 
 its. preponderance of rifles and its converging fire. 
 
 Co-operation between the frontal and enveloping attacks is 
 essential to success. Both should be pushed vigorously and 
 simultaneously, and ordinarily both should move simultaneously 
 to the charge; but at the final stage of the attack conditions may 
 sometimes warrant one in charging while the other supports it 
 with fire. 
 
 The envelopment of a flank is brought about with difficulty 
 when made by troops already deployed in another direction or by 
 their reserves. The two attacks should be deployed at a suitable 
 distance apart, with the lines of attack converging in rear of the 
 hostile position. The troops that are to make the enveloping attack 
 should deploy in the proper direction at the start and should 
 be given orders which enable them to gain their point of deploy- 
 ment in the most direct and practical manner. The enveloping 
 attack is generally made the stronger, especially in small forces. 
 
 DEPLOYMENT FOR ATTACK 
 
 Where open terrain exposes troops to hostile artillery fire 
 it may be necessary to make the deployment 2 miles or more 
 from the hostile position. The foreground should be temporarily 
 occupied by covering troops. If the enemy occupies the fore- 
 ground with detachments, the covering troops must drive them 
 back. 
 
 To enable large forces to gain ground toward the enemy, it 
 may sometimes be cheaper and quicker in the end to move well 
 forward and to deploy at night. In such case the area in which the 
 deployment is to be made should, if practicable, be occupied by 
 covering troops before dark. The deployment will be made 
 with great difficulty unless the ground has been studied by 
 daylight. The deployment gains little unless it establishes the 
 firing line well within effective range of the enemy's main position. 
 
 Each unit assigned a task deploys when on its direction line, 
 or opposite its objective, and when it has no longer sufficient cover 
 for advancing in close order. In the firing line, intervals of 25 to 50 
 yards should be maintained as long as possible between battalions. 
 In the larger units it may be necessary to indicate on the map the 
 
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF COMBAT TACTICS 267 
 
 direction or objective, but to battalion commanders it should be 
 pointed out on the ground. 
 
 The reserve is kept near enough to the firing line to be on 
 hand at the decisive stage. It is posted with reference to the at- 
 tack, or to that part of the attacking line, from which the greater 
 results are expected; it is also charged with flank protection, but 
 should be kept intact. 
 
 ADVANCING THE ATTACK 
 
 The firing line must ordinarily advance a long distance before 
 it is justified in opening fire. It can not combat the enemy's artil- 
 lery, and it is at a disadvantage if it combats the defender's long- 
 range-rifle fire. Hence it ignores both and, by taking full advant- 
 age of cover and of the discipline of the troops, advances to a 
 first firing position at the shortest range possible. 
 
 The best protection against loss while advancing is to escape 
 the enemy's view. 
 
 Each battalion finds its own firing position, conforming to 
 the general advance as long as practicable and taking advantage 
 of the more advanced position of an adjacent battalion in order to 
 gain ground. 
 
 It frequently becomes necessary for infantry moving to the 
 attack to pass through deployed artillery. This should be done 
 so as to interfere as little as possible with the latter's fire, and 
 never so as to cause that fire to cease entirely. As far as practi- 
 cable, advantage should be taken of intervals in the line, if any. 
 An understanding between artillery and infantry commanders 
 should be had, so as to effect the movement to the best advantage. 
 
 In advancing the attack, advanced elements of the firing 
 line or detachments in front of it should not open fire except in 
 defense or to clear the foreground of the enemy. Fire on the hos- 
 tile main position should not be opened until all or nearly all of the 
 firing line can join in the fire. 
 
 THE FIRE ATTACK 
 
 At the first firing position the attack seeks to gain fire su- 
 periority. This may necessitate a steady, accurate fire for a long 
 time. The object is to subdue the enemy's fire and keep it subdued 
 so that the attacking troops may advance from this point to a 
 favorable place near the enemy from which the charge may be 
 made. Hence, in the advance by rushes, sufficient rifles must be 
 kept constantly in action to keep down the enemy's fire; this deter- 
 mines the size of the fraction rushing. 
 
268 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 To advance without fire superiority against a determined 
 defense would result in such losses as to bring the attack to a 
 standstill or to make the apparent success barren of results. 
 
 Diminution of the enemy's fire and a pronounced loss in ef- 
 fectiveness are the surest signs that the superiority has been gained 
 and that a part of the firing line can advance. 
 
 The men must be impressed with the fact that, having made 
 a considerable advance under fire and having been checked, it is 
 suicidal to turn back in daylight. If they can advance no further, 
 they must intrench and hold on until the fall of darkness or a 
 favorable turn in the situation develops. Intrenching is resorted 
 to only when necessary. Troops who have intrenched themselves 
 under fire are moved forward again with difficulty. 
 
 Supports and reserves occupying intrenchments vacated by 
 the firing line should improve them, but they must not be held back 
 or diverted from their true missions on this account. 
 
 THE CHARGE 
 
 Fire superiority beats down the enemy's fire, destroys his 
 resistance and morale, and enables the attacking troops to close 
 on him, but an actual or threatened occupation of his position is 
 needed to drive him out and defeat him. The psychological mo- 
 ment for the charge can not be determined far in advance. The 
 tactical instinct of the responsible officer must decide. 
 
 The defenders, if subjugated by the fire attack, will frequent- 
 ly leave before the charge begins. On the other hand, it may be 
 necessary to carry the fire attack close to the position and follow 
 it up with a short dash and a bayonet combat. Hence the distance 
 over which the charge may be made will vary between wide limits. 
 It may be from 25 to 400 yards. The charge should be made at the 
 earliest moment that promises success; otherwise the full advant- 
 age of victory will be lost. 
 
 The commander of the attacking line should indicate his 
 approval, or give the order, before the charge is made. Subordinate 
 commanders, usually battalion commanders, whose troops are ready 
 to charge signal that fact to the commander. It may be necessary 
 for them to wait until other battalions or other parts of the line 
 are ready or until the necessary reserves arrive. At the signal for 
 the charge the firing line and near-by supports and reserves rush 
 forward. The charge is made simultaneously, if possible, by all 
 the units participating therein, but, once committed to the assault, 
 battalions should be pushed with the utmost vigor and no restraint 
 placed on the ardor of charging troops bv an attempt to maintain 
 alignment. 
 
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF COMBAT TACTICS 269 
 
 Before ordering the charge the commander should see that 
 enough troops are on hand to make it a success. Local reserves 
 joining the firing line in time to participate in the charge give it 
 a strong impetus. Too dense a mass should be avoided. 
 
 The line should be strengthened by prolongation, if practi- 
 cable, and remaining troops kept in formation for future use; but 
 rather than that the attack should fail, the last formed body is 
 sent in, unless it is very apparent that it can do no good. 
 
 To arrive in the hostile position with a very compact firing 
 line and a few formed supports is sufficient for a victory, but an 
 additional force kept well in hand for pursuit is of inestimable value. 
 
 A premature charge by a part of the line should be avoided, 
 but if begun, the other parts of the line should join at once if there 
 is any prospect of success. Under exceptional conditions a part 
 of the line may be compelled to charge without authority from the 
 rear. The intention to do so should be signaled to the rear. 
 
 Confidence in their ability to use the bayonet gives the as- 
 saulting troops the promise of success. 
 
 If the enemy has left the position when the charging troops 
 reach it, the latter should open a rapid fire upon the retreating 
 enemy, if he is in sight. It is not advisable for the mixed and dis- 
 ordered units to follow him, except to advance to a favorable fir- 
 ing position or to cover the reorganization of others. 
 
 The nearest formed bodies accompanying or following the 
 charge are sent instantly in pursuit. Under cover of these troops 
 order is restored in the charging line. If the captured position is 
 part of a general line or is an advanced post, it should be in- 
 trenched and occupied at once. The exhaustion of officers and 
 men must not cause the neglect of measures to meet a counter- 
 attack. 
 
 If the attack receives a temporary setback and it is intended 
 to strengthen and continue it, officers will make every effort to 
 stop the rearward movement and will reestablish the firing line in 
 a covered position as close as possible to the enemy. 
 
 If the attack must be abandoned, the rearward movement 
 should continue with promptness until the troops reach a feature 
 of the terrain that facilitates the task of checking and reorganizing 
 them. The point selected should be so far to the rear as to prevent 
 interference by the enemy before the troops are ready to resist. The 
 withdrawal of the attacking troops should be covered by the ar- 
 tillery and by reserves, if any are available. 
 
 PURSUIT 
 
 To reap the full fruits of victory a vigorous pursuit must be 
 made. The natural inclination to be satisfied with a successful 
 
270 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 charge must be overcome. The enemy must be allowed no more 
 time to reorganize than is positively unavoidable. 
 
 The part of the reserve that is still formed or is best under 
 control is sent forward in pursuit and vigorously attacks the 
 enemy's main body or covering detachments wherever found. The 
 artillery delivers a heavy fire upon the retreating enemy; the dis- 
 ordered attacking troops secure the position, promptly re-form, 
 and become a new reserve. 
 
 If the captured position is a section of the general line, the 
 breach should be heavily occupied, made wider, and strongly se- 
 cured by drawing on all reserves in the vicinity. 
 
 After the pursuit from the immediate battle field, pursuit 
 by parallel roads is especially effective where large commands are 
 concerned. Artillery and cavalry are very effective in pursuit. 
 
 ATTACK OF FORTIFICATIONS 
 
 Few modifications enter into the problem of attacking for- 
 tifications. Such as are to be considered relate chiefly to the 
 greater time and labor of advancing, the more frequent use of 
 darkness and the use of hand grenades to augment the fire. 
 
 If the enemy is strongly fortified and time permits, it may 
 be advisable to wait and approach the charging point under cover 
 of darkness. The necessary reconnaissance and arrangements 
 should be made before dark. If the charge is not be made at once, 
 the troops intrench the advanced position, using sand bags if nec- 
 essary. Before daylight the foreground should be cleared of ob- 
 stacles. 
 
 If the distance is short and other conditions are favorable, 
 the charge may be made without fire preparation. If made, it 
 should be launched with spirit and suddenness at the break of day. 
 
 In siege operations troops are usually advanced to the charg- 
 ing point by sapping. This method, however, presupposes that an 
 early victory is not necessary or that it is clearly inadvisable to at- 
 tempt more direct methods. 
 
 HOLDING ATTACK 
 
 The holding attack must be vigorous enough to hold the 
 enemy in position and must present a front strong enough to 
 conceal the secondary nature of the attack. The holding attack 
 need have comparatively little strength in rear, but conceals the 
 fact by a firing line not distinguishable from that of a decisive at- 
 tack. 
 
 Supports and reserves are kept at short distances. Their 
 
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF COMBAT TACTICS 271 
 
 strength is less if the object is merely to hold the enemy fast than 
 if the object is, in addition, to compel him to use up reserves. 
 
 Holding attacks which may later develop into decisive at- 
 tacks should be correspondingly strong in rear. 
 
 All feint attacks should employ dense firing lines. Their 
 weakness is in rear and is concealed. 
 
 POSITIONS AND INTRENCHMENTS 
 
 The first requirement of a good position is a clear field of 
 fire and view to the front and exposed flanks to a distance of 600 
 to 800 yards or more. The length of front should be suitable to the 
 size of the command and the flanks should be secure. The position 
 should have lateral communication and cover for supports and re- 
 serves. It should be one which the enemy can not avoid, but must 
 attack or give up his mission. A position having all these advant- 
 ages will rarely, if ever, be found. The one should be taken which 
 conforms closest to the description. 
 
 The natural cover of the position should be fully utilized. 
 In addition, it should be strengthened by fieldworks and obstacles. 
 The best protection is afforded by deep, narrow, inconspicuous 
 trenches. If little time is available, as much as practicable must 
 be done. That the fieldworks may not be needed should not cause 
 their construction to be omitted, and the fact that they have been 
 constructed should not influence the action of a commander, if con- 
 ditions are found to be other than expected. 
 
 When time and troops are available the preparations include 
 the necessary communicating and cover trenches, head cover, 
 bombproofs, etc. The fire trenches should be well supplied with 
 ammunition. The supports are placed close at hand in cover 
 trenches when natural cover is not available. 
 
 Dummy trenches frequently cause the hostile artillery to 
 waste time and ammunition and to divert its fire. 
 
 The location, extent, profile, garrison, etc., of fieldworks are 
 matters to be decided by the infantry commanders. Officers must 
 be able to choose ground and properly intrench it. 
 
 In combat exercises, when it is impracticable to construct 
 the trenches appropriate to the exercise, their trace may be out- 
 lined by bayonets, sticks, or other markers, and the responsible 
 officers required to indicate the profile selected, method and time 
 of construction, garrisons, etc. 
 
 DEPLOYMENT FOR DEFENSE 
 
 The density of the whole deployment depends upon the ex- 
 pected severity of the action, the character of the enemy, the con- 
 18 
 
 A 
 
272 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 dition of the flanks, the field of fire, the terrain, and the available 
 artificial or natural protection for the troops. 
 
 If exposed, the firing line should be as dense in defense as 
 in attack. If the ring line is well intrenched and has a good field 
 of fire, it may be made thinner. Weaker supports are permissible. 
 For the same number of troops the front occupied on the defensive 
 may therefore be longer than on the offensive, the battalions 
 placing more companies in the firing line. 
 
 If it is intended only to delay the enemy, a fairly strong de- 
 ployment is sufficient, but if decisive results are desired, a change 
 to the offensive must be contemplated and the corresponding 
 strength in rear provided. This strength is in the reserve, which 
 should be as large as the demands of the firing line and supports 
 permit. Even in a passive defense the reserve should be as strong 
 as in the attack unless the flanks are protected by other means. 
 
 Supports are posted as close to the firing line as practicable 
 and reenforce the latter according to the principles explained in 
 the attack. When natural cover is not sufficient for the purpose, 
 communicating and cover trenches are constructed. If time does 
 not permit their construction, it is better to begin the action with a 
 very dense firing line and no immediate supports than to have sup- 
 ports greatly exposed in rear. 
 
 The reserve should be posted so as to be entirely free to act 
 as a whole, according to the developments. The distance from fir- 
 ing line to reserve is generally greater than in the attack. By reason 
 of such a location the reserve is best able to meet a hostile envel- 
 oping attack; it has a better position from which to make a counter- 
 attack; it is in a better position to cover a withdrawal and permit 
 an orderly retreat. The distance from firing line to reserve in- 
 creases with the size of the reserve. 
 
 When the situation is no longer in doubt, the reserve should 
 be held in rear of the flank which is most in danger or offers the 
 best opportunity for counter-attack. Usually the same flank best 
 suits both purposes. 
 
 In exceptional cases, on broad fronts, it may be necessary to 
 detach a part of the reserve to protect the opposite flank. This 
 detachment should be the smallest consistent with its purely pro- 
 tective mission. 
 
 The commander assigns to subordinates the front to be oc- 
 cupied by them. These, in turn, subdivide the front among their 
 next lower units in the firing line. 
 
 An extended position is so divided into sections that each 
 has, if practicable, a field of fire naturally made distinct by the 
 terrain. Unfavorable and unimportant ground ordinarily causes 
 gaps to exist in the line. 
 
 The size of the unit occupying each section depends upon 
 
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF COMBAT TACTICS 27$ 
 
 the latter's natural strength, front, and importance. If practica- 
 ble, battalions should be kept intact and assigned as units to sec- 
 tions or parts of sections. 
 
 Where important dead space lies in front of one section, an 
 adjoining section should be instructed to cover it with fire when 
 necessary, or machine guns should be concealed for the like pur- 
 pose. 
 
 Advanced posts, or any other form of unnecessary disper- 
 sion, should be avoided. 
 
 Unless the difficulty of moving the troops into the position 
 be great, most of the troops of the firing line are held in rear of 
 it until the infantry attack begins. The position itself is occupied' 
 by a small garrison only, with the necessary outguards or patrols; 
 in front. 
 
 Fire alone cannot be depended upon to stop the attack. The 
 troops must be determined to resort, to the bayonet, if necessary. 
 
 If a night attack or close approach by the enemy is expected, 
 troops in a prepared position should strengthen the outguards and 
 firing line and construct as numerous and effective obstacles as 
 possible. Supports and local reserves should move close to the 
 firing line and should, with the firing line, keep bayonets fixed. 
 If practicable, the front should be illuminated, preferably from the. 
 the flanks of the section. 
 
 Only short range fire is of any value in resisting night at- 
 tacks. The bayonet is the chief reliance. 
 
 COUNTER-ATTACK 
 
 The passive defense should be assumed only when circum- 
 stances force it. Only the offensive wins. 
 
 An active defense seeks a favorable decision. A favorable 
 decision can not be expected without counter-attack. 
 
 A passive defense in a position whose flanks are not pro- 
 tected by natural obstacles is generally out of the question. 
 
 Where the defense is assumed with a view to making a coun- 
 ter-attack, the troops for the counter-attack should be held in re- 
 serve until the time arrives for such attack. The defensive line 
 should be held by as few troops as possible in order that the force 
 for the offensive may be as large as possible. The force for the 
 counter-attack should be held echeloned in rear of the flank which 
 offers it the greatest advantage for the proposed attack. 
 
 The counter-attack should be made vigorously and at the 
 proper time. It will usually be made: By launching the reserve 
 against the enemy's flank when his attack is in full progress. This 
 is the most effective form of counter-attack. Straight to the front 
 by the firing line and supports after repulsing the enemy's attack 
 
274 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 and demoralizing him with pursuing fire. Or, by the troops in 
 rear of the firing line when the enemy has reached the defensive 
 position and is in disorder. 
 
 Minor counter-attacks are sometimes necessary in order to 
 drive the enemy from important positions gained by him. 
 
 DELAYING ACTION 
 
 When a position is taken merely to delay the enemy and to 
 withdraw before becoming closely engaged, the important consid- 
 erations are: The enemy should be forced to deploy early. The 
 field of fire should therefore be good at distances from 500 to 1,200 
 yards or more; a good field of fire at close range is not necessary. 
 The ground in rear of the position should favor the withdrawal 
 of the firing line by screening the troops from the enemy's view 
 and fire as soon as the position is vacated. 
 
 A thin firing line using much ammunition generally answers 
 the purpose. Supports are needed chiefly to protect the flanks. 
 The reserve should be posted well in rear to assist in the with- 
 drawal of the firing line. Artillery is especially valuable to a delay- 
 ing force. 
 
 MEETING ENGAGEMENTS 
 
 Meeting engagements are characterized by the necessity for 
 hasty reconnaissance, or the almost total absence of reconnais- 
 sance; by the necessity for rapid deployment, frequently under fire; 
 and usualy by the absence of trenches or other artificial cover. 
 These conditions give further advantages to the offensive. 
 
 The whole situation will usually indicate beforehand the 
 proper general action to be taken on meeting the enemy. 
 
 Little fresh information can be expected. The boldness, ini- 
 tiative and determination of the commander must be relied upon. 
 
 A meeting engagement affords an ideal opportunity to the 
 commander who has intuition and quick decision and who is will- 
 ing to take long chances. His opponent is likely to be overcau- 
 tious. 
 
 The amount of information that the commander is warranted 
 in awaiting before taking final action depends entirely upon his 
 mission. One situation may demand a blind attack; another may 
 demand rapid, partial deployment for attack but careful and time- 
 consuming reconnaissance before the attack is launched. 
 
 A great advantage accrues to the side which can deploy the 
 faster. The advantage of a close-order formation, favoring rapid 
 deployment, becomes more pronounced with the size of the force. 
 
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF COMBAT TACTICS 27 S 
 
 The first troops to deploy will be able to attack with longer 
 firing lines and weaker supports than are required in the ordinary 
 case. But if the enemy succeeds in deploying a strong defensive 
 line, at attack must be strengthened accordingly before it is 
 wasted. 
 
 If the situation warrants the advance, the leading troops 
 seek to deploy faster than the enemy, to reach his flanks, check his 
 deployment, and get information. In any event, they seek to 
 cover the deployment of their own troops in rear — especially the 
 artillery — and to seize important ground. 
 
 The commander of a long column which meets the enemy 
 should be with the advance guard to receive information promptly 
 and to reconnoiter. If he decides to fight, the advance guard must 
 hold the enemy while the commander formulates a plan of action, 
 issues the necessary orders and deploys the main body. Meantime 
 the column should be closing up, either in mass or to form line of 
 columns, so that the deployment, when determined upon, may be 
 made more promptly. 
 
 The action of the advance guard, prior to the receipt of 
 orders, depends upon the situation. Whether to attack determin- 
 edly or only as a feint, or to assume the defensive, depends upon 
 the strength of the advance guard, the terrain, the character of 
 the hostile force encountered, and the mission and intentions of the 
 commander of the whole. 
 
 If the enemy is beforehand or more aggressive, or if the 
 advance guard is too weak, it may be necessary to put elements of 
 the main body in4o action as fast as they arrive, in order to check 
 him. This method should be avoided; it prevents the formation 
 and execution of a definite plan and compels piecemeal action. 
 The best results are obtained when the main body is used as a 
 whole. 
 
 WITHDRAWAL FROM ACTION 
 
 The withdrawal of a defeated force can generally be effected 
 only at a heavy cost. When it is no longer possible to give the 
 action a favorable turn and the necessity for withdrawal arises, 
 every effort must be made to place distance and a rear guard be- 
 tween the enemy and the defeated troops. 
 
 Artillery gives especially valuable assistance in the with- 
 drawal. The long-range fire of machine guns should also be em- 
 ployed. Cavalry assists the withdrawal by charging the pursuing 
 troops or by taking flank positions and using fire action. 
 
 If an intact reserve remains it should be placed in a covering 
 position, preferably on a flank, to check the pursuit and thus 
 enable the defeated troops to withdraw beyond reach of hostile 
 
276 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 fire. The covering position of the reserve should be at some dis- 
 tance from the main action, but close enough to bring the with- 
 drawing troops quickly under the protection of its fire. It should 
 have a good field of fire at effective and long ranges and should 
 facilitate its own safe and timely withdrawal. 
 
 If the general line is divided, by terrain or by organization, 
 into two or more parts, the firing line of the part in the least 
 danger from pursuit should be withdrawn first. A continuous 
 firing line, whose parts are dependent upon one another for fire 
 support, should be withdrawn as a whole, retiring by echelon at 
 the beginning of the withdrawal. Every effort must be made to 
 restore the organization, regain control and form column of march 
 as soon as the troops are beyond the reach of hostile fire. As fast 
 as possible, without delaying the march, companies and the larger 
 units should be re-formed, so that the command will again be well 
 in hand. 
 
 The commander of the whole, having given orders for with- 
 drawal, should go to the rear, select a rendezvous point, and de- 
 vote himself to the reorganization of his command. The rendez- 
 vous point is selected with regard to the natural channels of move- 
 ment approximately straight to the rear. It should be distant from 
 the battle field and should facilitate the gathering and protection 
 of the command. 
 
 SUMMARY 
 
 1. Avoid combats that offer no chance of victory or other 
 valuable results. 2. Make every effort for the success of the 
 general plan and avoid spectacular plays that have no bearing on 
 the general result. 3. Have a definite plan and carry it out vigor- 
 ously 4. Do not attempt complicated maneuvers. 5. Keep the 
 command in hand; avoid undue extension and dispersion. 6. 
 Study the ground and direct the advance in such a way as to take 
 advantage of all available cover and thereby diminish losses. 
 7. Never deploy until the purpose and the proper direction are 
 known. 8. Deploy enough men for the immediate task in hand; 
 hold out the rest and avoid undue haste in committing them to the 
 action. 9. Flanks must be protected either by reserves, fortifica- 
 tions, or the terrain. 10. In a decisive action, gain and keep fire 
 superiority. 11. Keep up reconnoissance. 12. Use the reserve, 
 but not until needed or a very favorable opportunity for its use 
 presents itself. Keep some reserves as long as practicable. 13 Do 
 not hesitate to sacrifice the command if the result is worth the cost. 
 14. Spare the command all unnecessary hardship and exertion. 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 
 OFFENSIVE AND DEFENSIVE COMBAT AND THE 
 INFANTRY ATTACK OF A POSITION 
 
 Aggressiveness wins battles. Decisive results are obtained 
 only by the offensive. The purely passive defense is adopted only 
 when the mission can be fully accomplished by this method of 
 warfare t . In all other cases, if a force be obliged by uncontrollable 
 circumstances to adopt the defensive, it must be considered as a 
 temporary expedient, and a change to the offensive with all or 
 part of the forces will be made as soon as conditions warrant such 
 change. 
 
 COMBAT PRINCIPLES 
 
 Unity of command is essential to success. The regiment 
 united in combat has greater force and fighting power than have 
 three separate battalions. A battalion acting as a unit is stronger 
 than four companies acting independently. All the troops assigned 
 to the execution of a distinct tactical task must be placed under 
 one command. 
 
 The task assigned any unit must not involve a complicated 
 maneuver. Simple and direct plans and methods are productive 
 of the best results in warfare. All the troops that are necessary 
 to execute a definite task must be assigned to it from the begin- 
 ning. Avoid putting troops into action in driblets. 
 
 Detachments during combat are justifiable only when the 
 execution of the tasks assigned them contributes directly to suc- 
 cess in the main battle or when they keep a force of the enemy 
 larger than themselves out of the main battle. When combat is 
 imminent all troops must be called to the probable field of battle. 
 A force is never so strong that it can needlessly dispense with the 
 support of any of its parts during combat. Too many troops must 
 not, however, be committed to the action in the early stages, no 
 matter what be the nature of the deployment or the extent of line 
 held. Some reserves must be kept in hand. 
 
 Use the reserve only when needed or when a favorable op- 
 portunity for its use presents itself. Keep some reserve as long 
 
278 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 e must 
 
 as practicable, but every man that can be used to advantage 
 participate in the decisive stage of the combat. Flanks must be 
 protected either by reserves, fortifications, or the terrain. Flank 
 protection is the duty of the commanders of all flank units down 
 to the lowest, whether specifically enjoined in orders or not. 
 This applies to units on both sides of gaps that may exist in the 
 combat lines. Reconnaissance continues throughout the action. 
 
 USE OF THE COMBINED ARMS 
 
 Infantry. — The infantry is the principal and most important 
 arm, which is charged with the main work on the field of battle 
 and decides the final issue of combat. The role of the infantry, 
 whether offensive or defensive, is the role of the entire force, and 
 the utilization of that arm gives the entire battle its character. The 
 success of the infantry is essential to the success of the combined 
 arms. 
 
 Artillery. — The artillery is the close supporting arm of the 
 infantry and its duties are inseparably connected with those of the 
 infantry. Its targets are those units of the enemy which, from the 
 infantry point of view, are most dangerous to its infantry or that 
 hinder infantry success. The greater the difficulties of the infantry 
 the more powerful must be the artillery support. 
 
 In order to insure close co-operation of the artillery with the 
 infantry in combat, the leader of each infantry unit to which artil- 
 lery support has been assigned, in both the attack and defense, 
 makes known to the artillery commander his plans and their ex- 
 pected development and, throughout the action, keeps the artillery 
 representative accompanying him fully informed of the needs of 
 the infantry in the matter of artillery support. 
 
 The security of the artillery in combat must be provided for 
 either by the distribution of the other arms or specifically in orders. 
 But when such is not the case the necessary protection must be 
 afforded by the nearest unit of infantry or cavalry whose mission 
 will permit it to give such protection. 
 
 Cavalry. — The cavalry, preceding contact of the opposing 
 troops of the other arms, is engaged in reconnaissance of the 
 enemy and of the terrain and in accomplishing such mission as 
 may be assigned it. During combat it directs its activities to the 
 support of the other arms and particularly toward insuring the 
 success of the infantry as soon as that arm is fully committed to 
 action. It must not be given a task, nor voluntarily assume one, 
 that will prevent its fullest co-operation with the other arms in the 
 decisive action. The cavalry leader is given wide initiative in the 
 tactical employment of his command during the decisive combat. 
 
OFFENSIVE AND DEFENSIVE COMBAT 279 
 
 The cavalry of a field army is divided into two classes, that 
 attached to the infantry divisions and called divisional cavalry, and 
 that forming a separate strategical unit called the cavalry division. 
 The divisional cavalry is an auxiliary arm of the infantry division 
 and is used as the division commander directs, either as inde- 
 pendent cavalry or as advance cavalry. 
 
 The cavalry division is pushed, as independent cavalry, far to 
 the front, often several days' march in advance of the remainder of 
 the field army, to drive back the covering forces of the enemy and 
 to gain accurate information of his dispositions, strength, and 
 movements. This is the most valuable use of the cavalry division 
 in the opening stages of a campaign. The use of the cavalry divi- 
 sion as a screen is justified only in exceptional cases, as it is seldom 
 effective in absolutely preventing hostile reconnaissance. Better 
 results can be obtained by using the cavalry as a mass to engage 
 and defeat the enemy's cavalry. 
 
 Engineer Troops. — The engineer troops, when not engaged 
 in the special duties of their arm, may be used as infantry, but 
 only in exceptional cases, as part of the attacking line. On the 
 offensive, when used as infantry they form part of the reserve, part 
 of a holding force, or are used for flank protection. On the defen- 
 sive, they may be used as infantry wherever the development of 
 the action warrants such use. 
 
 Heavy Field Artillery. — The limited mobility of heavy field 
 artillery renders its use inadvisable in any position from which the 
 conditions of combat may require its hasty withdrawal. For that 
 reason it has no place in an advance guard; in an outpost, unless 
 occupying a position in which the action is to be fought to a deci- 
 sion; in advanced positions or posts; in the rencontre; or in delay- 
 ing actions, unless its loss is justifiable. 
 
 On the offensive, heavy field artillery finds its functions in 
 firing upon supporting points in the hostile line; upon covered posi- 
 tions occupied by large bodies of the enemy, particularly his re- 
 serves; in the destruction of material objects, as buildings, bridges, 
 etc.; and, in general, against a position that has been deliberately 
 taken up and strengthened by the enemy. 
 
 On the defensive, heavy field artillery finds its use in com- 
 pelling the deployment of the enemy's columns at long distances 
 from the defensive line, against any large formed bodies of the 
 enemy, and against those parts of his materiel or material objects 
 within lines that offer an important target. Due to its long range, 
 it is profitably used in both offensive and defensive combat in re- 
 stricting the field of activity of the enemy's shorter range artillery. 
 It can also be used to advantage in the destruction of the enemy's 
 field artillery materiel. 
 
 The use of the heavier types of field artillery presupposes an 
 
280 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 offensive, where reconnaissance of the enemy's position has been 
 thorough and where the attack has been carefully planned; or a 
 defensive, where there has been time to deliberately select and 
 strengthen a position. Until the use of the heavier field artil- 
 lery under the conditions given can be clearly foreseen, its position 
 is well to the rear of all the combatant units. 
 
 FIRE SUPERIORITY 
 
 Fire superiority must be obtained in the early stages of 
 combat and maintained to the end. Without it, success can not be 
 expected either on the offensive or the defensive. It affords the 
 best protection that can be given troops advancing to the attack, 
 as also the best means of diminishing losses. The artillery must 
 co-operate with the infantry in obtaining and maintaining fire 
 superiority. Deficiency in the volume of fire on the defensive 
 should be offset by the selection of a position naturally strong, or 
 that can be made strong, in the time available for that purpose. 
 
 FRONTAGE OF UNITS IN COMBAT 
 
 Depth in formation for combat, rather than extension of 
 front, is all important in the initial deployment, even where the 
 position and the strength of the enemy have been fully developed. 
 Sufficient depth makes available means to meet the contingencies 
 of combat and the unforeseen developments in the situation as they 
 arise. Troops once deployed and committed to action are no 
 longer available to enable the leader to exercise a constant in- 
 fluence over the course of the entire combat. The progress of the 
 combat calls for an extension of the front occupied in the initial 
 deployment that can not be foreseen. Troops must be held avail- 
 able for the purpose of such extension. 
 
 Frontages for deployment are based upon the infantry 
 strength of the division and higher units. Artillery has no place 
 in the front line of the initial deployment and, at the time such 
 deployment is made, the place of the cavalry is out in front of 
 the line or in contact with the enemy on the flanks. The infantry 
 strength alone, therefore, is considered in fixing the frontages for 
 the initial deployment. 
 
 The frontages occupied by the different battle units are not 
 in proportion to the number of their component units. The dura- 
 tion of the combat and the needs for the security of the flanks in- 
 crease with the size of the force employed. Each higher leader 
 must keep out a reserve. A division, therefore, makes its initial 
 
OFFENSIVE AND DEFENSIVE COMBAT 281 
 
 deployment on a front only twice that justified for the brigade, and 
 a field army of three divisions, when one division is held as a 
 reserve, is assigned for deployment a front twice that of the divi- 
 sion. 
 
 A unit whose flanks are secured by other troops or by im- 
 passable obstacles, or one that occupies a position naturally strong, 
 or made so by adequate preparation, may be given a frontage 
 limited only by the requirements of fire efficiency throughout the 
 combat. The same is true of reserves deployed to bring about a 
 decision already prepared by other troops. A force whose flanks 
 are exposed must protect them by a maximum distribution in 
 depth. 
 
 Division and Field Armies. — A division, when operating 
 against an enemy of nearly equal training and morale, and on open 
 and unprepared ground, can not make its initial deployment on a 
 front greater than \y 2 to 2 miles and, at the same time, have the 
 capacity to hold its position strongly throughout the action. In 
 the same way a field army of three divisions would be limited in 
 its initial deployment to the frontage of 4 to 5 miles. Where, for 
 uncontrollable reasons, deployment over a more extended front 
 is necessary, strong reserves are the only means available to meet 
 the dangers to such over-extension. 
 
 INTRENCHMENTS 
 
 On the defensive the artificial strengthening of the position 
 taken up is limited only by the time and the facilities available. On 
 the offensive intrenchments are used on all lines that are to be 
 held for any length of time. Troops advancing to the attack must 
 understand that the best protection against losses is afforded by 
 an uninterrupted and vigorous advance toward the enemy's posi- 
 tion, and by the use of such natural cover as the ground offers. In 
 the attack intrenchments are used only when further advance is 
 for some time impossible, and to hold ground already gained. 
 
 USE OF MACHINE GUNS 
 
 Machine guns are emergency weapons. They are best used 
 when their fire is in the nature of a surprise to the enemy at trie 
 crisis of combat. Their effective use is for short periods of time — 
 at most but a few minutes — until silenced by the enemy. When 
 engaged they must be used to the limit of their effective capacity. 
 On the offensive they find their use in assisting the attack to 
 obtain fire superiority temporarily lost and against lines of 
 
282 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 trenches which are to be assaulted. In the defensive they are used 
 against large targets visible for a short time only, and on ad- 
 vancing lines of the enemy's infantry within the close and effective 
 ranges. The effect of the enemy's fire, particularly his artillery fire, 
 on machine guns, is lessened by their employment in small groups. 
 
 POST OF THE LEADER 
 
 On the march when there is a probability of contact with the 
 enemy, the leader of each column is at the front, usually well for- 
 ward with the advance guard. During action, in forces no larger 
 than a brigade, the leader places himself far enough to the front 
 to personally direct the movements of his command. In divisions, 
 it is, at times, possible to find a point of observation from which 
 the division commander can personally supervise the course of the 
 action or, at least, overlook the most important part of the field 
 assigned to his division. In forces not larger than a division, the 
 post of the leader during combat is usually near the position of 
 the reserve. In forces larger than the division, and in the division 
 where the terrain does not permit of personal observation, it is 
 best for the leader, during the action, to be well in rear, removed 
 as far as possible from the sights and sounds of the battlefield, in 
 order that his decisions may not be unduly influenced by local 
 conditions. In this case communications with all parts of the 
 battlefield must be direct, rapid, and continuous. 
 
 RESERVES 
 
 The preponderating influence of rifle fire in deciding an 
 action seems to call for the deployment in the early stages of all 
 the troops that can be used on the firing line. But rifle fire, even 
 with the maximum possible support of artillery fire, will not alone 
 force a favorable decision. Infantry, properly trained and properly 
 led, can not be driven from position by fire action alone. For that 
 purpose an assault actually delivered, or one that shows a determi- 
 nation to close with the enemy, is necessary. The firing line pre- 
 pares the way for this assault, but is not in itself sufficient for its 
 completion. Fresh troops must be at hand to give the firing line 
 the impetus necessary to drive it forward, and fresh troops must 
 be at hand to actually penetrate the enemy's position, to fill in gaps 
 that develop in the line, to cover the reorganization of troops dis- 
 organized in the assault, and to meet counter attacks. On the 
 defensive, troops must be at hand to meet the play of the oppo- 
 nent who holds the initiative. In both offensive and defensive 
 combat, flanks that are vulnerable must be secured. For all such 
 
OFFENSIVE AND DEFENSIVE COMBAT 283 
 
 purposes some troops must be kept out of the firing line until the 
 very last stages of the action. Reserves are thus a necessity and 
 they must be strong enough to answer the demands made upon 
 them during the entire combat. 
 
 The knowledge of the situation that the leader possesses 
 must guide him in fixing the strength of the reserves. On the 
 offensive one-fourth to one-third of the entire force is held out at 
 first as a reserve in all units down to and including the regiment. 
 In the passive defense, after the requirements of the firing line 
 are fully provided for, the governing consideration in fixing the 
 strength of the reserve is the vulnerability of the flanks. Where 
 the flanks are secured by other means, a reserve as low as one- 
 eighth of the entire force may suffice. In the defense seeking an 
 opportunity to attack, the change from the defensive to the offen- 
 sive, together with the requirements of flank protection, requires 
 strong reserves. Here it may be necessary to hold out at first, for 
 this purpose, as much as two-thirds of the entire force. 
 
 In an attack involving forces of the size of a division, or 
 larger, the brigade reserves protect the flanks of the attacking lines, 
 support such lines if they be repulsed, meet counterattacks, secure 
 the captured position, thus giving the disordered attacking line's 
 time to re-form, and initiate the pursuit of the retreating enemy. 
 In the brigade on the outer flank of an enveloping movement the 
 reserve may be used at the last to extend the line. In the defense, 
 the brigade reserve is used to protect the flanks of its firing lines, 
 to support such lines if driven back, to make local counterattacks, 
 and to cover the retreat of its firing lines, if the latter be compelled 
 to withdraw from action. 
 
 In Divisions. — In divisions, the division reserve is used to 
 meet enveloping or turning movements; to make an enveloping 
 movement where the situation of the division permits; to fill in 
 gaps that may develop between its own divisions and others on its 
 flanks during the course of the action; and to make counterattacks. 
 A decisive engagement will call for the use of all or nearly all 
 of the reserves before a decision is reached, but if any part of the 
 reserve remains in hand when a retreat becomes necessary, it is 
 used to cover the withdrawal from action and re-formation of the 
 deployed lines. 
 
 In Field Armies. — In field armies the general reserve may be 
 smaller proportionally than in the division acting alone. Its func- 
 tion is not to reinforce divisions in action, or to be used piecemeal 
 in any part of the field. It finds its best use as a mass of maneuver 
 to envelop or turn the enemy's position, to meet similar moves on 
 his part, or to change the character of the action, as from defensive 
 to offensive. 
 
 Artillery. — Artillery that can find active employment any- 
 
284 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 where in an action is out of place as a reserve. When the unit 
 of which it forms a part is held as a reserve, it remains a com- 
 ponent part of such reserve unless detached for active use in some 
 part of the field under the orders or directions of the superior 
 leader. 
 
 Cavalry. — The value of cavalry as a reserve lies mainly in 
 its mobility. The cavalry division gives the leader of the field 
 army a valuable and powerful weapon with which to meet any 
 crises in combat which demand the employment of troops possess- 
 ing the highest mobility. But to rely wholly upon cavalry for a 
 reserve is to restrict the sphere of activity of that arm. Reserves 
 other than those composed of cavalry must be provided for. 
 
 PLAN OF ACTION 
 
 Upon the information of the enemy and of the terrain ob- 
 tained by reconnaissance and, as far as time will permit, upon the 
 study of the terrain in the field of probable operations made by 
 the leader, the plan of action is based. After contact is gained the 
 decision will be to attack, to take up a defensive position, to with- 
 draw, or to change the direction of march. The offensive must be 
 the rule, to be departed from only for uncontrollable reasons. 
 
 The following factors must be considered in arriving at the 
 decision: The mission, relative numerical strength of the opposing 
 force, relative efficiency of the troops on both sides, the terrain, 
 and the probable results of victory or defeat. In doubtful cases 
 aggressiveness and initiative will usually win. To take up a de- 
 fensive position, to withdraw, or to change the direction of march 
 so as to avoid contact with the enemy may be a conservative or 
 prudent course to follow in doubtful cases, but such a course will 
 not bring victory nor shorten the campaign. The mission of an 
 army in war is to win battles. Every step taken must be with that 
 end in view. 
 
 COMBAT ORDERS 
 
 The initial combat orders of the division and of all units 
 higher than the division are almost invariably written. Troops 
 may be put in motion in the desired direction, especially in a ren- 
 contre engagement, by verbal orders, but such verbal orders must 
 be followed as soon as possible by written orders. After the 
 action has begun the greater number of the orders given by the 
 higher commanders are fragmentary and verbal. In units higher 
 than the regiment all such orders are, as far as practicable, written 
 out by a staff officer at the time they are issued, and a copy thereof 
 given to the officer charged with the execution of the order, if 
 
OFFENSIVE AND DEFENSIVE COMBAT 285 
 
 possible at the time the order is delivered, otherwise as soon there- 
 after as it is possible to furnish it. 
 
 Combat orders are the expression of a fixed decision and 
 must definitely state the end in view, such as " To attack," or " To 
 take up and defend " a position. Vague or ambiguous orders indi- 
 cate vacillation and the absence of any definite decision on the part 
 of the officer responsible for them. Troops should be told, in 
 terms that are direct and unmistakable, exactly what it is their 
 leader wants them to do. 
 
 Armies. — In armies, combat orders are often in the form of 
 or a part of, letters of instruction to the commanding generals of 
 the field armies composing the army. But where the field armies 
 are within supporting distance of each other and can mutually 
 co-operate in the task assigned them, formal combat orders may be 
 issued. Such orders are necessarily general in their character and 
 consist of a statement of the objective sought by the army com- 
 mander, and of the part he expects each field army to play in at- 
 taining this objective. The army commander, either by means of 
 letters of instruction or by personal conferences with his field 
 army commanders, fully acquaints them not only with the imme- 
 diate end in view, but also with so much of his further plans as 
 may be necessary to insure thorough co-operation on their parts. 
 
 Field Armies. — In field armies, combat orders recite the 
 decision of the commanding general and assign the tasks that each 
 division is to perform in carrying out such decision. Details as 
 to the movements of any part of a division, including the trains, 
 have no proper place in combat orders of field armies. 
 
 Divisions. — In divisions, or in forces smaller than a division 
 but made up of two or more arms, the combat orders recite the 
 purpose of the commanding general, which is either the expression 
 of his own decision, or is the task allotted him by the higher com- 
 mander, and then state definitely the task that each subordinate 
 unit is to perform in the execution of this purpose. The order 
 states definitely what each subordinate unit is to do. How the task 
 allotted is to be performed is the function of the commanders of 
 the subordinate units. 
 
 Personal conferences between the higher commanders and 
 the subordinates who are to execute their orders may at times be 
 advisable, in order that the latter may arrive at a correct under- 
 standing of the plans and intentions of their superiors and may 
 correctly interpret the orders issued. But such conferences are not 
 for the purpose of criticising the orders or plans of the higher 
 commander, nor to influence the latter's action. The officer issuing 
 the order can not share the responsibility therefore with any of his 
 subordinates. The decision, no matter how arrived at, is his 
 alone. 
 
286 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 In assigning combat tasks, divisions in field armies and 
 brigades in divisions are given certain well-defined parts of the 
 enemy's line to attack, or certain sections of a line to defend, or are 
 held as general reserves. Combat orders of divisions fix the posi- 
 tion of ammunition distributing stations, dressing stations, and 
 stations for the slightly wounded. If no previous arrangements 
 have been made for the disposition of the trains, the combat order 
 provides for grouping all trains not needed on the battle field far 
 enough to the rear so as not to interfere with the movements of the 
 combatant troops, should withdrawal become necessary. 
 
 Combats of armies or of field armies are made up of a num- 
 ber of local combats conducted by divisions or parts of divisions. 
 In divisions, each brigade is given a definite objective or is held in 
 reserve. After the combat is on, the division commander can 
 retain but little direct control over the troops actually engaged. 
 His control over the course of the entire action must rest in his 
 use of the artillery and of the reserves he has at hand. The artil- 
 lery is the only arm that can immediately respond to demands for 
 support made by troops already engaged. The division com- 
 mander uses this arm to meet local crises in the battle that must 
 be met at once. The reserves are so placed and maneuvered as 
 to meet the demands of the larger crises of the action. 
 
 With the entry into action of the infantry, the cavalry with- 
 draws from the front. From that time on the position of the 
 cavalry should be one of readiness for use in the crises of the 
 combat. If inferior to the enemy's cavalry, it may be forced to 
 conform to the movements of the latter. In such a case it will 
 have little or no voice in the selection of the position toward which 
 it falls back. In armies the cavalry divisions usually remain under 
 the orders of their own field army commanders. 
 
 In field armies and in divisions, the selection of the flank 
 toward which their cavalry will fall back when obliged to uncover 
 the front is the function of the commanders of those units. The 
 flank selected is the one most exposed, and where the active sup- 
 port of the cavalry may be most necessary to the infantry, or, ff 
 that factor can not be determined, the flank that affords the best 
 field of activity for the cavalry in assisting in the main combat or 
 in operating against the enemy's flanks or rear. Throughout the 
 entire action contact must be maintained with the hostile cavalry, 
 and the latter prevented from hindering the success of the infantry. 
 To best effect this purpose the cavalry of field armies and divisions 
 must be kept concentrated on one flank. 
 
 THE SURPRISE 
 
 To be surprised is never justifiable in warfare. If, however, 
 due to the insufficient reconnaissance, troops are forced into action 
 
OFFENSIVE AND DEFENSIVE COMBAT 287 
 
 directly from a formation unsuitable for combat or come unex- 
 pectedly under effective fire of the erfemy before development and 
 deployment, boldness in decision and in action is usually the best 
 line of conduct. If the enemy is still beyond close range, quick 
 development of fire is important. Here the artillery must be put 
 into action at once, to deliver a heavy fire upon the most threaten- 
 ing bodies of the enemy. If the enemy is so near that a charge is 
 practicable, recourse to the bayonet must be unhesitating. This 
 principle applies particularly well where troops suddenly encounter 
 the enemy in the local phases of a battle. To attempt to retire 
 at once when surprised is to risk annihilation. 
 
 When troops are on the march or at rest, reconnaissance by 
 the cavalry, the omission of which is never justifiable, is the best 
 means to guard against being surprised. In action cavalry recon- 
 naissance is the best protection against surprise on the flanks or 
 from the rear. 
 
 THE RENCONTRE 
 
 In the rencontre, where there is no surprise, success depends 
 mainly upon efficient troop leading. To well-trained and well-led 
 troops the attack in the rencontre is natural, and presents fewer 
 difficulties than under any other condition of warfare. Quick deci- 
 sion on the part of the leader is possible, if he has thought out 
 before hand and keeps constantly in mind what he will do when 
 the enemy is encountered. On the march he must take care to 
 change the details of his mental plan to fit the changing conditions 
 of terrain. This principle applies to all leaders, from the superior 
 commander down to the commander of the advance party on the 
 march or of the outguards when in camp. 
 
 In rencontre combat there are but two courses open to the 
 commander of the advance guard, viz., to attack, or to hold his 
 position. The action of the advance guard will usually shape, and 
 in every instance decidedly influence, that of the entire force. It 
 must, therefore, be such as will accord with the preconceived plans 
 and intentions of the supreme commander. The advance guard 
 commander must know in advance whether the general plan is 
 aggressive or defensive, and what the ideas of his superior are as 
 to the development of such plan. This is the only guide to action 
 the advance guard commander can have, but it will ordinarily 
 suffice to determine him whether to act boldly or cautiously. 
 
 OFFENSIVE COMBAT 
 
 In combat, where the force involved is as large as or larger 
 than a division, a simultaneous effective advance against the entire 
 
288 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 hostile front is out of the question. Modern battles are made up 
 of a number of local combats, where success or failure in any one 
 instance may decide the issue of the entire battle. Fronts occupied 
 by field armies are but seldom continuous, even in comparatively 
 flat and open country. Some parts of the line are held much more 
 strongly than others, and the natural defensive features of por- 
 tions of the front may render part of the line naturally impreg- 
 nable. 
 
 It is necessary, therefore, to select in the enemy's position 
 limited sections, against which the decisive attacks will be made; 
 but to insure success, the attention of the enemy must be held 
 along his entire front. The attack thus develops into two parts; 
 one whose task is to actually assault the hostile position at selected 
 points, if assault be necessary to drive the enemy out; the other 
 whose task it is to threaten or to actually attack all other parts of 
 the enemy's line, in order to hold the hostile troops to their posi- 
 tion and to prevent the strengthening of the points to be assaulted. 
 
 As fire superiority is the first and most important requisite to 
 success, it must be obtained at the start and maintained throughout 
 the action. Fire superiority depends mainly upon the volume of 
 the fire. A frontal attack alone against the hostile position may 
 give no opportunity to obtain a greater volume of fire than that of 
 the enemy, unless the latter's lines be unduly extended. Where 
 that condition exists, a combination of a frontal with a flank attack 
 promises the best results. The enemy is attacked in front by part 
 of the force, while the remainder is directed against one of his 
 flanks with a view to enveloping it. A successful envelopment of 
 both flanks of the enemy, simultaneously with the frontal attack, is 
 made possible only by a decided numerical superiority on the part 
 of the attack. An attempt to envelop or to attack both hostile 
 flanks, without an attack in front, entails a dispersion of force so 
 rarely justifiable as to deserve no consideration. 
 
 The terms " frontal " and " enveloping " attacks have no 
 significance so far as the ultimate relative positions of the con- 
 tending forces are concerned. Unless the enemy blunders or is 
 decidedly numerically inferior, the enveloping attack finally be* 
 comes a frontal attack, so far as the brigade and smaller units in- 
 volved are concerned. It must be expected, therefore, that all at- 
 tacks, no matter how initiated, will unltimately be made in a direc- 
 tion normal to the position of the troops opposing them. 
 
 Preconcerted plans covering all phases of an attack are ob- 
 jectionable since it is impossible to determine, until the develop- 
 ment of the action makes it manifest, what part or parts of the 
 enemy's line will prove the most attractive for the assault. Both 
 frontal and enveloping attacks are equally energetic at first, and 
 when the time comes for the decisive attack, the part of the at- 
 
OFFENSIVE AND DEFENSIVE COMBAT 289 
 
 tacking line designated for that purpose is given, by means of the 
 supports or reserves, the added momentum and strength that may 
 be found necessary to a successful assault, while the remainder of 
 the force holds the enemy in its front to his positions. 
 
 DEFENSIVE COMBAT 
 
 A force may at times fully accomplish its mission by retain- 
 ing its position for a specified time with or without combat. Here 
 the object is to avoid giving the enemy the decision, either by 
 avoiding combat altogether or, if he attacks, by preventing him 
 from carrying the position held by the defensive troops. The posi- 
 tion taken up is selected, as far as the mission will permit, with 
 reference to its natural defensive features. Since the idea of offen- 
 sive combat is absent, every advantage is taken of obstacles, 
 natural or artificial, that hinder or altogether prevent the advance 
 of the enemy. Negative rather than positive measures are relied 
 upon to prevent the enemy from seizing the position. In this form 
 of defense the firing line is made as strong as possible from the 
 first. If the flanks are not secured by other means, reserves strong 
 enough for that purpose must be provided, but no reserves need be 
 held for a decisive counter attack. Supports and local reserves 
 need be held only strong enough to replace losses, to strengthen or 
 re-enforce the firing line where the enemy's attack is most threat- 
 ening, and to repair breaches in the line. The purely passive de- 
 fense is justified where the sole object is to gain time, or to hold 
 certain positions pending the issue of events in other parts of the 
 field. Its results, when it accomplishes its mission, can never be 
 other than negative. 
 
 THE DEFENSE SEEKING A FAVORABLE DECISION 
 
 This is the only form of the defense that can secure positive 
 results. A force whose intentions are offensive may at times be 
 forced to assume the defensive either voluntarily in order to gain 
 time or secure some advantage over the enemy, or involuntarily, 
 as where, in the rencontre, the enemy gets a start in deployment 
 for action, or where the enemy's attack is impetuous and without 
 sufficient preparation. In either case the defensive force contents 
 itself with parrying the blows of the enemy, while gathering its 
 strength and looking for the opening to strike a decisive blow. 
 
 The crisis of this form of the defensive comes with the coun- 
 ter attack, which marks the change from the defensive to the 
 offensive. Upon the superior leader falls the responsibility of per- 
 ceiving the right moment at which this change should be made and 
 
290 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 of having at hand the means necessary to effect it. The general 
 reserve affords him the weapon necessary for his purpose. In this 
 class of defensive, therefore, strong supports and reserves are 
 essential. The firing line is made as short as possible at first, in 
 order to permit of the holding out of local supports and reserves 
 strong enough to meet all movements of the enemy and to hold 
 the line throughout up to the time of the decisive counter attack, 
 and the retention until that time of a reserve strong enough to 
 make the counter attack a success. An open field of fire for effec- 
 tive and close ranges is essential. Obstacles immediately in front 
 of the position that might impede the counter attack are objec- 
 tionable. 
 
 THE COUNTER-ATTACK 
 
 The part of the enemy's line at which the counter-attack will 
 be launched can not be determined definitely until the time comes 
 to make it. The enemy's attack will usually disclose weakness in 
 some parts of his lines, and supports and local reserves may be 
 used to accentuate this weakness or even to develop it in that 
 part of the enemy's line where the terrain or the position of the 
 general reserve may give the best opportunities for the counter- 
 attack. 
 
 The counter-attack may become necessary where the enemy 
 shows the greatest strength, in order to keep him from penetrating 
 the defensive position. The decision as to the time and the place 
 for making the counter-attack rests with the superior leader. All, or 
 the greater part, of the general reserve is used to effect this change 
 from the defensive to the offensive. Local counter-attacks by 
 small units are a means of defense and will often be necessary and 
 advisable, but have no direct bearing on the main counter-attack, 
 which is controlled by the superior leader. Local counter-attacks 
 must not, therefore, be pushed to the extent of committing other 
 than local supports or reserves to the offensive before, in the 
 opinion of the superior leader, the time has come to strike the 
 decisive blow. 
 
 The counter-attack may be made by launching the reserve 
 against the enemy's flank after he is fully committed to the attack, 
 or straight to the front where weakness in his attacking lines is 
 apparent. The impulse for the counter-attack may at times be 
 given by the advance of the fighting line after a repulse of the 
 enemy and the consequent demoralization of his attacking lines. 
 
 When the time comes for the counter-attack, all the artillery 
 and machine gun fire available is suddenly turned on that part of 
 the enemy's line selected for the attack. This must not be done 
 until the troops are ready for the attack. Otherwise, the enemy 
 
OFFENSIVE AND DEFENSIVE COMBAT 291 
 
 may discern the intention in time to make preparations to meet it 
 either by re-enforcing that part of his line or by pushing the as- 
 sault in another part of the field. 
 
 CAVALRY IN DEFENSIVE COMBAT 
 
 In all defensive combat cavalry has even a more important 
 role than it holds in the offensive. It must always be ready to 
 come immediately to the assistance of the infantry and to make 
 any sacrifice necessary to ward off the defeat of that arm. It must 
 be kept near at hand and ready for action, mounted or dismounted, 
 in any part of the field. Its opportunities for mounted action to 
 check the enemy's advancing lines, especially those that threaten 
 the flanks of the infantry, will probably be many. Its co-operation 
 can not be limited to any part of the battle. It may be able to 
 hasten by its action the time for the counter attack or to create 
 the opportunity for such attack. The superior leader must be in 
 immediate communication with the cavalry commander through- 
 out the action, and the work of the cavalry must be so co-ordinated 
 with that of the general reserves that each will be prepared to 
 seize any opportunity created by the other. The general reserve 
 and the cavalry, together with all the artillery not fully occupied 
 elsewhere, are the means available to the superior leader to change 
 from the defensive to the offensive and to make such change suc- 
 cessfully. 
 
 NIGHT COMBAT 
 
 With the increase in range and accuracy of fire, particularly 
 that of the artillery, and the facilities for observation that are 
 afforded by the use of aerocraft, night operations increase in im- 
 portance. Troops must often make use of darkness to minimize 
 losses from fire and to escape observation, to prepare for an assault 
 to be made at daybreak, or to approach a point from which a day- 
 light assault is to be made. Night operations may be necessary 
 also for the purpose of gaining time. 
 
 Even with well-trained and easily led troops, a night attack 
 involves risks that should be assumed only for the most weighty 
 reasons, and when the results of success are such as will justify 
 the action. With poor troops and inefficient leaders night attacks 
 are out of the question. As control is difficult, artillery support of 
 the assault impossible, and confusion almost inevitable, chance is 
 a factor that must be given maximum weight in estimating the 
 probabilities of success. 
 
 A night attack may appear advisable where it is found im- 
 possible to secure the fire superiority necessary to permit of an 
 
292 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 assault by day, or where, for other reasons, it is found imprac- 
 ticable to push the attack to within assaulting distance of the 
 enemy's position; to avoid the heavy losses that would be incurred 
 in an attack over open ground against a well-prepared position; 
 to capture an advanced post or position, or an outpost as a pre- 
 liminary to further operations; or to surprise poorly trained and 
 poorly led troops. 
 
 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE INFANTRY COMBAT 
 
 Whether infantry fights in an offensive against lines which 
 have been strengthened by the enemy for a considerable time, in 
 each of the local combats of a general engagement, or in the ren- 
 contre of open warfare, its action always takes the form of the 
 " attack of a position." The artillery devastates; the infantry over- 
 whelms. 
 
 The principal effort of infantry is the assault. All of in- 
 fantry tactics is comprised in the preparation for the assault, the 
 execution of the assault, the exploitation of its success. 
 
 Good assaulting distance results from a' consideration of the 
 following points: It should not be more than 400 to 500 yards, in 
 such a manner as to save our troops and their reinforcements as 
 much as possible from the enemy's artillery barrage. It should not 
 be less than 150 yards, as otherwise the bombardment by our artil- 
 lery, on the hostile first line, will fall upon our own men. This re- 
 quirement and that of being directly opposite the objectives de- 
 cided upon may make it necessary to rectify the front and to open 
 one or several parallels in advance of our own first line, and this 
 is particularly true if the latter is too far from the hostile first line. 
 The most advantageous location for the trench of departure for the 
 assault is about 200 yards from the hostile first line. 
 
 As a rule, such works as these and the gaining of ground to 
 the front should be avoided as much as possible, as they give 
 the enemy warning of our offensive plans. It is worth a good 
 deal more, usually, to get the benefits of surprise, even though 
 the assault must start at a greater distance from the hostile line. 
 
 In the course of the combats which follow the assault, the 
 approach may be pushed to the second hostile position, or perhaps 
 even to another position in rear. The approach, likewise, will be 
 one of the constant problems of a warfare of movement. 
 
 The march in the approach will be executed in thin lines, or 
 in lines of small columns, advancing by successive rushes, rapidly, 
 and in good order, under the protection of the ""accompanying bat- 
 teries " and of the " counter batteries." 
 
 The combination to be brought into play is to have the 
 
OFFENSIVE AND DEFENSIVE COMBAT 293 
 
 infantry march as though behind a shield, on the very heels of the 
 bursting shells of a well-regulated artillery fire, arrive in good 
 order at the assaulting distance, deliver the assault without having 
 to fire a shot, and thus continue until the last assigned objectivc 
 has been reached and taken. Things work out well in trench war- 
 fare when one has so disposed his time and necessary material as 
 to severely crush all hostile organizations before the attack. In 
 open warfare such complete preparation is not to be expected 
 
 Theoretically, the object to be attained by the infantry is to 
 reach assaulting distance in good order, under the protection of 
 the artillery, without having opened fire. 
 
 But more often, as soon as the enemy is approached, and 
 in direct proportion to his proximity, the advance becomes slower 
 and more painful. A simultaneous advance gives place to succes- 
 sive rushes by groups (platoon, half platoon). Sometimes the 
 firing line is carried forward by skirmishers, taking advantage of 
 any cover that exists, and advancing individually. 
 
 With well seasoned infantry, fire is not opened until short 
 range is reached, where the skirmisher can see his objective and 
 take aim. 
 
 The officers and non-commissioned officers are the soul of 
 the advance. By their determination and their military training 
 they overcome the tendency to inertia and disinclination to leave 
 cover. It is they who, by their influence on the groups of men 
 that immediately surround them, keep alive the tendency 'to go 
 forward. 
 
 The Organization of the Zone of Departure for the Assault.— 
 The zone of departure for the assault is formed by lines of trenches 
 called parallels of departure. They should be close enough to- 
 gether so that the one which is most distant from the enemy shall 
 satisfy the condition that it will not be in the hostile barrage fire, 
 delivered to prevent support and reserves being brought up. There 
 should be enough of them to shelter all of the troops that are to 
 make the assault. It is even advantageous sometimes to put the 
 battalions of the second line, as well as the assaulting troops, in 
 the parallels of departure, from the very beginning. It has been 
 established that, in the course of the preparation for the attack by 
 the artillery of our own side, the hostile artillery replies but little. 
 It is therefore not necessary to construct bombproofs for all of the 
 effectives in the zone of departure, nor to dig communicating 
 trenches too far to the rear. Nevertheless, it is necessary to have 
 recourse, to a great degree, to " camouflage," from the very com- 
 mencement of work on the parallels of departure. 
 
 The arrangement of the terrain for the attack comprises 
 generally the following: 
 
 The construction of observing stations; command posts; 
 
294 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 trench-artillery platforms; light shelters for ammunition, food, and 
 material in the first line. 
 
 The organization of the communications, trails and paths, 
 and approach trenches both for bringing things forward and for 
 evacuating the trenches. 
 
 The organization of means of information (telephones with 
 wires buried, visual signalling, messengers). 
 
 The organization of the necessary parallels to shelter 
 (lodge) the troops the day of the assault or the evening preceding 
 the assault. 
 
 In open warfare, the parallel of departure is improvised by 
 the men of the first line. When they have been unable to approach 
 during the day to within assaulting distance, the line of departure 
 for the assault is carried forward, as soon as night falls, to the site 
 selected for it, conforming as closely as possible to the rules which 
 govern attacks organized at leisure. 
 
 THE ASSAULT 
 
 The intense effort demanded of the assaulting troops, and 
 the successive attacks which they must make, necessitate a deep 
 formation. The several echelons thus constituted have been given 
 the name of " waves." But this term does not signify a uniform 
 formation. The foremost waves, generally the first and the second, 
 advance in line; those following are in various formations, for 
 example, in lines of small columns. Moreover, to facilitate the 
 leading of the echelons, the waves are formed by the simultaneous 
 advance of tactical units not deployed in single line but themselves 
 extended in the direction of depth, from which it results that a 
 company or battalion will form a part of several successive waves. 
 
 Formation for the assault does not consist of the deployment 
 of rigid lines capable only of a movement straight to the front, 
 but, on the contrary, of placing side by side tactical units which 
 are capable of being led and even maneuvered. 
 
 The waves are crowded into the first-line trench and the 
 parallels in its immediate rear, sometimes in double rank. They 
 dash forward, following each other at short distances, so as to 
 rapidly cross the zone of hostile barrage fire. Theoretically an 
 assaulting battalion leaves a single block of ■ its parallels of de- 
 parture and then while marching takes the distances prescribed 
 between waves. 
 
 In no event should these waves close up automatically on the 
 leading wave, as its only effect would be in thickening the skirmish 
 line, increasing the losses, and mixing the units. To avoid such 
 effects, when the first wave has crossed the advanced hostile trench 
 
OFFENSIVE AND DEFENSIVE COMBAT 295 
 
 it continues its advance toward the objective assigned it. The 
 other waves follow in good order. They engage successively ac- 
 cording to the necessities of the situation under orders from the 
 commanders of the several units. 
 
 COMBAT WITHIN THE HOSTILE POSITION 
 
 The assault is now followed by a combat in the interior of 
 the position. At certain points the enemy yields, at others he 
 resists stubbornly. The assailants, rallying about the officers that 
 remain, rush into the opening and surround the nuclei of resistance. 
 As soon as the trench is carried the attack pauses only long 
 enough to re-form, and the groups of assailants then dash into 
 every opening that offers. Their audacity constitute their strength. 
 
 These scattered combats bring the assailants in contact with 
 a new line of defense. If it is occupied, they dig themselves in, in 
 order to form a line of departure for an assault by the reinforce- 
 ments. The attack of the new position is conducted in the same 
 manner as the preceding, but with fresh troops. 
 
 The operation of having the line of reserve battalions cross 
 the line of battalions which have just delivered the assault is called 
 the passing of lines and the reserve battalions then become the 
 first line. The new attack is made against a line of intermediate 
 objectives, if it is estimated that the final objective is too far away 
 to admit of these same reserve battalions carrying it through to the 
 bitter end; or it is made (immediately after the first attack) against 
 the line of objectives which were last assigned, which is then 
 crossed by the troops previously detailed for the tactical exploita- 
 tion of success. Very detailed instructions are laid down for this 
 in the plan of the engagement or in the plan of exploiting a 
 success. 
 
 This is a simple operation with well disciplined troops. It 
 must be put into effect promptly, because upon the line where the 
 passage of lines takes place the density of the troops is momen- 
 tarily doubled, thus adding greatly to their vulnerability. The 
 battalions which have been passed become part of the reserve or 
 are left to guard the captured position. If the attack has for its 
 only aim the taking of a certain definite position, the firing line 
 occupies the position and digs itself in, pushing to the front only 
 some advance elements (patrols). The reserves move up near at 
 hand, in order to insure the occupation of the conquered terrain. 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 
 SMALL ARMS, FIELD ARTILLERY AND 
 AMMUNITION 
 
 The United States Army magazine rifle (model of 1917), a 
 combination of the United States model 1903 (rechambered for 
 1906 ammunition) and the Enfield model 1914, possesses many- 
 features of advantage and excellence. The safety is not a part of 
 the bolt sleeve as in familiar models, but is pivoted in the right side 
 of the receiver, abaft the bolt handle, and works parallel with the 
 barrel. Pulling it back operates two plungers entering recesses 
 cut, the one in the bolt handle, the other in the firing pin head. 
 Because the former recess must be exactly in line with the plunger, 
 the slightest upward motion of the bolt handle prevents the soldier 
 from putting on the safety. 
 
 There is no magazine cut-off and the magazine follower holds 
 the bolt open when the magazine is empty. Accordingly drill with 
 the empty rifle in the firing motions is made possible only by the 
 issuing, with each rifle sent to the camps for drill purposes, a " de- 
 pression follower " which, held under the edges of the bolt wall, 
 allows the bolt to go forward without obstruction and permits use 
 of the rifle as a single loader. The purpose of holding open the 
 bolt when the magazine is empty is to prevent the excited soldier 
 from continuing indefinitely the motions of firing on an empty 
 chamber. The following are the principal dimensions and weights: 
 Barrel: Inches 
 
 Diameter of bore 0.30 
 
 Exterior diameter at muzzle 619 
 
 Exterior diameter at breech 1.14 
 
 Length of chamber and bore 23.79 
 
 Length of travel of bullet in bore 21.697 
 
 Diameter of chamber, rear end 4716 
 
 Diameter of chamber, front end 442 
 
 Diameter of neck of chamber, rear end.... 3425 
 
 Diameter of neck of chamber, front end « 3405 
 
 Length of body of chamber 1.793 
 
 Length of shoulder of chamber 16 
 
 Length of neck of chamber 396 
 
 Length of chamber, total 2.3716 
 
SMALL ARMS AND FIELD ARTILLERY 297 
 
 Rifling: Inches 
 
 Number of grooves, 4. 
 
 Twist, uniform, one turn in 10.00 
 
 Width of grooves 1767 
 
 Width of lands 0589 
 
 Depth of grooves 004 
 
 Height of front sight above axis of bore 1.05 
 
 Distance from top of front sight to rear side of leaf, leaf 
 raised 22.1254 
 
 Stock: 
 
 Length, with butt plate 40.166 
 
 Crook, i. e., distance from axis of bore to heel of butt. . . . 2.089 
 
 Distance from trigger to butt plate 12.74 
 
 Length of gun complete 43.212 
 
 Sight radius 22.1254 
 
 Sight radius (battle sight) 21.5404 
 
 Width of single division on windage scale 0267 
 
 Weights Pounds 
 
 Barrel 2.79 
 
 Barrel, with rear-sight base and front-sight stud 3.00 
 
 Butt plate 26 
 
 Receiver 98 
 
 Bolt mechanism 1.00 
 
 Magazine and trigger guard 44 
 
 Magazine mechanism, including floor plate 17 
 
 Bayonet LOO 
 
 Stock L58 
 
 Hand guard 13 
 
 Front and rear bands, including swivels 25 
 
 Rear sight, not including base 20 
 
 Total weight of metal parts 7.30 
 
 Oiler and thong case 19 
 
 Total weight of arm, including oiler and thong case, with 
 
 bayonet 9.69 
 
 Total weight of arm, including oiler and thong case, with- 
 out bayonet 8.69 
 
 Weight to compress mainspring 16 to 18 
 
 Trigger pull (measured at middle point of bow of trigger) 4 to 5 
 
 Miscellaneous Data 
 
 Initial velocity 2,700 feet per second 
 
 Powder pressure in chamber. . .about 51,000 pounds per square inch 
 
 Weight of ball cartridge about 395.5 grains 
 
 Weight of bullet 150 grains 
 
 Weight of powder charge about 50 grains 
 
298 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 THE ASSEMBLED PARTS OF THE SERVICE RIFLE AND 
 THEIR OPERATIONS 
 
 Most of the operating parts may be included under the bolt 
 mechanism and magazine mechanism. The bolt mechanism con- 
 sists of the bolt, sleeve, sleeve lock, extractor, extractor collar, 
 safety lock, firing pin, firing pin sleeve, striker, and mainspring. 
 
 The bolt moves backward and forward and rotates in the 
 well of the receiver; it carries a cartridge, either from the magazine, 
 or one placed by hand in front of it, into the chamber and supports 
 its head when fired. 
 
 The sleeve unites the parts of the bolt mechanism, and its 
 rotation with the bolt is prevented by the lugs on its sides coming 
 in contact with the receiver. 
 
 The hook of the extractor engages in the groove of the 
 cartridge case and retains the head of the latter in the countersink 
 of the bolt until the case is ejected. 
 
 The safety lock, when turned to the left, is inoperative; when 
 turned to the right — which can only be done when the piece is 
 cocked — the point of the spindle enters its notch in the bolt and 
 locks the bolt; at the same time its cam forces the cocking piece 
 slightly to the rear, out of contact with the sear, and locks the 
 firing pin. 
 
 The bolt mechanism operates as follows: To open the bolt, 
 raise the handle until it comes in contact with the left side of the 
 receiver and pull directly to the rear until the top locking lug 
 strikes the cut-off. 
 
 Raising the handle rotates the bolt and separates the locking 
 lugs from their locking shoulders in the receiver, with which they 
 have been brought into close contact by the powder pressure. 
 This rotation causes the cocking cam of the bolt to force the firing 
 pin to the rear, drawing the point of the striker into the bolt, 
 rotation of the firing pin being prevented by the lug on the cocking 
 piece projecting, through the slot in the sleeve, into its groove in 
 the receiver. As the sleeve remains longitudinally stationary with 
 reference to the bolt, this rearward motion of the firing pin, and 
 consequently of the striker, will start the compression of the 
 mainspring, since the rear end of the latter bears against the front 
 end of the barrel of the sleeve and its front end against the rear 
 end of the firing pin sleeve. 
 
 When the bolt handle strikes the receiver, the locking lugs 
 have been disengaged, the firing pin has been forced to the rear 
 until the sear notch of the cocking piece has passed the sear nose, 
 the cocking piece nose has entered the cock notch in the rear 
 end of the bolt, the sleeve lock has engaged its notch in the bolt, 
 and the mainspring has been almost entirely compressed. 
 
SMALL ARMS AND FIELD ARTILLERY 299 
 
 During the rotation of the bolt a rear motion has been im- 
 parted to it by its extracting cam coming in contact with the 
 extracting cam of the receiver, so that the cartridge case is started 
 from the chamber. The bolt is then drawn directly to the rear, 
 the parts being retained in position by the cocking piece nose 
 remaining in the cock notch and locked by the sleeve lock engag- 
 ing its notch in the bolt. 
 
 To close the bolt, push the handle forward until the extract- 
 ing cam on the bolt bears against the extracting cam on the re- 
 ceiver, thereby unlocking the sleeve from the bolt, and turn the 
 handle down. As the handle is turned down the cams of the 
 locking lugs bear against the locking shoulders in the receiver, 
 and the bolt is forced slightly forward into its closed position. 
 As all movement of the firing pin is prevented by the sear nose 
 engaging the sear notch of the cocking piece, this forward move- 
 ment of the bolt completes the compression of the mainspring, 
 seats the cartridge in the chamber, and, in single loading, forces 
 the hook of the extractor into the grdbve of the cartridge case. 
 In loading from the magazine the hook of the extractor, rounded 
 at its lower edge, engages in the groove of the top cartridge as 
 it rises from the magazine under the action of the follower, and 
 magazine spring. 
 
 To pull the trigger, the finger piece must be drawn to the 
 rear until contact with the receiver is transferred from its bearing 
 to the heel, which gives a creep to the trigger, and then until the 
 6ear nose is withdrawn from in front of the cocking piece. 
 
 Just before the bolt is drawn fully to the rear, the top lock- 
 ing lug strikes the heel of the ejector, throwing its point suddenly 
 to the right in the lug slot. As the bolt moves fully to the rear, 
 the rear face of the cartridge case strikes against the ejector point 
 and the case is ejected, slightly upward and to the right, from the 
 receiver. 
 
 Double loading from the magazine is prevented by the ex- 
 tractor engaging the cartridge case as soon as it rises from the 
 magazine and holding its head against the face of the bolt until 
 ejected. 
 
 It will be noted that in this system of bolt mechanism the 
 compression of the mainspring, the seating of the cartridge in and 
 the starting of the empty case from the chamber are entirely done 
 by the action of cams. 
 
 The piece may be cocked either by raising the bolt handle 
 until it strikes the left side of the receiver and then immediately 
 turning it down or by pulling the cocking piece directly to the 
 rear. 
 
 In firing, unless the bolt handle is turned fully down, the 
 cam on the cocking piece will strike the cocking cam on the bolt, 
 
300 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 and the energy of the mainspring will be expended in closing the 
 bolt, instead of on the primer; this prevents the possibility of a 
 cartridge being fired until the bolt is fully closed. The opening 
 and closing of the bolt should each be done by one continuous 
 motion. 
 
 The magazine mechanism includes the floor plate, follower, 
 magazine spring, and cut-off. 
 
 To charge the magazine, see that the cut-off is turned up 
 showing " on," draw the bolt fully to the rear, insert the cartridges 
 from a clip, or from the hand, and close the bolt. To charge the 
 magazine from a clip, place either end of a loaded clip in its seat 
 in the receiver and, with the thumb of the right hand, press the 
 cartridges down into the magazine until the top cartridge is caught 
 by the right edge of the receiver. The cartridge ramp guides the 
 bullet and cartridge case into the chamber. The magazine can be 
 filled, if partly filled, by inserting cartridges one by one. 
 
 When the cut-off is turned down, the magazine is " off." 
 The bolt can not be drawn fully back, and its front end projecting 
 over the rear end of the upper cartridge holds it down in the maga- 
 zine below the action of the bolt. The magazine mechanism then 
 remains inoperative, and the arm can be used as a single-loader, 
 the cartridges in the magazine being held in reserve. The arm 
 can readily be used as a single-loader with the magazine empty. 
 
 When the cut-off is turned up, the magazine is " on "; the 
 bolt can be drawn fully to the rear, permitting the top cartridge 
 to rise high enough to be caught by the bolt in its forward move- 
 ment. As the bolt is closed this cartridge is pushed forward into 
 the chamber, being held up during its passage by the pressure of 
 those below. The last one in the magazine is held up by the fol- 
 lower, the rib on which directs it into the chamber. 
 
 In magazine fire, after the last cartridge has been fired and 
 the bolt drawn fully to the rear, the follower rises and holds the 
 bolt open to show that the magazine is empty, 
 
 TO DISMOUNT THE BOLT MECHANISM 
 
 Place the cut-off at the center notch; cock the arm and turn 
 the safety lock to a vertical position, raise the bolt handle and 
 draw out the bolt. 
 
 Hold the bolt in the left hand, press the sleeve lock in with 
 the thumb of the right hand to unlock the sleeve from the bolt, 
 and unscrew the sleeve by turning to the left, as shown in the 
 drawing. 
 
 Hold the sleeve between the forefinger and the thumb of 
 the left hand, draw the cocking piece back with the middle finger 
 and the thumb of the right hand, turn the safety lock down to the 
 
SMALL ARMS AND FIELD ARTILLERY 301 
 
 left with the forefinger of the right hand, in order to allow the 
 cocking piece to move forward in the sleeve, thus partially reliev- 
 ing the tension of the mainspring; with the cocking piece against 
 the breast, draw back the firing pin sleeve with the forefinger and 
 thumb of the right hand and hold it in this position while removing 
 the striker with the left hand; remove the firing pin sleeve and 
 mainspring; pull the firing pin out of the sleeve; turn the extractor 
 to the right, its tongue out of its groove in the front of the bolt, 
 and force the extractor forward and off the bolt. 
 
 TO ASSEMBLE THE BOLT MECHANISM 
 
 Grasp with the left hand the rear of the bolt, handle up, and 
 turn the extractor collar with the thumb and forefinger of the right 
 hand until its lug is on a line with the safety lug on the bolt; take 
 the extractor in the right hand and insert the lug on the collar 
 in the undercuts in the extractor by pushing the extractor to the 
 rear until its tongue comes in contact with the rim on the face of 
 the bolt (a slight pressure with the left thumb on the top of the 
 rear part of the extractor assists in this operation); turn the ex- 
 tractor to the right until it is over the right lug; take the bolt in 
 the right hand and press the hook of the extractor against the butt 
 plate or some rigid object, until the tongue on the extractor enters 
 its groove in the bolt. 
 
 "With the safety lock turned down to the left to permit the 
 firing pin to enter the sleeve as far as possible, assemble the sleeve 
 and firing pin; place the cocking piece against the breast and put 
 on the mainspring, firing pin sleeve, and striker. Hold the cocking 
 piece between the thumb and forefinger of the left hand, and by 
 pressing the striker point against some substance, not hard enough 
 to injure it, force the cocking piece back until the safetv lock 
 can be turned to the vertical position with the right hand; insert 
 the firing pin in the bolt and screw up the sleeve (by turning it 
 to the right) until the sleeve lock enters its notch on the bolt. 
 
 See that the cut-off is at the center notch; hold the piece 
 under the floor plate in the fingers of the left hand, the thumb 
 extending over the left side of the receiver; take the bolt in the 
 right hand with the safety lock in a vertical position and the safety 
 lug up; press the rear end of the follower down with the left 
 thumb and push the bolt into the receiver; lower the bolt handle; 
 turn the safety lock and cut-off down to the left with the right hand. 
 
 TO DISMOUNT THE MAGAZINE MECHANISM 
 
 With the bullet end of a cartridge press on the floor plate 
 catch (through the hole in the floor plate), at the same time draw- 
 ing the bullet to the rear; this releases the floor plate. 
 
302 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Raise the rear end of the first limb of the magazine spring 
 high enough to clear the lug on the floor plate and draw it out of 
 its mortise; proceed in the same manner to remove the follower. 
 
 To assemble the magazine spring and follower to the floor 
 plate, reverse the operation of dismounting. 
 
 Insert the follower and magazine spring in the magazine, 
 place the tenon on the front end of the floor plate in its recess in 
 the magazine, then place the lug on the rear end of the floor 
 plate in its slot in the guard, and press the rear end of the floor 
 plate forward and inward at the same time, forcing the floor plate 
 into its seat in the guard. 
 
 In assembling the sleeve lock to the sleeve, be careful to 
 compress the lock and spring while driving in the pin from the 
 bottom of the sleeve. 
 
 To assemble the safety lock and sleeve, insert the safety 
 lock spindle in its hole in the sleeve as far as it will go; then, with 
 the thumb piece vertical and pressed against some rigid object, 
 introduce the point of the tool provided for this purpose between 
 the safety lock spindle and the safety lock plunger, forcing the 
 latter into the thumb piece until it slips over the edge of the sleeve. 
 Further pressure on the safety lock thumb piece, together with 
 the gradual withdrawal of the tool, will complete the assembling. 
 
 The floor plate spring and the cut-off spring are alike, except 
 in length. The latter being the longer, care should be taken not 
 to substitute one for the other. 
 
 ARM LOCKER FOR UNITED STATES RIFLE, CALIBER .30, 
 MODEL OF 1903 
 
 This chest is issued at the rate of one per company or troop 
 for use in the safe-keeping of the surplus rifles of a company or 
 troop. It is provided with reinforcing angle irons which secure 
 the bottom of the chest to the sides; and with blind strap hinges, 
 hasps, and staples for securing the cover to the body of the chest. 
 Two padlocks with chains and keys are also issued with each arm 
 locker. 
 
 AMMUNITION FOR UNITED STATES RIFLE, CALIBER .30, 
 MODEL OF 1903 
 
 The caliber .30 ball cartridge consists of the case, primer, 
 charge of smokeless powder, and bullet. The case is of cartridge 
 brass. It has a conical body joined to the neck by a sharper cone, 
 called the shoulder. The neck is the seat of the bullet and .is very 
 nearly cylindrical. The front end of the case is called the mouth 
 
SMALL ARMS AND FIELD ARTILLERY 3C3 
 
 and the rear end the head. The mouth edge of the case is crimped 
 on the bullet, when the cartridge is assembled, in order to keep the 
 bullet secure in the case. The head of the case is grooved to 
 provide for the extraction of cartridge from the chamber of the 
 rifle and is provided with a primer pocket and vent. The initials 
 of the place of manufacture, the number of the month, and the 
 year of its fabrication are stamped on the head of case. 
 
 The primer consists of the cup, precussion composition, 
 disk of shellacked paper, and anvil. The cup is of gilding metal 
 and contains 0.46 grain of nonfulminate composition composed of 
 tersulphide of antimony, potassium chlorate, and sulphur. A disk 
 of shellacked paper covers the composition to protect it from 
 moisture and to prevent electrolytic action. The anvil is of brass 
 and is assembled over the paper. After the primer is assembled 
 to the case a drop of shellac is placed on the head of the primer 
 to make the joint waterproof. 
 
 The charge is of pyrocellulose composition very similar to 
 the powders used as propelling charges in field and sea coast guns. 
 The grains are cylindrical, single, perforated, and graphited. The 
 normal charge weighs from 47 to 50 grains, varying with the lot 
 of powder used. 
 
 The bullet has a core of lead and tin composition inclosed 
 in a jacket of cupro-nickel. It weighs 150 grains, and the point 
 is much sharper and offers less resistance to the air than that of 
 any previous model in the United States service. The bullet is 
 cannelured to receive the crimp of the case, and the base of the 
 bullet is flat. The neck of the case is shellacked before loading, 
 and a pressure of at least 75 pounds is required to seat the bullet 
 in the case; this, with the addition of the above-mentioned crimp, 
 makes the case waterproof. 
 
 The standard muzzle velocity of this ammunition in the rifle 
 is 2,700 feet per second. The instrumental velocity measured at 
 78 feet from the muzzle is 2,640 feet per second, with an 
 allowed mean variation of 20 feet per second on either side of the 
 standard. 
 
 The cartridge complete weighs about 395.5 grains, its weight 
 varying slightly with variation in the weight of the powder charge. 
 Five cartridges are packed in a clip. 
 
 The clip consists of the body and a spring, both of brass. 
 On the exterior of the sides of the body are the stop lugs, which 
 seat the clip in its slots in the receiver of the rifle. The top edges 
 of the slides are folded inward, forming flanges, which, fitting 
 into the grooves in the heads, hold the cartridges in place. The 
 spring is secured to the bottom of the body by two sets of inter- 
 locking lips. The spring is provided with narrow tongues which, 
 when the clip is filled, are pressed into the grooves of the outside 
 20 
 
304 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 cartridges, holding the cartridges securely in the clip. The clip 
 body can be used a number of times, but the springs only once. 
 
 The gallery practice and dummy clip is provided with a 
 strong bronze spring without tongues. Sixty ball cartridges in 12 
 clips are packed in a bandoleer. The bandoleer is made of olive- 
 drab cloth and contains six pockets, each holding two clips. The 
 clips can be readily taken out by forcing back the fold of the 
 pocket. The bandoleer is provided with a shoulder strap of olive- 
 drab webbing by which it is carried over the shoulder, and a safety 
 pin is provided to afford an adjustment of its length to suit the 
 convenience of the soldier. When packed, the bandoleer weighs 
 about 3.88 pounds. In each bandoleer is placed an identification 
 card showing the number of cartridges, the caliber and model 
 of ammunition and rifle, place and date of manufacture, kind and 
 lot of powder, and muzzle velocity. The shop symbols of loaders, 
 inspectors, and packers are also given. In case of defective ammu- 
 nition this card should be returned with the report. 
 
 Twelve hundred cartridges are packed in a terneplate-lined 
 packing box, hermetically sealed. Each box contains 20 bandoleers 
 of 60 cartridges each. The packing box measures 34.5 by 9.5 by 
 8.25 inches and weighs about 100 pounds when filled. The lid is 
 held to the box by five brass bolts and can be easily removed 
 without the use of tools. Two wire seals connect the cover with 
 the sides of the box. When the lid is removed, the lining may be 
 torn open by means of a wire handle on the metal cover. 
 
 A metallic packing chest is also in use. It is made of tinned 
 sheet iron painted olive-drab. This chest holds 1,200 cartridges 
 packed in 20 bandoleers of 60 cartridges each. It has a terneplate 
 cover under the lid and is hermetically sealed. The chest measures 
 8 by 16J4 by 14 inches and weighs about 95 pounds when filled. A 
 tin seal locks the hasp to the lid. By opening and closing the fold of 
 this seal several times it will break, thus permitting it to be easily 
 withdrawn. When the lid is opened the cover can be torn off 
 by means of an iron handle attached thereto. 
 
 BLANK CARTRIDGE, MODEL OF 1906 
 
 The blank cartridge, model of 1906, differs from the ball 
 cartridge in the charge of powder and in the bullet and in the 
 fact that the case is tinned. The bullet is of paper, hollow, and 
 contains a charge of 6 grains of " E. C." smokeless powder, which 
 insures the breaking up of the bullet on leaving the bore. This 
 charge is retained in the bullet by a drop of shellac. A coating of 
 paraffin on the outside of the bullet prevents the absorption of 
 moisture by the paper. The propelling charge is 10 grains of 
 " E. C." powder. 
 
SMALL ARMS AND FIELD ARTILLERY 305 
 
 The cartridge is made 0.1 inch shorter than the ball cart- 
 ridge. This is a measure of protection against the accidental 
 assembling by the machine of a ball cartridge in a clip of blank 
 ones. 
 
 BLANK CARTRIDGE, MODEL OF 1909 
 
 In the manufacture of these blank cartridges, cases are used 
 which have been fired, or which have slight defects, rendering them 
 unsuitable for use in ball cartridges. The charge is 12 grains of 
 " E. C." powder. The case is closed by means of a paper cup 
 inserted in the mouth of the case and shellacked to render the 
 ammunition waterproof. 
 
 DUMMY CARTRIDGE 
 
 The case of the dummy cartridge is tinned and provided 
 with six longitudinal corrugations, also three circular holes in the 
 corrugated portion. The tinning, corrugations, and holes afford 
 unmistakable means for distinguishing the dummy from the ball 
 cartridge, both by sight and touch. The bullet is the same as in 
 the ball cartridge. The dummy primer has a cup and anvil, but 
 no percussion composion. 
 
 GUARD CARTRIDGE 
 
 This cartridge differs from the ball cartridge in the charge 
 of powder and in the fact that second-class bullets having slight 
 imperfections are used. Five cannelures encircle the body of the 
 case at about the middle, affording means for distinguishing it 
 from the ball cartridge by either sight or touch. The charge, about 
 9.1 grains bull's-eye powder, or 16.7 grains Du Pont rifle smokeless 
 No. 1, gives a muzzle velocity of 1,200 feet per second. It gives 
 good results at 100 yards and has sufficient accuracy for use at 150 
 and 200 yards. 
 
 The guard cartridge, as now issued, differs from the old issue 
 in that six longitudinal corrugations 3-16 inch long start from the 
 shoulder of the case. This affords means of distinguishing this 
 cartridge from the ball cartridge. It has the same charge of pow- 
 der, muzzle velocity, etc., as the old issue. 
 
 VARIATIONS AND CORRECTIONS 
 
 The components of all machine-made ammunition must of 
 necessity vary within certain practicable working limits, and every 
 
306 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 such variation, especially in the bullet and powder, has a corre- 
 sponding effect upon the muzzle velocity. The service ammunition 
 is loaded with a charge of powder which gives 2,700 feet per second 
 muzzle velocity when fired from a standard rifle with selected 
 bullets, the powder being at a temperature of 70° F. 
 
 The service ammunition will give a muzzle velocity of 
 2,700±20 feet per second when fired on a normal day (70° F.). 
 This velocity will vary directly with the temperature (T) 1.5 feet 
 per second per degree. So that this ammunition fired on any but 
 a normal day will give a muzzle velocity of 2,700±20+(T— 70) 1.5 
 feet per second. Besides the variations due to the ammunition and 
 temperature there are slight variations caused by the rifle which 
 are of no great importance. 
 
 Small variations in velocity have small corresponding verti- 
 cal deviations on the target. For example, at 1,000 yards an ex- 
 treme vertical deviation of about 20 inches will be due to varia- 
 tions in muzzle velocity and 20 inches more due to other causes. 
 The mean vertical deviation at this range, however, is less than 
 10 inches. 
 
 Another factor entering the question of range is the density 
 of the air, which varies with the barometer, thermometer, and 
 hygrometer readings. 
 
 HORIZONTAL DEVIATION 
 
 The rifle has a right-hand twist, and the drift proper is there- 
 fore to the right. There is, however, a slight lateral jump to the 
 left, and the total horizontal deviation of the bullet, excluding 
 wind, is the algebraic sum of the drift and the lateral jump. The 
 trajectory is found to be very slightly to the left of the central 
 or uncorrected line of sight up to a range of 500 yards, and beyond 
 that range to the right of this line. In order to minimize the 
 deviations at the most important ranges the drift slot on the sight 
 leaf is so cut as to make the trajectory cross the adjusted line 
 of sight at a range of 500 yards. 
 
 AUTOMATIC PISTOL, CALIBER .45 
 
 The automatic pistol, caliber .45, model of 1911, in the 
 United States military service, consists of three principal parts — 
 the receiver, the barrel and the slide. Referring to the drawing 
 for reference numbers, the receiver (1) has suitable guides for the 
 reciprocating slide (3), and a hollow handle in which the magazine 
 is inserted from below and locked in place by the magazine catch 
 (48). The magazine may be removed by pressure upon the 
 
SMALL ARMS AND FIELD ARTILLERY 
 
 307 
 
 checkered end of the magazine catch (48), which projects from 
 the left side of the receiver (1) in a convenient position for opera- 
 tion by the thumb. 
 
 The magazine catch (48) engages with and locks the maga- 
 zine under the pressure of the magazine catch spring (49) and is 
 held in the receiver (1) by means of the magazine catch lock (50). 
 
 The magazine consists of a magazine tube (42) closed at 
 the bottom by means of the magazine base (43) secured with two 
 magazine pins (44). The magazine base (43) has riveted to it 
 the magazine loop (45) to which can be attached a lanyard to pre- 
 vent loss of the magazine. Within the magazine tube (42) is con- 
 tained the magazine spring (46) exerting a pressure against the 
 
 SS* 
 
 AUTOMATIC PISTOL, CALIBER .45 
 
 magazine follower (47), which serves as a movable platform for 
 the cartridges. 
 
 Secured at each end of the handle of receiver (1) on both 
 sides are screw bushings (53), on to which are fitted the stocks 
 (51) and into which, to secure the latter, are screwed the stock 
 screws (52). 
 
 In front of the handle of the receiver (1), in the trigger 
 guard, is seated the trigger (34); in rear and above the handle 
 the firing mechanism is arranged, comprising the hammer (23), 
 mounted on the hammer pin (24), the sear (30) and (automatic) 
 disconnector (33), mounted together on the sear pin (32), the grip 
 
308 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 safety (35), and safety lock (36); also the mainspring (27), and 
 the sear spring (31). The mainspring (27) is seated within the 
 mainspring housing (37) and there held by the mainspring-cap 
 pin (29). The mainspring housing (37) also contains the main- 
 spring cap (28) and the housing-pin retainer (39). The conical 
 point of the latter protrudes slightly into the hole for the housing 
 pin (38), engaging with the groove around the middle thereof, 
 thereby holding the housing pin (38) in place. Into the base of 
 the mainspring housing (37) is fitted the lanyard loop (40) secured 
 by the lanyard-loop pin (41). 
 
 The sear spring (31) has a rib on its lower end which fits 
 into a slot in the rear wall of the magazine seat and keeps the 
 spring from moving vertically. The mainspring housing (37^, 
 bearing against the rear of the spring, locks it in position and 
 gives to it the required tension. The hammer strut (25) is at- 
 tached to the hammer (23) in rear of its pivot by means of the 
 hammer-strut pin (26). Its lower end rests in the mainspring 
 cap (28). 
 
 Above the handle on the left side are the slide-stop plunger 
 (5) and safety lock plunger (7) with their ends protruding from 
 the front and rear, respectively, of the plunger tube (4). The 
 plunger spring (6) is seated between the plungers (5 and 7) within 
 the plunger tube (4) and yielding holds them in position. 
 
 The ejector (18) is seated at the top of the receiver (1) near 
 the rear end at the left side. It is held in place by the ejector 
 pin (19). The top of the receiver (1) forward of the trigger guard 
 has a semitubular extension which forms the seat for the rear 
 portion of the recoil spring (14). 
 
 The barrel (2) of the pistol is largest at the breech, and at 
 the top has two transverse locking ribs, the forward edges of 
 which, together with the forward edge of the breech portion, 
 serve to positively interlock the barrel (2) with the slide (3) when 
 in the firing position. At its rear is an extension which facilitates 
 the entrance of the cartridge from the magazine into the chamber. 
 The rear end of the barrel (2) is attached to the receiver (1) by the 
 link (11), link pin (12), and the pin of the slide stop (8), and swing- 
 ing thereon can move a limited distance lengthwise and also in a 
 vertical plane. 
 
 The side walls of the slide (3) overlap the sides of the re- 
 ceiver (1), and being provided with longitudinal ribs corresponding 
 with similar grooves at the top of the receiver (1), the slide (3) 
 is free to move longitudinally. The slide (3) has at its front end 
 a strong tubular abutment which is in line with the forward por- 
 tion of the receiver (1), and which permits the slide (3) to move 
 to the rear until the rear end of the abutment comes in contact 
 with the flange of the recoil spring guide (15) against the shoulder 
 
SMALL ARMS AND FIELD ARTILLERY ZZ9 
 
 in the receiver (1) at its forward end, thereby positively limiting 
 the rearward movement of the slide (3). The latter is therefore 
 necessarily assembled to the receiver (1) from the front, and is 
 prevented from being thrown rearward from the receiver (1) under 
 any circumstances. 
 
 In the abutment at the front end of the slide (3) is seated 
 the forward end of the recoil spring (14), fitted into the plug (16). 
 The rear end of the recoil spring (14) fitted onto the recoil spring 
 guide (15) rests against the shoulder in the front end of the 
 receiver (1). On the top of slide (3) are mounted the front sight (10) 
 and rear sight (9). The barrel bushing (13) fits into the front end 
 of the slide (3), supports the muzzle end of the barrel (2), and 
 holds the plug (16) and recoil spring (14) in place. When the 
 slide (3) and the barrel (2) therein are mounted upon the receiver 
 (1) and the slide stop (8) is in its place, so that the pin part of 
 the slide stop (8) locks the barrel (2) to the receiver (1) through 
 the link (11), the slide (3) is thereby positively locked in place 
 upon the receiver (1). 
 
 The firing pin (20), firing-pin spring (21), and (shell) ex- 
 tractor (17) are carried in the rear end of the slide (3) and locked 
 by the firing-pin stop (22). By pressing the firing pin (20) forward 
 so as to clear the firing-pin stop (22), the latter is released and 
 may be removed downwardly, leaving both firing pin (20) and 
 extractor (17) free for removal. The slide stop (8) consists of the 
 pin part, which serves as a pivot and passes through the link (11), 
 and a body, on which a thumb piece, for releasing the slide (3) 
 from the open position. 
 
 The safety lock (36) consists of a thin plate, a projecting pin, 
 a thumb piece, and a projecting stud. The pin part serves as a 
 pivot for the safety lock (36) and is at the same time a pivot for 
 the grip safety (35). The upper corner of the plate has an angle 
 which will fit into a correspondingly shaped recess in the slide (3). 
 When the slide (3) is in its forward position, and the hammer (23) 
 is full cocked, the safety lock (36) may be pushed up manually, by 
 means of the thumb piece, thereby positively locking the hammer 
 and the slide. When the safety lock (36) is being pushed up into 
 the locking position the stud on the safety lock (36) is being car- 
 ried upward and it finally stands in rear of the lower arm of the 
 sear (30), blocking the sear (30) and causing the locking of the 
 hammer (23). If the safety lock (36) is pressed down so as to 
 release the slide (3) the projecting stud on the safety lock (36) 
 clears the sear (30), permitting the sear (30) to be operated by 
 the trigger (34), thereby causing the release of the hammer (23) 
 if the grip safety (35) is pressed inward, as by the hand grasping 
 the handle of the pistol, and the trigger (34) is pulled. 
 
 The grip safety (35) is pivoted in the upper part of the re- 
 
310 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 ceiver (1). Its lower part projects from the rear face of the 
 handle under pressure of the short leaf of the sear spring (31), 
 thereby locking the trigger whenever the handle of the pistol is 
 released. But when the handle is grasped, as in the firing position, 
 the grip safety (35) releases the trigger (34) without requiring 
 the attention or thought of the firer. 
 
 The (automatic) disconnector (33) is mounted in the re- 
 ceiver (1) in rear of the magazine seat. In the underside of the 
 slide (3) and near its rear end, a recess is provided which stands 
 above the top of the disconnector (33) when the slide (3) is in the 
 forward firing position. With the slide in this position the dis- 
 connector (33) is raised to its operative position by the center leaf 
 of the sear spring (31) and it then will transmit the movement o1 
 the trigger (34) to the sear (30). The forward surfaces of the 
 recess of the slide (3) and of the projecting end of the discon- 
 nector (33) are inclining, so that the rearward movement of the 
 slide (3) depresses the connector (33) until the slide (3) again re- 
 turns to its forward position. In this depressed position of the 
 disconnector (33) the trigger (34) is disconnected from the sear 
 (30), allowing the sear (30) to re-engage the hammer (23). This 
 arrangement automatically and positively prevents firing of the 
 pistol except when all its parts are in the fully closed and locked 
 firing position, and it also prevents more than one shot from fol- 
 lowing each pull of the trigger (34). 
 
 TO DISMOUNT AND ASSEMBLE THE PISTOL 
 
 Remove the magazine by pressing the magazine catch (48). 
 Press the plug (16) inward and turn the barrel bushing (13) to the 
 right until the plug (16) and the end of the recoil spring (14) 
 protrude from their seat, releasing the tension of the spring (14). 
 As the plug (16) is allowed to protrude from its seat, the finger or 
 thumb should be kept over it, so that it will not jump away and be 
 lost or strike the operator. Draw the slide (3) rearward until the 
 smaller rear recess in its lower left edge stands above the projec- 
 tion on the thumb piece of the slide stop (8); press gently against 
 the end of the pin of the slide stop (8) which protrudes from the 
 right side of the receiver (1) above the trigger guard and remove 
 the slide stop (8). This releases the link (11), allowing the barrel 
 (2), with the link (11) and the slide (3), to be drawn forward to- 
 gether from the receiver (1), carrying with them the barrel bush- 
 ing (13), recoil spring (14), plug (16), and recoil-spring guide (15). 
 
 Remove these parts from the slide (3) by withdrawing the 
 recoil-spring guide (15) from the rear of the recoil spring (14), and 
 drawing the plug (16) and the recoil spring (14) forward from the 
 slide (3). Turn plug (16) to right to remove from recoil spring 
 
SMALL ARMS AND FIELD ARTILLERY 311 
 
 (14). Turn the barrel bushing (13) to the left until it may be 
 drawn forward from the slide (3). This releases the barrel (2) 
 which, with the link (11), may be drawn forward from the slide 
 (3), and by pushing out the link pin (12) the link (11) is released 
 from the barrel (2). Press the rear end of the firing pin (20) 
 forward until it clears the firing-pin stop (22), which is then drawn 
 downward from its seat in the slide (3); the firing pin (20), firing- 
 pin spring (21), and extractor (17) are then removed from the 
 rear of the slide (3). 
 
 The safety lock (36) is readily withdrawn from the receiver 
 (1) by cocking the hammer (23) and pushing from the right on 
 the pin part or pulling outward on the thumb piece of the safety 
 lock (36) when it is midway between its upper and lower positions. 
 The cocked hammer (23) is then lowered and removed after re- 
 moving the hammer pin (24) from the left side of the receiver (1). 
 The housing pin (38) is then pushed out from the right side of 
 the receiver (1), which allows the mainspring housing (37) to be 
 withdrawn downward and the grip safety (35) rearward from the 
 handle. The sear spring (31) may then be removed. By pushing 
 out the sear pin (32) from the right to the left side of the re- 
 ceiver (1), the sear (30) and the disconnector (33) are released. 
 
 To remove the mainspring (27), mainspring cap (28), and 
 housing-pin retainer (39) from the mainspring housing (37), com- 
 press the mainspring (27) and push out the small mainspring cap 
 pin (29). 
 
 To remove the magazine catch (48) from the receiver (1), 
 its checkered left end must be pressed inward, when the right end 
 of the magazine catch (48) will project so far from the right side 
 of the receiver (1) that it may be rotated one-half turn. This move- 
 ment will release the magazine catch lock (50) from its seat in 
 the receiver (1), when the magazine catch (48), the magazine catch 
 lock (50), and the magazine catch spring (49) may be removed. 
 
 With the improved design of magazine catch lock (50) the 
 operation of dismounting the magazine catch (48) is simplified in 
 that when the magazine catch (48) has been pressed inward the 
 magazine catch lock (50) is turned by means of a screw driver or 
 the short leaf of the sear spring (31) a quarter turn to the left 
 when the magazine catch (48) with its contents can be removed. 
 The improved design is recognized from the fact that the head of 
 the magazine catch lock (50) is slotted. 
 
 The trigger (34) can then be removed rearwardly from the 
 receiver (1). The hammer strut (25) or the long arm of the screw 
 driver can be used to push out all the pins except the mainspring- 
 cap pin (29), lanyard-loop pin (41), and ejector pin (19). 
 
 To assemble the pistol, proceed in the reverse order. 
 It should be noted that the disconnector (33) and sear (30) are 
 
312 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 assembled as follows: Place the cylindrical part of the discon- 
 nector (33) in its hole in the receiver (1) with the flat face of the 
 lower part of the disconnector (33) resting against the yoke of the 
 trigger (34). Then place the sear (30), lugs downward, so that it 
 straddles the disconnector (33). The sear pin (32) is then inserted 
 in place, so that it passes through both the disconnector (33) and 
 the sear (30). 
 
 The sear (30), disconnector (33), and hammer (23) being in 
 place and the hammer (23) down, to replace the sear spring (31), 
 locate its lower end in the cut in the receiver (1), with the end of 
 the long leaf resting on the sear (30); then insert the mainspring 
 housing (37) until its lower end projects below the frame about 
 one-eighth of an inch, replace the grip safety (35), cock the ham- 
 mer (23), and replace the safety lock (36); then lower the cocked 
 hammer (23) ( , push the mainspring housing (37) home and insert 
 the housing pin (38). 
 
 In assembling the safety lock (36) to the receiver (1) use 
 the tip of the magazine follower (47) or the screw driver to press 
 the safety-lock plunger (7) home, thus allowing the seating of the 
 safety lock (36). It should be remembered that when assembling 
 the safety lock (36) the hammer (23) must be cocked. When re- 
 placing the slide (3) and barrel (2) on the receiver (1), care must 
 be taken that the link (11) is tilted forward as far as possible and 
 that the link pin (12) is in place. 
 
 METHOD OF OPERATION 
 
 A loaded magazine is placed in the handle and the slide (3) 
 drawn fully back and released, thus bringing the first cartridge 
 into the chamber (if the slide is open, push down the slide stop 
 (8) to let the slide (3) go forward). The hammer (23) is thus cocked 
 and the pistol is ready for firing. 
 
 If it is desired to make the pistol ready for instant use and 
 for firing with the least possible delay the maximum number of 
 shots, draw back the slide (3), insert a cartridge by hand into the 
 chamber of the barrel (2), allow the slide (3) to close, then lock the 
 slide (3) and the cocked hammer (23) by pressing the safety lock 
 (36) upward, and insert a loaded magazine. The slide (3) and 
 hammer (23) being thus positively locked, the pistol may be car- 
 ried safely at full cock, and it is only necessary to press down the 
 safety lock (36) (which is located within easy reach of the thumb) 
 when raising the pistol to the firing position. 
 
 The grip safety (35) is provided with an extending horn, 
 which not only serves as a guard to prevent the hand of the shoot- 
 er from slipping upward and being struck or injured by the 
 
SMALL ARMS AND FIELD ARTILLERY 313 
 
 hammer (23), but also aids in accurate shooting by keeping the 
 hand in the same position for each shot; and, furthermore, per- 
 mits the lowering of the cocked hammer (23) with one hand by 
 automatically pressing in the grip safety (35) when the hammer 
 (23) is drawn slightly beyond the cocked position. In order to 
 release the hammer (23), the grip safety (35) must be pressed in 
 before the trigger (34) is pulled. 
 
 SAFETY DEVICES 
 
 It is impossible for the firing pin (20) to discharge or even 
 touch the primer, except on receiving the full blow of the hammer 
 (23). The pistol is provided with two automatic safety devices: 
 
 (1) The (automatic) disconnector {33) which positively pre- 
 vents the release of the hammer (23) unless the slide (3) and bar- 
 rel (2) are in the forward position and safely interlocked; this de- 
 vice also controls the firing and prevents more than one shot from 
 following each pull of the trigger (34). 
 
 (2) The (automatic) grip safety (35) at all times locks the 
 trigger (34) unless the handle is firmly grasped and the grip safety 
 (35) pressed in. 
 
 The pistol is in addition provided with a safety lock (36) 
 by which the closed slide (3) and the cocked hammer (23) can be 
 at will positively locked in position. 
 
 OPERATION IN DETAIL 
 
 The magazine may be charged with any number of cartridges 
 from one to seven. The charged magazine is inserted in the han- 
 dle and the slide (3) drawn once to the rear. This movement cocks 
 the hammer (23), compresses the recoil spring (14), and, when 
 the slide (3) reaches the rear position, the magazine follower (47) 
 raises the upper cartridge into the path of the slide (3). The slide 
 (3) is then released and, being forced forward by the recoil spring 
 (14), carries the first cartridge into the chamber of the barrel (2). 
 As the slide (3) approaches its forward position, it encounters the 
 rear extension of the barrel (2) and forces the barrel forward; 
 the rear end of the barrel (2) swings upward on the link (11), 
 turning on the muzzle end as on a fulcrum. When the slide (3) 
 and barrel (2) reach their forward position they are positively 
 locked together by the locking ribs on the barrel (2) and their 
 joint forward movement is arrested by the barrel lug encounter- 
 ing the pin on the slide stop (8). The pistol is then ready for 
 firing. When the hammer (23) is cocked, the hammer strut (25) 
 moves downward, compressing the mainspring (27), and the sear 
 
314 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 (30), under action of the long leaf of the sear spring (31), engages 
 its nose in the notch on the hammer (23). 
 
 In order that the pistol may be fired the following conditions 
 must exist: The grip safety (35) must be pressed in, leaving the 
 trigger (34) free to move; the slide (3) must be in its forward posi- 
 tion, properly interlocked with the barrel (2), so that the discon- 
 nector (33) is held in the recess on the underside of the slide (3) 
 under the action of the sear spring (31), transmitting in this posi- 
 tion any motion of *the trigger (34) to the sear (30); the safety 
 lock (36) must be down, in the unlocked position, so that the sear 
 (30) will be unblocked and free to release the hammer (23) and 
 the slide will be free to move back. 
 
 On pulling the trigger (34), the sear (30) is moved and the 
 released hammer (23) strikes the firing pin (20) which transmits 
 the blow to the primer of the cartridge. The pressure of the gases 
 generated in the barrel (2), by the explosion of the powder in the 
 cartridge, is exerted in a forward direction against the bullet, driv- 
 ing it through the bore, and in a rearward direction against the face 
 of the slide (3), driving the latter and the barrel (2) to the rear 
 together. The downward swinging movement of the barrel (2) 
 unlocks it from the slide (3), and the barrel (2) is then stopped in 
 its lowest position. The slide (3) continues to move to the rear, 
 opening the breech, cocking the hammer (23), extracting and eject- 
 ing the empty shell and compressing the recoil spring (14), until 
 it — the slide (3) — reaches its rearmost position when another cart- 
 ridge is raised in front of it and forced into the chamber of the bar- 
 rel (2) by the return movement of the slide (3) under pressure of 
 the recoil spring (14). 
 
 The weight and consequently the inertia of the slide (3), 
 augmented by those of the barrel (2), are so many times greater 
 than the weight and inertia of the bullet that the latter has been 
 given its maximum velocity and has been driven from the muzzle 
 of the barrel (2) before the slide (3) and barrel (2) hive recoiled 
 to the point where the barrel (2) commences its unlocking move- 
 ment. This construction, therefore, delays the opening of the 
 breech of the barrel (2) until after the bullet has left the muzzle 
 and therefore practically prevents the escape of any of the powder 
 gases to the rear after the breech has been opened. This factor 
 of safety is further increased by the tension of the recoil spring 
 (14) and mainspring (27), both of which oppose the rearward 
 movement of the slide (3). 
 
 While the comparatively great weight of the slide (3) of 
 this pistol insures safety against premature opening of the breech, 
 it also insures operation of the pistol, because at the point of the 
 rearward opening movement where the barrel (2) is unlocked 
 and stopped, the heavy slide (3) has attained a momentum which 
 
SMALL ARMS AND FIELD ARTILLERY 315 
 
 is sufficient to carry it through its complete opening movement 
 and makes the pistol ready for another shot. 
 
 When the magazine has been emptied, the pawl-shaped slide 
 stop (8) will be raised by the magazine follower (47) under action 
 of the magazine spring (46) into the front recess on the lower 
 left side of the slide (3), thereby locking the slide (3) in the open 
 position, and serving as an indicator to remind the shooter that 
 the empty magazine must be replaced by a charged one before the 
 firing can be continued. 
 
 Pressure upon the magazine catch (48) quickly releases the 
 empty magazine from the handle and permits the insertion of a 
 loaded magazine. To release the slide (3) from the open oosition, 
 it is only necessary to press upon the thumb piece of the slide stop 
 (8) when the slide (3) will go forward to its closed position,, car- 
 rying a cartridge from the previously inserted magazine into the 
 barrel (2) and making the pistol ready for firing again. 
 
 IMPORTANT POINTS 
 
 1. Never place the trigger finger within the trigger guard 
 until it is intended to fire and the pistol is pointing toward the tar- 
 get. 2. Do not carry the pistol in the holster with the hammer 
 cocked and safety lock on, except in an emergency. If the pistol 
 is so carried in the holster, cocked and safety lock on, the butt of 
 the pistol should be rotated away from the body when withdraw- 
 ing the pistol from the holster, in order to avoid displacing the 
 safety lock. 3. The trigger should be pulled with the forefinger. 
 If the trigger is pulled with the second finger, the forefinger ex- 
 tending along the side of the receiver is apt to press against the 
 projecting pin of the slide stop and cause a jam when the slide re- 
 coils. 4. Care must be exercised in inserting the magazine to in- 
 sure its engaging with the magazine catch. 5. Pressure must be 
 entirely relieved from the trigger after each shot in order that the 
 trigger may reengage with the sear. 6. To remove cartridges 
 not fired, disengage the magazine slightly and then extract the 
 cartridge in the barrel by drawing back the slide. 7. The pistol 
 must be kept clean, free from rust, and properly oiled. Excessive 
 oil left in the mechanism will cause the parts to gum and work 
 stiffly. 8. Care must be exercised to insure that the disconnector 
 is properly assembled to the sear. 9. The hammer should not be 
 snapped when the pistol is partially disassembled. 10. The stocks 
 need never be removed, as the pistol can be dismounted and as- 
 sembled without removing them. 11. Use no hammer either in 
 assembling or dismounting the pistol. 12. Reasonable care should 
 be taken to see that the magazine is not dented or otherwise dam- 
 aged. Never insert the magazine and strike it smartly with the 
 
 ' 
 
316 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 hand to force it home, as this may spring the base or the inturn- 
 ing lips at the top. It should be inserted by a quick continuous 
 movement. 
 
 CLEANING KIT 
 
 For cleaning, dismounting, and assembling the pistol a kit 
 is issued consisting of a metal box containing the following arti- 
 cles: 10 screw drivers; 10 cleaning rods, brass (made so that either 
 a cloth wiper or bristle brush can be used); 10 thong brushes; 1 
 oil can; 1 grease pot for cosmic. These articles, with the exception 
 of the oil can and grease pot for cosmic, are also supplied as part 
 of the contents of the arm repair chest, model of 1910, when this 
 chest is issued to organizations equipped with the pistol. The 
 cleaning kit is therefore issued only to organizations equipped 
 with the pistol and not provided with an arm repair chest. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS DATA CONCERNING PISTOL 
 
 Weight, 2 pounds 7 ounces; trigger pull, 6 to iy 2 pounds; 
 total length, 8.593 inches; length of barrel, 5.025 inches; diameter 
 of bore, 0.445 inch; number of grooves, 6; width, 0.1522 inch; 
 depth, 0.003 inch; width of lands, 0.072 inch; twist, one turn in 16 
 inches, left-handed; front sight above axis of bore, 0.5597 inch. 
 
 The drift or deviation due to the rifling is, in this pistol, to 
 the left, but is more than neutralized by the pull of the trigger 
 when the pistol is fired from the right hand. The drift is slight at 
 short ranges and that for long ranges is immaterial, inasmuch as 
 the pistol is a short-range weapon. 
 
 The components of the ball cartridge consist of cartridge 
 case, primer, powder, and bullet. 
 
 CARTRIDGE CASE 
 
 This cartridge case is cylindrical and is made of brass. It 
 is provided with a cannelure to prevent the bullet being forced 
 down on the powder. 
 
 PRIMER 
 
 The primer consists of a cup which contains the primer com- 
 position, a paper disk, and an anvil which resists the blow of the 
 firing pin. The anvil is provided with two vents by which the 
 flame is communicated to the charge. Ignition is produced by 
 crushing the composition between the cup and anvil by a blow of 
 the firing pin. 
 
SMALL ARMS AND FIELD ARTILLERY 317 
 
 POWDER 
 
 The powder is a smokeless powder. The charge varies with 
 the kind and lot, but it is generally about 5 grains. 
 
 BULLET 
 
 The body of the bullet is a cylinder. The bullet has a core 
 of lead and tin composition inclosed in a jacket of gilding metal 
 or cupro-nickel. It weighs 230±2 grains. Inches 
 
 Length of bullet . 0.662 
 
 Diameter of cylindrical part of bullet 45015 
 
 Total length of cartridge 1.261 
 
 To render the cartridge waterproof the inside of the neck 
 of the case and the outside of the primer are shellacked. 
 
 PACKING 
 
 The cartridges are packed in pasteboard boxes containing 
 20 cartridges each. One hundred pasteboard boxes, or 2,000 car- 
 tridges, are packed in one zinc case, hermetically sealed, with han- 
 dle for tearing open. The whole is inclosed in a wooden box, the 
 cover of which is fastened with screw hooks and thumb nuts and 
 sealed. 
 
 NOTES ON THE USE OF THE RIFLE 
 
 Danger space decreases as the range increases. Extent of 
 danger space depends upon (a) firer's position, (b) height of ob- 
 ject fired at, (c) flatness of trajectory, (d) conformation of ground. 
 The nearer the rifle is to the ground, ~\ 
 
 The greater the height of the object fired at, I , At 
 
 The flatter the trajectory, } th , e ^ reater the 
 
 The more nearly the ground conforms to the | danger space, 
 angle of fall of the bullet. ) 
 
 With the bayonet fixed a slightly greater elevation is re- 
 quired, about 50 yards at 600 yards. Using a fixed rest the rifle 
 shoots slightly higher. 
 
 More elevation is required when the temperature is cool. 
 Less elevation is required (a) when the temperature is hot, (b) high 
 above sea level, (c) firing up or down hill. 
 
 The rifle is sighted for (a) barometric pressure of 30 inches, 
 (b) temperature of 70° F., (c) still air. 
 
 Objects seem near when (a) the object is in a bright light, 
 (b) the color of the object contrasts sharply with the color of the 
 background, (c) looking over water, snow, or a uniform surface 
 like a wheat field, (d) in the clear atmosphere of high altitudes, 
 (e) looking from a height downward. 
 
318 
 
 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Objects seem more distant when (a) looking over a depres- 
 sion in the ground, (b) there is a poor light or fog, (c) only a small 
 part of the object can be seen, (d) looking from low ground up- 
 ward toward higher ground. v 
 
 FIELD GUNS AND HOWITZERS 
 
 2.95- 
 inch 
 moun- 
 tain 
 gun. 
 
 3-inch 
 rifle. 
 
 3.8- 
 inch 
 howit- 
 zer. 
 
 4.7- 
 inch 
 rifle. 
 
 6-inch 
 howit- 
 zer. 
 
 Muzzle velocity foot-seconds. 
 
 Caliber 
 
 Weight of projectile , pounds . 
 
 Number of rounds per gun: 
 
 . With firing battery 
 
 With C. tr 
 
 With am. tr2 
 
 Maximum range yards. 
 
 Weight of — 
 
 Gun and carriage pounds . 
 
 Gun, carriage, and limber do. . . 
 
 Width of track, center to center. . . .feet. . 
 
 920 
 
 2.953 
 
 12.5 
 
 50 
 
 55 
 
 60 
 
 5,000 
 
 830 
 
 2H 
 
 1.700 
 3.0 
 15 
 
 190 
 
 168 
 
 106 
 
 7,500 
 
 2,520 
 
 4.212 
 
 5 
 
 900 
 3.8 
 30 
 
 96 
 
 72 
 
 264 
 
 6,338 
 
 2.040 
 
 3,970 
 
 5 
 
 1,700 
 4.7 
 60 
 
 84 
 
 84 
 
 168 
 
 11,000 
 
 7,420 
 
 8,783 
 
 5 
 
 900 
 6.0 
 120 
 
 42 
 
 42 
 
 84 
 
 6,704 
 
 7,248 
 
 8,611 
 
 5 
 
 To replace ammunition used in combat an amount not less than that carried by 
 mobile force is kept in ammunition columns near the advance base. An additional 
 similar amount is maintained at the base. 
 
 SMALL ARMS AMMUNITION CARRIED IN THE FIELD 
 
 
 Infantry. 
 
 Cavalry. 
 
 Artil- 
 lery. 
 
 Engi- 
 neers. 
 
 Signal 
 troops. 
 
 Rounds per rifle: 
 
 In belt 
 
 100 
 120 
 220 
 
 Y\ 
 
 7 
 
 6,250 
 
 4,800 
 
 11,200 
 
 12,850 
 
 90 
 130 
 220 
 
 21 
 
 21 
 
 7 
 
 6,250 
 
 4,800 
 
 11,200 
 
 12.850 
 
 21 
 21 
 
 7 
 
 80 
 120 
 220 
 
 21 
 
 
 In combat train 
 
 
 
 
 Rounds per pistol: 
 
 In belt 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 For each machine gun: 
 
 
 ° nmules {Automatic'.::: :::::: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 To replace ammunition used in combat an amount not less than that carried 
 by the mobile forces is kept in ammunition columns near advance depot and an addi- 
 tional similar amount is maintained at the base. 
 
 For the purpose of arriving approximately at the number of rounds to be carried 
 in ammunition trains, the number of rifles in units is calculated as: Infantry regi- 
 ment, 1,800; cavalry regiment, 1,300; engineer regiment, 950. The number of pistols 
 is: Infantry regiment, 250; cavalry regiment, 1,500; artillery regiment, 1,300; engi- 
 neer regiment, 325. 
 
 Capacity in rounds per vehicle and animal is approximately: Rifle ammunition 
 — mules, 2,400; wagons, 35,000; trucks, 36,000. Pistol ammunition — mules, 4,000, 
 wagons, 46,000; trucks, 50,000. 
 
SMALL ARMS AND FIELD ARTILLERY 319 
 
 FRENCH FIELD AND HEAVY ARTILLERY 
 
 75 mm. 
 field 
 gun. 
 
 105 mm. 
 
 quick- 
 firing 
 gun. 
 
 155 mm. 
 quick- 
 firing 
 gun. 
 
 1.736 
 
 2.95 
 
 16 
 
 9,300 
 
 2,130 
 
 1,886 
 
 4.13 
 
 35}4 
 
 12,900 
 
 5,375 
 
 984 
 6.1 
 90 
 7,000 
 6,215 
 
 Muzzle velocity feet . 
 
 Caliber inches . 
 
 Weight of projectile pounds . 
 
 Maximum range yards . 
 
 Weight of gun and carriage pounds . 
 
 SUPPLY OF AMMUNITION IN THE FIELD 
 
 The work of replenishing ammunition is divided between 
 units working under the commander of the line of communications, 
 and units working under the division commander. The general 
 system of ammunition supply is as follows: 
 
 (a) the men and guns in the fighting line carry with them a 
 certain amount of ammunition. 
 
 (b) The regimental reserve supply of ammunition is carried 
 on combat wagons or mules. Ammunition expended in the firing 
 line is replaced from this source. These combat trains are in turn 
 usually filled from the ammunition trains of the division, though 
 in certain instances they may be filled direct from the line of com- 
 muncation or from ammunition columns. 
 
 (c) The divisional ammunition trains are operated under 
 the divisional artillery commander, after release from the control 
 of the commander of trains. These trains are divided into two 
 sections, viz., a small arms section consisting of six wagon com- 
 panies carrying 5,395,000 rounds of rifle ammunition and 180,000 
 rounds of pistol ammunition; an artillery section consisting of six 
 wagon companies, of which two wagon companies are used for 
 3-inch ammunition, 5,064 rounds, and four wagon companies are 
 use for 3.8-inch ammunition, 6,534 rounds. The ammunition trains 
 are usually filled from the ammunition columns though they may 
 in certain instances fill direct from the line of communication. 
 
 (d) The ammunition columns operate from the line of com- 
 munications. It is the function of the ammunition columns to push 
 up close to the troops so as to shorten the haul of the ammunition 
 trains and to keep a constant supply of ammunition at the refilling 
 point. 
 
 It is the function of the organizations to which are attached 
 combat trains to regulate the supply of ammunition to the front 
 and to insure the dispatching of empty combat wagons to the dis- 
 tributing station. 
 
CHAPTER XIII 
 
 SMALL ARMS FIRING, COMBAT PRACTICE AND 
 TRAINING WITH THE RIFLE. 
 
 An organization's ultimate efficiency in battlefield firing is 
 dependent upon the thoroughness of its training in individual 
 marksmanship, leadership, and team work. Maximum results can 
 not be obtained by either a poor shooting company under the 
 best of leadership or by a good shooting company under poor 
 leadership. 
 
 The sole purpose of rifle training for the soldier is to make 
 of him a good shot under war conditions, and a scheme of instruc- 
 tion is effective in so far as it tends to produce that result. The 
 soldier should therefore be so trained at known distances in the 
 various kinds of fire employed in actual service as to bring his 
 skill as a rifleman up to the capabilities of his weapon, after which 
 he should be so trained in firing as part of tactical units as to 
 utilize his individual skill to the best advantage in operations sim- 
 ulating those of the battle field. By means of preliminary drills 
 and gallery practice the soldier is trained in the fundamental prin- 
 ciples of marksmanship; by means of range practice he is taught 
 to apply these principles in firing, at fixed distances, at clearly de- 
 fined targets. This training is merely preparatory to combat firing 
 in which individuals learn co-operation and commanders and lead- 
 ers learn how to obtain the maximum efficiency of fire by a judicious 
 co-ordination of the skill and the efforts of all the individuals of the 
 group or fire unit. 
 
 In all preliminary practice and in range firing the soldier is 
 taught to reduce the size of his shot group as much as possible 
 and to place the center of the shot group at the center of his tar- 
 get. In combat firing this principle should be utilized in securing 
 superiority of fire. In actual combat, individual targets are not, in 
 general, visible, but if individual shot groups be so combined as to 
 produce a grazing fire uniformly distributed along the hostile line, 
 a large number of hits necessarily result and shots which miss 
 have the approximate value of hits in determining superiority of 
 fire. In a decisive battle success depends on gaining and maintain- 
 
SMALL ARMS FIRING 321 
 
 ing superiority of fire. Every effort must be made to gain it early 
 and then to keep it. 
 
 The purpose of fire superiority is to get hits whenever pos- 
 sible, but at all events to keep down the enemy's fire and render 
 it harmless. The ultimate object of all instruction is, therefore, 
 to enable troop commanders to deliver a heavy volume of close, 
 accurate fire upon any designated objective. With a given extent 
 of front, however, there is a limit to the number of men who can 
 use their rifles effectively. When the maximum number of rifles 
 has been brought into action, a further increase in the volume of 
 fire can be obtained only by increasing the rate of fire. The rate 
 of fire to be employed is always dependent upon the tactical situa- 
 tions; as conditions are never the same no fixed rules concerning 
 rates of fire can be prescribed, but in unexpected, close encounters 
 a great advantage accrues to the side which first opens rapid and 
 accurate fire with battle sight. 
 
 Grades of Shots and Basis of Qualification. — Soldiers are 
 graded according to proficiency exhibited in the record practice 
 as experts, sharpshooters, marksmen, first-class men, second-class 
 men, and unqualified. The grades of first and second class men, 
 corresponding to certain percentages made in the qualification 
 course, are intended to give encouragement to the poorer grades 
 of shots and to provide the soldier, who has been unable to qualify 
 as marksmen or better, with a more definite record of marksman- 
 ship. The class unqualified is made to include those men borne on 
 the rolls of an organization who have fired and failed to qualify as 
 second class or better and all others who for any reason have not 
 been classified. 
 
 Period of Preliminary Instruction. — The portion of the year 
 which immediately precedes the instruction of the soldier upon 
 the target ground will be utilized in laying, by a thorough course 
 of the preliminary drills and gallery practice, a good foundation 
 for future proficiency. This applies especially to recruits and 
 those who in the last season failed to qualify as marksman or 
 better. The instructors also improve this opportunity for explain- 
 ing the different theoretical principles, as far as the capacity and 
 interest of the men appear to render it advantageous. Recruits 
 also receive preliminary instruction during the month after joining 
 their commands. 
 
 The purpose in the training of a company should be to pro- 
 duce uniform proficiency rather than expertness on the part of a 
 :omparatively few men. A man who has once learned to shoot 
 *vill seldom lose his ability. The attention of the instructor should 
 herefore be concentrated on the poorer shots. 
 
 Supplementary Practice Season. — A supplementary course of 
 
322 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 instruction is prescribed for the benefit of recruits. This practice 
 is for the purpose of preventing an accumulation of recruits totally 
 uninstructed. 
 
 Duties of Company Officers. — The training of the men in 
 small arms firing is under the immediate supervision of the com- 
 pany commander, who is held responsible that a suitable standard 
 of proficiency is reached. He is assisted by his lieutenants, non- 
 commissioned officers, and expert shots, and these assistants should 
 be given the theoretical instruction necessary to fit them to be 
 coaches and instructors. As good teaching requires a practical as 
 well as a theoretical knowledge of the subject taught, all company 
 officers will be required to fire with the men, subject to certain 
 exceptions. 
 
 Duties of the Battalion Commander. — The battalion com- 
 mander is the supervisor and inspector of firing instruction for the 
 organizations under his command. He gives such theoretical in- 
 struction to the officers as may be necessary, and, through proper 
 supervision of the preliminary drills and exercises and of the range 
 practice, assures himself that the company commanders and their 
 assistants are thoroughly conversant with the details of the course 
 and that suitable methods prescribed are being followed. He 
 should not attempt to fix definite lines of procedure, but should 
 endeavor to leave some room for initiative and ingenuity on the 
 part of his subordinates, subject to such restrictions as circum-* 
 stances and the necessities of other troops may impose. 
 
 He also supervises the combat-firing exercises of his com- 
 mand, endeavoring by every means to realize to the fullest extent 
 the instructional value of these exercises. 
 
 In combat-firing exercises designed for a company, the 
 battalion commander supervises the firing and judges the results 
 according to the prescribed standard, and he also supervises and 
 judges the annual proficiency test of the organizations of his com- 
 mand unless some other officer has been specially designated. 
 
 Each battalion commander, at the end of the target-practice 
 season, makes a written report to the regimental commander of 
 the state of instruction in target practice in the organizations of 
 his command, basing the opinions expressed both on the individual 
 qualifications attained in record firing and upon the results obtained 
 in the combat firing and in the annual proficiency test. 
 
 Duties of the Regimental Commander. — The regimental com- 
 mander exercises general supervision over the organizations of his 
 command and endeavors to maintain the highest possible standard 
 of efficiency in his regiment. Upon receipt of the company and 
 the battalion commanders' reports, he submits, with the regimental 
 consolidated report of classification, a brief report, through the 
 
SMALL ARMS FIRING 323 
 
 brigade commander, to the department commander on the state of 
 instruction of his command. 
 
 The post commander exercises a general supervision over 
 the target practice of troops at his post and directs supervision 
 over the target practice of troops pertaining to the tactical unit to 
 which he belongs. When troops of different brigades are serving 
 at the same post he sees that the approved programs with refer- 
 ence to target practice prescribed in accordance with instruction, 
 orders of the War Department are faithfully complied with. 
 
 The post commander recommends the months of the year 
 most suitable for target practice, including the supplementary prac- 
 tice season, for his post, and when combat-firing facilities do not 
 exist on the reservation, should use every effort to procure suitable 
 firing grounds in the vicinity so that the advantage of this training 
 may not be lost. 
 
 Duties of the Department Commander. — The department 
 commander supervises instruction in small arms for the troops in 
 his department and makes every effort to have complete facilities 
 for this instruction at every post. He satisfies himself that the 
 purposes of instruction in firing are fully understood and carried 
 out, and to this end he makes the necessary examination of the 
 firing records and orders such test firings at the time of his annual 
 inspection as he may deem advisable and of which the ammunition 
 available will admit. 
 
 SIGHTING DRILLS 
 
 The value of the sighting drills and the position and aiming 
 drills can not be too strongly emphasized. By means of them the 
 fundamental principles of shooting may be inculcated before the 
 soldier fires a shot. These drills are given to all soldiers who have 
 not qualified as "marksman" or better in the preceding target year. 
 
 Sighting Bar. — This apparatus consists of (a) A bar of wood 
 about 1 by 2 inches by 4 feet, with a thin slot 1 inch deep cut 
 across the edge about 20 inches from one end. 
 
 (b) A front sight of tin or cardboard y 2 by 3 inches tacked 
 to the end nearer the slot and projecting 1 inch above bar. 
 
 (c) An eyepiece of tin or cardboard 1 by 3 inches tacked to 
 the other end of, and projecting 1 inch above, the bar, with a very 
 small hole (0.03 inch) ]/ 2 inch from the top of part projecting above 
 the bar. 
 
 (d) An open rear sight of tin or cardboard \ l / 2 by 3 inches 
 with a U-shaped notch ^ inch wide cut in the middle of one 
 of the long edges. This is placed in the slot on the bar. A 
 slight bend of the part of the tin fitting in the slot will give 
 
324 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 enough friction to hold the sight in any part of slot in which it 
 is placed. 
 
 (e) A peep rear sight of tin or cardboard 3 by 3 inches, with 
 a peep hole 24 inch in diameter cut in the center. This replaces 
 the open sight when the peep sight is shown. 
 
 Carefully Dlacken all pieces of tin or cardboard and the top 
 of the bar. Nail the bar to a box about 1 foot high and place on 
 the ground, table, or other suitable place. Then adjust the open 
 or peep rear sight in the slot and direct the bar upon a bull's-eye 
 (preferably a Y target) placed about 5 yards from the bar. No 
 other than the sight desired can be seen. Errors, etc., are shown 
 by manipulating the open and peep rear sights. 
 
 Sighting Rest for Rifle. — Take an empty pistol ammunition 
 box or a similar well-made box, remove the top and cut notches 
 in the ends to fit the rifle closely. Place the rifle in these notches 
 with the trigger guard close to and outside one end. (The stock 
 may be removed from the rifle so as to bring the eye as near the 
 rear sight as in shooting.) Nail a plank (top of a box will do) 
 to a stake or wall about 12 inches from the ground. Fasten a 
 blank sheet of paper to the plank. Place the rest firmly on the 
 ground, 20 or 30 feet from the plank, so that the rifle is canted 
 neither to the right nor left — weight the box with sand if neces- 
 sary — and without touching the rifle or rest, sight the rifle near 
 the center of the blank sheet of paper. Changes in the line of 
 sight are made by changing the elevation and windage. Take the 
 prone position, with elbows on the ground, hands supporting the 
 head. A soldier acting as marker is provided with a pencil and 
 a small rod bearing a disk of white cardboard about 3 inches in 
 diameter, with a black bull's-eye (a black paster is best) pierced 
 in the center with a hole just large enough to admit the point 
 of a lead pencil. The soldier sighting directs the marker to move 
 the disk to the right, left, higher, or lower,, until the line of aim 
 is established, when he commands "Mark" or "Hold." At the 
 command "Mark," being careful not to move the disk, the marker 
 records through the hole in its center the position of the disk 
 and then withdraws it. At the command "Hold," the marker 
 holds the disk carefully in place, without marking until the posi- 
 tion is verified by the instructor, and the disk is not withdrawn 
 until so directed. 
 
 Line of Sight. — With the open sight the line of sight is deter- 
 mined by a point on the middle line of the notch of the rear 
 sight and the top of the front sight. With the peep sight, the 
 line of sight is determined by the center of the peep and the top 
 of the front sight. 
 
 Point of Aim. — The soldier is informed that to give the 
 greatest uniformity, a point just below the mark, and not the 
 
SMALL ARMS FIRING 
 
 325 
 
 mark, is taken as the point of aim, as it is impossible to always 
 know,, if touching the mark with the top of the front sight, how 
 much of the front sight is seen; that the term "on the mark or 
 bull's-eye" will be understood to mean an aim, taken just below 
 the mark showing a fine line of light between the mark and the 
 top of the front sight. 
 
 The Normal Sight. — Look through the rear-sight notch at 
 the bull's-eye or mark and bring the top of the front sight on 
 a line with the top of and in the center of the rear-sight notch 
 and aligned upon the point of aim. 
 
 The Peep Sight. — Look through the peep hole at the bull's- 
 eye or mark, and bring the top of the front sight to the center 
 of the aperture and aligned upon the point of aim. 
 
 The soldier should be informed that regular results in firing 
 
 NORMAL SIGHT. 
 
 can be obtained only when the same amount of front sight is taken 
 each time, and that this can be done only by using the normal 
 sight with the open notch or the peep sight in the manner de- 
 scribed above. He should understand that the effect of taking less 
 than the normal amount of sight is to cause a point lower than 
 that aimed at to be struck, and that taking too much of the front 
 sight causes a higher point to be struck. 
 
 Although men will be found occasionally who can get ex- 
 cellent results by using the fine sight, the average man can not, 
 and this form of sighting is not recommended. The so-called 
 full sight should not be taught under any circumstances. If shown 
 to the men at all, it should be for the purpose of pointing out 
 a fault to be carefully avoided. 
 
326 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Remarks. — The eye can be focused accurately upon objects 
 at but one distance at a time; all other objects in the field of 
 view will appear more or less blurred, depending on their distance 
 from the eye. This can readily be seen if a pencil is placed in the 
 field of view near the eye while looking at some distant object 
 The pencil will appear blurred. This is the condition met with 
 by the normal eye in sighting a rifle. If the eye is focused on one 
 of the three points — the bull's-eye, the front sight, or the rear 
 sight — the other two will appear blurred. This blurring effect is 
 best overcome by using the "peep sight," as though looking through 
 a window, and focusing the eye on the bull's-eye. The blurring 
 of the peep hole will be concentric, giving a clear and easily de- 
 
 PEEP SIGHT. 
 
 fined center. The blurring of the front sight will be less, but 
 symmetrical on both sides with very little blur on the top. It can 
 be readily and naturally brought to the center of the peep hole. 
 Variations in light have less effect on the peep than on the open 
 sight. 
 
 But the limited field of view and lack of readiness in getting 
 a quick aim with the peep sight limit its use to those stages of 
 the combat whenever comparative deliberation' will be possible. In 
 the later stages of battle — especially when a rapid fire is to be 
 delivered — the open sight will, in most cases, be used. In this 
 case the normal sight should be used, as the horizontal line at the 
 top of the notch of the rear sight affords a good guide for regu- 
 
SMALL ARMS FIRING 327 
 
 larity. Whatever sight is used, the eye must be focused on the 
 bull's-eye, or mark, not on the front or rear sight. 
 
 Soldiers will some times be found who do not know how to 
 place the eye in the line of sight; they often look over or along one 
 side of the notch of the rear sight and believe that they are aim- 
 ing through the notch because they see it at the same time that 
 they do the front sight. 
 
 POSITION AND AIMING DRILLS 
 
 These drills are intended to so educate the muscles of the 
 arm and body that the piece, during the act of aiming, shall be held 
 without restraint,, and during the operation of firing shall not be 
 deflected from the target by any convulsive or improper movement 
 of the trigger finger or of the body, arms or hands. They also 
 establish between the hand and eye such prompt and intimate con- 
 nection as will insure that the finger shall act upon the trigger, giv- 
 ing the final pressure at the exact moment when the top of the 
 front sight is seen to be directed upon the mark. 
 
 The fact, though simple, can not be too strongly impressed 
 upon the recruit that, if at the moment of discharge, the piece is 
 properly supported and correctly aimed, the mark will surely be 
 hit. Since any intelligent man can be taught to aim correctly and 
 to hold the sights aligned upon the mark with a fair amount of 
 steadiness, it follows that bad shooting must necessarily arise 
 from causes other than bad aiming. The chief of these causes is 
 known to be the deflection given to the rifle when it is discharged, 
 due to the fact that the soldier, at the moment of firing, instead of 
 squeezing the trigger, jerks it. This convulsive action is largely 
 due to lack of familiarity with the methods of firing and to a con- 
 strained position of the muscles of the body, arm and hands which 
 constrained position it is the purpose of the position and aiming 
 drills to correct. 
 
 To become a good shot, constant, careful and patient practice 
 is required. Systematic aiming and squeezing the trigger will do 
 much to make a rifleman. The men will be taught to take advan- 
 tage of every opportunity for practicing aiming and squeezing the 
 trigger. For this purpose the barracks and ground in the vicinity 
 of the barracks should be furnished with aiming targets, which 
 the men are encouraged to use at odd moments, as when waiting for 
 a formation or during a rest. At drill the soldier is cautioned never 
 to squeeze the trigger without selecting an object and taking care- 
 ful aim. When on the range waiting for his turn to fire, the soldier 
 should use part of his time in position and aiming exercises, aim- 
 ing at the target or at objects outside of the range, and he should 
 
328 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 be made to understand that this practice previous to firing tends to 
 prevent nervousness and has a marked effect upon his score. 
 
 The position and aiming drills are given to all soldiers who 
 have not qualified as "marksman" or better in the preceding target 
 year. Some practice in these drills (especially in the trigger 
 squeeze exercise) is recommended for those who have qualified 
 as " marksman " or better. 
 
 Drills; General Instruction. — These drills are divided into 
 four progressive exercises. The first exercise teaches the position; 
 the second exercise teaches the position and the aim; the third 
 exercise teaches the aim and the manner of squeezing the trigger; 
 and the fourth exercise teaches the methods of rapid fire. The 
 exercises should be taught by the numbers at first; when fully un- 
 derstood, without numbers. 
 
 To correct any tendency to cant the piece, the rear sight 
 will be raised. A black paster at which to aim will be placed on 
 the wall opposite each man. The squad being formed in single 
 rank, with an interval of 1 yard between files, the instructor directs 
 the men to take the position of "Ready," except that the position 
 of the feet is such as to insure the greatest firmness and steadi- 
 ness of the body. The instructor then cautions "Position and 
 aiming drill." 
 
 The exercise which is being taught should be repeated fre- 
 quently and made continuous. The instructor prefaces the pre- 
 pratory command by " Continue the motion," or " At will," and 
 gives the command "Halt" at the conclusion of the exercise, when 
 the soldier will return to the position of "Ready." Or the soldier 
 may be made to repeat the first and second motions by the com- 
 mand "One," "Two," the exercise concluding with the command 
 "Halt." 
 
 POSITION EXERCISE 
 
 The instructor commands: 1. Position, 2. EXERCISE. At 
 
 the last command, without moving the body or eyes, raise the 
 rifle smartly to the front of the right shoulder to the full extent 
 of the left arm, elbow inclined downward, the barrel nearly hori- 
 zontal, muzzle slightly depressed, heel of the butt on a line with 
 the top of the shoulder. 
 
 (Two.) Bring the piece smartly against the hollow of the 
 shoulder, without permitting the shoulder to give way, and press 
 the rifle against it, mainly with the right hand, only slightly with 
 the left, the forefinger of the right hand resting lightly against 
 the trigger, the rifle inclined neither to the right nor left. 
 
 (Three.) Resume the position of "Ready." 
 
SMALL ARMS FIRING 329 
 
 The instructor should especially notice the position of each 
 soldier in this exercise, endeavoring to give to each man an 
 easy and natural position. He should see that the men avoid draw~ 
 ing in the stomach, raising the breast, or bending the small of 
 the back. 
 
 AIMING EXERCISE 
 
 The instructor first directs the sights to be adjusted for the 
 lowest elevation and subsequently for the different longer ranges. 
 
 The instructor commands: 1. Aiming. 2. EXERCISE. 
 
 At the last command execute the first and second motion of 
 the position exercise. 
 
 (Two.) Bend the head a little to the right, the cheek resting 
 against the stocl^. the left eye closed, the right eye looking through 
 the notch of the rear sight at a point slightly below the mark. 
 
 (Three.) Draw a moderately long breath, let a portion of 
 it escape, then, with the lungs in a state of rest, slowly raise the 
 rifle with the left hand, being careful not to incline the sight to 
 either side, until the line of sight is directly on the mark; hold 
 the rifle steadily directed on the mark for a moment; then, with- 
 out command and just before the power to hold the rifle steadily 
 is lost, drop the rifle to the position of "Ready" and resume the 
 breathing. 
 
 Some riflemen prefer to extend the left arm. Such a position 
 gives greater control over the rifle when firing in a strong wind 
 or at moving objects. It also possesses advantages when a rapid 
 as well as accurate delivery of fire is desired. Whatever the posi- 
 tion, whether standing, kneeling, sitting or prone, the piece should 
 rest on the palm of the left hand, never on the tips of the fingers, 
 and should be firmly grasped by all the fingers and the thumb and 
 held steadily. 
 
 The eye may be brought to the line of sight either by lower- 
 ing the head or by raising the shoulder; it is best to combine 
 somewhat these methods; the shoulder to be well raised by raising 
 the right elbow and holding it well to the front and at right angles 
 to the body. 
 
 If the shoulder is not raised, it will be necessary for the 
 soldier to lower the head to the front in order to bring the eye in 
 to the line of sight. Lowering the head too far to the front brings 
 it near the right hand, which grasps the stock. When the piece 
 is discharged, this hand is carried by the recoil to the rear and, 
 when the head is in this position, may strike against the nose or 
 mouth. This often happens in practice, and as a result of this blow 
 often repeated many men become gun-shy, or flinch, or close their 
 
330 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 eyes at the moment of firing. Much bad shooting, ascribed to other 
 causes, is really due to this fault. 
 
 TRIGGER SQUEEZE EXERCISE 
 
 The instructor commands: 1. Trigger squeeze. 2. EXER- 
 CISE. At the command Exercise, the soldier executes the first 
 motion of the aiming exercise. 
 
 (Two.) The Second motion of the aiming exercise. 
 
 (Three.) Draw a moderately long breath, let a portion of it 
 escape, hold the breath and slowly raise the rifle with the left hand 
 until the line of sight is on the mark, being careful not to incline 
 the sights to either side. Contract the trigger finger gradually, 
 slowly and steadily increasing the pressure on the trigger, while the 
 aim is being perfected; continue the gradual increase of pressure 
 so that when the aim has become exact the additional pressure 
 required to release the point of the sear can be given almost in- 
 sensibly and without causing any deflection of the rifle. Continue 
 the aim a moment after the release of the firing pin, observe if any 
 change has been made in the direction of the line of sight, and 
 then resume the position of " Ready," cocking the piece by raising 
 and lowering the bolt handle. 
 
 Poor shooting is often the result of lack of proper co-ordina- 
 tion of holding the breath, the maximum steadiness of aim, and the 
 squeeze of the trigger. By frequent practice in this exercise, each 
 man may come to know the exact instant his firing pin will be 
 released. He must be taught to hold the breath, bring the sights to 
 bear upon the mark, and squeeze the trigger all at the same time. 
 
 The trigger should be squeezed, not pulled, the hand being 
 closed upon itself as a sponge is squeezed, the forefinger sharing in 
 this movement. The forefinger should be placed as far around the 
 trigger as to press it with the second joint. By practice the soldier 
 becomes familiar with the trigger squeeze of his rifle, and knowing 
 this, he is able to judge at any time, within limits, what additional 
 pressure is required for its discharge. By constant repetition of 
 this exercise he should be able finally to squeeze the trigger to a 
 certain point beyond which the slightest movement will release the 
 sear. Having squeezed the trigger to this point, the aim is cor- 
 rected and, when true, the additional pressure is applied and the 
 discharge follows. 
 
 RAPID-FIRE EXERCISE 
 
 The object of this exercise is to teach the soldier to aim 
 quickly and at the same time accurately in all the positions he will 
 be called upon to assume in range practice. 
 
SMALL ARMS FIRING 331 
 
 The instructor commands: 1. Rapid-fire exercise. 2. COM- 
 MENCE FIRING. At the first command the first and second mo- 
 tions of the trigger squeeze exercise are performed. At the sec- 
 ond command the soldier performs the third motion of the trigger 
 squeeze exercise, squeezing the trigger without disturbing the aim 
 or the position of the piece, but at the same time without undue 
 deliberation. He then, without removing the rifle from the 
 shoulder, holding the piece in position with the left hand, graps the 
 handle of the bolt with the right hand, rapidly draws back the 
 bolt, closes the chamber, aims, and again squeezes the trigger. 
 This movement is repeated until the trigger has been squeezed 
 five times, when, without command, the piece is brought back to 
 the position of " Ready." 
 
 When the soldier has acquired some facility in this exercise, 
 he is required to repeat the movement ten times, and finally, by 
 using dummy cartridges, he may, by degrees, gain the necessary 
 quickness and dexterity for the execution of the rapid fire required 
 in range firing. 
 
 To hold the piece to the shoulder and, at the same time, 
 manipulate the breech mechanism with the proper facility, are 
 learned only after much practice. Some riflemen, especially men 
 who shoot from the left shoulder, find it easier, in rapid firing, to 
 drop the piece to the position of load after each shot. While at 
 first trial this method may seem easier, it is believed that, with 
 practice, the advantage of the former method will be apparent. 
 
 POSITION AND AIMING DRILL, KNEELING 
 
 These exercises are repeated in the kneeling position by 
 causing the squad to kneel by the commands prescribed in the Drill 
 Regulations. The exercises are executed as prescribed for stand- 
 ing, except that at the command " Two " in the position exercise, 
 the soldier rests the left elbow on the left knee, the point of the 
 elbow in front of the kneecap. The pasters for the kneeling exer- 
 cise should be at 2]/ 2 feet from the floor or ground. 
 
 Frequent rests are given during practice in these exercises 
 kneeling, as the position, if long continued, becomes constrained 
 and fatigues the soldier unnecessarily. 
 
 In firing kneeling, the steadiness obtained depends greatly 
 upon the position adopted. The peculiarities of conformation of 
 the individual soldier exert when firing kneeling a greater influence 
 than when firing either standing, sitting or prone; the instructor 
 should, therefore, carefully endeavor, noticing the build of each 
 soldier, to place him in the position for which he is best adapted 
 and which will exert the least tension or strain upon the muscles 
 
332 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 and nerves. It should be remembered, however, that without the 
 rest of the left elbow on the knee this position possesses no ad- 
 vantage of steadiness over the standing position. 
 
 The kneeling position can be taken more quickly than either 
 the sitting or the prone position. It is, therefore, the position nat- 
 urally assumed when a soldier, who is standing or advancing, has 
 to make a quick shot at a moving or disappearing object and desires 
 more steadiness than can be obtained standing. 
 
 POSITION AND AIMING DRILL, SITTING DOWN 
 
 In many cases the men, while able to kneel and hold the piece 
 moderately steady, can obtain in a sitting position much better 
 results. All should, therefore, be instructed in aiming sitting down 
 as well as kneeling. 
 
 To practice the soldier in the preceding exercises in a sitting 
 position, the squad being formed in a single rank, with an interval 
 of one pace between files, the rifle should first be brought to 
 " Order arms"; the instructor then commands: SIT DOWN. 
 
 At this command make a half face to the right and, assisted 
 by the left hand on the ground, sit down, facing slightly to the 
 right, the left leg directed toward the front, right leg inclined to- 
 ward the right, both heels, but not necessarily the bottoms of the 
 feet, on the ground, the right knee slightly higher than the left; 
 body erect and carried naturally from the hips; at the same time 
 drop the muzzle of the piece to the front, and to the position of 
 the first motion of load, right hand upon the thigh, just in front of 
 the body, the left hand slightly above, but not resting upon, the 
 left leg. 
 
 POSITION AND AIMING DRILL, PRONE 
 
 From the nature of the position it is not practicable to exe- 
 cute these exercises according to the method followed when stand- 
 ing or kneeling. Instruction, however, is always given with refer- 
 ence to the position, to the manner of assuming it, and to aiming 
 and squeezing the trigger. 
 
 With care and practice the soldier may acquire an easy posi- 
 tion which he is able to assume with great facility. 
 
 As the body does not yield to the recoil, as when firing 
 standing or kneeling, the force of recoil, if the rifle is not properly 
 held, may severely bruise the soldier. Care must be exercised that 
 the butt is not brought against the collar bone. By moving the 
 shoulder slightly to the front or rear, and by moving the right 
 elbow from the body or toward it, each soldier may determine the 
 
SMALL ARMS FIRING 333 
 
 position in which the shoulder gives to the butt of the rifle the 
 easiest rest. This is probably the one in which the force of the 
 recoil is least felt. 
 
 The soldier should persist in this exercise until he obtains a 
 position in which he feels no constraint, which does not subject 
 him to bruises from the recoil, and from which the mark appears 
 plainly through the sights. Having secured such a position, he 
 must not change it when firing, as a variation in the points of 
 support of the rifle, the distance of the eye from the rear sight, or 
 the tension of the hold has a decided effect, especially at the longer 
 ranges, upon the location of the point struck. 
 
 After the soldier has been drilled in the proper standing,, 
 kneeling, sitting and prone positions, the use of the sling is taught. 
 Adjustments and their advantages are taught with the idea of 
 noninterference with quickness and freedom of action. The 
 trigger-squeeze exercises are then continued in the different posi- 
 tions, using the sling. 
 
 DEFLECTION AND ELEVATION CORRECTION DRILLS 
 
 Sight Correction. — The soldier may find when firing at a 
 target that the first shot has missed the bull's-eye or figure, and 
 in order to cause the second to hit, two methods may be used: The 
 point of aim may be changed or the sights may be moved and the 
 same point be aimed at. In order to do accurate shooting it is 
 essential to have a well-defined mark at which to aim; conse- 
 quently, except for very slight corrections, the method of moving 
 the sights, involving changes in elevation and windage, is devised. 
 
 Elevation. — The instructor shows the men the graduations Oh 
 the rear-sight leaf, and explains to them the value of the different 
 divisions. He explains how to adjust their sights for different dis- 
 tances. He makes it clear that raising or lowering the slide on 
 the rear-sight leaf has the effect of raising or lowering the point 
 struck. The amount of change which a given amount of elevation 
 causes in the point struck varies with the range and with the rifle 
 and the ammunition used. 
 
 Deflection. — The instructor explains how to move the mov- 
 able base by use of the windage screw; that the graduations on the 
 rear end of the movable base are for convenience in setting the 
 sights and applying corrections; that each division is called a point 
 Df windage; that turning the movable base of the rear sight to the 
 ■ight or left changes the point struck to the right or left; that to 
 >vercome the drifting effect of a wind from the right, the movable 
 )ase must be moved to the right, and, if the wind be from the left, 
 he movable sight base must be moved to the left. 
 
334 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Adjusting the Sights. — (a) Elevation. The graduations on 
 the rear sight is found correct for but few rifles. This is due to 
 slight variations in the parts of the rifle, especially the barrel, which 
 occur under the most exact methods of fabrication. Not all rifles 
 are tested at the arsenal, and when the graduations for the rear 
 sight have been experimentally determined, they are correct only 
 for the particular conditions existing when they were so deter- 
 mined. The correction necessary for each particular rifle at any 
 range is found by shooting it at that range, and is constant with 
 the same ammunition and when firing under the same conditions. 
 If no correction is necessary, the rifle is said to " shoot on the 
 mark." 
 
 (b) The Zero of a Rifle. — That reading of the wind gauge 
 necessary to overcome the drift of a rifle at a particular range is 
 called the " zero " of that rifle for that range, and all allowances 
 for wind should be calculated from this reading. 
 
 The " zero " of a rifle is found by shooting it on a perfectly 
 calm day. 
 
 The Effect of Wind.— It is important that before going on 
 the range the soldier should be taught to estimate the force and 
 direction of the wind and the amount of correction necessary to 
 apply to the movable rear-sight base to overcome the effect of the 
 wind on the bullet in its flight. 
 
 The direction of the wind, for convenience, is expressed by 
 a clock-face notation, the clock being supposed to lie on the ground 
 with the hour XII toward the target or mark and the hour III at 
 the firer's right hand. A wind blowing from the front (that is 
 from the direction of the target) is called a " XH-oclock wind," 
 one directly from the left and across the field of fire is called a 
 " IX-o'clock wind," and so on. The direction of the wind can be 
 obtained by observing its effect upon the smoke, on trees, or grass, 
 or dust, or by wetting the finger and holding it up. 
 
 The force of the wind is designated in miles per hour. An 
 anemometer should be placed near the barracks, where .it is not 
 exposed to cross currents, and so that the dial can be readily seen. 
 The force of the wind can then be read from the dial and at the 
 same time the effect of the wind on the boughs of trees, flags, and 
 streamers, and the smoke from chimneys should be observed. The 
 soldier should be required to estimate the force of the wind and 
 then verify his estimation by anemometer readings. 
 
 Heat waves, when present, are an important aid in estimating 
 the force of the wind. 
 
 If the soldier is well drilled in applying the windage and 
 elevation corrections necessary to bring an assumed hit into the 
 bull's-eye or figure, using in turn each of the targets at which he 
 fires on the range, he will need very little further instruction in ap- 
 
SMALL ARMS FIRING 335 
 
 plying the necessary corrections. The instructor should assure 
 himself that the men understand the reasons for these corrections, 
 and they should never forget that they must move the rear-sight 
 movable base into the wind and in the same direction they wish to 
 move the point struck. 
 
 GALLERY PRACTICE 
 
 After the soldier has been thoroughly instructed in sighting, 
 and in the position, aiming, deflection and elevation-correction 
 drills, he is exercised in firing at short ranges with reduced charges. 
 
 Notwithstanding the value of the position and aiming drills, 
 it is impossible to keep up the soldier's interest if these exercises 
 are unduly prolonged. By gallery practice, however, the interest 
 is easily maintained and further progress, especially in teaching the~ 
 trigger squeeze, is made. Many of the external influences, which 
 on the range affect the firing, being absent, the soldier is not puz- 
 zled by results for which, at this stage of his education, he could 
 not account were he advanced to firing with full charges. Further- 
 more, as there is no recoil to induce nervousness or flinching, the 
 soldier soon finds that he can make good scores, and this success is 
 the surest stimulus to interest. 
 
 Not only to the beginner is gallery practice of value; to the 
 good shot it is a means of keeping, to a certain extent, in practice, 
 and practice in shooting, as much as in anything else, is essential. 
 Since it can be carried on throughout the year, gallery practice is 
 of much value in fixing in the men the habit of aimed fire, than 
 which nothing in his training is of more importance. 
 
 Matches in gallery firing between the men, particularly the 
 recruits, and between teams of the same or different companies, 
 should be promoted and encouraged. While such matches increase 
 the interest of the men in their practice, they at the same time 
 afford experience in the conditions of competitive firing. 
 
 ESTIMATING-DISTANCE TEST 
 
 Ability to estimate distances correctly is an important ele- 
 ment in the education of the soldier. 
 
 While it is true that fire on the battle field is usually by 
 groups and the ranges given by officers or non-commissioned offi- 
 cers, the battle field is reached only after a long series of exper- 
 iences in scout, patrol and outpost duty, in which the soldier is 
 frequently placed in positions where it is essential that he shall 
 determine for himself the range to be used in order that the fire 
 
 99 
 
336 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 may be effective. It is, therefore, a prerequisite to qualification 
 that the soldier shall be proficient in estimating distances by 
 eye. 
 
 During the estimating-distance drills advantage should be 
 taken of every opportunity to train the soldier in observing his 
 surroundings from positions and when on the march. He should 
 be practiced in pointing out and naming different features of the 
 ground; in discovering and describing different objects; in count- 
 ing different objects or beings. Especially should non-com- 
 missioned officers be trained in describing the location, with 
 reference to other objects, of objects difficult to see and in im- 
 parting information of this kind quickly and accurately. 
 
 Distances can be estimated by the eye or by sound; they can 
 be determined by range-finding instruments, by trial shots or 
 volleys, or from maps. 
 
 Estimation of Distance by Eye. — To estimate distance by 
 the eye with accuracy, it is necessary to be familiar with the ap- 
 pearance, as to length, of a unit of measure which can be com- 
 pared mentally with the distance which is to be estimated. The 
 most convenient unit of length is 100 yards. To impress upon the 
 soldier the extent of a stretch of 100 yards two posts 100 yards 
 apart, with short stakes between to mark each 25 yards, should be 
 placed near the barracks, or on the drill ground, and the soldier 
 required to pace off the marked distances several times, counting 
 his steps. He thus learns how many of his steps make 100 yards 
 and becomes familiar with the appearance of the whole distance 
 and of its fractional parts. 
 
 Next a distance of more than 100 yards is shown him and he 
 is required to compare this distance with the 100-yard unit and 
 to estimate it. Having made this estimate, he is required to verify 
 its accuracy by pacing the distance. A few minutes each day 
 should be spent in this practice, the soldier often being required 
 to make his estimate by raising his rear-sight leaf and showing 
 it to the instructor. After the first drills the soldier should be 
 required to pace the distance only when the estimate is unusually 
 inaccurate. 
 
 The soldier should be taught that, in judging the distance 
 from the enemy, his estimate may be corrected by a careful obser- 
 vation of the clearness with which details of dress, the movements 
 of limbs or of the files in a line may be seen. In order to derive 
 the benefit of this method, the soldier is required to observe closely 
 all the details noted above in single men or squads of men posted 
 at varying distances, which will be measured and announced. 
 
 Although the standing and kneeling silhouettes used in field 
 practice afford good objects upon which to estimate distances, the 
 instructor should make frequent use of living figures and natural 
 
SMALL ARMS FIRING 337 
 
 objects, as this is the class of targets from which the soldier will 
 be compelled to estimate his range in active service. 
 
 Methods of Estimating Long Distances by the Eye. — The fol- 
 lowing methods are found useful: (a) The soldier may decide that 
 the object can not be more than a certain distance away nor less 
 than a certain distance; his estimates must be kept within the 
 closest possible limits and the mean of the two taken as the range. 
 (b) The soldier selects a point which he considers the middle 
 point of the whole distance, estimates this half distance and doubles 
 it, or he similarly divides the distance into a certain number of 
 lengths which are familiar to him. (c) The soldier estimates the 
 distance along a parallel line, as a road on one side, having on it 
 well-defined objects, (d) The soldier takes the mean of several 
 estimates made by different persons. This method is not applicable 
 to instruction. 
 
 During instruction the men should be taught the effect of 
 varying conditions of light and terrain upon the apparent distance 
 of an object. 
 
 Objects seem nearer — (a) When the object is in a bright 
 light, (b) When the color of the object contrasts sharply with 
 the color of the background, (c) When looking over water, snow 
 or a uniform surface like a wheat field, (d) When looking from a 
 height downward, (e) In the clear atmosphere of high altitudes. 
 Objects seem more distant — (a) When looking over a depres- 
 sion in the ground, (b) When there is a poor light or a fog. (c) 
 When only a small part of the object can be seen, (d) When 
 looking from the low ground upward toward higher ground. 
 
 Estimating Distance by Sound. — Sound travels at the rate of 
 about 1,100 feet, or 366 yards, per second. If a gun is fired at 
 a distance, a certain time elapses before the sound is heard. If 
 the number of seconds or parts of seconds between the flash and 
 the report be carefully taken and multiplied by 366, the product 
 will be approximately the distance in yards to the gun. This 
 method will be of doubtful use on the battle field, owing to the 
 difficulty of distinguishing the sound of the gun whose flash is 
 seen from that of any other. It may probably be useful in de- 
 termining the range to a hostile battery when it first opens fire. 
 
 Determining Distance by Range-finding Instruments. — Ac- 
 curacy in determining by range-finding instruments depends upon 
 care and facility in use of the instrument and clearness of defini- 
 tion of the objective. Knowledge of the use of the instrument 
 issued is essential to all company officers and should be imparted 
 to sergeants when time is available. 
 
 Determination of Distance by Trial Shots or Volleys — If 
 the ground is so dry and dusty that the fall of the bullets is visible 
 
338 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 through a glass or with the naked eye, a method of determining 
 the distance is afforded by using a number of trial shots or volleys. 
 
 This method is as follows: 
 
 The sights are raised for the estimated range and one volley 
 is fired. If this appears to hit but little short of the mark an 
 increase of elevation of 100 yards is used for the next volley. 
 When the object is inclosed between two volleys, a mean of the 
 elevations is adopted as the correct range. 
 
 The range may be obtained from a near-by battery Or ma- 
 chine gun. This is the best method where available. 
 
 Estimating-Distance Test. — When instruction, in the opinion 
 of the company commander, has progressed to such an extent as 
 to enable the soldier to judge distances with the eye with fair 
 accuracy, he is tested for proficiency. 
 
 As the danger space is continuous for a man kneeling within 
 a range of 547 yards (battle-sight range), and as individual fire and 
 the fire of small squads is ordinarily limited to 1,200 yards, the 
 soldier is tested for proficiency at distances between these two 
 ranges. 
 
 The rules governing this test are as follows: (a) The test 
 is supervised by an officer, (b) Each soldier is tested separately. 
 (c) The ground is other than over which he fired or has previously 
 estimated distances, (d) The use of any device to mark the limits 
 within which distances are tested (550 and 1,200 yards), at the 
 time the test is given, so that this device can be seen from the 
 estimating point, is prohibited, (e) The objectives are natural 
 objects, men standing, kneeling or prone, or silhouettes, (f) 
 For objectives, five or more natural objects are selected, or single 
 men or groups of men stationed or silhouettes placed within the 
 ranges indicated above. The distances of the objectives are not 
 measured until all who are to estimate on them have made their 
 estimates. The men to be tested are conducted to a point near 
 that from which the estimates are to be made, and remain facing 
 away from the objectives or hidden therefrom by some feature of 
 the ground. They are not permitted to know what objects are to 
 be used in the test until they are called up to the estimating point. 
 The officer conducting the test calls up one man at a time, points 
 out to him an objective and causes him to estimate the distance 
 thereto. This is continued until the soldier's estimates on five 
 objectives have been obtained. When the test for the day is com- 
 pleted by any man, he is not allowed to join the squad awaiting 
 test. After all the men have made estimates of distances to a 
 given series of objectives, ranges thereto are measured, (g) Pro- 
 ficiency for the expert rifleman and for the sharpshooter consists 
 in making in five consecutive estimates an average degree of ac- 
 curacy of 90 per cent. Similarly for proficiency, marksmen, first- 
 
SMALL ARMS FIRING > 339 
 
 class men, and second-class men are required to make in five con- 
 secutive estimates an average degree of accuracy of 85 per cent. 
 Not more than three trials are given, and should the soldier fa^'l 
 three times to make the required percentage, his final qualification 
 is reduced one grade below that obtained in firing. 
 
 Range Finders. — The estimating test having been completed, 
 five or six enlisted men, selected by the company commander from 
 the most accurate estimators, are designated as " Range finders." 
 These men are given practice in estimating distances throughout 
 the year. The practice is on varied ground and at distances up to 
 2,000 yards. 
 
 KNOWN-DISTANCE PRACTICE 
 
 When gallery practice has been completed as required, the 
 soldier is advanced to known-distance firing. The general scheme 
 for which is quite comprehensive. 
 
 Target Year and Practice Season. — The target year, being 
 the period for which reports are rendered and which includes 
 the practice season, commences January 1 and terminates Decem- 
 ber 31. 
 
 The practice season consists of two months, called the reg- 
 ular season, and a period, not to exceed one month, called the 
 supplementary season. All to be designated by the department 
 commander upon the recommendation of subordinate commanders. 
 
 During the period designated as the practice season, known 
 distance firing is carried on in such manner that, while record 
 firing should take place on favorable days and under the most 
 favorable circumstances, the men should be required to practice 
 under variable conditions of weather, care being taken that the 
 shooting is not held under such adverse conditions as to make it 
 unprofitable. 
 
 As far as practicable, organizations actually firing are 
 excused from all post duties during this time, the usual duties 
 being performed by the remainder of the garrison. 
 
 Use of Gun Sling. — The gun sling may be used at all ranges 
 as an auxiliary to steady the piece, in connection with one arm 
 only, provided that for the purposes of adjustment for shooting, 
 neither end shall have been passed through either sling swivel. No 
 knot will be tied in the sling and the sling itself will not be added 
 to nor modified in any manner. 
 
 Use of Rests — Positions. — In known distance practice a 
 rest is not allowed for the rifle or any part of the body except as 
 prescribed in regulations. In combat firing such rests as are 
 available are permitted. Within the limits of regulations, the 
 
340 , MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 soldier should be allowed to take the position giving him the 
 greatest ease and steadiness. 
 
 Use of Devices for Determining Force and Direction of 
 Wind. — Anemometers, wind clocks, and other instruments, and 
 flags, vanes or streamers for determining the force or direction of 
 the wind are allowed on the range during instruction practice but 
 not during record firing for qualification. 
 
 Dress and Equipment. — In all classes of firing the service 
 uniform and service hat are worn. In all known distance practice 
 the soldier is equipped with the rifle and cartridge belt; for 
 infantry and troops equipped as infantry, who are provided with 
 the model 1910 equipment, the garrison belt, or the cartridge belt, 
 model 1910, when the garrison belt is not available; for cavalry 
 provided with the new equipment, the field belt; for other troops, 
 the cartridge belt stripped; cartridge belt suspenders are not worn 
 in known-distance firing; the coat may be omitted when author- 
 ized by the post commander. 
 
 Instruction Practice. — The instruction practice, qualification 
 course, should carry out the purposes which the term implies, and 
 hence the amount of ammunition to be expended in this practice 
 should be in proportion to the instruction needed. 
 
 For those who have qualified as marksman or better and 
 who have learned the principles of shooting, not so much practice 
 is required to keep in condition for retaining the qualification or 
 for improving it; hence, for experts and sharp-shooters, the expen- 
 diture of ammunition in the instruction practice, qualification 
 course, will not exceed 100 rounds and 130 rounds per man, 
 respectively, in one season's practice. 
 
 Record Practice. — Record practice is for two purposes: 
 First, to afford the soldier an object lesson of his progress; second, 
 to obtain a record by means of which the soldier may be graded 
 in awarding insignia and increased pay. 
 
 The rules for record practice must be fixed and be applicable 
 to all alike. These rules must be strictly observed by all; scores 
 must be recorded accurately; the work in the pit must be con- 
 ducted with great efficiency. 
 
 In this practice "coaching" of any nature is prohibited. 
 Each firer must observe the location of his own hit as indicated 
 by the marking disk or spotter. After a soldier has taken his 
 place at the firing point, no person shall render or attempt to 
 render him any assistance whatever. 
 
 Field Glasses. — Officers and enlisted men are allowed and 
 encouraged to use field glasses, subject to the restrictions concern- 
 ing coaching. 
 
 Order of Procedure. — The practice season opens with instruc- 
 tion practice, qualification course. This is carried to completion 
 
SMALL ARMS FIRING 341 
 
 for each soldier before he proceeds to record practice. When 
 the instruction practice, qualification course, is completed, the 
 
 soldier proceeds to record practice (same course) and follows 
 this to completion. 
 
 No individual will fire record practice, qualification course, 
 on the same day as any part of instruction practice. Record prac- 
 tice having begun for any individual will be finished before any 
 other firing is taken up. 
 
 Sighting Shots. — Sighting shots form no part of the score 
 and are not recorded as such. When sighting shots are prescribed 
 they must be taken. If, through no fault of his own, a soldier's 
 record score is not completed at a range where sighting shots are 
 prescribed and has to be repeated, he must be given sighting 
 shots with the new score. 
 
 Instruction shots fired by an officer or enlisted man are 
 permitted only in instruction practice. 
 
 Scoring. — The record of the score, from which classification 
 is made, is kept at each firing point by a non-commissioned 
 officer, who is assigned, unless at a one company post, to a point 
 where his own company is not firing. The scoring is closely 
 supervised and the record verified by a company officer. Scores 
 are recorded on the range with pencil on sheets prepared for that 
 purpose. 
 
 A separate sheet is kept for each man firing, and as soon as 
 the man's score at any range is completed the scorer signs the sheet 
 and the company commander takes it up, initials it, and keeps it 
 in his personal possession until the soldier is again called upon to 
 fire. The record scores are transferred from these sheets to the 
 company target record by the company commander. 
 
 Scoring Slow Fire. — The scorer, as each shot is signaled, 
 announces in a tone loud enough to be heard by the firer the name 
 of the firer and the value of the hit, and records it on a sheet 
 assigned to that soldier. 
 
 A shot upon the wrong target is entered upon the score of 
 the man firing as a miss, no matter what the value of the hit 
 upon the wrong target. 
 
 If two shots strike a target at the same or nearly the 
 same time, both are signaled; and if a shot was just fired from the 
 firing point assigned to that target, the hit having the higher value 
 of the two is entered in the score of the soldier firing from that 
 target point, and no record made of the other hit. 
 
 Scoring Rapid Fire. — In rapid fire as each shot is signaled 
 it is announced as follows: One five, two fives, three fives, one 
 four, two fours, three fours, four fours, one three, one miss, two 
 misses, and jotted down on a pad as called, the scorer watching the 
 target as he calls the shot. After the marking is finished the 
 
342 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 scorer counts the number of shots marked and, if more or less 
 than 10, calls: "Re-mark No. — .." If 10 shots have been marked, 
 he then enters the score on the soldier's score card and totals it 
 as follows: 555444430 0=34. 
 
 In record practice, in case of two men firing on the same 
 target, the resulting score is rejected, the soldier at fault being 
 credited with only such hits, if any, as he may have made on his 
 own target, the other soldier repeating his score. In case of 
 more than 10 hits on a target the score is not recorded and the 
 soldier assigned to that target repeats the score. 
 
 Officer in Charge of Firing. — At stations where the range 
 is provided with several targets and practice is usually held simul- 
 taneously by two or more companies and successively by others, 
 an officer in charge of the firing is appointed. 
 
 The officer in charge of the firing, who should be, when 
 practicable, a field officer, has general supervision of the firing 
 and of the target range during the practice season. He does not 
 supervise the details of the instruction of the companies practicing 
 on the range, but maintains order, regulates the distribution of 
 ranges and targets to organizations, prevents infractions of reg- 
 ulations, and in general assists by every proper means to secure 
 efficient and accurate service from the working force of the range. 
 
 He sees that all necessary precautions are taken for the 
 safety of the markers and such spectators as may be present. 
 
 When ranges are not provided with butts and the sur- 
 roundings are such that persons or animals might attempt to 
 cross the range, the officer in charge of firing, before firing is 
 begun posts lookouts, in positions to be seen from the pit, whose 
 duty it is to prevent any attempt to cross the line of fire. When- 
 ever the lookouts can not prevent the line of fire being crossed 
 they should display a danger signal, when the markers withdraw 
 the targets. 
 
 Range Officer. — At all ranges a range officer is appointed 
 who is charged with the care and police of the range and with 
 the necessary repairs to targets, shelters, butts, and firing points. 
 He is assisted by a non-commissioned officer and such fatigue 
 parties as may be required. He makes timely estimates for mate- 
 rial and labor to place the range in proper condition for the prac- 
 tice season, and all necessary repairs are made under his direction 
 and the supervision of the post commander. He is responsible for 
 the accurate measuring of the range and the correct location of 
 the different firing points, for the condition of the telephone sys- 
 tem, and for the arrangement and efficiency of the personnel at 
 the butts. During the practice season he acts as assistant to the 
 officer in charge of the firing. 
 
 Non-commissioned Officer in Charge of Pit. — A competent 
 
SMALL ARMS FIRING 343 
 
 non-commissioned officer, with such assistants as the post com- 
 mander deems necessary, is detailed permanently during the 
 target season in charge of arrangements at the butts. He is under 
 the direction of the range officer and is responsible for the effi- 
 ciency and discipline of the target details. It is his duty to see that 
 targets are ready for the firing desired and that all targets are 
 serviceable; also to see that as the target details report they are 
 provided with the proper flags, marking disks, paste, pasters, etc. 
 
 Target Details. — The detail for marking each target con- 
 sists of two privates belonging to the company firing at that 
 target, and one non-commissioned officer, always selected, except 
 at a one-company post, from some other company. The non-com- 
 missioned officer is held responsible that order is kept at his 
 target and should be familiar with the regulations governing ihe 
 markers and with the method of marking. Upon arriving at the 
 pit the non-commissioned officer in charge of the target sees that 
 his detail procures from the non-commissioned officer in charge of 
 the pit the necessary ricochet and danger flags, spotters, marking 
 disks, pasters, and paste. He displays the danger flag in front of 
 his target, examines the target carefully to see that it is in good 
 working order and that all old shot holes are pasted up. In 
 case any target is, or becomes, so badly mutilated as to be unserv- 
 iceable, he procures a new one from the non-commissioned officer 
 in charge of the pit. Upon completion of the firing he takes 
 down the target and returns it, with the disks, flags, etc., to the 
 pit house. 
 
 If it should become necessary before the completion of the 
 firing for the markers to leave or for other persons to enter a 
 target pit not provided with a continuous shelter or covered 
 approach, the target should first be turned or withdrawn from the 
 firing position and the danger signal displayed. After the signal 
 "Cease firing" has been sounded, or if there is no musician present 
 at the firing point after a few seconds' delay, the target pit may 
 be entered or left, the target turned back to the firing position, 
 the danger signal removed, and the firing resumed. 
 
 Marking. — When a post is garrisoned by a single company 
 and it is impossible to detail non-commissioned officers of other 
 companies to supervise the marking and scoring, those duties 
 are performed by the non-commissioned officer of the firing 
 company. In record firing, qualification course, when only one 
 company is firing, new paper targets are used for each day's firing, 
 and upon its completion the company commander or one of his 
 lieutenants counts the number of hits made in each division of 
 the target and compares the totals with the recorded scores. 
 
 As in some cases the markers may inadvertently make errors 
 in signaling hits, whenever an examination of the target gives 
 
344 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 r 
 
 results very closely agreeing with the recorded scores, the record 
 should be permitted to stand, but the markers cautioned to exer- 
 cise greater care in the future. 
 
 Any shot cutting the edge of the figure or bull's-eye is 
 signaled and recorded as a hit in the figure or bull's-eye, and as 
 the limiting line of each division of the target is the outer edge 
 of the line separating it from the exterior division, whenever this 
 line is touched by a shot, it is signaled and recorded as a hit in 
 the higher division. 
 
 Marking, Slow Fire. — In slow fire with the rifle, as each 
 shot is fired the non-commissioned officer indicates to one of the 
 markers the value and position of the hit, if any is made, and 
 supervises this marker while he signals the result of the shot to 
 the firing point. The center of the disk should be placed over 
 the shot hole. When double sliding targets are used the target 
 hit is withdrawn and the location of the hit indicated with the 
 proper disk on the other target. After the result of the shot has 
 been signaled, if a direct or ricochet hit has been made, the other 
 marker covers the shot hole with the proper paster. When spot- 
 ters are used the shot hole is not pasted up, but the spotter hung 
 in the hole. When the exposed target is hit it is withdrawn and 
 the other target run up, the spotter showing the exact location 
 of the preceding hit on that target. When another hit is made 
 on that target it is withdrawn, the spotter changed from the first 
 shot hole to the second, and the first shot hole pasted up. When 
 spotters are used care must be taken to paste up a shot hole as 
 soon as the spotter is removed and also to paste up any shot hole 
 in the spotter itself. 
 
 The value of a shot will be indicated to the firing point as 
 follows: If a bull's-eye, with a white disk. If a center (four), 
 with a red disk. If an inner (three), with a black and white disk. 
 If an outer (two), with a black disk. 
 
 Marking, Rapid Fire. — In this class of fire the time is reg- 
 ulated in the pit. The targets being ready, they are pulled fully 
 down and a red flag is displayed at the center target. On signal 
 from the firing line, the flag is waved and lowered and five seconds 
 thereafter the targets are run up, being fully exposed for the 
 time required for that range. 
 
 At the expiration of the time limit the targets are run 
 down and the hits are marked, beginning with the highest in 
 value, the disk being placed over the shot hole, then swung off 
 the target and back to the next shot hole, care being taken to 
 mark slowly enough to avoid confusing the scorer. The misses 
 are indicated by slowly waving the red flag once across the face 
 of the target for each miss. The shot holes are then pasted and 
 the target made ready for further firing. 
 
SMALL ARMS FIRING 345 
 
 ADVICE TO RIFLEMEN 
 
 For purposes of instruction, all firing may be divided into 
 three classes, viz.: 1. Slow fire at 600 yards and under. 2. Slow 
 fire at ranges over 600 yards. 3. Rapid fire. 
 
 Short-range Practice. — In the krst class of fire, slight 
 changes of wind, light, and temperature may be almost disregarded. 
 The principal things to be learned are: Setting the sight properly 
 at the beginning of a score; aiming properly; squeezing the trig- 
 ger properly; holding the rifle. These constitute probably 90 per 
 cent, of the work at ranges under 600 yards, and if the soldier 
 performs these actions correctly with each shot, he will make 
 a good score regardless of small changes in the atmospheric 
 conditions. It is very important that the piece be held firmly and 
 sighted uniformly. 
 
 Long-range Practice. — In the second class of firing (at dis- 
 tances greater than 600 yards) a very large part of the work is 
 in the holding, but changes of wind, temperature, and light must 
 be studied in order to make good scores. 
 
 Wind. — Wind is the most important factor to be considered 
 in long-range known-distance practice. It is unnecessary to teach 
 recruits and others who never shoot beyond 600 yards more than 
 the adjustment of the wind gauge for a right or left wind and how 
 to change the wind gauge when a hit is made. 
 
 The direction of the wind is shown by considering the range 
 as a clock face, the firer being in the center and the target at 12 
 o'clock. The direction is then indicated as a 10 o'clock wind, 2 
 o'clock wind,, etc. 
 
 The force of the wind is indicated in miles per hour and is 
 shown accurately by the anemometer, and is estimated by observa- 
 tion of flags, by throwing up leaves, grass, or bits of paper, and by 
 the " feel " of the wind on the hands or face. 
 
 At long-distance ranges, after firing a shot and before firing 
 again, the firer should look carefully for any change in direction 
 and force of the wind. A change of 4 miles in force or of one 
 hour in direction will make a decided difference in the location of 
 a hit. 
 
 Any wind deflects the bullet from its course in the direction 
 the wind is blowing. The amount of deflection varies with the 
 direction and force of the wind. 
 
 Temperature. — After the proper adjustment of the sight has 
 been determined, it rarely happens while firing a single, or even 
 several consecutive scores, that such changes can occur in the 
 temperature as to make further corrections necessary. If the first 
 shot has been fired from a clean, cool gun, the subsequent fouling 
 and heating of the barrel and the different vibrations of the latter, 
 
346 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 which are caused by the heating, generally make necessary a slight 
 increase in elevation for the second shot, and often an additional 
 increase for the third shot. This should be followed, in some 
 cases, where a number of shots are fired without cleaning or with- 
 out any considerable interval, by a slight lowering of the eleva- 
 tion after additional shots. 
 
 A decided increase in the temperature causes the bullet to 
 strike high; a decided drop in temperature causes the bullet to 
 strike low. 
 
 Light. — Changes of light do not affect the flight of the bullet; 
 they do affect the manner in which the aim is taken. As all men 
 are not affected alike by changes of light, each man must determine 
 for himself how changes of light affect him. 
 
 Using the peep sight, the bull's-eye of a bright target is 
 more clearly defined than the bull's-eye of a dark one, and the 
 firer usually holds closer to the bright bull's-eye than to a dark 
 one. If the target changes from bright to dark, the next shot 
 usually goes low. 
 
 With the open sight, as the light changes from bright to 
 dark and the rear notch fills with shadow, more front sight is 
 seen, and the shot goes high. 
 
 In rapid firing with open sights, on very dark days shots 
 seem to go high, due entirely to the firer taking more front sight 
 than on bright days. 
 
 Mirage. — This is the term applied in target practice to heated 
 air in motion, as seen through telescopes or field glasses on 
 clear days with winds of from 2 to 14 miles per hour. Through 
 the telescope waves appear to be moving across the face of the 
 target in the direction the wind is blowing. 
 
 These waves indicate the general direction and speed of the 
 wind. As to direction, they indicate a right or left wind only, and 
 not one from 11, 1, 5, or 7 o'clock. 
 
 In a light 6 o'clock wind, or with no wind at all, the waves 
 go straight up or " boil." 
 
 With a light wind the mirage moves slowly across the face 
 with a decided vertical motion, giving a saw-tooth appearance. As 
 the wind increases, the vertical motion of the mirage decreases 
 until, with a 12 to 14 mile wind, the waves seem nearly flat and 
 run across the target with very little vertical motion. 
 
 On hot days, with no wind, or a very light wind from 6 
 o'clock, the mirage rises straight from the bottom to the top of 
 the target. This condition seldom lasts long, and in a very short 
 time the mirage runs from one side to the other. 
 
 Never fire while the mirage is "boiling," for there is usually 
 a slight drift toward one side or the other, invisible to the firer, 
 and if a shot is fired with no windage in a "boil." it will usually be 
 
SMALL ARMS FIRING . 347 
 
 out of the bull's-eye. Wait for the mirage to move from one 
 side. 
 
 Rapid Firing. — Success in rapid firing depends upon catching 
 a quick and accurate aim, holding the piece firmly and evenly and 
 in squeezing the trigger without a jerk. 
 
 In order to give as much time as possible for aiming accu- 
 rately, the soldier must practice taking position, loading with the 
 clip, and working the bolt so that no time is lost in these opera- 
 tions. With constant practice all these movements may be made 
 quickly and without false motions. 
 
 When the bolt handle is raised it must be done with enough 
 force to start the shell from the chamber; and when the bolt is 
 pulled back it must be with sufficient force to throw the empty 
 shell well away from the chamber, and far enough to engage the 
 next cartridge. 
 
 The aim must be caught quickly, and once caught must be 
 held,, and the trigger squeezed steadily. Rapid firing, as far as 
 holding the aim and squeezing the trigger are concerned, should 
 be done with all the precision of slow fire. 
 
 Firing at Moving Targets. — In firing at moving targets, the 
 rifle must move with the target. If the target moves across the 
 front, the aim must be a certain distance in front of it, depending 
 on the distance of the target and its speed. If it moves toward 
 the firer he must hold below it; if away from him, he must hold 
 over it. 
 
 Firing with Rests. — In the ordinary positions for firing with 
 piece supported by hands, arms, and shoulder, the explosion of 
 the powder charge sets up in the barrel of the rifle certain vibra- 
 tions which become disturbed and altered somewhat when the 
 rifle is fired with the additional support of a solid rest applied at 
 some point of the barrel. 
 
 Using the same elevations and aiming point the effect of a 
 rest is exhibited in a changed point of strike of the bullet. 
 
 The vertical vibrations of the barrel are the more pro- 
 nounced, and as these are interfered with by a point of rest under 
 the barrel this species of support will usually change the point of 
 strike more than in the case of a side rest against a vertical sur- 
 face. In the latter case the piece is steadied rather than rested. 
 
 With a rest beneath the balance, or near the point, the ten- 
 dency is to shoot above and to the right of the point of strike that 
 would be attained without a rest, using the same elevation and 
 point of aim. 
 
 The tendency is the same and more pronounced when the 
 rest is under a point near the muzzle. The change in the point 
 of strike in any case is slight and insufficient to carry the shot 
 off the target from the center of target D at 600 yards. 
 
348 • MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 In firing with the bayonet fixed,, usually a lower point on 
 the target will be struck corresponding to a reduction in the range 
 of about 50 yards. 
 
 THE EFFECT OF FIRE 
 
 The ballistic qualities of an arm are indicated by its ac- 
 curacy, flatness of trajectory, and disabling power. 
 
 The quality of flatness of trajectory is directly dependent 
 upon the initial velocity and to some extent upon the form of 
 the bullet,, a given weight being assumed. 
 
 Two rifles of different type may possess the same accuracy, 
 that is to say, the same dispersion, at any given range; but if one 
 of the rifles gives a trajectory more curved than the other, an 
 error in the setting of the sight due to an erroneous estimate of 
 the range will cause a greater displacement from the aiming point 
 of the center of impact of the diagram of hits than will be the 
 case with the rifle with a flatter trajectory. A flat trajectory can 
 not do away with the influence of errors in aiming, but this quality 
 bestows an advantage in that with one sight a greater extent of 
 ground may be held under fire and the target still be hit when it 
 is not at the exact distance for which the sight is set. 
 
 The trajectory cuts the line of sight in two places, the first 
 near the muzzle, the second at the point aimed at (supposing the 
 point to be struck); between these two points all portions of the 
 trajectory are above the line of sight. If aim be taken at the 
 lowest point or element of an object, it follows that if the highest 
 ordinate of the trajectory corresponding to the range is equal to 
 or less than the height of the object aimed at, the danger space for 
 that object will be continuous. For example, the highest point of 
 the trajectory coresponding to a range of 500 yards is 2 feet above 
 the line of sight, so that for an object of that height, or greater, 
 the danger space will be continuous provided aim is taken at the 
 foot of the object. It is this circumstance which permits the adop- 
 tion of a universal sight — the battle sight — adaptable to all the 
 shorter ranges. 
 
 Owing to the fact that curvature of the trajectory increases 
 with the range, the angle of fall for the longer ranges will be greater 
 and the danger space for an object of a given height will be less, 
 the falling branch only of the trajectory being considered. The 
 increase in the distance also makes it more difficult to obtain a 
 close estimate of the range. 
 
 The Cone of Dispersion and the Probabilities of Hitting. — 
 The causes which make for dispersion of shots as given in the table 
 of deviations of the United States rifle are dependent upon varia- 
 
SMALL ARMS FIRING 349 
 
 tions in different parts of the rifle and imperfections in the ammu- 
 nition alone. 
 
 In consequence of differences in sights, the variations in 
 different parts of the rifle, and in the ammunition, and, to a much 
 greater extent, individual errors made in aiming and firing, a series 
 of shots fired by a body of soldiers with a common aiming point 
 and the same sight setting, under uniform meteorological condi- 
 tions, do not all follow the same path, but will be more or less 
 separated. 
 
 The trajectories considered together make a horn-shaped 
 figure called the cone of fire or cone of dispersion, owing to the re- 
 semblance to the geometrical figure of that name. The term 
 "sheaf of bullets" is also used to express the same meaning, and 
 all these are applied to a particular series of collective shots fired 
 in practice or in service. 
 
 If the shots so fired be intercepted by a vertical target in a 
 position normal to the direction of the fire, a diagram of hits is 
 formed called the shot group. In the diagram of hits the shots 
 appear as most thickly disposed about a point situated approxi- 
 mately in the center of the group, called the center of impact. 
 From this point in all directions the density of the grouping de- 
 creases progressively — at first gradually, then more rapidly out to 
 the limits of the group. 
 
 The arrangement of shots in the diagram of hits, apparently 
 regardless of any rule, is in fact in conformity to a law which does 
 not exhibit itself until after the delivery of a large number of 
 shots. If measurements be made of a given shot group, the wild 
 shots being disregarded, and the mean vertical and mean horizontal 
 dispersion from the center of impact be found, these measurements 
 are in effect statements or indexes of the law of distribution of 
 the hits for that particular group. A horizontal strip of the width 
 of the mean vertical dispersion and symmetrically placed as to 
 the center of impact contains 50 per cent, of the hits in the 
 group. 
 
 It is well known that the dimensions of the cone of disper- 
 sion and of the shot group vary with the skill of those firing; 
 good ^hots make a small group and poor shots a larger group. If 
 the mean verticle and mean horizontal dispersions for riflemen 
 of a certain grade of skill be determined for various ranges, a 
 large number of shots being considered, means are provided by 
 which, in connection with a table of probability factors, there may 
 be computed the probable number of hits to be expected in col- 
 lective firing by shots of the same degree of skill at any range, 
 at targets of any size. By this means a suitable standard may be 
 constructed by which the results obtained in combat firing may be 
 judged. 
 
350 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 The intersection of the cone of dispersion with the surface 
 on which the object of the fire stands is called the beaten zone. 
 On a horizontal surface the form of the beaten zone is somewhat 
 that of an ellipse with its major axis in the direction of the line 
 of fire. At short ranges the elliptical figure is very much elon- 
 gated, and, as the range is increased, the greater axis becomes 
 shorter. When the surface of impact is on ground rising with 
 respect to the line of sight the longer axis is very much shortened, 
 or, in other words, the depth of the beaten zone is very much 
 diminished. 
 
 The grouping obtained on the surface of the ground by 
 shots fired as a volley, or in a particular series of shots fired col- 
 lectively, is sometimes referred to as the shot group. 
 
 The arrangement of hits in the beaten zone follows a law 
 similar to that in the diagram of hits on a vertical target. The 
 mean longitudinal dispersion on a horizontal surface in the direc- 
 tion of the fire bears a direct relation to the mean vertical dis- 
 persion, being the product of the latter by the cotangent of the 
 angle of fall. 
 
 The Effectiveness of Fire. — The effectiveness of fire under 
 battle conditions and in combat firing exercises is dependent upon 
 the three factors: The percentage of hits made, the number of 
 targets hit, and the time of execution. The ultimate effect may be 
 expressed synthetically by the number of enemies disabled or 
 targets hit in a unit of time. 
 
 The percentage of hits is dependent upon the dispersion, and 
 this is influenced by the precision of the arm, the distance from 
 the target, the visibility of the target, the prevailing atmospheric 
 conditions, the training and instruction of the troops, and upon 
 their physical and normal state at the time. 
 
 The percentage of hits is also dependent upon the visibility 
 of the objective, upon the character of the ground as favoring 
 ricochet hits, upon the correct estimation of the distance or choice 
 of sight, and designation of the target, these latter pertaining to 
 fire control. 
 
 With a given accuracy, the number of targets hit or the 
 distribution of fire may be affected by varying degrees of visibility, 
 as men instinctively choose the more conspicuous marks as aiming 
 points. Under any circumstances, an imperfect distribution of 
 the hits made will be due to an absence of proper instructions from 
 the leaders, or, in other words, to poor control, or else to a want 
 of understanding or lack of obedience on the part of the men. 
 
 The time of execution is important in that the gaining of 
 fire superiority is dependent less upon obtaining high percentages 
 of hits than upon making an absolutely large number of hits in 
 
SMALL ARMS FIRING 351 
 
 a unit of time. There is necessarily a limit to the rapidity of fire 
 which, if exceeded, results in some loss of accuracy. 
 
 The results obtained in collective firing exercises in time of 
 peace give but a slight basis for estimating the results to be ex- 
 pected in time of war. The somewhat inferior training of units 
 mobilized to war strength, the emotions to which even disciplined 
 men are subject in action, and the physical impairment incident 
 to service conditions are influences which combine to greatly 
 lessen the effects which peace-time experiments give, this lowering 
 in effects being due to increased dispersions, the latter, under the 
 doctrine of chances, giving lesser probabilities of hitting in pro- 
 portion to the increase in dispersion. 
 
 It has been estimated that war-time dispersion varies ac- 
 cording to the training, morale, and physical condition of the 
 troops from twice to four times, or more, the peace dispersions. 
 This is not a condition to be desired or sought, but one to be 
 understood and reckoned with. 
 
 THE INFLUENCE OF GROUND 
 
 An obstacle of sufficient thickness to prevent the penetra- 
 tion of the bullet will protect from fire the space extending from 
 its foot to the point where the bullet, which grazes its crest, meets 
 the ground. The space which is thus protected from fire is called 
 the " defiladed space." Its extent will depend on the height of the 
 shelter, the curvature of the trajectory and the slope of the ground 
 behind the shelter. 
 
 If the height of the shelter be less than that of a man stand- 
 ing, only a partial protection will be afforded, and to obtain com- 
 plete shelter it is necessary for the soldier to assume the kneeling 
 or prone positions. By cover is meant effective defilade from the 
 enemy's fire. Concealment means a screening from view but not 
 necessarily protection from fire. 
 
 Rising and Falling Ground. — The influence of the ground 
 upon the effect of fire manifests itself in the depth of the beaten 
 zone. This depth is decreased if the surface of reception rises with 
 respect to the line of sight; it increases, on the other hand, if the 
 surface of reception falls with respect to the line of sight. 
 
 It should tie remembered that, assuming a proper adjustment 
 of the fire, depth of beaten zone can affect only targets which have 
 depth. On a lineal target the depth of the beaten zone has no 
 effect one way or the other. If this target is backed up by sup- 
 ports and reserves, the effect upon them will depend upon their 
 positions with respect to the firing line which forms the objective 
 or aiming point and upon the depth of the beaten zone. The 
 
352 
 
 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 beaten zone is influenced by the lay of the ground, whether rising 
 or falling, with respect to the line of sight. 
 
 Through a judicious choice of ground, the measurement of 
 slopes, the placement of targets, and the selection of firing points, 
 the possibilities of the species of indirect fire known as grazing 
 fire may be demonstrated; but the mere possibility of inflicting 
 damage on invisible enemies must not create a fajfcg impression as 
 to the use of this class of fire. ^^ 
 
 Ricochet Shots. — Bullets which ricochet usually tumble after 
 striking, and jacketed bullets, on striking a hard, rough surface 
 become altered in form more or less, the jackets sometimes becom- 
 
 Grotmd rising in respect of line of sight. 
 
 Rising Ground 
 
 \Rising Ground 
 
 , Rising Grountk 
 
 Level Ground 
 
 Ground falling in respect of line of sight. 
 
 The Beaten zone is greatest on slope A-D, 
 the Trajectory being practically parallel 
 to the surface of the ground. 
 
 THE RELATION OF GROUND TO FIRE EFFECT 
 
 B LeosJ 
 ^Grtuni 
 
 Falling 
 Ground 
 
 ing separated from the lead core. Wounds inflicted by ricochet 
 hits are, therefore, as a rule, severe. 
 
 The most favorable ground for ricochets is a smooth, hard, 
 horizontal surface. Bullets also ricochet on water, and, to a lesser 
 extent on plowed ground, wet clay, wet turf, or swampy ground. 
 The chance of ricochet in sand is very slight. Bullets which 
 ricochet are often deflected laterally and the amount of deflection 
 influences the range of the rebound. The maximum angle of de- 
 flection is about 30° and it is usually to the right. The range will 
 be greater as the point of strike is nearer the point from which the 
 piece is fired. A smooth, hard surface so inclined as to give an 
 
SMALL ARMS FIRING 353 
 
 acute angle of fall to the bullet produces the maximum range of 
 rebound, which is about 2,500 yards or a little more. 
 
 The Occupation of Ground. — The question presents two as- 
 pects, as follows: 
 
 First. What firing positions may be chosen which will tend 
 to increase the losses of the enemy? 
 
 Second. What positions may be chosen and formations 
 adopted to minimize our own losses? 
 
 Where other conditions admit, it is obvious that a defensive 
 position well down a slope is preferable to a position higher up, 
 on or near the crest, as by this arrangement the depth of the 
 beaten zone for fire delivered therefrom is increased and the upper 
 portion of the cone of shots include the supports and reserves 
 advancing to reenforce the firing line of the attacking force. This 
 course also tends to eliminate dead spaces, which might otherwise 
 exist at the foot of the slope. 
 
 On the other hand, a defensive position near the crest, be- 
 sides favoring observation of the enemy, lends itself to a ready 
 withdrawal of the firing line should a falling back be necessary, or 
 else to its prompt reenforcement by the supports advancing from 
 behind the crest. The decision as to choice of ground to be 
 occupied in any particular case must therefor be dependent upon 
 judgment as to the relative value of the ballistic and tactical con- 
 siderations involved. 
 
 From the point of view of avoiding losses, all gentle reverse 
 slopes are dangerous and are to be avoided when possible. When 
 necessary to traverse or to occupy such ground, precautions must 
 be taken to protect the reserves or other bodies of troops by 
 placing them on the flanks; by disposing them in formations with a 
 narrow front; by causing them to lie down; by the construction of 
 suitable shelter; and by avoiding useless movements. Finally by 
 placing the firing line, which is the visible target and at which the 
 enemy's fire is directed, as well down the slope from the crest as 
 tactical considerations will admit, the high ground will interpose as 
 a defilade and intercept the upper portion of the collective cone 
 which might otherwise take effect on objects behind the crest. 
 
 THE ADJUSTMENT OF FIRE 
 
 The correct adjustment of infantry fire is attained by caus- 
 ing the center of impact of the collective group to fall on the 
 center of the target, this placement of the group under the law of 
 probabilities insuring the greatest number of hits. This is the 
 problem constantly presented in combat firing and in service. 
 
 Two distinct and independent elements enter, which may 
 supplement or counteract each other — the influence of the troops 
 
354 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 and that of the commander. When a body of troops has aimed 
 correctly at the indicated objective with the elevation ordered and 
 has fired with steadiness, it has done all that can be expected of it; 
 but this is not sufficient. It is the duty of the commander to bring 
 the shot group into proper relationship with the target. If the 
 correct elevation be given, a maximum result will be obtained; if 
 a mistake is made, the result may be nothing. 
 
 It is known that good shots make a small group and poor 
 shots a large group, average shots making a group of intermediate 
 size. The maximum effect is obtained if the shots are of the 
 highest grade and if the center of impact is correctly placed. But 
 if the center of impact of the group made by good shots is dis- 
 placed, the effect falls off very rapidly compared to the other 
 grades of shots, and if the displacement is very great, it may be 
 sufficient to insure that the good shots will make no hits at all, 
 while, with the same displacement of the center of impact, the 
 fire of the poorer grades of shots will continue to have some effect. 
 In other words, the fire of a thoroughly trained body of troops 
 may be less effective than that of much poorer shots if, through 
 a lack of appreciation of the range, the center of impact of its shot 
 group be displaced. * 
 
 Normally, battle-field targets are lineal targets, and hence 
 a lateral displacement is of slight consequence, as shots aimed at 
 one element or section of the hostile line may take effect in some 
 other element or section of the same front. Owing to the slight 
 depth of service targets and to the form of the trajectory, the 
 longitudinal placement of the center of impact is more difficult. 
 
 The point of strike of the bullet is determined by the angle 
 of elevation given the axis of the bore when the piece is fired, and 
 the adjustable slide of the rear sight, with the scale of the leaf 
 graduated to yards, is a device for giving the elevation necessary 
 to reach any point within the range of the arm. If the range to 
 a target is known exactly, under average conditions, a perfect ad- 
 justment of the fire is obtained by having each man of the firing 
 detachment set his sight for the indicated range, the mean tra- 
 jector of the cone of dispersion approximating closely to the nor- 
 mal trajectory for the range indicated. 
 
 Rear-Sight Corrections Through Observations of Signs of 
 Impact. — When the surface on which the objective stands is such 
 as to give visible signs of the impact of bullets, a supplementary 
 means is provided by which rear-sight settings may be corrected. 
 When the ground is favorable, the simultaneous strike of a num- 
 ber of shots fired with the same rear-sight setting gives a better 
 indication of the location of the shot group than the same number 
 of shots would provide if fired at the will of the individuals of 
 the platoon or detachment. 
 
SMALL ARMS FIRING 355 
 
 In order to be able to recognize the center of impact on the 
 various surfaces ordinarily met with in service, it is necessary to be 
 acquainted with the form and dimensions of the beaten zone as it is 
 exhibited thereon. A rising surface of reception produces a short- 
 ening effect on the beaten zone. 
 
 Combined Sights. — When means of exact determination are 
 not available and indications of impact are lacking or insufficient 
 and the range can not be learned from the artillery or neighbor- 
 ing troops, some error in the range must be expected. In such 
 a case, through the expedient of combined sights, a greater depth 
 of beaten zone may be created, giving an assurance of effect which 
 might not otherwise be obtained. Such a fire loses in concentra- 
 tion, and this must be compensated for by the employment of a 
 larger number of rifles. The most common application of com- 
 bined sights is in executing fire of position. The expedient is not 
 usually employed by bodies of less strength than a battalion. 
 
 The approximate ranges for combined sights and the num- 
 ber of sights to be employed in any case are questions which 
 depend upon the depth of the beaten zone and the probable error 
 in the estimation of the range. Both these factors vary between 
 certain limits. The depth of the beaten zone varies inversely with 
 the range. It is also greater in time of war than in time of peace, 
 but, in view of the circumstances under which the fire of position is 
 usually executed, a very great dispersion need not be looked for. 
 The greatest probable error is about 15 per cent, of the range. 
 When a good instrumental range finder is available the error 
 should not exceed 5 per cent, of the range. In the majority of 
 cases the error to be expected will lie between these two ex- 
 tremes. 
 
 Auxiliary Aiming Points and Target Designation. — Through 
 invisibility and the practice of concealment, it frequently occurs in 
 service that individual enemies or deployed bodies of the enemy 
 are too inconspicuous to provide in themselves a good aiming 
 point. In such case it is necessary to select well-defined marks or 
 objects in the immediate vicinity upon which to direct the fire, 
 these being so chosen and the rear sight so adjusted that the objec- 
 tive will lie at the center of the resulting beaten zone. 
 
 When natural and artificial features are numerous enough 
 to make a confusion of forms, or when the surface is of a monoton- 
 ous character, unbroken by marks which might serve as aiming 
 points or points of reference, target designation is difficult. It is 
 necessary that indications be given in clear and precise terms, and 
 that the men in ranks have the capacity to understand what is 
 said. A lack of understanding may cause the fire to be delivered 
 in quite another direction from that intended. 
 
 It is frequently advantageous to make use of the clock no- 
 
356 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 tation in indicating the direction of a target. For this purpose a 
 well-defined object in front is announced and considered as being 
 at 12 o'clock, the objective being indicated by the usual clock 
 designations, according to the difference from the point of refer- 
 ence. Angular differences between the target and reference points 
 may be indicated by finger breadths. 
 
 Fire at Moving Targets. — The adjustment of fire on moving 
 objectives is subject to certain special considerations in that, due to 
 changes of position of the target, it is not possible with a certain 
 sight setting to maintain a perfect adjustment of the fire. Changes 
 in sight setting are necessary to conform to the changes in the 
 position of the target, and the two questions naturally arise, what 
 original sight setting should be adopted upon first opening fire and 
 what changes in it should be made as the action progresses. 
 
 It is obvious that if a beaten zone be established imme- 
 diately in front of an enemy, his forward movement into the beaten 
 zone will complete the adjustment of the fire. Due to the chance 
 of overestimating the range, it is necessary to adopt a rear sight 
 setting well under the estimated range, in order to insure that the 
 Ibeaten zone will be in advance of the enemy. When the fire be- 
 comes effective, as may be judged by the actions and movements 
 of the enemy, the rate of fire should be quickened in order to in- 
 crease the effect of the fire. When the target continues to advance 
 till it has passed entirely through the zone of effective fire (75 per 
 cent, zone), a lower sight setting will be required so as to again 
 bring the center of the beaten zone in front of the target. Fre- 
 quent changes of sight cause a loss of time, besides multiplying 
 chances of error in sight setting. 
 
 In accordance with these ideas, against infantry advancing, a 
 sight setting 200 yards less than the estimated range should first 
 be used. When the enemy has passed through the zone of effective 
 fire, the sight should be lowered 200 yards and the operation re- 
 peated till the battle-sight zone is reached, in which no sight ma- 
 nipulation is required other than throwing down the leaf. Against 
 skirmish lines which advance by rushes the sight setting shoufd 
 not be changed during a rush. This should be done at the halts, 
 so that the greater vulnerability of the targets presented during 
 the rush may be taken advantage of. 
 
 Against attacking cavalry, due to the rapidity of the advance, 
 there is not usually time for sight manipulation other than throw- 
 ing down the leaf of the rear sight, so that the battle sight should 
 be resorted to at all ranges. 
 
 Against retreating targets fire should be opened with the 
 sight corresponding to the estimated range, and when the target 
 appears to have passed beyond the zone of effective fire 200 yards 
 should be added to the sight. 
 
SMALL ARMS FIRING 357 
 
 In firing at a target moving across the line of fire it is de- 
 sirable, on account of the confusion caused thereby, to hit the head 
 of the column. It is necessary therefore to hold to the front a 
 distance sufficient to allow for the time of flight and the rate of 
 march. 
 
 Indirect Fire. — The proper adjustment of fire on an objective 
 which is screened from the view of the observer at the firing point 
 by an intervening obstacle is dependent upon the conjunction of 
 favorable circumstances not usually met with in service. The 
 height of the obstacle and the range must be such that the ob- 
 jective is not defiladed from fire, and besides determining the 
 range, the position of the objective must be known, so that the 
 proper lateral direction to the pieces may be given. For this pur- 
 pose intermediate auxiliary aiming points are necessary to mark 
 the direction of the fire. In siege operations opportunities may 
 arise for the employment of this kind of fire, in which case material 
 may usually be found for constructing rests for rifles, so that fire 
 delivered therefrom will reach important stationary objectives. 
 
 Night Firing. — The invisibility afforded by darkness neutral- 
 izes the power of the rifle to a great extent by making it im- 
 possible to employ the ordinary means of fire adjustment. 
 
 In night attacks the purpose of the offensive is to gain rapidly 
 and quietly a position where the issue may be decided in a hand 
 to hand encounter or a position from which the superiority of fire 
 may be gained at daylight. For the offensive, therefore, fire action 
 is a subordinate consideration. 
 
 On the defensive, when a night attack is apprehended, prep- 
 arations should be made to sweep with fire the ground immediately 
 in front over which the assailant must advance. Special arrange- 
 ments may sometimes be made for resting rifles on the parapet, 
 so that the ground in front will be suitably covered. A solid sup- 
 port is necessary for maintaining the proper direction of the pieces 
 during firing. For this purpose notched boards or timbers are 
 convenient. The arrangements should be such that the operations 
 of loading and firing may be performed without removing the 
 rifles from the support. Searchlight illumination may reveal the 
 position and movements of the enemy sufficiently well to permit 
 the use of the sights. 
 
 The Critique. — Intelligent criticism is the basis of good in- 
 struction and insures progress. Hence, to realize the full benefits 
 of the exercises in combat firing a careful analysis is made by the 
 supervisor as soon as the results of each firing are known, and 
 on the ground on which the exercise was held. A discriminating 
 judgment is required on the part of the officer charged with this 
 duty, and it is important that not only the errors committed, but 
 
358 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 the means of correcting or avoiding them, should be carefully ex- 
 plained. 
 
 Range Regulations. — A suitable range party is detailed by 
 the officer supervising the firing, consisting of an officer as range 
 officer and a sufficient number of men to act as target and signal 
 men and range guards. 
 
 The duties of the range officer are to prepare the targets, to 
 superintend their placing and manipulation, to see that the range 
 is safe, and where necessary to post range guards to prevent per- 
 sons from entering the area of fire; to record and report the results 
 of the firing. 
 
 Every precaution is taken to provide for the safety of mark- 
 ers, target men and others whose duties require them to be any- 
 where within or near the area of fire. When it appears to be neces- 
 sary, a point which is continually in view of the officer or non- 
 commissioned officer in charge of the firing line throughout the 
 exercise is selected from which to display the danger signal. -This 
 point is known to all engaged in the firing. No firing of any kind 
 is done while the danger signal is displayed. Should the danger 
 signal appear while an exercise is in progress, the command is 
 halted and all firing and movement ceases. When the danger 
 signal is removed the exercise is resumed. 
 
 Except during the regular practice season, there is held 
 monthly, if practicable, such combat practice as the regimental 
 commander may prescribe. 
 
 Where local or other conditions prevent the use of ball 
 ammunition, such exercises are conducted with blank ammunition. 
 
 This instruction includes company, battalion and regimental 
 combat firing exercises. A record of such combat practice is kept 
 and a report showing the nature of the exercises, with copies of 
 the problems, if any, are submitted monthly to the department 
 commander. 
 
 PROFICIENCY TEST 
 
 To determine the proficiency attained in collective marks- 
 manship, courses in firing suitable as tests and adapted to the firing 
 grounds available are prepared by the regimental commander for 
 the companies or troops of his regiment. These tests follow the 
 combat practice and are held near the end of the practice season 
 or later — they must be held during the period announced for the 
 field training of the troops. They are designated as a further and 
 more formal proof or test of instruction than is furnished by the 
 results obtained in the known-distance practice and the combat 
 exercises. 
 
SMALL ARMS FIRING 
 
 359 
 
 CLASSIFICATION RIFLE FIRING 
 
 The requirements for the qualification in the several grades 
 of marksmanship are given in the following table : 
 
 Grade. 
 
 Rifle firing. 
 Points. 
 
 Expert rifleman 
 
 Sharpshooter 
 
 253 
 238 
 202 
 177 
 152 
 
 Marksman 
 
 First-class man 
 
 Second-class man 
 
 The soldier having attained the grade of marksman or better 
 retains that classification during his current enlistment unless in 
 subsequent firing he attains a higher grade. The officer having 
 attained the grade of marksman or better retains that classi- 
 fication and is authorized to wear the badge for three years from 
 date of qualification unless in subsequent firing he attains a higher 
 grade. Requalification by officers with a view to obtaining author- 
 ized bars can be made only after three years from date of first 
 qualification or from date of last requalification for a bar. 
 
 The soldier who has completed the course of known dis- 
 tance practice and is transferred thereafter, or who is discharged 
 and re-enlists, is not given a second opportunity in the same 
 target year to qualify. 
 
 A soldier who is discharged and re-enlists within three 
 months retains his last qualification for one year from date of 
 re-enlistment unless in the meantime he shall have fired the record- 
 practice qualification course. As soon as he fires the record- 
 practice qualification course his previous classification ceases and 
 he is classified according to the scores he may make in that 
 course. 
 
 EXTRA COMPENSATION 
 
 The soldier receives such extra compensation for qualifica- 
 tion in rifle firing as may be authorized by law and regulations. 
 
 Immediately after the close of the record practice, qualifi- 
 cation course, the names of men who qualify in the various grades 
 for which extra compensation is awarded are published in orders. 
 
 These orders are issued by commanders empowered by reg- 
 ulations to issue orders for the appointment and promotion of 
 non-commissioned officers, or in exceptional cases by higher com- 
 
360 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 manders, upon receipt of properly authenticated evidence as to 
 qualification, and show the date of actual qualification from which 
 the soldier is entitled to additional pay. 
 
 INSIGNIA 
 
 To each officer and soldier qualifying for the first time as 
 expert rifleman, sharpshooter, marksman, expert pistol shot, and 
 first-class pistol shot certain insignia, indicating their skill in marks- 
 manship, are issued. 
 
 Rifleman's Insignia. — (a) Marksman's Pin. To marksmen, 
 when first qualifying as such is issued a marksman's pin. A sol- 
 dier, having qualified as a marksman, may wear this pin as long 
 as he continues to draw the increased pay for that qualification. 
 
 (b) Sharpshooter's Badge. To the sharpshooter a 'silver 
 badge is issued. For the first qualification in this grade the badge 
 consists of a pin and cross; the soldier having once qualified as a 
 sharpshooter may wear the badge while he is entitled to draw the 
 increased pay for that qualification. To those who have qualified 
 as sharpshooters for three years, not necessarily consecutive years, 
 nor, in the case of enlisted men, in the same enlistment, a silver 
 bar is issued, on which the three years of their qualifications is 
 indicated, and this is attached to the badge, between the pin and 
 the cross. For each additional three years of qualification an 
 additional bar is issued, and each in succession attached below the 
 one previously supplied and above the cross. 
 
 (c) Expert Rifleman's Badge. To the expert rifleman is 
 issued a silver badge. The soldier having qualified as an expert 
 rifleman may wear the badge while he is entitled to draw the 
 increased pay for that qualification. To those who have qualified 
 as expert riflemen for three years, not necessarily consecutive 
 years, nor, in the case of enlisted men, in the same enlistment, a 
 silver bar is issued, on which the three years of their qualification 
 is indicated, and this is attached to the badge below the pin. 
 For each additional three years of qualification an additional bar 
 is issued, and each in succession attached below the one previously 
 supplied. 
 
 Marksman's Pin, Special Course "A." — To marksmen, when 
 first qualifying as such in special course "A," is issued a special 
 marksman's pin. If qualification is renewed in the succeeding 
 season the pin may be worn another year, and so on for further 
 seasons, but if the grade of marksman is not reached the pin is 
 not worn. This pin is issued upon the certificate of the company 
 commander that the soldier has qualified under the regulations as 
 a marksman in special course "A." 
 
SMALL ARMS FIRING 361 
 
 Expert Pistol Shot's Badge. — To the expert pistol shot, 
 officer or enlisted man, a silver badge is issued, which may be 
 worn for three years from the date of qualification or requalifi- 
 cation. Requalification by officers and enlisted men can be made 
 only after three years from date of first qualification or from 
 date of last requalification. For each requalification, a silver bar 
 is issued, which specifies the year of requalification and is attached 
 to the badge immediately below the pin. 
 
 First-Class Pistol Shot's Pin.— To the first-class pistol shot 
 is issued a pin, which may be worn for one year from the date 
 of qualification and thereafter for one year from the date of 
 each subsequent qualification. 
 
 Duplicates. — All these insignia become the property of the 
 persons to whom issued. If they are lost by the owner or in 
 transmission to him, or if they become unsightly from long wear, 
 they may be replaced without cost to the owner. In case of loss, 
 claim must be made within 60 days from date of loss. Duplicates, 
 if desired for use on separate coats, will be sold to those entitled 
 to wear the insignia. 
 
 Telescopic Sights. — To properly equip a special class of 
 shots who, in action, may be employed as sharpshooters the tel- 
 escopic sight is adopted. These sights are supplied by the Ord- 
 nance Department at the rate of two to each company. They are 
 assigned to the enlisted men found best qualified to use them, and 
 may, in the discretion of the company commander, be carried by 
 them at inspection under arms. Not less than four men of each 
 company will be given a suitable amount of practice with these 
 sights. 
 
 RECORDS AND REPORTS 
 
 The company target record consists of three parts: (a) 
 The individual record of known-distance rifle firing, (b) The 
 individual record of pistol firing, (c) The record of the company 
 combat firing and proficiency test. The sheets forming these 
 records are bound by the loose-leaf system. By this means the 
 books are at all times live records. All entries in these records 
 are made in ink. 
 
 For companies of Coast Artillery the record contains the 
 record of firing special course "A," the same individual sheets 
 being used. 
 
 The record of an officer attached to a company for prac- 
 tice is duly attested and transmitted to the officer. 
 
 The records of an enlisted man attached to a company for 
 practice are similarly attested and transmitted to the officer 
 
362 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 charged with the custody of the soldier's descriptive list and ac- 
 count of pay and clothing. 
 
 Reports. — All reports of rifle and pistol firings are submitted 
 to the proper headquarters as soon as possible after the comple- 
 tion of the firing. The reports to be rendered are as follows: 1. 
 Report of individual classification in rifle practice (annual, com- 
 pany, excepting companies of Coast Artillery). 2. Report of indi- 
 vidual classification of firing under special course "A" (annual for 
 companies of Coast Artillery). 3. Battalion commander's report 
 of combat firing (annual). 4. Report of individual classification in 
 pistol practice (annual, company, for all armed with the pistol). 
 
 5. Consolidated regimental report of classification, rifle practice. 
 
 6. Consolidated regimental report of classification, pistol practice. 
 
 7. Regimental commander's report of combat firing and the results 
 of the proficiency tests. 
 
 With the exception of the battalion commander's report of 
 combat firing and the regimental commander's report on combat 
 firing and the results of the proficiency test, these reports are 
 rendered on prescribed forms furnished by the Adjutant General of 
 the Army. 
 
 As soon as possible after the close of the practice season, 
 the battalion commander will forward to the regimental com- 
 mander the reports of individual classification in rifle and pistol 
 practice of the companies of his battalion. With these he will sub- 
 mit a report of the combat exercises and of the results of the 
 proficiency test when these tests were not supervised by the 
 regimental commander. This report will be in letter form and will 
 set forth briefly when and where the exercises were held, the 
 suitability of the ground for the purpose, the number and general 
 character of the exercises and whether or not proficiency was 
 attained therein according to the established standard of judg- 
 ment, the number of men in each company participating, and the 
 average number of rounds per man expended in this practice. 
 
 TARGETS 
 
 Targets are divided into four classes: (a) Known-distance 
 targets (for rifle), (b) Field targets (for rifle), (c) Pistol targets. 
 (d) Miniature targets (for gallery practice). 
 
 Known-distance Targets. — Target A. The short-range tar- 
 get, used for 200 and 300 yards, is a rectangle 6 feet high 4 feet 
 wide. Black circular bull's-eye 8 inches in diameter, value of hit, 
 5; center ring, 26 inches in diameter, value of hit, 4; inner ring, 
 46 inches in diameter, value of hit, 3; outer, remainder of target, 
 value of hit, 2. 
 
SMALL ARMS FIRING 363 
 
 Target B. The mid-range target, used for 500 and 600 yards, 
 is a square 6 feet on a side, black circular bull's-eye 20 inches in 
 diameter; center ring, 37 inches in diameter; inner ring, 53 inches 
 in diameter; outer, remainder of target. Value of hits, same as 
 on target "A." 
 
 Target C. The long-range target, used for 800 and 1,000 
 yards. It is a rectangle 6 feet high and 10 feet wide. Black cir- 
 
 TARGET NOMENCLATURE: 
 
 A hit at (1) is described as a bullseye, pinwheel, at (2), a bullseyc, half in 
 at ten o'clock, at (3), a four, hanging on at five o'clock, at (4) a three half out at 
 seven o'clock, and at (5) a two just out at one-thirty. 
 
 cular bull's-eye, 36 inches in diameter; center ring, 54 inches in 
 diameter; inner space outside of center ring bounded by vertical 
 lines 2 feet from each end of target; outer, remainder of target. 
 Value of hits, same as on target "A." 
 
 Target D. The rapid-fire target. A black silhouette rep- 
 resenting a soldier in the prone position placed in the middle of 
 
364 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 a rectangular target 6 by 6 feet. Value of hits in the figure, 5; 
 in the space (within parallels to figure, 4 inches in width above 
 and at sides of figure, 14 inches below figure) immediately out- 
 side the figure, 4; in the space immediately outside the 4 space, 3; 
 remainder of the target, 2. 
 
 Field Targets. — Target E. A drab silhouette about the 
 height of a soldier in the kneeling position, made of bookbinders' 
 board or other similar material. Hits on all field targets count 1, 
 and any shot cutting the edge of a silhouette is a hit. 
 
 Target F. A drab silhouette about the height of a soldier in 
 the prone position made of bookbinders' board or other similar 
 material. The life of targets E and F can be materially prolonged 
 by pasting on fresh paper silhouettes when the figure becomes too 
 much damaged by shots. These targets are used as stationary 
 targets as well as on the moving and disappearing appliances. 
 
 Target G. Falling target. The target is made of soft wood 
 about the shape, size and color of the prone silhouette F. These 
 targets should be placed in small pits (1 by 2 feet), so that about 
 9 or 10 inches of vertical protection is given the base and mechan- 
 ism; only the face of the target should show to the front. 
 
 Target H. Targets E or F inserted in a slit at the end of 
 a marking disk staff or pole and fastened with wooden pegs. 
 The staffs are held in the hands of markers or in brackets on the 
 inside of the crest of the pit. The targets are held faced to the 
 front. When struck they are turned rapidly so as to show the 
 white side, and then back to the original position. 
 
 Target I. Beam disappearing target. The visible target 
 represents a line of prone or kneeling figures at suitable intervals. 
 In close order 8 figures are mounted on each beam. The figures 
 are targets E and F, mounted on the regulation staves, which are 
 modified by having the points cut off, so that but 6 inches project 
 below the bottom of the figures. 
 
 Target K. Sled target. The disappearing target beam 
 (target I), is lashed lengthwise to two sleds. A rope from 200 to 
 300 yards long is used to pull this target and an escort wagon and 
 team has been found to be the best motive power. The rope can 
 be run through a snatch block and the team concealed by inequal- 
 ities of the ground. If no cover can be found for hiding the sled 
 before it starts, it can be easily masked with brush, grass, etc., 
 which will fall when the targets start. 
 
 Pistol Targets. — Target L. A rectangle 6 feet high and 4 feet 
 wide, with black circular bull's-eye, 5 inches in diameter. Value of 
 hit therein, 10. Seven rings with diameters as follows: 
 
 Value of hits. 
 
 (1)8^ inches 9 
 
 (2) 12 inches 8 
 
SMALL ARMS FIRING 365 
 
 Value of hits. 
 
 (3) lSy 2 inches \ . 7 
 
 (4) 19 inches 6 
 
 (5) 22^ inches ' 5 
 
 (6) 26 inches 4 
 
 (7) 46 inches 3 
 
 (8) Outer, remainder of target 2 
 
 Target M. Silhouette, representing standing figure, of which 
 the upper part is Target E and lower part a trapezoidal piece 
 whose upper edge is placed closely against the lower edge of tar- 
 get E. Hits count 1. 
 
 Miniature Targets. — For use in Special Course for Volun- 
 teer Recruits, and in gallery practice. 
 
 RANGES 
 
 There are two classes of ranges: Class "A" ranges,, which 
 are more or less limited in extent and which are equipped for 
 known distance practice; class "B" ranges, which are of extended 
 area and diversified terrain, and which are used for combat firing. 
 
 As the nature and extent of the ground available for target 
 practice and also the general climatic conditions are often widely 
 dissimilar for different military posts, it is not possible to pre- 
 scribe any particular rules governing the selection of ranges, but 
 only to express certain general conditions to which ranges should 
 be made to conform as far as may be practicable. In view ef the 
 extreme range and penetration of the bullet of the United States 
 rifle it is found necessary in the case of many posts to have target 
 practice conducted at a distance of several miles from the post, 
 necessitating the establishment of a camp on or near the range. 
 
 For posts situated in thickly settled localities, where the 
 extent of the military reservation is limited, the first condition to 
 be fulfilled is that of security for those living or laboring near or 
 passing by the range. This requirement can be secured for class 
 " A " range by selecting ground where a natural butt is available 
 or by making an artificial butt sufficiently extensive to stop wiid 
 shots. For complete security there should be no road, building, 
 or cultivated ground on either flank of the range nearer than 300 
 yards, nor in the rear of it within the extreme range of the rifle. 
 This condition can rarely be secured unless a natural butt of large 
 extent exists. 
 
 Direction of the Range. — If possible, a range should be so 
 located that the firing is toward or slightly to the east of north. 
 This gives a good light on the face of the targets during the 
 
366 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 greater part of the day. However, security and suitable ground 
 are more important than direction. 
 
 Best Ground for Class "A" Range. — Smooth, level ground, or 
 ground with only a very moderate slope, is best adapted for a 
 range. If possible, the targets should be on the same level with 
 the firer, or only slightly above him. Firing downhill should, if 
 practicable, be avoided. 
 
 Size of Range. — The size of the range is determined by its 
 plan and by the number of troops that will fire over it at a time. 
 There are two general plans used in range construction — one with 
 a single target pit and firing points for each range, the other with 
 its firing points on one continuous line, the target pits for the 
 various ranges being in echelon. The latter type requires more 
 ground but admits of firing at different ranges at the same time. 
 
 Intervals Between Targets. — To reduce to a minimum the 
 amount of labor required in preparing the range, the targets should 
 be no farther apart than is necessary to obviate the probability 
 of a shot being fired on the wrong target. At all ranges the width 
 between the targets need not exceed the width of the targets them- 
 selves — that is, at short and mid range, 6 feet; at long range, 12 
 feet. 
 
 Protection for Markers. — On all ranges protection must 
 be provided for the pit details. This is done by excavating a pit 
 for the targets or by constructing a parapet in front of them, or 
 by a combination of these methods. 
 
 Where there are several targets in a row, the shelter should 
 be continuous. It must be high enough to protect the markers 
 and the target not being fired upon. The parapet may be of earth, 
 with a timber or concrete revetment, of sufficient thickness to 
 stop bullets, and from 7y 2 to 8 feet high above the ground or plat- 
 form on which the markers stand. 
 
 Artificial Butts. — If an artificial butt is constructed as a 
 bullet stop, it should be of earth not less than 30 feet high and 
 with a slope of not less than 45°. It should be extended about 5 
 yards beyond the outside targets and should be placed as close 
 behind the targets as possible. The slopes should be sodded. 
 
 Hills as Butts. — A natural hill to form an effective butt 
 should have a slope of not less than 45°; if originally more gradual 
 it should be cut into steps, the face of each step having that slope. 
 As a temporary expedient the face of the hill may be plowed 
 perpendicularly to the range, but as the bullets soon cut down the 
 furrows this measure must be frequently repeated to prevent the 
 danger of ricochets. 
 
 Numbering of Targets. — Each target should be designated | 
 by a number. The numbers for ranges up to 600 yards should \ 
 be at least 6 feet in height and should be painted black on a white 
 
SMALL ARMS FIRING 367 
 
 background. The Arabic is preferable to the Roman notation, 
 being more readily comprehended by the soldiers; if made of the 
 size suggested, they will always be quickly recognized. They 
 should be placed on the butt behind each target, but not so far 
 above as to prevent the soldier seeing the number when aiming 
 at the target. 
 
 Measuring the Range. — The range should be carefully meas- 
 ured and marked with stakes at each 100 yards in front of each 
 target. The stakes should be about 12 inches above the ground, 
 painted white, and lettered in black, with the number of the cor- 
 responding target and its distance. These stakes will then desig- 
 nate the firing points for each target at the different distances. 
 Particular care should be taken that each range thus marked out 
 is perpendicular to the face of its own target. 
 
 Ranges Parallel. — The different ranges for the same distance 
 should all be parallel, so that similar conditions with respect to 
 wind and light may exist. It is not essential, however, that the 
 ranges employed for long-distance shooting should be parallel to 
 those used for the ordinary company practice. 
 
 Firing Mounds. — If it becomes necessary to raise a firing 
 point on account of low ground, a low mound of earth no higher 
 than absolutely required should be made. The mound should be 
 not less than 8 feet square, level and sodded. If the entire firing 
 line is raised, the firing mound must be not less than 8 feet wide 
 on top, level, and sodded if possible. 
 
 Pit Shed. — A small house or shed should be built in or near 
 the target pit, in which the marking disks and signal flags and 
 spare parts of the target frames for making immediate repairs 
 should be stored. It should be sufficiently large to afford a shelter 
 for the markers in case of a sudden storm. 
 
 Danger Signals. — A socket for the staff of the danger signals 
 should be placed on the marker's shelter in front of each target 
 and so inclined that the flag will always fall clear of the staff and 
 be readily seen. This flag is always displayed when the target 
 is in place and not in use. In addition to the danger signals at 
 the targets one or more danger signals are displayed near the 
 range to warn passers-by when firing is in progress. These sig- 
 nals are not placed in such a position as to serve as streamers for 
 judging wind on the range. They should be placed on the roads 
 or on the crest of the hill where they can be plainly seen by those 
 passing. 
 
 Range House. — On large ranges where competitive firing is 
 held a house containing a storeroom and several office rooms 
 should be erected in some central place, off the range, but in its 
 immediate vicinity. Such facilities as will enable visitors to satis- 
 factorily witness the firing should also be provided. 
 24 
 
368 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Telephone Service. — When, practicable, ranges should be 
 equipped with a telephone system, connecting the target pit with 
 each firing point, the range house, and the post. When a large 
 number of targets are installed, the range should be equipped with 
 the annunciator buzzer system. 
 
 Covered Ways Between Pits. — Where the pits are in echelon, 
 covered ways or tunnels should be provided between the various 
 pits. This allows the pit details to be shifted with safety without 
 interrupting the firing. 
 
 Class B Range. — Certain extensive reservations in the United 
 States and the Philippine Islands furnish ample and suitable 
 ground for combat firing. At times extensive tracts of unoccupied 
 land or land from which the crops have been harvested may be 
 rented near the post. At other points where leased tracts are at 
 the disposal of the garrison for purposes of target practice or 
 maneuvers facilities for combat firing can probably be found. Any 
 ground suitable for maneuvers is also suitable for combat firing, 
 if the safety of the neighboring inhabitants be taken into consid- 
 eration and provided for. 
 
 Tracts that have been set aside as permanent Class " B " 
 ranges may be improved by the construction of permanent shelters 
 for the markers and pitmen, which should be made inconspicuous. 
 Otherwise, these ranges should be kept in the natural state, but 
 changes made to facilitate the practice or to save labor from year 
 to year should be such as not to provide assistance to those under 
 instruction. 
 
 COMPETITIONS 
 
 Competitions exist for the purposes of fostering interest in 
 target practice, of furnishing the means for the exchange of ideas 
 among those who excel in small arms firing, and of classifying the 
 best shots according to merit shown under similar conditions. 
 
 In every alternate year, or when directed by the Secretary of 
 War, the following competitions are held: 1. Department rifle 
 competitions. 2. Department pistol competitions. These competi- 
 tions are held at such places and times as may be designated by 
 the respective department commanders. A department rifle com- 
 petition for Philippine Scouts is held in every alternate year. 
 
 REGULATIONS FOR COMPETITION 
 
 The officer in charge is an officer of experience, preferably 
 a field officer. He has control of the range for the conduct of 
 the competition and for the police and government of the range 
 during the competition. He prescribes the hours for preliminary 
 practice, and for the competitions proper. His decision on such 
 matters is final. 
 
SMALL ARMS FIRING * 369 
 
 An assistant to the officer in charge reports to and receives 
 instructions from the officer in charge and assists him in the man- 
 agement of the competition. He also acts as chief range officer. 
 He has immediate charge of the range and pit and all details per- 
 taining thereto. 
 
 The adjutant discharges the duties of adjutant to the officer 
 in charge, issues by direction of the officer in charge the necessary 
 orders, and performs 'such other duties as may be assigned to 
 him. He is in direct charge of the competitors, whether they are 
 encamped or assigned to companies in barracks. He details daily 
 such range officers, scorers, markers, etc., as may be considered 
 necessary to carry on the competition. 
 
 The quartermaster has charge of quartering all competitors 
 and arranging for the transportation of their baggage and property 
 upon their arrival at the competition. If they encamp, he lays out 
 and puts up the camp. He provides all the property, including 
 stationery and office supplies, other than ordnance and signal prop- 
 erty, required for the competition and for the preparation and 
 care of the range, and performs such other duties as may be as- 
 signed to him by the officer in charge. 
 
 The statistical officer assigns the competitors to targets and 
 order of firing by lot or by a scheme worked out prior to the 
 competition. He verifies the additions of the scores as reported 
 by the scorers, grades them in order of excellence, and prepares 
 the result for official announcement. He issues such bulletins 
 from time to time as may be ordered by the officer in charge. 
 
 The ordnance officer makes timely requisition for all am- 
 munition and ordnance stores needed in the matches, and during 
 the matches supplies these stores as required. 
 
 The signal officer has charge of the electrical equipment of 
 the range and procures on requisition such telephones, signal 
 stores, and field glasses as may be needed for the proper conduct 
 of the competition. 
 
 Under direction of, and as assistants to, the chief range 
 officer are a number of range officers, not fewer than one to two 
 targets in the pit and one to two firing points on the range. Their 
 duties are to supervise the marking and scoring, to see that the 
 firing is conducted according to the regulations, and to perform 
 such other duties as required. 
 
 During the firing at all competitions a range officer is de- 
 tailed in charge of the pit at each distance. The officer in charge 
 and chief range officer formally assemble and instruct the range 
 officers in their duties before the opening of the competition and 
 place them on duty during the preliminary practice for their prac- 
 tical instruction. 
 
370 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 PENALTIES 
 
 Evading Rules. — Any competitor who may be detected in 
 an evasion of the conditions prescribed for any competition is de- 
 barred from further competition. 
 
 Falsifying Scores. — Any competitor who may be guilty of 
 falsifying his score or being accessory thereto is debarred from 
 the competition. 
 
 Offering Bribes. — Any competitor who offers a bribe of any 
 kind to a scorer or marker is debarred from the competition. 
 
 Disorderly Conduct, Intoxication, etc. — Any competitor who 
 refuses to obey the instructions of the officer in charge or his as- 
 sistants, or who violates any regulations, or is guilty of disorderly 
 conduct or intoxication, is debarred from the competition. 
 
 COURSES FOR ORGANIZED MILITIA 
 
 The general scheme of instruction for the Organized Militia 
 embraces: First, a certain amount of instruction in the preliminary 
 drills and exercises, followed by gallery practice, with a prescribed 
 test before the soldier can be advanced to practice on the target 
 range; second, a definite course of instruction practice, under 
 which, by selected scores of five shots each, a soldier must at- 
 tain a certain proficiency before he can be advanced to fire the 
 record practice, Organized Militia, or the qualification course. 
 Regular Army; third, a definite test, either the qualification course, 
 Organized Militia, or the qualification course, Regular Army, at 
 the discretion of the State authorities, under which the soldier at- 
 tains a certain grade of marksmanship; fourth, long-range practice. 
 
 DISTINGUISHED CLASSES OF MARKSMEN 
 
 Whenever a marksman has won three authorized medals in 
 department rifle competitions, or in department pistol competitions, 
 or as a member actually firing on a prize-winning team in the 
 national team match, he will be announced by the War Department 
 as belonging to a distinguished class, no longer eligible to enter de- 
 partment competitions with the arms in the use of which he is 
 distinguished. 
 
 If the three medals were won in rifle competitions, the 
 marksman will be designated a " distinguished marksman," and if 
 in pistol competitions, a " distinguished pistol shot." 
 
 To distinguished marksmen and distinguished pistol shots 
 appropriate badges are issued, which after being received by the 
 soldier, if lost, can be replaced by purchase only, for which author- 
 ity must be obtained from the War Department. 
 
CHAPTER XIV 
 
 THE CARE AND PRESERVATION OF ORDNANCE 
 EQUIPMENT, SMALL ARMS, AMMUNI- 
 TION AND EXPLOSIVES 
 
 The general subject of the care and preservation of arms 
 and equipment is entitled to great consideration and should be 
 made the subject of instruction as well as administration. Officers 
 or non-commissioned officers should make themselves thoroughly 
 familiar with the problems involved and enforce the recognized 
 rules governing the care of equipment in order to prolong its life 
 and reduce the cost of maintenance. 
 
 All cloth equipment should be well brushed, frequently with 
 a stiff bristle brush. A dry scrub brush may be used. It should be 
 washed only under the direction and supervision of a commissioned 
 officer. During ordinary garrison duty it should rarely be neces- 
 sary to wash the equipment. When the equipment becomes soiled 
 a light local washing will frequently be sufficient, but when dirty 
 it should unhesitatingly be given a good and thorough washing, 
 otherwise it may be expected that it will become unsanitary and 
 rot. During field service it is to be expected that the equipment 
 will become soiled much more rapidly. Always on return to gar- 
 rison from such service and as opportunity offers in the field, 
 equipment should be thoroughly washed. 
 
 Instructions for Washing Cloth Equipment. — (a) Prepara- 
 tion of soap solution: H. & H. soap or a substitute is issued by the 
 Ordnance Department for washing the cloth equipment. The most 
 economical use of this soap is to make a solution by dissolving one 
 cake of soap in nine cups of hot water. One cup of the solution 
 is sufficient to clean approximately two square yards of equipment 
 or the entire cloth and web equipment of one man. A cake per 
 squad is a liberal allowance. 
 
 (b) Brushing: Brush the equipment thoroughly to remove 
 all dust and mud before washing. 
 
 (c) Washing: Spread the belt, haversack, etc., on a clean 
 board or rock and apply the soap solution with a scrub brush. 
 
372 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 When a good lather appears, wash off with clear water. In the 
 case of a bad grease spot the direct application of soap to the 
 brush will ordinarily be sufficient to remove it. 
 
 (d) Drying: Always dry wash the equipment in the shade. 
 The bleaching action of the sun on all damp fabric is marked. 
 Likewise, on the return from a march in the rain dry the equip- 
 ment in the shade if practicable. 
 
 At the arsenals the equipment is cleaned by immersion in 
 gasoline. This is very satisfactory, but it is impracticable to issue 
 gasoline to troops. The soap issued by the Ordnance Department 
 (H. & H.) is a neutral naphtha soap, prepared especially for wash- 
 ing cloth fabrics liable to fade. If for any cause this is not obtain- 
 able, a good laundry soap (Ivory or equal) may be used, but in no 
 case should the yellow soap issued by the Quartermaster Corps be 
 used. This latter soap contains a large percentage of free alkali. 
 
 The specifications of the Ordnance Department in regard to 
 fading, under which its cloth and web equipments are purchased, 
 are as rigid as it is practicable to make them. Each year sees an 
 improvement in the degree of permanency obtained. The alternate 
 exposure of equipment to sun and rain, which is a necessary feature 
 of service, renders fading inevitable. No dyed fabric will hold its 
 color under these conditions. 
 
 GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE CARE OF 
 LEATHER EQUIPMENT 
 
 Two agents are essential to the proper care of leather equip- 
 ment — a cleaning agent and an oiling agent. The cleaning agent 
 issued by the Ordnance Department is castile soap; the oiling 
 agents are neat's-foot oil and harness soap. 
 
 The castile soap is a commercial article containing about 3 
 per cent of sodium carbonate (lye), which is necessary to give it 
 the required cleaning power. Its action, however, is merely to 
 free the leather from the dirt, sweat, and other matter which 
 normally accumulates on it in the surface pores of the leather. 
 
 The neat's-foot oil, which has been found by long experience 
 to be most satisfactory for this purpose, penetrates the pores and 
 saturates the fibers, making them pliable and elastic. Dry leather 
 is brittle; leather oiled excessively will soil the clothing and accu- 
 mulate dirt. The condition to be desired is leather saturated with 
 sufficient oil to be soft and pliable, without excess sufficient to 
 cause it to exude. 
 
 In washing with any alkaline soap, it is impossible to prevent 
 the removal of the surface oil. This leaves the surface hard and 
 dry and liable to crack. It is difficult to replace this surface oil 
 
CARE AND PRESERVATION 373 
 
 by a direct application without applying an excess. This has led 
 to the development of various saddle soaps with a view of obtaining 
 a soft, pleasing finish. Most of these contain more or less neutral 
 oil, which replaces the surface oil removed in washing. Only those 
 which do are of permanent value. On the other hand, a mere com- 
 bination of soap and oil may easily be objectionable, and in such 
 combinations the percentage of oil content is usually excessive. 
 Propert's soap, containing about A]/ 2 per cent of neutral oil, 
 was found to be very satisfactory, but its issue to the service has 
 been discontinued, because it is of foreign manufacture, and the 
 supply could not be depended upon in time of war. It is believed 
 that a substitute of equal merit has been found for issue to the 
 service. 
 
 CLEANING 
 
 Daily, or as often as used, the equipment should be wiped of! 
 with a cloth slightly dampened in water, merely to remove mud, 
 dust, or other foreign substances. It should never be cleaned by 
 immersing it in water or holding it under a hydrant. This daily 
 care will do much to maintain the appearance of the equipment, 
 but is, however, insufficient of itself to properly preserve it. At 
 intervals from one to four weeks, depending upon circumstances, 
 it is essential that the equipment be thoroughly cleaned, in accord- 
 ance with the following general instructions: (a) Separate all 
 parts, unbuckle straps, remove all buckles, loops, etc., where possi- 
 ble, (b) Wipe off all surface dust and mud with a damp (not wet) 
 sponge. After rinsing out the sponge, a lather is made by moisten- 
 ing the sponge in clear water, squeezing it out until nearly dry, and 
 rubbing it vigorously upon castile soap. When a thick, creamy 
 lather is obtained, thoroughly clean each piece of the equipment 
 without neglecting any portion. Each strap should be drawn its 
 entire length through the lathered sponge so as to actually remove 
 the salt, sweat, and dirt from each leather piece, (c) After again 
 rinsing the sponge make a thick lather as described above with 
 the saddle soap. Go over each separate piece, thoroughly working 
 the lather well into every part of the equipment, remembering that 
 its action is that of a dressing, (d) After the leather has been al- 
 lowed to become partially dry, it should be rubbed vigorously with 
 a soft cloth to give it the neat, healthy appearance that is desired. 
 
 If the foregoing instructions have been carefully followed, 
 the appearance should now be perfect, and if the leather is soft 
 and pliable nothing further is required. It will be found, however, 
 that it will be necessary from time to time to apply a little oil. It 
 is not practicable, owing to different conditions of climate and 
 service, to prescribe definitely the frequency of oiling. It has 
 been found that during the first few months of use a set of new 
 
374 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 equipment should be given at least two applications of oil per 
 month. Thereafter, it is entirely a matter of judgment, as indicated 
 by the appearance and pliability of the leather. Frequent, light 
 applications are of more value than infrequent, heavy applications. 
 
 Before using, perfectly new equipment should in all cases be 
 given a light application of neat's-foot oil; soap is unnecessary be- 
 cause the equipment is clean. The application of oil is important 
 because leather equipment frequently remains a considerable time 
 in an arsenal or depot and in spite of periodical inspections and 
 dubbing it is probably too dry for severe service. 
 
 The quantity of oil, also, can not be definitely prescribed, 
 but it should rarely exceed a coverful of the individual soap box 
 (1 ounce) for each set of horse equipment, or two (2) ounces for 
 each set of artillery harness. In applying the oil the following 
 general instructions should govern: 
 
 (a) The oil should be applied to the flesh side of the equip- 
 ment where practicable when the leather is clean and still damp 
 after washing (about half dry). 
 
 (b) The oil should be applied with an oiled rag or cotton 
 waste by long, light, quick strokes — light strokes that the pressure 
 applied may not squeeze out an excess of oil, quick strokes that the 
 leather may not absorb an undue amount of oil. The endeavor 
 should be to obtain a light, even distribution. 
 
 (c) After applying the oil the leather equipment should be 
 allowed to stand for 24 hours, if practicable, in a warm, dry place. 
 It should then be rubbed with a dry cloth to remove any unab- 
 sorbed oil. 
 
 The principles prompting the instructions given in (a) above 
 is that the oil penetrates more uniformly when applied from the 
 flesh side, while if the leather is dry it will absorb the oil like blot- 
 ting paper, preventing proper distribution. The presence of mois- 
 ture which tends to retard the penetration of the oil makes it de- 
 sirable to oil the leather while still moist from washing. The more 
 moist the leather when oiled the lighter the application that can be 
 given; any equipment should be moistened, as in washing, before 
 oiling. 
 
 An additional reason for consistent washing and oiling lies 
 in the fact that practically all leather contains at least one-tenth 
 of 1 per cent of sulphuric acid acquired as a normal product of 
 tannage. This acid, which, if excessive, will in time rot the leather, 
 is neutralized by the alkali of the castile soap and to a less degree 
 by the oil. In some commercial leathers the sulphuric acid runs as 
 high as 3 per cent as the result of the tanner's efforts to hasten 
 the tannage and bleach the leather. Such leather is not purchased 
 knowingly by the Ordnance Department, but it is impracticable 
 to eliminate its purchase entirely. 
 
CARE AND PRESERVATION 375 
 
 Leather in storage, unlike leather in service which receives 
 constant attention, is subjected to the danger of becoming molded 
 or too dry. It is of the utmost importance that it be stored in a 
 cool, dry place without artificial heat. 
 
 To guard against these two conditions which would render 
 the leather in storage unserviceable, it should be inspected at regu- 
 lar intervals. In temperate northern stations leather in sides should 
 be inspected once during the winter and twice during the summer 
 months (February, July, and September), equipment at least once 
 a year. The frequency of examination should be increased for 
 semitropical and tropical stations, until in the Philippines during 
 the rainy season once a month is not too often to go over and 
 examine the leather in sides, while the equipments should be in- 
 spected with corresponding greater frequency. 
 
 If mold is promptly discovered and removed, little harm is 
 done, but if allowed to remain it will very shortly attack the leather 
 and render it unserviceable. When, therefore, mold or dampness 
 is discovered, the surface should be immediately cleaned and ex- 
 posed to the air to dry before returning to storage. 
 
 Leather equipment in storage should not contain as much 
 oil as equipment in use, for the tendency to mold is increased 
 thereby, but in no case should it be allowed to dry out entirely. 
 Should examination indicate that it is very dry, a light application 
 of oil should be given in accordance with the general instructions 
 for oiling leather. 
 
 APPLICATION 
 
 Lay the leather on a smooth, flat table and moisten the entire 
 flesh side with a sponge. Then lay the leather aside on a smooth, 
 flat surface, following it by other sides similarly treated, placing 
 grain to grain and flesh to flesh. Let the sides lie for about two 
 hours. This is done to allow the moisture to penetrate evenly 
 through the leather, for the better absorption of the dubbing which 
 will follow. 
 
 When the moisture has penetrated sufficiently lay the leather 
 out on a table as before and spread the dressing very lightly with 
 a soft cloth on the flesh side. Great care should be taken to spread 
 the dressing evenly and lightly with quick light strokes as in oiling 
 equipment and for the same reasons. As the operation proceeds 
 place the leather grain to grain and flesh to flesh and let lay for 
 a period of 12 hours. Then take a soft cloth or a piece of woolen 
 flannel and remove any dressing that may remain on the surface. 
 The leather then should be loosely rolled, 'stood on its edge for a 
 few hours until it is thoroughly aired, and it should then be re- 
 turned to storage. 
 
376 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 CARE OF LEATHER IN THE FIELD 
 
 In active campaign or on the march little protection can be 
 given equipment. But at all times advantage should be taken of 
 such opportunities as the situation affords, to first get the equip- 
 ment out of the mud and then protect it from rain, dust, and heat. 
 Racks are improvised with forked sticks and crossbar or advantage 
 taken of a neighboring fence. A piece of canvas or manta affords 
 a great deal of protection. 
 
 When shelters are provided for animals and fodder, provision 
 should also be made for the horse equipment. The normal troop 
 stable is approximately 22 feet wide, with a height of 7y 2 feet at 
 the eaves. An excellent saddle room for a troop of 72 saddles can 
 be made in a 36-foot section of such stables by use of wooden 
 racks 4 feet above the ground and approximately 4 feet apart, nine 
 saddles to a rack. The entrance may be from the side, covered by 
 drop curtains or old canvas, or entrance can be had at the ends 
 and space left at the end of the racks for passage. This arrange- 
 ment has the advantage of enabling the saddles to be cleaned under 
 cover. 
 
 THE SERVICE RIFLE 
 
 Experiments at arsenals have shown that with the present 
 ammunition an accuracy life of from 8,000 to 13,000 rounds may be 
 expected of the Springfield rifle barrel. It may be considered that 
 a rifle will be fired 400 rounds in a season, so that rifle with reason- 
 able care should be accurate for at least 10 years or for over 4,000 
 rounds. From reports received from arsenals, it is evident that the 
 instructions heretofore issued have been ineffective in doing away 
 with the abuse of rifles by improper methods of cleaning. The 
 cause of this lies largely in the mistaken idea obtained at inspec- 
 tions where men are praised for securing a polished appearance of 
 the bore rather than for maintaining their pieces in serviceable 
 condition. 
 
 The most marked effect of improper cleaning is to enlarge 
 the muzzle, which is the most effective way to destroy the accuracy 
 of the piece. The erosion at the muzzle from firing is slight, but 
 in 10 minutes by cleaning from the muzzle with an abrasive, such as 
 is unfortunately sometimes the practice, the rifle may be rendered 
 more inaccurate than by thousands of rounds. 
 
 In order that the expense of replacing unserviceable barrels 
 may be placed upon those responsible for their condition, it is 
 recommended that commanding officers of organizations equipped 
 with rifles cause a test to be made to determine their present condi- 
 tion. This may be made by using gauges regularly furnished by the 
 
CARE AND PRESERVATION 377 
 
 Ordnance Department to regimental and post ordnance officers and 
 by inserting a service bullet, point foremost, into the muzzle of 
 the piece and noting the amount of the bullet showing between the 
 muzzle of the piece and the cartridge case. In a new rifle approxi- 
 mately one-quarter of an inch of the bullet will be exposed. 
 
 A gradual enlargement of the muzzle extending throughout a 
 period of years is to be expected, but should any test show a 
 noticeable enlargement, it may be considered an indication of abuse 
 unless satisfactory explanation is known. Such records should be 
 considered by surveying officers in determining the responsibility 
 for the condition of rifles when found inaccurate, and unless satis- 
 factory explanation is given, taking into consideration the normal 
 life of the rifle under service conditions, the cost of replacing 
 such barrels may justly be charged to the enlisted men concerned. 
 
 While it is generally recognized that rifles are rendered un- 
 serviceable through inaccuracy by lack of care rather than by firing, 
 it is believed that this lack of care has been largely due to a lack 
 of appreciation and understanding of the problems involved, and 
 that if careful and adequate supervision were given by organization 
 commanders, the number of rifles condemned annually for inac- 
 curacy would be reduced by more than half. 
 
 CARE OF THE BORE 
 
 The proper care of the bore requires conscientious, careful 
 work, but it pays well in reduced labor of cleaning and in prolonged 
 accuracy life of the barrel, and better results in target practice. 
 Briefly stated, the care of the bore consists in removing the fouling 
 resulting from firing to obtain a chemically clean surface, and coat- 
 ing this surface with a film of oil to prevent rusting. The fouling 
 which results from firing is of two kinds — one, the products of 
 combustion of the powder; the other, cupro-nickel scraped off 
 (under the abrading action of irregularities or grit in the bore). 
 Powder fouling, because of its acid reaction, is highly corrosive; 
 that is, it will induce rust and must be removed. Metal fouling itself 
 is inactive, but may cover powder fouling and prevent the action 
 of cleaning agents until removed, and when accumulated in notice- 
 able quantities it reduces the accuracy of the rifle. 
 
 Powder fouling may be readily removed by scrubbing with 
 a hot soda solution, but this solution has no effect on the metal 
 fouling of cupro-nickel. It is therefore necessary to remove all 
 metal fouling before assurance can be had that all powder fouling 
 has been removed and that the bore may be safely oiled. Normally, 
 after firing a barrel in good condition the metal fouling is so slight 
 as to be hardly perceptible. It is merely a smear of infinitesimal 
 
378 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 thickness, easily removed by solvents of cupro-nickel. However, 
 due to pitting, the presence of dust, other abrasives, or to accumu- 
 lation, metal fouling may occur in clearly visible flakes or patches 
 of much greater thickness, much more difficult to remove. 
 
 In cleaning the bore after firing it is well to proceed as fol- 
 lows: Swab out the bore with soda solution to remove pcwder 
 fouling. A convenient method is to insert the muzzle of the rifle 
 into the can containing the soda solution and with the cleaning 
 rod inserted from the breech, pump the barrel full a few times. 
 Remove and dry with a couple of patches. Examine to see that 
 no patches of metal fouling are in evidence, then swab out with the 
 swabbing solution — a dilute metal-fouling solution. The amount 
 of swabbing required with the swabbing solution can be determined 
 only by experience assisted by the color of the patches. Normally 
 a couple of minutes' work is sufficient. Dry thoroughly and oil. 
 
 The proper method of oiling a barrel is as follows: Wipe 
 the cleaning rod dry; select a clean patch and thoroughly saturate 
 it with sperm oil or warmed cosmic, being sure that the cosmic has 
 penetrated the patch; scrub the bore with the patch, finally draw- 
 ing the patch smoothly from the muzzle to the breech, allowing 
 the cleaning rod to turn with the rifling. The bore will be found 
 now to be smooth and bright so that any subsequent rust or 
 sweating can be easily detected by inspection. 
 
 If patches of metal fouling are in evidence, the standard 
 metal fouling solution must be used. After scrubbing out with the 
 soda solution, plug the bore from the breech with a cork at the 
 front end of the chamber or where the rifling begins. Slip one of 
 the 2-inch sections of rubber tube over the muzzle down to the 
 sight and fill with the standard solution to at least one-half inch 
 above the muzzle of the barrel. Let it stand for 30 minutes, pour 
 out the standard solution, remove hose and breech plug, and swab 
 out thoroughly with the soda solution to neutralize and remove 
 all trace of ammonia and powder fouling. Wipe the barrel clean, 
 dry and oil. With few exceptions, one application is sufficient, but 
 if all fouling is not removed, repeat as described above. 
 
 After properly cleaning with either the swabbing solution or 
 the standard solution, as has just been described, the bore should be 
 clean and safe to oil and put away, but as a measure of safety 
 a patch should always be run through the bore on the next day 
 and the bore examined to insure that cleaning has been properly 
 done. The bore should then be oiled, as described hereinafter. 
 
 If the swabbing solution or the standard metal fouling solu- 
 tion is not available, the barrel should be scrubbed, as already de- 
 scribed, with the soda solution, dried, and oiled with a light oil. At 
 the end of 24 hours it should again be cleaned, when it will usually 
 be found to have "sweated"; that is, rust having formed under 
 
CARE AND PRESERVATION 379 
 
 the smear of metal fouling where powder fouling was present, 
 the surface is puffed up. Usually a second cleaning is sufficient, 
 but to insure safety it should be again examined at the end of a 
 few days, before final oiling. The swabbing solution should always 
 be used, if available, for it must be remembered that each puff when 
 the bore - sweats " is an incipient rust pit. 
 
 A clean dry surface having been obtained to prevent rust, it 
 is necessary to coat every portion of this surface with a film of 
 neutral oil. If the protection required is but temporary and the 
 arm is to be cleaned or fired in a few days, sperm oil may be 
 used. This is easily applied and easily removed, but has not suf- 
 ficient body to hold its surface for more than a few days. If 
 rifles are to be prepared for storage or shipment, a heavier oil, 
 such as cosmic, must be used. 
 
 In preparing arms for storage or shipment they should be 
 cleaned with particular care, using the metal-fouling solution. 
 Care should be taken, insured by careful inspection on succeeding 
 day or days, that the cleaning is properly done and all traces of 
 ammonia solution removed. The bore is then ready to be coated 
 with cosmic. At ordinary temperatures cosmic is not fluid. In 
 order, therefore, to insure that every part of the surface is coated 
 with a film of oil, the rifle and the cosmic should be warmed. 
 Apply the cosmic first with a brush; then, with the breech plugged, 
 fill the barrel to the muzzle, pour out the surplus, remove the 
 breech-block, and allow to drain. The rifle should be warmed only 
 in the presence of an officer or non-commissioned officer, and 
 should not be warmer than can readily be held in the hand. It 
 is believed that more rifles are ruined by improper preparation for 
 storage than from any other cause. If the bore is not clean 
 when oiled — that is, if powder fouling is present or rust is started 
 — a half inch of cosmic on the outside will not stop its action, and 
 the barrel will be ruined. 
 
 PREPARATION OF SOLUTIONS 
 
 Soda Solution. — This should be a saturated solution of sal 
 soda (bicarbonate of soda). A strength of at least 20 per cent, is 
 necessary. Sal soda — one-fourth pound, or 2 heaping teaspoon- 
 fuls. Water — 1 pint or cup, model of 1910, to upper rivets. The 
 sal soda will dissolve more readily in hot water. 
 
 Swabbing Solution. — Ammonium persulphate — 60 grains — 
 one-half spoonful smoothed off. Ammonia, 28 per cent. — 6 ounces, 
 or three-eighths of a pint, or 12 spoonfuls. Water — 4 ounces, or 
 one-fourth pint, or 8 spoonfuls. Dissolve the ammonium per- 
 sulphate in the water and add the ammonia. Keep in a tightly 
 
380 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 corked bottle; pour out only what is necessary at the time, and 
 keep the bottle corked. 
 
 Standard Metal Fouling Solution. — Ammonium persulphate 
 — 1 ounce or 2 medium heaping spoonfuls. Ammonium carbon- 
 ate — 200 grains, or 1 heaping teaspoonful. Ammonia, 28 per cent. — 
 6 ounces, or three-eighths pint, or 12 spoonfuls. Water — 4 ounces, 
 or one-fourth pint, or 8 spoonfuls. Powder the persulphate and 
 carbonate together, dissolve in the water and add the ammonia; 
 mix thoroughly and allow to stand for one hour before using. It 
 should be kept in a strong bottle, tightly corked. The solution 
 should not be used more than twice, and used solution should not 
 be mixed with unused solution, but should be bottled separately. 
 
 Neither of these ammonia solutions have any appreciable 
 action on steel when not exposed to the air, but if allowed to 
 evaporate on steel they attack it rapidly. Care should, therefore, 
 be taken that none spills on the mechanism and that the barrel 
 is washed out promptly with soda solution. The first application 
 of soda solution removes the greater portion of the powder foul- 
 ing and permits a more effective and economical use of the am- 
 monia solution. 
 
 It is a fact recognized by all that a highly polished steel 
 surface rusts much less easily than one which is roughened; also 
 that a barrel which is pitted fouls much more rapidly than one 
 which is smooth. Every effort, therefore, should be made to pre- 
 vent the formation of pits, which are merely enlarged rust spots,, 
 and which not only affect the accuracy of the arm but increase 
 the labor of cleaning. 
 
 The chambers of rifles are frequently neglected because 
 they are not readily inspected. Care should be taken to see that 
 they are cleaned as thoroughly as the bore. A roughened chamber 
 delays greatly the rapidity of fire, and not infrequently causes 
 shells to stick. 
 
 The principles as outlined above apply equally well for the 
 cleaning of the barrel of the automatic pistol. Special attention 
 should be paid to cleaning the chamber of the pistol, using the 
 soda solution. It has been found that the chamber pits readily 
 if it is not carefully cleaned, with the result that the operation 
 of the pistol is made less certain. 
 
 THE GALLERY PRACTICE RIFLE 
 
 The cleaning of the bore of the gallery practice rifle differs 
 from that of the service rifle, in that instead of the fouling of 
 hard cupro-nickel there is a similar fouling of lead. The greater 
 proportion of the primer in the .22-caliber cartridges, and the fact 
 that either black or semismokeless powder is used, makes it even 
 
CARE AND PRESERVATION 381 
 
 more desirable to swab out frequently with the soda solution. It 
 has a further advantage of retarding deposit of lead. 
 
 One of the most frequent causes of inaccuracy of gallery 
 practice rifles is the use of rusted or injured cartridge holders. 
 It can be readily appreciated that these are, in fact, merely an 
 extension of the bore made to simulate the service cartridge, and 
 that any deformation of the mouth will tend to deform the bullet 
 and cause inaccuracy. They must be kept clean and the mouth 
 free from dents and burrs if good shooting is to be done with 
 these rifles. 
 
 A practice which has been found satisfactory is to have 
 the men as they finish their score pick up their holders and turn 
 them over to a man who removes the empty shell and drops the 
 holder into a can of kerosene. The man who loads from time to 
 time takes the holders out of the can, roughly dries and loads 
 them. During the entire gallery practice the holders should be 
 kept in kerosene when not in use. They will not rust as long 
 as they are not exposed to the air. 
 
 CARE OF METAL PARTS 
 
 All metal parts should be kept clean and free from rust. 
 All materials for accomplishing this end are furnished by the 
 Ordnance Department. Metal parts and components of equip- 
 ment are of two general classes — corrosive metal, such as steel, 
 cast iron, etc., and so-called non-corrosive metals, such as alumi- 
 num, German silver, brass, etc. All metals are corrosive under 
 certain conditions. Corrosive metals are frequently coated with 
 non-corrosive metals to combine the strength and cheapness of 
 the first with the protective qualities of the latter. 
 
 In caring for corrosive metal parts, rust should be prevented 
 from forming by coating the cleaned surface thinly with oil or 
 cosmic. Should rust appear, it should be removed immediately 
 by rubbing with oil and a soft cloth or stick. Corrosive metal 
 parts that are protected by a surface finish, can not rust until 
 the finish has worn through and the corrosive metal is exposed. 
 In caring, therefore, for these parts, no more force should be 
 used than is necessary to remove such dirt, etc., as may have 
 collected, and which should first be softened by oil or water. 
 In no case should emery or other abrasive be used. 
 
 Non-corrosive metal parts are easily kept clean, but it is 
 necessary that they be kept clean, for non-corrosive metal is 
 affected to a greater or less extent by various agents encountered 
 in ordinary service, such as salt water, fruit acids, etc. Except 
 in the care of mess kits, the surface should be given a light 
 
382 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 coating of oil or cosmic. Should there be any evidence of corro- 
 sion, the surface should be immediately and thoroughly cleaned. 
 Such articles as the canteen and components of the mess outfit 
 should be kept thoroughly clean and water and food kept in 
 them no longer than necessary. 
 
 Aluminum should be cleaned with soap and water., a neutral 
 or slightly alkaline soap (H. & H.) being used. In the cleaning 
 of canteens a little sand can be used to advantage. Particular 
 care should be taken to insure that canteens are properly cleaned 
 after they have been filled with coffee, milk, or any fluid contain- 
 ing organic matter. The white nodules which occasionally appear 
 in canteens used with hard water are aluminum hydrate; the 
 gelatinous film is alumina, and both are harmless. When not 
 actually in use, canteens should habitually be emptied and the 
 cap left off to dry. 
 
 PAINTING 
 
 All parts to be painted should be free from dirt and grease. 
 When rust appears on a painted surface or forms under the 
 paint, the rust should be immediately and thoroughly removed 
 from the rusted area, and the bright dry surface thus exposed 
 primed with olive drab paint (second coat, if available). If it is 
 desired to paint the whole surface after this priming coat has 
 dried 24 hours or more, the whole surface should be rubbed down 
 with No. V/z sandpaper, and a coat of paint applied and allowed 
 to dry thoroughly before use. 
 
 In painting wood, all that is roughened or decayed should 
 be removed and a surface scraped down to good wood. Cracks 
 should be filled or puttied. If the whole surface is in bad condi- 
 tion and needs painting, it should be sandpapered thoroughly with 
 No. V/2 sandpaper or coarser, a coat of paint should then be laid, 
 and after drying for at least 24 hours it should be rubbed down 
 with No. 00 sandpaper and the finishing coat laid. It should be 
 allowed to dry for at least 24 hours before using. 
 
 After repeated painting the paint may become so thick that 
 it scales off and becomes unsightly. It may then be removed 
 for repainting, as follows: Dissolve 1 pint of concentrated lye 
 in 6 pints of hot water and slake in enough lime to give the 
 solution the consistence of paint. Use the solution freshly mixed 
 and apply to the parts where paint is to be removed, with a brush 
 or with waste tied to the end of a stick. When the solution 
 begins to dry on the surface use a scraper to remove the old 
 paint; then scrub clean with water. If one application is *not 
 sufficient to loosen the paint, apply a second coat. 
 
CARE AND PRESERVATION 383 
 
 Paint is issued by the Ordnance Department in cans pro- 
 vided with friction tops. When not being used these cans should 
 be tightly closed or. the surface covered with linseed oil or 
 water to prevent the paint becoming thick or "fatty." Paint that 
 is too thick and fatty should be thinned by the addition of a little 
 turpentine (not to exceed 2 per cent) worked well in. 
 
 CLEANING AND PRESERVING MATERIALS AND 
 THEIR USES 
 
 It may be well to review the uses of the various materials 
 furnished by the Ordnance Department for cleaning and pre- 
 serving the supplies furnished by it. 
 
 Borax. — Issued for use as a flux in welding. Unit of issue, 
 pound. 
 
 Cosmic. — A heavy petroleum oil used as a rust preventive. 
 Its heavy body and high viscosity under ordinary temperatures 
 make it admirably adapted for this purpose, but also difficult to 
 apply. To insure protection against rust, the entire surface of the 
 metal must be clean and free from every deposit and then coated 
 thoroughly with cosmic. If cosmic is applied over lubricating 
 oil, it creeps or runs in hot weather and the surface is exposed. 
 To insure complete coating it is preferable that the parts to be 
 oiled should be warm and the cosmic should be heated until 
 liquid and then applied with a brush. 
 
 Lavaline. — A metal polish issued to artillery, interchange- 
 ably with Gibson's soap polish. Unit of issue, 16-ounce cans. 
 
 Lye, Powdered. — When dissolved in hot water 1 pound to 
 6 quarts, with sufficient lime to give a consistence of paint, is 
 used to remove old and blistered paint. Unit of issue, pound. 
 
 Metal Fouling Solution. — The standard solution contains 
 Ammonium persulphate, 1 ounce or 2 medium heaping spoonfuls. 
 Ammonium carbonate, 200 grains or 1 heaping spoonful. Ammo- 
 nia 25 per cent, 6 ounces, or three-eighths pint or 12 spoonfuls. 
 Water, 4 ounces or one-fourth pint or 8 spoonfuls. 
 
 Powder the persulphate and the carbonate together, dis- 
 solve in the water, and ad 1 the ammonia. Mix thoroughly, allow 
 to stand one hour before using. 
 
 Napthalene. — A moth preventive effective only when eggs 
 and grubs already present are removed. 
 
 Oil, Clock. — A very light oil for use on spindles and bear- 
 ings of sights, range quadrants, and other instruments. In cases 
 of emergency use as substitutes sperm oil and engine oil No. 1. 
 
 Oil, Coal. — Used for cleaning and in the field for lanterns. 
 Coal oil for illuminating purposes is furnished by the Quarter- 
 master Department. 
 
384 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Oil, Hydroline. — Use only to fill the recoil cylinders of gun 
 carriages, and not as a lubricant. 
 
 Oil, Linseed, Boiled. — This oil has a limited use in thinning 
 paint which has become too thick to be thinned successfully with 
 turpentine. It has the effect of a drier and requires the addition 
 of little or no turpentine; generally used for interior painting. 
 
 Oil, Linseed, Raw. — A vegetable oil used to preserve the 
 wood of stocks, grips, etc Applied with rag and rubbed in with 
 the hand; also used for thinning paint for outside work; usually 
 requires the addition of drier or turpentine. 
 
 Oil, Lubricating (Engine No. 1). — A light petroleum oil. 
 The general lubricant of artillery, replacing synovial oil. 
 
 Oil, Neat's-foot. — An animal oil used to soften and preserve 
 leather. Applied to the flesh side of moistened leather. 
 
 Oil, Slushing. — A heavy petroleum oil similar to cosmic 
 (issued to artillery). Used as a rust preventive. Essentially a 
 mineral oil containing a small per cent of rosin. It should be 
 applied in a thin coat to the clean surface to be protected. In 
 cold weather it should be applied by stippling — that is, by holding 
 the brush perpendicular to the surface to be coated and tapping 
 the surface with the point of the brush. Particular care should 
 be taken to see that all lubricating oil is removed before applying 
 slushing oil. 
 
 Oil, Sperm. — A light oil used as a lubricant and temporary 
 rust preventive. Its low viscosity and light body make it unsuit- 
 able for a rust preventive for more than a few days. The general 
 lubricant of small arms and arms. 
 
 Paint, Rubberine. — Used in connection with loading ammu- 
 nition in accordance with instructions regarding the same. 
 
 Petrolatum (Vaseline). — A heavy petroleum oil free from 
 rosin. Used as a lubricant for gears and worms of sights and 
 for packing ball bearings, etc. 
 
 Polish, Gibson's Soap. — A metal polish issued to Artillery 
 interchangeably with Lavaline. 
 
 Primer, Brown Enamel. — A hard, quick-drying enamel used 
 for painting parts of horse collars, draft springs, etc. 
 
 Sal Soda (Carbonate of Soda). — A saturate solution of soda 
 and water makes an alkaline solution that will not rust. The 
 solution must be saturated; that is, at least 20 per cent or one- 
 fourth pound of soda to 1 pint of water (6 heaping spoonfuls to 
 1 cup of water). This solution is an effective solvent of powder 
 fouling and should always be used after firing, whether metal 
 fouling solution is to be used or not. It reduces the labor of 
 cleaning with oil alone by more than half. Used also in weaker 
 solution (one-half pound to 8 quarts of water) in washing surfaces 
 to be painted to remove dirt and greases. 
 
CARE AND PRESERVATION 385 
 
 Soap, Castile. — An alkaline soap used in cleaning leather 
 equipment. Applied as a lather on a moistened sponge. 
 
 Soap, H. & H. — A neutral naphtha soap used in washing 
 web and cloth equipment. Applied in the form of a solution 
 (1 cake to 9 cups of water) or directly on the brush. After wash- 
 ing, equipments should be always dried in the shade. 
 
 Soap, Saddle. — A soap used as a dressing for leather equip- 
 ment. Apply with thick lather on a moistened sponge. 
 
 Swabbing Solution. — A solution containing ammonium per- 
 sulphate, 60 grains or one-half spoonful smoothed off; ammonia, 
 28 per cent, 6 ounces or three-eighths of a pint or 12 spoonfuls; 
 water, 4 ounces or one-fourth pint or 8 Spoonfuls. Dissolve the 
 ammonium persulphate in the water and add the ammonia. Keep 
 in a tightly corked bottle. 
 
 Turpentine. — Use as a thinner and drier for thick or fatty 
 paint. Should not be used in quantities greater than 2 per cent of 
 the paint thinned. 
 
 REPAIR OF EQUIPMENT 
 
 A general knowledge of the repair of equipment should be 
 had by all officers and enlisted men. In active service when prob- 
 lems of supply are difficult, the replacing of equipment is difficult 
 and uncertain, and the repair thereof may be of vital importance. 
 Improvised or first-aid repair may be the means of maintaining 
 the efficiency of the organization which would otherwise be sadly 
 hampered. In time of peace it is the means of prolonging the 
 life of the equipment and greatly reducing the cost of maintenance 
 of the organization. 
 
 In general, the majority of repairs within the organization 
 consists in replacing the worn or unserviceable part and requires 
 little more than average common sense and a small amount of 
 mechanical ability. In the case of horse equipment and artillery 
 materiel, some special knowledge is required. To meet this need 
 the School for Saddlers and Battery Mechanics was established 
 at Rock Island Arsenal. This offers the opportunity to mounted 
 organizations of obtaining a thoroughly trained man. But aside 
 from these men trained at Rock Island Arsenal, almost every 
 organization has some man or men who in civil life have received 
 more or less training as saddler or mechanic or by association 
 with men so trained are qualified to make such repairs as may 
 be required. 
 
 When any of the olive-drab cotton webbing straps that 
 form part of the equipment become worn or torn, the entire strap 
 should be replaced by a piece of olive-drab webbing of the 
 proper width. If the strap has a free end, it should be provided 
 
386 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 with an end clip. If it becomes necessary to repair web straps 
 because webbing of the proper size for replacements is not on 
 hand, as may often happen in active service, at maneuvers, etc., 
 the following instructions should be carefully followed: (a) If the 
 strap is not put through a buckle, the ends should be care- 
 fully lapped about 1 inch and sewed with any good, strong 
 thread, (b) If the strap is run through a buckle, or if the shorten- 
 ing incident to lapping would interfere with its proper func- 
 tioning, the broken ends should be squared, placed abutting against 
 each other, and stitched with heavy thread with a baseball stitch 
 or overcast, (c) Upon returning to garrison or upon receipt of 
 the proper size webbing, the repaired strap should always be 
 replaced by an entire new strap, (d) All worn or torn parts 
 should be patched, darned, or sewed, and all frayed edges over- 
 cast, as explained in direction for repairing cotton duck. 
 
 When the olive-drab cotton duck of the haversack, pack 
 carrier, etc., is worn or torn, it should be repaired in one of the 
 following ways: (a) The two sides of the tear can be brought 
 together so as to lie flat without a ridge and stitched with a 
 baseball stitch, (b) The two sides of the tear can be brought 
 together and overcast on the under side, (c) In case a small hole 
 is worn in the duck, it should be darned as a sock is darned. 
 (d) In case the hole is large, it should be cut back to good, strong 
 material, and a patch of such a size as to give a half-inch lap all 
 around should be set under the hole and sewed to the original 
 piece by being overcast. A neater job is made by turning under 
 the edge of the hole, but this is not necessary. 
 
 If eyelets pull out of cloth or webbing, the holes should be 
 darned before they are replaced. Sometimes it is practicable to 
 shift the position of the eyelet to whole, strong cloth, darning the 
 old hole to keep it from enlarging. 
 
 Any metal parts, such as buckles, double hooks, slides, or 
 special hardware, that may be bent out of shape may be rebent 
 to their original shape by using the wire cutter, the pliers in the 
 arm repair chest, or the vise. Small pieces of cloth or some 
 such material should be interposed between the jaws and the 
 piece gripped to prevent marring the surface finish. In some cases 
 it will be easier to use a block of wood and a wooden or copper 
 hammer. Never strike the metal parts of equipment with a steel 
 hammer, as this will bruise the surface finish and may leave ham- 
 mer marks or burrs that might cut the webbing or duck. 
 
 Keep rivets and screws tight. Loose rivets should be 
 tightened by holding a piece of iron under the head and riveting 
 over until tight. If threads in screw holes become so worn that 
 they will not stay set up, the holes should be plugged with wooden 
 plugs and the screws set up. 
 
CARE AND PRESERVATION 387 
 
 REPAIR OF ARMS, SIGHTS AND RANGE FINDERS 
 
 Repair of arms is limited primarily to the replacement of 
 unserviceable parts. In this manner they may be continued in a 
 serviceable condition indefinitely, but for the purposes of account- 
 ing and issue the identity of the arm is considered to rest in the 
 numbered part— in hand arms, the blade; in firearms, the receiver. 
 With the exception of the cavalry saber, old model, which can 
 not be repaired within the organization, the necessary tools and 
 parts are issued for replacement so that complete repairs may be 
 made within the organization. 
 
 Automatic Machine Rifle, Caliber, .30, Model of 1909.— The 
 automatic machine rifle is literally a machine, a gas engine, and 
 as such requires unusual care, and it is subjected to unusual wear 
 and strain. That it may be handled efficiently, the principles of 
 its operation and its individual peculiarities must, be thoroughly 
 understood. Because of the technical considerations which arise 
 in connection with their maintenance, automatic machine rifles and 
 guns are placed under armament officers, and problems of repair 
 or replacement not covered directly in general instructions should 
 be referred promptly to them in accordance with the general orders 
 published on that subject. 
 
 Automatic Pistol, Caliber .45, Model of 1911.— This pistol, 
 like the automatic rifle, is a gas-operated machine, semi-automatic 
 in its operation. It has relatively few parts and requires but 
 reasonable care. The working parts must be kept clean and lightly 
 oiled to insure proper functioning. Unserviceable parts are easily 
 replaced. Slides which require rebluing may be exchanged by 
 organization commanders without the action of a surveying officer. 
 
 Bayonet and Bolo. — The only parts likely to require replace- 
 ment are the bayonet-scabbard catch, bayonet-scabbard spring, 
 and the bayonet catch. These are replaced by removing the grips 
 which are secured by the bayonet screws and the bayonet nut. 
 The bolo is similarly repaired. 
 
 Colt Double-action Revolver, Caliber .45, Model of 1909. — 
 This arm, which was issued only to troops serving in the Phil- 
 ippine Islands, is now withdrawn from the service. Revolvers 
 which are unserviceable or irreparable within the organization are 
 surveyed and turned in. 
 
 Cavalry Saber, Model of 1913. — All the parts can be disas- 
 sembled by removing the two grip screws and the screw at the 
 end of the pommel. The guard which is the most likely part to 
 require replacement can readily be replaced. 
 
 Telescopic Sights and Range Finders. — These are optical 
 instruments of great accuracy and value and as such should be 
 handled with great care. The instructions regarding their adjust- 
 
388 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 ment and care are given in detail in the appropriate pamphlets. 
 These should be followed explicitly. When disassembling is 
 authorized it should only be done by a competent person, prefer- 
 ably under the supervision of an officer. 
 
 Telescopic Musket Sight. — This sight is close fitted and 
 adjusted to a special selected rifle. It is not intended that this 
 sight should be permanently separated from the rifle to which it 
 belongs. In other words, the rifle and its telescopic musket sight 
 constitute a unit. Should the sight require repairs, except as 
 noted hereafter, or should the barrel of the special selected rifle 
 require replacing, the rifle and sight are surveyed and turned over 
 to the proper supply officer for immediate shipment to the desig- 
 nated arsenal. 
 
 Range Finder, Self-contained (80-centimeter). — This instru- 
 ment while identical in function, may appear in different models. 
 Very delicate adjustments are of necessity a feature of these 
 instruments; and while they have been made surprisingly rigid 
 they require^ reasonable care to insure the best results. They 
 should be intrusted only to careful and responsible persons. 
 
 REPLACEMENT OF INACCURATE RIFLE BARRELS 
 
 When barrels are found inaccurate by test, the procedure 
 is as follows: 
 
 (a) The rifles submitted for accuracy test by organizations, 
 having been tested by the officer designated to conduct test in 
 accordance with instructions, his report on the same, in duplicate, 
 having been approved by the commanding officer, is presented 
 to the proper ordnance supply officer, who immediately submits 
 special requisition for the necessary number of barrels and 
 receivers, assembled, to replace the number of unserviceable bar- 
 rels shown on the report. 
 
 (b) Organization commanders on the completion of the 
 test submit to the action of a surveying officer such rifles of the 
 organization as are found inaccurate. No articles other than 
 inaccurate or unserviceable rifles appear on the survey report, and 
 for each rifle the following information is given: Number of 
 rifle, arsenal, number of target seasons fired (if exact number is 
 unknown, then the maximum number known), the mean radius 
 of dispersion at the ranges tested (as shown by the report of 
 test), together with any other information which would enable the 
 surveying officer to determine if the rifle was rendered unservice- 
 able through fair wear and tear in the service. 
 
 (c) On receipt of the barrels and receivers, assembled, the 
 ordnance supply officer holds them for issue until such time as it 
 
CARE AND PRESERVATION 389 
 
 will be practicable to make the adjustment of the front sight 
 (movable stud), and on the direction of the post or regimental 
 commander he issues, on the approved survey reports referred to 
 above to the various organizations the number required as shown 
 thereon. The unserviceable barrels and receivers are replaced by 
 new barrels and receivers within the organizations in accordance 
 with the instructions given. 
 
 Due to the tendency of wood to change its shape under 
 varying conditions of moisture, in assembling stocks to barrel and 
 receivers, the following precautions should b'e taken: 
 
 (a) See that the Upper Band Does Not Bind. — If the upper 
 band binds tightly, scrape the stock until it slips on easily. If 
 it is difficult to insert the upper band screw, ream out the hole in 
 the stock until the screw slips readily into place. 
 
 (b) See that the Receiver Bears on the Stock in Rear of the 
 Recoil Lug. — With the rear guard screw tight, loosen and tighten 
 the front guard screw. If there is an appreciable amount of 
 space between the receiver and the stock, shim up with paper or 
 thin cardboard on the flat surface in rear of the recoil lug until 
 good bearing is obtained. 
 
 The Adjustment of the Front-sight Movable Stud. — When 
 it becomes opportune to make this adjustment for the rifles found 
 inaccurate during the year, an officer should be especially selected, 
 by reason of his interest in and knowledge of shooting, to super- 
 vise this work. The necessary number of selected riflemen and 
 pitmen should be detailed to assist in the work, together with such 
 artificers or mechanics as are required. 
 
 A range of 100 or 200 yards is required — a 200-yard range is 
 preferred. Targets should be prepared by painting on the back 
 of standard targets black crosses with vertical and horizontal arms 
 approximately 20 inches long. If the targets are to be used on 
 a 100-yard range, the width of the vertical and horizontal arms 
 should be 2 inches; if on a 200-yard range, these arms should 
 be 4 inches wide. These widths at their respective ranges cor- 
 respond to one-half point windage. Starting with the movable 
 stud centrally located, it should be adjusted until four out of five 
 shots lie within the vertical lines. This should give a mean error 
 of probably less than one-fourth point of windage. The firing 
 should be done under favorable weather conditions and every- 
 thing done to insure accuracy of firing. This adjustment of the 
 front sight is not difficult and should seldom require more than 
 10 shots per rifle. If it is remembered that a movement of the 
 movable stud corresponding to one-half point of windage moves 
 the center of impact the width of the vertical line at the target, 
 the proper amount to move the front sight can readily be deter- 
 mined and verified by firing a string of shots. 
 
390 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 The movable stud having been properly adjusted, its posi- 
 tion should be immediately marked by a pencil mark across the 
 joint. This marking should, as soon as it is practicable, be made 
 permanent by nicking with the five-sixteenths-inch cold chisel, 
 furnished in the kit of tools for securing the front sight. The 
 movable stud is issued undrilled. To secure it in place it is 
 necessary to drill a hole for the front-sight screw. For this 
 purpose the kit of tools is issued each post or other supply officer. 
 
 CARE AND PRESERVATION OF AMMUNITION AND 
 EXPLOSIVES 
 
 For the purpose of storage, ammunition is divided into 
 five classes: (a) Ammunition for mountain, field and siege guns, 
 and howitzers, (b) Trench munitions (explosive bombs and gre- 
 nades), (c) Miscellaneous munitions (incendiary and smoke 
 munitions, rockets, flares, etc.). Incendiary and smoke munitions 
 should be in stacks separated from each other as far as possible 
 in the area and should be separately transported, (d) Mining or 
 demolition explosives (gunpowder, guncotton, dynamite, jovite, tri- 
 ton, etc.). (e) Small arms ammunition. 
 
 In large depots each of the above classes should be stored 
 at a distance of at least 400 yards from other classes. Even in 
 ammunition dumps class (c) should be stored separately owing to 
 its liability to take fire. 
 
 Field Artillery Ammunition. — In all field artillery guns up 
 to the 4.7-inch fixed ammunition is used, all shrapnel fuzed, and 
 all shell filled and fuzed. The element of danger of accidental 
 arming of fuzes has been practically eliminated, and the danger 
 from accidental burst through the "time feature" is negligible if 
 the fuze is set at "safety." The upper powder train may burn 
 entirely out in case of accidental firing of the time plunger without 
 the flame being able to reach the magazine of the fuze. Primers 
 are assembled with the cartridge cases. Field artillery howitzers 
 and siege guns use separate loading. 
 
 The hand grenade, as well as the rifle grenade, is assembled 
 with primer. It is rendered inert during transportation and 
 until ready for use by the safety cup in the case of the hand gre- 
 nade and by the safety pin in case of the rifle grenade. 
 
 Live grenades should be handled with the greatest care, and 
 should not be used until practice has been had with dummies. At 
 practice or in combat all grenades which have failed to function 
 should be destroyed by throwing them into a deep stream or 
 by burying them deep in the ground. In handling the hand gre- 
 nades always hold same by the body and not by rope or streamer. 
 
CARE AND PRESERVATION 391 
 
 In firing the rifle grenade all persons about the firing point 
 should take cover before grenade strikes the ground as the stem 
 is sometimes thrown several hundred yards to the rear with 
 sufficient force to inflict a dangerous if not fatal wound. If a 
 rifle grenade fails to function it should be picked up and carried 
 with stem pointing downward and placed in a deep stream or 
 buried. A grenade which has failed should not be fired again. 
 
 If proper precautions are taken and the grenade fuse has 
 ignited properly, there can be no danger in picking up and throw- 
 ing unexploded grenades. If troops are required to take a posi- 
 tion where there are any unexploded grenades, these should be re- 
 moved as soon as possible. One man, with the aid of a branch or 
 stick, removes the grenades, while the rest of the personnel re- 
 main under cover. As a rule, failure to explode is due to non- 
 ignition of the fuse or the detonator; sometimes to an error in 
 assembling the primer; and more rarely to failure of the percussion 
 caps (or igniters) to operate. If the percussion bolt groove is 
 not obstructed by mud, one can easily see if the fuses have oper- 
 ated, as the groove will be blackened. Such grenades are no more 
 dangerous to handle than the ordinary grenade. 
 
 If, on the other hand, the sides and bottom of the groove are 
 white and shiny, the fuses have not operated, and the percussion 
 spring, being in contact with the fuses, might ignite at any shock. 
 In fact, by striking an unexploded dummy grenade violently, on 
 any hard surface, the primer can be destroyed without striking the 
 pin. This is due to the small mass of the striker. In any case, 
 unless the operation of the fuses is quite evident, it is best to re- 
 move the grenades singly and by hand, without taking the eyes 
 off them, so that they may, should they become ignited, be thrown 
 away without delay. Unexploded grenades are piled together and 
 fired by a petard. They may be used to advantage to charge a 
 fougasse. 
 
 Rockets, Flares, Etc. — Some of the rockets, flares, bombs, 
 grenades, etc., contain phosphorus. This chemical, if dry, ignites 
 spontaneously when exposed to the air. Water should be kept 
 conveniently near storage places of these articles. They should 
 not be exposed to the direct rays of the sun and should be 
 stored in a cool place. 
 
CHAPTER XV 
 
 THE CONDUCT OF FIRE, FIRE FOR EFFECT, 
 FIELD ARTILLERY AND MACHINE GUNS 
 
 To render effective assistance upon the battlefield, artillery 
 must be able to deliver a timely and overpowering fire upon any 
 designated part of the enemy's position. 
 
 Those areas of the hostile positions within which fire is to be 
 delivered by particular artillery units are called sectors. They are 
 usually described by reference to prominent points of the terrain. 
 Within, and sometimes outside, the sectors assigned, fire must be 
 delivered upon objectives called targets. 
 
 The officer charged with the conduct of fire must be the 
 master of the fire of his guns. He must be able to turn the 
 fire promptly upon any target at will and to regulate its intensity 
 and distribution as circumstances require. The attainment of this 
 condition requires on the part of the officer complete familiarity 
 with the weapons at his disposal and skill, of quick decision in their 
 use, and on the part of the organization through knowledge of the 
 materiel, uniform and reliable service of the piece, co-operation of 
 all parts, and strict fire discipline. 
 
 Owing to inaccuracies in the determination of firing data, 
 to the influence of weather conditions, to errors made in the serv- 
 ice of the guns, and to imperfections in materiel and ammunition, 
 fire must be delivered and, on the basis of observations, corrected 
 to insure effectiveness upon the target. Fire of this nature is 
 called fire for adjustment. During such fire effect is desirable. 
 
 When fire has been thus adjusted it must be continued, often 
 with changed data, to secure effect. During such fire continued 
 observation is necessary. Fire of this nature is called fire for 
 effect. In addition to physical effect artillery may produce im- 
 portant effects of neutralization, moral support, or diversion. These 
 will be the more surely obtained if accompanied by great physical 
 effect, but they may be obtained though physical effect is slight. 
 These effects are to be considered in the decision to start or stop 
 the fire or to vary its intensity. 
 
 For adjustment of fire, a knowledge of how to manipulate 
 the trajectory, combined with accurate observation, or " spotting," 
 are essential. 
 
CONDUCT OF FIRE . 393 
 
 MANIPULATION OF THE TRAJECTORY IN THE PLANE 
 
 OF FIRE 
 
 The location of the trajectory in the vertical plane depends 
 upon the site and elevation. It may be changed by changing one 
 or the other of these elements, or the same location may be re- 
 tained by making the proper changes of both in opposite senses. 
 
 A variation of the site affects the range the same as an 
 equal variation of the elevation. 
 
 The height of burst under normal conditions depends only 
 on the site and the corrector. 
 
 If the site only is varied, the point of burst is displaced in 
 height, but not in range; if the corrector only is varied the point 
 of burst is displaced at the same time in both height and range. 
 Simultaneous and equal but opposite changes of site and cor- 
 rector cause no change in height of burst, but the burst range 
 changes. 
 
 The burst range depends only on the fuse setter range and 
 and corrector settings. It is increased or diminished by increasing 
 or diminishing the fuse setter range or by lowering or raising the 
 corrector. 
 
 The points of burst of two or more rounds are not coinci- 
 dent unless these three elements remain constant, or unless all 
 three change at the same time by suitable amounts and in the 
 proper relation. 
 
 The point of burst or impact is determined partly by the 
 characteristic appearance of the smoke of the bursting charge, 
 partly by its location relative to the target, and partly by physical 
 effect on the target. or terrain. 
 
 BURSTS IN AIR 
 
 A burst in air produces a ball of smoke which ordinarily 
 remains together for an appreciable time, and the smoke, white or 
 light gray in appearance, is projected in the direction of the trajec- 
 tory. The point of burst is therefore always above the center of 
 the smoke ball. At ranges beyond about 2000 yards the point 
 of burst is near to or above the summit of the smoke ball, and the 
 latter, observed from near the plane of fire, is seen in a pear- 
 shaped form, small end uppermost. 
 
 An air burst after ricochet gives a pear-shaped smoke ball, 
 with the broader end up. Occasionally a burst in air close to the 
 ground will give a flattened smoke ball discolored by dust or mud 
 in considerable quantity, caused by the impact of a large number 
 of bullets on a small area. 
 
394 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 BURSTS ON IMPACT. 
 
 When a common shrapnel bursts on impact the smoke 
 ball is discolored and fugitive, its upper portion wide and irregular 
 but somewhat flat. 
 
 When a shell or high explosive shrapnel bursts on impact 
 a large irregular columnar mass of black smoke and dirt is 
 formed, which remains visible for some time. 
 
 The bullets and fragments from a burst in air knock up 
 a considerable amount of dirt and dust if they strike dry soil; on 
 wet soil splashes of mud are knocked up by the shrapnel case and 
 large fragments. Occasionally the effect of bullets and fragments 
 may be observed in the flattening of long grass or in the move- 
 ment of brush or tree branches. 
 
 An air burst of high-explosive shrapnel is followed by a 
 percussion burst of the head. Care should be taken to distinguish 
 the impact burst of the head from a graze burst of the whole pro- 
 jectile. 
 
 The height of a burst is measured or estimated from the 
 bottom of the target to the point of burst if the target is not 
 concealed in trenches or behind a crest; otherwise it is measured 
 from the summit of the covering crest. 
 
 The height of a group of bursts is the mean of the individ- 
 ual heights of burst. 
 
 SPOTTING FOR RANGE 
 
 It is rarely possible from a position near the guns to esti- 
 mate with accuracy the amount of the error in range. Such esti- 
 mates are usually too small and cause delay through an effort to 
 correct the fire by making timid and insufficient changes in the 
 range. Attention should rather be concentrated on deciding, from 
 careful observation of each shot, upon the sense of a number of 
 shots fired with the same range and site, and on quickly inclosing 
 the target with fire which is surely short and fire which is surely 
 over. If the sense of a shot cannot be definitely decided upon, it 
 is doubtful, and should be disregarded. 
 
 The most accurate sensing of range is based on obser- 
 vation of effect on the target. Next comes observation of bursts 
 on impact, then of effect on terrain, then of the position of the 
 smoke ball with respect to the target. 
 
 If the observer is considerably above the target, or the 
 target is on ground sloping toward the observer, the sense of a 
 salvo (short or over) may usually be recognized readily by noting 
 
CONDUCT OF FIRE 395 
 
 the relative position, with respect to the target, or graze bursts of 
 the projectile. 
 
 If the outlines of the target are more clearly denned against 
 the smoke of the burst, the range may always be considered as 
 over, whether the burst occurred in air or on graze. 
 
 If the target is obscured by the smoke of the burst, the 
 range may be considered as short; but, in the case of a burst in 
 air, the burst may be low in order to warrant this conclusion. 
 
 If the target is indistinct and of about the same color as the 
 smoke, it may be less visible against the smoke as a background. 
 A burst beyond the target may, for this reason, sometimes seem to 
 obscure the target, and hence be judged short, when it is in reality 
 over. On the other hand, some targets become very much more 
 visible if projected against the smoke background. 
 
 Frequently the target occupies terrain of such a nature 
 as to justify sensings of rounds, when the deflection is known to 
 be approximately correct, as lost over. But soft or swampy ground 
 may completely smother a burst and prevent sensing. 
 
 If the wind is blowing up or down the range, a decision 
 should be formed quickly as to the relative position of the smoke 
 with respect to the target. But if the wind is blowing across the 
 range, it may be better to wait until the smoke has drifted across 
 the front or rear of the target. To secure this result it may be 
 desirable to direct the fire at the windward flank of the target. 
 
 In observing bursts with reference to a crest, care must 
 be taken not to be deceived by a crest parallel to the crest 
 sought, but short of it. In rolling country such an intermediate 
 crest is often present, and it may merge into the background 
 formed by the high ground in its rear, and hence escape de- 
 tection, while, as a matter of fact, there may be a broad valley 
 or depression between the two crests. Shots observed against 
 the near side of the intermediate crest are short and easily sensed, 
 but shots which pass over the intermediate crest and burst low 
 or on graze in the valley between the two and are lost, may be 
 thought to have cleared the farther crest and erroneously sensed 
 as over. Such deceptions may be avoided by obtaining bursts in 
 the air on the line joining the observer and the crest sought. If 
 the ball of smoke is cut in two by the crest and the crest clearly 
 defined against it, the burst is over. If the crest is concealed by the 
 smoke, the burst is short. The short burst may often serve to re- 
 Veal the existence of the intermediate crest by causing the latter 
 to be silhouetted against the smoke. 
 
 When the burst is in the direction of a wood the smoke 
 ball may present a ragged appearance due to its being partly 
 hidden by branches or foliage. The indication is that the burst 
 is beyond the near limit of the wood. 
 
396 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 If the sun is shining, information as to the sense of burst 
 in air may often be obtained by observing the shadow of the smoke 
 ball on the ground. The height of the bur'st and the position of the 
 sun must, however, be taken into consideration. 
 
 Observations of range from lateral positions are compli- 
 cated by errors of direction. But if the direction is correct all 
 shots seen by the flank observer will be over if they appear be- 
 yond the target, and short if on the near side. 
 
 An accurate conception of the terrain 'in the vicinity of the 
 target increases the number of rounds which may properly be 
 called sensible. Preparatory to opening fire the study of ground 
 forms around the hostile positions should be taken up, and this 
 should be continued during the action. 
 
 AUXILIARY OBSERVING STATIONS 
 
 Auxiliary observers may frequently be used with advantage 
 at stations near the targets or at a considerable distance to a flank 
 of the line of fire. Elevated stations are particularly favorable. In 
 the selection of such stations the most important requirements are 
 a plain view of the target and its adjoining area, cover from hos- 
 tile discovery, and sure and swift communications with the stations 
 to which they are auxiliary. 
 
 With respect to the adjustment of fire, they indicate espe- 
 cially whether the range is short, over or correct; whether the 
 burst interval, when in front of the target, is too great, too small, 
 or correct, whether the direction is right, left, or correct. If large 
 errors in range are made, an observer on the flank of the guns 
 will not usually be able to separate the errors in range from those 
 in direction; in such a case the observer would ordinarily signal 
 the direction only, as right or left, as it appears to him, and the 
 officer conducting the fire, knowing the position of the observer, 
 would deduce the sense of the salvo, volley, etc., in range. 
 
 With respect to movements of the enemy, the observer re- 
 ports especially: If the enemy abandons his position; if he shifts 
 to the right or left, or rear to escape effective fire; whether hostile 
 reenforcements enter the sector and their location. 
 
 With respect to our own troops, the observer makes such 
 reports as to their movements and situation as will enable the 
 artillery commander best to assist them with the fire of the 
 guns. 
 
 Arrangements should, moreover, be made to obtain from ad- 
 vanced troops information which will assist in the adjustment of 
 fire, and indication as to when fire should be commenced or dis- 
 continued. 
 
CONDUCT OF FIRE 397 
 
 Auxiliary observing stations are sometimes established in 
 captive balloons or mobile aircraft, and are of great assistance in 
 the study of terrain and the location of targets, or in " spotting." 
 The designation of objectives is difficult. It is possible, however, 
 by several methods, such as by photography, by sketches, by refer- 
 ence to squared maps, by description, or by their relation to refer- 
 ence points. 
 
 In observation of fire from a great height, bursts in air and 
 bursts on graze may both be seen, but it is difficult to judge the 
 height of the burst center except by the ratio between the num- 
 ber of air bursts and graze bursts. In both range and direction 
 the relation of the shots to the target is easily determined. 
 
 FIRE FOR ADJUSTMENT 
 
 Adjustment may be dispensed with only when the neces- 
 sary data have been determined by previous fire, or when the range 
 is very short. The greatest difficulties arise from errors due to 
 personnel, rather than materiel; for example, from failure to set 
 the scales exactly as ordered or to center the bubbles; from not 
 noticing and correcting any derangement of the laying due to load" 
 ing or of the settings due to firing; from not turning the pro- 
 jectile in the fuse setter in the proper manner and from similar 
 mistakes. 
 
 Adjustment is effected upon the target itself, if practicable. 
 In many cases, however, the target will not be visible, to the offi- 
 cer conducting the fire, though its approximate position may be 
 known. Thus, the target may consist of troops concealed behind 
 a ridge, or behind a wall or hedge, or in the edge of a village, a 
 forest, or a field of standing grain. Some prominent feature of 
 the terrain in or near the enemy's known positions — for example, 
 a tree, a house, a mass of rock, etc. — is then selected as a regis- 
 tration mark, and by means of scouts, observers in balloons, or any 
 available means, the enemy's location with respect to this mark is 
 determined within the narrowest possible limits. 
 
 The fire is then adjusted upon the registration mark, and the 
 area within which the target has been located is searched by 
 the subsequent fire. 
 
 If the circumstances permit, advantage may be taken of 
 lulls in the action to secure at least a rough adjustment upon 
 localities in which the enemy is known to be, or near which he 
 is expected to appear. Such a fire is termed fire for registration. 
 The data are thus secured for opening promptly an effective fire 
 upon the enemy appearing at or near the positions upon which 
 the fire has been registered; by minor modifications in these data 
 a quick adjustment on the target may be secured. 
 
398 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 ADJUSTMENT FOR DIRECTION 
 
 When direct laying is employed, the battery commander 
 makes such changes in deflection as may be necessary to bring 
 the fire of each gun to bear upon its proper portion of the target. 
 When shots go wide of the target it should be more accurately 
 designated. 
 
 When indirect laying is employed, the error of the piece 
 which is most nearly directed upon its proper part of the target 
 is measured or estimated in mils and a corresponding correction in 
 deflection is applied in the appropriate sense. 
 
 A change in the deflection difference is based on the obser- 
 vation of the preceding salvo. It should be made on the piece 
 which, for that salvo, is nearest to its proper direction, or on 
 which the deflection is changed. 
 
 As adjustment progresses the fire may be either concen- 
 trated or distributed. If observation is difficult, concentration 
 upon the most prominent part of the target may be advisable; 
 if at the same time a cross wind is blowing a point of adjust- 
 ment to the windward of the target may be selected. 
 
 If several batteries are adjusting simultaneously upon a 
 single broad target, it is generally best for each to concentrate 
 during the adjustment upon the corresponding part of its section 
 of the target — for example, the windward flank. 
 
 The simultaneous adjustment of fire by several batteries 
 upon the same target should not be attempted unless it is pos- 
 sible to distinguish clearly the shots of the different batteries 
 firing; the adjustment should be made by one battery only and veri- 
 fied by the others in turn. 
 
 ADJUSTMENT FOR HEIGHT OF BURST 
 
 For adjustment of time fire a low burst center giving a large 
 percentage of bursts on graze is desirable. The opportunity is thus 
 given to observe the bursts in air and bursts on graze. Moreover, 
 considerable effect may be produced during the adjusting series, 
 and by a small change in the corrector, passage to fire for effect 
 may be quickly accomplished. 
 
 When the mean point of burst is at a height appropriate 
 for adjustment, about one-third of one-half of the shrapnel may, 
 on account of errors of the fuse, of laying, etc., be expected to 
 burst on graze. This indicates a mean height of burst from zero 
 to 1 mil above the target. Wild shots should be disregarded, as 
 ;being probably due to incorrect laying. 
 
 When indirect laying is employed, an error in calculating 
 
CONDUCT OF FIRE 39£ 
 
 the site will cause a corresponding error in height of bursts. As. 
 the cause of the latter error may not at first be known, adjust- 
 ment of the height of burst by changing the corrector may be 
 attempted. If the error in height of burst is not great, it may 
 readily be allowed for in this way; but if it is seen that the neces- 
 sary correction will exceed the limits of the corrector scale, the 
 total correction which has been applied to the corrector must be 
 transferred in the same sense to the site, and a return to a cor- 
 rector setting near the normal must be made. Similarly, for direct 
 laying, a change of site may be made instead of corrector, to avoid 
 exceeding the corrector scale. 
 
 ADJUSTMENT FOR RANGE 
 
 Adjustment for range is usually the most difficult to obtain. 
 
 The refinement to which fire for adjustment can be carried 
 depends on conditions. Many targets are able to shelter them- 
 selves from fire. Hence early physical effect must be obtained 
 unless moral effect only is sought. In time fire there is necessarily 
 a moment when adjustment must cease, for the most suitable 
 height of burst for producing effect is not a suitable height for 
 observing for range. For all those reasons, then, adjustment for 
 range usually consists in determining two ranges, one of which is 
 less than the true range of the target and one of which is greater. 
 The determination of these two ranges is called bracketing the 
 target. The difference between the two ranges is called the 
 bracket. 
 
 If the target is surely included within the limits of the 
 bracket finally accepted, it may be reached more or less effectively 
 by subsequent fire. The first consideration, then, is to determine 
 that fire at a certain range is surely short of the target, and that 
 fire at another and longer range is surely over the target. A sec- 
 ond but very important consideration is to reduce the difference 
 between those two bracketing ranges as much as possible. 
 
 If the first range is short, the range is increased; if over, 
 it is decreased and rounds are fired successively, increased or de- 
 creased in range, as the case may be, until the target is bracketed. 
 Having bracketed the target, the size of the bracket may be 
 successively reduced by halving the last bracket obtained; that 
 is, by firing at the mean of the last two bracketing ranges. As the 
 depth of the bracket decreases, so should the number of obser- 
 vations on which each limit is based increase. 
 
 The amount of changes in range for obtaining the first 
 bracket depends upon the accuracy of preparation of fire and 
 the nature of the target. 
 26 
 
400 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 When ranges are estimated or taken from a map on which 
 the positions of guns and target cannot be accurately located, the 
 first bracket should be obtained by changes of 400 yards. When 
 an accurate range finder has been expertly used, or when the range 
 has been accurately determined by other means, 200-yard changes 
 are appropriate. 
 
 In firing over friendly troops near the target the bracket 
 may be obtained by smaller successive changes of range. 
 
 If the sense of the burst is doubtful, or if the bursts are lost, 
 circumstances must decide whether to change the range or to 
 change only other firing data for the next round. If the smoke of 
 the fire of other batteries has interfered with observation, a salvo 
 concentrated upon some prominent part of the target may be of 
 assistance. If the doubt was occasioned by the fact that the bursts 
 were in air and high, it may be well merely to lower the point of 
 burst for the next salvo. If a salvo is lost, the projectiles have 
 probably burst wide of the target or in a ravine or behind some 
 intervening cover. If the smoke of the bursts does not rise and 
 become visible after a few seconds, the lay of the ground should 
 determine whether to increase or diminish the range or merely to 
 raise the corrector so as to obtain visible bursts in the air. Definite 
 information may generally be most quickly obtained in such cases 
 by securing time bursts just above the level of the crests or other 
 cover. 
 
 The trajectory may be brought upon the target by chang- 
 ing the site or by changing the range setting. In the latter case, 
 if the site is in error the fuse will be set for a range other than the 
 true range to the target, and the projectile will burst too high or 
 too low, as the case may be. Modifications of the corrector or of 
 the site will in general be necessary to bring the mean point of 
 burst to the desired height. If the error has been small, it may 
 readily be overcome by a proper use of the corrector. 
 
 In the accurate adjustment of time fire, not only the height 
 but also the burst interval is important; for projectiles bursting too 
 far in front of the target and those bursting in the air above it 
 produces little or no effect. The burst interval is correct when 
 both the range and the height of burst are correctly adjusted. 
 Indications that such is the case are: (1) That the bursts on graze 
 bracket the target; (2) that the mean height of burst is about 3 
 mils; (3) that fragments from the air bursts strike the ground 
 both in front and rear of the target, and that the pattern made by 
 these fragments, as revealed by the dirt and dust knocked up, is 
 close and dense rather than greatly extended; (4) that obvious 
 effect is produced upon the target. If doubt exists as to the burst 
 interval, it is best to lower the corrector and get a group of low 
 bursts or bursts on graze. 
 
CONDUCT OF FIRE 401 
 
 At medium ranges a change of 4 mils in the site produces a 
 change of about 100 yards in range; hence, if the site is materially 
 altered, the adjustment of the range will have to be recommenced. 
 
 At medium ranges a change of 4 points in the corrector 
 produces a change of about 100 yards in burst range. 
 
 If percussion fire is to be used for effect on material objects, 
 called fire for demolition, very accurate adjustment of range is 
 required. Such fire is effective at all ranges but, because the 
 probable error in deflection increases and the danger space de* 
 creases, while observation grows more difficult as the range be* 
 comes longer, effect can often be obtained at the longer ranges 
 only at the expense of much ammunition. 
 
 Percussion fire may be said to be adjusted only when effect is 
 plainly observed, or when, of many rounds fired at a single range, 
 the number of overs is equal to or slightly greater than the num- 
 ber of shorts. 
 
 METHOD OF FIRE FOR ADJUSTMENT 
 
 The method of fire depends on the target — its nature, size r 
 condition and range; the method of laying, conditions of obser- 
 vation; firing data already determined and other considerations. 
 
 Fire by battery salvo has the advantages of increasing the 
 chances of discovering abnormal errors of gun service and of 
 observing more than one round, thus establishing quickly the basis 
 for changes of direction, height of burst, and range. When the 
 range has been accurately determined it increases the probability of 
 obtaining both shorts and overs at the first salvo and effect on a 
 wide front of the target. It also has the advantage of at once 
 setting all of the trail spades. 
 
 Fire by piece is appropriate to check a very doubtful deflec- 
 tion and, in some cases, for fire for registration. 
 
 Salvos insure the identification of individual rounds and, with 
 the exception of distribution, more accuracy in observation of 
 fire. They are favorable to accurate service of the piece. 
 
 Volleys are faster than salvos and give better observation 
 of distribution. 
 
 Salvos usually commence on the leeward flank of the guns, in 
 order that the burst of one round may not be obscured by the 
 smoke or dust of the other. 
 
 The rapidity of fire during adjustment will be controlled by 
 the necessity of observing the shots and setting off the necessary 
 corrections. Rapid and correct decisions and quick commands on 
 the part of the battery commander will increase the rapidity of 
 the adjustment of fire. 
 
402 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 The kind of projectile to be used in adjustment is ordi- 
 narily the kind that is to be used for effect. The choice depends 
 upon the nature of the target and its situation. 
 
 During fire for effect time fire is, as a rule, employed against 
 animate targets, aircraft, searchlights; percussion fire against other 
 inanimate targets. During adjustment it may become necessary to 
 change from time fire to percussion fire to lessen the probability of 
 hitting friendly troops or for the purpose of narrowing the bracket. 
 
 CLASSES OF TARGETS, APPROPRIATE METHODS OF 
 FIRE AND BRACKETS 
 
 Targets are classified with reference to their nature, as 
 artillery, infantry, machine guns, etc. They are also classified ac- 
 cording to their movement, or power to move, as fixed or station- 
 ary, transient, and moving. All of these may, of course, vary as to 
 size and as to degree of movement. 
 
 Fixed, or stationary, targets are targets which are fixed to 
 their position for at least a considerable time. Examples of such 
 targets are buildings, trenches, artillery in position, troops held 
 under cover by fire. 
 
 Transient targets are those which while fully exposed to fire 
 are likely to remain so for a very brief time. Examples of such 
 targets are infantry skirmish lines, machine guns, observation 
 parties. 
 
 Moving targets are those which are changing their location. 
 Examples of slowly moving targets are large bodies of troops 
 on the march, infantry whether on the march or advancing to the 
 attack, wagon trains on the march. Examples of rapidly moving 
 targets are artillery in fast gaits, charging cavalry, cavalry at fast 
 gaits, small bodies of mounted men, motor cars. 
 
 Against fixed targets, salvos are ordinarily used during 
 fire for adjustment, which is usually continued until a suitable 
 bracket has been obtained. A bracket of 100 yards should ordi- 
 narily be sought; either time or percussion fire is used, depending 
 on the target. 
 
 Against transient targets, salvos are usually appropriate 
 during fire for adjustment, time fire being used. A bracket of 200 
 yards is usually the narrowest that can be attempted. In extreme 
 cases it may be necessary to assume a bracket of considerable 
 depth, based on the observation of the first bursts. Volleys are 
 used in fire for effect. Against instantaneous targets such as 
 reconnaissance parties, no bracket is sought, but time fire is exe- 
 cuted over a wide front, and great depth, at maximum rapidity. 
 
 Against large targets moving slowly, such as heavy artillery, 
 troops in defiles, wagon trains, etc., either direct or indirect laying 
 
CONDUCT OF FIRE 403 
 
 may be used. In direct laying, volleys are usual during fire for 
 adjustment, as this method gives the pointer more independence 
 in the instant of firing, and he is better able to take advantage of 
 the movement when the target is most visible. In indirect laying, 
 salvos are usual during fire for adjustment. Time fire is used. 
 A bracket of 200 yards should ordinarily be attempted. Volleys 
 are used in fire for effect. 
 
 Against rapidly moving or small moving targets, or targets 
 likely to move rapidly — volley fire is usually appropriate, both in 
 fire for adjustment and fire for effect. If the motion is in direction 
 of the range, a bracket of 600 yards is usually the narrowest that 
 can be attempted. Time fire is used. If the target is small, in- 
 direct laying is usually ineffective; aerial targets come in this class. 
 
 FIRE FOR EFFECT 
 
 Every target attacked will present its own problem, which 
 must be solved according to existing conditions, and not by adher- 
 ing to any fixed rule. Having completed preliminary adjustment 
 and opened fire for effect, observation is continued and such cor- 
 rections are made as will serve to perfect the adjustment or meet 
 changes in the location or formation of the target. 
 
 RANGE IN FIRE FOR EFFECT 
 
 It will seldom be possible to obtain an adjustment close 
 enough to justify remaining at a single range during the delivery 
 of fire for effect. The short and long limits of the bracket should 
 be considered as inclosing an area to be covered, at successive 
 ranges. This can be accomplished by using either successive in- 
 crements or successive decrements so that the target will be cov- 
 ered at one or more of the ranges used. The officer conducting 
 fire may be able to form an opinion as to which are the most ef- 
 fective ranges. The first range differences should usually be 100 
 yards, but when the area has been narrowed as a result of ob- 
 servation they may be reduced to 50 yards. 
 
 In firing at moving targets the first range used should 
 ordinarily be that limit of the bracket toward which the target is 
 moving. The first range appropriate for other targets depends 
 upon consideration of the purposes of the fire for effect, the con- 
 ditions of observation, the position of friendly troops. 
 
 In firing over friendly troops advancing to the assault, fire 
 at the target should cease upon a suitable signal from the infantry 
 that the fire is dangerous. The exact time depends on the range, 
 
404 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 terrain, and conditions of observations. The range may be in- 
 creased to hinder the bringing up of hostile supports or to cause 
 losses should the enemy fall back. At medium ranges over level 
 ground the danger space to infantry from well-adjusted time fire 
 extends for a distance of about 300 yards in front of the target. 
 This distance becomes less if the ground rises toward the target, 
 greater if it falls toward it. 
 
 HEIGHT OF BURST (FOR EFFECT) 
 
 A height of burst from 2 to 4 mils is theoretically best, 
 the effect varying little between those limits and decreasing rap- 
 idly outside. But a low burst is better than a high burst, and 
 latest information from actual firing seems to indicate that a mean 
 height of about 2 mils is generally most effective. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION (FOR EFFECT) 
 
 The fire of a battery is usually distributed over the front as- 
 signed it for attack. When time fire is employed the following 
 considerations are to be borne in mind: (a) If the front to be at- 
 tacked does not much exceed 12 mils in width, it is sufficient to 
 converge upon the center of this front, as the dispersion of fire, 
 when a considerable number of rounds is fired, will provide for 
 covering the full front, (b) Fronts which do not much exceed 35 
 mils may be covered effectively by a 4-gun battery using dis- 
 tributed fire, (c) If the front much exceeds 35 mils, it may be 
 divided into sections and each section attacked in turn. 
 
 In shrapnel time fire the right piece is directed not upon 
 the right edge of the target but upon a point about 10 yards inside 
 the right edge. To direct the left gun upon a corresponding point 
 inside the left edge, the divisor of the front of the target is the 
 number of guns firing, not that number decreased by one. 
 
 When the mean height of burst of shrapnel is well adjusted, 
 each gun is expected to cover effectively a front of 20 yards if 
 one round is fired, 25 if two are fired. 
 
 When percussion fire is employed, the nature of the target 
 determines whether converging or distributed fire is to be em- 
 ployed. 
 
 If the target to be attacked has a continuous front, as walls, 
 obstacles, etc., this front may be divided up into sections of 10 mils 
 each and the sections attacked in turn, each gun taking its pro- 
 portionate part. If the target has a much smaller front than 10 
 mils, the fire may be converged upon its center. If the target 
 
CONDUCT OF FIRE 405 
 
 consists of artillery, each gun may be assigned a corresponding 
 gun, depending upon the amount of artillery available. 
 
 METHOD OF FIRE (FOR EFFECT) 
 
 The rapidity with which fire for effect should be conducted 
 depends principally upon the tactical situation. After adjust- 
 ment has been obtained the volume of fire may be increased, by 
 increasing the number of pieces, or by firing in more rapid suc- 
 cession than is practicable during the fire for adjustment, or by 
 increasing the number of rounds in each volley. Rapidity of fire 
 must never be so great as to prevent fuses being exactly set and 
 the guns accurately laid, or otherwise to interfere with the work 
 of the gun squads. Great rapidity of fire is permissible only for a 
 short time. The expenditure of ammunition is otherwise too 
 great. 
 
 Volley fire is adapted especially to the attack of fugitive tar- 
 gets that are more or less vulnerable. The special characteristic 
 of this method of fire is its great flexibility and rapidity. The 
 number of volleys to be fired, their range difference, the number 
 of rounds in each volley, are all in the hands of the officer con- 
 ducting the fire. By suitable manipulation of the sheaf he may 
 readily shift the fire from point to point of the terrain, as neces- 
 sity may require, and by adapting the bursts of fire to meet the 
 crises of the action he may utilize the ammunition to the best ad- 
 vantage. 
 
 While salvos are adapted especially to securing the adjust- 
 ment of fire, they may also be used for producing effect, especially 
 with the idea of obtaining at the same time additional information 
 on which to base a closer adjustment of the fire. They are em- 
 ployed according to the principles of volley fire. 
 
 Fire at will is employed solely for the close defense of the 
 guns. Against a slowly moving enemy, such as infantry, the fire 
 should be commenced when he has arrived within about 350 yards 
 of the gun; against a rapidly moving enemy, such as cavalry, 
 when he has arrived within about 800 yards; the purpose in both 
 cases being surely to establish a fire-swept zone through which 
 the enemy must pass in order to reach the guns. 
 
 OBSTACLES— INTRENCHMENTS 
 
 Many obstacles may be destroyed by light artillery, but 
 always at a price of a large expenditure of ammunition; they are 
 attacked by high-explosive shell or percussion shrapnel. 
 
 Defenders behind stone walls may best be reached by demo- 
 lition of the walls. 
 
406 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Earthworks can only be damaged. The fire directed on 
 them should be destined only for the defenders who are sheltered 
 by them; percussion shrapnel or high-explosive shell will be best. 
 
 WOODS 
 
 If the borders are occupied, woods are attacked with time 
 fire. When it is desired to reach troops concealed in the interior 
 of a wood they are attacked with percussion fire. 
 
 CAVALRY 
 
 Cavalry is very vulnerable at a halt and when in close forma- 
 tions. It protects itself from artillery fire through its mobility and 
 dispersion. 
 
 Time or percussion fire is used, and all measures are taken 
 to increase the rapidity of fire. If the firing unit is not placed so 
 as to have a direct view of the target, the sheaf is opened and 
 fire over a deep bracket is commenced when the cavalry enters 
 the area under observation. If direct laying can be used the tar- 
 get is followed by all the pieces, a wide bracket is sought and 
 then searched by volley fire, commencing at the limit which the 
 target is approaching. 
 
 The opportunity of firing on cavalry will be fugitive, the fire 
 of short duration. The maximum rapidity of fire is essential 
 whether by time or percussion. When cavalry directs its attack 
 against a battery, the battery will act advantageously in estab- 
 lishing a barrier by percussion or time fire in front of the enemy's 
 line. 
 
 ARTILLERY 
 
 Artillery presents targets which widely vary in vulnerability. 
 
 The greatest vulnerability exists from the commencement of 
 the reconnaissance until the occupation of the hostile position is 
 accomplished; that is, up to the moment that the enemy's artillery 
 is ready to fire. Its retirement from under fire is also a most criti- 
 cal moment, especially when the retirement is made by an entire 
 unit. 
 
 Against artillery in position, the first object is to gain the 
 ascendancy over it by inflicting as much damage as possible upon 
 the personnel. Immediate effective fire is particularly demanded if 
 the enemy can be attacked at a disadvantage. Due to the diffi- 
 culty, however, of reaching effectively the personnel of batteries 
 provided with shields and posted in masked positions, the struggle 
 between evenly matched artilleries will often be long drawn out. 
 
CONDUCT OF FIRE 407 
 
 If the enemy's artillery is temporarily overmatched, it may sus- 
 pend its fire and shelter its personnel; but it must be expected to 
 renew the struggle as soon as the pressure upon it is relieved. 
 The aim must be to gain the superiority of fire by suitable con- 
 centrations of effect on the part of our own artillery; the oppor- 
 tunity may then be gained to destroy the enemy's materiel by well- 
 adjusted shell-fire. 
 
 If the pieces are not seen, fire for demolition cannot be em- 
 ployed without waste of ammunition; but such artillery has never- 
 theless a certain vulnerability to time fire. There are always ob- 
 servers and members of the gun squad who are incompletely 
 sheltered, and who are less so, generally, when the artillery is 
 firing. The effect obtainable from time fire is increased when the 
 batteries against which it is directed are under an oblique fire. 
 
 A sufficient recession from the covering crest or from the 
 mask renders an objective absolutely immune; for it is impossible 
 to attack an indefinite depth of terrain. On the other hand, the 
 greater the distance from the mask which the enemy is forced to 
 take the more difficult become hostile communication and com- 
 mand. 
 
 The varying conditions indicate the following principles 
 governing conduct of fire against an artillery target. If priority in 
 occupation of position is obtained, careful observation is made of 
 indications of the enemy's reconnaissance and occupation of posi- 
 tions. At the moment of these operations time fire is opened 
 through a large bracket, over a broad front, at maximum rapidity. 
 This will be repeated, if necessary, the adjustment being refined. 
 If priority of occupation is not obtained, a different procedure is 
 advisable. 
 
 When the pieces of the hostile artillery are visible, time fire 
 should be used at first to reach the uncovered personnel and to 
 produce a demoralizing effect. This effect is then extended to 
 the personnel under cover by the use of time fire, the limits of the 
 bracket being reduced as much as possible, and the front covered 
 being limited to the actual front of the target. The effort is con- 
 tinued to destroy the personnel and then the demolition of the 
 materiel by percussion fire is attempted. Fire is delivered on all 
 visible pieces as accurately as possible and continued until that 
 result is obtained, if conditions justify the expenditure of the nec- 
 essary ammunition. 
 
 When the hostile pieces are not visible their presence may be 
 disclosed by the flashes, by the dust raised by fire or by other 
 indications. The method of attacking them is similar to that 
 just described, except that study of maps and terrain must be 
 made to establish the far limit of the bracket, the near limit 
 being the covering mask, and that fire for demolition cannot 
 
408 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 be usually undertaken. If it proves impossible to reduce the 
 limits of such a bracket, it is advisable to await the appearence 
 of new indications. The firing unit remains in observation of 
 the target and a minute search is made for its observers or its 
 battery commander's station. If these are discovered, efforts 
 should be made to destroy them. 
 
 Fire for demolition requires great accuracy in range and 
 direction, thereby necessitating careful observation of each round 
 from each piece. Its employment is permissible only when the 
 nature of the target indicates that fire for demolition must be 
 carried out and when the number of batteries at hand is such as 
 to limit the front to be attacked to about 100 yards per battery. 
 If the target is such that fire for demolition is not admissible, a 
 4-gun battery will give a sufficient volume of time shrapnel fire 
 against an artillery target, however dense it may be, provided the 
 front does not exceed 200 yards. 
 
 INFANTRY 
 
 Infantry, like artillery, offers targets of variable vulnera- 
 bility. But while the artillery of the enemy once in place con- 
 stitutes a definite target, the infantry target changes former di- 
 mensions, density, and sometimes position from one instant to 
 another. An artillery target may sometimes be destroyed; it is 
 practically impossible to destroy a body of infantry, whose ele- 
 ments avoid fire individually and may sustain fire almost without 
 loss. 
 
 Finally, it may be said that artillery is proportionally small 
 in quantity, and that, by reason of the power of even a single 
 piece, each unit or subunit which is seen or is firing is of suffi- 
 cient importance to be attacked, while the infantry exists in very 
 large numbers, is almost everywhere, but is in fractions of small 
 importance. Because of their weakness these small fractions do 
 not attract fire, or by their multiplicity oblige those who wish to 
 fire against them to disperse their fire. Fire against infantry tar- 
 gets will often fail to produce great losses, but other results may 
 be expected. 
 
 Against infantry in position and more or less protected 
 by entrenchments the intensity of the fire should be regulated to 
 suit the necessities of the case, as our infantry advances to the 
 attack, being slow or ceasing entirely while the enemy is con- 
 cealed or inactive, rising to great intensity when the crises of the 
 action develop and the enemy exposes himself to meet them. 
 Salvos may be used for the ordinary phases of the action, volleys 
 for the crises, the object being to assist our own infantry by in- 
 
CONDUCT OF FIRE 409 
 
 flicting as much damage as possible upon the enemy; by destroying 
 his morale; by forcing him to keep under cover; and by preventing 
 effective fire upon his part. 
 
 A slowly moving target, such as infantry, or mounted 
 troops impeded in their march, may be quickly bracketed by salvos 
 and then attacked by searching fire. 
 
 Infantry in march formation may be thus attacked, but im- 
 mediate deployment on their part is to be anticipated, and the 
 officer conducting the fire should be prepared to reach them, 
 probably behind cover, with a well-distributed fire. 
 
 Infantry moving to attack in deployed lines, a succession of 
 thin lines, or in line of small columns may be met by volleys 
 successively reduced in range as the infantry approaches. If 
 their formation is in the line of small columns, the fire should be 
 distributed so that a piece may bear upon each of the columns. 
 
 At close ranges infantry will probably endeavor to advance 
 by successive rushes from cover to cover. Such rushes may be 
 met by volleys previously prepared for upon selected positions, 
 evidently in the immediate path of the enemy. If the positions 
 occupied by important bodies of the enemy during the intervals 
 of advance are well defined, accurately adjusted fire may be 
 brought to bear upon such positions, and the ground between 
 successive positions may be covered by searching fire when im- 
 portant movements of the enemy from one position to another 
 are attempted. 
 
 Machine gun groups have much the nature of infantry at- 
 tacking, but they are of greater importance than small frac- 
 tions of infantry on account of their great volume of fire. If 
 they are discovered to be firing they should be attacked with 
 time fire over a broad front and with a deep bracket. Under the 
 best conditions of observation from a station near the guns the 
 bracket cannot usually be reduced below 200 yards. Owing to the 
 ability of the personnel to disperse and to seek cover, the fire 
 must be rapid. Once forced to cease firing, the area containing 
 the machine guns should be kept under close observation, with a 
 view of preventing resumption of their service or their with- 
 drawal for use elsewhere. 
 
 AERIAL TARGETS 
 
 Fire against targets in the air generally requires the assign- 
 ments of particular units to the purpose, the digging of circular 
 trenches about 36 inches deep for the trails to permit the use of 
 high angles of elevation, and the organization of a system of 
 lateral observation with means for sure communication between 
 observers and battery commander's station. 
 
410 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Captive balloons are very vulnerable within the limits of 
 the trajectory and the action of the fuses. They have slight mo- 
 tion within narrow limits, and are attacked by direct laying with 
 time shrapnel. It is indispensable that the rounds be correct for 
 deflection. Ranging is commenced, unless the range can be meas- 
 ured, at the long limit of the fuse to ascertain whether the balloon 
 is within time-fire distance, and the bracket is obtained and fire 
 for effect conducted by the usual methods except that for effect 
 the burst height should be greater than normal to insure wide dis- 
 persion in the shrapnel cone. When a range finder is used, a 
 bracket may be assumed on the basis of the first observation for 
 range. 
 
 Dirigibles and aeroplanes are vulnerable, but very difficult to 
 hit, especially for ordinary field guns. Direct laying is used with 
 time shrapnel. The battery is divided into two parts. Each fires 
 separately, one beginning at the far limit, the other at the short 
 limit, of an estimated bracket as wide as 200.0 or 3000 yards. Each 
 fires volleys of one or two rounds at ranges differing by 200 yards 
 the successive ranges approaching the center of the bracket. When 
 a bracket has been covered or when lateral observations indicate 
 that the target is out of the bracket the process is repeated. If the 
 range finder is used, a narrow bracket may be attempted. 
 
 As aircraft may readily change their direction, height, and 
 speed, deflection and corrector changes will usually be necessary 
 during firing. Essentials of success are rapidity and accuracy in 
 service of the piece, skillful operation of the range finder, and, on 
 the part of the officers conducting the fire, quick decision and 
 command, and boldness in changing ranges without delay. 
 
 TARGETS WITH RESPECT TO TERRAIN 
 
 Targets may also be considered with respect to the nature 
 of the terrain on which they are situated. 
 
 An enemy entering the dead space existing in front of a 
 battery cannot be attacked by ordinary means. Some effect may 
 be obtained by an early burst at the minimum elevation of the 
 piece necessary to clear the mask. If the corrector scale is not 
 sufficient, the expedient may be used for increasing the site by 
 successive increments of 5 mils each and by decreasing the range 
 200 yards for each increment of 5 mils. This decreases the range 
 to point of burst by an amount roughly corresponding to an equal 
 change of the corrector. This kind of fire is appreciably effective 
 only within very narrow limits. 
 
 On a horizontal terrain with site 300, range 2000, the effect 
 may be considerable, even when the target is under the highest 
 part of the trajectory. If the range is greater than 2000 yards, or 
 
CONDUCT OF FIRE 411 
 
 if the terrain falls off abruptly beyond the mask, the effect de- 
 creases rapidly and ceases to be appreciable when the target 
 has penetrated the dead space a very short distance. 
 
 If a target is scattered over ground sloping toward the guns 
 the points of burst may be kept at an effective height above the 
 terrain by making simultaneous changes in range and corrector 
 in the same sense; that is, if searching up the slope, by increasing 
 the range and raising the corrector at the same time. 
 
 If the area to be searched is not deep and the slope not 
 great, a mean value of the site may be taken, and a corrector: 
 used which will give low bursts at the near limit of the area if the: 
 slope is away from the guns, and bursts slightly above the normal! 
 if the slope is toward the guns. This method will always be used 
 if great rapidity is desired. For searching long and steep slopes,, 
 however, it is better to use the site of the near limit of the area, 
 to be searched and vary the corrector from volley to volley or 
 salvo to salvo, raising it if searching up the slope or lowering it 
 if searching down the slope. 
 
 A target marked by a crest may always be attacked as" 
 though it had considerable depth. To overcome the effect of the 
 slope of the terrain, increases of range must be accomplished by 
 lowering of the corrector. The steeper the slope the less will 
 the range be changed, and the more the corrector. 
 
 Percussion fire of shrapnel may be very effective against 
 animate objects beyond a crest on slopes giving bursts on rico- 
 chet. At 3000 yards ricochet may be expected from slopes of 
 50 mils or more. The slope most favorable for effect is one of 
 about 115 mils. However, both ricochets and effect are greatly 
 influenced by the character of the soil. When effect by such 
 fire can be obtained, it is possible to avoid complicated changes 
 of corrector to overcome the influence of slopes. 
 
 NIGHT FIRING 
 
 If searchlights are available, firing may be conducted against 
 targets of all kinds the same as by daylight up to the effective 
 range of the lights. It will often be necessary to fire as at in- 
 stantaneous targets to take advantage of brief periods of illumina- 
 tion. In any case preparation for fire should, if possible, be made 
 before dark, and with the greatest possible accuracy. 
 
 To permit of turning fire upon different targets or areas, 
 direction is taken to a principal registration point. The angular 
 distances from this point to the various targets or target areas 
 are then measured or recorded, and also the breadth of front of 
 each. If guns have been placed in position, it is well to verify 
 the directions by registration shots. These data will be entered 
 
412 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 on a sketch; each target or area will be designated by a letter, 
 care being taken not to use letters of similar sound, and opposite 
 each target will be noted the range, site, corrector setting, deflec- 
 tion from the registration point, and breadth of front. 
 
 If the preparation cannot be made before dark, it is im- 
 practicable to fire at all, except at illuminated targets. For this 
 purpose an auxiliary observer on a flank is necessary, with whose 
 assistance a broad bracket is obtained, and fire for effect opened 
 upon the bracket with ranges differing by 100 yards. Ranges 
 should be eliminated or added, according to the reports of the 
 auxiliary observer. Star shells, if available, may be used for 
 illuminating the target, the bursts being adjusted to come over and 
 behind the target, thus showing the target silhouetted against the 
 light. 
 
 For indirect fire at night, stakes carrying lanterns may be 
 provided as aiming points. • Similar stakes may be used by 
 observers to fix the direction to targets. Sights must be illumin- 
 ated. 
 
 ARTILLERY IN THE FIELD 
 
 The characteristics of Field Artillery are: 1. Great power 
 concentrated in a relatively small tactical unit; (2) rapidity of fire; 
 (3) long range; (4) ability to act from concealed positions; (5) 
 limited mobility, especially in rough country, and where only man- 
 power is available for transport; (6) ability in general to defend 
 itself against a frontal attack, but weakness against a flank attack — 
 though the dragmen (supports) assist materially in this regard. 
 
 Employment of Fire. — The power of artillery should not 
 be frittered away in desultory bombardments nor upon unim- 
 portant targets. Its employment is to be adapted to the phases 
 of an action, so that it may exert the strongest influence upon 
 the important objectives and at the critical moments. 
 
 The opportunities of striking an enemy while he is vulnerable 
 are ordinarily intermittent and brief. They occur, for example, 
 when the enemy moves from cover to cover, or when he exposes 
 himself in order to contend effectively against our own troops. 
 
 Suddenness of action is thus often a necessity. If the action 
 is also by surprise, effect, especially the moral effect, is increased. 
 
 The outburst of rapid fire called for will therefore be inter- 
 mittent, depending upon the nature and phase of the combat. 
 
 A prolonged deliberate fire, however, may be requisite for 
 destroying material objects; for holding a sheltered enemy under 
 subjection, preventing his supply and reenforcement, and preclud- 
 ing his effective interposition in the engagement; for searching for 
 an enemy's reserves, etc. 
 
CONDUCT OF FIRE 413 
 
 Opportunities for using flanking and oblique fire must be 
 sought. 
 
 These methods of action are made possible and effective by 
 timely reconnaissance, by skillful selection and occupation of posi- 
 tions, by careful preparation, and an efficient conduct of fire, and 
 by thorough co-operation with other troops. 
 
 Preparatory Dispositions. — Premature commitment of artil- 
 lery to action is to be avoided. Readiness for action is secured 
 and freedom of maneuver retained by posting artillery in or near 
 suitable concealed positions, and making all preparations for 
 meeting the probable phases of the action. 
 
 To facilitate definite assignment of duties, batteries are 
 classified as follows: 
 
 (1) Counter Batteries are those specially designated to com- 
 bat the enemy's artillery. 
 
 (2) Infantry Batteries are those assigned to prepare and sup- 
 port the infantry attack. They are further classified into batteries 
 of preparation, which fire on the opposing infantry; and breaching 
 batteries, whose mission is to open passages in the enemy's line, 
 through which our troops may advance. 
 
 (3) Batteries of the Counter Attack, to assist in defeating 
 any counter attack the enemy may make. They are posted in 
 observation or readiness. 
 
 (4) Decoy Batteries, to draw the fire of the enemy's artillery 
 which has not disclosed itself, or to divert their fire from the main 
 attack. They are usually posted in an advanced position, at wide 
 intervals, and make up for small numbers by great rapidity of fire. 
 
 (5) Accompanying Batteries, to advance to the close support 
 of the infantry attack. This may, or may not, involve actual 
 movement forward, but refers rather to accompaniment by fire. 
 
 THE USE OF SUPPORTS (DRAGMEN) 
 
 After the guns are in position, the dragmen constitute the 
 supports, and are deployed or held under cover in order to mini- 
 mize losses, but near enough so that they can be readily called 
 on to shift the position of the pieces or to support them against 
 an infantry attack, especially a flank attack. Where there is no 
 probability of such a situation arising, they may be formed into 
 infantry companies and added to the firing line. But it must be 
 borne in mind that the artillery thereby becomes practically im- 
 mobile, and in the event of an unexpected change in the tactical 
 situation, requiring the advance of the guns to attack a new target, 
 or their retirement to avoid capture, neither situation can be taken 
 advantage of. Moreover they become especially vulnerable, as 
 
414 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 there are now no men available for their support, or even for the 
 replacement of casualties. 
 
 It is better to consider the artillery support as a part of the 
 infantry reserve, to be detached only in extreme cases; but since 
 such cases are precisely the ones most likely to require the presence 
 of the artillery supports at the pieces, the decision for such detach- 
 ment should be made only after a careful consideration of the 
 tactical situation, with an eye to eventualities. 
 
 CHOICE OF POSITION 
 
 The area within which the field artillery must take position 
 depends on the plan of action, decided on by the commander of 
 troops. The choice of position must be such as to make the best 
 use of the terrain within these limits. 
 
 Important considerations in the choice of a position are: (1) 
 Obtaining an effective range; (2) Securing a large field of fire; (3) 
 Concealment from view; (4) Facility of movement to the front, 
 flanks, and rear; (5) Proximity of good locations for observing 
 stations; (6) Favorable conditions for resupply of ammunition. 
 
 Positions combining all of the above qualifications are seldom 
 or never found. The choice as to which consideration carries most 
 weight depends upon the tactical situation. 
 
 By a suitable choice of positions and of observing stations 
 the greater part of the terrain within range of the guns may be 
 included within the field of fire, and the dead space reduced to a 
 minimum. 
 
 When not incompatible with the effectual accomplishment 
 of the duty to be performed, concealment from view is always to 
 be sought. This is true whether direct or indirect laying is em- 
 ployed. By rendering the guns inconspicuous or entirely conceal- 
 ing them their sustained service may be counted upon, while the 
 difficulties of the enemy in locating his targets and adjusting his 
 fire are increased. 
 
 The principal means of concealment is the defilade of the 
 guns from all points within the enemy's position. Complete con- 
 cealment requires the flashes of the guns to be invisible from the 
 enemy's position. Such concealment requires in daylight a defilade 
 of about 12 feet. 
 
 In the selection of a position it is necessary to determine 
 the defilade which can be secured while keeping the trajectory, 
 at the shortest range to be used, above the mask affording the 
 concealment. 
 
 When direct laying is to be used, the necessity for seeing 
 the target through the sights fixes the position to one very near 
 
CONDUCT OF FIRE 415 
 
 the line from the mask to the target. Similarly, little concealment 
 is possible when very short ranges must be used. 
 
 Positions which, from the enemy's point of view, are on the 
 sky line are usually the most conspicuous. By placing the guns 
 below the sky line, so that they will have a favorable background 
 and by preventing movements of the personnel, a battery may be 
 unrecognized even though it is in the open. It is important, how- 
 ever, to have a crest, a hedge, or a clump of trees in front so as 
 to increase the enemy's difficulty of observation and of exact loca- 
 tion. In the absence of natural cover artificial means may be used 
 to conceal the guns, as for example, by tying branches of trees to 
 the wheels, etc., and thus breaking the outline. 
 
 A position in rear of a crest, with a parallel crest of about 
 the same height in front and some distance away, offers many 
 advantages. The enemy is apt to mistake the crest nearest him 
 for the one actually occupied and to consider shots falling between 
 the crests as beyond his target. The trees, a hedge, standing grain, 
 etc., 400 or 500 yards in front of the guns, and so that the line 
 of sight just passes over them, may similarly serve to deceive the 
 enemy as to the actual position. 
 
 When indirect laying is to be employed, a position on a gen- 
 tle slope just far enough behind the crest to insure the conceal- 
 ment of the flashes best facilitates running the guns up to the crest 
 should direct laying be called for. If the position is discovered 
 by the enemy, however, and the crest is plainly seen by him, the 
 guns are in a very vulnerable position, as shrapnel may be em- 
 ployed to search such a reverse slope very effectively. 
 
 The most advantageous position, from the point of view of 
 concealment alone, is one more than 400 yards in rear of a covering 
 mask, having flash defilade and hidden from the view of any 
 auxiliary observers whom the enemy may push to the front and 
 flanks. 
 
 A position on the counter slope is frequently advantageous 
 in reducing dead spaces, facilitating ammunition supply, and secur- 
 ing suitable observation stations near the guns. 
 
 Protection from observation by aircraft is obtained by post- 
 ing the guns under trees, by placing brush or small trees around 
 the guns, by providing an overhead screen of the same color as 
 the surrounding terrain, and by any means of breaking the out- 
 lines of the materiel. Complete immobility on the part of all the 
 personnel during the time that hostile aircraft are in observation 
 is also an important means of avoiding notice. 
 
 Firing Over Friendly Troops. — Firing over our own troops 
 is to be regarded as a normal procedure. 
 
 Freedom is thus gained to post artillery so as to cover effec- 
 
416 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 tively the whole front of combat and to realize the power of con- 
 centrating the fire of widely separated lines. 
 
 Projectiles should clear friendly troops by at least 10 yards. 
 Fire over them should not be conducted with elevations of less 
 than 1000 yards, or when they are within 400 yards of the guns. 
 These limitations are modified by the relation between positions 
 occupied by the target, the friendly troops, and the guns. 
 
 RECONNAISSANCE 
 
 The duty of locating the enemy and of securing information 
 concerning him devolves in general upon other troops than 
 artillery. The artillery must, however, obtain for itself such special 
 information as is needed to insure the proper posting and the 
 effective employment of the guns to carry out the tasks assigned it. 
 At the earliest opportunity the officer commanding the artillery 
 reconnoiters and selects the positions for the artillery in accordance 
 with the instructions which he has received and the tactical require- 
 ments of the situation. He causes his immediate subordinate com- 
 manders to accompany him or informs them when and where they 
 are to report to receive their instructions. 
 
 When a commander goes forward for reconnaissance he 
 instructs the officer left in command on the following points, 
 so far as may be desirable and practicable: (1) The tactical situa- 
 tion; (2) whether or not the command is to follow at once; (3) 
 the time and place for subdivision, if such subdivision is to be 
 made; (4) the route to be followed; (5) the rate of march. Addi- 
 tional instructions may be transmitted from time to time by 
 markers, who should be left at places where uncertainty as to 
 the route may arise or wb re difficulties are to be avoided. As 
 soon as the position and the best method of approaching it have 
 been determined upon, agents or scouts may be sent to meet bat- 
 talions or companies and guide them by the most favorable routes 
 to their respective positions. 
 
 In undertaking a reconnaissance an artillery commander 
 should have a clear idea in his mind of the general plan of action 
 and of the task to be accomplished by the force under his com- 
 mand. Unembarrassed by details, he should study the tactical 
 situation and the lay of the ground, select the position with a view 
 of carrying out his special mission, and arrange for the necessary 
 preparatory dispositions. The details of securing information, 
 etc., should be performed by reconnaissance officers and scouts. 
 
 An artillery reconnaissance officer may be attached to ad- 
 vanced troops, and if so he should, as soon as possible after the 
 determination of the enemy's location, submit to the artillery com- 
 mander a report giving all obtainable information as to the knemy 
 
CONDUCT OF FIRE 417 
 
 and describing the most suitable position of our own artillery. 
 This report should be accompanied by a sketch, showing the 
 enemy's position, the position selected for our own artillery, the 
 characteristics of the country intervening between the two, and 
 such other important information as may be readily set forth. 
 The report should embrace information such as the following 
 relative to the position selected: (a) The various routes of ap- 
 proach and their relative practicability, stating difficulties, if any; 
 (b) possibility of approach under cover; (c) whether direct or in- 
 direct laying is recommended; (d) cover afforded for guns; (e) 
 need of providing artificial cover; (f) number of guns which maybe 
 posted advantageously in the position; (g) facility for resupply of 
 ammunition; (h) in case indirect laying is recommended, possi- 
 bility of securing good aiming points and good observing stations 
 and of firing over intervening obstacles. 
 
 As to the enemy, the report should include information as 
 to: (a) The most important and immediate targets; (b) location 
 and strength of the various hostile bodies; (c) location or proba- 
 ble location of the hostile artillery. 
 
 ADVANCE TO AND OCCUPATION OF THE POSITION 
 
 Artillery commanders habitually precede their commands 
 to the position to be occupied. Before the arrival of his guns, 
 each company commander should have determined exactly where 
 they are to be posted. Ordinarily he remains in observation of 
 the terrain and targets assigned him. If necessary, however, he 
 meets his company at a short distance in the rear, and personally 
 conducts it to its position. 
 
 Reconnoitering parties, scouts, and other members of the 
 headquarters detachment must operate so as to avoid indicating 
 the position which is to be occupied. If exposure is necessary, it 
 should not occur in the neighborhood of the chosen position. If 
 the occupation of the position will be visible to the enemy, delay 
 in establishing the guns may be fatal. In such cases it may be 
 preferable to advance boldly to the position from which they can 
 open fire immediately. 
 
 When the circumstances permit, it is always preferable to 
 unlimber under cover. If direct laying is to be employed, the guns 
 are run up by hand, after unlimbering, until each pointer can just 
 see his target through the sights. By requiring all individuals 
 to keep under cover and by avoiding all movements on the crest, a 
 position may readily be occupied without the knowledge of the 
 enemy, securing the advantage of surprise as well as safety. 
 
 If positions are to be occupied at night, the route and all the 
 details of the movement must be determined in advance by recon- 
 
418 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 naissance during the day. It is usually desirable to post markers 
 along the route to be followed before nightfall. Such markers 
 must be at close intervals. Immediately after establishing the 
 guns in position, communications are opened up with the observa- 
 tion station. Observers should also be posted to provide security 
 against close attack. 
 
 As soon as possible after occupation, the preparation of 
 artificial cover against fire and observation is begun. The first 
 cover provided should be constructed with a view of its being 
 developed into complete protection as the occupation of the posi- 
 tion continues. Similarly, advantage should be taken of any lull 
 in the action to complete the cover. If the dust from the dis- 
 charge of the pieces rises so as to reveal the location of the guns, 
 it may be reduced by wetting the ground, or covering it with wet 
 branches, or other non-inflammable material. The plan to be 
 followed depends on circumstances. 
 
 CHANGES OF POSITION 
 
 If guns are rendering effective service, changes of position 
 in the midst of an engagement should be made only when some 
 very distinct advantage will thereby be gained. Changes involve 
 interruption of fire, necessitate dismantling and re-establishing 
 communication, a fresh orientation of the command and a new ad- 
 justment, and, if made in the view of a vigorous enemy, are apt 
 to result in paralyzing losses. Nevertheless, as an action develops 
 changes of position may be essential. Artillery commanders must 
 anticipate and prepare for such movements. Reconnaissance of- 
 ficers and scouts must be employed to reconnoiter and select 
 routes, to remove obstacles, to perform such pioneer work as may 
 be needed, and to prepare themselves to guide organizations over 
 the routes selected. 
 
 If a hasty movement is imperatively demanded, great losses 
 may be avoided by skilfully using the cover afforded by the ground 
 and by moving rapidly over spaces where exposure is inevitable. 
 If the guns are under effective fire of the enemy's infantry or artil- 
 lery, changes of position are apt to involve heavy losses, if the 
 guns are in sight of the enemy. If the drag can be manned under 
 cover, the losses due to the close order formation may not be 
 great, as the movement can be rapidly executed. But if animal 
 transportation is used, it is best to wait for a lull in the firing. 
 
 Changes of position are usually in echelon, in order to keep 
 up the fire and cover the movement of the unit which is changing 
 position. For a single artillery company, however, the change is 
 usually made simultaneously, unless it is necessary to cross a fire- 
 swept zone. 
 
CONDUCT OF FIRE 419 
 
 A change of position by certain batteries may be neces- 
 sitated by the fact that the enemy has succeeded in locating them 
 and in securing the ascendancy of fire. A short movement by 
 hand during a lull in the fire may be sufficient in such cases. 
 
 COMBAT 
 
 The action of field artillery with an advance guard will vary 
 with the mission. It should not occupy positions from which it 
 cannot be withdrawn without a general engagement, perhaps not 
 intended by the commander of the force. Its main duties are to 
 break down any resistance to the advance of the other arms or 
 to cover their retirement if necessary. 
 
 Positions with as much cover as possible should be chosen, 
 with preservation of complete* freedom of maneuver, while the 
 guns themselves should be placed at wide intervals and used with 
 great rapidity of fire, so as to deceive the enemy, if possible, as to 
 the strength of the force opposed to him. 
 
 Some means of transport, other than man-power, is impera- 
 tive, if artillery is to be attached to the advance guard; otherwise 
 its lack of mobility prevents fulfillment of its mission. 
 
 THE ATTACK 
 
 In general, when large forces are engaged, the attack pre- 
 sents three principal phases: 1. The preparation. 2. The decisive 
 action. 3. Securing the victory, or averting disaster in case of 
 failure. The use of artillery in the attack will vary in conformity 
 with these different phases. 
 
 In the preparatory stage artillery has for its objectives those 
 parts of the enemy's force which at the time most oppose the 
 action of our infantry. Until our infantry comes within effective 
 small-arms fire the principal target will, therefore, be the hostile 
 artillery. As the progressive advance of our infantry brings them 
 within effective rifle fire, more attention must be paid to the 
 hostile infantry. Obstacles, such as walls and abatis, which im- 
 pede the advance of our infantry should, if possible, be destroyed 
 by artillery fire. 
 
 The counter batteries acting from masked positions must 
 dominate the enemy's artillery; the infantry or breaching batteries 
 open upon the hostile infantry and obstacles. 
 
 The artillery preparation for the infantry attack is, in gen- 
 eral, carried on simultaneously with the infantry advance. If, 
 however, the enemy has fully occupied his position, or the attack 
 is able to form under cover close to the hostile position, and thus 
 
420 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 has only a short distance to advance, the preparation may take 
 place both before and during the attack. During this special 
 preparation the counter batteries continue or resume their fire 
 on the hostile artillery. 
 
 In the decisive attack a special preparation is necessary. 
 The most rapid and intense concentration of fire of all the avail- 
 able artillery is brought to bear upon the objective against which 
 the infantry is to advance. 
 
 As our attacking infantry reaches the danger zone of our 
 artillery the commander of the infantry firing line should, by a 
 preconcerted signal — such as the display at the firing line of a 
 conspicuous and suitable flag — inform the artillery commander of 
 the fact. The artillery then increases its range so as to impede 
 the movement forward of possible hostile reserves, and to take 
 the enemy in the rear in case he retreats, 
 
 When the third phase of the attack is reached, accompany- 
 ing batteries will be designated from the infantry batteries, whose 
 mission will be to reach the captured position as soon as possible 
 after the infantry, in order to pursue with their fire the retreating 
 enemy and to aid in repulsing any counter attack. 
 
 In case of reverse, artillery directs upon the enemy's attack- 
 ing troops every gun which can be brought to bear, in order to 
 destroy their morale and to assist the repulsed troops in the re- 
 newed effort which may lead to victory. If the repulsed troops 
 continue to be forced back, the artillery must cover their with- 
 drawal. 
 
 THE DEFENSE 
 
 The defense requires, before all things, skillful utilization of 
 the available ground in order to develop fire effect to the utmost. 
 
 Exhaustive preliminary reconnaissance of the position, im- 
 provement of communications within it, determination of the 
 ranges, especially of those to probable artillery positions of the 
 enemy and to points in the probable direction of the infantry 
 attack, are advantages which the defense must utilize so far as 
 time permits. 
 
 In preparing positions which may be occupied, a most ex- 
 tensive use is to be made of earth cover. If time permits, it is 
 advisable to provide masks and to improve the field of fire by cut- 
 ting down hedges and trees. It is of the greatest importance to 
 place a large supply of ammunition in readiness in the immediate 
 vicinity of the guns. 
 
 As soon as the general direction of the enemy's attack is 
 recognized, but if possible before the enemy brings his batteries 
 into action, the fighting position is occupied. Sometimes flanking 
 
CONDUCT OF FIRE 421 
 
 artillery fire can be employed with advantage to search dead 
 angles before the fighting position. 
 
 The commander of the troops will usually order the open- 
 ing of fire. Firing at excessive ranges and upon small hostile 
 detachments is to be avoided, for this assists the enemy in locating 
 the guns. 
 
 When the enemy's infantry advances to the attack, the artil- 
 lery must make them their target regardless of the enemy's artil- 
 lery fire, if necessary leaving cover for this purpose. If possible, 
 the enemy's batteries should at the same time be held in check, 
 but the repulse of the infantry attack must remain the most im- 
 portant feature. 
 
 If, even before the infantry commences, the enemy's artil- 
 lery proves itself so superior that it appears hopeless to continue 
 the artillery action, the batteries may temporarily seek cover from 
 the enemy's fire. But as soon as the enemy institutes the decisive 
 attack every gun must at once resume the struggle and engage the 
 enemy's infantry only, heedless of the artillery fire. 
 
 If, nevertheless, the attack succeeds, part of the artillery 
 must prevent the advance of hostile batteries into the captured 
 positions, part must concentrate its fire upon the hostile infantry 
 which has penetrated, and, in co-operation with the reserves, expel 
 the enemy from the captured position. This is one of the tactical 
 situations in which steadfast endurance to the last is imperative. 
 
 WITH THE REAR GUARD 
 
 As the principal duty of a rear guard is to gain time, and as 
 it should be able to withdraw without serious loss, it should be 
 strong in field artillery. Positions should be selected so as to 
 utilize the long range of the guns to force the enemy to deploy at 
 the greatest possible distance; such positions must also afford 
 sufficient facilities for withdrawing. In withdrawing, small 
 changes of position should be avoided, the retirements from one 
 position to another being over as great a distance as is consistent 
 with delaying the enemy to the utmost. 
 
 As with the advanced guard, some means of motor or animal 
 transport is imperative, or the artillery cannot fulfill its mission. 
 
 MACHINE GUNS 
 
 Machine guns may be consolidated and the personnel or- 
 ganized into machine gun companies and battalions, or may be 
 separated and assigned to designated infantry and artillery com- 
 panies. The former method permits greater co-ordination of 
 effort, especially in major operations; the latter permits greater 
 
422 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 flexibility, especially in minor operations against poorly organized 
 enemies. 
 
 Whichever method of organization be adopted, the machine 
 gun crews must be carefully chosen, and must be thoroughly 
 familiar with the type of gun assigned to them, including the clear- 
 ing of jams. The efficient handling of a machine gun under the 
 varying conditions of service requires a high order of technical 
 skill and dexterity, which can only be acquired by long practice 
 with that type of gun. A lack of this experience leads to frequent 
 interruptions in the fire, or total inability to function, possibly at 
 critical moments, in addition to inefficient handling of the sheaf of 
 fire. For this reason, machine guns should be permanently as- 
 signed. 
 
 When practicable, two machine guns are provided for each 
 infantry company, and a similar number may be attached to each 
 artillery company. These guns should always work in pairs, or 
 within supporting distance of each other. Guns of different types 
 should never be paired. 
 
 TRANSPORT 
 
 Every effort should be made to provide proper cart, or pack- 
 mule transportation, for machine guns and their ammunition. 
 Unless carriages are provided for the " heavy type " guns, the 
 gun squad can transport them only short distances without the 
 aid of special carriers. When carried by hand they are best trans- 
 ported slung on light poles. The "light type " guns with their am- 
 munition can be transported satisfactorily by the gun squad, but 
 if the distance be long, only about 1200 rounds of ammunition can 
 be carried with each gun. 
 
 Where machine gun carts are furnished or can be obtained, 
 the guns, with spare parts, tool kits, and ammunition supply com- 
 plete, can be much more satisfactorily handled and transported. 
 Two carts are provided for each squad. They are light, have 
 great mobility, and will transport the gun and as much ammuni- 
 tion as a pack mule is able to carry, with no increase in personnel. 
 
 The machine gun squad, when forced to carry the gun and 
 equipment, does so in the most convenient manner, dividing the 
 load as much as possible, and shifting the different loads from 
 one to another. 
 
 ORGANIZATION 
 
 A single machine gun, of whatever type, requires about one 
 squad for transporting the gun, its equipment, spare parts, and 
 ammunition. The squad is therefore the smallest unit of machine 
 gun organization, 
 
CONDUCT OF FIRE 423 
 
 The machine gun squad consists of the squad leader and 7 
 men, as in an infantry squad. The front rank retains the num- 
 bers 1, 2, 3, 4; the rear rank is re-numbered 5, 6, 7, and 8 respec- 
 tively. The squad leader becomes gun captain. Numbers 1, 2, and 
 3, constitute the gun crew, and become respectively the pointer, 
 1st loader, and 2d loader. Numbers 5, 6, 7, and 8 constitute the 
 support, and assist in transporting the gun and its equipment, 
 spare parts, ammunition, etc., according to the type of gun and 
 the equipment supplied, and in providing ammunition in action. 
 
 Machine gun companies, etc., have an organization similar 
 to that of corresponding infantry units. Thus the machine gun 
 platoon consists of not less than 2, nor more than 4, machine gun 
 squads; and the machine gun company of not less than 2, nor more 
 than 4, platoons. At least three officers are necessary for each 
 machine gun company, and, if practicable, there should be, in 
 addition to the company commander, a junior officer for each 
 platoon. 
 
 When machine gun squads are attached to infantry com- 
 panies, their post in line is 5 paces in rear of the line of file closers; 
 in column, 2 paces in rear of the rear guide. They take no part in 
 infantry drills as machine gun units. 
 
 When present at ceremonies, machine gun companies par- 
 ticipate in the same manner as artillery companies, so far as is 
 consistent with the nature of their equipment. Machine gun 
 squads attached to infantry companies are normally either tem- 
 porarily combined into machine gun detachments, or become in- 
 fantry squads of their own companies. 
 
 The movements, signals, formations, and general rules, for 
 infantry apply to machine gun units, so far as is consistent with 
 the nature of their equipment, and except where otherwise pro- 
 vided or obviously inappropriate. 
 
 When machine gun squads are attached to infantry or artil- 
 lery companies, they conform to the spirit of such commands as 
 may be given for the company, without awaiting the specific com- 
 mands applicable only to machine gun units. 
 
 CONTROL OF FIRE 
 
 The light Browning clip holds 20 rounds; the Benet clip, 
 30 rounds; the Lewis magazine, 47 rounds; the Colt, Marlin, 
 Browning heavy, and Vickers belts hold 250 rounds each. In 
 any type of machine gun, it is of advantage (except at dense tar- 
 gets at close range — say inside of 200 or 300 yards) to fire bursts 
 of 5 to 30 rounds, depending on the conditions; checking the aim 
 between bursts. The increased accuracy and steadiness more 
 than compensate for the few seconds lost. 
 
424 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 An understanding of the following definitions is essential: 
 
 (1) Point fire is more or less sustained fire, keeping the 
 line of sight, as nearly as may be, on the designated aiming point. 
 Point fire is used for ranging, also for normal rapid fire. 
 
 (2) Effective beaten zone (E. B. Z.) is the horizontal 
 area within which 75 per cent of the shots, so fired, fall. It is 
 described at any range by giving its depth (measured in the 
 plane of fire) and its width (laterally, or perpendicular to that 
 plane), for that range. 
 
 (3) Deep fire is for the purpose of increasing the depth of 
 the E. B. Z., where the target covers considerable area, or the 
 range is in doubt. It includes: 
 
 (a) Vertical searching, or firing short bursts at ranges in- 
 creasing or decreasing progressively by small amounts, from one 
 limiting range to the other. 
 
 (b) Bracketing, where two guns begin, one at the lower 
 limiting range and searching up to the upper limiting range, the 
 other gun starting at the upper range and searching to the lower. 
 
 (c) Combined sights, where two or more guns fire at the 
 same target with ranges differing by 50 or 100 yards (not more 
 than the depth of the E. B. Z. for the range of target). 
 
 (4) Broad fire is for the purpose of increasing the width 
 of the E. B. Z., where the target has a broad front. It includes: 
 
 (a) Traversing, or horizontal sweeping, by firing a small 
 burst at one edge of the target, then shifting the point of aim 
 slightly and firing another burst, and so on until the entire front 
 of the target has been covered. 
 
 (b) Swinging traverse, which is the same as above, except 
 that the gun is trained laterally during the burst. It is used only 
 on dense targets, at close range. 
 
 CONDUCT OF FIRE 
 
 In determining the method of fire, the following points must 
 be considered: 
 
 (1) The Probable Error in the Range. — The amount of 
 ground to be searched is twice the probable error. Thus, with a 
 possible 15 per cent, error at a range of 1000 yards, the depth to 
 be searched will be 300 yards. 
 
 (2) The Number of Guns Available. — If three guns are 
 available, they can cover this depth (300 yards) with combined 
 sights, 100-yard differences. If only two guns are available, the 
 method of bracketing may be used. If only one is available, the 
 method of vertical searching must be used. 
 
 Combined sights are normally not necessary up to 800 
 yards. From 800 to 1200 yards inclusive, use 100-yard differences; 
 
CONDUCT OF FIRE 425 
 
 over 1200 yards use 50-yard differences. When using combined 
 sights by guns in pairs, have 100-yard differences between pairs. 
 Bracketing fire was much used by the Germans in the 
 European war. It has a great moral effect, but was wasteful of 
 ammunition. 
 
 AUXILIARY AIMING POINTS 
 
 If the target is poorly defined or difficult to describe, an 
 auxiliary aiming point above or below the target may often be 
 chosen, the shots being brought on the target by changing the 
 sight elevation. This may be accomplished by several methods 
 to be described; the principles involved are identical. 
 
 Graticule Method. — This is the easiest method. A graticule 
 scale is necessary, which may be readily constructed as follows: 
 
 (1) Make a scale on a piece of cardboard or tin, with lines 
 on it marked in the same manner, and at the same distance apart, 
 as the 100-yard intervals on the rear sight. The scale so marked 
 is used inverted, hence the figures must be made so as to be read 
 that way. 
 
 (2) Measure the distance from the front to rear sight of 
 the gun. This is the distance at which the card must be held 
 from the eye, and a knotted string will make it easy to get the 
 distance correct. 
 
 (3) If, as is likely to be the case, the distance between 
 sights is greater than the distance the graticule card can conveni- 
 ently be held away from the eye, the distance may be reduced as 
 convenient, and the card reduced in the same proportion. 
 
 (4) The method of use is as follows: Hold the card verti- 
 cally at the correct distance from the eye, and so that the target 
 to be hit comes at the line marked with its range. Then look for 
 a prominent object to serve as an aiming point directly above or 
 beneath the target. Say it is a hedge, and that it comes abreast 
 the 1900-yard line. Then with the hedge as aiming point, and 
 the sights set at 1900 yards, the target should be hit. The words 
 " above " and " beneath " here refer to the angular distance away 
 from the target, as seen from the firing point, and measured in a 
 vertical plane. 
 
 Mil Scale Method. — (1) In this method a mil scale is used 
 instead of the graticule, and the vertical angle from aiming point 
 to target is measured in mils. This angle is added or substracted 
 (according to whether the aiming point is below or above the 
 target) from the angle of departure for the range of target (taken 
 from mil fire table), and the resulting elevation in mils is set 
 on the sight, after reducing it to yards by means of the table. 
 
 (2) A mil scale may be easily constructed by using a piece 
 of celluloid, cardboard or metal 6 inches long, graduated in fiftieths 
 
426 
 
 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 of an inch, with a hole in the center through which a string 20 
 inches long is passed. When the scale is held the string's length 
 from the eye, each division on the scale equals 1 mil. 
 
 RANGE CARDS 
 
 Machine gun fire is frequently ineffective, due to an incorrect 
 determination of the range. 
 
 Range cards show the targets and registration marks with 
 the range of each from the machine gun position and are of 
 
 Pr- 
 i 
 i 
 r 
 
 200 \— 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 ENEMY TROOPS 
 
 ,2200 
 
 H 1 1 1 
 
 I If I t TROOPS 
 t'*,*'l V 
 
 A 
 
 CHORCH 
 
 — . 1 180O 
 
 Wmi WooDS 
 tmm-- 9 --- 
 
 2000 
 
 1600 
 
 1300 
 
 22001, 
 
 ATTACK CARD. 
 
 great assistance in reducing the errors and enabling the guns to 
 materially increase the effectiveness of their fire. There are two 
 kinds of range cards, namely, attack cards, and defense cards. 
 
 The attack card is made as follows: A base line is drawn 
 to represent the frontage. From this base line, a line is drawn at 
 each side toward the position of the enemy. On these two side 
 
CONDUCT OF FIRE 
 
 427 
 
 lines are marked the ranges in yards; ranges on one side being 
 from the enemy's position; on the other side, from our own. In 
 the range card for attack, the ranges between those given can be 
 estimated from those shown. 
 
 The defense card: This card has no definite frontage. The 
 first thing to do is to fix the point from which the ranges are 
 taken; this point is then joined to the most prominent object in 
 front. These two points are then joined by a heavy line (called 
 the setting ray). The object of this. heavy line is to enable the 
 
 X, Right end of No. 2 trench, midway between small tree on 
 right, and ruined barn on left. 
 
 DEFENSE CARD. 
 
 fire unit commander to properly set the card so as to correspond 
 with the country. 
 
 TACTICAL USE OF MACHINE GUNS 
 
 The machine guns of an attacking force are used to support 
 the advance of the infantry to an assault position, in one or more 
 }f the following ways: 
 
 (1) Fire from the Flanks. — In every attack, flanks of certain 
 elements get in the air (i. e., unprotected) on account of that ele- 
 ment's having made greater progress than the troops on the right 
 :>r left. Machine guns are very useful to protect these flanks 
 igainst counter attacks, and also to assist the troops held up, by 
 :overing their front. 
 
 (2) Long Range Covering Fire. — Is most valuable and every 
 
428 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 opportunity for its use should be seized. Suitable ground, build- 
 ings, etc., should be looked for, and covering fire given our in- 
 fantry to the last practical moment. 
 
 (3) Long Range Searching Fire. — The enemy's machine 
 guns are the most likely weapons to hold up the attack. There- 
 fore, every effort should be made to locate them, and to concen- 
 trate the fire of our own guns upon them. It may sometimes be 
 possible to use machine guns to systematically search places likely 
 to be held by the enemy, by using indirect fire. This searching 
 fire has great moral effect on troops subject to it. It requires, 
 however, a large expenditure of ammunition, and favorable ground 
 is necessary. 
 
 (4) Fire from a Forward Position. — If guns are pushed for- 
 ward, the ground must be carefully reconnoitered beforehand. 
 There is no use in adopting this method unless concealment is 
 possible for the guns and ammunition supply, 
 
 (5) Securing Positions Won. — Important tactical points 
 taken by advance of infantry should be made good by guns, and 
 if the advance is checked, guns should be dug in or otherwise pro- 
 tected. 
 
 (6) Guns in Infantry Line. — The gun squads advancing in 
 line must be extended to resemble the infantry, guns and tripods 
 separated. If bunched they become a certain target for' the 
 enemy's machine guns. The Germans were so impressed with the 
 importance of machine gun fire, that they concentrated great 
 volumes of fire on every point where the presence of the guns 
 is suspected. 
 
 (7) Organization for Attack. — The greater portion of guns 
 available should be organized in order to work together and give 
 the maximum effect, and the plans of the infantry commander 
 should be understood as thoroughly as possible by the machine 
 gun officer. 
 
 (8) Oblique and Enfilade Fire. — It is of great advantage to 
 secure a position from which a section of the enemy's line may 
 be enfiladed. The fire of guns should be crossed so that oblique 
 effects are obtained. Oblique fire is more effective than direct 
 fire. If the enemy's line is gained and he is forced out of his 
 position, machine guns must pursue him with fire as long as possi- 
 ble and try to complete his defeat. They should also secure for 
 themselves favorable positions to help in repulsing a counter at- 
 tack should one be launched. 
 
 MACHINE GUNS IN DEFENSE 
 
 Open Fighting. — Machine guns assisting a force to hold up 
 the enemy's advance, should be placed in commanding positions 
 
CONDUCT OF FIRE 429 
 
 where their fire will not be masked; salients should be chosen and 
 their fire organized so as to sweep the whole front. 
 
 Concealment. — Guns must be placed so as to make it diffi- 
 cult for the enemy to locate them, and only the numbers 1 and 2 
 should be at the gun. There should be no unnecessary movement 
 which would enable enemy's field glasses to locate positions. 
 
 Alternate Positions. — Each gun should have an alternative 
 position in view which can be reached without exposure. Some- 
 times if the enemy searches round your position with artillery, he 
 can be induced to imagine he has routed you, if you cease firing. 
 It is well not to be too optimistic about this. It is better to move. 
 
 Ammunition. — Ammunition must be brought to the guns 
 under cover, and the supply must be ample for all requirements; 
 gun crews being careful to reserve their fire except when neces- 
 sary to check the advance. 
 
 Fire Signals. — The control of guns in action at close range is 
 most difficult. Guns are usually placed 50 yards apart if working 
 in groups, and men must be trained to recognize at once a few 
 simple signals from the officer in charge, otherwise it is necessary 
 to pass verbal orders, and messengers passing to the guns may 
 give away the position. This last method also causes delays. 
 
 Protection. — Without interfering with the field of fire, guns 
 may be protected as much as possible, either by artificial methods 
 or by the nature of the ground. Cover from view is good, but 
 cover from fire should be obtained also. 
 
 Reserves. — Guns dug in lose, to a more or less extent, their 
 mobility. Therefore it is not advisable to place all in position be- 
 fore action is opened. A wise commander keeps a reserve which 
 can quickly be brought into play to support threatened sections of 
 his line; or to replace guns put out of action by breakdown or the 
 enemy's fire. 
 
 Detached Posts. — It is sometimes necessary to occupy a 
 position at some distance from the defensive line, in order to 
 cover dead ground, a bridge, road, defile, or spot from which the 
 gun might be enfiladed by the enemy's machine guns. Such a 
 position is very dangerous unless the post can be supported by 
 fire from the main position, but the machine gun is much better 
 than infantry, owing to the small space it occupies, and its large 
 volume of fire. 
 
 Rear Guard Actions. — A machine gun properly handled can 
 greatly help the retirement of its own troops; successive positions 
 may be selected and the enemy's advance delayed time after time. 
 The moral effect of running into a zone of machine gun fire is very 
 great. If the lesson is repeated, the pursuit is apt to slacken, as 
 all the ground must be thoroughly reconnoitered to prevent fur- 
 
430 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 ther surprise. Roads may be made quite impassable and the enemy- 
 forced to deploy. 
 
 MACHINE GUNS WITH THE LANDING FORCE 
 
 For landing operations and expeditionary duty, opposition 
 by well-trained and well-organized troops is not likely to be en- 
 countered. Machine guns, however, are very useful under the fol- 
 lowing conditions: 
 
 1. For use as boat guns in covering a landing, where cover- 
 ing fire is impracticable from the ships. 
 
 2. For clearing the streets in street fighting. 
 
 3. For the defense of a small town or village held as a 
 base by small columns operating in hostile territory. 
 
 4. For use by small mobile detachments operating inde- 
 pendently against hostile forces somewhat superior in strength. 
 
 The use of machine guns in irregular operations and minor 
 warfare produces a profound moral effect on the enemy. Their 
 use reduces the amount of resistance offered and shortens its 
 duration. 
 
 SELECTION OF A POSITION 
 
 Before a position is selected and occupied by the guns it 
 must be reconnoitered by the machine gun commander in person. 
 
 It is only when moving to the rear in delaying or rear-guard 
 actions, when the machine gun commander's position is with the 
 guns, that a subordinate may be sent to select a position. 
 
 The following are, in general, the features to be sought in 
 the selection of a position: 
 
 In attack, when supporting the advance of the attacking 
 line, effective range (1,500 yards or less); a clear view of the 
 enemy's position; sufficient height above or distance from the 
 flank of the firing line so as not to endanger or obstruct its ad- 
 vance; facility for moving forward to within close range (600 
 yards) of the enemy's position. 
 
 In defense, an extended clear field of fire on which a good 
 fire effect is possible up to within the shortest range; a firing line 
 at right angles to the line of fire; cover obstructing the enemy's 
 view; good communications laterally and to the rear. 
 
CHAPTER XVI 
 
 GUNNERY AND EXPLOSIVES, THE ACCURACY 
 OF FIRE AND CAUSES AFFECTING IT 
 
 The introduction of smokeless powder and of accurate long 
 range small arms made obsolete the old idea of battle fields. Conr 
 cealed positions became the rule rather than the exception; changes 
 of position involved speed and a minimum of exposure. The old 
 type of weapon was useless under the new conditions and it was 
 mechanically incapable of taking advantage of the fleeting mo- 
 ments during which an enemy was exposed. The problem of bring- 
 ing the field artillery weapon up to date was solved when the long- 
 recoil carriage was perfected. On this carriage the gun recoils 
 without objectionable derangement of its laying, returning after 
 firing to a position so near its former one that it may be layed ac- 
 curately without loss of time. 
 
 Considerations Affecting the Design. — Without introducing 
 the idea of mobility, gun power would be the ruling factor in the 
 design of a light artillery weapon, hence the ordnance engineer 
 would need little more than a reference to his designs of weapons 
 intended for coast defense. Mobility, however, is a factor — an 
 essential one — and for this reason the field artillery service finds 
 itself restricted to that gun power which may be pulled from place 
 to place by horses. That the power of the horse thoroughly domi- 
 nates the situation may be discerned in an analysis of the light field 
 artillery of all nations — the materiel is practically standardized. 
 Although it is a fact that the field artillery weapon is limited by 
 questions of mobility, it will be shown that, notwithstanding its 
 necessarily curtailed power, it is rarely if ever used to the full 
 theoretical limit. The questions of ammunition supply, observation 
 of fire, loss of time not attributable to the materiel, etc., enter 
 largely into its practical employment. 
 
 Power of the Weapon. — Shrapnel is the principal ammunition 
 used by the field artillery, and with the adoption of the high explo- 
 sive shrapnel, or unit projectile, will be the only projectile for the 
 light field weapon. As the particular function of the shrapnel is 
 to carry a number of bullets to a distance from the gun, there to 
 discharge them with killing energy, the gun should be designed 
 28 
 
432 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 with a view to permitting the highest attainable shrapnel efficiency. 
 The 3-inch field gun is admirably suited to the above condition. 
 
 The maximum range of a service shrapnel is well in excess 
 of 6,000 yards, up to which point its remaining velocity, when 
 augmented by that due to the shrapnel bursting charge, is suffi- 
 cient to produce killing effect upon horses and men. The initial 
 velocity of the gun under consideration is 1,700 feet per second. 
 Such velocity is small when compared with that of high-power 
 coast-defense guns, but it is ample for the purpose. Little or no 
 advantage would accrue from higher velocities as the projectile is 
 deficient in power of penetration and too small for serious per- 
 cussive effect against even temporary entrenchments. The limit of 
 the necessary power of light field artillery has been reached when 
 opposing personnel is being annihilated, when opposing materiel of 
 like power is being destroyed, or when the fire from moderately 
 entrenched position is being neutralized. 
 
 Rapidity of Fire. — The questions of mobility and power hav- 
 ing been treated, some consideration of the speed and facility with 
 which the service weapon performs its function should follow. As 
 previously stated, the important feature making for rapidity of fire 
 is the return of the gun after firing to its former position. Any 
 small derangement may be corrected by small and quick changes 
 in the traversing and elevating mechanisms. By an examination 
 of the breech mechanism, fuse setter and readily adjusted devices 
 for laying, it will be seen that the idea of a rapid-fire machine has 
 been mechanically expressed in the service 3-inch field artillery 
 materiel. Fixed ammunition and easily set fuses also contribute 
 to rapid fire. 
 
 Pointing the Gun. — A gun must be pointed in such direction 
 and elevated to such degree that a projectile fired from it will hit 
 the target. In order to regulate the direction, a fixed line is estab- 
 lished, and the axis of the gun is given such direction in relation to 
 this fixed line as will result in hits on the target when the gun is 
 properly elevated. The fixed line becomes the line from gun to 
 target in direct laying and from gun to aiming point in indirect 
 laying. The appliances provided for pointing and laying the 3-inch 
 fieldpiece include line sights, the adjustable or tangent sight, the 
 panoramic sight, and the range quadrant, all of which are fully 
 described in the handbook. The sighting apparatus, except in case 
 of the line sights, is attached to nonrecoiling parts of the gun car- 
 riage and remains in place during firing. As the carriage does not 
 move, the gunner, with elevating and traversing handwheels con- 
 veniently at hand, finds the operation of sighting a continuous one. 
 
 The elevation and direction are given by moving the cradle to 
 which the sight and quadrant are attached. 
 
 This system does not have the independent line of sight used 
 
GUNNERY AND EXPLOSIVES 433 
 
 by the French. In that system the elevation of the gun for range 
 is made above the rocker or top carriage, while the angle of site 
 is set off by moving the top carriage. This method necessi- 
 tates the setting of an angle of site device for all direct as well as 
 for indirect laying. 
 
 Some form of telescopic sight is necessary, in view of the 
 great range of the field gun and for the reason that indirect laying 
 requires a sight permitting rapid laying of the gun when the target 
 is hidden. These two requisites are combined in the panoramic 
 sight, which is a telescopic sight so fitted with reflectors and prisms 
 that the observer with his eye at an eyepiece fixed in position, may 
 bring into the field of view any object upon the horizon, the image 
 appearing magnified, but otherwise as if viewed directly by the 
 unaided eye. Due to the fact that with the telescopic sight the 
 image of the target or aiming point is in the same plane as the cross 
 wires, this sight is more accurate than the tangent sight and re- 
 quires less experience to use. 
 
 The range quadrant is for the purpose of setting off the 
 proper range during indirect laying. For direct laying the sights 
 are generally used, but for indirect laying the range quadrant must 
 be used, since the angle of site of an aiming point bears no fixed 
 relation to that of the target. 
 
 In order to take full advantage of the great range and ac- 
 curacy of the service materiel and of the refinement of the sight- 
 ing arrangements, a battery commander's telescope has been pro- 
 vided. This telescope is of the general form of the panoramic 
 sight, but more powerful, and, with its all-around motion in 
 azimuth and limited motion in elevation, becomes a satisfactory 
 angle-measuring instrument. The scales of the telescope, sights 
 and range quadrant are so graduated that a reading may be trans- 
 ferred from one instrument to another without computation or 
 reference tables. 
 
 Gunnery as Applied to Field Artillery. — The field artillery- 
 man, in the practice of his profession, does not require a great 
 knowledge of the mathematics of gunnery. As a matter of culture 
 such knowledge is desirable, but it should not be sought at the 
 expense of more practical knowledge. The materiel issued for use 
 in the field artillery is the result of thoughtful design and thorough 
 test and may be taken as representative, at least, of the best modern 
 conception of such materiel. A battery of 3-inch field guns is a 
 plant of no small importance, the proper management of which 
 requires intelligence and unflagging zeal. Conditions are such that 
 no absolute criterion of excellence can be established in the case of 
 field batteries. But that battery which has been perfected in fire 
 discipline and whose commanding officer comprehends minutely the 
 purposes of each mechanism of fire and is an adept in applying his 
 
434 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 knowledge may be said to represent the aim of practical gunnery. 
 Before such an organization can be evolved the materiel itself must 
 be thoroughly understood. 
 
 As ordinarily understood by practical artillerymen, the path 
 followed by a projectile during its exterior flight from the gun to 
 target is known as its trajectory. Such conception is quite com- 
 plete in so far as the field artilleryman is concerned, as he has no 
 control over that portion of the projectile's motion termed its 
 interior flight. It will be assumed, therefore, that ammunition 
 issued for use in the field artillery is of such nature that successive 
 projectiles of the same type, fired under the same conditions, will 
 have the same trajectory. While the assumption is not strictly 
 correct, yet it is sufficiently true for purposes of discussion and, 
 in the preliminary understanding of firing terms, should be ad- 
 hered to rigidly. 
 
 The range is the distance from the muzzle of the gun to the 
 target. 
 
 The line of sight is the right line passing through the sights 
 and target or aiming point. 
 
 The line of departure is the prolongation of the axis of the 
 bore at the instant the projectile leaves the gun. 
 
 The plane of fire, or plane of departure, is the vertical plane 
 through the line of departure. 
 
 The angle of site, or angle of position is the angle made by 
 the line joining gun and target with the horizontal. 
 
 The angle of departure is the angle made by the line of de- 
 parture with the line joining gun and target. 
 
 The quadrant angle of departure is the angle made by the 
 line of departure with the horizontal. This is greater than the 
 angle of. departure when the target is above the horizontal and 
 smaller when the target is below the horizontal. 
 
 The angle of elevation is the angle between the line joining 
 gun and target and the axis of the piece when the gun is laid. 
 
 The jump is the angle between the line of departure and the 
 axis of the gun before firing. The gun and its carriage are made up 
 of elastic parts which yield to a slight extent under the action of 
 the firing stresses, the resulting effect being a small displacement 
 of the axis of the piece after firing. The angle of departure is 
 usually greater than the angle of elevation. 
 
 The point of fall, or point of impact is the point at which the 
 projectile strikes. 
 
 The angle of fall is the angle made by the tangent to the 
 trajectory with the line joining gun and target at the point of fall. 
 
 Initial velocity is the velocity of the projectile at the muzzle. 
 
 Remaining velocity is the velocity of the projectile at any 
 point of the trajectory. 
 
GUNNERY AND EXPLOSIVES 435 
 
 The drift is the departure of the projectile from the plane 
 of fire, due principally to the resistance of the air and to the pro- 
 jectile's rotation. 
 
 The Trajectory in Vacuo. — In order to understand the 
 trajectory in air the motion of a projectile in vacuo is first con- 
 sidered. Under this assumption all the variable incidents of service 
 firing are avoided and the mind is left at liberty to form a concep- 
 tion of the path followed by a mass projected into space and acted 
 upon by the earth's attraction solely. The projection into space is 
 accomplished through the action of the expanding gases of the pro- 
 pelling charge, which action imparts velocity to the projectile. This 
 velocity is known as the initial or muzzle velocity and is measured 
 in feet per second. By assigning a definite value to the initial 
 velocity and knowing the direction of motion at its orgin, the 
 trajectory in vacuo becomes determinate and can be easily plotted. 
 It should be noted that until the direction of motion is assumed the 
 problem remains indeterminate. This direction of motion is re- 
 ferred to a right line joining both ends of the trajectory, and 
 makes with it an angle known as the angle of departure. 
 
 It is known that a body falling freely drops a distance of 
 approximately 16 feet in the first second after gravity begins to 
 act. Thereafter the distance increases according to the following 
 formula : 
 
 S (distance dropped)=16f 2 
 
 in which t stands for the number of seconds during which the body 
 has been falling under the action of gravity. 
 
 Except for the action of gravity the projectile would have 
 proceeded along its original right line of departure. According to 
 the law, however, its position at the end of any assumed second 
 will be I6t 2 feet below the line of departure. 
 
 It is generally known that a mass falling from rest under the 
 action of gravity will cover a space of 16 feet in the first second. 
 This can be demonstrated practically by dropping a stone and 
 timing its fall. It will be found that the stone will drop 64 feet 
 in 2 seconds and 144 feet in 3 seconds. 
 
 From these facts we may proceed to the analysis of the re- 
 lations existing between falling bodies and the earth. Under what 
 conceivable law will a mass fall 16 feet in 1 second, 64 feet in 2 
 seconds and 144 feet in 3 seconds? Certainly its velocity or speed 
 can not be uniform, for during the second second it falls 48 feet and 
 during the third second it falls 80 feet. We therefore reach the 
 conclusion that a falling body gains speed as it falls. We know that 
 the body which starts from rest or zero velocity falls 16 feet in the 
 first second, hence during this second it must have averaged a 
 velocity of 16 feet per second, or must have acquired at the end of 
 this second a velocity of 32 feet per second. In the second second, 
 
436 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 since a force has the same effect on a body at rest or in motion, it 
 again drops 16 feet, due to gravity; but it also drops 32 feet, due 
 to the velocity it had at the end of the first second, or 48 feet. The 
 body falls three times as far in the second second as it does in the 
 first second, hence its average speed during this second is 48 feet 
 per second; since it started with a velocity of 32 feet per second 
 at the beginning of the second second, it must have acquired a 
 speed of 64 feet per second at the end of the second second in order 
 to have averaged 48 feet per second during that second. It will 
 be seen, therefore, that a falling body has a variable speed which 
 increases at the rate of 32 feet per second and that the velocity at 
 any time may be found from the following formula: 
 
 V (velocity at any time) = 32 t 
 
 in which t stands for the number of seconds during which the body 
 has been falling under the action of gravity. If the body had velo- 
 city before gravity commenced to act it must be considered also. 
 For instance, if a body is thrown vertically downward at a speed 
 of 500 feet per second, at the end of the first second its speed will 
 be 532 feet per second. Conversely, if a body is projected vertically 
 upward at a speed of 500 feet per second, at the end of the first 
 second its speed will be 468 feet per second; in other words, gravity 
 adds to or subtracts from already existing vertical velocity at the 
 rate of 32 feet per second. 
 
 Rigidity of the Trajectory. — According to the principle of 
 the rigidity of the trajectory, which can be demonstrated mathe- 
 matically, the relations existing between the trajectory and the line 
 representing the range, are sensibly the same whether the range be 
 horizontal or inclined to the horizon, provided that the quadrant 
 angle of departure is small. 
 
 THE RANGE TABLE 
 
 Due to atmospheric resistance to the projectile's motion, the 
 trajectory in air differs from the hypothetical trajectory in 
 vacuo. A proper conception of the latter assists in understanding 
 the former. Motion in a resisting medium is merely a modified 
 form of unresisted motion and, though its laws may be somewhat 
 complex, yet, for any set of conditions to be met with in practice, 
 they are readily deduced. Fired with the same angle of departure, 
 a projectile resisted by the air will have a shorter range than 
 the projectile in vacuo; the latter has no force acting upon it 
 except that vertically downward and due to gravity, whereas the 
 former is continuously retarded by the pressure of the air in front 
 of it and the friction of air on its sides. In the table below is 
 
GUNNERY AND EXPLOSIVES 
 
 437 
 
 found a comparison of certain elements of the trajectory in air 
 with the trajectory in vacuo. The trajectories in vacuo have been 
 computed for the five angles of departure corresponding to ranges 
 in air of 1,000, 2,000, 3,000, 4,000 and 5,000 yards. 
 
 
 Angle of 
 departure. 
 
 Muzzle 
 velocity. 
 
 Range. 
 
 Maxi- 
 mum or- 
 dinate. 
 
 Time of 
 flight. 
 
 Air 
 
 / 
 
 1 11.2 
 
 1 11.2 
 
 2 56.7 
 2 56.7 
 
 5 12 
 5 12 
 
 7 54.2 
 7 54.2 
 
 11 10.1 
 11 10.1 
 
 Ft. seconds 
 1,700 
 1,700 
 
 1,700 
 1,700 
 
 1,700 
 1.700 
 
 1,700 
 1,700 
 
 1,700 
 1,700 
 
 Yards. 
 1,000 
 1,245 
 
 2,000 
 3,089 
 
 3,000 
 5,434 
 
 4,000 
 8,200 
 
 5.C00 
 11,440 
 
 Feet. 
 17.3 
 19.4 
 
 93.1 
 J19.2 
 
 257.0 
 370.9 
 
 536.0 
 
 853.8 
 
 975.0 
 1,694.0 
 
 Seconds. 
 2.07 
 
 
 2.20 
 
 Air ' 
 
 4.46 
 
 
 4.75 
 
 Air 
 
 7.83 
 
 
 9.63 
 
 Air 
 
 11.25 
 
 
 14.61 
 
 Air 
 
 15.12 
 
 
 20. 5& 
 
 
 
 Some idea may be formed of the resistance of the air, when 
 it is seen that a range of 8,200 yards in vacuo corresponds to 4,000 
 yards in air. 
 
 Range Tables. — Range tables set forth in a convenient form 
 certain facts pertaining to the trajectory of a projectile in air. 
 Such tables are usually based upon actual firing at the proving 
 grounds. For instance, the shrapnel range table was prepared 
 approximately as follows: A sufficient number of shrapnel fused 
 with the service fuses of the same lot were secured for the test. 
 Ten rounds each were fired to burst on impact at ranges approxi- 
 mately 1,500, 2,500, 3,50Q, 4,500 and 5,500 yards, and all the incidents 
 of firing were carefully observed. The angles of departure and 
 the muzzle velocities of the rounds in each group were as nearly 
 as possible the same. The ranges were accurately measured and 
 at the close of the firing it became known that certain angles of 
 departure would assure certain horizontal ranges. Having five 
 ranges accurately determined by firing, the range table was com- 
 pleted by interpolation according to known mathematical methods. 
 The range table is the basis for graduation of the rear sight and 
 the range quadrant. The probable behavior of fuses, which ordi- 
 narily are supposed to be adjusted so as to burst in air, is likewise 
 determined by experiment, as the graduations on the fuse and on 
 the fuse setter depend upon the range of shrapnel to its bursting 
 point. 
 
438 MILITARY TRAINING' 
 
 AMMUNITION FOR THE LIGHT FIELD GUN 
 
 The ammunition available for use with field guns at present 
 is of three kinds, i. e., common shrapnel, high-explosive shell, and 
 high-explosive shrapnel. Shrapnel is the principal projectile of 
 present field artillery and in the form of high-explosive shrapnel 
 will become the only projectile. 
 
 Common Shrapnel. — An examination of the design will show 
 that the modern shrapnel is a projectile which carries a number of 
 bullets to a distance from the gun, where they are discharged with 
 killing energy over an extended area. The shrapnel is made of an 
 exceptionally strong drawn steel case, which remains intact upon 
 the explosion of the bursting charge. Formerly the shrapnel case 
 ruptured at the instant of time burst, hence failed to give the 
 accurate spread of bullets so easily noticeable in the more recent 
 product. For the purpose of facilitating observation of fire, a por- 
 tion of the matrix surrounding the shrapnel balls is of smoke- 
 producing material. The advantage of having a point in the shrap- 
 nel's trajectory made visible, as well as being able to observe 
 some of the dust thrown up by the balls upon impact, is obvious. 
 
 The fuse used in the shrapnel is the 21-second combination 
 fuse, model of 1907, and is arranged so that if the projectile fails to 
 burst in flight it will burst upon graze or soon after. The fuse may 
 be set at zero, whereupon the shrapnel will burst at about 20 feet 
 from the muzzle of the gun. The common shrapnel is essentially a 
 projectile for attacking personnel, and has little or no effect against 
 walls or even light entrenchments. Used in an attack of a field- 
 work of even temporary type, its function is to keep down the 
 defenders until the infantry can advance sufficiently to warrant a 
 rush on the position. 
 
 High-Explosive Shell. — Due to the fact that common shrap- 
 nel was without sufficient effect when used against walls, trenches, 
 light cover, and the enemy's materiel, it became necessary to adopt 
 a high-explosive shell. The shell bursts upon impact against the 
 obstacle or after having penetrated. In theory the shell is merely 
 the vehicle for the transportation of some high explosive to be 
 made effective upon impact. As a matter of fact, the quantity of 
 high explosive in a 3-inch shell is so small that the effect of deto- 
 nation is much less extensive than might be supposed. A typical 
 use of high-explosive shell is found in its employment against the 
 guns of an opponent's battery which has been silenced temporarily 
 as the result of overpowering shrapnel fire. 
 
 High-Explosive shell may be used to demolish overhead and 
 head cover as a preparation for subsequent shrapnel fire. 
 
 High-Explosive Shrapnel. — Notwithstanding the fact that 
 shrapnel is the principal projectile for the field artillery, it will be 
 
GUNNERY AND EXPLOSIVES 439 
 
 seen that certain functions of the high-explosive shell are also 
 necessary. The high-explosive shrapnel has been designed to em- 
 body as fully as possible the good features of the common shrapnel 
 and the high-explosive shell. The high-explosive shrapnel, without 
 fuse, is practically the same as the common shrapnel, so far as its 
 construction goes. Actually the only essential difference is the 
 substitution of an active for an inert matrix. The matrix surround- 
 ing the balls in a common shrapnel is resin and mono-nitro-naph- 
 thalene; in the high-explosive shrapnel the matrix is tri-nitro- 
 toluol, a high explosive. 
 
 The fuse of the high-explosive shrapnel, in so far as the time 
 action is regulated, is the same as the 21-second combination fuse, 
 model 1907. The essential difference is that for the percussion- 
 ignition effect in the common shrapnel fuse a percussion-detona- 
 tion effect has been substituted. 
 
 The high explosive shrapnel affords the following advant- 
 ages: (a) It is a single-type projectile, hence obviates the difficulty 
 of supplying two forms of ammunition. Heretofore much discus- 
 sion has taken place regarding the proportion of shell to shrapnel. 
 The problem, though indeterminate when two forms of projectiles 
 are considered, is solved by the introduction of the single type. 
 
 (b) The high-explosive shrapnel when employed as time 
 shrapnel projects, in addition to the balls, a high-explosive head. 
 This high-explosive head should be effective against the carriages 
 of opposing artillery. Also it should facilitate observation of fire. 
 
 (c) High-explosive shrapnel has considerable shrapnel effect 
 when bursting on impact, whereas common shrapnel is practically 
 harmless unless striking on hard ground. 
 
 It should be understood that the high-explosive shrapnel is a 
 compromise projectile, justified unquestionably by the resulting sim- 
 plification of ammunition supply. The shell effect of the single- 
 type projectile is slightly inferior to that of the high-explosive shell, 
 and the number of balls contained in its case is fewer than in the 
 common shrapnel. 
 
 CALCULATION OF THE ELEMENTS OF FIRE 
 
 For direct laying, few, if any, computations are necessary. 
 The aiming point is the target itself and the deflection set off on 
 the sight compensates for drift and wind. No correction for angle 
 of sight is necessary, due to the fact that the range is set off on the 
 rear sight shank, after which the line of sight is directed upon the 
 target. 
 
 When indirect laying is employed it becomes necessary to 
 determine the horiontal angle between the axis of each piece, prop- 
 
440 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 erly directed upon its target, and the line joining each panoramic 
 sight and the selected aiming point. The angle of site from gun to 
 target must be determined and the guns must be located in such 
 manner that their fire will clear the mask and otherwise conform 
 to the nature of the particular problem. Firing data are determined 
 at the observing station and there transformed for use at the 
 guns. 
 
 Deflection of any Piece. — The solution of this problem has 
 for its aim the determination of the horizontal angle in mils be- 
 tween the line of sight and the axis of the piece, so that the fire 
 of this piece may be toward and in the direction of the assigned 
 target. In the general problem any position may be chosen for 
 the gun, aiming point, target,, and observing station. The angular 
 quantities entering the solution are obtained at the observing sta- 
 tion by means of the battery commander's telescope, the battery 
 commander's ruler, or by handbreadths; linear elements entering 
 the solution are measured or estimated. In the usual case the de- 
 flection of the right piece is determined and a deflection difference 
 calculated, which, if applied in arithmetical progression to the de- 
 flection of the right piece, gives the proper deflection for the piece 
 considered. 
 
 RAPID CALCULATION OF THE ELEMENTS OF THE 
 TRAJECTORY 
 
 As is the case with other professions the practice of which 
 is based upon the intelligent application of natural laws, field artil- 
 lery has its empirical rules. Such rules are more or less closely in 
 accord with mathematical facts, the departure from such facts being 
 in the form of close approximations easily remembered and quickly 
 applied. All the elements of the trajectory in air may be com- 
 puted with any desired degree of accuracy, but such computations 
 can not be made quickly even under the most favorable conditions. 
 Due to certain interesting relations between various elements of 
 the trajectory, approximations sufficiently close for practical pur- 
 poses may be carried in the head without the necessity of using 
 range tables or logarithms. 
 
 Units of Measure. — The yard is the usual unit of distance. 
 The unit angle is the mil. 
 
 The true mil is a thousandth part of a radian, or practically 
 1/1570 part of a right angle; the mil adopted is 1/1600 part of a right 
 angle,, and is smaller than the true mil by approximately 4 seconds 
 of arc. 
 
 Based upon the assumption that 6,400 mils equals 360 de- 
 grees, or 21,600 minutes, degrees may be converted into mils by 
 first reducing the degrees to minutes and then multiplying by 0.3. 
 
GUNNERY AND EXPLOSIVES 441 
 
 Example: The angle of departure 5° 12', corresponding to 
 a horizontal range of 3,000 yards, equals 312 minutes, or 93.6 mils. 
 Actually, the angle in mils should be 92.4 which does not vary 
 greatly from that given by the approximate method. 
 
 The converse of the above rule is true, and mils may be 
 transformed into minutes by dividing by 0.3. 
 
 ACCURACY OF FIRE AND CAUSES AFFECTING IT 
 
 There are two principal causes affecting the accuracy of 
 field gun fire: Errors committed by the personnel charged with 
 the various incidents of fire, and irregularities in the materiel sup- 
 plied by the Ordnance Department. 
 
 Errors Committed by the Personnel. — In order that the 
 projectile from any gun may hit the target the gun must be fired 
 at a certain angle of departure, depending upon the range and 
 upon the relative level of the gun and the target, and must be 
 given such direction to the right or left of the target as to neu- 
 tralize the deviation of the shot from the plane of fire due to the 
 drift and wind. In shrapnel fire the fuse must be set to function 
 at the proper height and at the proper distance in front of the 
 target. 
 
 Whether the laying be direct or indirect the accuracy of 
 fire depends upon the correct manipulation of the instruments for 
 laying and fuse setting. The battery commander is resp6nsible 
 for the correct adjustment of his instruments before firing; and 
 during target practice or combat the platoon commanders and 
 chief of sections supervise the service of their guns, the latter 
 watching particularly to see that sights, quadrants and fuses 
 are properly set. It must be understood that before the broader 
 moves in the artillery game may be played with confidence, and 
 before the commander can utilize the wonderful flexibility of his 
 fire, he must train his organization in the manipulation of the few 
 instruments of precision with which the guns are equipped. When 
 the machine is perfect within itself, its commander will realize his 
 reward in the possession of a fighting unit of enormous power, 
 susceptible of accurate and flexible direction. 
 
 Based upon the analysis of many rounds of shrapnel am- 
 munition, fired at proving grounds, we may safely conclude that 
 where the gun has been accurately laid in elevation and for direc- 
 tion range errors will be negligibly small. This refers particularly 
 to bursts upon impact with the ground and only in a general way 
 to air bursts, which latter action does not depend solely upon 
 the proper laying and fuse setting. 
 
 Irregularities in Materiel. — The gun and ammunition are 
 subject to the usual errors found in manufactured products. Com- 
 
442 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 pared with commercial articles the accuracy and regularity of 
 their construction is remarkably high, due principally to the weli- 
 drawn specifications furnished by the Government and to the care- 
 ful inspection of all materiel and the manner of converting it into 
 war supplies. 
 
 Any error existing in a new field gun is negligible. A gun 
 which has had a projectile burst in its bore may be deformed or 
 scarred; or it may pass its accuracy life after having been fired 
 many rounds. A premature burst is a very rare occurrence, and, 
 in so far as the gun itself is involved, should not be viewed with 
 concern. The elastic strength of the field gun is in excess of the 
 force of an explosion of any one of its service projectiles. The 
 accuracy life of a field gun is a long one, and perfectly acceptable 
 results should be obtained with a gun from which 2,000 rounds 
 have been fired. 
 
 In the projectiles themselves will be found the chief sources 
 of error not attributable to errors in laying and fuse setting. Dif- 
 ferent projectiles of the same type may not weigh the same. In 
 fact, the Ordnance Department, for reasons of economy of manu- 
 facture, finds it necessary to tolerate a variation of 1 per cent, 
 from the prescribed weight of the service 3-inch 15-pound shrapnel. 
 
 The center of gravity of a projectile may lie slightly off its 
 longer axis. This would affect its accuracy. Roughness of the 
 projectile would increase the resistance of the air to its motion 
 and any error in the dimensions of its rotating band would affect 
 its muzzle velocity. 
 
 The muzzle velocity is a variable due to well-known causes. 
 The powder of different charges may be of different tempera- 
 tures; its burning may not proceed identically each time; again, 
 the varying weights of the projectiles and variations in the dimen- 
 sions or deformation of the rotating band, all tend to vary the 
 actual muzzle velocity from that chosen as the standard. In prac- 
 tice the errors due to all of the above causes, acting simultaneously, 
 are very small. No serious error will be committed in assuming 
 the behavior of the mean of many shots to be that of any one of 
 them. 
 
 The shrapnel, set for time burst, is subject, to another set of 
 errors due to irregularities in manufacture and the various condi- 
 tions of its service. The handbook contains a description of the 
 service combination fuse. The time element of this fuse regulates 
 the point of burst of the shrapnel for any given trajectory. The 
 time trains are formed of compressed meal powder and burn 
 with a great degree of regularity. Due to atmospheric conditions 
 during the pressing of the trains and due to small variations in 
 moisture content of the powder from day to day, the time ot 
 burning to any fuse setting is found to Be slightly variable. The 
 
GUNNERY AND EXPLOSIVES 443 
 
 concussion primer does not act precisely the same at all times 
 and the powder pellets, whose function it is to transmit the flame 
 from primer to upper train and from upper train to lower train, 
 give small variations which do not seem to yield entirely to re- 
 finements in the fuse; these irregularities together with the usual 
 range errors (variations in the elements" of the trajectory) are 
 responsible for what is known as the dispersion of points of 
 burst. The dispersion of service fuses is carefully determined at 
 several ranges for each lot of 1,000 fuses. For the maximum 
 range of about 6,500 yards the average dispersion in all lots of 
 recent manufacture is about 110 yards. In other words, for the 
 same range and fuse setting the range difference between the 
 shortest and the longest burst is 110 yards. 
 
 Accuracy and Probability of Fire. — As a result of inaccu- 
 racies due to faulty materiel and to errors committed by the per- 
 sonnel, two successive rounds rarely, if ever, fall in exactly the 
 same place. In practice this means that the trajectories of a 
 number of projectiles fired under as nearly as possible the same 
 conditions do not coincide, but form a cone about the mean trajec- 
 cory as an axis. This cone is called the sheaf of fire, the ground 
 section of which is an ellipse, with the longer axis in the direction 
 of the range. In determining the accuracy of a gun at any given 
 range and under any special conditions, a number of hots are 
 fired under the given conditions. The firing is done in such 
 manner as to make the circumstances governing all rounds as 
 nearly alike as possible, and the point of fall of each shot is 
 plotted, usually with reference to the assumed origin. 
 
 THE SINGLE SHRAPNEL 
 
 The attack of personnel would be a very diffcult matter 
 without shrapnel. The high explosive effect of percussion shell is 
 restricted to a very small area, whereas the shrapnel, burst prop- 
 erly in air, distributes a large number of projectiles, each one of 
 which is capable of killing a man or horse at reasonable distances 
 from point of burst. 
 
 The Bursting of Shrapnel.— The shrapnel case is the vehicle 
 for transfer of the shrapnel balls from gun to bursting point. At 
 this point the powder charge in its base is ignited and the balls are 
 driven out with increased velocity. After the time burst each 
 shrapnel ball pursues its own trajectory, depending upon its ve- 
 locity and initial direction. The projectile has a motion of rotation 
 due to which the balls are thrown away from the trajectory which 
 the shrapnel would have followed had it not burst in air. The 
 paths of all the shrapnel balls taken collectively form a cone called 
 
444 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 the cone of dispersion. The ground section of this cone is an 
 irregular oval with its longer axis approximately in the plane of 
 fire. The dimensions of this section will vary with the angle of 
 fall, the height of burst, the slope of the ground, and the relation 
 between the linear and rotational velocities at instant of time' 
 burst. 
 
 Angle of Opening. — The angle at the apex of the cone of 
 dispersion may be computed in the following manner: At the 
 instant of time burst the projectile has a remaining velocity in 
 the direction of the range and a rotational velocity about its own 
 longitudinal axis. The balls are given an additional velocity by 
 the base bursting charge. Each ball upon emerging from the 
 shrapnel case has a velocity in the direction of the range equal to 
 the sum of the remaining velocity of the projectile and that velocity 
 imparted to it by the bursting charge; in a direction normal to 
 and away from the trajectory it has velocity due to the projectile's 
 rotation. 
 
 The Ground Section. — The ground section of the cone of 
 dispersion may be computed, but it is simpler to construct it to 
 scale. The point of burst should be located on cross-section paper; 
 then, from the proper relations, the angle of opening is determined 
 and laid off in such manner that it will be bisected by the trajectory 
 continued. The ground section is known as the zone of dis- 
 persion. . 
 
 By locating the points in which the limiting bullets of the 
 cone of dispersion pierce the horizontal plane the horizontal zone 
 of despersion may be constructed. Such drawing would show the 
 influence of the ground upon the depth of effect of a shrapnel. If, 
 for example, it be supposed that the ground at the target has an 
 upward slope Of 5°, it is necessary only to construct the points in 
 which the outer bullets pierce the inclined plane. These points 
 limit the new zone of dispersion. It may also be seen from such 
 drawing how the width of the zone of dispersion falls off with 
 small heights of burst. For height of burst greater than the normal 
 the zone of dispersion will be wider. In the latter case the danger 
 of going over the target at short intervals of burst will be greater 
 also. 
 
 The curve of the descending branch of the trajectory dimin- 
 ishes the effect, and especially the depth of effect, of shrapnel. The 
 flatter the trajectory the greater the depth of effect. 
 
 A study of the ground section of cones of dispersion should 
 be made in connection with the effective ranges of shrapnel balls. 
 It will be found that many balls impacting near the outer limit of 
 a ground section are ineffective, due to lack of man-killing energy. 
 
 The Corrector. — The rate of burning of different fuses of 
 the same lot will be found to be fairly uniform, though it will prob- 
 
GUNNERY AND EXPLOSIVES 445 
 
 ably vary slightly from that upon which the fuse setter range-ring 
 scale is based. 
 
 Before considering the function of the corrector, let it be 
 supposed that a fuse setter, without corrector, is being used and 
 that fire is being conducted with the type lot of fuses, upon the 
 behavior of which the fuse setter range-ring scale is based. If, for 
 instance, the target is on the same horizontal plane as the guns, 
 it will be found that, neglecting the inherent errors of the fuse and 
 assuming normal atmospheric conditions, the shrapnel bursts will 
 be seen in the horizontal plane through the gun; in other words, no 
 matter what the range may be, the fuse will act at the end of that 
 range under the conditions assumed. If the target and gun are not 
 on the same level, and the gun is given an angle of site elevation in 
 addition to the elevation for range, the shrapnel burst will occur 
 in a plane containing the gun and target and perpendicular to the 
 plane of fire; this would follow from a consideration of the theory 
 of the rigidity of the trajectory. Due to fuse errors the bursts, even 
 with the type lot, will not occur precisely in the plane in question, 
 but above and below it in equal numbers. 
 
 With other lots of fuses, the majority of bursts, due to a 
 probable variation in rate of burning from the type lot, will occur 
 below or above the plane, depending upon whether the time of 
 burning is too long or too short as compared with the type lot. 
 
 The fuse setter was so constructed that corrector 27 would 
 put the bursts in the plane for the type lot of fuses under normal 
 conditions. As each division of the corrector graduations corre- 
 sponds to a change in the height of burst of the shrapnel equal to 
 one one-thousandth of the range — that is, to 1 mil — it will be seen 
 that the division 30 corresponds to the normal height of burst (3 
 mils) for fire for effect, if all conditions are normal. 
 
 In case the fuses of any lot burn longer than those of the 
 type lot, corrector 27 would not correspond to a burst in the plane 
 through gun and target. The corrector would have to be increased 
 by a number of points equal to the number of mils beneath the 
 plane at which the shrapnel were bursting. If, for instance, the 
 sense of the bursts was 4 mils below, the corrector should be raised 
 to 31 for bursts in the plane and to 32 for the prescribed 1 mil 
 height of burst for fire for adjustment. 
 
 Having determined the corrector corresponding to bursts in 
 the plane through gun and target and perpendicular to the plane of 
 fire, as long as atmospheric conditions are normal no further ma- 
 nipulation is necessary except the proper increase for firing for 
 effect, no matter what the range may be. 
 
 If, however, atmospheric conditions are not normal, an 
 alteration in the corrector setting will be necessary. The corrector 
 will perhaps vary at different ranges; usually, however, this varia- 
 
446 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 tion for any probable set of conditions will be very small. Hence 
 it may be stated as a practical working rule that the corrector for 
 one range is good for all. 
 
 This rule works satisfactorily for the changes of range used 
 in bracketing, and also generally for greater changes of range in 
 shifting to a new target, although in the latter case a slight re- 
 adjustment of the corrector may be required. 
 
 RANGING 
 
 Ranging is the most difficult as well as the most important 
 part of the adjustment of fire. Skillful ranging at difficult targets 
 requires a great deal of practice in observing the bursts of pro- 
 jectiles. 
 
 From the nature of its service, field artillery can not have 
 the stationary appliances of the coast artillery for determining 
 ranges accurately and for making allowances for all conditions of 
 wind, barometer, etc. Furthermore,, the shrapnel is its principal 
 projective and the hitting of a bullseye is not to be sought. 
 
 Methods of Procedure. — For the field artillery the process 
 of ranging is one of trial shots and the method of procedure for a 
 battery is as follows: 
 
 The captain first observes the target and estimates the dis- 
 tance of it from his guns. This estimate may be made with the 
 eye or by the aid of a portable range finder. He then fires at the 
 estimated range and observes whether the projectiles burst short 
 of or beyond the target. 
 
 Supposing the bursts to have been short of the target, he 
 next fires a round with increased range, the amount of increase 
 being such as will probably include the sum total of all of the 
 range errors of the gun and ammunition, and of the personnel, 
 including the error that has been made in estimation of the dis- 
 tance to the target. 
 
 * If this second round is over, a bracket is said to be estab- 
 lished; any other trial ranges which he will need to use will be 
 included within the limits of this bracket. 
 
 The most logical range for him to use for his third trial is 
 the one midway between the first two, since, whether the third 
 round be short or over, he will have eliminated the ranges in one- 
 half of the bracket from the necessity for further trial. 
 
 He continues to halve the bracket last obtained until he has 
 narrowed it down to the needs of the case, but he should never try 
 to get a bracket smaller than the error of his guns. 
 
 Having obtained the desired bracket, he then verifies it by 
 firing a sufficient number of rounds at the short and long limits. 
 
GUNNERY AND EXPLOSIVES 447 
 
 A single round is never to be trusted for deciding a short or an 
 over which is near the target, since that one round may be an ab- 
 normal one, and the waste of ammunition which would result from 
 firing for effect with the erroneous data thus obtained will, in the 
 end, more than equal the expenditure required to verify the bracket. 
 Furthermore, the time lost in firing at an erroneous range before 
 the error is discovered can not be replaced. 
 
 A battery salvo is generally sufficient to verify each limit 
 of the bracket. If, during the bracketing process, any of the rounds 
 be observed to produce effect upon the target, the captain may 
 abandon his bracketing process for the time being and fire addi- 
 tional rounds at the same range. If these rounds do not indicate 
 that the range has been found, he proceeds with the bracketing. 
 
 The amount of increase of the range for the second trial 
 round is laid down as 400 yards. This has been fixed upon as the 
 result of much experience, as the amount necessary to cover all 
 probable range errors. It is also a number which is readily sub- 
 divided several times without giving a quotient which is not an 
 even division on the scales. 
 
 Ranging by Time Bursts. — Ranging by means of percussion 
 projectiles is often very difficult on account of lost rounds. 
 
 One of the most annoying things is a deep ravine in front 
 of the target, whose existence has not been discovered. Rounds 
 falling into such a ravine may be sensed as over, either because they 
 are not seen at all or because the smoke, when it does rise into 
 the view, is so thin that the target is seen through it and judged 
 to be in front of it. 
 
 Another cause of lost rounds with percussion fire is soft, 
 marshy ground which swallows up the projectiles, while still 
 another is ground covered with dense brush or tropical growth 
 which imprisons the smoke. 
 
 If the first rounds fired are lost, the battery commander is 
 all at sea, and if he sticks to percussion fire has to feel aimlessly 
 about until he gets a burst that can be seen. 
 
 Until the adoption of the present fuse setter, ranging was 
 habitually done with percussion projectiles, but that instrument 
 supplies a ready means for avoiding the pitfalls of percussion 
 ranging. 
 
 The theoretical effect of the fuse setter is to place all of the 
 bursts in a plane passing through the gun and the target and 
 normal to the plane of fire. The corrector furnishes means of 
 adjusting the heights of burst so as to bring them into this plane, 
 if conditions are not normal, or to any desired distance above such 
 plane for ranging or for fire for effect. The theoretical result of 
 placing the burst in this plane for ranging is that the bursts appear, 
 relatively to the target, as percussion bursts would appear if the 
 
448 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 target and guns were on level ground. The distances of the bursts 
 from the target are then quite independent of the actual form of the 
 ground. 
 
 This system is practicable only with a fuse which burns with 
 reasonable regularity, and a fuse setter in which the setting is 
 always that due to the range, modified by the corrector for the 
 various conditions of the firing. 
 
 While theoretically the effect of the fuse setter is to place 
 all of the bursts in one plane, it will be readily understood that in 
 practice many bursts will be a little above or below this plane. 
 The mean point of burst of a series of shrapnel can, however,, be 
 brought into this plane. If the average variation of the fuse is 
 small, the smoke of burst, spreading out in all directions from the 
 bursting point, will conceal the target, or the target will appear 
 silhouetted against it if the direction is properly adjusted. More- 
 over all bursts, whether air or percussion, that appear below a 
 target which is on a crest are manifestly short. The only rounds 
 which the observer may not judge as short or over are those burst- 
 ing so high that no portion of the smoke ball reaches down to 
 the target. 
 
 As the bracket is narrowed down and the bursts occur near 
 the target, a certain proportion of the bursts will be on graze, due 
 to the fact that the ground approaches the zero plane at this point; 
 any irregularities of burst cause a certain percentage of the fuses 
 to burst below the plane. 
 
 Percussion bursts may also occur at other points along the 
 range where the ground is near to or above the zero plane; unless 
 such percussion hits bracket the target, they do not indicate that 
 the proper range has been obtained. 
 
 Height of Burst for Ranging. — In practice, time bursts for 
 ranging are placed above the zero plane, so that they will appear 
 at a height of one mil above the target as seen from a point near 
 the guns. 
 
 The adoption of the one-mil height of burst of fuses during 
 the ranging process is based upon the following analysis: To 
 assist observation the smoke ball must be silhouetted against or 
 silhouetted by the target; at short and medium ranges the one-mil 
 height is admirably suited to such purpose, as the diameter of 
 the smoke ball immediately after the time burst is about 4 yards. 
 At long ranges the one-mil height of burst is theoretically too 
 large. An incident to the practice of using the one-mil height of 
 burst in ranging is the resulting shrapnel effect. 
 
 For short and medium ranges this slight elevation of the 
 bursting point does not produce an undue percentage of bursts too 
 high for purposes of observation, but for long ranges it may be 
 advantageous to use a little lower corrector, as the one-mil height 
 
GUNNERY AND 'EXPLOSIVES 449 
 
 of burst at such ranges corresponds to a greater distance above 
 the plane; furthermore, observation is more difficult on account of 
 the distance. 
 
 In adjusting the mean height of burst to any plane, account 
 must be taken of the percussion bursts as well as of the air bursts, 
 since the percussion bursts would have been low-time bursts with 
 the ground out of the way. The occurrence of an average of 
 one percussion burst in four shots is an indication that the proper 
 height of burst for adjustment has been obtained. 
 
 Estimating the mean height of burst by observing only the 
 air bursts of a group of shots which also contains percussion hits 
 is an erroneous method. 
 
 The proper method of observing the mean height of burst i? 
 similar to the method of observation of the range. That is, the 
 observer should endeavor to determine whether the mean point 
 is above or below the desired plane. When all of the bursts of 
 the group are in the air and are closely grouped, it then becomes 
 practicable to make a good estimate of the amount of correction 
 necessary. 
 
 If fuses are poor ranging with time fire will be less satis- 
 factory, but some advantage may still be gained from it, since 
 with a low corrector, a portion of time bursts will still be seen 
 and many of the lost rounds which would result from percussion 
 ranging will still be avoided. 
 
 Ranging with time fire has also the advantage that during 
 the bracketing process the action of the fuse is observed and cor- 
 rected, so that the proper corrector for fire for effect will be known 
 as soon as the range is obtained. As time fire is used for effect in 
 the majority of cases, this is a considerable advantage. 
 
 Observations on air bursts from auxiliary stations on the 
 flanks of the line of fire give more reliable information than do 
 similar observations on percussion bursts. The location of the per- 
 cussion burst is dependent upon the form of the ground, whereas 
 that of the time burst is independent of the form of the ground. 
 Furthermore the percussion bursts are dependent upon the laying 
 of the gun in elevation. If, for example, a gunner (having mis- 
 understood the range) laid 100 yards too high, the percussion burst 
 would be farther from the gun than it should be, and even if the 
 firing were over level ground, the burst interval reported by the 
 observing party would not be that due to the range ordered at 
 the guns. If, on the other hand, a time burst be considered, it will 
 be seen that the effect of the form of the ground will be elimin- 
 ated, and that the effect of the faulty laying will be to place the 
 burst higher in the air, but with the same burst interval that it 
 would have had if the gun had been correctly laid. The burst 
 
450 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 interval reported will be correct and the gunner's error will be 
 detected. 
 
 Large errors in fuse setting are rare and are easily de- 
 tected, while ordinary variations in setting are very small, so that 
 variations in burst interval due to the fuse are reduced nearly to the 
 error of the fuse itself. 
 
 The error of the fuse now in use is about equal to the error 
 of the gun; therefore, since the error of the gun and of the gunner 
 and the influence of the form of the ground on the burst interval 
 are eliminated in ranging with time bursts, the error of the fuse 
 only being introduced, much better results should be obtained from 
 this method. 
 
 In all ranging the officer conducting the fire should depend 
 first of all on seeing whether the ball of smoke produced by the 
 bursting projectile is short of or beyond the target. 
 
 There are other means of judging the range, such as ob- 
 serving the strike of shrapnel case, noting the dust knocked up by 
 shrapnel balls, etc. All such indications are dependent on the 
 conditions of the ground about the target and should be considered 
 only as secondary matters to be noted when it can be done with- 
 out diverting the officer's attention from the main reliance. 
 
 Officers whose firing experience is confined to a single firing 
 ground are prone to place too much reliance on such of these 
 secondary indications as are continually available on that ground. 
 
 EXPLOSIVES 
 
 The power due to the action of which the projectile is pro- 
 pelled from the gun is present in the powder charge contained in 
 the cartridge case. 
 
 This powder is ignited by means of a percussion primer, is 
 converted into gas, and in the act of expanding forces the projectile 
 through the bore of the gun with a rapidly increasing velocity. 
 In the case of propelling charges the combustion is gradual, gas 
 being evolved by the burning powder during all or nearly all of 
 the time of passage of the projectile through the bore of the gun. 
 In the 3-inch field gun this time amounts to about two-tenths of a 
 second, or that during which a stone would fall about 8 inches 
 under the action of gravity. 
 
 Nature of Combustion. — The phenomena of combustion are 
 found variously illustrated in nature. The more noticeable pro- 
 cesses in which a combustible is combined with a supporter of com- 
 bustion are attended with a production of heat or light, or fre- 
 quently both. There are processes of combustion involving con- 
 siderable time, as an example, the decay of a tree; such action 
 is as truly combustion as is the burning of gas or coal. 
 
GUNNERY AND EXPLOSIVES 451 
 
 When the hydro n and carbon of which combustibles are 
 mainly formed are so °ted as to commence to combine with 
 atmospheric oxygen, the process is a gradual one. The air in the 
 immediate vicinity is first utilized, and as the oxygen it contains 
 is expended, more rushes in until all the hydrogen is converted 
 to water, and the carbon into carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. 
 
 Nature of an Explosion. — If by any means the supply of 
 the supporter of combustion be increased, combustion is rendered 
 more rapid and consequently more violent. Generally speaking, 
 explosion may be defined as a sudden and violent increase in the 
 volume of a substance. Chemically, explosion is the rapid con- 
 version of a solid or liquid to the gaseous state, or the instanta- 
 neous, or nearly instantaneous, combination of two or more gases 
 accompanied by increase of volume. 
 
 Certain compounds contain a considerable quantity of oxy- 
 gen, with which they are very ready to part when heated, and if, 
 therefore, one of these materials be intimately mixed with a readily 
 oxidizable substance, it is clear that combustion will be more 
 rapid than in the case where oxygen must be obtained gradually 
 from the air. Explosion is, therefore, produced by a very rapid 
 combustion. 
 
 Effect of Confinement. — If an explosive mixture or an ex- 
 plosive compound be ignited and left to burn in air, in the usual 
 case an appreciable time will be necessary for its combustion. The 
 burning surfaces, exposed to the air, will be relieved from their 
 hot gases as soon as formed; these burning gases will have no 
 tendency to penetrate the mass of the explosive, but will blow away 
 along the easiest path. 
 
 If, however, such mixture or compound be confined in a 
 closed vessel, a high degree of pressure is soon set up. This 
 pressure increases the rate of burning, the burning in its turn 
 increases the pressure, and so on, the result being that the process 
 of combustion is completed in a time almost inappreciably small. 
 
 Detonation. — In the process of combustion the chemical 
 reaction takes place slowly, whereas in explosion such reaction 
 occupies a smaller time. An explosion starts with the explosion 
 of a single particle and takes place progressively from particle to 
 particle until the phenomenon is complete. Detonation is effected 
 with greater rapidity than is explosion; apparently there is no 
 progression from particle to particle, but an instantaneous con- 
 version of all of the explosive compound into gases. 
 
 The difference in the rapidity of reaction has given rise to 
 the division of explosives into two groups, high explosives and 
 progressive explosives. The principal high explosives in general 
 use are nitroglycerin, the dynamites, guncotton, picric acid and its 
 salts, trinitrotoluol and the fulminate of mercury. The various 
 
452 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 gunpowders are progressive explosives. Gunpowder is a term 
 covering charcoal and smokeless powders used as propellants in 
 service or sporting weapons. 
 
 Charcoal Powders. — The black gunpowder used as a base 
 charge for shrapnel and in the preparation of igniters is a mechani- 
 cal mixture of niter (potassium nitrate), charcoal and sulphur in the 
 proportions, approximately, of 75 parts niter, 15 charcoal, and 10 
 sulphur. Niter furnishes the oxygen in the above mitxure and char- 
 coal is the combustible; sulphur is used in gunpowder to lower the 
 point of ignition of the mixture and to give density to the grain. 
 
 In the manufacture of black powder the ingredients are inti- 
 mately mixed, incorporation taking place in a wheel mill, under 
 heavy iron rollers. A cake is formed by pressing, then broken up 
 into grains. The grains are rumbled in wooden barrels where they 
 are glazed, either alone or with a small quantity of graphite. The 
 powder is thoroughly blended to overcome as far as possible 
 irregularities in manufacture. 
 
 Black meal powder used in the manufacture of time trains 
 for fuses is a charcoal powder, usually of slightly different per- 
 centages of niter, sulphur and charcoal, and in some cases con- 
 taining a slowing ingredient as, for instance, barium nitrate. 
 
 Smokeless Powders. — There are two classes of smokeless 
 powders used in service, nitroglycerin powder and nitrocellulose 
 powder. Both classes of powders are made from guncotton. The 
 nitroglycerin powder is so called from the fact that it contains a 
 certain amount of nitro-glycerin — in our small-arms powder about 
 30 per cent, by weight. The principal merit of smokeless powder is, 
 of course, its invisibility, such advantage more than counterbalanc- 
 ing its increased cost and time consuming complexities of manu- 
 facture. The length of time required for the drying of guncotton 
 powders has caused much concern. In time of war this operation 
 would greatly retard the output of powder. • 
 
 The materials and processes employed in the manufacture of 
 smokeless powder are prescribed by the Ordnance Department in 
 rigid specifications, and the manufacture in all its stages is under 
 careful inspection. The proof of the powder consists of tests made 
 to determine its ballistic qualities, its uniformity and its stability 
 under various conditions. In the 3-inch field gun a muzzle velocity 
 of 1,700 feet per second must be obtained with a pressure not ex- 
 ceeding, approximately, 30,000 pounds per square inch; the extreme 
 variation in velocity must not exceed 1 per cent, of the required 
 velocity. 
 
 Form and Size of Grains. — The most desirable form of 
 powder grain is one which gives off gas slowly at first, starting the 
 projectile before a high pressure is reached, and then with an in- 
 creased burning surface and a more rapid evolution of gas main- 
 
GUNNERY AND EXPLOSIVES 453 
 
 taining the pressure behind the projectile as it moves down the bore. 
 Carrying out this idea of a proper grain, the cannon powder in 
 our service is formed into cylindrical grains with seven longitudinal 
 perforations, one central and the other six equally distributed mid- 
 way between the center of the grain and its circumference. In 
 other services cannon powders are made into grains of various 
 shapes. Cubes, solid and tubular rods of circular cross section, flat 
 strips, and rolled sheets are among other practicable forms. 
 
 Generally speaking, the length and diameter of the grain 
 vary in powders for different guns, the size increasing with the 
 caliber of the gun. It has been found that the rate of burning of 
 powders is affected by their density; this principle is utilized in the 
 manufacture of time trains for fuses and in delay action primers. 
 
 Manufacture of Smokeless Powders. — Generally speaking, 
 the manufacture of either of the two classes of smokeless powders 
 involves the same functions, i. e., that of nitrating some supporter 
 of combustion and forming the resulting substance into grains 
 properly designed for the weapon for which intended. In nitro- 
 cellulose powder short cotton fiber furnishes the carbon or com- 
 bustible, whereas glycerin furnishes a part of the combustible in 
 the nitroglycerin powders. Guncotton or nitrocellulose is formed 
 by acting upon cotton with nitric and sulphuric acid; the function 
 of the latter acid is to combine with such water as might otherwise 
 dilute the nitric acid, thus preventing the proper nitration of the 
 cotton. The nitrated cotton is then placed in a solvent (usually 
 ether-alcohol or acetone), by which process it is colloided or 
 formed into a tough, horny mass. The colloid is pressed through 
 dies containing pins, which form the perforations in the powder 
 grain. The colloid comes through the dies in long strings, having 
 the appearance of macaroni; these strings are cut up into grains 
 which are sent through a process for removing and recovering the 
 solvent. After drying to a certain standard a lot is ready for proof; 
 such proof consists in an inspection of the physical dimensions of 
 the grain — length, diameter, thickness of web, density, strength to 
 resist compression — as well as firing tests to determine its velocity 
 for certain pressures and charges, and a laboratory test to deter- 
 mine its composition and probable behavior in storage. 
 
 Flashless Powders. — In recent years the belief has grown 
 that military powders should be not only smokeless but flashless as 
 well, so as not to disclose the position of a firing unit. The ordi- 
 nary forms of smokeless powders are not usually flashless. Smoke- 
 less powder has a very high temperature of explosion, and when the 
 projectile leaves the gun the strong luminous flash, together with 
 unburnt slivers of powder coming out with the blast, are clearly 
 visible for great distances. 
 
 Other Progressive Powders. — The manufacturer of military 
 
454 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 powders has had no easy problem to solve; the nitrocellulose and 
 nitroglycerin powders have been not altogether satisfactory, in that 
 their stability is not beyond question, except for comparatively 
 short periods of time and under good storage conditions. By ex- 
 treme care the manufacturing processes have been brought to a 
 great degree of refinement; investigation has led to the adoption of 
 certain stabilizers or indicators of stability; fundamentally, however, 
 there are objections to the use of nitrocellulose for service powders. 
 This material is complex, and therefore liable to form unstable com- 
 pounds; under the influence of heat or moisture the nitrocellulose 
 is most apt to decompose. The question of a war reserve of pow- 
 ders, based upon nitrocotton or nitroglycerin, is limited by their 
 tendency to deteriorate, whereas the problem of supplying such 
 powders in times of stress is greatly affected by the time consumed 
 in manufacture and drying. Manufacturers, inventors and powder 
 experts have been, and are now, engaged in solving the problem of 
 military powders; almost every supporter of combustion has been 
 variously combined with different combustibles in the hope of ulti- 
 mately discovering a proper powder. 
 
 Firing a Field Gun. — When the percussion primer in the 
 base of the cartridge case is fired a flame is shot into the pro- 
 pelling charge. This flame, assisted by a small charge of black 
 rifle powder placed in front of the propelling charge, causes ignition 
 of the powder grains. As gas is evolved the pressure rises until it 
 becomes sufficient to move the projectile against the resistance of 
 the rifling; the projectile begins to move, and its motion is acceler- 
 ated by the pressure of the increasing and expanding powder gases 
 until a maximum speed is attained at or near the muzzle. 
 
 HIGH EXPLOSIVES 
 
 For military purposes high explosives are used to produce 
 demolitions: 
 
 (a) At relatively long distances from our troops; the ma- 
 terial to be destroyed being in the actual or probable possession of 
 the enemy. 
 
 (b) Within our lines; the material to be destroyed being in 
 our possession and the destruction necessary in order to cause loss 
 or annoyance to the enemy or to facilitate our own progress. 
 
 In the first case it is usual to employ high explosive pro- 
 jectiles, delivering them at gun ranges for effect upon impact; in 
 the second case it is usual to carry the explosive to the desired 
 point, where it is used. 
 
 Except when absolutely necessary, artillery must not be used 
 for purposes of demolition other than those in which the object to 
 
 ^ 
 
GUNNERY AND EXPLOSIVES 455 
 
 be accomplished is the exposure of personnel or the destruction 
 of other artillery. 
 
 Military High Explosives. — High explosives for military use 
 should be: 
 
 (a) Stable and not easily affected by reasonable variations of 
 temperature and moisture; shell fillers should not form unstable 
 compounds (metallic salts). 
 
 (b) Insensitive to the usual shocks of transportation; shell 
 fillers should be safe under the action of firing stresses and should 
 not detonate merely as a result of impact against obstacles. 
 
 (c) Not difficult to detonate with properly designed deto- 
 nators. 
 
 (d) Quick enough to give good results when confined; shell 
 fillers should cause the projectile to break into fragments just 
 sufficiently large to put a man or horse out of action. 
 
 (e) Convenient in form and consistency for packing and 
 loading and for making into charges of different weights. 
 
 Shell Fillers. — In our service picric acid, explosive "D," 
 and trinitrotoluol are used as shell fillers. High explosive shells 
 contain explosive "D," with a small charge of picric acid surround- 
 ing the detonator. High explosive shrapnel has a matrix of tri- 
 nitrotoluol, which is detonated upon impact by the preliminary 
 detonation of mercury fulminate, and picric acid; trinitrotoluol 
 may also be detonated with a fulminate detonator augmented by 
 a small amount of trinitrotoluol in loose crystals. 
 
 Picric Acid. — Picric acid, or trinitrophenol, is produced by 
 acting upon phenol with nitric acid. As a shell filler it may be 
 pressed into the explosive cavity or melted and poured in; as it 
 forms unstable metallic salts, it must not be assembled in pro- 
 jectiles until the cavity is thoroughly coated with a non-metallic 
 paint. Picric acid is the basis of many of the foreign shell fillers, 
 as for instance, melinite, lyddite, shimose, ecrasite, etc. The 
 difference in composition consists usually in the addition of an in- 
 gredient (camphor, nitro-napthalene, dinitrotoluene, etc.), to reduce 
 the melting point. 
 
 Picric acid has been used by various powers for military 
 demolitions. Like guncotton, it can be detonated completely even 
 when wholly unconfined, whereas gunpowder and many other ex- 
 plosives, including those that contain ammonium nitrate, must be 
 well tamped or confined, otherwise they do not produce a satis- 
 factory result. Picric acid is therefore eminently suitable for 
 carrying out hasty demolitions. But it suffers under two serious 
 disadvantages: it has an inconveniently high melting point, and 
 it is liable to form compounds with metals, especially lead and 
 iron, which are dangerously sensitive. 
 
456 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Trinitrotoluol. — Trinitrotoluol is produced by acting upon 
 toluene with nitric acid. In its pure form it may be used as a 
 shell filler without fear of the formation of unstable compounds; 
 hence it has been selected as a matrix surrounding the shrapnel 
 balls. Its use is general in high explosive shrapnel. 
 
 Other Military Explosives. — There are a number of satis- 
 factory high explosives for military use other than as shell fillers. 
 These explosives conform to the requirements as to stability, etc. 
 The one most easily obtained when needed would probably be used. 
 Such explosives are guncotton, nitroglycerin, the dynamites, rack 
 a rock, etc. 
 
 Gun cotton or nitrocellulose is formed by acting upon cotton 
 with nitric acid; nitroglycerin is formed by acting upon glycerin 
 with nitric acid. Due to the danger involved in the transportation 
 of nitroglycerin, an absorbent was found for it so that it could be 
 transported in solid form. When such absorbent is inert, it adds 
 nothing to the force of the nitroglycerin; when an active absorbent, 
 as for instance potassium nitrate, is used, the explosion is more 
 violent. 
 
 Rack a rock is one of the so-called safety mixtures; in reality, 
 the components for the manufacture of this high explosive are 
 transported separately to the place where needed; at this place the 
 mixture is made. The components are powdered chlorate of potas- 
 sium and nitrobenzene; the chlorate being carried in small cloth 
 cartridges, to be dipped into the nitrobenzene before using. 
 
 Fulminate of Mercury. — This high explosive is used in de- 
 tonators and is formed by the action of nitric acid upon the metal 
 mercury. It is a very powerful explosive and is the basis of the 
 manufacture of numerous types of blasting caps and detonators. 
 Used in service detonators, it is combined with an alcoholic solution 
 of shellac and assembled under a pressure somewhat exceeding the 
 probable pressure resulting from the shock of discharge. When the 
 shell filler is properly confined and the detonator correctly pro- 
 portioned the detonation should be perfect; dense black smoke is 
 a characteristic of such detonation. 
 
 Lead nitride has been proposed as a substitute for mercury 
 fulminate; both trinitrotoluene and trinitromethylaniline have been 
 used in the manufacture, of detonators. 
 
CHAPTER XVII 
 
 TOPOGRAPHICAL RECONNAISSANCE AND PRO- 
 DUCTION OF MAPS FOR MILITARY NEEDS 
 
 Under this designation is included all suitable means for 
 obtaining and recording all needful information of a terrain in the 
 shortest possible time, and within the limits of accuracy required 
 for the operations of troops in the field. 
 
 Also, the interpretation of a record when made, to determ- 
 ine from it the favorable or unfavorable effect of the terrain, for 
 the purpose of directing military operations with reference thereto. 
 
 The information to be obtained in a topographical recon- 
 naissance may be grouped under the headings of time, cover, re- 
 sources and nomenclature. The map should permit a determination 
 of the time which a column will require to pass between any two 
 given points by showing the distance between them and the condi- 
 tion of the road or country which must be traversed, as regards 
 its effect on the rate of march; the accidents of ground which will 
 afford cover to the army or to the enemy; the location, quantity, 
 and quality of water, fuel, grass, etc., and should give to each 
 feature its local name. The last requirement is of great import- 
 ance and is the one most often neglected. 
 
 The fundamental topographical operation is the determina- 
 tion of the direction and distance of one point from another point. 
 
 The direction of one point from another is composed of two 
 elements: First, the angle made by the line joining the two points, 
 with a vertical plane passing through one of them. This angle is 
 measured in a horizontal plane and is called the azimuth; second, 
 the angle made by the line joining the two points, with a horizontal 
 plane passing through one of them. This angle is measured with 
 a horizontal plane passing through both points, and for conveni- 
 ence is called the gradient. 
 
 Azimuths. — As an infinite number of vertical planes may 
 pass through a given point, it is necessary to select one as the ori- 
 gin of azimuths. In topographical reconnaissance the plane se- 
 lected is that of the magnetic meridian at the point. Its direction 
 in a horizontal plane is the line of rest of a freely suspended 
 and balanced magnetic needle, and this line is the origin of azi- 
 muths. 
 
458 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 From this origin azimuths are measured in degrees of arc 
 from to 360, passing from the north point through the east, south, 
 and west to north again. Azimuths of 0° to 90° are in the north- 
 east or first quadrant; those of 90° to 180° are in the south- 
 east or second quadrant; those from 180° to 270° in the southwest 
 or third quadrant, and those from 270° to 360° in the northwest or 
 fourth quadrant. 
 
 Azimuths are bearings between stations taken in the direc- 
 tion of progress of the reconnaissance. Bearings taken in the oth- 
 er direction are called back azimuths. If the stations are numbered 
 in the order they are occupied, a bearing from a lower to a higher 
 numbered station is an azimuth, and a bearing from a higher to a 
 lower numbered station is a back azimuth. 
 
 The method of stating azimuths described above is that com- 
 monly used in surveying when direction is maintained by carrying 
 an azimuth. It is the simplest to understand and use, and permits 
 the angle between any two lines to be read at a glance. 
 
 There are other ways of expressing azimuths, adapted to 
 special conditions or circumstances. In astronomical work and 
 tables the azimuth is reckoned from the south, through W., N., 
 and E., 360° to south again. Any astronomical azimuth differs 
 from the corresponding survey azimuth by 180°. 
 
 A special method of azimuth measurement has been adopted 
 for use in the fire control of field artillery. The unit, called a mil, 
 is the arc whose length is one one-thousandth of the radius. By 
 computation this arc is 3\437-{-. This length is not commensurate 
 with the length of the circle being contained in it 6,283.24 times. 
 For convenience of graduation, the circle is divided into 6,400 equal 
 parts, assumed to be mils, the angular value of each of which is 
 3'. 375, differing from the computed value by nearly 2 per cent., 
 which error enters into all determinations and is neglected. 
 
 Each change of 1 mil in azimuth, corresponds to a change in 
 position in a direction perpendicular to the line of sight of one one- 
 thousandth of the range. This method reduces all elements of fire 
 control to functions of the range. 
 
 The compass is the standard instrument for the determina- 
 tion of azimuths in topographical reconnaissance. It consists of 
 case, needle, card, pivot, and stop. 
 
 The card may be fixed to the case or movable, attached to 
 the needle and revolving with it. The stop raises the needle from 
 the pivot and clamps it against the glass cover. A good compass 
 must have a needle sufficiently magnetized to settle accurately and 
 a pivot free from rust and roughness. If the needle becomes too 
 weak, it may be remagnetized by rubbing gently from pivot to 
 point on a permanent or electro magnet, each end of the needle 
 to be rubbed on the pole which attracts it. In returning the needle 
 
TOPOGRAPHICAL RECONNAISSANCE 
 
 459 
 
 for another stroke, carry it a foot or more from the magnet. The 
 pivot may be polished with Putz pomade or similar substances on 
 a soft stick. 
 
 A needle loses part of its magnetism if kept for a long time 
 out of the plane of the magnetic meridian. In storing a compass, 
 care should be taken to place it in the case or on the shelf with the 
 N. end of its needle pointing north. 
 
 Dip. — The earth's magnetic poles are beneath the surface, 
 and the end of a symmetrical needle is drawn downward out of 
 the horizontal plane so as to point to the nearest pole. This dis- 
 placement from the horizontal plane is called dip, and is measured 
 in degrees of arc. The dip increases generally with the latitude. 
 Immediately over a magnetic pole the needle stands verticle, or has 
 
 STANDARD COMPASS. 
 
 a dip of 90°. Near the equator, where north and south poles exert 
 an equal influence, the needle may be horizontal, or the dip 0. 
 
 For reading azimuths the needle must be kept in a horizontal 
 plane, which is done by a small movable counterweight. For con- 
 siderable changes in latitude, as in passing from the United States 
 to the Philippine Islands, the counterweight requires adjustment 
 to keep the needle horizontal; and in passing from the northern 
 to the southern hemisphere, the counterweight must be changed 
 to the opposite side of the pivot. 
 
 There are two adopted forms of compass for topographical 
 reconnaissance, one of the fixed and one of the movable card type. 
 In the box compass the card is fixed and graduated counterclock- 
 
460 
 
 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 wise from N. 360° to N. again. The E. and W. points, if marked, 
 are reversed. The stop is operated by opening and closing the 
 lid. The lid is hinged parallel to the north and south line, and 
 when open its upper edge forms a convenient line of sight. The 
 needle when stationary can be read to the nearest degree by the 
 eye, and to half a degree with a reading glass. Another pattern 
 which has been issued has the lid on an E. and W. side, and the 
 sighting line is a fine line drawn across the lid. 
 
 Some of the box compasses in use are graduated clockwise. 
 Care must be taken in using these. The true azimuth is 360° minus. 
 
 Luminous Patch 
 for Night Work. 
 
 Horse hair 
 let into glass 
 -window to 
 take sight on. 
 
 Index finger painted on 
 revolving glass lid used 
 for Night Work. 
 
 •Check Spring for 
 Steadying Card. 
 
 SERVICE LUMINOUS PRISMATIC COMPASS. 
 
 the reading of the needle. The actual reading of such a compass 
 should never be recorded; the corresponding azimuth only should 
 be set down. It will be safer to add a rough graduation in the 
 proper direction. 
 
 The service luminous prismatic compass is of the mov- 
 able-card type. It is read through a reflecting inverting magnify- 
 ing prism. The prism revolves on an axis and is over the circum- 
 ference of the card for reading, and against the edge of the case 
 for carrying. It slides up and down in the support which attaches 
 
TOPOGRAPHICAL RECONNAISSANCE 461 
 
 it to the case, which motion permits it to be focussed on the scale. 
 The focus for each observer should be determined when the com- 
 pass is resting on a level surface, and not thereafter varied. If, 
 when so adjusted, the scale is out of focus when the sight is taken, 
 it shows that the card is not horizontal, and the case must be tilted 
 until the scale comes into focus. The needle may be compensated 
 for dip by a bit of sealing wax stuck on the underside of the card. 
 The leaf sight folds down for carrying, and in so doing stops the 
 needle. 
 
 In the usual form, the metal cover goes on outside the leaf 
 sight when folded down. When the compass is used, the cover 
 is removed and placed for convenience on the bottom of the case, 
 where it fits closely. In another pattern, the metal cover has a 
 window in it opposite the prism, and is not removed when sighting. 
 The leaf sight folds down outside the cover and is not protected. 
 
 Compass Errors. — The magnetic and true meridians gener- 
 ally do not coincide. The angle which the needle makes with the 
 true north at any place is called the declination of the needle, or 
 magnetic declination at that place. For latitudes of 60° and less 
 the declination ordinarily varies between limits of 20° east and 
 20° west. For high latitudes the declination is greater and more 
 irregular. 
 
 There are daily and secular variations of declination at every 
 place, but they are too small to have any bearing on the class of 
 work now under consideration, and for purposes of topographical 
 reconnaissance the declination at any place may be considered con- 
 stant for the period of the survey. 
 
 A close watch must be kept for the change in declination 
 from place to place, and for local disturbances of the needle due 
 to the proximity of magnetized substances, natural or artificial. 
 
 Change of declination or normal direction of the needle 
 should be checked frequently. If a change is observed, it is cer- 
 tain to have taken place gradually, and, if desired, may be distrib- 
 uted among the courses run, though the change will seldom be 
 great enough in a single day's work to make its distribution practi- 
 cable. 
 
 Abnormal deflections of the needle, due to local disturbances, 
 are sudden and erratic and should not be distributed among all the 
 courses, but only among those in which there is reason to believe 
 the disturbance occurs. 
 
 A simple way to detect — not measure — such disturbances is 
 to take frequent back azimuths. If the position of the needle is 
 normal at both stations, the azimuths and back azimuth will differ 
 by 180°. If there is local attraction on the course, it will usually be 
 stronger or cause a greater deflection at one station than at the 
 other, and the azimuth and back azimuth will not differ bv 180°. 
 
462 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Another way is, when taking the bearing to a station, to se- 
 lect a well-defined point beyond and on the same course. On ar- 
 riving at the new station, take a bearing from there to the selected 
 point ahead. If it is the same as the first bearing to that point, 
 there probably is no local disturbance. If the two bearings to the 
 same point differ there probably is local disturbance. 
 
 A course in which local attraction is detected or suspected 
 should be noted, and if, on closing, an azimuth correction is nec- 
 essary, it should be applied to the suspected courses. 
 
 Gradients. — There can be but one horizontal plane through 
 a given point, and it may be determined by the spirit level or plumb 
 line without serious error. Gradients are measured by taking the 
 angle of the line of direction with a horizontal line through the 
 point. 
 
 Gradients are commonly called grades or slopes and are ex- 
 pressed in degrees, as 1°, 2°, 3^°, 6%° slope, etc. 
 
 Each angle corresponds to two slopes, one up and one down 
 from the initial point. Rising grades may be recorded with a -f- 
 before, or an R after the number of degrees; falling grades with — 
 before, or F after. On a map, general slopes are indicated by 
 an arrow pointing in the direction of the drainage, with the gradi- 
 ent written beside it, thus 4 * y . Road grades are indi- 
 cated by an arrowhead at top and bottom of the grade, the one at 
 top pointing toward the road and the one at bottom away from 
 
 it, thus I 
 
 Gradients are also expressed by the relation between the 
 change of elevation — rise or fall — and the corresponding hori- 
 zontal distance. This relation is stated in various ways. 
 
 By the rise in feet per 100 feet horizon or the foot rise as 
 a percentage, as "the slope is 4 in 100, or 4 per cent." 
 
 By the foot rise for 1 mile of horizontal distance; as "the 
 grade is 50 feet," or "a 50-foot grade." This method and the 
 preceding are commonly used for railroad track grades. 
 
 By the number of feet horizontal corresponding to 1 foot 
 rise; as 3 to 1, 10 to 1. This method is commonly used for slopes 
 of embankments and excavations when less than 45°. 
 
 By the foot rise corresponding to 1 foot horizontal; as, 1 on 
 1, 6 on 1. This method is commonly used for slopes of embank- 
 ments and excavations, etc., from 45° to 75°. 
 
 By the number of inches horizontal corresponding to 1 
 foot rise; as, 3 inches to the foot, 1 inch in the foot. This method 
 is commonly used for gradients of 70° and over and is called 
 batter. 
 
TOPOGRAPHICAL RECONNAISSANCE 463 
 
 Clinometer. — The clinometer is an instrument adopted for 
 measuring gradients with the horizontal plane indicated by a 
 spirit level. It consists of a sight tube, with a graduated vertical 
 arc fastened to it, and a level tube with an attached index arm, 
 revolving about a horizontal axis through the center of the vertical 
 arm. The base of the sight tube is a plane parallel to the line of 
 sight. Under the center of the level tube is an opening in the sight 
 tube, inside of which is a mirror occupying one-half the width of 
 the sight tube and facing the eye end at an angle of 45° with the 
 line of sight. A horizontal wire extends across the middle of the 
 sight tube in front of the mirror. When the bubble is brought to 
 the center, its reflected image seen from the eye end appears to be 
 bisected by the wire. 
 
 The central position of the bubble indicates that the level tube 
 is horizontal, and the reading of the index arm upon the arc is the 
 angle between the axis of the level tube and the line of sight. This 
 reading should be 0° when these lines are parallel. The vertical arc 
 is graduated each way from 0° at its middle point. The index arm 
 has a double vernier whose smallest reading is 10' of arc. Gradients 
 of more than 45° are difficult to measure on account of the fore- 
 shortening of the level tube as reflected in the mirror. 
 
 When the vernier is set at 0°, the instrument may be used as 
 a hand level to locate points at the same elevation as the eye. The 
 graduation on the inner edge of the vertical limb corresponds to 
 the ordinary fractional method of indicating slopes, as 1 on 2, 1 on 
 10, etc. This scale should be read on the forward edge of the 
 index arm, or in some forms on a special index mark on a shorter 
 part of the arm. 
 
 A type of hand level designed for slope readings is now gen- 
 erally preferred to the clinometer. This hand level has horizontal 
 lines on the object glass, either reading degrees or per cent. With 
 the per cent graduations it is possible to obtain differences of eleva- 
 tion without the necessity of using tables of degrees for differences 
 of elevation, but the degree graduation is suited for use with the 
 existing scales of slopes, and is generally preferred. 
 
 The determination of gradients by the plumb line is quicker 
 and simpler, but less precise, than with the clinometer, though 
 exact enough for ordinary purposes. If a line of sight be taken 
 along the edge of a board and a line be drawn on the board 
 perpendicular to the sighting edge, this line, when the board is 
 held in a vertical plane, will make the same angle with the plumb 
 line that the sighting edge makes with the horizontal, or, in 
 other words, will indicate the gradient. 
 
 Elevations. — From the slope and distance the elevation of 
 a point above an assumed plane of reference may be derived. The 
 30 
 
464 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 difference of height of any two points is known by comparing 
 their elevations above a common plane, called the plane of refer- 
 ence, or datum. 
 
 The plane of reference is taken low enough so that no point 
 of the area to be covered by the reconnaissance will be below it. 
 This makes all elevations positive. Knowing the height of a point 
 above this plane of reference, the elevation of any other point may 
 be obtained by taking the gradient and distance to that point, 
 deriving from them the difference of height between the two 
 points, and adding this difference to the elevation of the first 
 point if the gradient is rising, or subtracting it if the gradient is 
 falling. 
 
 The elevation for a given gradient and distance depends 
 upon whether the distance is measured along the gradient or along 
 the horizontal. Distances paced are along the gradient. Those 
 measured with a chain will also usually be on the slope, though 
 sometimes care is taken to hold the chain horizontal, in which case 
 the table for horizontal distances is to be used. Those determined 
 by intersections or scales from a map are along the horizontal. 
 Barometric Leveling. — The weight of the atmosphere at sea 
 level is 14.703 pounds per square inch, equal to the weight of a 
 column of mercury 29.92 inches high, or a column of fresh water 
 34.7 feet high. 
 
 The aneroid barometer records the pressure of the atmo- 
 sphere in inches, the same as a mercurial barometer, the reading 
 being taken from a pointer moving on a circular scale. The cor- 
 responding elevation in feet is also shown on the dial of the 
 aneroid barometer. 
 
 The pressure of the atmosphere varies with the altitude 
 above sea level, and it also varies with the moisture, temperature, 
 and latitude, which do not depend upon the altitude. 
 
 In measuring altitudes with the barometer these other causes 
 of variation must be eliminated so far as possible. It is best done 
 by simultaneous observation at both stations. If the stations are 
 not far apart all disturbing conditions will be substantially the 
 same at each and therefore eliminated, except temperature, which, 
 with considerable difference of altitude, will always be less at the 
 upper than at the lower station. 
 
 If simultaneous observations can not be made, the stations 
 should be occupied with as little interval of time between as pos- 
 sible, and better results will be obtained if the time of observation 
 can be so chosen as to take advantage of calm, bright, dry weather. 
 When the hygrometric conditions are very uniform an ane- 
 roid read at intervals on a day's march over a rough country will 
 give a fairly good idea of the profile. 
 
TOPOGRAPHICAL RECONNAISSANCE 
 
 465 
 
 Use of Compass. — A good needle requires time to settle 
 even when the case is firmly supported, and the user should 
 cultivate the knack of catching it at the middle of its swing, which 
 is the desired reading. If the compass can be supported, it is 
 always better to do so. Then the sight can be carefully taken and 
 the position of the eye changed to read the needle. Wait till the 
 swing gets down to 4° or 5°, which it will usually do in a few 
 seconds. Then catch the highest and the lowest readings on the 
 same swing and take their mean from the true reading. If the 
 first swings are very large, catch the needle with the stop near 
 
 "081 
 
 COMPASS AND AZIMUTH CARD. 
 
 the middle of the swing and release it quickly. This will suddenly 
 check the swings and shorten the time in which the reading can 
 be taken. 
 
 In using the box compass without a support, hold it suffi- 
 ciently below the eye so that the swing of the needle can be seen. 
 Point the edge of the lid in the required direction, catch the 
 needle with the stop in the middle of a swing and hold it stopped 
 until the reading is taken. Stop readings are less accurate than 
 sight readings, as the needle may be displaced slightly when off 
 the pivot. When the stop is used, press it quickly and firmly. 
 
466 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Always sight a fixed-card compass from the south end of the 
 card and read the north end of the needle. 
 
 With the prismatic compass the stop is not used except to 
 check the swings. Utilize a support if practicable. The prism 
 having been adjusted for focus, adjust the case so as to bring the 
 scale into focus, and when the swings become small, read the 
 extremes and take the mean. 
 
 Compasses for night marching are not very reliable. They 
 iiave the dial rendered luminous by a paint. After exposure to 
 the sun or strong daylight, they give off light, at first rather 
 strong, but rapidly diminishing in intensity. After a few hours 
 they are not bright enough to be of much use. 
 
 The surest preparation for night marching is a provision for 
 illuminating the compass by ordinary means without allowing the 
 light to be seen. 
 
 Distances passed over are ordinarily measured by the stride 
 of a man or a horse, or by the revolutions of a wheel. Distances 
 not passed over are determined by intersection, or are estimated. 
 Pacing on Foot. — The length of a man's pace at a natural 
 walk is about 30 inches, vai*ying somewhat above and below. Each 
 sketcher must determine his own length of pace by walking 
 several times over a known distance. An unnatural stride should 
 never be taken. Knowing the length of a pace or step, the meas- 
 urement of a distance is only a matter of counting steps. The 
 counting may be done mentally, and with practice becomes a 
 subconscious operation, leaving the attention free to take note of 
 surrounding objects and conditions. The greatest danger is of 
 dropping one hundred paces. It is better to keep a tally of the 
 hundreds. A pace tally is issued for use when desired. It is the 
 size and shape of an ordinary watch. 
 
 On level ground, careful pacing will give distance correct 
 to 3 per cent, or less. The normal length of space decreases on 
 slopes. The decrease varies with the slope and with the direction, 
 whether ascending or descending. 
 
 Pacing Mounted. — The average walk of a horse is a mile in 
 16 minutes, or 3Y\ miles per hour, making 120 steps, covering 110 
 yards per minute, the step being 0.916 of a yard, or 33 inches. 
 
 The average trot is a mile in 8 minutes, or 7y 2 miles an 
 hour, making 180 steps, covering 220 yards per minute, the 
 length of step being 1.22 yards or 44 inches. 
 
 It is generally found more convenient in pacing, both on 
 foot and mounted, to count the steps of one foot only, and multi- 
 ply the number counted by the stride of one foot, which is twice 
 the length of step given above. In this case, the number counted 
 is doubled for use with the tables and scales. 
 
TOPOGRAPHICAL RECONNAISSANCE 467 
 
 Timing. — Counting the steps of a horse diverts the attention 
 more than is desirable, and it is better to determine distances in 
 mounted reconnaissance from the time occupied by the horse in 
 passing over them. The rating is done by ascertaining the time 
 required to pass over a known distance. Time and step ratings 
 should be taken together by counting and timing at once. Ratings 
 should be taken before the reconnaissance, if possible, but for 
 short stretches of hasty work, the average given above may be 
 used without serious error. 
 
 Horses travel better in pairs, and two men should be sent 
 out together, one to do the sketching and the other to give his 
 entire attention to taking the time and keeping his horse at a 
 regular gait. It is better to rate the pairs together. If it has not 
 been done, take the rate of the timer's horse. 
 
 When a sketcher is traveling with a party and must keep 
 their gait, an occasional count of his horse's steps for a minute or 
 two gives a special scale for use in plotting. 
 
 The speed of a horse over road grades, even in moderately 
 hilly countries is not affected by the slope sufficiently to make an 
 allowance necessary. Distances up and down grades measured by 
 timing in mounted reconnaissance requires no correction. 
 
 The Walk Is the Normal Gait for Reconnaissance. — If 
 greater speed is necessary, the timer may go on while the sketcher 
 is taking angles and plotting; the latter taking the trot or the 
 gallop and overtaking the timer just before he reaches the next 
 station. This method should be used only when the required 
 distance can not be covered at a walk. If circumstances require 
 short distances to be covered at a trot or gallop, the times may 
 be reduced to walking time by multiplying by 2 for the trot and 3 
 for the gallop. 
 
 The odometer is an instrument for recording the number of 
 revolutions of a wheel. The adopted form is in a leather case, 4 l /> 
 inches in diameter by 2 l / 2 inches thick. It is attached by straps 
 to the front wheel of a wagon. To read, the case is opened, the 
 registering train withdrawn, and the number of revolutions read 
 from the scale. Multiply the diameter of the wheel by 3.1416 for 
 the circumference; multiply the circumference by the number of 
 revolutions for the distance traveled by the wagon. 
 
 The bearings of the odometer must be kept free from grit 
 and may be oiled with fine oif used sparingly; gummy oils or 
 grease must not be used. If good oil is not to be had, rub the 
 bearings with a soft lead pencil. 
 
 Odometer readings are valuable as a rough check on a day's 
 march. They are not accurate, but are free from large errors. 
 Two instruments on the same wagon will not always agree. On 
 
468 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 heavy roads, mud or sand, there is a slip, sometimes positive and 
 sometimes negative. 
 
 Number of revolutions per mile, of odometers attached to 
 wheels 36 inches to 48 inches diameter: 
 Diameter of wheel. Revolutions. 
 
 36 inches 560 . 2 
 
 37 inches 545 . 1 
 
 38 inches 530.7 
 
 39 inches 517.1 
 
 40 inches 504.2 
 
 41 inches 491 . 1 
 
 42 inches 480.2 
 
 43 inches 469.0 
 
 44 inches 458.4 
 
 45 inches 448.2 
 
 46 inches \ . . . * 438.4 
 
 47 inches 429. 1 
 
 48 inches 420.2 
 
 Size of wheels of some military wagons: Ambulance, 36 T A 
 inches; ponton (light) tool and chess, 42^ inches; escort, 44-)^ 
 inches; ponton (heavy), 45 inches; Army six, 47 l /s inches. 
 
 Estimation of distances is a knack which may be cultivated 
 by practice to a degree of accuracy far beyond that which is at 
 first attainable, and quite sufficient for the location of many objects 
 off the traverse line. Short distances are more closely estimated 
 than longer ones; those on a level, than those up or down hill. 
 When the intermediate ground can be seen, the estimation will be 
 closer than when it can not. 
 
 A rough estimate of distance may be made from the velocity 
 of sound, as by knowing the time that elapses between seeing and 
 hearing the discharge of a gun, or the fall of an ax. Note the 
 time in seconds and multiply by 400 for the distance in yards. 
 
 Distances across water are usually underestimated. The 
 distance of the visible horizon on water in miles is 1.225 V ~H, H 
 being the height of the observer above the water surface in feet. 
 
 A cartridge or other small heavy object fastened to a string 
 10 inches long and allowed to swing through a small angle or arc 
 will beat half seconds approximately. 
 
 The location of a point by intersection is done by taking 
 azimuths to it from two known points. As each of these azimuths 
 when plotted must pass through the unknown point, it must be 
 at their intersection. 
 
 An observer at an unknown point may locate himself from 
 two visible known points by taking an azimuth to each. From the 
 
TOPOGRAPHICAL RECONNAISSANCE 
 
 469 
 
 known points plot the corresponding back azimuths and they will 
 intersect at the point of observation. This process is called resec- 
 tion. It is subject to errors of local attraction. 
 
 iimi.mimriM.il. lll i l .Mi l , l .t.. l r(. ll .i l ,. l r ll .i., ll iM ll i,M.i. l Mi lll fi 
 
 TOPOGRAPHY BY SELF-CONTAINED RANGE-FINDER. 
 
 The accuracy of a location by intersection is affected by the 
 relation of the azimuths and of the distances. The greatest accu- 
 racy results when the azimuths differ by 90° or 270° and the 
 
470 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 distances are equal; in which case the two azimuths and the 
 base from a right-angled triangle. A difference of azimuths of 
 less than 30° or more than 330° should be avoided. 
 
 Errors in length of the base, or distance between the known 
 points affect the distances in the same proportion. If the base 
 is 5 or 10 per cent, in error, both the distances will be in error in 
 the same direction by the same percentage. 
 
 The protractor is an angular scale of equal parts used for 
 plotting azimuths. That adopted for reconnaissance is the rec- 
 tangular form. It is graduated on one face from 0° to 180°, and 
 on the other, from 180° to 360°. ' The graduation is clockwise on 
 both faces. It has a scale of inches and tenths along one edge and 
 may be used as ruler, scale, triangle or parallel ruler. 
 
 To plot a given azimuth from a given point, draw a meridian 
 through the point. If the azimuth is less than 180°, lay the pro- 
 tractor down face up with the center at the point and the edge on 
 the meridian, 0° to the north. Make a pencil dot on the paper at 
 the proper graduation on the edge of the protractor. Move the 
 protractor so that one of its edges passes through the two points 
 and draw a line, which will be the desired azimuth. 
 
 If the azimuth is more than 180°, lay the protractor down 
 face up, 360° to the north, and proceed as before. The moving of 
 the protractor after setting off the angle and before drawing the 
 line may be avoided by adding a counter-clockwise graduation to 
 the protractor. The sum of the two graduations at any point will 
 be 180°. Place the center of the protractor and the given azimuth, 
 read on the counter-clockwise graduation, on a meridian, and slide 
 the protractor up or down, keeping the two points on the meridian 
 until one of the long edges passes through the given point, when 
 the azimuth may be drawn along that edge. 
 
 A semicircular protractor is usually double graduated, in 
 opposite directions from 0° to 180°. With this form an azimuth 
 may be laid off and the line drawn along the diameter without 
 moving the protractor. Lay the protractor down with the center 
 on a meridian. If the azimuth is less than 180° place its number 
 of degrees on the counter-clockwise scale on the meridian, north 
 of the center. If it is greater than 180°, subtract its number of 
 degrees from 360 and place the difference on the clockwise scale 
 over the north end of the meridian. In either case slide the pro- 
 tractor up or down, keeping the center and the graduation on the 
 meridian until the diameter passes through the point, when the 
 azimuth may be drawn along the diameter of the protractor. 
 
 The scale of a map is the ratio between dimensions on the 
 map and the corresponding dimensions on the ground. If the 
 lengths on the map and ground were expressed in the same unit, 
 
TOPOGRAPHICAL RECONNAISSANCE 471 
 
 the scale ratio would always be expressed by "the number of 
 ground units corresponding to the map unit. If 1 inch (map) 
 corresponds to 120,000 inches (ground), the ratio, or scale, is 
 plainly l-r-120,000, or as usually described, 1 to 120,000. This frac- 
 tion is called the representative fraction, and designated R. F. 
 But ground distances are so much greater than map distances 
 that they are ordinarily expressed in a large unit, which makes the 
 scale ratio less apparent. If 1 inch (map) equals 10,000 feet 
 (ground), the scale is still 1 to 120,000 because 10,000 feet equal 
 120,000 inches. The map unit is almost always inches. Hence, 
 a good rule for obtaining the scale ratio is to reduce the given 
 number of ground units to inches, which will indicate the ratio. 
 
 Another method of stating scales, much employed in mil- 
 itary map making, is to take ratios which will give Yz, 1, 2, 3, 6, 
 12, or 15 inches on the map to 1 mile on the ground, and call the 
 scales y 2 , 1, 2, 3, 6, 12, or 15 inches to the mile. Such scales can 
 be put into terms which express the ratio by dividing 63,360, the 
 
 TRIANGULAR SCALE. 
 
 number of inches in 1 mile, by the number of inches given in the 
 scale. Thus, 1 inch to 1 mile equals 1-^-63,360; 2 inches to 1 mile 
 equals l-r-31,680; 3 inches to 1 mile equals l-i-21,120, etc. 
 
 The scale ratio is true for all units. If a scale ratio is 
 1-^9,600, 1 inch (map) =9,600 inches (ground); 1 foot (map) 
 =9,600 feet (ground); 1 meter (map)=9,600 meters (ground), etc. 
 
 When the scale of a map is changed, as by reduction or 
 enlargement, the R. F. changes too, and hence the ratio should not 
 be given on maps which are to be reproduced. A linear scale 
 should be drawn on every map. This will be enlarged or reduced 
 with the map and will always be true. Such a scale is also very 
 convenient for taking distances from the map. 
 
 A scale might be constructed by drawing a scale of inches 
 on the map and placing opposite the divisions the numbers ex- 
 pressing the equivalent ground distances. It is customary, how- 
 ever, because more convenient, to take the numbers at intervals 
 of 10, 100, or 1,000 or multiples of them, and make the divisions 
 
472 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 of the line correspond. A scale should be divided into a convenient 
 number of equal parts called primary divisions. The zero should 
 be between the first and second primary divisions, counting from 
 the left. The primary divsions are numbered from the zero to the 
 right. The primary division on the left of the zero is subdivided 
 into smaller parts, called secondary divisions, and these are num- 
 bered from the zero to the left. The secondary are usually l /$ or 
 Vio of the primary divisions. To take off any distance from such a 
 scale, put one leg of the dividers on the primary division next be- 
 low the distance sought, and the other leg on the secondary divi- 
 sion corresponding to the remaining figures. 
 
 A series of points connected by azimuths and distances is 
 called a traverse, and the operation of determining the azimuths 
 and distances is called traversing. The latter term is usually ex- 
 tended to include all azimuths, distances and elevations taken while 
 running such a line. A traverse line with elevations along it may 
 also be called a profile, and when the traverse is run for the ex- 
 press purpose of taking the elevations, the operation is called pro- 
 filing; and the line on the ground and the plot of it on paper, are 
 called profiles. Distances in topography are so much greater than 
 elevations that both can not conveniently be represented on the 
 same scale. It is usual to take a scale for elevations called the 
 vertical scale, much larger than the scale of distances, or horizontal 
 scale. The ratio of the two scales is called the distortion or ex- 
 aggeration. Ten or 20 feet to the inch is a common scale for ele- 
 vations. If the horizontal scale is 3 inches to the mile, the resulting 
 distortions are 176 and 88 times. Both scales should always be 
 written below every profile. Angles on a distorted profile are also 
 distorted, and gradients can not be plotted or read with an ordi- 
 nary protractor. 
 
 Fieldwork. — Measurements and additional notes may be re- 
 corded and afterwards plotted on a map, or may be plotted on a 
 map as taken, or the two operations may be combined, as circum- 
 stances demand. A written report also is often required. 
 
 A road sketch consists of a map of the road with a narrow 
 belt of country on either side. If roads, parallel and intersecting, 
 are not too far apart, the road sketches may be combined into a 
 fairly good map of the entire area. 
 
 The road itself is, if practicable, traversed with the degree of 
 precision required for topographical reconnaissance. If the coun- 
 try is open, so that long sights are possible, a trained observer 
 gets better work by the use of the prismatic compass and clino- 
 meter. For shorter courses, when the object is of sufficient im- 
 portance to use a chain for distances, the prismatic compass and 
 clinometer should also be used and the readings taken with the 
 greatest care. 
 
TOPOGRAPHICAL RECONNAISSANCE 
 
 473 
 
 ROAD SKETCH. 
 
474 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Side features are, if important, located by intersection; oth- 
 erwise by estimation. A convenient method is to estimate the dis- 
 tance of an object when it bears at right angles to the course, and 
 plot it from that- point. In such case the azimuth is denoted by 
 R or L. Thus, house 300 R would mean a house at a distance of 
 300 units to the right, on a line at right angles to the course through 
 the point where the observation was taken. 
 
 Traversing with Compass and Notebook. — Rule a column Y\ 
 of an inch wide down the center of each left-hand page of the 
 notebook. Select for the starting point some object or point which 
 can be identified by description. Standing at this point, sight 
 with the compass toward some object — tree, stump, telegraph pole, 
 or stone — that will serve as the second station of the traverse line. 
 Note the reading of the compass and record it in the center column 
 of the notebook, at the bottom of the first left-hand page, making 
 also the symbol for O 1. Observe and record also the azimuths of 
 any other objects which are to be located from O 1. All the obser- 
 vations taken at this station are written in order in the central 
 column from the bottom upward and are bracketed together with 
 the station symbol. The name of each object is written on the 
 same horizontal line with its azimuth, on the right side of the 
 page if on the right of the traverse, and on the left side of the page 
 if on the left of the traverse. If elevations are to be obtained, ob- 
 serve the gradients from O 1 to the several objects and place each 
 in the notebook next to the corresponding azimuth. 
 
 Proceed toward O 2, counting paces. Halt when necessary 
 to sketch and measure offsets to objects on either side of the 
 course, to take bearings of intersecting roads, paths, streams, etc. 
 When a halt is made, a mark is scored on the ground, the distance 
 in paces from the last O recorded in the central column and the 
 desired notes made. Distances along the main line, azimuths, and 
 gradient angles only are recorded in the central column. All de- 
 scriptive matter relative to side objects is placed outside of that 
 column on the side corresponding to that where the objects lie. 
 Return to the scored mark and resume the pacing, beginning with 
 the number recorded at the halt, so that the total count of paces 
 at any point shall be the number taken since leaving the last O. 
 
 The center column of the page is taken to represent the line 
 actually paced and to be without width, so that offsets in the side 
 sketches are shown measured from the sides of the column and 
 not from its center. 
 
 On reaching the second O, record its distance from O 1; draw 
 a horizontal line across the page; write © 2 in the center column 
 above the line, and continue as before to O 3. 
 
 When opportunity offers, take bearings on distant bends of 
 the road, spires, towers, hilltops, tall trees, etc., and enter the an- 
 
TOPOGRAPHICAL RECONNAISSANCE 475 
 
 gles in the center column with the name of each object written 
 beside its bearing. Endeavor to get bearings of the same distant 
 object from several stations or from two stations at some dis- 
 tance apart. These, when plotted, should intersect at a common 
 point if the observed bearings are correct and the compass has 
 not suffered local disturbance. It is not to be expected in work of 
 this grade that an exact intersection of more than two bearings 
 can be obtained except by accident. 
 
 When a sketcher at any point of the traverse finds himself 
 in prolongation of a line that defines or bounds a feature of the 
 country, such as a fence, the edge of a wood, a reach of shore line 
 of river or lake, a gully, canyon, or ridge, a face of a building, or 
 a stretch of road or railroad, its bearing should be taken. The same 
 rule should be observed when important features come into range 
 with each other from a point on the traverse. A valuable check 
 on the relative positions of such features is thus obtained. 
 
 If a traverse line is interrupted by any obstacle that inter- 
 feres with the measurement of distance, its width should be esti- 
 mated and the pacing resumed on the other side; or, if for greater 
 exactness, make an offset, perpendicular to the traverse line if pos- 
 sible, long enough to clear the obstacle, continue the traverse par- 
 allel to the original course and return to the latter after passing 
 the obstacle by a second offset parallel and equal to the first and in 
 the opposite direction; or, locate points on the farther side by inter- 
 sections. 
 
 The best method of plotting is to plot the traverse lines and 
 the check bearings first. Then any error discovered by means of 
 the latter, or by closure on the initial or other known point, can 
 be more readily corrected. When the traverse line has been ad- 
 justed, the details on either side are plotted in and do not have to 
 be changed. 
 
 The topographic field notebook is designed to facilitate the 
 foregoing method of traversing. In addition to the central column, 
 it has columns on either side in which to record the offset distances, 
 each of which is put down on the proper side of the central column, 
 avoiding the necessity of using the letters R and L, and elimi- 
 nating the liability of mistakes in confusion of the direction. 
 
 The opposite right-hand page is ruled in 1 inch squares, and 
 has a full-circle protractor graduated to degrees printed on it. 
 This page facilitates a hasty plot of the traverse with respect to 
 which many details can be sketched in more clearly and certainly 
 than they could be recorded in writing. At the bottom of the page 
 are scales of tenths and eighths of inches. The alternate pairs of 
 pages are plain ruled for notes and memoranda. 
 
 Traversing with Compass and Drawing Board. The obser- 
 vations are taken as in traversing with a notebook and compass, 
 
476 
 
 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 M 
 
 J I I I ii I iii) 
 
 SCALE I I I I I I I I I I 
 
 SCALE I ...... . t i > > . ■ ■ l-J 
 
 TOPOGRAPHIC FIELD NOTEBOOK. 
 
TOPOGRAPHICAL RECONNAISSANCE 477 
 
 but the traverse line and such offsets as come within the limits 
 of the sketch are plotted at once; that is, the map is drawn as the 
 observer proceeds over the ground. A great advantage of this 
 method is that any large error in measurements is likely to be de- 
 tected by the eye, as the map is compared with the ground, and 
 errors can be corrected on the spot. The plotting scale of equal 
 parts should be prepared beforehand to suit the scale of the map.. 
 If this scale can be pasted or drawn on the edge of the protractor 
 opposite the angular graduation, it is a convenience. 
 
 The sides of the sheet of paper should be lettered N, E, S r 
 and W to correspond with the points of the compass. If the paper 
 is ruled or water-line, the lines are taken parallel to the magnetic 
 meridian. 
 
 Having observed the azimuth at O 1, draw through the point 
 designating that station a line having the observed azimuth. Azi- 
 muth lines are erased finally as a rule, and hence should be lightly 
 drawn and with a fairly hard pencil. Prolong this line in the di- 
 rection of O 2 far enough to surely reach that O. If other azi- 
 muths are taken at O 1, plot them also, and note on each the object 
 to which it bears. If the distance to the object is estimated, it 
 may be laid off on the azimuth and the position of the object 
 plotted at once. 
 
 Proceeding toward O 2 to take any desired side shot, halt 
 abreast of the object, plot the distance from O 1 on the course, 
 estimate the distance to the object, and plot it in at that distance 
 opposite the point plotted on the course and on the proper side. 
 
 Arrived at O 2, lay off the entire distance from O 1, and 
 plot and mark O 2. Erase the azimuth line beyond O 2; take and 
 plot any other desired azimuths. If any of them are to points pre- 
 viously sighted to, make the intersections and plot and mark the 
 points. In plotting azimuths to side objects, it is better to draw 
 only a short part of the line near the object to avoid confusion of 
 lines on the sketch and especially near the station. 
 
 Traversing with Oriented Drawing Board. — A drawing is 
 said to be oriented when so placed that its true meridian is parallel 
 to the true meridian on the ground. When using magnetic azi- 
 muths, making the magnetic meridians — map and ground — parallel, 
 may be accepted as a proper orientation. When a map is oriented, 
 with any given point vertically over the corresponding point on 
 the ground, a ruler held on the point or station on the map, and 
 pointed in the direction of any object gives the azimuth of that 
 object on the map. No angular measurements need be made. A 
 compass is not necessary, but it is very convenient, as it affords 
 the quickest means of orienting the map. 
 
 To run a traverse by this method, assume on the map the 
 
478 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 initial point and the magnetic meridian, selecting them so that the 
 general direction of the traverse coincides with the longest di- 
 mension of the paper. Place the board over the first station; lay 
 the compass on it with the north-and-south line parallel to the 
 assumed meridian, and turn the board until the needle reads north. 
 The board is then oriented, and must be in this position whenever 
 a sight is taken. It should also be level, as nearly as can be de- 
 termined by the eye. 
 
 Place a ruler on the station point of the map and sight it 
 in the direction of any object which it is desired to plot. Draw a 
 line along the edge of the ruler and on it lay off to the adopted 
 scale the distance of the object if known or assumed. When all 
 the desired azimuths have been taken from the station, sight the 
 ruler to the second station and draw its azimuth, and then proceed 
 to that station, pacing the distance. Arrived at the forward sta- 
 tion, plot the paced distance, orient the board over the station, 
 and proceed as before. If any of the objects taken at the first sta- 
 tion can be seen from the second, new azimuths may be taken to 
 them which will locate them by intersection. 
 
 Traversing with Sketching Case. — The sketching case is a 
 compact device for traversing by the oriented-map method. The 
 simplest form issued to the service, is usually called the cavalry 
 sketching case. The compass is set into the board, and a movable 
 index is provided which can be revolved to place it parallel to the 
 assumed meridian on the map. When the needle is brought paral- 
 lel to the wire the board is oriented. The needle may be parallel 
 to the index wires, but end for end, or 180° out of its true position, 
 in which case the sketcher is turned completely around. Such a 
 mistake is so great and so obvious that it needs no preventive, but 
 a sketcher may note at the outset whether the N or S end of the 
 needle is toward the stud which moves the wires and keep it in this 
 position. 
 
 The . Engineer Department has designed a standard recon- 
 naisance equipment based solely upon the plane-table method. 
 All forms of sketching board, with ruler attached to the board, 
 have been discarded. The design and plan of assigning the equip- 
 ment to the several arms of the service has been approved by the 
 Secretary of War. The outfit is divided into equipment, which is 
 permanent, and supplies, which are expendable. The complete out- 
 fit is: 
 
 Equipment 
 
 1 alidade. 1 holder, timing pad. 
 
 1 board, sketching. 1 pace tally. 
 
 1 chest, sketching outfit. 1 pencil pocket. 
 
 1 clinometer, service, with case. 1 tripod, wood, folding. 
 
TOPOGRAPHICAL RECONNAISSANCE 479 
 
 Supplies 
 
 12 celluloid, sheets. 6 pencils, drawing, H. 
 
 2 erasers, rubber. 2 pencils, green. 
 
 6 pads, timing. 2 pencils, red. 
 
 72 paper, sketching board, sheets. 2 protectors, pencil point. 
 
 2 pencils, blue. 2 tape, adhesive, rolls. 
 
 The approved distribution is one outfit, as listed above, to 
 each regimental and battalion headquarters of infantry, cavalry, 
 and field artillery, and three to each engineer tool wagon, giving 
 six per company or three per mounted company. Headquarters of 
 higher engineer units and division or chief engineers not attached 
 to engineer units receive normally three such outfits, but division 
 and chief engineers may receive a larger number if they so requi- 
 sition. 
 
 A Road Reconnaissance should procure the following data: 
 
 The Road. Gradients, especially the steepest; width of 
 roadway, if paved, width, kind and condition of paving; width and 
 depth of side ditches, and whether wet or dry; if not paved, char- 
 acter of soil, sand, clay or gravel; kind of fences and width be- 
 tween them. The sketch should also show where the road is in 
 embankment or cutting; where wagons can not double or pass, and 
 where foot troops can not march along the side between the wagon 
 track and the fences. 
 
 Bridges. Material of piers and abutments; type and ma- 
 terial of superstructure, as girder, truss, arch, suspension, wood, 
 steel, stone, etc.; width of roadway, and clear headroom; safe 
 load. Of bridges over the road, clear width and height; over 
 streams, the nearest bridges above and below and whatever in 
 formation can be obtained about them. 
 
 The Country. Character of cultivation or natural vegeta- 
 tion; areas and density of timber, underbrush, vines, especially 
 poisonous ones; marshes and fords, kinds of fences, nature of soil; 
 general configuration of surface, especially high hills, long ridges 
 or valleys, bluffs or slopes too steep to scale, and practicable 
 routes to their crests. 
 
 Streams Crossed. Name, width, depth and surface velocity 
 in swiftest current; velocity noted as sluggish, moderate, quick or 
 swift; elevation of high-water marks in relation to the road; which 
 bank is the higher at crossing and above and below, and how 
 much; accessibility of water for stock; fords at or near crossing; 
 length, depth and steepness of approaches; levees or embank' 
 ments, height and thickness on top; if navigable, to what distance 
 above and below and for what class of vessels — steamers, flatboats, 
 rowboats. 
 
 Towns and Villages Passed Through. Name, location on 
 map, and population. Names of streets to be traversed. Ma- 
 
480 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 terial, as stone, brick, frame, log; size, 1, 2, 3 stories, and dis- 
 tribution close or scattered of the houses in those streets; gradients 
 of intersecting streets ; location of railway depots ; post, telegraph 
 and telephone offices; of drinking fountains and watering troughs; 
 of elevators, storehouses, or other accumulations of food or forage; 
 of blacksmith, wagon, and machine shops. 
 
 When ordered to make a complete examination of a town 
 or village, note besides the foregoing, location and size of princi- 
 pal buildings, halls, court and school houses, churches, banks, jails 
 and their ownership; sources, maximum quantity and distribu- 
 tion of water supply; sanitary conditions and disposal of wastes; 
 location of railroads, depots, freight houses, sidings, etc.; for all 
 roads entering from the surrounding country the same informa- 
 tion as scheduled above for streets; location and extent of open 
 spaces, and of large, substantial buildings standing apart; location 
 and extent of high ground with range, especially that from which 
 streets can be enfiladed. 
 
 Railroads Crossed. Name, gauge, single or double track, 
 sidings and loading platforms at point of crossing; crossing at 
 grade, over or under; distance and name of nearest station each 
 way; direction and distance of nearest roundhouse, shops, etc. 
 
 River Reconnaissance. — Designate the banks as right or left, 
 the right bank being that on the right hand when looking down 
 the stream. If, when standing on the bank facing across the 
 stream the current flows from left to right, the observer is on 
 the right bank; if from right to left, he is on the left bank. 
 
 If the stream is navigated, pilots and residents will know 
 distances by channel between landings with sufficient accuracy 
 for the purpose of a field reconnaissance. In making a traverse 
 along the banks of- the river, it may be desirable to cross from 
 one side to the other to save distance or avoid obstacles. When 
 a crossing is to be made, at two or three stations from the point 
 of crossing select a point on the other side and take an azimuth 
 to it. From the last station take another azimuth to the selected 
 point, locating it by intersection. If the conditions prevent an in- 
 tersection, take an azimuth from the last station to the point on 
 the opposite bank and estimate the distance. 
 
 The Valley. General configuration, heights of limiting 
 ranges, and positions of passes or roads crossing them; command- 
 ing ground from which a stretch of the channel of considerable 
 length can be enfiladed by artillery; forest growth on or near 
 banks; soil and cultivation of the valley; roads parallel to river, and 
 means of access to them from the river. 
 
 The Stream. Its width, depth and velocity; navigability, as 
 for steamboats, flatboats, rowboats, rafts, and head of naviga- 
 tion for each; nature of obstructions to navigation and possibility 
 
TOPOGRAPHICAL RECONNAISSANCE 481 
 
 of removing or avoiding them; season of high and low water; 
 average rise and fall; rapidity of rise and fall and causes; amount 
 of drift; character of banks and relative command. Quality of 
 water; amount and kind of sediment borne; usual period and 
 thickness of ice. 
 
 Tributaries and Canals. Width, depth, navigability and 
 means of crossing. Nature and purpose of canals; dimensions and 
 lifts of locks; time for lockages; means of destroying locks and 
 effect of destruction; floating plant found. 
 
 Bridges and Fords. As in road report. Also for bridges 
 note position of the channel and navigable width between piers; 
 height of arches and lower chords above the water at different 
 stages; dimensions and operation of draw spans. Note the exact 
 position of fords and the marks on both banks by which they may 
 be found; length, width and nature of bottom; velocity of current; 
 position of deep holes; aids to crossing. Fords should not be 
 more than 4 feet 4 inches for cavalry, 3 J / 2 feet for infantry, and 2 
 feet 4 inches for guns and ammunition. Note nature of approaches 
 to bridges and fords; width of roadway, slopes, soil, effect of 
 weather and traffic. Note especially the defensibility of bridges 
 and fords. 
 
 Ferries, Boats, and Other Means of Crossing. Position of 
 ferries; approaches and practicability for horses and loaded 
 wagons; sizes, number and kinds of boats; method of propulsion; 
 sites for military bridges or ferries; character of site for construc- 
 tion, use and defense; proximity of islands and tributary streams; 
 approaches and slope of banks; width of river and maximum sur- 
 face velocity of current; materials for the construction or repair 
 of boats, bridges or ferries. 
 
 Inundations. Places suitable for inundations by damming 
 or obstructing a narrow bridge span, or by cutting a levee or dike. 
 Note raised roads on ground liable to natural or artificial inunda- 
 tions and the safest route to follow by known landmarks when the 
 road is overflowed. An extensive inundation 2 feet deep on level 
 ground is a serious obstacle unless the roads are very sound and 
 marked by trees, posts, etc. Even when so marked a dip in the 
 roadbed of 3 or 4 feet may render the road impassable. A railroad 
 bed is soon washed out even by a slight overflow. 
 
 Reconnaissance of a Railroad. — The Line. Local name; 
 terminal points and distances between stations and other points; 
 gauge; single or double track; condition of roadbed, ties and rails; 
 drainage and liability to overflows or washouts; facilities for re- 
 pair; condition of right of way for marching troops along the line. 
 
 Tunnels and Bridges. Number and location; dimensions; 
 strength of bridges; means of destroying and repairing of block- 
 ing traffic. 
 
482 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Rolling Stock. Number and nature of engines and cars 
 available; capacity for transporting troops between given points; 
 facilities for constructing armored trains, as spare rails, old boilers, 
 etc., location and capacity of shops and store yards. 
 
 Stations. Name and location; facilities for entraining and 
 detraining troops with wagons and horses; platforms on through 
 line and sidings; ramps; side tracks, number and capacity; turn- 
 tables; water tanks; fuel supply; storage facilities: Derricks or 
 cranes; cross-overs for teams and pedestrians. Facilities at hand 
 for hospitals, camps, depots; for feeding men, heating coffee, 
 watering horses during temporary halts. 
 
 Other Communications. — Telegraph lines; number and loca- 
 tion of stations; number of wires; connections; parallel highways, 
 roads; rivers or canals; means of access from same to railroad; 
 junctions and crossings of other lines; relative elevation; facilities 
 for laying temporary switches and sidings at stations or between 
 crossing lines. 
 
 Defensibility. Heights commanding line of road; defense of 
 stations; defense of road and telegraph lines against raiding 
 parties; structures exposed to demolition; defense and attack of 
 same; defiles and river crossings. 
 
 Reconnaissance of Wood or Forest. — Note all roads and 
 paths, and all hills, ravines and streams within the wood or 
 skirting the edges; kinds of trees, density and growth; underbrush, 
 prevalence of poisonous shrubs and vines; marshy or large open 
 spaces; practicability of forming new roads by cutting; creation 
 of obstacles by felling trees; if there are no roads traverse the 
 shortest practicable path between the point of entrance and point 
 of exit, and mark boulders or blaze trees, set stakes, or otherwise 
 indicate this path, and also give compass bearings of the route to 
 be followed. Note the exterior forms of the woods, whether parts 
 of the edge flank other parts; connection with neighboring pieces 
 of wood by scattered trees or clearings; undulations of the ground 
 that would give cover to attacking force or to defenders. 
 
 Reconnaissance of Mountains. — Note the number and posi- 
 tions of passes through the mountains, of roads and trails leading 
 to these passes, their condition, practicability and means of repair; 
 steepness of slopes on the sides of roads; means of constructing 
 additional roads; water courses, their direction, nature and time of 
 floods; means of crossing. Note ravines and open glades on moun- 
 tain sides, lookout points, and good signal stations; note time and 
 duration of snowdrifts on roads or passes; depth of drifts and pos- 
 sibility of removing them or of traveling on the surface of the 
 snow. Note extent and nature of forest growth. 
 
 Reconnaissance for a Camp or Winter Quarters. — Note a 
 location, elevation and area; sanitary features, such as drainage, 
 
TOPOGRAPHICAL RECONNAISSANCE 483 
 
 dryness and general character of top soil; proximity of swampy 
 ground or stagnant ponds. 
 
 Communications. Sufficiency of existing roads and paths, 
 maximum grades, probable condition under heavy traffic and in 
 bad weather, location and kind of materials available for improve- 
 ment or repair, railroad or water communication and terminal fa- 
 cilities of same. 
 
 Water and Fuel. Location, kind and quantity of fuel at 
 hand; quality and quantity of water; facilities for filling water carts, 
 for watering animals and for washing and bathing; nature of sup- 
 ply, as wells, springs, running streams and its reliability. 
 
 Shelter and Conveniences. Proximity of trees, brush, wood, 
 hay and straw for huts and bedding; of markets; of towns and 
 villages. 
 
 Defensibility. Location of outposts and guards; location 
 and character of defensive positions in or near the camp; force re- 
 quired to hold positions which may command the camp. 
 
 Reconnaissance of a Position. — This problem usually in- 
 cludes the selection of the position, and is therefor tactical as well 
 as topographical. Certain relations and conditions must be ob- 
 served in the selection, and the extent and degree in which they 
 are found must be clearly shown on the map or in the report. 
 
 The length of the position, or its development along the 
 firing line, should be proportional to the force available for its 
 occupation. Exact rules can not be given, but 5,000 infantry per 
 mile or 3 men per yard is the usual estimate. 
 
 Impassable nature features — a river, mountain, or stream — 
 form the best flank. Lacking these, a wood, a deep ravine,, a cliff 
 or a high hill will serve. Even with these features absent a flank 
 may be strengthened by the construction of a strong earthwork, 
 but the general rule obtains that natural weakness of the flanks 
 must be made up by a greater number of men, or by the substitu- 
 tion of cavalry for infantry in case the ground favors the move- 
 ments of mounted troops. 
 
 If the flanks are naturally strong the line should be with- 
 drawn to make the entire position re-entrant; if the flanks are 
 naturally weak the connecting line should be held straight or 
 advanced so as to make the position straight or salient. 
 
 The depth of the position, or its extent in rear of the firing 
 line, should afford natural cover for supports, reserves and trains, 
 which may require a total depth of 800 to 2,400 yards, but a short 
 position may be relatively shallower than a long one. Three or 
 four parallel ridges, 300 to 600 yards apart, with the intervening 
 ground practicable, form an excellent position. If the first ridge 
 is somewhat higher than the rest, so much the better. Whatever 
 cover there may be for the component parts of the force, whether 
 
484 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 natural or artificial, fences, ditches, trees, etc., should be shown 
 or described. If digging is necessary, its amount and the character 
 of the soil should be stated. 
 
 Strong points in front of the line, which may be occupied 
 as outposts, should be shown. Communication should be free in 
 every direction, concealed so far as possible from the enemy's 
 view. 
 
 Artillery positions are required when that arm is represented 
 in the occupying force, as will usually be the case. They should 
 permit the guns to sweep all ground in fro^t of the positions over 
 which the enemy can advance, to the limit of effective range. 
 Every point in front of the position and within range which com- 
 mands any part of it is an element of weakness. 
 
 Ranges at which the enemy can be seen and reached by ar- 
 tillery fire; the points beyond rifle range covered by such fire and 
 its relative command of adverse artillery positions should be 
 shown or described. 
 
 If possible similar information should be obtained of the 
 ground likely to be occupied by the enemy in forming for attack, 
 or in taking up a counter position. 
 
 A position occupied by an enemy must be reconnoitered 
 from a distance, and few details can actually be seen. Valuable 
 inferences may be drawn by remembering that the enemy has 
 probably chosen his position in accordance with the principles 
 above given. Especial attention should be given to the flanks and 
 the feasibility of turning one of them. 
 
 A position sketch is usually on a scale of 6 inches or 12 
 inches to the mile. It is found most convenient and expeditious to 
 make it by the compass and drawing-board method, or the method 
 with oriented board alone. The traverse includes the fewest poinfs 
 from which the entire area can be seen, often only two, and all 
 other features are located by intersections from these points. 
 Elevations may be taken by slope board or clinometer, the height 
 of the first point occupied being arbitrarily assumed if not known. 
 
 Contouring is a method of exhibiting relief of ground by 
 means of lines so drawn on a map as to indicate points of equal 
 elevation. The lines so drawn on a map and the corresponding 
 lines on the ground are called contours. The word contouring 
 is applied to the field work directed especially to obtaining data 
 for drawing contours. 
 
 The difference of elevation of points in adjacent contours 
 is called the contour interval, and is usually constant for all the 
 contours on the same map. The horizontal distance between con- 
 tours, measured in a radial direction with reference to the curva- 
 ture of the contours is referred to as contour distance. 
 
TOPOGRAPHICAL RECONNAISSANCE 485 
 
 The theory of contouring is that no inadmissible error will 
 be made by supposing the slope of the ground from a point in one 
 contour to the corresponding point in the next, or along the con- 
 tour distance, to be a straight line. The less the contour interval, 
 the less error will be made. 
 
 If contour distances decrease with elevation, or the contours 
 become closer as they go higher, the slope is concave, and points 
 between contours are lower than the straight line joining corre- 
 sponding contour points. If the contours become closer as the 
 ground falls, the ground is convex, or lies above the straight line 
 joining corresponding contour points. A point of inflection, or 
 change from convex to concave is at the point where the contour 
 distance is less or greater than those on either side of it. Equal 
 contour distances correspond to uniform slope. 
 
 One contour does not necessarily join all the points of the 
 same elevation on the map but only those which have a continuous 
 series of points of the same elevation joining them. It may 
 require several contours to take in all the points of a given eleva- 
 tion on the map. Parts of the same contour appear as separate 
 when the ground over which they could be connected is not on the 
 map. The selection of the points to connect in one contour is the 
 difficult part of the process and can not be done correctly without 
 thorough knowledge of the principles of the method and a good 
 idea of the general shape of the ground to be contoured. In 
 military reconnaissance only enough elevations can usually be taken 
 in the field to guide one who has seen and studied the ground in 
 drawing the contours. 
 
 For equal contour intervals the map contours are closer 
 together as the slope is steeper. It follows that for steep slopes 
 the map contours approach each other very closely, and for a 
 vertical wall or cliff they coincide. Ground contours can not 
 cross, but map contours may cross in the very unusual cases of 
 a cave or a bluff overhanging by an amount which can be shown 
 on the horizontal scale. This is so rare that it is usual to say that 
 map contours can not cross. 
 
 Maximum ridge and minimum valley contours go in pairs. 
 A single lower contour can not lie between two higher ones, or 
 a single higher between two lower. When two adjacent contours 
 have the same elevation, the ground between them will be still 
 lower if they are valley, or still higher if ridge contours. 
 
 Contours are designated by their heights above a datum 
 plane. The height is expressed in feet, except when the metric 
 scale is used, when contour intervals are in meters. The eleva- 
 tion of each contour should be shown in figures at points close 
 enough together to allow the eye to run from one to the other 
 with ease. It is best to break the contours and write the numbers 
 
486 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 between the ends. If written alongside, the numbers should 
 always be on the higher side of the contour. 
 
 Straight contours are very rare. They may be determined 
 by locating any two points, or by locating one point and ob- 
 serving the azimuth of the line. Simple curved contours are more 
 frequent than straight ones, but are not often found of any con- 
 siderable length. They may be determined by fixing 3 points; or 
 by 2 points with the radius estimated; or by 1 point with the center 
 assumed. The typical contour is a wavy line, alternately salient 
 and re-entrant, and may be determined with the precision needful 
 for hasty reconnaissance by fixing the extreme points of the con- 
 vex and concave portions. 
 
 Looking at contours from the higher side, the salient parts, 
 or those concave to the observer, correspond to the ridges, and 
 the re-entrant parts, or those convex to the observer, to the valleys. 
 The valleys are also lines of drainage. Hence, half of the points 
 necessary to determine a wavy contour lie on drainage lines, as 
 indicated by rivers, creeks, brooks and rivulets, and by ravines or 
 other depressions dry at most seasons. 
 
 The slope of a drainage line grows less in the direction of 
 flow. Tributaries or branches are usually steeper than the main 
 stream at their junction, and also increase in slope toward their 
 sources. Generally, in a limited area, the sources are at nearly the 
 same elevation. 
 
 If enough elevations were taken on stream lines the concave 
 parts of the contours would be fairly well determined, but the con- 
 vex points would still be in part uncertain. It is known that they 
 are convex and salient, but not how much. This information is 
 supplied by elevations taken along the ridges, crests, or divides 
 which lie between adjacent drainage lines. The typical profile 
 of a crest is a reversed curve, flat and convex between the sources 
 of streams, flat and concave near the junctions of streams, and 
 steepest in the middle, with the inflection at the steepest point. 
 The form of crests is not so regular as that of valleys, and less 
 use can be made of it. It should be kept in mind as a basis of 
 comparison, so that actual forms can be more readily remembered. 
 
 The field work of contouring an area which has a sufficient 
 relief to exhibit drainage lines clearly may begin by traversing 
 these lines, with gradients taken by clinometer or slope board. It 
 is most convenient to begin where collected drainage leaves the 
 area to be mapped, and follow each valley to its source. 
 
 If the valley is open and the flanks of the ridges on each 
 side can be seen, time may be saved by taking level sights from 
 some of the contour points on the drainage line to points on the 
 ridges as far advanced as possible, usually where the line of sight 
 is tangent to the hill. This gives two points near the apex of the 
 
TOPOGRAPHICAL RECONNAISSANCE 487 
 
 salient from which the contour may be drawn often as well as by 
 a point at the apex. If this can be generally done, it may not be 
 necessary to run out the ridges. 
 
 If hill points can not be taken from the valley traverse, the 
 ridge lines must be run out. They must be connected in plan 
 (distance and azimuth) and in elevation with the drainage lines. 
 When drainage and ridge lines are plotted on the map, the contour 
 points, if not actually observed, may be interpolated and the con- 
 tours drawn. 
 
 The symmetry of adjacent contours is obvious from the in- 
 spection of any contoured map, and this relation may be utilized, 
 where one contour has been well determined, to draw the one on 
 either side of it from a very few points, often but one. If the con- 
 tours are wavy, they are generally a little farther apart at the con- 
 cave and convex points than at the reversion points between them. 
 If the contours are not wavy, they are generally parallel. 
 
 If the relief of the ground is so slight that the drainage and 
 ridge lines are uncertain, the field work of contouring is best done 
 by taking elevations at points arbitrarily selected. Such points are 
 usually in straight lines running in the general direction of the 
 steepest slope. The points are plotted on the map, the correspond- 
 ing elevations written near them, and the contours are interpolated, 
 assuming that the surface of the ground between observed points 
 is a straight line. The closer the points are together, the less error 
 is involved in this assumption. 
 
 If the country is comparatively flat and unbroken, profiles 
 may be run along roads and paths, and contours sketched in on 
 each side so far as they can be seen. Then by going over the in- 
 tervening ground and observing its shape, the portions drawn can 
 be joined with the eye with sufficient accuracy. 
 
 In towns and villages profiles along intersecting streets and 
 the study of the intervening space furnish data for approximate 
 contours. 
 
 Slope Equivalents. — Actual distances between contours on 
 a map depend on the contour interval, the scale of the map, and 
 the gradient. For any given map the contour interval and scale 
 are constant, and the distances between contours depend on the 
 slope alone. On any map with contours at equal intervals each 
 gradient has its corresponding contour distance, which is called its 
 equivalent. A line subdivided to show the equivalents of various 
 gradients on any map is called a scale of slope equivalents for that 
 map, or simply the scale of slopes, and by applying such a scale 
 to the distance between two successive contours the slope of the 
 ground between them may be read ofT. 
 
 For different map slope equivalents vary with the ratio be- 
 tween the contour interval and the scale. A scale of slope equiva- 
 
488 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 lents may be constructed for a given ratio and will be true for all 
 maps having that ratio, no matter how much the scales may vary. 
 The ratio may be taken as the fraction of an inch on the scale 
 of the map corresponding to the contour interval. If the scale of 
 the map is 500 feet to the inch and the contour interval 1 foot, the 
 ratio is %oo or 0.002, which is the fraction of an inch corresponding 
 to 1 foot on a scale of 500 feet to the inch. If the scale is 1,000, 
 5,000, 10,000, or 50,000 feet to the inch, and the corresponding con- 
 tour interval is 2, 10, 20, or 100 feet, the ratio in each case is %oo 
 and the contour interval corresponds to 0.002 inch on the scale of 
 the map and a scale of slope equivalents corresponding to the 
 ratio applies. 
 
 In the absence of contours relief may be indicated by 
 hachures, which are short parallel or slightly divergent lines run- 
 ning in the direction of the steepest slope. Hachures should be 
 used only to indicate areas which present slopes steep enough to 
 offer cover or become obstacles. 
 
 The reconnaissance with a moving column requires the si- 
 multaneous work of a number of sketchers and must be so organ- 
 ized that each sketcher shall do his full share in the time allowed; 
 that the sketches and reports shall be turned in about the same 
 hour, and that the assigned ground shall be thoroughly covered 
 without unnecessary duplication. 
 
 A good sketcher on foot can take about 10 miles of road in 
 a day, or can keep up with a slowly advancing column. A good 
 sketcher mounted can cover 15 miles a day steadily, or in an 
 emergency 20 or 25 miles, and can keep up with infantry on a 
 forced march or. with cavalry marching at ordinary rate. 
 
 The reconnaissance for a column should include besides the 
 road traveled the nearest parallel road on each side and all con- 
 necting roads between them. Each mile traversed by the column 
 on the main road will thus involve 2y 2 to 5 miles of sketching. 
 
 If a reconnaissance is to be made when a force is not in mo- 
 tion, the area to be covered will usually be so large and the time 
 allowed so short as to make it necessary to combine the work of a 
 number of sketchers. 
 
 If any map is available, the area to be reconnoitered should 
 be outlined on it and subdivided into as many parts as there are 
 sketchers, the parts to be made equal, not in size necessarily, but 
 in amount of work and time required, the important point being 
 that all the parts shall be finished at the same hour. 
 
 Each of these parts is assigned to a sketcher, with full in- 
 structions as to the amount and class of work to be done, the scale 
 to be used — which should be the same for all — and the place and 
 hour at which the sketch must be turned in. If practicable, each 
 sketcher should be given a tracing or copy of enough of the map 
 
TOPOGRAPHICAL RECONNAISSANCE 489 
 
 to show the boundaries of his own task and the adjacent features 
 of those next to his. 
 
 The area to be mapped may be divided up in any convenient 
 way, but it is best to use roads, fences, streams, or other well- 
 defined lines as much as possible. Lacking these, compass courses 
 passing through well-defined points will answer. 
 
 In a road sketch one man should be assigned to the main 
 road or that on which the column is marching. Others are as- 
 signed to such parallel and intersecting roads as it may be neces- 
 sary to map. So far as practicable, side parties should leave the 
 main road by an intersecting road, traverse a short stretch of par- 
 allel road, and return to the main road by another cross road. 
 
 Compilation. — The sketches when turned in are consolidated, 
 usually by pasting them in their proper relative positions on a 
 large sheet of paper, or else by pasting them together at their edges 
 so that corresponding features will join. If one of them does not 
 exactly fit, as will often happen, the adjustment is best made by 
 cutting the sketch into two or more pieces and moving them with 
 respect to each other so as to absorb the discrepancy. Thus, if a 
 piece of road is half an inch too short, cut it at three or four places 
 on lines perpendicular to the road and separate the pieces by a 
 sixth or eighth of an inch. If too long, overlap the pieces instead 
 of separating them. If a road or other feature is out of azimuth, 
 make a cut through one of its ends and swing it into place. These 
 operations may be combined. 
 
 Reproduction. — As many copies of the map will be made as 
 circumstances may require. The first step is to divide the map 
 into sections of convenient and usually equal size, and make a 
 tracing of each. The size of the sections will usually be deter- 
 mined by the method of reproduction to be used and the size of 
 the apparatus at hand. Time will be saved if there are not more 
 sections than there are men available to trace, supposing that all 
 the tracers are of approximately the same speed. If one of them 
 can work two or three times as fast as the average, two or more 
 sections should be reserved for him, the idea being that the work 
 will be done in the shortest time if so arranged that all finish at 
 once. With fairly expert sketchers, it will be possible to have 
 each ink his work before turning it in. A useful expedient in case 
 of great haste is to make the sketches themselves transparent by 
 oiling and fasten them together for use instead of a tracing. 
 
 The tracing made, further processes depend upon the time 
 available and whether the work can be done in daylight or must 
 be done at night. Of processes requiring sunlight, the most reli- 
 able, simplest, and quickest is the blueprint process. The prepared 
 paper may be purchased in rolls of 10 or 50 yards. It should be 
 put up in tin foil and each 6 or 8 rolls should be in a sealed tin 
 
490 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 case; it will then keep in good condition for a long time. If neces- 
 sary to sensitize the paper in the field the following solutions must 
 be prepared: 
 
 Ounces, 
 
 fc., « , . A S Citrate of iron and ammonia 2 
 
 Stock solution A | Water \\\ g 
 
 c . , ,u; -n \ Red prussiate of potash 2 
 
 Stock solution B j Wat( £ ; _ 3 
 
 For use mix 4 parts of A with 3 parts of B. 
 
 Unprepared paper may be purchased in 50-yard rolls. To 
 sensitize the paper a sheet of the desired size is cut from the roll 
 and placed on a flat surface; the mixed solution is applied with a 
 sponge to the upper surface in a smooth, even coat, care being? 
 taken not to wet through to the back of the paper. The sheet is 
 hung up in a dark room until dry, when it is ready for use. Only 
 enough paper for a day's use is sensitized at one time, for it does 
 not keep well. 
 
 The exposure takes from four to eight minutes in bright 
 sunlight, varying with the intensity of the light and the trans- 
 parency of the tracing. Under other conditions than sunlight a 
 much longer exposure is required; sometimes an hour or more. 
 Care must be taken that the paper is not taken from the frame 
 before it has been sufficiently exposed. When the margin pro- 
 truding from under the tracing has a greenish-bronze color, open 
 one part of the back of the frame and observe the print. The 
 lines should stand out sharp and distinct on a gray background. 
 Take the print from the frame and place it in a tray containing 
 water sufficient to fully cover the print. Rinse it until the lines 
 stand out in clear white, then hang up to dry. It is to be remem- 
 bered that the fresher the paper is the slower it will print and the 
 quicker it will wash out; the older the paper is the quicker it will 
 print but the slower it will wash. 
 
 Additions and alterations may be made to blueprints with 
 a 10 per cent, solution of oxalate of potash used as an ink. If it 
 shows a tendency to run, add a very little mucilage. Common 
 soda may be used, but the lines have a yellowish cast instead of 
 the pure white which the potash gives. Additions and alterations 
 of a drawing are conveniently made by inking the lines of a blue- 
 print with waterproof liquid India ink and removing all the blue 
 color by the potash or soda solutions. The black lines then remain 
 on a white ground. They take well in photographing, and by 
 treating the paper with oil, it becomes transparent enough for 
 contact printing, being used in place of a tracing and in the same 
 way. 
 
 Brown prints. — Next in point of simplicity for daylight use 
 
TOPOGRAPHICAL RECONNAISSANCE 491 
 
 is the brown-print process. It is in many respects the most satis- 
 factory of the copying processes. The paper is purchased pre- 
 pared. 
 
 After exposure for about two minutes in bright sunlight, the 
 margin protruding from under the tracing turns from its original 
 light yellow to a reddish-brown color. The print is then taken 
 from the frame, immersed in water, and thoroughly rinsed on both 
 sides, when the lines come out in perfect white on a sepia-brown 
 ground. It is then immersed in a fixing bath made from the salt 
 which accompanies each roll of the paper (2 ounces of fixing salt 
 to 1 gallon of water); this makes the print permanent and also 
 darkens the sepia-brown color, the lines remaining white. After 
 fixing the print must be thoroughly washed for 20 to 30 minutes 
 and then hung up to dry. 
 
 The brown color being impervious to light makes this paper 
 very valuable for negatives which may be used to produce positive 
 copies, either with the blue or brown print papers, yielding an 
 exact reproduction of the original in either blue or brown lines 
 on a white background. In making the positive prints from the 
 brown-paper negatives the time of exposure is somewhat longer, 
 since the brown-process paper is not as transparent as tracing 
 cloth or tracing paper. Even very fine lines of the original are 
 reproduced with surprising distinctness, due to the fact that in 
 both manipulations the original is in direct contact with the sensi- 
 tive side of the paper, so that no light can enter sideways under 
 the lines. 
 
 By making several negatives and printing from them simul- 
 taneously the rate of reproduction may be largely increased. 
 
 For printing by artificial light bromide papers are used. 
 A contact print from the tracing has clear white lines on a very 
 dark-brown ground. The contrast is clear and agreeable. Altera- 
 tions made be made with a sharp red pencil, which makes a legible 
 line, or by scratching through the emulsion, which makes a white 
 line. A print can be obtained quickly from the light of three 
 candles at 12 inches distance. 
 
 To develop bromide prints make a stock solution of hydro- 
 chinon, 150 gr.; sodium sulphite, 360 gr.; water, 12 oz. 
 
 For use, to 1 oz. of stock solution add 1 dr. rodinal and 8 oz. 
 water; or, make stock solution of metol, 150 gr. ; sodium sulphite 
 crystals, 2]/ 2 oz.; sodium carbonate crystals, 3]/ 2 oz.; bromide 
 potash, 8 gr.; water, 20 oz. For use, add 1 oz. stock solution to 
 4 oz. water. 
 
 Acetic acid is used to clear bromide prints after develop- 
 ment and to stop the action of the developer, 16 oz. water to 1 dr. 
 acetic acid. 
 
492 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 For fixing bromide prints use hyposulphite of soda, 1 oz.; 
 water, 6 oz. A little alum added to the fixing bath in hot weather 
 hardens the film. 
 
 A bromide print may be made transparent by oil and used 
 for contact printing by artificial light. It will be better, though 
 not essential to secure a paper for negatives thinner than that 
 usually supplied for prints. 
 
 The cycle of operations for quick reproduction by the bro- 
 mide process is as follows: 
 
 From a tracing or transparent drawing make, say, 3 to 5 
 negatives. Make them transparent and start printing from all of 
 them. If the sketchers are in by 5.30 p. m., the negatives can be 
 ready for printing by 7 p. m., and after that prints can be turned 
 out at the rate of 15 per hour from each negative. It should not 
 be difficult to have all that are needed for the next day done by 
 9 p. m. 
 
 Transfer processes. — With the hectograph the drawing is 
 made in a special ink and pressed face down on the surface of a 
 gelatin compound in a metal pan. When the paper is pulled off 
 the drawing appears reversed on the gelatin surface. A piece of 
 blank paper pressed on the surface and then withdrawn shows the 
 drawing direct in purplish lines. Fifty to 100 impressions may be 
 taken. Each print is covered with a thin film of the compound 
 and is sticky, curly, and very stubborn. The process is at best only 
 a makeshift, but it is the easiest of all to improvise and the simplest 
 to operate. For quick work several pans should be provided, as 
 each must be washed after use and should not be used again until 
 well dried. 
 
 The hectograph compound is made of: 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Glue or gelatin 100 
 
 Glycerin 400 
 
 Water 400 
 
 Kaolin, 50 parts, or some fine inert light-colored powder 
 may be added with advantage. The ingredients require prolonged 
 mixing at 200° F., which is best obtained in a salt-water bath, 2 
 ounces salt to 1 pint water. 
 
 The ink is made of: 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Nigrosine black 1 
 
 Glycerin 4 
 
 Water 14 
 
 Writing or drawing is done with a fresh, clean steel pen. 
 The surface of the compound is moistened lightly with a brush or 
 
TOPOGRAPHICAL RECONNAISSANCE 493 
 
 sponge and allowed to nearly dry, when the copy is laid smoothly 
 on face down and rubbed to a good contact throughout, eliminating 
 all air bubbles. The paper is allowed to remain two or three 
 minutes and then removed by starting one corner and pulling 
 parallel to the surface. The sheets for impressions are put on and 
 removed in the same way, except that they are left on but few 
 seconds. 
 
 With the black autocopyist the drawing is made in a special 
 ink and transferred to a parchment sheet held in a special frame. 
 This process is free from some of the objections to the hecto- 
 graph, but it is more difficult to work. The copies are in printer's 
 ink, are permanent, and very satisfactory. 
 
 Landscape Sketching. — Free hand sketching can not take 
 the place of topography, but it is a valuable adjunct and should 
 be practiced by every soldier who has any aptitude for pictorial 
 drawing. 
 
 A sketch differs from a photograph only in that it shows in 
 sharp outline a limited number of the larger and characteristic 
 features easily seen and understood, while the photograph shows 
 all details, many of them so minute that they are lost in a mass of 
 confused forms, with the form lines, other than the sky line, rela- 
 tively inconspicuous. All the lines of a perfect sketch exist in a 
 photograph, but close scrutiny is often necessary to find them. 
 If sought out and traced, however, a perfect sketch results. Trac- 
 ing from photographs is excellent practice. 
 
 Hydrography. — Depth of water and character of bottom are 
 determined by sounding with a pole or with a lead and line. The 
 sounding pole may be improvised, or of permanent form. A con- 
 venient one is 10 feet long, octagonal in section, tapering slightly 
 from middle to ends, divided into feet which are painted alternately 
 white, and black or red. There sho'uld be an iron shoe at the bot- 
 tom, heavy enough to make the rod stand erect when free in deep 
 water. Such a rod is convenient to use in water 9 feet or less 
 in depth. 
 
 If a sounding lead is not furnished, any compact weight may 
 be used. The sounding line should be of braided hemp or cotton, 
 Y$ to l / 2 inch in diameter and tagged with cloth or leather. The' 
 tagging depends on the depth to be measured, and degree of pre- 
 cision required. Cloth of different colors may be used for different 
 units, and leather tags may be distinguished by cutting notches or 
 punching holes in them. The line should be thoroughly wet. 
 stretched, and allowed to dry. It should then be wet again and 
 tagged while wet. The zero of the graduation is at the bottom of 
 the lead or weight. A lead and line are best connected by a raw- 
 hide thong passing through an eye in the lead and an eye made in 
 the end of the line. 
 
494 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Soundings are usually referred to a plane parallel to the 
 water surface, horizontal except in flowing streams. The plane 
 usually selected is the water surface itself if stationery, or one of 
 its positions if variable, so that soundings will indicate approxi- 
 mately the actual depths of water. The elevation of the water sur- 
 face in the position selected is called the datum level. If the sur- 
 face elevation varies, a gauge rod must be set near the water's 
 edge, and read often enough to plot a continuous curve of water 
 level. The time of beginning and ending a particular group of 
 soundings is noted. The mean elevation of the water surface dur- 
 ing that interval is taken from the curve, and the soundings are 
 corrected by the difference between the actual level and the datum 
 level. If the correction to be applied is less than half a foot, it is 
 usually neglected. 
 
 The material of the bottom, as rock, gravel, sand, or mud, 
 can usually be told from the feeling of the rod or lead when it 
 strikes. A specimen of the bottom can be brought up by smearing 
 the end of the lead with tallow. 
 
 A correct sounding is obtained only when the line or rod is 
 plumb and straight and its length correct, or its error known and 
 applied. Except for blunders in reading the line, only one source 
 of error operates to make the soundings too small, and that is a 
 line which has stretched since it was tagged or is too long. All 
 other sources of error make the soundings too large, and hence 
 they are apt to be so, and actual depths slightly less than those 
 recorded will usually be found. 
 
 To get a plumb sounding from a boat moving through the 
 water, the lead is thrown out or the pole inclined in the direction 
 of motion far enough to allow it to reach bottom by the 
 time the boat is directly over the spot where it strikes. Soundings 
 taken with a line from a moving boat will always be too large. 
 
 The most accurate soundings with lead and line in running 
 water are taken from a boat floating with the current, with line 
 allowed to hang and move with the water. It is raised only a foot 
 or so between soundings, just enough to clear the bottom. 
 
 Location of soundings. — The simplest method is by two si- 
 multaneous azimuths from known points on shore. If the sound- 
 ings are taken on a line passing through one of the points, all azi- 
 muths from that point will be constant, and one measurement will 
 suffice. This line is plainly marked by range flags and the boat's 
 crew instructed to keep the flags in range. Only one instrument 
 and observer are required. This is the usual method for streams 
 and is best for all work where the soundings can be taken in 
 straight lines. Locations may be made from the boat by two ob- 
 servers taking simultaneous compass bearings to two known points 
 on shore or by two simultaneous sextant angles. The latter is less 
 convenient, as a special protractor is required for rapid plotting. 
 
TOPOGRAPHICAL RECONNAISSANCE 495 
 
 Map reading is essentially the reverse of map making. In 
 the latter process ground is measured and studied with a view of 
 forming a mental picture of how a map of it will look. In the 
 former — map reading — a map is measured and studied for the 
 purpose of forming a mental picture of how the ground itself looks. 
 All rules and principles heretofore stated as to relations between 
 ground and map are to be used in studying the relations of map to 
 ground. 
 
 Drawing. — The essential requirements of a good topograph- 
 ical drawing are accuracy and clearness. By accuracy is meant a 
 faithful exhibit of measurements and observations made in the 
 field, or of data taken from other maps. Clearness involves 
 absence of confusion or crowding, and neatness in execution. 
 Beauty and pictorial effect are obtainable by skilled draftsmen 
 only, and while always desirable are rarely necessary. Persons 
 who are not skilled draftsmen should not attempt pictorial effect, 
 as it will detract from accuracy and clearness without substituting 
 anything of equal value. 
 
 Conventional Signs. — The symbols or signs used to repre- 
 sent topographical features are designed to be rapidly made and 
 readily understood, and to resemble or suggest the actual features 
 they represent. Multiplicity of signs is not desirable, and a 
 verbal designation or description of the features is often more 
 intelligible and more quickly recorded. For instance, it is better 
 to write the names of the growing crops of a district, as tobacco, 
 corn, or cane, than to cover the entire area with a symbol. Another 
 method of expediting mapping is to surround an area with a 
 narrow border of the proper sign and leave the middle blank. 
 
 Titles, Notes, Etc. — Every finished drawing should have a 
 descriptive title, consisting of — (1) The designation of the organ- 
 ization under whose auspices it is made, as Engineer Department; 
 Bureau of Insular Affairs; War Department; Division of the Phil- 
 ippines; 1st Division, 2d Corps. (2) Its kind, as map, sketch, plot, 
 plan, profile, section, or elevation. If more than one kind of 
 drawing appears on the sheet, each should be mentioned in the 
 title, as plan and sections of battery; plan, section, and elevations 
 of guardhouse, etc. (3) Its subject, if it relates to a particular 
 object, feature, or purpose. (4) Its locality. This and the preced- 
 ing may be interchanged in position. (5) Its sources, as Compiled 
 from, etc.; Reduced from, etc.; From a survey, etc. (6) Its author- 
 ship. If the work has been done by one person, acting under the 
 instructions of another, both should be named, as under the direc- 
 tion of Colonel John Doe, General Staff, by Captain William Roe, 
 1st U. S. Infantry. (7) Its date. (8) Its linear scale; its contour 
 interval; its scale of slope equivalents. 
 32 
 
496 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Titles should be adapted in size and boldness to the size and 
 importance of the sheet. They should be divided into lines, fol- 
 lowing mainly the divisions just stated. The middle letter of each 
 line should fall on a line drawn vertically through the middle of 
 the space allotted to the title. Lines should be alternately long and 
 short, and if the long lines are symmetrically disposed, the effect 
 is better. 
 
 Meridian. — 'The magnetic meridian should be shown, and the 
 true meridian also if the declination is known. The true meridian 
 may be a line, of 3 inches or upward in length; with a star at its 
 north and the feather of an arrow at its south end. The magnetic 
 meridian may be an arrow crossing the former at the middle point 
 and making with it an angle equivalent to the declination. 
 
 Enlargement and Reduction. — The simplest method is by 
 squares. Divide the original into squares of 2 inches or less by 
 lines drawn parallel to the borders. Divide the paper on which 
 the copy is to be made into squares with sides corresponding to 
 the same distance on the scale of the copy that the side of a square 
 on the original itself does to the scale of the original. If a plot- 
 ting scale of the original be placed on the side of a square on the 
 original and the plotting scale of the copy on the side of a 
 square of the copy, the readings should be the same. The square 
 on the copy will be larger if the drawing is to be enlarged and 
 smaller if it is to be reduced. The ratio between the sides of the 
 squares on the original and the copy is the ratio of reduction or 
 enlargement. 
 
 Select a square of the original and reproduce its contents in 
 the corresponding square of the copy; or take a feature of the 
 original, as a road or stream, and trace its course through several 
 squares. 
 
 Usually the position of a point in a square or on one of the 
 sides can be estimated with sufficient accuracy. Important points 
 may be located by measurement of distances from the nearest 
 sides of the squares, using the scale of the map and the scale or 
 the copy, respectively. 
 
 Instead of drawing the squares on the original, they may be 
 drawn on tracing linen or paper laid over it, or fine threads may 
 be stretched to form the squares. Every drawing board should 
 have a scale of inches on each edge marked with fine saw cuts or 
 with small tacks to facilitate the drawing of squares*. 
 
CHAPTER XVIII 
 
 MILITARY INFORMATION, RECONNAISSANCE 
 AND THE SERVICE OF SECURITY 
 
 Military information may be considered under two general 
 heads, namely, (1) that collected by the General Staff in time of 
 peace; (2) that obtained by troops in the field after the outbreak of 
 hostilities. The former relates to the geography, resources, and 
 military strength of the various nations, and enables the War 
 Department to decide upon the size of an army or expedition, the 
 proportion of the different arms, character of clothing, equipment, 
 etc., that may be necessary in the event of war. The latter relates 
 to the theater of operations and to the position, strength, inten- 
 tions, etc., of the enemy in the field, and is absolutely essential to 
 enable a commander properly to estimate the situation. Information 
 in the field is obtained from various sources — higher commanders, 
 adjoining troops, inhabitants, newspapers, letters, telegraph files, 
 prisoners, deserters, spies, maps, and reconnaissances. Knowledge 
 of the terrain, always essential to a correct understanding of the 
 situation, is obtained from a careful study of available maps, sup- 
 plemented by thorough reconnaissance. All information of the 
 enemy and of the theater of operations is sent to the intelligence 
 section of the general staff group of headquarters of units larger 
 than a brigade. This section weighs and classifies the information 
 brought in and supervises the preparation of the necessary field 
 maps. An efficient secret service is organized as soon as prac- 
 ticable. 
 
 In hostile territory influential persons, especially those sup- 
 posed to be active in the enemy's cause, may be seized and their 
 persons and houses searched. Letters and newspapers in post 
 offices and files in telegraph offices are carefully examined and any- 
 thing of importance sent to higher authority. Matter not of im- 
 portance is replaced, if time permits; if not, the whole is sent to 
 headquarters. Local maps of recent date may be of great value. 
 
 When reliable information of the enemy can not be obtained, 
 it is assumed that he will act with good judgment. 
 
498 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Information received by any person in the military service, 
 and the action taken thereon, must be promptly reported to the 
 proper military superior. 
 
 Unless instructions have been given to spread false informa- 
 tion, all persons connected with the military service are forbidden 
 to discuss the military situation, plans, movements, etc., with, or in 
 the presence of, civilians of any age, sex, or nationality. 
 
 RECONNAISSANCE 
 
 Reconnaissance is the military term used to designate the 
 work of troops or individuals when gathering information in the 
 field. Reconnaissance begins as soon as the theater of possible 
 operations is entered and continues throughout the campaign. No 
 matter what other sources of information of the enemy may be 
 available, reconnaissance must be depended upon to obtain the 
 information upon which all tactical movements of troops should be 
 based. 
 
 By Aero Squadron. — In forces of the strength of a division, 
 or larger, the aero squadron will operate in advance of the inde- 
 pendent cavalry in order to locate the enemy and to keep track of 
 his movements. Contact with the enemy once gained will be main- 
 tained thereafter continuously. 
 
 By the Cavalry. — Reconnaissance in the theater of opera- 
 tions is best made by the cavalry, which from the beginning of the 
 campaign seeks to determine the enemy's strength and dispositions. 
 It protects its own army against surprise, screens its movements, 
 and insures the safety and success of the troops of other arms. The 
 defeat of the hostile cavalry and its expulsion from the field are 
 usually the best means to this end. As the opposing armies draw 
 near each other, the cavalry endeavors to secure control of the 
 ground between and bends every effort to that close and continu- 
 ous reconnaissance of the enemy's forces that is vital to the success 
 of the entire campaign. 
 
 As a rule, only general instructions are given to a leader of 
 independent cavalry. It is usually sufficient to indicate the country 
 to be reconnoitered, invite attention to specially important local- 
 ities, and point out the extent of the daily advance of the field 
 force. He is generally in telegraphic communication with the 
 supreme commander, and keeps him constantly informed of the 
 situation at the front. In the absence of telegraphic facilities, he 
 reports according to the circumstances, sending his messages by 
 the divisional cavalry when practicable. 
 
 By Independent Cavalry. — Reconnaissance by the inde- 
 pendent cavalry will give, in a general way, the enemy's location 
 
MILITARY INFORMATION 499 
 
 for several hours, or even days, preceding contact of the main 
 bodies. If this cavalry is strong enough to defeat the enemy's 
 cavalry, it will be enabled to locate the hostile infantry and artil- 
 lery and to determine their approximate strength. If weaker than 
 the enemy's cavalry, it must rely upon the work of strategical and 
 tactical patrols to obtain detailed information of the enemy, or it 
 must be assisted by the other arms. In the latter case the advance 
 guard of the main body will afford this assistance by stopping the 
 advance of the enemy's cavalry and compelling him to deploy his 
 infantry and artillery, in part at least. On very wide fronts an 
 army is generally covered by two or more bodies of independent 
 cavalry; each is informed of the extent of ground it is to cover 
 and keeps in touch with the neighboring cavalry. 
 
 By Divisional Cavalry. — The cavalry attached to an infantry 
 division is called divisional cavalry. When the division is operating 
 independently, the divisional cavalry acts also as independent 
 cavalry; when the division forms part of a field army, the divisional 
 cavalry is known as advance cavalry. It usually enters into the 
 composition of advance, flank, rear, and outpost guards, and when 
 so employed is known as advance guard, flank guard, rear guard, 
 and outpost cavalry, as the case may be, and performs such recon- 
 naissance as the situation demands. 
 
 Reconnaissance by the advance cavalry is such as will afford 
 security to the main body. It prevents surprise to any part of the 
 force. If stronger than the cavalry opposing it, the advance 
 cavalry will obtain valuable information of the enemy before the 
 infantry and artillery of the advance guard become engaged. But 
 where the cavalry, for any reason, fails in this purpose, the work 
 must be done by the other arms, without, however, so dispersing 
 battle units that they will be outside of supporting distance of each 
 other. 
 
 Though its reconnaissance is more restricted than that of the 
 independent cavalry, advance cavalry goes more into detail and 
 gathers information as to the resources of the country, roads, 
 camping places, etc. As combat becomes imminent and the inde- 
 pendent cavalry is drawn off to a flank, the advance cavalry must 
 J^e especially active to guard against surprise, gain information of 
 the enemy's movements, and prevent incursions of his patrols. 
 When there is independent cavalry in front, the divisional cavalry 
 maintains connection therewith; when not, it reconnoiters far to 
 the front and gains touch with the enemy if possible, operating in 
 a manner similar to that of independent cavalry of larger units. 
 
 By Infantry. — The extent of the infantry reconnaissance will 
 not be so great where the aero squadron and the cavalry are able 
 to perform this service efficiently, as it must be in the absence of 
 efficient reconnaissance by the other arms. In no case, however, 
 
500 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 can infantry reconnaissance, preceding or during combat, be 
 dispensed with. Infantry and artillery can not rely wholly upon 
 cavalry or aero reconnaissance, but must conduct such close-in 
 reconnaissance as is necessary for security and to determine their 
 immediate dispositions. In the absence of cavalry, reconnaissance 
 at a distance is made by infantry or scouts specially detailed for 
 that purpose. If a command is weak in cavalry, or the country is 
 rough and broken, it may be advisable to use reconnoitering de- 
 tachments composed of both infantry and cavalry. 
 
 Reconnaissance Immediately Preceding Combat. — Recon- 
 naissance preceding deployment for action is of vital importance. 
 On the information of the enemy and of the terrain obtained 
 through proper reconnaissance combat orders are based. How 
 complete such reconnaissance may be will depend upon the time 
 that can be spared for the purpose without losing the initiative in 
 action, upon the character of information desired, and upon the 
 efficiency of the measures taken by the enemy to conceal his 
 dispositions. 
 
 The strength of the force employed in this reconnaissance is 
 determined by the character of the information desired and by the 
 nature of the hostile screen. In every instance it must be strong 
 enough to penetrate the enemy's screen, and where detailed infor- 
 mation of the enemy's position is desired, to cause the deployment 
 of the enemy's infantry and the opening of fire by part, at least, of 
 his artillery. In the latter case the combat reconnaissance may 
 develop into the opening phase of the attack, and care must be 
 taken that enough troops are kept in hand to change completely 
 the course of the attack, if the information obtained calls for such 
 action. 
 
 In any advance toward the enemy the advance guard must 
 be relied upon for such reconnaissance as is necessary, either to 
 supplement the reconnaissance of other troops or to replace it 
 when other reconnaissance is wholly wanting. It is important that 
 the advance guard force the enemy to disclose his position and 
 strength as early as possible. A strong force of artillery is most 
 useful for this purpose, as it clears up the situation in a way that 
 can not be done by other troops, except by incurring heavy losses. 
 
 In encountering the enemy in a position that is to be de- 
 veloped the advance guard must continue, by means of the advance 
 cavalry, the reconnaissance begun by the independent cavalry or 
 by other troops. The enemy will not disclose his position, par- 
 ticularly that of* his artillery, until forced to do so by a determined 
 reconnaissance which may call for the use of infantry and artillery 
 in force before it can accomplish its purpose. The advance of 
 the infantry will finally force back all advanced detachments of the 
 enemy and bare his main position. The artillery will assist in this 
 
MILITARY INFORMATION 501 
 
 advance by opening fire on any targets of importance that the 
 infantry advance uncovers. Finally, the enemy's artillery will be 
 obliged to disclose its position by opening fire, either to stop the 
 advance of the opposing infantry or to keep down the opposing 
 artillery fire. The information thus gained of the enemy's position 
 and strength will enable the leader to form his plan of attack. 
 
 In the rencontre efficient measures for security on the march 
 must be relied upon to take the place of the more complete re- 
 connaissance which the necessity of obtaining the initiative in 
 deployment forbids. In an attack on a position that the enemy 
 has had time to take up deliberately and to strengthen, time is not 
 so important an element, and the reconnaissance preceding deploy- 
 ment must be as complete as may be necessary to determine the 
 enemy's strength and dispositions. 
 
 Reconnaissance During Combat. — The infantry keeps up 
 during combat such reconnaissance as will enable it to keep con- 
 tact with the enemy, acquaint itself with the terrain in its front, 
 and especially to protect its flanks and rear. The field artillery 
 continues the reconnaissance called for by its tactical employment. 
 During combat the aero squadron operates around the flanks and 
 over and to the rear of the enemy's position, for the purpose of 
 reporting his dispositions, the approach of re-enforcements, or the 
 beginning of his withdrawal from action. During combat the 
 cavalry conducts an extended reconnaissance around the flanks 
 and to the rear of the enemy's position, but such reconnaissance 
 must be conducted by small detachments in order that the main 
 body of the cavalry may be kept close at hand to aid in obtaining 
 success in the main battle. 
 
 Reconnoitering Patrols. — The chief duty of reconnoitering 
 patrols is to gather information. They habitually seek safety in 
 concealment or flight, fighting only when their mission demands 
 it. The most skillful patrolling is where patrols accomplish their 
 mission and return without being discovered by the enemy. 
 
 The commander determines the number and strength of 
 patrols and when they are to be sent out. It is a cardinal principle 
 to send out only such patrols as insure effective reconnaissance. 
 Patrols vary in strength from two or three men to a company. 
 Small patrols have great mobility, are easily concealed, and do not 
 draw heavily on the fighting strength. In hostile territory, or 
 when resistance is expected, stronger detachments are required. 
 These cover themselves with small patrols of two to four men, 
 the remainder acting as support. 
 
 The officer sending out a patrol verifies the detail, designates 
 a second in command and gives the necessary instructions. Horses 
 of conspicuous color and those that neigh when alone should not 
 
502 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 be sent. Precautions are taken to avoid the glitter and rattle of 
 weapons and equipments. 
 
 The orders or instructions for a patrol, or for any detach- 
 ment going on reconnaissance, must state clearly where the enemy 
 is or is supposed to be, what information is desired, what features 
 are of special importance, the general direction to be followed, 
 whether friendly patrols are likely to be encountered, and where 
 messages are to be sent or the patrol is to report. Important and 
 comprehensive instructions should be in writing, but precautions 
 against capture of papers must be taken. An officer sending out 
 a patrol must be certain that his orders are understood. Detailed 
 instructions are, as a rule, avoided. When necessary the time of 
 return is stated. 
 
 Patrol Leaders. — Skillful patrolling is the basis of efficient 
 reconnaissance. Patrol leaders are selected with care, officers 
 being detailed for important missions. Patrol leaders should com- 
 bine the qualities of good health, vigorous physique, keen eyesight, 
 presence of mind and courage, with good judgment, military train- 
 ing, and experience. They should be able to read maps, make 
 sketches, and send clear and concise messages. Officers on such 
 duty often find themselves in positions where the situation must be 
 viewed from the standpoint of a higher commander, and should 
 be able to reason accordingly. Patrols exercise the greatest vigi- 
 lance to prevent discovery. Under the leader's guidance it moves 
 so as to guard against surprise, usually with point and flankers. 
 To extend the sphere of its observation, still smaller patrols (one 
 or two men) may be sent out for short distances, communication 
 with the leader being maintained by signals. Whatever the forma- 
 tion adopted, it should favor the escape of at least one man in case 
 of surprise. In questioning civilians caution is observed not to 
 disclose information that may be of value to the enemy. Strangers 
 are not allowed to precede the patrol. Patrol leaders are author- 
 ized to seize telegrams and mail matter, and to arrest individuals, 
 reporting the facts as soon as possible. 
 
 Indications of the Enemy. — Nothing should escape the ob- 
 servation of the patrol. The slightest indication of the enemy 
 should be reported to the leader at once. On roads and in 
 abandoned camps, signs are often found which indicate the num- 
 ber, character, and condition of the enemy, and the direction in 
 which he is marching. Abandoned clothing or equipage may bear 
 marks indicating organizations. A thick and low cloud of dust 
 indicates infantry; a high and thin cloud, cavalry; a broken cloud, 
 artillery or wagon trains. The size of the command and direction 
 of march may be roughly estimated by the dust, but the effect of 
 wind must be considered. The strength of a body of troops may 
 be estimated from the length of time it takes to pass a given point. 
 
MILITARY INFORMATION 503 
 
 When it is certain that the enemy has been discovered, that 
 fact is promptly reported. The exact location of the enemy — '• 
 whether deployed, marching, or in camp — his strength, and the 
 arms of service are next ascertained and reported. It is often 
 difficult to decide whether the troops discovered are the main 
 body; or merely the advance guard or outposts. The rule is to 
 observe the main body; therefore it may be necessary to obtain a 
 view from a position in rear of the covering troops. This is done 
 by going around or by breaking, through, returning over different 
 ground to avoid ambuscade. 
 
 Signals. — In addition to the usual signals prescribed in drill 
 regulations, the following should be clearly understood by mem- 
 bers of a patrol: 
 
 Enemy in sight in small numbers, hold the rifle above the 
 head horizontally; enemy in force, same as preceding, raising and 
 lowering the rifle several times; take cover, a downward motion of 
 the hand. Other signals may be agreed upon before starting, but 
 they must be familiar to the men; complicated signals are avoided. 
 
 Employment of Air Craft. — Military air craft of all kinds are 
 employed under the direction of the commander of the forces to 
 which they are assigned and the immediate control of the officer 
 commanding the aero organization. 
 
 Balloons are classed as free, captive, and dirigible. Free 
 balloons may be used to convey information from besieged places, 
 the return message being sent by radiotelegraphy, carrier pigeons, 
 or otherwise. Free balloons are of little use for any other service, 
 and are not very dependable on account of their uncertainty of 
 movement. Captive balloons may be used for tactical reconnais- 
 sance, for observation of artillery fire, and for signaling. Com- 
 munication from a captive balloon to the ground should be by 
 telephone. 
 
 Large dirigible balloons are of practical value for strategical 
 reconnaissance and to travel great distances; they are also suit- 
 able for carrying a number of observers, radio equipment, machine 
 guns, and considerable weight of explosives. Aeroplanes are more 
 dependable for field service with a mobile army than dirigible 
 balloons, as the latter require substantial shelter from winds while 
 on the ground. Reconnaissance by aeroplane includes strategical 
 and tactical reconnaissance and the observation of artillery fire. 
 Aeroplanes are also used to prevent hostile aerial reconnaissance. 
 
 Strategical reconnaissance by aeroplane is effective within a 
 radius of 150 miles from the starting point, and is for the purpose 
 of determining the position, strength, and direction of advance of 
 the large elements of an enemy's forces, and also the character of 
 the roads, railroads, streams, and the general military topography 
 of the theater of operations. 
 
504 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Tactical reconnaissance by aeroplane is used both in attack 
 and defense. It is extended in its nature and does not involve 
 minute examinations of very small localities or detachments. It 
 is designed to discover turning and enveloping movements, the 
 position and strength of the enemy's general reserve, artillery 
 positions and movements of cavalry; also, from the movement of 
 combat or field trains behind an enemy's position information may 
 be gained as to whether certain parts of the line are being 
 weakened or strengthened, or whether a retreat is contemplated. 
 
 For observation of fire of field artillery, aeroplanes are 
 usually assigned to the artillery commander. They are especially 
 useful against targets which are invisible from the position of the 
 artillery officer conducting the fire. They are safe from hostile 
 fire at altitudes of 4,000 feet or more. The results of reconnaissance 
 are reported by radiotelegraphy, signals, and the dropping of 
 messages. 
 
 MESSAGES, REPORTS, MAPS AND WAR DIARIES 
 
 In the field term "message" is generally applied to written 
 information sent by messenger or wire. Such messages should be 
 brief and clear, resembling telegrams. The source of the informa- 
 tion contained in messages is always given, the writer carefully 
 separating what he has actually seen himself from that received 
 secondhand. Most of the rules adopted to secure clearness in 
 orders apply equally to messages. 
 
 A report is a more or less formal account of some enterprise, 
 undertaking, or event, such as a march, reconnaissance, battle, 
 etc. A report is usually drawn up at comparative leisure, is often 
 the supplement and expansion of short messages, and thus pos- 
 sesses the value of greater detail. 
 
 In the field the maps available for general use are on a small 
 scale. Those of our own country are prepared by the Geological 
 Survey on a scale of 1:62500 (approximately 1 inch to the mile), 
 with 20-foot contours. These maps are supplemented by field 
 maps or sketches prepared from day to day. For facility in read- 
 ing, military maps are made according to a uniform system of 
 scales and contour intervals, as follows: One inch to 1 mile, V. I. 
 (Vertical Interval) 60 feet; 3 inches to 1 mile, V. I. 20 feet; 6 inches 
 to 1 mile, V. I. 10 feet; 12 inches to 1 mile, V. I. 5 feet. 
 
 As a rule, road sketches are made on a scale of 3 inches to 
 1 mile, V. I. 20 feet; position and outpost sketches, 6 inches to 1 
 mile, V. I. 10 feet. The 1-inch map is used for extended opera- 
 tions; the 12-inch map for the war game or for the discussion of 
 operations at maneuvers, and in siege operations. As sketches 
 
MILITARY INFORMATION 505 
 
 must be made rapidly, often on horseback, unnecessary conven- 
 tional signs are omitted. Sketches are useful to supplement 
 messages and to elucidate reports of campaigns and battles. 
 
 A war diary is a record of events kept in campaign by each 
 battalion and higher organization, each ammunition, supply, 
 engineer, and sanitary train. Entries are made daily and should 
 form a concise history of the military operations. A day com- 
 prises 24 hours covered by the date. Each day's record commences 
 with a march table, or statement of the operations or location of 
 the organization, including an account of weather, roads, camp, 
 health of troops, etc., and a statement of the supply of ammunition, 
 rations, and forage. This is followed by a chronological record of 
 events, including time and place of issue and receipt of orders and 
 messages, with a copy of a synopsis of contents. It is of special 
 importance that the exact hour and place at which movements are 
 begun and ended, and orders or important messages sent or 
 received, be noted. After an engagement, the war diary contains 
 a report of losses and captures and is accompanied by a sketch 
 showing the positions of the command at the most important 
 phases. Each day's record is attested by the commander or by 
 the adjutant; and, with attached copies of orders and messages 
 sent and received, is forwarded daily to the next higher com- 
 mander, who, as soon as practicable after the receipt thereof, 
 forwards the war diary direct to the War Department. Com- 
 manders of armies, or of units not components of a higher com- 
 mand, forward their war diaries direct to the War Department. 
 
 TRANSMISSION OF INFORMATION 
 
 Information is transmitted as follows: 1. By wire (tele- 
 graph, buzzer, telephone). 2. By visual signaling (flag, helio, night 
 lamp). 3. By radiotelegraph. 4. By messenger (foot, mounted, 
 cycle, motor car, flying machine). 
 
 Information over considerable distances is usually trans- 
 mitted by wire or radiotelegraph. For short distances, and when 
 other means are not available, information is carried by messenger. 
 When messages are sent by wire or radiotelegraph they are always 
 handed the operator in writing. The telephone is not as accurate 
 as the telegraph, and when used the parties concerned do the 
 talking, if practicable. All available means are utilized to facilitate 
 the transmission of information, and it is the duty of all officers 
 to assist in the transmission of orders and messages. 
 
 It is frequently advisable to send information not only to 
 the proper superior, but to neighboring troops as well. When 
 copies of messages are so sent the fact is noted upon each. In 
 
506 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 large commands information as to the situation of neighboring 
 troops is often of great importance. In such cases "information 
 officers" with messages are sent to accompany such troops. These 
 officers send to their own commanders all information of military 
 importance to them. 
 
 Messages carried by messenger are usually inclosed in 
 envelopes properly addressed. The envelope when not marked 
 "confidential" is left unsealed, so that commanders along the line 
 of march may read the contents. Upon the envelope is written 
 the name of the messenger, his time of departure, and rate of 
 speed. The latter is indicated as follows: Ordinary, rapid, or 
 urgent. Ordinary means about 5 miles an hour for a mounted 
 man; rapid, about 7 or 8 miles an hour; and urgent, the highest 
 speed consistent with certainty of arrival at destination. The 
 recipient notes the time of receipt upon the envelope and returns 
 the latter to bearer. 
 
 When there is danger of falling into the hands of the enemy, 
 messages are sent in cipher. Important information is sent by 
 two or more messengers, depending upon the dangers of the road. 
 It may be advisable to send duplicate messages by different routes. 
 Messengers are informed before starting of the purport of the 
 message, and where they are to report after it is delivered. 
 
 When the usual means of communication can not be estab- 
 lished, or fail to work, relay lines of mounted men may become 
 necessary. When such lines are established, connecting posts are 
 generally placed on the roads at well-marked points, such as 
 crossroads, bridges, etc. The distance between posts depends 
 upon the rapidity of transmission desired, the number of men avail- 
 able, and the location of suitable stations. The usual distance is 
 from 5 to 10 miles. The strength of such posts varies from six 
 men and a non-commissioned officer to half a troop. A record 
 is kept at each post of all communications received and transmitted. 
 
 SERVICE OF SECURITY 
 
 This security, embracing all those measures taken by a 
 command to protect itself from observation, annoyance, or sur- 
 prise by the enemy, is ordinarily provided in part by the inde- 
 pendent cavalry, which, operating far to the front, checks the 
 opposing cavalry and sends in timely information of the move- 
 ments of the enemy. But as a command is not always preceded 
 by independent cavalry, and as this cavalry can not always prevent 
 sudden incursions of the enemy or discover his patrols, additional 
 security becomes necessary. This is obtained by covering the 
 immediate front of the command with detachments. On the march 
 
MILITARY INFORMATION 507 
 
 these detachments are called advance, flank, or rear guard; in 
 camp or bivouac they are called outposts. The object of the 
 former is to facilitate the movement of the main body and to 
 protect it from surprise and observation; the object of the latter is 
 to secure the camp or bivouac against surprise and to prevent an 
 attack upon it before the troops can prepare to resist. 
 
 On the march these detachments facilitate the advance of 
 the main body by promptly driving off small bodies of the enemy 
 who seek to harass or delay it; by removing obstacles from the 
 line of advance; by repairing roads, bridges, etc., thus enabling 
 the main body to advance uninterruptedly in convenient marching 
 formation. They protect the main body by preventing the enemy 
 from firing into it when in close formation; by holding the enemy 
 and enabling the main body to deploy before coming under effec- 
 tive fire; by preventing its size and condition from being observed 
 by the enemy; and, in retreat, by gaining time for it to make its 
 escape or to reorganize its forces. 
 
 As the principal duty of these bodies is the same, viz., that 
 of protecting the main body, there is a general similarity in the 
 formations assumed by them. There is (1) the cavalry covering 
 the front; next (2) a group, or line of groups, in observation; then 
 (3) the support, or line of supports, whose duty is to furnish the 
 observation groups, and check the enemy pending the arrival of 
 re-enforcements; still farther in rear is (4) the reserve. 
 
 The march order of the whole command should explain the 
 situation, and among other things, detail the commander and troops 
 for each covering detachment. It should specify the route to be 
 taken and the distance to be maintained between the main body 
 and its covering detachments. It should order such reconnais- 
 sance as the commander specially desires to have made. The 
 order of the commander of a covering detachment should clearly 
 explain the situation to subordinates, assign the troops to the 
 subdivisions, prescribe their distances, and order such special 
 reconnaissance as may be deemed necessary in the beginning. 
 
 An advance or flank guard commander marches well to the 
 front and, from time to time, orders such additional reconnaissance 
 or makes such changes in his dispositions as the circumstances 
 of the case demand. In large commands troops from all arms are 
 generally detailed, the proportion from each being determined by 
 the tactical situation; but commanders detail no more troops than 
 the situation actually requires, as an excessive amount of such 
 duty rapidly impairs the efficiency of a command. As a general 
 rule troops detailed on the service of security vary in strength from 
 one-twentieth to one-third of the entire command, but seldom 
 exceed the latter. When practicable, the integrity of tactical units 
 is preserved. 
 
508 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 In mixed commands infantry usually forms the greater 
 part of the troops detailed to the service of security. Cavalry is 
 assigned to that duty whenever advantage can be taken of its 
 superior mobility. The kind and amount of artillery are deter- 
 mined by circumstances. Engineer, signal, and sanitary troops 
 are detailed when required. The field trains of troops on this duty 
 generally remain with the field train of the command, but if con- 
 ditions permit they may join their organizations. Troops on the 
 service of security pay no compliments; individuals salute when 
 they address, or are addressed by, a superior officer. 
 
 ADVANCE GUARDS 
 
 An advance guard is a detachment of the main body which 
 precedes and covers it on the march. Its duties are: 1. To guard 
 against surprise and furnish information by reconnoitering to the 
 front and flanks. 2. To push back small parties of the enemy and 
 prevent their observing, firing upon, or delaying the main body. 3. 
 To check the enemy's advance in force long enough to permit the 
 main body to prepare for action. 4. When the enemy is 
 encountered on the defensive, to seize a good position and locate 
 his lines, care being taken not to bring on a general engagement 
 unless the advance guard commander is empowered to do so. 5. 
 To remove obstacles, repair the road, and favor in every way pos- 
 sible the steady march of the column. 
 
 Strength and Composition. — Subject to variation according 
 to the situation, one-twentieth to one-third of a command may be 
 assumed as a suitable strength for the advance guard. The larger 
 the force, the larger in proportion is the advance guard, for a large 
 command takes relatively longer to prepare for action than a small 
 one. In large commands it is usually composed of all arms, the 
 proportions depending on the nature of the work, character of 
 the country, etc. In open country it should be strong in cavalry 
 and field artillery, but artillery is seldom assigned to the advance 
 guard of a command not larger than a brigade. In such cases, 
 however, when there is artillery with a command, an officer of that 
 arm usually accompanies the advance guard for purposes of 
 artillery reconnaissance. In swampy country or jungle it may be 
 formed of infantry alone. When not preceded by independent 
 cavalry, the advance guard must, as a rule, be strong in cavalry; 
 in such cases the commander determines whether to attach all of 
 the divisional cavalry to the advance guard, or to retain a part for 
 some special service. Machine guns materially increase the effec- 
 tiveness of an advance guard. They are useful in holding bridges, 
 defiles, etc., until reeforcements can be brought up. Engineers are 
 usually attached to an advance guard to remove obstacles, repair 
 
 V 
 
MILITARY INFORMATION 509 
 
 roads, etc. Circumstances may require a bridge train to be 
 attached. The supreme commander generally retains control of 
 the signal troops, and establishes such lines of information as he 
 deems necessary. However, when the nature of the country favors 
 communication by signaling, signal troops may be attached to the 
 advance guard. An ambulance company usually accompanies large 
 advance guards. 
 
 Distance from Main Body. — The distance at which the 
 advance guard precedes the main body, or the main body follows 
 the advance guard, is stated in the march order. In small com- 
 mands, where there is no difficulty in keeping touch with the main 
 body, the march order generally requires the advance guard to 
 regulate its march on the main body; but where the advance guard 
 is large, or moves at a considerable distance in advance of the 
 main body, the latter regulates its march on the advance guard. 
 While the distance between these two bodies should be great 
 enough to prevent needless interruptions in the march of the main 
 body, and to give the latter time to deploy should the enemy be 
 encountered, it should never be so great that timely support of 
 the advance guard becomes impracticable. 
 
 Advance Guard Commander. — On receipt of the march order 
 the advance guard commander estimates the situation and, at the 
 proper time, issues the advance guard order. This order divides 
 the advance guard into its tactical components (advance cavalry, 
 support, etc.), and gives the necessary instructions for each. The 
 advance guard commander is mounted and goes wherever he deems 
 his presence necessary, though his habitual station is at the head of 
 the reserve, or with the support when there is no reserve. He 
 conducts the advance so as not to interrupt the steady march of 
 the main body, and, when ordered to move at a certain distance in 
 front of the latter, maintains the necessary connection therewith. 
 He bears constantly in mind the duties of an advance guard, and 
 studies the ground with a view to tactical dispositions should the 
 enemy be encountered. 
 
 Advance Cavalry. — The advance cavalry is that part of the 
 advance guard cavalry preceding the support. It reconnoiters far 
 enough to the front and flanks to guard the column against sur- 
 prise by artillery fire, and to enable timely information to be sent 
 to the advance guard commander. If preceded by independent 
 cavalry, the advance cavalry maintains connection therewith, 
 except when prevented by uncontrollable reasons; if not preceded 
 by independent cavalry, it pushes well out and endeavors to find 
 the enemy, performing to a limited extent the functions of inde- 
 pendent cavalry. Its commander should be bold, energetic, and 
 capable; he sees that his command is supplied with articles re- 
 quired by patrols. 
 
 / 
 
510 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Support. — Following the advance cavalry is the support, 
 varying in strength from one-fourth to one-half of the advance 
 guard. In mixed commands it consists of infantry, to which 
 engineers may be attached. If there is no advance cavalry, some 
 cavalry should be attached to the support for reconnoitering duty. 
 
 As the support moves out it sends forward an advance party 
 several hundred yards, the distance varying with the terrain and 
 the size of the command. The advance party supplements the 
 work of the advance cavalry, reconnoitering to the front and 
 flanks to guard the support against surprise by effective rifle fire. 
 The patrol preceding the advance party on the line of march is 
 called the point, and is commanded by an officer or an experienced 
 non-commissioned officer. 
 
 With the advance cavalry in front but little reconnoitering 
 by infantry is necessary, and the advance party is relatively small 
 — one-eighth to one-third of the support. If there is no advance 
 cavalry, the advance party is made stronger (about one-half of the 
 support) and the flanks are guarded, if necessary, by additional 
 patrols sent out from the support and even from the reserve. 
 
 The support commander ordinarily marches with the advance 
 party, but goes wherever needed. He sees that the proper road 
 is followed; that guides are left in towns and at crossroads; that 
 necessary repairs are made to roads, bridges, etc., and that infor- 
 mation of the enemy or affecting the march is promptly transmitted 
 to the advance guard commander. He endeavors promptly to 
 verify information of the enemy. 
 
 Reserve. — The reserve follows the support at several hun- 
 dred yards distance. It consists of the remainder of the infantry 
 and engineers, the artillery, and the ambulance company. The 
 artillery usually marches near the head of the reserve, the engi- 
 neers (with bridge train, if any) and special troops at the rear. 
 
 Reconnaissance. — In conducting the reconnaissance the 
 patrols are, as a rule, small — from two to six men. If additional 
 protection is necessary, a flank guard covers the threatened flank. 
 The flanking patrols, whether of the advance cavalry or advance 
 party, are sent out to examine the country wherever the enemy 
 might be concealed. If the nature of the terrain permits, these 
 patrols march across country or along roads and trails paralleling 
 the march of the column. For cavalry patrols this is often pos- 
 sible; but with infantry patrols and even with those that are 
 mounted, reconnaissance is generally best done by sending the 
 patrols to high places along the line of march to overlook the 
 country and examine the danger points. These patrols report or 
 signal the results of their observations and, unless they have other 
 instructions, join their units by the most practicable routes, other 
 patrols being sent out as the march proceeds and as the nature of 
 
 I 
 
MILITARY INFORMATION 511 
 
 the country requires. Communication between the fractions of an 
 advance guard and between the advance guard and main body is 
 maintained by wire, messenger service, or signals. 
 
 ADVANCE GUARD OF SMALL COMMAND 
 
 In forming the advance guard of a command smaller than 
 a brigade, the foregoing distribution is modified, depending upon 
 the situation. A company or troop usually sends forward only a 
 point, a battalion or squadron, an advance party; but a battalion 
 or squadron, at war strength should put a company or troop in 
 the advance guard and a regiment should put a battalion or squad- 
 ron, if an enemy is liable to be met. Whenever the advance guard 
 is less than a battalion, there is no reserve. Cavalry marching 
 independently adopts formations for its advance guard similar to 
 those described above, though the distances are generally greater. 
 
 SECURITY FOR THE HEAD OF A RETREATING FORCE 
 
 In retreat a column is preceded by a body of troops desig- 
 nated "leading troops," whose principal duty is to clear the road 
 of obstacles and facilitate the withdrawal of the command. The 
 strength and composition of such troops are determined by the 
 situation. Engineers are generally necessary; cavalry is assigned 
 to this duty to afford protection against guerillas or small hostile 
 parties that may have succeeded in reaching the rear of the com- 
 mand. If the rear is seriously threatened, the leading troops march 
 practically as an advance guard. 
 
 FLANK GUARDS 
 
 The flanks of a column are protected in part by the advance 
 guard, which carefully examines the ground on both sides of the 
 line of march. It may be necessary, however, to provide additional 
 security for a flank threatened by the enemy. This is done by 
 sending a detachment, called a flank guard, to cover the exposed 
 flank 
 
 Flank guards vary in size from patrols to detachments of all 
 arms. Their composition and formation depend upon the situation, 
 though they are generally strong in cavalry on account of the 
 necessity for rapid reconnaissance and communication. They may 
 be composed exclusively of that arm, but when strong positions 
 are to be held, or prolonged resistance to the enemy is expected, 
 troops of all arms are necessary. Their duties are similar to those 
 
512 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 of an advance guard. They keep in constant touch with the column 
 either by wire, signal, or messenger service. 
 
 Flank guards may be sent out by an advance guard (made 
 strong for that purpose) or by the main body; they march in a 
 direction generally parallel to the column, keeping abreast of the 
 unit from which detailed, or are sent to occupy favorable positions 
 on a threatened flank, remaining there until the whole column has 
 passed. In the latter case they join the rear guard and return to 
 their commands at the end of the day's march. As a flank guard 
 usually marches a greater distance than the body from which 
 detailed, it is generally sent out in advance. 
 
 When the main body executes a flank march near the enemy, 
 the flank guard becomes a body of great importance. If the flank 
 march is due to a considerable change of direction in the march 
 of the column, it is generally advisable to convert the advance 
 guard into a flank guard, and detail a new advance guard to pre- 
 cede the column. If the troops making the flank march start from 
 camp, a separate flank guard must be provided. In long columns 
 the large units, such as regiments, will provide their own flank 
 observation. 
 
 REAR GUARDS 
 
 The rear guard is charged with the important duty of cover- 
 ing the retreat. Its strength depends upon the nature of the 
 country and the strength and character of the pursuing force. 
 It can not, like the advance guard, count on the support of the 
 main body. Machine guns are especially useful in the passage of 
 defiles and in covering the crossings of rivers. Engineers and 
 ambulance companies are usually assigned to rear guards. The 
 troops of a rear guard are selected from those that have had pre- 
 vious local successes, or have suffered little loss and are compara- 
 tively fresh. 
 
 Distribution of Troops. — The proximity and conduct of the 
 enemy control, to a large extent, the formation of a rear guard. 
 When it is not necessary to withdraw in deployed lines, the greater 
 part of the rear guard marches on the road in column of route, 
 taking up a formation resembling that of an advance guard faced 
 to the rear. The distribution of troops is therefore similar to that 
 of an advance guard. 
 
 The rear cavalry is that portion of the rear guard cavalry 
 following the support. The support, as in an advance guard, is 
 divided into two parts; that part nearer the enemy is called the 
 rear party and marches with a rear point. Mounted engineers 
 usually accompany the support and may be attached to the rear 
 party. Where the cavalry is of sufficient strength and has horse 
 
 
MILITARY INFORMATION 513 
 
 artillery attached, the entire rear guard, excepting the reserve, may- 
 be composed of that arm. The reserve is composed mainly of 
 infantry and artillery. The distances of the rear guard from the 
 main body and between the fractions of the rear guard are about 
 the same as in the case of an advance guard. If marching at night, 
 the rear guard draws nearer the main body. 
 
 If there is a possibility that the rear of the column may be 
 attacked, a rear guard of suitable strength and composition is 
 provided. If the hostile attempts are confined to guerillas, 
 marauders, etc., the guard should be strong in cavalry. Its con- 
 duct is practically the same as that of the rear guard of a retreat- 
 ing force. It generally marches in rear of the trains, those organ- 
 izations following the combatant troops without distance. 
 
 OUTPOSTS 
 
 The size and disposition of the outposts will depend upon 
 many circumstances, such as the size of the whole command, the 
 proximity of the enemy and the situation with respect to him, the 
 nature of the terrain, etc. A suitable strength may vary from a 
 very small fraction to one-third of the whole force. For a single 
 company in bivouac a few sentinels and patrols will suffice; for a 
 large command a more elaborate outpost system must be provided. 
 It should be no stronger than is consistent with reasonable secur- 
 ity. The most economical protection is furnished by keeping close 
 contact with the enemy by means of outpost patrols, in conjunc- 
 tion with resisting detachments on the avenues of approach. The 
 outpost should be composed of complete organizations. 
 
 In a brigade or smaller force on the march toward the 
 enemy, the outpost is generally formed from the advance guard, 
 and is relieved the following day when the new advance guard 
 crosses the line of outguards. In a retreat, the detail for outpost 
 duty is generally made from the main body. The new outpost 
 becomes the rear guard the following day. When, as in large 
 forces an advance and rear guard performs such duty for several 
 days, the outpost, during this period, is furnished by the advance 
 or rear guards. When the command is small and stationary for 
 several days the outpost is relieved daily. In large commands. 
 the outpost, as a rule, is relieved at intervals of several days. 
 
 The positions held by the subdivisions of the outpost should 
 generally be prepared for defense, but conditions may render this 
 unnecessary. Troops on outpost keep concealed as much as is 
 consistent with the proper performance of their duties; especially 
 do they avoid appearing on the sky line. 
 
 Composition. — A mixed outpost is composed principally of 
 
514 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 infantry. The infantry is charged with the duty of local observa- 
 tion, especially at night, and with resisting the enemy long enough 
 for the main body to prepare for action. The cavalry is charged 
 with the duty of reconnaissance, and is very useful in open country 
 during the day. If the infantry has been severely taxed by march- 
 ing or fighting, a large part of the outpost may be temporarily 
 formed of cavalry. When an outpost is detailed from the advance 
 guard, the advance cavalry of the advance guard becomes the 
 advance cavalry of the outpost and continues the work of recon- 
 naissance until recalled for the night. 
 
 Artillery is useful to outposts when its fire can sweep defiles 
 or large open spaces and when it commands positions that might 
 be occupied by hostile artillery. . The guns are carefully concealed 
 or protected and are usually withdrawn at night. Machine guns 
 are useful to command approaches and check sudden advances of 
 the enemy. Engineers are usually attached to an outpost to assist 
 in constructing intrenchments, clearing the field of fire, and opening 
 communications laterally and to the rear. The supreme com- 
 mander generally retains control of the signal troops and estab- 
 lishes a line of information to the reserve and from the reserve 
 to each support and important detached post. 
 
 It is generally unnecessary to attach any portion of the san- 
 itary train to an outpost, as the equipment of the regimental aid 
 station carried in the sanitary combat train is as a rule sufficient. 
 If necessary, dressing stations may be established by ambulance 
 companies of the sanitary train in convenient location to the rear 
 of the outpost line. The field train of troops on outpost duty 
 generally join their organizations; if an engagement is probable, 
 they may be held in rear. 
 
 Distribution of Outpost Troops. — The outpost is generally 
 divided into four parts. These, in order from the main body, are 
 the reserve, the line of supports, the line of outguards, and the 
 advance cavalry. The distances separating these parts, and their 
 distance from the main body, depends upon the object sought, the 
 nature of the terrain, and the size of the command. There can be 
 no uniformity in the distance between supports and reserve, nor 
 between outguards and supports, even in the same outpost. The 
 avenues of approach and the important features of the terrain 
 largely control their exact positions. The outpost of a small force 
 should ordinarily hold the enemy beyond effective rifle range of 
 the main body until the latter can deploy. For the same purpose 
 the outpost of a large force should hold the enemy beyond artillery 
 range. 
 
 The reserve constitutes the main body of the outpost and 
 is held at some central point from which it can readily support 
 the troops in front or hold a rallying position on which they may 
 
MILITARY INFORMATION 515 
 
 retire. It may be omitted when the outpost consists of less than 
 two companies, but usually comprises one-fourth to two-thirds of 
 the strength of the outpost. 
 
 The supports constitute a line of supporting and resisting 
 detachments, varying in size from a half company to a battalion. 
 They furnish the line of outguards, and are numbered consecu- 
 tively from right to left. They are placed at the more important 
 points on the outpost line, usually in the line on which resistance 
 is to be made in case of attack. As a general rule, roads exercise 
 the greatest influence on the location of supports, and a support 
 will generally be placed on or near a road. The section which it is 
 to cover should be clearly defined by means of tangible lines on the 
 ground and should be such that the support is centrally located 
 therein. 
 
 The outguards constitute the line of small detachments 
 farthest to the front and nearest to the enemy. For convenience 
 they are classified as pickets, sentry squads, and cossack posts, 
 and are numbered consecutively from right to left in each support. 
 
 A picket is a group consisting of two or more squads, ordi- 
 narily not exceeding half a company, posted in the line of out- 
 guards to cover a given sector. It furnishes patrols and one or 
 more sentinels, double sentinels, sentry squads, or cossack posts for 
 observation. Pickets are placed at the more important points in 
 the line of outguards, such as road forks. The strength of each 
 depends upon the number of small groups required to observe 
 properly its sector. 
 
 A sentry squad is a squad posted in observation at an 
 indicated point. It posts a double sentinel in observation, the 
 remaining men resting near by and furnishing the relief of 
 sentinels. In some cases it may be required to furnish a patrol. 
 A cossack post consists of four men. It is an observation group 
 similar to a sentry squad, but employs a single sentinel. 
 
 Sentinels are generally used singly in daytime, but at night 
 double sentinels are required in most cases. Sentinels furnished 
 by cossack posts or sentry squads are kept near their group. Those 
 furnished by pickets may be as far as 100 yards away. Every 
 sentinel should be able to communicate readily with the body to 
 which he belongs. Sentinel posts are numbered consecutively 
 from right to left in each outguard. Sentry squads and cossack 
 posts furnished by pickets are counted as sentinel posts. 
 
 By day, cavalry reconnoiters in advance of the line of 
 observation. If there is independent cavalry in front, the advance 
 cavalry maintains connection therewith and reconnoiters only 
 where necessary. At night, however, that the horses may have 
 needed rest and because the work can be better done by infantry, 
 the greater part of the cavalry is usually withdrawn in rear of 
 
516 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 the supports, generally joining the reserve, small detachments 
 being assigned to the supports for patrolling at a distance. With 
 efficient cavalry in front, the work of the infantry on the line of 
 observation is reduced to a minimum. 
 
 Instead of using outguards along the entire front of obser- 
 vation, part of this front may be covered by patrols only. These 
 should be used to cover such sections of the front as can be 
 crossed by the enemy only with difficulty and over which he is 
 not likely to attempt a crossing after dark. In daylight much of 
 the local patrolling may be dispensed with if the country can be 
 seen from the posts of the sentinels. However, patrols should 
 frequently be pushed well to the front unless the ground in that 
 direction is exceptionally open. 
 
 Patrols or sentinels must be the first troops which the enemy 
 meets, and each body in rear must have time to prepare for the 
 blow. These bodies cause as much delay as possible without 
 sacrificing themselves, and gradually retire to the line where the 
 outpost is to make its resistance. Patrols must be used to keep 
 up connection between the parts of the outpost except when, during 
 daylight, certain fractions or groups are mutually visible. After 
 dark this connection must be maintained throughout the outpost 
 except where the larger subdivisions are provided with wire com- 
 munication. 
 
 In addition to ordinary outguards, the outpost commander 
 may detail from the reserve one or more detached posts to cover 
 roads or areas not in the general line assigned to the supports. 
 In like manner the commander of the whole force may order de- 
 tached posts to be sent from the main body to cover important 
 roads or localities not included in the outpost line. The number 
 and strength of detached posts are reduced to the absolute needs 
 of the situation. 
 
 Establishing the Outpost. — The outpost is posted as quickly 
 as possible, so that the troops can the sooner obtain rest. Until 
 the leading outpost troops are able to assume their duties, tem- 
 porary protection, known as the march outpost, is furnished by 
 the nearest available troops. 
 
 The halt order of the commander, besides giving the neces- 
 sary information and assigning camp sites to the parts of the 
 command, details the troops to constitute the outpost, assigns a 
 commander therefor, designates the general line to be occupied, 
 and, when practicable, points out the position to be held in case 
 of attack. 
 
 The outpost commander, upon receipt of this order, should 
 issue the outpost order with the least practicable delay. In large 
 commands it may often be necessary to give the order from the 
 map, but usually the outpost commander must make some pre- 
 
MILITARY INFORMATION 517 
 
 liminary reconnaissance, unless he has an accurate and detailed 
 map. 
 
 The order gives such available information of the situation 
 as is necessary to the complete and proper guidance of subordin- 
 ates; designates the troops to constitute the support; assigns their 
 location and the sector each is to cover; provides for the necessary 
 detached posts; indicates any special reconnaisance that is to be 
 made; orders the location and dispostion of the reserve; disposes 
 of the train if same is ordered to join the outpost; and informs 
 subordinates where information will be sent. 
 
 Generally it is preferable for the outpost commander to give 
 verbal orders to his support commanders from some locality which 
 overlooks the terrain. The time and locality should be so selected 
 that the support commanders may join their commands and con- 
 duct them to their positions without causing unnecessary delay to 
 their troops. The reserve commander should, if possible, receive 
 his orders at the same time as the support commanders. Subor- 
 dinates to whom he gives orders separately should be informed 
 of the location of other parts of the outpost. 
 
 The supports march to their posts, using the necessary 
 covering detachments when in advance of the march outpost. A 
 support commander's order should fully explain the situation to 
 subordinates or to the entire command, if it be small. It should 
 detail the troops for the different outguards and, when necessary, 
 define the sector each is to cover. It should provide the necessary 
 sentinels at the post of support, the patrols to be sent therefrom, 
 and should arrange for the necessary intrenching. Connection 
 should be maintained with the adjoining supports and with the 
 outguards furnished by the support. 
 
 In posting his command the support commander must seek 
 to cover his sector in such manner that the enemy can not reach, 
 in dangerous numbers and unobserved, the position of the support 
 or pass by it within the sector intrusted to the support. On the 
 other hand, he must economize men on observation and patrol 
 duty, for these duties are unusually fatiguing. He must practice 
 the greatest economy of men consistent with the requirements of 
 practical security. 
 
 As soon as the posting of the support is completed, its com- 
 mander carefully inspects the dispositions and corrects defects, if 
 any, and reports the disposition of his support, including the 
 patrolling ordered, to the outpost commander. This report is 
 preferably made by means of a sketch. 
 
 Each outguard is marched by its commander to its assigned 
 station, and especially in the case of a picket, is covered by the 
 necessary patrolling to prevent surprise. Having reached the 
 position, the commander explains the situation to his men and 
 
518 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 establishes relief for each sentinel, and, if possible, for each patrol 
 to be furnished. Besides these sentinels and patrols, a picket must 
 have a sentinel at its post. The commander then posts the sen- 
 tinels and points out to them the principal features, such as towns, 
 roads, and streams, and gives their names. He gives the direction 
 and location of the enemy, if known, and of adjoining parts of 
 the outpost. 
 
 He gives to patrols the same information and the necessary 
 orders as to their routes and the frequency with which the same 
 shall be covered. Each patrol should go over its route once before 
 dark. 
 
 Every picket should maintain connection by patrols with 
 outguards on its right and left. Each commander will take pre- 
 caution to conceal his outguard and will generally strengthen his 
 position by intrenching. 
 
 Relieving the Outpost. — Evening and shortly before dawn 
 are hours of special danger. The enemy may attack late in the 
 day in order to establish himself on captured ground by intrenching 
 during the night; or he may send forward troops under cover of 
 darkness in order to make a strong attack at early dawn. Special 
 precaution is therefore taken at those hours by holding the outpost 
 in readiness, and by sending patrols in advance of the line of 
 observation. If a new outpost is to be established in the morning, 
 it should arrive at the outpost position at daybreak, thus doubling 
 the outpost strength at that hour. 
 
 Examining Posts. — An examining post is a small detach- 
 ment, under the command of an officer or a non-commissioned 
 officer, stationed at some convenient point, to examine strangers 
 and to receive bearers of flags of truce brought in by the out- 
 guards or patrols. Though the employment of examining posts is 
 not general in field operations, there are many occasions when their 
 use is important; for example: when the outguards do not speak 
 the language of the country or of the enemy; when preparations 
 are being made for a movement and strict scrutiny at the outguards 
 is ordered; at sieges, whether in attack or defense. When such 
 posts are used, strangers approaching the line of observation are 
 passed along the line to an examining post. No one except the 
 Commander is allowed to speak to persons brought to an exam- 
 ining post. Prisoners and deserters are at once sent under guard 
 to the rear. 
 
CHAPTER XIX 
 
 ARMY SIGNALING, CODES, RADIO-TELEGRAPHY 
 
 AND TRANSMISSION OF MILITARY 
 
 INFORMATION 
 
 An army fights not only with its guns, but with its brain 
 which must be kept constantly informed. In the United States 
 Army this last function, the service of military information, is 
 placed in charge of one corps, the Signal Corps of the Army, 
 which is both a staff and a line corps and trained in the duties of 
 both. Its legal functions include the duties of collecting and 
 transmitting information for the Army, by telegraph or otherwise, 
 and of devising and providing the means of so doing. 
 
 Signal troops are organized into units to construct, operate, 
 and maintain the tactical and strategical lines of information for 
 the Army. 
 
 The certain and rapid transmission of information and 
 orders from higher commanders to their subordinates, and infor- 
 mation from subordinates to their commanding officers, regardless 
 of difficulties, is the ultimate object in hostile operations, and is 
 the goal to be kept constantly in view in peace training. 
 
 The work of signal troops is a specialty, and while it is 
 first necessary that they become soldiers in the full sense of the 
 term, they must, by specialization, attain a high state of prac- 
 tical efficiency in their technical art. 
 
 To meet this requirement the personnel must be thoroughly 
 trained in all methods of signaling, and in the repair, care, and 
 operation of the instrument used. Both officers and men must 
 have a sufficient knowledge of map and ground to enable them 
 to go anywhere within the field of operations without confusion 
 or loss of time. 
 
 Unusual mobility is required of signal troops. Field units 
 must be able to cover long distances as quickly as Cavalry or 
 Field Artillery. They are often obliged to gain distance, to 
 leave a place in column, and join a command in advance by cross- 
 ing roadside ditches, making detours over difficult ground, and 
 overcoming whatever obstacles may impose themselves. Tele- 
 
520 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 graph construction units, in going back and forth during the 
 course of their work, are required to travel much farther than 
 the actual distance gained, and at the same time must keep up 
 with the march of other troops. 
 
 An additional object of instruction is to develop resource- 
 fulness, initiative, and self-reliance on the part of Signal Corps 
 men of all grades. On account of the varied conditions that are 
 encountered in handling signal troops, no hard and fast rules can 
 be laid down to cover all situations. Every problem which arises 
 in service has its own best solution, and this solution must be 
 evolved by the officer or man on the spot. 
 
 Trained troops take care of themselves and do their work 
 through the performance of a multitude of minor details without 
 worry or confusion. 'Untrained troops are overwhelmed and dis- 
 couraged by the mere details of maintaining themselves. Minute 
 attention to detail is the soul of military efficiency. 
 
 SIGNALS 
 
 Signals are ordinarily made with the right arm, but may be 
 made with the left when convenient. If the saber is in the hand, 
 the signals are made in a manner similar to that prescribed for 
 the arm. 
 
 Ordinarily, before making a signal for the execution of a 
 movement the instructor places himself where he can readily 
 be seen, and generally with his horse facing in the same direction 
 as those of the company. Attention, signaled by bugle or whistle, 
 usually precedes a signal. The signals prescribed for the differ- 
 ent movements are the Preparatory signals; for the signal of 
 execution the arm is extended vertically and then lowered quickly 
 to the side. If the movement involves a change in the direction of 
 march, the instructor moves his horse in the new direction on 
 making the preparatory signal. 
 
 The following are the usual prescribed preparatory signals: 
 
 Attention. — Extend the arm vertically and move it slowly 
 back and forth from right to left. 
 
 Forward. — Extend the arm vertically and lower it to the 
 front until horizontal. 
 
 By the Right (Left) Flank. — Extend the arm vertically and 
 lower it to the right (left) until horizontal. 
 
 Right (Left) About. — Extend the arm vertically and describe 
 slowly a large horizontal circle with the hand; then extend the 
 arm to the left (right) and describe a horizontal arc to the front 
 and right (left). 
 
 Right (Left) Oblique. — Extend the arm obliquely upward to 
 
ARMY SIGNALING 521 
 
 the right (left) and front, and then lower the arm, describing 
 a vertical circle on the right (left) side of the horse. 
 
 To Increase the Gait. — Carry the hand to the shoulder, fore- 
 arm vertical; extend the arm vertically from this position and 
 repeat several times. 
 
 To Decrease the Gait. — Hold the arm horizontally above and 
 in front of the forehead. 
 
 To indicate an increased or decreased gait for a maneuver, 
 the appropriate signal is made just after the preparatory signal 
 for the maneuver. 
 
 To Halt. — Extend the arm vertically and hold it there until 
 the signal is obeyed. 
 
 To Change Direction to the Right (Left).— Extend the arm 
 vertically; lower it to the left (right) until horizontal and describe 
 a horizontal arc to the front and right (left). 
 
 Right (Left) by Section. — Point at the right (left) section 
 and signal forward. 
 
 Right (Left) Front into Line. — Extend the arm vertically 
 and describe several large vertical circles on the right (left) side 
 of the horse. 
 
 On Right (Left) into Line. — Signal column right (left), then 
 left (right) front into line. 
 
 Sections. — Extend the arm to the front and wave it rapidly 
 horizontally. 
 
 Platoons. — Extend the arm to the front and wave it rapidly 
 vertically. 
 
 Close (Extend) Intervals. — Indicate the base section; signal 
 right (left) oblique. In forming line at close intervals from sec- 
 tion column, this signal will be given just before the prescribed 
 signals for forming line. 
 
 Right (Left) into Line. — Signal column right (left), then 
 right (left) front into line. 
 
 SIGNALS FOR MOTORIZED ORGANIZATIONS 
 
 General Preparatory or Warning Signal. — Extend either arm 
 sideward horizontally. There should be a well-defined pause 
 between the preparatory signal and that designating the move- 
 ment to be extended. 
 
 To Move Forward. — 1. Preparatory signal. 2. Sweep the 
 arm to the front in a horizontal position. 
 
 To Halt. — 1. Preparatory signal. 2. Raise the arm as nearly 
 vertical as possible. 
 
 To Park. — 1. Preparatory signal. 2. Raise the arm as nearly 
 vertical as possible and describe small horizontal circles. 
 
522 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 FIELD SIGNAL TROOPS 
 
 Field signal troops comprise those Signal Corps units per- 
 manently assigned to divisions, army corps and armies for the 
 purposes of establishing and maintaining tactical lines of informa- 
 tion and for transmitting over these lines such information as is 
 incident to operations in the field. 
 
 The basis of organization for field signal troops is the 
 field battalion, which is composed of a headquarters and a sup- 
 ply detachment, a wire company, a radio company, and an outpost 
 company. One field battalion is assigned to each division, one to 
 each army corps, and such number as necessary to each army. 
 
 Field signal troops assigned to a division are used only in 
 the presence of an enemy, real or assumed. Their use in the 
 handling of routine and administrative matters or for the con- 
 venience of the personnel of the division is unauthorized except 
 in so far as these are related to existing tactical situations. 
 
 Field signal troops assigned to army corps and armies are 
 intended to furnish a reserve for the field battalions in advance, 
 to supplement the work of the latter when necessary or desir- 
 able, and for use with separate brigades and expeditionary forces. 
 In emergency, these troops may assist telegraph troops in estab- 
 lishing and maintaining the necessary strategical lines of infor- 
 mation. 
 
 The normal use of field signal troops is to establish, main- 
 tain and operate tactical lines of information within the division. 
 Field signal troops assigned to army corps and armies normally 
 constitute a reserve and, except for the use of wagon radio sets 
 for communicating with divisions, their active employment other- 
 wise is to be regarded as exceptional. 
 
 THE WIRE COMPANY 
 
 The wire company is the field signal organization used by 
 the commander of a division for establishing and maintaining those 
 tactical lines of information which radiate from division head- 
 quarters, and which serve, in general, to connect these head- 
 quarters with the major subordinate units. Normally the wire 
 company is used to connect division headquarters with the head- 
 quarters of the various brigades within the division, with the divi- 
 sional artillery, and, in some cases, with the divisional trains. 
 Opportunity for its use in maintaining communication with the 
 divisional cavalry occurs so rarely that its employment in this 
 manner is prohibited except in emergency. 
 
 The wire company is organized into the necessary head- 
 
ARMY SIGNALING 523 
 
 quarters and company staff and two platoons of two wire sections 
 each. For drill, the company is formed as above. In the field or 
 on the march the company instrument wagon and the two reserve 
 wire carts form a third platoon under command of the supply 
 sergeant. 
 
 The organization, in detail, is as follows: 1 captain, 2 first 
 lieutenants, 1 master signal electrician, 1 first sergeant (sergeant, 
 first class), 1 supply sergeant (sergeant), 1 stable sergeant (ser- 
 geant), 1 mess sergeant (sergeant), 1 horseshoer, 1 clerk (cor- 
 poral), 2 cooks, 1 farrier (corporal), 1 saddler (corporal), 1 me- 
 chanic (corporal), 1 assistant mechanic (private, first class), 3 
 drivers (privates, first class), 1 guidon (private, first class), 2 
 buglers (privates, first class), 4 wire sections. 
 
 THE RADIO COMPANY 
 
 The radio company is used by the commander of a divi- 
 sion for maintaining communication with adjacent columns, with 
 the divisional cavalry, and in other instances when distance, the 
 character of service,, and the nature of the terrain prevent the 
 laying of wire lines. The radio company usually serves to con- 
 nect division headquarters with the divisional trains, and, pending 
 the construction of semi-permanent lines, with the radio station 
 at Army corps headquarters in rear. These radio facilities may 
 also be used to intercept messages sent by the enemy or to inter- 
 fere with the operation of his radio stations. 
 
 The radio company is organized into the necessary head- 
 quarters and company staff, two platoons of two pack radio sec- 
 tions each, and one wagon radio section. For drill the company is 
 formed, as above, the wagon radio section forming a provisional 
 platoon on the left of the company. In the field or on the march 
 the company instrument wagon forms a fourth platoon under com- 
 mand of the supply sergeant. 
 
 The organization, in detail, is as follows : 1 captain, 2 first 
 lieutenants, 1 master signal electrician, 1 first sergeant (sergeant, 
 first class), 1 supply sergeant (sergeant), 1 stable sergeant (ser- 
 geant), 1 mess sergeant (sergeant), 1 horseshoer, 1 clerk (corporal), 
 
 1 farrier (corporal), 1 saddler (corporal), 1 mechanic (corporal), 
 
 2 cooks, 1 driver (private, first class), 2 buglers (privates, first 
 class, one acting as guidon), 4 radio sections, pack, 1 radio section, 
 wheel. 
 
 THE OUTPOST COMPANY 
 
 The general function of the outpost company is to extend the 
 lines of information in the division forward of the brigade. Spe- 
 cifically, its normal function is to furnish telephone communica- 
 
524 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 tion between the infantry brigade commander and his regimental 
 commanders in combat. In addition, it may be called upon to 
 supplement the work of the other companies of the field battalion 
 wherever the same may be necessary or desirable. 
 
 Conditions of employment probably cause the frequent dis- 
 persion of the fractions of the company among the divisional units 
 for long periods of time. For this reason the personnel should 
 be inculcated with the highest possible degree of discipline and 
 should have unquestioned ability to maintain itself in the field. 
 
 The outpost company is organized into a company head- 
 quarters and three platoons. The organization, in detail, is as 
 follows: 1 captain, 4 first lieutenants, 1 master signal electrician, 1 
 first sergeant (sergeant, first class), 1 mess and supply sergeant 
 (sergeant), 1 stable non-commissioned officer and farrier (cor- 
 poral), 1 clerk (corporal), 1 horseshoer, 2 cooks, 1 saddler (cor- 
 poral), 1 driver (private, first class), 2 buglers, 1 as guidon (pri- 
 vates first class), 3 platoons (21 men each). 
 
 THE FIELD BATTALION 
 
 The headquarters of a field battalion consists of the fol- 
 lowing: 1 battalion commander (major), 1 battalion adjutant and 
 supply officer (first lieutenant), 1 sergeant major, assistant to the 
 adjutant (sergeant, first class), 1 clerk (sergeant), 1 color sergeant 
 (sergeant), 4 orderlies (privates, first class), 1 driver, for shop 
 wagon (private, first class). The supply detachment of a field 
 battalion consists of the following: 1 battalion supply sergeant 
 (sergeant, first class), 5 drivers for field train wagons (privates, 
 first class). 
 
 At ceremonies the major is 30 yards in front of his bat- 
 talion, opposite the center. On other occasions he places himself 
 where he can most readily observe and direct his battalion. The 
 commissioned staff is posted 2 yards in rear of the major; the 
 non-commissioned staff and the orderlies, similarly formed, 2 yards 
 in rear of the commissioned staff. The supply detachment is with 
 the field train. 
 
 The normal formations of the battalion are the order in 
 line and the order in section column. 
 
 In the order in line the companies of the battalion, each in 
 the order in line are formed abreast of each other in (he order, 
 from right to left, outpost company, wire company, and radio 
 company. The interval between companies is 30 yards. If the 
 battalion be formed with closed intervals, the interval between 
 companies is 15 yards. 
 
 In the order in section column the companies of the bat- 
 
ARMY SIGNALING 525 
 
 talion, each in the order in section column, follow each other 
 in the order given above. The distances between companies are 
 such as would result from the companies moving simultaneously 
 by the flank from the order in line. 
 
 TELEGRAPH SIGNAL TROOPS 
 
 Lines of information may be either strategical or tactical. 
 Strategical lines of information extend from the seat of govern- 
 ment io the several divisional headquarters in the field. All lines 
 of information connecting the division headquarters with any of 
 its component parts are tactical. Tactical lines of information 
 are handled by field signal troops; strategical lines by base line or 
 telegraph signal troops, according to circumstances. Strategical 
 lines of information are divided into two zones. 
 
 The base line or inner strategical zone comprises that 
 portion of the strategical lines of information included between 
 the seat of government and advance base or bases of armies in 
 the field. Information duties pertaining to this zone are handled 
 by base line signal troops. 
 
 The telegraph or outer strategical zone embraces that por- 
 tion of the strategical lines of information included between the 
 advance base or bases of armies in the field and the several 
 divisional headquarters. Information duties pertaining to this 
 zone are handled by telegraph signal troops. In addition, these 
 troops are designed to furnish certain administrative lines of 
 information in the shape of camp telephone systems for the larger 
 units in the field whenever circumstances render the same neces- 
 sary or advisable. 
 
 The duties of telegraph signal troops, although only equipped 
 to install and operate semi-permanent telegraph and telephone 
 lines, include the handling of every class of communication within 
 their prescribed zone. Whenever the installation or operation of 
 radio or cable systems or any other form of communication be- 
 comes necessary within the telegraph zone necessary additions to 
 the personnel and materiel of the troops are made to accomplish 
 the purpose in hand. 
 
 On advance the telegraph zone, or a portion of it, generally 
 becomes merged into the base line zone. In this case an adjust- 
 ment of the duties of base line and telegraph signal troops is 
 necessary. Provision should, if practicable, be made for this 
 beforehand, and the working of these classes of troops, each 
 within its proper zone, now included between new points on the 
 terrain, should be established as rapidly and with as little con- 
 fusion as possible. 
 
526 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 On retirement reverse conditions to the advance generally 
 obtain. A portion of the base line zone (a new telegraph zone), 
 is surrendered by the base line to the telegraph troops for oper- 
 ation and maintenance. 
 
 Telegraph signal troops, although construction units, are 
 designed to be mobile. For this reason only a limited amount of 
 construction and operation material is supplied as their equipment. 
 Their capability for construction' work is, however, unlimited, 
 provided the requisite material be furnished. Installations of this 
 kind can usually be anticipated and preparation should be made 
 beforehand, whenever practicable, to supply whatever is needed 
 at points convenient for use. 
 
 Telegraph signal troops are organized into battalions for 
 proper administration, supervision, and control. One or more 
 telegraph battalions is assigned, as a component part of army 
 corps troops. These are directly under the corps commander, 
 who assigns them such duties within their province as necessity 
 demands. 
 
 THE TELEGRAPH COMPANY 
 
 The telegraph company is the principal signal administrative 
 unit in the telegraph zone. 
 
 Its employment is in accordance with the needs of the situa- 
 tion and may be either the working of sections or platoons or the 
 entire company at isolated or on contiguous sections of line as 
 may be necessary. Whenever practicable, a dispersed company 
 should be reassembled, if only for -a short period of time, as in 
 this way company administration is facilitated and organization 
 as a whole kept intact. 
 
 The telegraph company is organized into a company head- 
 quarters and two platoons of two sections each. Two of the four 
 sections of the company are telegraph, and two telephone sections. 
 A platoon, commanded by a first lieutenant, may consist of two 
 telegraph or two telephone sections, or it may consist of one 
 telegraph and one telephone section as circumstances may war- 
 rant. 
 
 For the purpose of enhancing their mobility, telegraph com- 
 panies are equipped with motor transportation. The sections, both 
 telegraph and telephone, are organized as nearly alike as possible 
 as to transportation, materiel, and personnel, so as to allow an in- 
 terchange of duties if desirable. 
 
 The organization, in detail, is as follows: 1 captain, 2 first 
 lieutenants, 2 master signal electricians, 1 first sergeant (sergeant, 
 first class), 1 supply sergeant (sergeant), 1 mess sergeant (ser- 
 geant), 5 mechanics (1 sergeant, 4 corporals), 1 clerk (corporal), 
 
ARMY SIGNALING 527 
 
 1 horseshoer (as blacksmith), 2 cooks, 2 buglers (as messengers, 
 privates, first class), 2 motorcycle drivers (for platoon chiefs, pri- 
 vates, first class), 1 driver (for captain's inspection car, privates, 
 first class), 1 driver, truck (private, first class), 2 telegraph sec- 
 tions (22 men each), 2 telephone sections (18 men each). 
 
 THE TELEGRAPH BATTALION 
 
 The telegraph battalion is habitually assigned to duty with 
 the army corps. Its function is to maintain communication be- 
 tween the advanced base of the corps and the headquarters of the 
 several divisional units and to furnish such local telephone 
 systems for these units as may be necessary. 
 
 The telegraph battalion is composed of one battalion head- 
 quarters, one supply detachment, and two telegraph companies. In 
 detail battalion headquarters and the supply detachment is as 
 follows: 1 major, 1 adjutant (first lieutenant), 1 supply officer 
 (first lieutenant), 1 sergeant major (sergeant, first class), 1 supply 
 sergeant (sergeant), 2 drivers, field train (privates, first class), 2 
 clerks (privates, first class), 3 drivers, officers' carriages (pri- 
 vates). Total, commissioned, 3; enlisted, 9. 
 
 The formation of the telegraph battalion is wholly infor- 
 mal in nature. The major sends directions by his adjutant as 
 to the character of the formation and the position of the base com- 
 pany. The battalion is then formed accordingly and on comple- 
 tion thereof the adjutant reports to the major. 
 
 No specified maneuvers are prescribed for the telegraph 
 battalion. The major gives directions verbally or through a staff 
 officer to the captains, so as to cause the battalion to take up 
 the desired formation. 
 
 The telegraph battalion performs its functions through its 
 company, platoon, and section units. Battalion headquarters co- 
 ordinates the work of the detached units where necessary and 
 renders to them all assistance possible especially in the matter of 
 supply. 
 
 The battalion commander utilizes companies or parts of them 
 to assist others when circumstances demand. He acts as technical 
 inspector of all forms of communication established in his zone and 
 performs such administrative duties as the needs of his battalion 
 require. 
 
 BASE-LINE SIGNAL TROOPS 
 
 Base-line signal troops are those which furnish the lines 
 of information to connect commercial systems with the advanced 
 bases of armies in the field and which supplement or supplant the 
 34 
 
528 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 latter service wherever and whenever necessary. Their function 
 is broad and varied; broad in that it may extend from the theater 
 of operations to the seat of government itself; varied in that it 
 may comprise any or all forms, means and methods of transmitting I 
 information. On this account the employment of these troops, ex- [ 
 cept in a very general way, can not be stated. They are designed I 
 to furnish the most suitable means of communication necessary to 
 complete the chain or otherwise supplement or supplant commer- | 
 cial systems in maintaining uninterrupted military lines of infor- 
 mation at all times. 
 
 Base-line signal troops may operate all or any part of the 
 inner strategical zone if required to do so in performing their 
 function. The operation of these troops in the outer strategical 
 zone will probably be occasionally required due to the fact that 
 they gradually supersede telegraph signal troops in advance and 
 are replaced by them in retirement. The most usual theater of 
 operations for these troops is, however, in that portion of the 
 inner strategical zone immediately in rear of the telegraph signal 
 troops. For in such locations commercial systems are either en- 
 tirely lacking or inadequate and reasons for systems operated by 
 troops greatest. Base-line systems should not supplant regular 
 commercial systems unless the latter can not furnish satisfactory 
 service, or good military reasons exist for effecting the change. 
 
 Base-line signal troops are organized as telegraph signal 
 troops. No regular equipment is specified. Transportation, con- 
 struction and operation material, tools, and technical supplies are 
 furnished these troops as the needs of any special situation may 
 require. Base-line signal troops require a maximum of civil tech- 
 nical skill and a minimum of military training. For this reason 
 these troops will probably be recruited by organization entire 
 from commercial companies and subjected to such military training 
 as may be necessary to cause them to properly function as military 
 units. They are administered by company and battalion as in the 
 case of other signal troops. While, as a rule, these troops operate 
 dispersed, their location along well defined lines of communication J 
 render the details of administration and supply comparatively easy. 
 
 DEPOT SIGNAL TROOPS 
 
 These troops are organized into companies for service in 
 peace and into battalions for service in war. 
 
 In peace these companies are primarily formed for the pur- 
 pose of administration. The personnel performs, in general, de- 
 tached duty in connection with the installation, operation, and 
 maintainance of interor systems of communication. In so far as 
 
ARMY SIGNALING 529 
 
 applicable, they perform such duties of base line troops as exist 
 in peace time. 
 
 In war these troops are organized into battalions as ad- 
 ministrative and training units designed to keep the ranks of ac- 
 tive organizations supplied with trained personnel as the needs 
 require. Depot battalions in war should be organized on a basis 
 of one to each army corps. 
 
 The companies of depot battalions are composed as follows: 
 1 captain, 5 first lieutenants, 3 master signal electricians, 1 first 
 sergeant (sergeant, first class), 1 supply sergeant (sergeant), I 
 stable sergeant (sergeant), 1 mess sergeant (sergeant), 4 mechan- 
 ics (corporals), 2 clerks (corporals), 1 horseshoer, 1 driver (private,, 
 first class), 3 cooks, 2 buglers, 1 wire-section (14 men), 1 radio) 
 pack section (10 men), 1 radio wheel section (20 men), 1 outpost 
 platoon (21 men), 1 telegraph section (22 men), 1 telephone section 
 (18 men), 45 recruits for training. Total, 6 officers and 170 men. 
 
 The depot battalion is composed of a headquarters and sup- 
 ply detachment, as prescribed for the telegraph battalion, and two 
 depot companies. 
 
 Active and intensive training is had by classes designed to 
 qualify men to fill specific vacancies whenever requisitioned for 
 by organizations engaged in duty at the front. 
 
 THE CAMP TELEPHONE 
 
 This telephone is a portable instrument developed for use- 
 in the field for talking over field lines, testing lines, or for other 
 purposes. It is also used in connection with camp telephone and 
 small-arms target range systems. It is of local battery type. 
 
 The instrument is equipped with a 3-bar magneto, employ- 
 ing a special high-grade steel for permanent magnets, is made as 
 compact as practicable and is contained in an oak case, 4% by 7 by 
 10 inches high. The top consists of a metal hinged cover with 
 circuit diagram on inside, held rigid when closed by a spring snap, 
 which can be readily released by depressing a button. The bot- 
 tom of case is covered by a flanged piece of metal, the flange pro- 
 jecting approximately one-half inch up sides of case. The case is 
 equipped with a substantial adjustable carrying strap, each end of 
 which is fastened to case by means of hinged metal rings. 
 
 This instrument consists of a 3-bar magneto generator, stand- 
 ard ringer, induction coil, aluminum chamber for the single unit ■ 
 of tungsten battery, hook switch mechanism, and a hard rubber 
 block upon which are mounted 2 line binding posts, 3 binding posts 
 for the hand set used with the instrument, and 2 binding posts for 
 the external battery if needed. All binding posts are appropriately 
 
530 MILITARY TRAINING . 
 
 marked. The entire apparatus is mounted on a removable alumi- 
 num framework and weighs approximately 17 pounds. It may be 
 operated open or closed, as there is a suitable cord for leading out 
 the 3-conductor cord to the hand set. 
 
 The hook switch is so designed that the hook protrudes 
 through the case. When it is desired to transport the instrument 
 it is merely necessary to turn the hook inside. By this arrange- 
 ment the hook not only opens the battery circuit, but it is also 
 protected. 
 
 THE SERVICE BUZZER 
 
 This buzzer is a portable instrument issued to troops in 
 the field for use in connection with all kinds of lines of informa- 
 tion. It may be used as a telephone or for sending customary 
 Morse or International Morse code signals and for that reason it 
 is specially adapted for field use. 
 
 When it becomes impracticable to transmit messages tele- 
 phonically, due to line becoming impaired or for other reasons, 
 the usual telegraphic signals can be transmitted and are received 
 in distant telephone receivers in the form of a high-pitched hum, 
 somewhat similiar to radiotelegraphic signals. These signals have 
 been exchanged between two of these instruments after the line 
 wire has been severed, both the ends, however, being slightly 
 grounded. 
 
 The instrument may be operated with both covers closed, 
 which is highly advantageous in inclement weather. To accomplish 
 this there is a suitable opening for leading out the cords to re- 
 ceiver and transmitter, and in main cover, directly over the sending 
 key, is a round aperture which is made moisture proof by means 
 of a covering of extremely flexible pigskin. The sending key can 
 be readily operated through this flexible pigskin. 
 
 RADIO-TELEGRAPHY 
 
 If a long wire is placed vertically, and positive and negative 
 charges are alternately applied at the bottom and flow along the 
 wire, there will be near the wire alternately opposite static fields 
 due to the charges; and at the same time alternately opposite 
 magnetic fields, due to the alternating currents. The drawing 
 shows both the static and magnetic lines as seen when projected 
 on the plane below the wire where the magnetic lines are circles 
 and the static lines are straight, being radial with respect to the 
 circles. 
 
 These two fields of force changing their direction and in- 
 
ARMY SIGNALING 531 
 
 tensity with great rapidity and traveling outward from the wire in 
 the etherial medium with the velocity of light, or 186,000 miles per 
 second, are the electro-magnetic waves of radio-telegraphy. They 
 spread simultaneously radially outward and upward from the ver- 
 tical wfre or antenna as it is called. The energy of the varying 
 electric charges and currents is thus imparted to the medium, or 
 is radiated. At great distances from the transmitting antenna the 
 static lines become straight and perpendicular to the surface of 
 the earth and the magnetic lines straight and parallel to the surface. 
 These static and magnetic lines of force, moving with the 
 velocity of light, sweep across the antenna at the receiving station. 
 The vertical static lines in the wave are directed alternately upward 
 and downward and produce in the antenna moving charges of 
 alternately opposite signs; that is, an alternating current. At the 
 same time the horizontal magnetic lines are directed alternately to 
 the right and left, and when cutting across the antenna produce an 
 alternating current in it. The resultant current generated by these 
 two fields gives an alternating current in the receiving antenna 
 quite similar to that in the transmitting antenna, although of course 
 much weaker. It is these alternating currents which produce the 
 signals in the receiving apparatus. 
 
 SYSTEMS OF UNITS 
 
 Inductances and capacities are essential elements in the cir- 
 cuits for generating and detecting electromagnetic waves. Their 
 definitions and the units in which they are measured are briefly 
 given in the following paragraphs: 
 
 A condenser is said to have capacity, which may be defined 
 as its property of storing the energy of electric charges in the 
 form of an electrostatic field. 
 
 A coil is said to have inductance, which may be defined as its 
 property of storing the energy of electric currents in the form of a 
 magnetic field. 
 
 Capacity and inductance, as well as the other electrical 
 quantities, can be measured in three different systems of units, the 
 electrostatic, electromagnetic, and practical. From some points of 
 view it is unfortunate that three different systems have come into 
 use, but it is now impossible to abandon any one of them. 
 
 TRANSFORMERS 
 
 After each oscillatory discharge the charge in the condenser 
 is renewed at regular intervals by an induction coil, or alternating 
 current transformer. The former is but little used now, and will 
 
532 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 not be described here. The transformer is an apparatus for in- 
 creasing the comparatively low voltage of an alternating current 
 dynamo or generator to the high voltage necessary to cause the 
 condenser charge to jump across the spark gap. It consists of a 
 primary winding of a comparatively few turns of heavy wire, 
 wound on but insulated from a laminated iron or iron-wire core, 
 which carries the current from the alternator; a secondary winding 
 of many turns of finer wire wound in sections and welF insulated 
 from all other parts of the transformer, which delivers a smaller 
 current, but at the necessarily higher voltage, to the condenser 
 that is charged thereby. In general the transformer increases the 
 alternator of primary voltage in the same proportion as the number 
 of secondary turns is increased over the number of the primary 
 turns. The voltage of the alternator impressed on the primary of 
 •the transformer is usually 110 to 220 volts; the voltage of the sec- 
 ondary which is impressed on the condenser depends upon the size 
 of the radio set and varies between, say, 10,000 ancf 30,000 volts. 
 
 ALTERNATORS 
 
 The transformer receives its power from an alternating cur- 
 rent generator, or alternator, as it is often called, which is either 
 belt or chain driven from an engine or electric motor, or directly 
 driven by electric motor, in which case the two machines are 
 mounted on the same bedplate and the shafts connected by a 
 flexible coupling, the set being called a motor-generator set. The 
 two essential parts of an alternator from an electrical point of view 
 are the fields and the armature. A direct current is supplied to 
 the former and an alternating current is delivered by the latter. 
 
 RHEOSTAT AND REACTANCE CONTROL 
 
 In order to control the power delivered to the transformer a 
 variable resistance or rheostat is sometimes inserted in series in 
 the circuit of the alternator armature and transformer primary; in 
 other cases a variable inductance called a reactance or reactance 
 regulator is used, consisting of coils of heavy wire, with taps 
 brought out at different points, wound on a laminated iron core. 
 The rheostat and the reactance may serve a similar but not neces- 
 sarily the same purpose; thus increasing the resistance in the 
 rheostat always decreases the power delivered to the transformer, 
 and increasing the reactance may do likewise. In these cases the 
 rheostat or reactance may normally be cut out of circuit and in- 
 troduced only as needed to cut down the power, as for example, 
 when it is desired to decrease the range of a set so as not to cause 
 
ARMY SIGNALING 533 
 
 interference at a distant station or when, as required by law, a ship 
 station reduces its power as it comes within fifteen miles of a naval 
 or military station. 
 
 Increasing the reactance does not always cut down the 
 power; in fact, in some circuits of the quenched-spark type it may 
 actually increase the power delivered to the transformer, and hence 
 to the antenna, where it causes an increase in the antenna current. 
 The reason for this is that there is a combined adjustment of the 
 inductances in the transformer primary and secondary circuits and 
 of the capacity of the closed circuit condenser which is best adapted 
 for the charging of this condenser at regular intervals. In some 
 cases more inductance is required than that in the alternator arma- 
 ture, and the transformer primary, and it is then added as a re- 
 actance in the primary circuit. In other cases the inductance may 
 be added as a reactance in the secondary circuit, where evidently 
 the coil must be designed to withstand high potentials. 
 
 TRANSMITTING CONDENSERS 
 
 The functions of the condenser are, by virtue of its capacity, 
 to store the charge delivered to it by the transformer secondary 
 circuit until its potential reaches the desired value as determined 
 by the spark gap, and then to discharge through the gap and the 
 inductance. An ideal condenser would be one that was perfectly 
 insulating, could not be punctured, and showed no heating or losses 
 of any kind during charging and oscillatory discharging. 
 
 There are several different types of transmitting condensers 
 used in the Signal Corps radio stations, varying widely in capacity, 
 size, voltage, etc., from the small mica one of the field radio sets to 
 the 4^-footJars or compressed-air types in the permanent stations. 
 All types consist essentially of two conducting surfaces, as tin or 
 copper foil, separated by an insulator or dielectric, as it is often 
 called, which can withstand without puncturing the high voltage 
 required to break down the spark gap. Probably the most efficient 
 condenser is the compressed-air type, .which consists of a large 
 number of circular metal plates mounted on two sets of supports 
 with a small air space between each plate, the top plate and every 
 alternate plate being connected together as one set and the remain- 
 ing plates as the other set. 
 
 SPARK GAPS 
 
 The function of the gap is to serve as a trigger in starting 
 the oscillations and to limit the potential applied to the condensers 
 by the transformer secondary. An ideal gap would be one having 
 
534 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 an infinite resistance during the charging of the condensers and a 
 zero resistance during each wave train of the discharge. 
 
 The types of spark gaps in use differ nearly as much as 
 the other parts of the closed-circuit elements. In small-sized sets 
 the electrodes or terminals are generally made of zinc or brass, the 
 sparking surfaces being either balls of one-half inch diameter or 
 more, or else rounded surfaces. Sharp points are not used, as at 
 small separations the potential required to break down the gap is 
 too small to allow any considerable power to be used, and if the 
 gap is opened to increase the potential and power the gap resistance 
 becomes too high. As the power delivered to the transformer is 
 increased it is soon found that the discharge at the gap becomes 
 flaming in character and has a hissing sound, seeming to be more 
 like an arc than a spark, and the gap terminals become very hot. 
 
 ANTENNA 
 
 The open or radiating circuit has its own natural period of 
 oscillation expressed, as in the case of the closed circuit, in frac- 
 tions of a second. The most energy can be delivered to it from 
 the closed oscillating circuit when by adjusting the inductance or 
 capacity, or both, of the latter the oscillations in it have the same 
 frequency as in the open circuit; that is, until the two circuits are 
 in resonance. Then the strongest oscillations or the greatest cur- 
 rent will be flowing in the antenna as shown by the maximum read- 
 ing in a hot-wire ammeter. The ammeter is usually connected be- 
 tween the ground and the secondary of the oscillation transformer, 
 but may be connected between the secondary and the antenna. 
 These powerful damped high-frequency oscillations in the antenna 
 or open air circuit produce corresponding periodic disturbances 
 in the surrounding medium, which spread outward in the form of 
 electromagnetic waves. Antennae are often divided into three 
 types, depending on the way in which the wires are arranged at the 
 top, such as umbrella, inverted L, and T, where the names are suf- 
 ficiently suggestive as not to require a description. The umbrella 
 is best adapted for short stations, having a single mast or tower 
 with several acres of land around the station, and has largely been 
 used by the Signal Corps. 
 
 It is not necessary that the antenna wires be symmetrically 
 arranged around the tower, it being far more important that ad- 
 vantage be taken of the configuration of the ground and that the 
 outer ends be kept well elevated. This is shown in the plan of the 
 Signal Corps radio installation at Fairbanks, Alaska, where, on 
 account of swampy land along the river near the station, a sym- 
 metrical arrangement is practically impossible. 
 
ARMY SIGNALING S3S 
 
 ARTIFICIAL ANTENNA 
 
 In many cases it is convenient to make station tests without 
 using the actual antenna, particularly where such use would cause 
 unnecessary interference. A local circuit of a coil and condenser 
 having the same inductance and capacity as the antenna and called 
 an artificial antenna is often used, thus serving the same purpose 
 as an artificial line or cable in telegraph tests. 
 
 DETECTORS 
 
 The form of detector first used in radiotelegraphy was the 
 coherer, which permitted the signals to be received on a relay and 
 sounder. The coherer is not now used in practical work, having 
 been replaced by other more sensitive and satisfactory types of 
 detectors. 
 
 An important improvement in sensibility and certainity of 
 operation was made by the introduction of the telephone receiver 
 as the receiving instrument instead of the sounder, the dots and 
 dashes being received as short and long buzzing sounds of the same 
 audible frequency or note as that at the transmitting station. Ex- 
 periments have shown that the ear is more sensitive to notes of a 
 high pitch, as several hundred or a thousand vibrations per second, 
 the latter being given by a 500-cycle alternator, than to notes of a 
 low pitch, as 120 vibrations per second, as given by a 60-cycle 
 alternator. It has also been found easier to read a note of high 
 pitch than one of low pitch in static or other irregular disturbances. 
 These are two advantages of the high-spark frequency or high- 
 wave train frequency at the receiving station. 
 
 PORTABLE FIELD SETS 
 
 Two types of portable field sets have been issued by the 
 Signal Corps. The smaller size, known as a field radio pack set, is 
 furnished to the Organized Militia as well as to the field companies. 
 The range of these sets under normal conditions is about 25 miles 
 over land, but much greater over water. Thus one of the one-eighth 
 kilowatt sets, with a 100-foot mast, at Habana has worked with the 
 naval station at Key West, a distance of about 110 miles. 
 
 The larger size of field sets, known as a wagon set, is of 
 2-kilowatts output and is carried on a two-chest pintle wagon, one 
 chest with the engine and generator and the other with the trans- 
 mitting and the receiving apparatus. The range of these sets varies 
 from 75 to 800 miles, depending on favorable weather conditions, 
 time of day or night, character of the land between the sets, and 
 similar considerations. 
 
536 
 
 MILITARY TRAINING 
 OPERATING CHEST 
 
 In this chest is mounted the transmitting and receiving ap- 
 paratus, the diagram of which is shown. To put the chest in condi- 
 
 V 
 
 RECEIVE 
 
 ^kflltr 
 
 WIRING DIAGRAM, FIELD RADIO PACK SET, MODEL 1913 
 
 tion for sending, connect the double contact plugs of the leads 
 from the hand generator, field, antenna, and counterpoise to the 
 
ARMY SIGNALING 537 
 
 receptacles marked " Gen.," "Fid.," "A," and "C," respectively, and 
 the four variable contact clips on the leads from the condenser, 
 spark gap, antenna, and hot-wire ammeter, to the four points on the 
 flat spiral, as indicated on the diagram, making sure that the 
 counterpoise clip is at the end of the outside turn. Set the con- 
 trol switch at the "sending" or lower position. Release the indi- 
 cating needle of the ammeter by turning the small knurled screw 
 at the left-hand side of the upper binding post. When the needle 
 is free, adjust to zero position on the scale by means of the small 
 knurled screw at the right side of the upper binding post. Set the 
 variable spark-gap contact on the fifth plate, counted from the left 
 end, so as to put four gaps in circuit. Start the generator, and 
 when the proper speed is obtained the set is ready for sending. 
 
 QUENCHED-SPARK GAP 
 
 The spark gap used in this set is made up of several copper 
 disks separated by mica washers about 0.01 inch thick. Its action is 
 to allow all of the energy of the closed oscillating circuit to be 
 transferred to the open or radiating circuit in a few oscillations, 
 after which the spark is quenched and the circuit is, in effect, open. 
 The activity in the closed circuit having ceased, the open or radi- 
 ating circuit continues to oscillate at its own period, radiating 
 waves of its own wave length without any retransfer of energy 
 to the closed oscillating circuit, which continues to remain open 
 until a spark breaks down the gap again at the peak of the next 
 alternation. 
 
 RECEIVING SET 
 
 The receiving set consists of an inductively connected trans- 
 former with broadly tuned secondary circuits, galena, or other 
 similar detector, high-resistance telephones, etc., provided with the 
 necessary switches for tuning to different wave lengths. The pri- 
 mary circuit includes the antenna, primary coil, series condenser or 
 not as may be needed, and counterpoise. The antenna is con- 
 nected to the primary coil through switches which put into circuit 
 a variable number of turns, steps of 10 turns being inserted by one 
 dial switch and single turns by the other. The total number of 
 primary turns is thus the sum of the numbers on the two dials in- 
 dicated by the two switch arms, which can be varied by single turns 
 from one to the whole number in the coil. For wave lengths 
 shorter than the fundamental wave length of the antenna, a fixed 
 condenser is inserted in series with the primary coil by throwing 
 the switch near the binding post to the position " In." For the 
 longer wave lengths the switch is thrown to the other position, 
 
538 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 short-circuiting the condenser, and thus leaving only the coil in 
 circuit. The secondary circuit includes the secondary coil, detector, 
 and the stopping condenser shunting the telephones. The coil, is 
 Variable only by sections, marked " 100," " 200," etc., the smaller 
 numbers to be used as the shorter wave lengths and the larger 
 ones as the longer wave lengths. The position of the secondary 
 coil within the primary — that is, the coupling — is variable, and for 
 the sake of convenience a scale is provided so as to be able to 
 note the different adjustments. 
 
 PACKING 
 
 The set is normally packed on three mules, but in emergency 
 may be packed on two. In normal packing the first mule carries 
 the generator and six sections of the mast. The second mule 
 carries the operating chest, four sections of the mast, antenna, 
 counterpoise, accessories, bag, etc. The third mule carries the 
 tent, with tent pins and extension pieces, folded inside, four sections 
 of the mast, flag kit, lanterns, etc. In emergency packing with 
 two mules, the first mule carries the generator and 10 sections of 
 the mast, and the second the operating chest, four sections of the 
 mast, antenna, counterpoise and tent. 
 
 OSCILLATION TRANSFORMER 
 
 The oscillation transformer consists of two open spirals in- 
 ductively coupled and a third spiral which is to be used as an 
 antenna inductance for obtaining longer wave lengths. This in- 
 ductance is inserted between the oscillation transformer and the 
 antenna by transferring the long flexible lead from the open circuit 
 spiral to the inductance which is in turn connected to the oscil- 
 lation transformer by a short flexible connection. Care must be 
 taken to see that these added turns do not oppose the turns 
 of the oscillation transformer; that, is, the inside turns of one 
 should be connected to the inside turns of the other. Ordinarily 
 the antenna inductance will not be in the circuit except a few inches 
 from the lid of the chest. The wiring diagram is shown in the 
 diagram, in which the heavy wave length, and the dotted lines 
 from it to the antenna inductance and antenna are for the longer 
 waves. 
 
 The open and closed circuits of the oscillation transformer 
 are electrically joined together at their base, to which the coun- 
 terpoise is connected through the control switch and ammeter. 
 This method of construction reduces the number of movable con- 
 
ARMY SIGNALING 
 
 539 
 
540 
 
 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 tacts from four to two and also has the advantage that the out- 
 side metal rings may be handled without danger of shock. 
 
 To put the set into operation: Connect the "Gen," "Fid," 
 etc., plugs into the corresponding sockets; connecfthe short flex- 
 ible wire from the rear binding post of the closed circuit con- 
 denser to the small angle piece extending out at right angles from 
 the base of the oscillation transformer; connect the long wire at 
 the opposite end of the condenser to the primary or closed circuit 
 spiral, inserting the number of turns corresponding to the desired 
 wave length, counting the turns from the outside turn inward; 
 connect the wire from the control switch to the open circuit spiral, 
 the exact number of turns to be found later by trial. The other 
 end of the spiral is already connected to the counterpoise through 
 the antenna ammeter. 
 
 THE HELIOGRAPH. 
 
 The heliograph is an instrument designed for the purpose 
 of transmitting signals by means of the sun's rays. It consists of 1 
 sole-leather pouch with shoulder strap containing 1 sun mirror, 1 
 station mirror (enclosed in a wooden box), 1 shutter, 1 sighting 
 rod, 1 screw driver; 1 small leather case sliding by two loops upon 
 the strap of the pouch containing 1 mirror bar; 1 skeleton leather 
 case containing 2 tripods. 
 
 The mirrors are of plate glass, A l / 2 inches square. The sun 
 mirror has a paper disk covering the unsilvered spot in its center. 
 The shutter is 6^2 inches square, has six leaves, operated by a 
 key; and the key bar is provided with a stop to regulate the adjust- 
 ment. The two tripods are alike, so that the mirror bar or shutter 
 may be fitted to either, and each has a hook to which a weight 
 may be suspended for stability. 
 
 There are two ways of assembling the heliograph, and the 
 position of the sun is the guide in determining which of the two 
 should, in any given case, be employed. When the sun is in front 
 of the operator (that is, in front of a plane through his position at 
 right angles to the line joining the stations) the sun mirror only 
 is required; with the sun in rear of this plane both mirrors should 
 be used. With one mirror the rays of the sun are reflected directly 
 from the sun mirror to the distant station; with two mirrors, the 
 rays are reflected from the sun mirror to the station mirror, and 
 thence to the distant station. 
 
 THE FLASH LANTERN 
 
 The flash lantern is an instrument designed for the purpose 
 of transmitting signals by means of intermittent flashes of artificial 
 light. The flash lantern now issued is the acetylene lantern. The 
 
ARMY SIGNALING 541 
 
 complete equipment consists of the following: 1 lantern, 1 gen- 
 erator, 1 tube, rubber; 2 burners (extra), 1 cover glass (extra), 
 3 cartridges, carbide; 1 pliers, gas, pair; 1 white lead, tube; 1 screw 
 driver, 1 wooden carrying case with strap. 
 
 The lantern is made of brass. It is provided with an 
 aplanatic lens mirror. 5 inches in diameter, and with a focus of 
 about 3 inches. 
 
 The base of the lantern contains a valve operated by a tele- 
 graph key which controls the main gas supply from the generator 
 to the burner. 
 
 There is also a by-pass, with a screw adjustment, which pro- 
 vides the burner with gas enough for a continuous flame which can 
 be made too low to make a signal but ignites the gas from the main 
 supply when the key is depressed. A %-foot burner is used, which 
 produces a flame of about 35 candlepower and a projected light of 
 about 1,900 candlepower. 
 
 The generator, made of brass, is of the water-feed type. At- 
 tached to the inside of the removable top is a frame with a flexible 
 spring latch which holds the carbide cartridge. 
 
 The carbide cartridge consists of a tin-plate cylinder having 
 a circular opening in each end, and a cylinder of wire mesh con- 
 necting these openings. The can holds 5 ounces of coarse calcium 
 carbide, which fills the space outside the wire mesh. 
 
 As conditions are usually more uniform at night than in 
 the daytime, the signal lantern is probably, with the exception 
 of the searchlight, the most reliable of all means of visual signaling. 
 The advantages of this apparatus are its portability, speed of 
 operation, and comparatively great range. The principal disad- 
 vantages are due to the interference caused by rain, fog, and moon- 
 light. The speed attainable with the lantern is about the same as 
 that attainable with the heliograph. In emergency, and for dis- 
 tances not exceeding J / 2 to Y\ mile, the lantern can, on dark or 
 cloudy days, be „mployed for day signaling. These lanterns have 
 been tested up to a distance of 10 miles. 
 
 CONVENTIONAL AND PRECONCERTED SIGNALS 
 
 In applying the dot-and-dash code to rockets, bombs, small 
 arms, and cannon, use should be made of preconcerted signals, or 
 of the International Code of Signals or other conventional code 
 book. These signals are not adapted to general use with the dot- 
 and-dash code. 
 
 Throughout, red may indicate a dot, white or green a dash. 
 In cases where the colors of signals are not visible as may be the 
 case in the use of the Very pistol by day, one may indicate a dot, 
 two fired simultaneously, a dash. 
 
542 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 The receiving station should promptly acknowledge receipt 
 of each message. 
 
 When a line of several stations is established, care should 
 be taken that each station is supplied with copies of instructions 
 and codes exactly alike. 
 
 Coston lights are made of a slow-burning composition and 
 are usually held in a socket and displayed by hand. 
 
 Rockets used by the Army are of two kinds, viz., sequence 
 rockets, showing red and white stars, and yellow-smoke rockets. 
 With the sequence rockets there is included a dummy element. 
 These rockets are packed in water-tight cases and are plainly 
 labeled. Each star burns from four to six seconds, and there is 
 a slight interval between the visibility of each two stars. Between 
 two or more stars of the same color, as, for instance, those indicat- 
 ing the letters O, S, dummies, which show no light and carry the 
 fire to the next star to be ignited, are inserted. The letter H can 
 not be signalled by this method. 
 
 Bombs used by the Army are of two kinds, white or red for 
 night use and smoke bombs for day use. They, like rocket signals, 
 are not adapted for general use with the dot-and-dash code, but 
 should be used with preconcerted signals, or to indicate letters of 
 the International Code of Signals or other conventional code book. 
 Like rockets for night signaling, the red bomb indicates a dot, the 
 white a dash. 
 
 The Very pistol is a breech-loading, single-shot pistol, with 
 an 8-inch steel barrel chambered to receive a 12-gauge commercial 
 shotgun shell. Brass shells are used, and are packed in boxes 
 colored to indicate an element of any alphabet or any special signal 
 which may be desired. The stars rise to a height of about 200 feet 
 and remain visible for some time. The Very pistol projects red, 
 white, and green stars for use at night and the streamer of smoke 
 for use in daytime. The stars can readily be seen several miles at 
 night, and the smoke streamer can be picked up by glasses for over 
 a mile in daytime. In making a signal the stars are projected 
 deliberately, one by one, from the first to the last, without regard 
 to time intervals. It is desirable, however, that the stars should 
 be projected vertically or so as to fall in the direction of the 
 receiver of the message, and that they should appear without very 
 unequal intervals between them; at the same time, through some 
 unforeseen cause, a long interval may elapse between two stars of 
 a message, but no account of this shall be taken unless the 
 interval is prolonged to about a minute. A star may be broken by 
 the shock of discharge and show several stars of the same color 
 in the air. This is recorded as one star. When, after waiting 
 about one minute, the receiver of the signals sees no more signal 
 stars, he considers the signal finished. 
 
ARMY SIGNALING 543 
 
 SOUND SIGNALS 
 
 Sound signals made by the whistle, foghorn, bugle, trumpet, 
 and drum may well be used in a fog, mist, falling snow, or at night. 
 They may be used with the dot-and-dash code. In applying the 
 General Service Code tq whistle, foghorn, bugle, or trumpet, one 
 short blast indicates a dot and one long blast a dash. With the 
 drum, one tap indicates a dot and two taps in rapid succession a 
 dash. Although these signals can be used with a dot-and-dash 
 code, they should be so used in connection with a preconcerted 
 or conventional code. With small arms, field, siege, or seacoast 
 guns, one shot may indicate a dot, two shots a dash; but in this 
 case the signals are not adapted to the general use of a dot-and- 
 dash 'code, but should be employed in connection with a precon- 
 certed or conventional code. 
 
 Emergency signals are designed to call attention of persons 
 within their radius, and all such persons should pay instant heed 
 to them. They may indicate distress; ask assistance; give a general 
 alarm in case of riot, attack, flood, or conflagration, or may be used 
 for other urgent reasons. Their purpose and meaning should be 
 designated beforehand. When authorized, information regarding 
 their meaning and use must be given to troops and other persons 
 entitled to receive or send these signals and to all those who should 
 be familiar with their meaning. 
 
 The general attention or emergency call for use on cable or 
 land telegraph lines is the numeral "9." It will be sent out only 
 by proper authority and will have its meaning clearly under- 
 stood. Upon hearing the call, all operators will give way, but they 
 will remain at their instruments until relieved. They will not cut 
 in unless called. The numeral "9" as an emergency call may be 
 used in anticipation of attack or riot; or it may be used to indicate a 
 conflagration or other danger and should be used only in case of 
 need. This signal is of great importance and should be thoroughly 
 understood by all cable and telegraph operators. It should be 
 conspicuously posted with appropriate instructions as to its mean- 
 ing and use in all cable and telegraph stations. 
 
 The radio distress signal for use at sea is the international 
 signal SOS. It is a universal signal and is of paramount impor- 
 tance. Its meaning should be thoroughly understood by all radio 
 operators, and should be conspicuously posted with appropriate 
 instructions in all radio stations of the Army whether on ship or 
 ashore. The operator of any Army radio station aboard ship, upon 
 receiving an SOS signal, immediately ascertains the exact position, 
 in latitude and longitude, of the vessel sending the signal. When 
 this information has been received, the operator immediately has 
 
544 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 the same delivered to the officer in charge of the ship, who takes 
 the necessary action. 
 
 The signal of distress on Army transports is, either together 
 or separately, as follows: 
 
 In the daytime, — First. A gun or other explosive signal 
 fired at intervals of about one minute. Second. The International 
 Code signal of distress indicated by NC. Third. The distance 
 signal, consisting of a square flag having -either above or below it 
 a ball or anything resembling a ball. Fourth. A continuous sound- 
 ing with any fog-signal apparatus. At night. — First. A gun or other 
 explosive signal fired at intervals of about one minute. Second. 
 Flames on the vessel (as from a burning tar barrel, oil barrel, etc.). 
 Third. Rockets Or shells throwing standard Army transport night 
 signals, fired one at a time, at short intervals. Fourth. A continuous 
 whistle, call of bugle or trumpet, or tap of drum. These signals, 
 require no answer, but any station hearing or seeing them snould 
 make every effort to assist the ship in distress. On Army trans- 
 ports the fire signal is the continuous and rapid ringing of the 
 ship's bell for a period of not less- than 20 seconds, and this sig- 
 nal is not used for any other purpose whatsoever. An emergency 
 or alarm signal, indicating the approach of danger from rocks, 
 shoal water, collision, etc., is made by the rapid and continuous 
 short blasts of the whistle. These signals apply, so far as prac- 
 ticable, to all vessels under the control of the War Department, 
 both in peace and war. 
 
 A general attention or alarm signal, indicating attack, riot, 
 conflagration, or other emergency, is made by sound signals, when 
 authorized as previously indicated, by one discharge of a cannon, 
 rifle, pistol, or smoke bomb by day, followed by a smoke rocket 
 at half-minute intervals. At night, by one discharge of cannon, 
 small arm, or light bomb, followed by a red rocket at half-minute 
 intervals. This signal requires no answer. Used as an emergency 
 signal it will serve to call all troops to attention, and should be 
 followed by a preconcerted signal to indicate the character of the 
 alarm given or to communicate instructions. As an instance, a 
 smoke bomb followed by a rocket is a call to attention and will 
 indicate riot or attack, upon receiving which all troops will fall 
 into ranks under arms. Should the first rocket be followed by a 
 second, the signal will indicate a conflagration or other danger, 
 and all troops noting it will fall into ranks prepared to fight fire or 
 to meet other danger (such as flood). If no bombs or rockets are 
 at hand at the camp or station for use with sound signals of this 
 character, a general-alarm signal will be made by a rapid discharge 
 of shots. None of these signals requires an answer. 
 
 With the national flag the distress signal, universally under- 
 stood, is made by flying the ensign union down. 
 
ARMY SIGNALING 545 
 
 General attention, distress, or alarm signals may be made 
 by rapidly repeated strokes of the bell, blasts of foghorn or 
 whistle, call of bugle or trumpet, or tap of drum. These signals, 
 explained beforehand and thoroughly understood, require no 
 acknowledgment, but should be acted upon immediately. In addi- 
 tion to the dot and dash signals, the bugle, the trumpet, and the 
 whistle may be used for signaling as in the Drill and Field Service 
 Regulations of the Army. The long roll of the drum is recognized 
 as an emergency signal. When used in the Army it is a general- 
 alarm signal and requires all troops to fall into ranks. 
 
 The red star made and repeated with the Very pistol in 
 quick succession as a call, without the rocket, is a signal of distress 
 or alarm, indicating attack, shipwreck, man overboard, fire, or 
 other emergency. It must be answered by all stations receiving 
 the signal and requires immediate and proper attention. It is 
 well adapted for use at seacoast stations or on transports. 
 
 No preconcerted emergency signals are prescribed for use 
 with visual signals other than pyrotechnics. 
 
 GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR ARMY SIGNALING 
 
 Each signal station has its call, consisting of one or two 
 letters, as Washington, "W"; and each operator or signalist also 
 has his personal signal of one or two letters, as Jones, " Jo." 
 These being once adopted are not changed without due authority. 
 
 To lessen liability of error, numerals which occur in the 
 body of a message should be spelled out. 
 
 In receiving a message the man at the telescope should call 
 out each letter as received, and not wait for the completion of a 
 word. A record of the date and time of the receipt or transmission 
 of every message must be kept. The duplicate manuscript of 
 messages received at, or the original sent from, a station should 
 be carefully filed. 
 
 In receiving messages nothing should be taken for granted, 
 and nothing considered as seen until it has been positively and 
 clearly in view. Do not anticipate what will follow from signals 
 already given. Watch the communicating station until the last 
 signals are made, and be very certain that the signal for the end 
 of the message has been given. 
 
 Every address must contain at least two words and should 
 be sufficient to secure delivery. All that the sender writes for 
 transmission after the word " To " is counted. Whenever more 
 than one signature is attached to a message count all initials and 
 names as a part of the message. 
 
 Dictionary words, initial letters, surnames of persons, names 
 of cities, towns, villages, States, and Territories, or names of the 
 
546 
 
 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Canadian Provinces are counted each as one word; e. g., New York, 
 District of Columbia, East St. Louis should each be counted as one 
 word. The abbreviation of the names of cities, towns, villages, 
 States, Territories, and provinces is counted the same as if written 
 in full. 
 
 Abbreviations of weights and measures in common use, 
 figures, decimal points, bars of division, and in ordinal numbers 
 the affixes " st," " d," " nd," " rd," and " th " are each counted as 
 one word. Letters and groups of letters, when such groups do not 
 form dictionary words and are not combinations of dictionary 
 words are counted at the rate of five letters or fraction of five 
 letters to a word. When such groups are made up of combinations 
 of dictionary words, each dictionary word so used is counted. 
 
 No message is considered sent until its receipt has been 
 acknowledged by the receiving station. 
 
 THE AMERICAN MORSE CODE 
 
 The American Morse Code is used officially by the Army in 
 the operation of land telegraph lines, short cables, and field tele- 
 graph lines. It is written as follows: 
 
 Alphabet 
 
 F 
 
 • warn • 
 
 
 
 v 
 
 Y 
 
 • • • 
 
ARMY SIGNALING 547 
 
 Numerals 
 1 5 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 • • • ■ 
 
 4 
 
 Punctuation 
 
 Period • • "■ ■■■ • • 
 
 Comma • ■" • ^ m 
 
 Interrogation :..... ^™ • • ^™ • 
 
 Hyphen .(HX) •••• *mh«« 
 
 Dash : (DX) — •• • — •• 
 
 Farentheses (begin) (PN) • • • • • — • 
 
 Parentheses (end) (PY) ••••• •• •• 
 
 Quotation marks (begin) (ON) • • "■ • ■" • 
 
 Quotation marks (end) (QJ) • • "™ • ■■ • ■■■ • 
 
 Dollar mark (SX) • • • • ^ • • 
 
 Decimal point Spell "dot." 
 
 Capitalized letter (CX) • • • • ^ • • 
 
 Brackets (BX) —■ • • • • — • • 
 
 Colon (KO) — • — • • 
 
 Semicolon (SI) ••• •• 
 
 Underline (begin) (UX) • • »■ • "■ • • 
 
 Underline (end) (UJ) • • — — • — • 
 
 Colon dash (KX) — • — • — • • 
 
 Colon followed by quotation (KQ) ^ • — • • ^ • 
 
 Exclamation point (!) ^^^ • 
 
 Fraction bar (/) • 
 
 Paragraph mark ( ^ ) —■ ^ ■■ ^ 
 
 Pounds, sterling (£) (PX) • • • • • • —■ • • 
 
 Shilling mark (UT) • • — — 
 
 Abbreviations 
 
 af . . '. after nite night 
 
 ahr another nl night letter 
 
 b be npr night press rate 
 
 bf before ob official business 
 
 bn been pd paid 
 
 ck check r are 
 
 en can t the 
 
 da day u you 
 
 dl day letter ur your 
 
 dpr day press rate w with 
 
 f m from wrd word 
 
 gn good-night x (in check) get a reply to 
 
 govt government this message 
 
 hr hear or here 5 Have you any- 
 
 hv have thing for me? 
 
 msg message 13 understand 
 
548 
 
 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 The following conventional signals are used on military 
 telegraph lines, short cables, and field lines: 
 
 Attention, all operators (9) 
 
 Please start me (or) where shall I start (4) 
 
 Wait a moment (MIN) 
 
 Official message (OFM ) 
 
 I understand (OK) 
 
 Busy on other wires (25) 
 
 No more (NM) 
 
 Test, give away (Wl RE) 
 
 Break 
 
 
 (BK) 
 
 Go ahead (GA) 
 
 Error (D N ) 
 
 Signature follows (SIG) 
 
 CONTINENTAL CODE 
 
 The Continental Code is generally used in the operation of the 
 wireless. Its alphabet is written as follows: 
 
 B 
 • • • 
 
 Alphabet 
 
 M 
 
 V 
 
 • • • i 
 
 w 
 
 F 
 
 H 
 • • • 
 
ARMY SIGNALING 543 
 
 Numerals 
 
 4 8 
 
 Punctuation 
 
 Wait 
 
 Understand 
 
 Don't understand. 
 
 Period 
 
 Interrogation 
 
 Exclamation 
 
 Call 
 
 Finish 
 
 or 
 
 TRANSMISSION OF FIELD MESSAGES BY AMERICAN 
 
 MORSE 
 
 The sending operator enters the time when the message is 
 handed him for transmission, in the left-hand corner at the bottom 
 of the blank opposite the word " Received." He enters in the 
 proper places, at the head of the blank, the number of the mes- 
 sage, the call letter of his station, with his personal signal, the 
 check (number of words or groups of cipher contained in message, 
 counting address and signature), and after " O. K." has been re- 
 ceived he enters the time the message was sent and the call 
 letter of the receiving station, with the personal signal of the 
 receiving operator. 
 
 To transmit a message the operator sends (1) the number 
 of the message and call letter of his station; (2) his personal 
 signal; (3) the check; (4) " fm," followed by the name of the 
 sending detachment; (5) "at," followed by the location of the 
 sending detachment and date; (6) "ho," followed by the hour 
 (a. m. or p. m.) message was written; "No." (Sender's serial 
 number); (7) "to," followed by the address in full; (8) period 
 (..——..), (9) body or text of the message; (10) " sig," fol- 
 lowed by the signature of the message. 
 
550 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 THE INTERNATIONAL MORSE OR GENERAL SERVICE 
 
 CODE 
 
 The International Morse Code is the General Service Code 
 and is prescribed for use by the Army of the United States and 
 between the Army and the Navy of the United States. It is used 
 on radio systems, submarine cables using siphon recorders, and 
 with the heliograph, flash-lantern, and all visual signaling apparatus 
 using the wig-wag. 
 
 Alphabet 
 A J S 
 
 B 
 • • • 
 
 
 • • mm • 
 
 • • • 
 
 JC L U 
 
 • «■■ • • • • 
 
 D M V 
 
 ■ • • ■■«■ . . . . 
 
 N W 
 
 FOX 
 
 • • i 
 
 Y 
 
 H Q Z 
 
 • • • • ■^^■•M^ ■■■■■■ 
 
 I R 
 
 • • • ■» • 
 
 Numerals 
 1 4 8 
 
 2 5 9 
 
 
ARMY SIGNALING 551 
 
 Punctuation 
 
 Period •• •• •• 
 
 Comma • ■— • — ■ • — 
 
 Interrogation • • —■— • • 
 
 Hyphen or dash ■— • • • • — 
 
 Parentheses (before and after the words) ■— •■—■—• — 
 
 Quotation mark (beginning and ending) • ■— • • ^ • 
 
 Exclamation ^ ■— • • ■— ■ — ■ 
 
 Apostrophe • ^— ■—■ — • 
 
 Semicolon i» • — ■ ° — • 
 
 Colon ■■ ^ ■■■ • • • 
 
 Bar indicating fraction ■" • • ^ • 
 
 Underline (before and after the word or words it is wished to underline) • • ■" ■" • *m 
 Double dash (between preamble and address, between address and 
 body of message, between body of message and signature, and 
 
 immediately before a fraction) ■— • • • ■" 
 
 Cross • «■ • ■" • 
 
 CONVENTIONAL SIGNALS FOR USE BY RADIO STA- 
 TIONS WITH THE INTERNATIONAL MORSE CODE 
 
 The following conventional signals are used by radio sta- 
 tions of the United States Army with the International Morse 
 Code: 
 
 Distress signal (ship stations only) • • «^^^» • • 
 
 Attention (or call) The call is composed of the attention signal 
 
 ^ • ^ • ^ followed by the call letters of 
 the station called repeated three times (if 
 unknown, use CQ (•■ • ■»• ^^«^) 
 in place of call letters of station called), 
 followed by DE(— • • •) and then the 
 call letters of the calling station, repeated 
 three times. 
 
 Have you anything for me QRU(— — •— «^» • • — ) 
 
 How many words have you to send QRJ(—™"»^ I"™" 9mmm ^ mm } 
 
 Invitation to transmit (go ahead) «■ • ■■» 
 
 Signal separating preamble from address, 
 address from text, and text from sig- 
 nature ■•■ • • • — 
 
 End of message • ■■■•»■• 
 
 End of work •••■«• ^, followed by the call letter of 
 
 sending station and "■ • ■■■ 
 
 Received (acknowledgment of receipt of 
 
 message) R ( • ■"■ • ), followed by the call letter of the 
 
 receiving station and personal signal of the 
 receiving operator. 
 
 Here is another message — ■ • — • «■ (attention call). 
 
 Understood (or I understand) • • •^•, followed by the call letters of 
 
 station. 
 
 Not understood (or repeat) • • ^^ • • (Interrogatory) and the last 
 
 word received. 
 
552 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Error • • • • • • • • 
 
 Wait • »— • • • 
 
 Official message OFM (—■■■■■■■ • • — ■ • —■■— ) 
 
 (First wordof preamble on all radiograms) RADIO ( • ■" • • ■» ■— • • •• 
 
 Faster QRQ(— — •— • — • ——.*_) 
 
 Slower QRS( — — .— • — • •••) 
 
 Stop sending QRT(««-i • — • — ) 
 
 Interference XX (■" • • «■ ^ • • «■■) 
 
 Use International Code of Signals PRB ( • ■— — • • — ■ • ■■■•••) 
 
 General inquiry call (when call of sta- 
 tion is not known) CQ (— • — • — «■ • — ) (see attention 
 
 call). 
 
 How do you receive me QRK («™^ • ■>■ • ■■■ • ■" • ■") 
 
 VISUAL SIGNALING IN GENERAL 
 
 Methods of visual signaling are divided as follows: (a) By 
 flag, torch, hand lantern, or beam of searchlight (without shutter). 
 (General Service Code.) (b) By heliograph, flash lantern, or 
 searchlight (with shutter). (General Service Code.) (c) By Ardois. 
 (General Service Code.) (d) By hand flags or by stationary sema- 
 phore. (Two-arm semaphore Code.) (e) By preconcerted signals 
 with Coston lights, rockets, bombs, Very pistols, small arms, guns, 
 etc. (f) By flag signals by permanent hoists. (International Code.) 
 
 In order to differentiate these signals from important battle 
 signals, the Navy uses certain distinguishing variations which are 
 not necessary in signaling in the Army. In making the conven- 
 tional signals for " A," Error, and " O," Interrogatory, in Ardois, 
 the Navy indicates them by pulsating the upper light, in making 
 them in semaphore, by agitating the arms or flags. " K," Nega- 
 tive; " L," Preparatory; " N," Annulling; " O," Interrogatory; and 
 " P," Affirmative, in the Navy are secondary meanings, and are 
 used only in connection with Navy Code Books. They should 
 not be used in communication between the Army and Navy. 
 
 In communicating with the Navy, by all methods, numerals 
 are spelled out. 
 
 VISUAL SIGNALING: BY FLAG, TORCH, ETC. (WITHOUT 
 
 SHUTTER) 
 
 For the flag used with the General Service Code there are 
 three motions and one position. The position is with the flag 
 held vertically, the signalman facing directly toward the station 
 with which it is desired to communicate. The first motion (the 
 dot) is to the right of the sender, and will embrace an arc of 90°, 
 starting with the vertical and returning to it, and will be made in a 
 plane at right angles to the line connecting the two stations. The 
 
ARMY SIGNALING 553 
 
 second motion (the dash) is a similar motion to the left of the 
 sender. The third motion (front) is downward directly in front of 
 the sender and instantly returned upward to the first position. 
 Front is used to indicate an interval. 
 
 The beam of the searchlight, though ordinarily used with the 
 shutter like the heliograph, may be used for long-distance signaling, 
 when no shutter is suitable or available, in a similar manner to the 
 flag or torch, the first position being a vertical one. A movement 
 of the beam 90° to the right of the sender indicates a dot, a sim- 
 ilar movement to the left indicates a dash; the beam is lowered 
 vertically for front. 
 
 To use the torch or hand lantern, a footlight must be em- 
 ployed as a point of reference to the motion. The lantern is most 
 conveniently swung out upward to the right of the footlight for a 
 dot, to the left for a dash, and raised vertically for front. 
 
 SIGNALING WITH HELIOGRAPH, FLASH LANTERN, 
 OR SEARCHLIGHT (WITH SHUTTER) 
 
 The first position is to turn a steady flash on the receiving 
 station. The signals are made by short and long flashes. Use a 
 short flash for dot and a long steady flash for dash. The elements 
 of a letter should be slightly longer than in sound signals. 
 
 To call a station make its call letter until acknowledged. 
 If the call letter of a station be unknown, signal A until ac- 
 knowledged. Each station then turns on a steady flash and 
 adjust. When the adjustment is satisfactory to the called station, 
 it cuts off its flash, and the calling station proceeds with its mes- 
 sage. 
 
 If the receiver sees that the sender's mirror or light needs 
 adjustment, he turns on a steady flash until answered by a steady 
 flash. When the adjustment is satisfactory, the receiver cuts off 
 his flash and the sender resumes his message. To break the send- 
 ing station for other purposes, turn on a steady flash. 
 
 It may be noted that in the daytime and in ordinary weather 
 the searchlight with shutter can be readily used for distances up to 
 10 miles at sea. This method of day signaling is considered of ex- 
 ceptional value by the Navy, and is commonly used by the Coast 
 Artillery in target practice from the shore to the tug towing the 
 target. It is independent of background and may be used behind 
 armor or other shelter; it should be frequently used for signaling 
 by day as well as by night. 
 
 THE ARDOIS SYSTEM 
 
 The Ardois system employed in the United States Army, and 
 Navy, is a display of four lights, each of which may be made either 
 
554 
 
 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 ERROR 
 
 NEGATIVE 
 
 PREPARATORY 
 
 H 
 
 M 
 
 ANNULLING 
 
 N 
 
 INTERROGATORY 
 
 TWO-ARM SEMAPHORE CODE WITH HAND FLAGS. 
 
ARMY SIGNALING 
 
 555 
 
 AFFIRMATIVE 
 
 
 ATTENTION 
 
 ACKNOWLEDGE 
 
 cr 
 
 u 
 
 w 
 
 SIGNALS (FOLLOW) 
 
 LETTERS (FOLLOW) 
 
 > 
 
 INTERVAL 
 
 TWO-ARM SEMAPHORE CODE WITH HAND FLAGS. 
 
556 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 red or white. These lights are incandescent lamps, operated by 
 a keyboard conveniently placed at the station. The red light in- 
 dicates a dot and the white light a dash, so that the characters of 
 the General Service Code are made by combinations of red and 
 white lights. 
 
 If the lights are arranged vertically, as when swung from a 
 staff or spar, they are read from the top downward. If the lights 
 are placed horizontally, they are read from the sender's right to 
 his left. Example: Red-white, or dot-dash, represents the letter A; 
 and white-red-red-red, or dash-dot-dot-dot, represents the letter B. 
 
 For numerals in the Ardois system, secondary meanings (as 
 numerals) have been assigned to the last ten letters, Q being 1, R 
 being 2,, and so on, Z being 0. These secondary meanings are not 
 used in communicating with the Navy; when communicating with 
 the Navy the numerals of the International Morse Code must be 
 spelled out in full. 
 
 When the letters of the alphabet are to be used to indicate 
 the meaning set opposite to them in the following tabulation, the 
 upper light of the display is pulsated. This is effected by means 
 of a special pulsating key. 
 
 In signaling by the Ardois system the Cornet, WWWW, is 
 a general call to attention. A station desiring to exchange signals 
 will display the call letters of the station wanted, which will be 
 answered by a similar display from the station called, or from each 
 station successively called. If the call letters of a station be un- 
 known, display the Cornet. The calls having been answered, pro- 
 ceed with the message, or if a special or preconcerted code is to be 
 used, so indicate, and when answered proceed with the message. 
 If it becomes necessary to put a signal message into cipher the 
 marking of the Ardois keyboard is on no account to be changed 
 to accomplish this object. 
 
 SIGNALING BY TWO-ARM SEMAPHORE 
 
 When the machine or stationary semaphore is employed a 
 third arm or " indicator " is displayed on the right of the sender, 
 the left as viewed by the receiver. At night a red light screened 
 to the rear indicates the direction of sending. 
 
 The machine is mounted at some point so situated that it 
 may be seen through the greatest arc of the horizon. By means 
 of electric lights installed on the vanes, the machine is made 
 available for night as well as for day signaling. The vanes of the 
 semaphore machine are painted yellow. 
 
 Signaling by the two-arm semaphore is the most rapid 
 method of sendang spelled-out messages. It is, however,, very 
 
 
ARMY SIGNALING 557 
 
 liable to error if the motions are slurred over or run together in an 
 attempt to make speed. Both arms should move rapidly and 
 simultaneously, but there should be a perceptible pause at the end 
 of each letter before making the movements for the next letter. 
 Rapidity is secondary to accuracy. 
 
 In making D, J, K, P, T, and V, the arm in the vertical 
 position should be brought exactly in front of the body by carry- 
 ing the shoulder in almost under the chin, twisting the elbow in 
 until it is directly before the eyes, and the forearm held in the 
 vertical position with the palm to the rear. When so done there 
 is no possibility of this position being mistaken for any other. 
 D may be made with either hand. 
 
 The " interval " is the machine closed, but with the indicator 
 showing; " double interval " is the " chop-chop " signal made twice, 
 both arms being placed at the right horizontal and then moved 
 up and down in a cutting motion, the indicator being displayed. 
 The " triple interval " is indicated by the " chop-chop " signal 
 made three times. 
 
 Hand Flags 
 
 Hand flags are authorized for general use by the Army, 
 though on account of their small range they are of limited appli- 
 cation, and are chiefly serviceable for use within organizations, 
 within fixed positions, or for incidental signaling. The range with 
 flags of the usual size is of course dependent upon light and back- 
 ground, but it is seldom more than one mile with the naked eye. 
 This system of signaling has been highly developed in the Navy, 
 and on account of its rapidity and simplicity is of use to the Army 
 and should be familiar to all soldiers. It is limited to visual signal- 
 ing work and not adapted to general signaling as is the General 
 Service Code. It is found useful under many circumstances and 
 is adapted to special work when rapid communication for short 
 distances is needed. This method is also used to advantage for 
 interior signaling within batteries of the field artillery and regi- 
 ments of infantry, and is, at times,, convenient for the cavalry. 
 
 The semaphore hand flags for service use, except those now 
 temporarily issued to the field and the coast artillery, are 18 inches 
 square divided diagonally into two parts, one of red and the other 
 white; the staffs are 24 inches long. For the field and the coast 
 artillery there is issued a semaphore hand flag of orange with a 
 scarlet center and scarlet with an orange center, one of each con- 
 stituting a kit. The flags are 18 inches square, the centers 9 
 inches square, and the staffs 24 inches long. The hand flags of the 
 Navy are from 12 to 15 inches square, of blue with a white square, 
 
558 
 
 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 or red and yellow diagonally, the colors to be used depending 
 upon the background. The flags are usually attached to a light 
 wooden staff about 2 feet in length. 
 
 Hand flags are used in the same manner as the semaphore 
 machine, except that in making the interval the flags are crossed 
 downward in front of the body (just above the knees); the double 
 interval is the " chop-chop " signal made twice, The triple in- 
 
 SIGNAL CORPS FOUR-FOOT FLAGS 
 
 SEMAPHORE HAND FLAGS 
 
 
 terval is " chop-chop " signal made three times. In calling a 
 station face it squarely and make its call. If there is no immediate 
 reply wave the flags over the head to attract attention, making 
 the call at frequent intervals. When the sender makes " end of 
 message " the receiver, if message is understood, extends the flags 
 horizontally and waves them until the sender does the same, when 
 both leave their stations. Care must be taken with hand flags to 
 hold the staffs so as to form a prolongation of the arms. 
 
ARMY SIGNALING 
 
 559 
 
 LETTER CODES 
 Infantry 
 
 For use with the General Service Code or semaphore hand flags. 
 
 Letter of alphabet. 
 
 If signaled from the rear to 
 the firing line. 
 
 If signaled from the firing line 
 to the rear. 
 
 AM 
 
 CCC 
 
 CF 
 
 DT 
 
 F 
 
 FB 
 
 FL 
 
 G 
 
 GGGG 
 
 HHH 
 
 K 
 
 LT 
 
 O 
 
 (Ardois and sema- 
 phore only.) 
 
 (All methods but ar- 
 doisand semaphore.) 
 
 P 
 
 R 
 
 RN 
 
 RT 
 
 RTS 
 
 SSS 
 
 SUF 
 
 T 
 
 Ammunition going forward. 
 Charge (mandatory at all 
 
 times). 
 Cease firing. 
 Double time or "rush." 
 Commence firing. 
 Fix bayonets. 
 Hostile artillery fire is causing 
 
 us losses. 
 Move forward. 
 Gas attack, put on masks. 
 Halt. 
 Negative. 
 Left. 
 
 What is the (R. N., etc.)? 
 Interrogatory. 
 
 What is the (R. N., etc.)? 
 Interrogatory. 
 
 Affirmative. 
 
 Acknowledgment. 
 
 Range. 
 
 Right. 
 
 Artillery range is too short. 
 
 Support going forward. 
 
 Suspend firing. 
 
 Target. 
 
 Ammunition required. 
 
 Am about to charge if no in- 
 structions to the contrary. 
 
 Cease firing. 
 
 Double time or "rush." 
 
 Commence firing. 
 
 Fix bayonets. 
 
 Hostile artillery fire is causing 
 us losses. 
 
 Preparing to move forward. 
 
 Gas attack, put on masks. 
 
 Halt. 
 
 Negative. 
 
 Left. 
 
 What is the (R. N., etc.)? 
 Interrogatory. 
 
 What is the (R. N., etc.)? 
 Interrogatory. 
 
 Affirmative. 
 
 Acknowledgment. 
 
 Range. 
 
 Right. 
 
 Artillery range is too short. 
 
 Support needed. 
 
 Suspend firing. 
 
 Target. 
 
 36 
 
 Cavalry 
 
 AM — Ammunition going forward (if signaled from the rear to the front). 
 
 Ammunition required (if signaled from the front). 
 CCC — Charge (if signaled from the rear to the front). 
 
 About to charge if no instructions to the contrary (if signaled from 
 the front). 
 CF— Cease firing. 
 DT — Double time, rush, or hurry. 
 
 F — Commence firing. 
 FL — Artillery fire is causing us losses. 
 G — Move forward (if signaled from the rear to the front). 
 Preparing to move forward (if signaled from the front). 
 HHH— Halt. 
 K — Negative. 
 LT— Left. 
 
560 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 M — Bring up the horses (if signaled from front to rear). 
 
 Horses going forward (if signaled from rear to front). 
 O — What is the (R. N. t etc.) Interrogatory. (Ardois and semaphore 
 only.) 
 • • «■— • • — What is the (R. N., etc.) Interrogatory. (All methods but ardois 
 and semaphore.) 
 P — Affirmative. 
 R — Acknowledgment. 
 RN — Range. 
 RT— Right. 
 SSS — Support going forward (if signaled from the rear to the front). 
 
 Support needed (if signaled from the front). 
 SUF — Suspend firing. 
 T— Target. 
 
 Field Artillery 
 
 • ••••••• —Error. (All methods but ardois and semaphore.) 
 
 A — Error. (Ardois and semaphore only.) 
 AD — Additional. 
 AKT — Draw ammunition from combat train. 
 AL — Draw ammunition from limbers. 
 AM — Ammunition going forward. 
 AMC — At my command. 
 AP — Aiming point. 
 B (numerals) — Battery (so many) rounds. 
 BS (numerals) — (Such.) Battalion station. 
 BL — Battery from the left. 
 BR — Battery from the right. 
 CCC — Charge (mandatory at all times). Am about to charge if not in 
 structed to contrary. 
 CF — Cease firing. 
 CS — Close station. 
 CT— Change target. 
 
 D — Down. 
 DF — Deflection. 
 
 DT— Double time. Rush. Hurry. 
 F — Commence firing. 
 FCL (numerals) — On 1st piece close by (so much). 
 FL — Artillery fire is causing us losses. 
 FOP (numerals) — On 1st piece open by (so much). 
 
 G — Move forward. Preparing to move forward. 
 HHH — Halt. Action suspended. 
 
 IX — Execute. Go ahead. Transmit. 
 JI — Report firing data. 
 K — Negative. No. 
 KR — Corrector. 
 
 L — Preparatory. Attention. 
 LCL (numerals) — On 4th piece close by (so much). 
 LOP (numerals) — On 4th piece open by (so much). 
 LT— Left. 
 
 LL — Left from'the left. 
 LR— Left from the right. 
 
ARMY SIGNALING 561 
 
 LE (numerals) — Less (so much). 
 MD — Move down. 
 ML — Move to your left. 
 MR — Move to your right. 
 MU — Move up. 
 MO (numerals) — Move (so much). 
 N — Annul, cancel. 
 
 O— What is the (R. N., etc.) Interrogatory. (Ardois and semaphore 
 only.) 
 • • — i— • • — What is the (R. N., etc.) Interrogatory. (All methods but ardois 
 and semaphore.) 
 P — Affirmative. Yes. 
 PS — Percussion. Shrapnel. 
 QRQ — Send faster. 
 QRS— Send slower. 
 QRT — Cease sending. 
 
 R — Acknowledgment. Received. 
 RS — Regimental station. 
 RL — Right from the left. 
 RR — Right from the right. 
 RN — Range. 
 RT — Right. 
 S — Subtract. 
 SCL (numerals) — On 2d piece close by (so much). 
 SOP (numerals) — On 2d piece open by (so much). 
 SH— Shell. 
 SI— Site. 
 SSS — Support needed. 
 T— Target. 
 TCL (numerals) — On 3d piece close by (so much). 
 TOP (numerals) — On 3d piece open by (so much). 
 U— Up. 
 Y (letter) — Such battery station. 
 
 Coast Artillery 
 For Shore-Tug Signaling 
 
 1. Range correct, ready to fire K 
 
 2. Commence towing C 
 
 3. Go out O 
 
 4. Come in I 
 
 5. Distress D 
 
 6. Hold stationary S 
 
 7. Turn T 
 
 8. Incline to port L 
 
 9. Incline to starboard R 
 
 10. Close practice Z 
 
 Range correct, ready to fire. — This signal is supplementary 
 to the firing signal displayed at the battery firing. At mortar sub- 
 caliber practice this signal may be sent as each shot is fired. 
 
562 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Commence towing. — This signal means that the towing ves- 
 sel will at once take up the bearing course as prescribed. It is 
 understood that in every case the course on which the target is to 
 be towed is to be indicated by compass bearings furnished to the 
 officer in charge of the towing vessel. By this means it will only 
 be necessary to get the target on any one point of the course and 
 then send the signal " commence towing." 
 
 This signal may be given at any time, with the towing vessel 
 stationary or moving in any direction, and means that the vessel 
 will at once take up the prescribed bearing course. 
 
 Go out. — This signal directs the vessel to move straightaway 
 from the battery firing. 
 
 Come in. — This signal directs the vessel to move straight to- 
 ward the battery firing. 
 
 GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR LOCATING AND 
 OPERATING VISUAL SIGNAL STATIONS 
 
 To select a visual signal station, choose a point perfectly in 
 view of the communicating station; fix the exact position in which 
 the flagman is to stand, so arranged, if possible that when viewed 
 from the communicating station he will have behind him a back- 
 ground of the same color for every position in which the signals 
 may be shown. 
 
 Before communication by signals is opened, the telescope 
 should be placed in the most suitable position for its most efficient 
 use and shelter. 
 
 To determine the color of the background, first, ascertain 
 whether the communicating station is higher, lower, or level with 
 your own. If it be higher, the background for your signals, viewed 
 thence, will be the color of the field, woods, etc., behind and lower 
 than your flagman. If it be lower, your background will be the 
 color of the ground, etc., behind and lying higher than your flag- 
 man. If the stations are of equal elevation, then the background 
 for your signals will be that directly behind the flagman. 
 
 Secrecy in communication is vitally important. Even though 
 the code used is unknown to the enemy, yet the waving flag or 
 other means of visual signaling will inform the enemy that he has 
 probably been observed. This should be avoided, and stations 
 located where they will be most difficult of discovery. If there is 
 reason to believe that signals are seen by the enemy, they should 
 be made in cipher and only upon the expressed authorization of the 
 signal officer charged with the duties of maintenance. Extraordi- 
 nary care should be taken in transmitting cipher messages, and, 
 where practicable, they should be repeated. 
 
ARMY SIGNALING 
 
 563 
 
 The color of the flag must contrast as strongly as possible 
 with that of the background. With green or dark, or with earth- 
 covered background, the white flag should be used. The distant 
 station is the best judge of background, and should it indicate the 
 color of flag wanted, that flag should be used. 
 
 Avoid, if possible, a station where a camp is located between 
 it and the distant station, as the intervening lights will cause 
 annoyance and delay. 
 
 Complete visibility of stations being provided, stations should 
 be so located that messages may be readily carried to them. Do 
 not establish stations far from commonly-traveled roads, unless 
 there be reasons in the physical contour of the country or other- 
 wise for such locations. 
 
 The following table shows the extent of horizon for different 
 heights above the sea level; that is, it shows how far an object at 
 the sea level can be seen. 
 
 Height of the 
 
 Distance (in 
 
 Height of the 
 
 Distance (in 
 
 eye above sea 
 
 statute 
 
 eye above sea 
 
 statute 
 
 level (in feet) 
 
 miles) 
 
 level (in feet) 
 
 miles) 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 115 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 130 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 6 
 
 150 
 
 16 
 
 30 
 
 7 
 
 200 
 
 18 
 
 40 
 
 8 
 
 230 
 
 20 
 
 50 
 
 9 
 
 300 
 
 23 
 
 60 
 
 10 
 
 350 
 
 25 
 
 70 
 
 11 
 
 500 
 
 30 
 
 85 
 
 12 
 
 700 
 
 35 
 
 100 
 
 13 
 
 900 
 
 40 
 
 Hence, an observer whose eye is 30 feet above the sea can 
 distinguish an object 7 miles distant, providing it is at the sea level; 
 but if the object is itself 15 feet above the sea he can make it out 
 7+5=12 miles off. 
 
 To find a signalman near any known station, note with the 
 unaided eye some prominent landmark near which the looked-for 
 person or object is supposed to be, and direct the telescope upon 
 the place; if the eye is placed at the eyeglass of the telescope, the 
 prominent or directing landmark will be found in the field of view. 
 It will be easy then to scale the country near the marker until 
 the signalman is found. When the compass bearing of the object 
 sought for is known, the telescope may be aligned by a line drawn 
 with the proper compass bearing. Commencing then with the view 
 at the horizon, the telescope is slowly moved from side to side, 
 taking in fresh fields of view each time a little nearer the observer, 
 until the whole country shall have been observed from the horizon 
 to quite near the station. When the direction only of the object 
 
564 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 can be given, and it is sought for, the whole landscape in that 
 direction to the horizon should be divided into sections by imagi- 
 nary lines, the limits of these sections being bounded between 
 visible landmarks through which the bounding lines are supposed 
 to pass. Each section should be scrutinized little by little, until 
 the glass has been passed over every spot. Such search seldom 
 fails to be successful. 
 
 The magnetic bearing of all stations with which another 
 station has to work should be carefully noted and recorded in the 
 office directly concerned. In addition, guide lines may be estab- 
 lished by driving two stakes firmly into the ground and close to 
 each other. A prolongation of a line through the center of one 
 stake and marked on the adjacent one will strike the distant station. 
 Under each line should be written the name of the station which 
 it marks. 
 
 A signal officer should provide himself and the persons 
 working under him with the latest and most accurate topographic 
 maps of the country in which the Army is operating. He should 
 familiarize himself with and instruct his subordinates as to the . 
 location of each signal station, so that information can be promptly 
 transmitted. He should have a list of the " calls " of each office 
 and the personal signal of each man under his jurisdiction. 
 
 TELEGRAPH CODE BOOKS AND CIPHERS 
 
 Code books are intended for economy and to insure secrecy. 
 When used solely for economy, the message is said to be in plain 
 code — that is, the words or phrases of the message are coded by 
 direct reference to their respective code equivalents. The plain 
 code is readily translated by reference to a code book. When 
 secrecy is desired, however, some method of enciphering is em- 
 ployed which can be translated only by the use of a key. 
 
 Ciphers are nearly infinite in number and vary greatly in 
 complexity. Probably no one is absolutely unreadable, but even 
 the simplest cipher has the advantage of delaying the reading of 
 the message and of requiring more or less expertness in use, hence 
 the value of ciphers in the military service. The only cipher codes 
 necessary to consider are those obtained by the use of the cipher 
 disk and the route cipher. 
 
 THE CIPHER DISK 
 
 The cipher disk is a simple but useful device for disguising 
 the meaning of a message; it is composed of a circle of cardboard, 
 celluloid, or other material revolving upon a card. The alphabet, 
 reading from left to right, is printed on the card in upper-case 
 
ARMY SIGNALING 
 
 565 
 
 letters. On the circle is printed the alphabet, reading from right 
 to left, in lower-case letters. 
 
 When it is desired to encipher a message, the " key " letter, 
 or the first letter of the key word or words, is set opposite the 
 letter " a." For illustration, assume it to be " E." The cipher 
 letters to be written are those opposite the text letter when the 
 letter " a " on the upper disk is set opposite " E " on the lower 
 disk. For example, the message " Send powder " would be written 
 " marb pqiban." Numbers are spelled out when enciphered with 
 the cipher disk. 
 
 In the method of enciphering just described it is obvious 
 that the mere transposition of letters would delay but a short time 
 the deciphering or translation, of a message by the enemy, even 
 if the key letter were not known. It would only be necessary to 
 place, in turn, opposite " a," each of the letters of the alphabet, 
 beginning with " B " and noting the letters until the right arrange- 
 ment made the meaning of the message clear. But when this 
 simple disk is used with code book, or cipher, word or words, 
 known only to the sender and receiver of the message, it is entirely 
 improbable that the message could be deciphered in time to be of 
 any value to the enemy. 
 
566 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 THE ROUTE CIPHER 
 
 This is a cipher in which the words of a message are retained 
 unchanged, but are so disarranged by preconcerted rules that the 
 sense becomes unintelligible. The message as received seems to 
 be a number of disconnected words without meaning, but by 
 arrangement in proper order in accordance with certain rules can 
 be easily read. Messages enciphered in this manner may be trans- 
 lated by persons not in possession of the key, and therefore the 
 information contained therein should only be of such a character 
 as to be of little value to the enemy unless acted upon immediately. 
 The usual method employed in arranging a message for this cipher 
 is to write the words in vertical columns. The number of words 
 in each column should always equal the number of columns, being 
 made so, if necessary, by the addition of sufficient " blind " words. 
 A preconcerted route is agreed upon, as up the first column, down 
 the third, up the second, etc. The message is then transmitted 
 without reference to the columns, but it is deciphered at the re- 
 ceiving station by column arrangements and persual along the 
 original route. 
 
 THE FIELD MESSAGE 
 
 The term " field message " is applied to all messages sent 
 over field lines of information. All field messages for transmission 
 over field lines of information by electrical or visual means should 
 be plainly written by the sender on the blank forms in the Field 
 Message Book. The practice of verbally delivering telegrams to 
 enlisted men for transmission should invariably be discouraged. 
 
 In framing telegrams, all words not important to the sense 
 will be omitted. The last name of the officer addressed, or his title, 
 and the last name of the sender, are generally sufficient. Proper 
 names in any part of the message should be written or printed in 
 ROMAN CAPITALS, thus: SMITH, TOLEDO, MAUMEE 
 ROAD. 
 
 The Field Message Book issued by the Signal Corps contains 
 50 message blanks with duplicate tissue sheets and two sheets of 
 carbon paper. Proper instructions for their use are printed on the 
 cover of the Field Message Book. 
 
 INFANTRY COMPANY SIGNAL FLAGS 
 
 The signal flags as described are carried by the company 
 musicians in the field. In a regiment in which it is impracticable 
 to make the permanent battalion division alphabetical!}', the flags 
 
ARMY SIGNALING 567 
 
 of a battalion are as shown; flags are assigned to the companies 
 alphabetically, within their respective battalions, in the order given. 
 
 First battalion: 
 
 Company A. — Red field, white square. 
 Company B. — Red field, blue square. 
 Company C. — Red field, white diagonals. 
 Company D. — Red field, blue diagonals. 
 
 Second battalion: 
 
 Company E. — White field, red square. 
 Company F. — White field, blue square. 
 Company G. — White field, red diagonals. 
 Company H. — White field, blue diagonals. 
 
 Third battalion: 
 
 Company I. — Blue field, red square. 
 Company K. — Blue field, white square. 
 Company L. — Blue field, red diagonals. 
 Company M. — Blue field, white diagonals. 
 
 In addition to their use in visual signaling, these flags serve 
 to mark the assembly point of the company when disorganized by 
 combat, and to mark the location of the company in bivouac and 
 elsewhere, when such use is desirable. 
 
 VISUAL SIGNALING EQUIPMENT 
 
 The wand is a stick of light wood about 18 inches long and 
 one-half inch in diameter. It is held loosely between the thumb 
 and forefinger and waved rapidly to the right or left to indicate 
 the elements of the alphabet. It is used for practice purposes, and 
 the signals made by it are only intended to be read at very short 
 distances. Its effectiveness may be increased by tying a hand- 
 kerchief near the outward end. 
 
 Five kinds of flag kits are issued by the Signal Corps: The 
 standard 2-foot kit, the infantry 2-foot kit, and the standard 4-foot 
 kit, for use with the General Service Code, and two types of sema- 
 phore flag kits, one standard and the other of a pattern temporarily 
 in service in the field and coast artillery, both for use with the Two- 
 arm Semaphore Code. 
 
 The standard 2-foot kit consists of one white and one red 
 signal flag, one 3-jointed staff, and a suitable carrying case to con- 
 tain the outfit. The white flag is made of white galatea 2 feet 
 square, with an 8-inch turkey-red center. The red flag is of similar 
 size and material, the only difference being an alternation of colors 
 in the body and center. The means of attachment to the staff 
 
568 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 consists of a loop at the center and two ends of white tape at each 
 edge of the back of the flag body. The staff is made of hickory 
 in three joints, each 23 inches long, and is assembled by means of 
 brass screw ferrules. Brass eyes are provided on the first and 
 second joints to receive the tape ends at the edge of the flag. The 
 olive drab carrying case is of convenient size and shape to contain 
 two flags and staffs complete, and is bound with leather and fitted 
 with a shoulder strap. 
 
 The combination, infantry, 2-foot kit is essentially the same 
 as the combination, standard, 2-foot kit, except that 1 infantry flag, 
 as prescribed by Infantry Drill Regulations, is substituted for the 
 two 2-foot red and white flags described. 
 
 The standard 4-foot kit consists of 1 case, canvas; 1 staff, 3- 
 joint, and 1 flag, red, white square; canvas; 1 staff, 3-joint, and 1 
 flag, red, white square; and 1 flag, white, red square. The flags are 
 3 feet 9 inches square, with 12-inch centers, and the staffs are con- 
 siderably heavier than those of the standard 2-foot kit, each joint 
 being 36 inches long. The 4-foot kit is the standard field flag kit, 
 and the range at wnich signals can be exchanged with it depends 
 on a variety of factors, such as conditions of the weather, the loca- 
 tion of stations, the proficiency of signalmen, etc. The speed for 
 continuous signaling is seldom greater than five to six words per 
 minute. 
 
 LOCATING AND OPERATING VISUAL STATIONS 
 
 The selection of the site for a visual signal station is gov- 
 erned by choice of a point perfectly in view of the communicating 
 station, the exact position in which the flagman is to stand being 
 arranged, if possible, so that he will have behind him for every 
 signal a background of the same color. 
 
 Secrecy in communication is vitally important. Even though 
 the code used may not be known to the enemy, the waving flag 
 or other means of visual signaling will inform the enemy that he 
 has probably been observed; stations should therefore be located 
 where they will be most difficult of discovery. If there is reason 
 to believe that signals are seen by the enemy, they should be made 
 in cipher and extraordinary care be taken in transmitting messages. 
 Where practicable, they should be repeated, 
 
CHAPTER XX 
 
 TRANSPORT, EMBARKATION, DEBARKATION 
 AND CONVOYS BY LAND AND WATER 
 
 The functions of transport, its reasons for existence, and 
 objects in operation are briefly (a) The mobilization of military 
 forces in their respective areas, (b) The transportation of these 
 forces to points of concentration for military operations, (c) The 
 maintenance of equipment and supply to these forces, operating 
 in the zone of the advance, whether same be in friendly or hostile 
 territory and whether over land or over sea. (d) The forwarding 
 of troops to replace losses and maintain combatant strength and 
 the evacuation of the wounded to base or home hospitals. 
 
 The sequence of operations is as follows: (a) From areas 
 of mobilization and supply in home territory to the base or bases 
 of the lines of communication. This is almost wholly transport 
 by commercial railway systems, not Government owned, but in 
 some measure Government controlled, especially in time of war. 
 Commercial railways in the United States are recognized by the 
 law as public utilities of the first order and are subject in the 
 present day to a measure of Government control even in time of 
 peace. 
 
 (b) From bases of the lines of communication, situated in 
 home territory or on the border line of hostile territory, to the 
 advance bases in the theater of operations. This section is called 
 the zone of the lines of communication. In this section transport 
 is by military railways, or, if operations are over sea, by a combi- 
 nation of military railways and Government owned or chartered 
 vessels, involving ports of embarkation and debarkation between 
 the home and the advance bases. 
 
 (c) From the advance bases to the military forces in the 
 theater of operations the section is called the zone of the advance. 
 In this section field transport is almost wholly used, although rail 
 transport may sometimes be available and a valuable aid to the 
 other. Field transport is of three general classes, mechanically 
 speaking, and use of these classes will depend upon the nature of 
 the terrain and the character of the roads, viz., motor transport, 
 animal-drawn transport, and pack transport. All classes and kinds 
 
570 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 of field trains attached to and serving with troops in campaign are 
 comprised under field transport. 
 
 The cost of transportation is one of the largest items of 
 expense in all military operations. Transport must be conserved 
 by all proper means and restrictions or it becomes inefficient. The 
 control of transports must be reserved to those officers in higher 
 authority who are responsible for success of military opera- 
 tions. Proper orders for its use must be obtained from competent 
 authority. In case of commercial carrier these orders must in 
 turn produce the transportation requests and bills of lading or 
 manifests which cover the transportation of men, animals, and 
 supplies, and receipts for which complete the chain of adminis- 
 trative action and create the data for costs of operation essential 
 to the settlement of accounts between the military government and 
 the commercial carriers; or, where the transport is Government 
 owned, insures its application to the strictly necessary purposes 
 and prevents waste of effort and lack of desired result. 
 
 TRAVEL ON COMMERCIAL RAILWAYS 
 
 In time of war or threatened war preference and precedence 
 shall, upon the demand of the President of the United States, be 
 given, over all other traffic, to the transportation of troops and 
 materiel of war, and carrier shall adopt every means within their 
 control to facilitate and expedite the military traffic. The move- 
 ment of troops and their equipment over commercial railways is 
 the function of the Quartermaster Corps, who plan and prepare 
 for the move in conformity with regulations and orders from com- 
 petent authority. 
 
 Orders covering such movements should give an exact return 
 of the command, as transportation is furnished at the rate of 3 
 men to each section in tourist sleepers, or 3 men to each two seats 
 in day coaches. When day coaches are used for journeys of over 
 24 hours' duration, if practicable a seat is provided for each man. 
 
 Whenever organizations are moved by rail, with their ani- 
 mals, equipment, and materiel, it is desirable that complete units 
 be kept together in trains divided into convenient train sections. 
 It is preferable to have trains of moderate size with good speed 
 rather than long trains with low speed. If it is necessary to divide 
 a train, some officers and men will accompany each section. The 
 troops should not be separated from the animals if it can be 
 avoided; but if the animals are shipped in separate sections 
 selected detachments under officers accompany them, and such 
 sections will precede the troops. When supplies are shipped to 
 mobilization or concentration camps, the contents of each car is 
 
TRANSPORT AND CONVOYS 571 
 
 marked or placarded on the outside of the car, and the latter, when 
 practicable, is also marked with the name of the organization to 
 which the supplies are sent. 
 
 Preparation of Cars. — Upon receipt of orders for the move- 
 ment of troops by rail, the officer charged with supplying the 
 transportation arranges with the railroad authorities for the 
 necessary cars. He procures lists, with weights, of all property to 
 be shipped and makes out the bills of lading, provides loading facil- 
 ities and material and blocking and lashing, and constructs the 
 necessary ramps. Upon arrival of the cars, he inspects to see if 
 they conform to the terms of the contract, and reports the result of 
 his inspection to the commander. 
 
 Stock cars are inspected with especial care to see that they 
 are in good order throughout. Projecting nails, bolts, and splinters, 
 loose boards and rotten flooring, broken fixtures on hayracks, 
 doors, or troughs, are sources of danger or discomfort to the ani- 
 mals and of loss to the Government. The cars should be clean be- 
 fore loading, and suitable noninflammable footing be provided. 
 
 Passenger cars must be clean, fully supplied with water and 
 ice, and sufficiently lighted and heated. The urinals and closets 
 must be in good condition, well supplied with water and toilet 
 paper, and the sleeping accommodations must be according to 
 contract. After the cars have been accepted, the number of men 
 allotted to each is marked on the side or steps. The cars are then 
 assigned to organizations and plainly marked. 
 
 Loading and Entraining. — At the proper time loading is 
 begun and is carried on, usually by the troops, pursuant to the 
 orders of the commander. Heavy property may be loaded by 
 details before the arrival of the troops. Artillery and other car- 
 riages are made secure by lashings and by nailing blocks of wood 
 to the flooring under the wheels. 
 
 The arrival of troops at the station should be timed so that 
 there will be no delay in waiting for cars. When the barrack, 
 camp, or bivouac is not more than a mile from the station, troops 
 are not required to fall in until notice has been received that the 
 cars are at the station and have been inspected and assigned. The 
 command is then marched to the train and the property and 
 animals loaded. The organizations are then marched opposite 
 their cars and entrained. These cars are entered simultaneously, 
 each company commander distributing his men according to the 
 assignment. Non-commissioned officers have seats near the doors. 
 
 Troops traveling by train in time of peace seldom require 
 their arms or all of their equipment. For instance, when sleepers 
 are provided they generally require no equipment other than their 
 canteens and haversacks, the mess kits and necessary toilet articles 
 being carried in the latter. For mounted troops the saddlebags 
 
572 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 take the place of haversacks. A few revolvers or rifles suffice for 
 the necessary guard duty. Therefore, to add to the comfort of 
 the men, train commanders may cause the arms and equipments 
 not required en route to be properly secured and stored in a 
 property or baggage car. 
 
 Mounted troops dismount upon arrival and remove the 
 horse equipments, except the halter. Each man's equipment, ex- 
 cept halter, canteen, and saddlebags, is then securely tied in a 
 gunny sack, or other suitable receptacle, marked with the number 
 of the man and letter of his troop, and loaded in the proper car. 
 Each troop, except the horse holders, is then marched to its cars, 
 where the men deposit their arms (if not otherwise disposed of), 
 canteens, and saddlebags. It then marches back, relieves the horse 
 holders, and loads the horses. The horse holders, unless otherwise 
 ordered, repair to their cars, carrying their arms (if left with them), 
 canteens, and saddlebags. For short journeys the horses may be 
 loaded, saddled (stirrups crossed), and bridled, or the bridle may 
 be tied on the saddles. In the field artillery a similar method is 
 pursued. The harness is usually tied up in sets, plainly marked, 
 and loaded in a box car. 
 
 Animals can be conveniently loaded through chutes of stock- 
 yards, or from freight platforms level with the car floors. In other 
 cases portable or improvised ramps will have to be used. When it 
 is likely that the animals will have to be unloaded at places with- 
 out facilities, one or more portable ramps, or the material for im- 
 provising them, should be carried on the train. The loading should 
 proceed without noise or confusion, the animals being led quietly 
 to the car door and turned over to the four men, two for each end, 
 who do the loading. The animals should be packed as closely as 
 possible, except in very hot weather. Halters are not removed. 
 Gentle animals should be placed opposite the doors, and are there- 
 fore loaded last. Alternate animals should face in the opposite 
 directions. 
 
 The time required for loading each train depends upon the 
 railroad facilities and upon the experience of the troops. For 
 troops leaving station to go into the field, or changing station in 
 the field, the time required should not exceed one hour for infantry, 
 one and one-half hours for cavalry and light artillery, and two 
 hours for heavy artillery and for engineers with bridge train. All 
 movements of the troops in loading, entraining, and detraining, 
 feeding and watering, and exercising men and horses are made, as 
 a rule, in military formation and pursuant to command, thus avoid- 
 ing confusion and saving time. 
 
 Conduct of the Troops. — Delays caused by the troops, 
 whether in loading and entraining or during the journey, are in- 
 excusable. They interfere with railroad schedules and are a source 
 
TRANSPORT AND CONVOYS 573 
 
 of great annoyance. The commander is the sole intermediary be- 
 tween the troops and the railroad personnel. In case of deficiencies 
 and other matters requiring correction, he addresses himself to the 
 official in charge only. The senior non-commissioned officer in 
 each car is responsible for cleanliness and good order. Spitting on 
 the floors, defacing woodwork and windows, and every species of 
 disorder must be prevented. The commander may station sentinels 
 at the doors of each car to prevent the entrance- of unauthorized 
 persons and to keep soldiers from riding on the steps, platforms, 
 or tops of cars, and from leaving without permission. If it is 
 desirable to exercise the troops, they should leave the cars in a 
 body, under their officers. 
 
 In movements by rail kitchen cars are provided, if prac- 
 ticable; otherwise, baggage cars are fitted up by the troops or 
 arrangements are made for procuring meals, or at least liquid 
 coffee, at stations en route. Careful attention is paid to the mess- 
 ing of the men, whether in kitchen cars or in the coaches where 
 the men ride. A mess officer supervises the preparation and 
 serving of the meals and requires the men to keep their mess kits 
 scrupulously clean. 
 
 When the stock cars provided are such that the animals 
 can be fed and watered on the trains, it is unnecessary to unload 
 them for exercise or recuperation unless the weather is very hot 
 and the journey long. 
 
 On account of danger from fire, neither hay nor straw is 
 carried in stock cars. A short ration of grain (about 6 pounds) is 
 sufficient to supply animals while traveling by rail. 
 
 On occasions when troops have been allowed or required to 
 leave the train for exercise or duty, the commander causes the 
 " assembly " to be sounded five minutes before departure. 
 
 Detraining and Unloading. — The train schedule is arranged, 
 when practicable, for arrival at destination in the morning. The 
 troops are notified in time to prepare for detraining. 
 
 The officers and guard are the first to leave the cars. The 
 commander meets the staff officer sent to the train, receives in- 
 structions, if any, gets his bearing and orders the troops to detrain. 
 As soon as the passenger coaches or sleeping cars are empty, the 
 quartermaster, or a specially designated officer, accompanied by 
 the conductor, if practicable, makes an inspection of the cars and 
 notes their condition; the result is reported to the commander. 
 
 The troops procure their field kits and march to camp with- 
 out delay, leaving suitable details to unload and bring up the 
 property. If the camp is distant, arms are stacked and a part or 
 all of the command unloads the train. 
 
 In the cavalry the men are marched to the vicinity of the 
 stock cars, where the saddlebags and canteens are placed in line 
 
574 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 on the ground, under guard. The remaining articles of the field 
 kit and horse equipments are then unloaded and placed with the 
 preceding articles. The horses are then unloaded, saddled, and the 
 troops formed. Animals are unloaded quietly, each one being led 
 to the opening so that his body will be athwart the car before 
 leaving it. 
 
 The command may be marched to camp at once, if near the 
 station; otherwise, picket lines are stretched, or the horses are 
 held while the property is unloaded. Artillery unloads in a manner 
 similar to that of cavalry. 
 
 On account of accidents, freight blockades, or action of the 
 enemy, it may be necessary to unload in the open country. In 
 such cases portable or improvised ramps will have to be used. 
 Lacking these, the train may be stopped in a low cut, and crossties, 
 baled hay, car doors, and turf utilized for the rapid construction of 
 ramps of sufficient height to permit unloading of animals. 
 
 TRAVEL ON MILITARY RAILWAYS 
 
 Requisitions should reach the military controlling staff as 
 early as possible and should give concise data as to the number 
 of officers and men, animals, guns, vehicles, and supplies that will 
 be involved in the movement. After the program for the move- 
 ment has been settled, changes should be avoided as far as prac- 
 ticable. 
 
 The authority consigning animals or materiel for shipment 
 is responsible for loading them and for furnishing attendance and 
 forage for the animals while enroute. Ordinary shipments of sup- 
 plies or materiel are turned over to the railway authorities and are 
 shipped on an ordinary bill of lading. Important shipments may be 
 accompanied by a representative of the department interested, ancl 
 by a representative of the operating department. 
 
 The commander of the line of communications issues regu- 
 lations concerning movements of military and civil passengers over 
 the military railways. If necessary to the enforcement of these 
 regulations military police of the service of defense are placed on 
 duty on trains and at stations for this purpose. 
 
 Hospital Trains. — Hospital trains are fitted up on each line 
 of military railway. The necessary sanitary personnel and special 
 equipment are supplied from the base section of the supply, sani- 
 tary, and telegraph services of the line of communications. As 
 far as practicable such trains, or other trains carrying sick and 
 wounded who can travel sitting up, leave the railhead at certain 
 fixed hours daily. 
 
 In anticipation of an engagement, rolling stock for special 
 hospital trains is collected and fitted up by the director of railways 
 
TRANSPORT AND CONVOYS 575 
 
 at suitable points to meet the probable needs. At stations where 
 sick and wounded are to be entrained and detrained, rest stations 
 are organized, under instructions from the commander of the line 
 of communications, by the supply, sanitary, and telegraph services 
 of the line of communications. 
 
 Troop Movements by Rail. — In so far as may be practicable, 
 troops are moved on a military railway in the same manner as 
 on commercial railway; but such conditions will not usually obtain, 
 and troops will often have to be moved in freight equipment or 
 packed into day coaches far in excess of the numbers given for 
 peace movements. Rapidity of movement and economy of rolling 
 stock take precedence over the comfort of the troops whenever 
 necessary. 
 
 Troops in the theater of operations carry with them on rail- 
 way trains only such supplies, equipment, etc., as can be promptly 
 moved away with the troops at the detraining station, or, in other 
 words, that which is authorized to be carried on the men and 
 animals, and in the combat and field trains. When large bodies of 
 troops are moved by rail, staff officers, with representatives of the 
 various units and departments, should precede the troops to the 
 destination, in order to make arrangements to receive the troops, 
 and insure their prompt movement away from the detraining point. 
 
 In drawing up orders for the movement of troops by rail, 
 the following points should be clearly stated: 1, Date, place of 
 entraining, destination, route to be followed. 2. Hours of departure 
 of trains; time at which troops should reach the entraining place, 
 route that they should follow. 3. Details in regard to feeding of 
 troops, and watering and feeding animals en route. 4. Places of 
 assembly near entraining and detraining stations. 5. Schedule 
 showing assignment of troops, animals, and vehicles to different 
 trains. Troops should not occupy railway buildings or use the 
 railway facilities or property without authoiity from the railway 
 staff officers. 
 
 Duties of a Commander of a Troop Train. — An officer from 
 each unit,* supplied with a copy of the order directing the move- 
 ment and a field return of the troops involved, should be sent ahead 
 to the entraining point to ascertain from the railway staff officer 
 the arrangements for the entraining of his unit. He communicates 
 his information to his commander before the troops reach the 
 station, and then acts as guide to the unit in reaching its trains. 
 The commander of troops to be moved by rail retains the original 
 copy of his order. 
 
 The senior officer on every special troop train is responsible 
 that order is maintained, and furnishes the railway operatives the 
 necessary force to carry out the regulations. He details a guard 
 on every troop train to take charge of prisoners, property, etc., 
 
576 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 and to furnish sentries, as required, at entraining and detraining 
 points, and at stations en route. He is responsible that the regu- 
 lations of the railway service are observed. Except when neces- 
 sary, on account of actual or threatened attack by the enemy, he 
 does not interfere with the working of the railway service. If an 
 attack is anticipated, an officer should ride on the locomotive to 
 inform the engineer when, for tactical reasons, it is desirable to 
 stop the train. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRAINS 
 
 Transportation attached to organizations is grouped under 
 the following head: (a) The trains assigned to organizations 
 smaller than a brigade designated combat and field trains, respec- 
 tively, (b) The trains assigned to divisions, designated ammuni- 
 tion, supply, sanitary, and engineer trains, respectively. 
 
 In addition to the foregoing, there are ammunition, supply, 
 sanitary, and engineer columns which are attached to and belong 
 to the advance section of the line of communications. 
 
 Combat Trains. — Combat trains include all personnel, ve- 
 hicles and animals attached to organizations for transporting am- 
 munition reserve and special equipment required during combat, 
 including the mule or cart carrying sanitary first aid equipment. 
 To them also are attached those vehicles required for the technical 
 service of engineers and signal troops. 
 
 Combat trains remain at all times with the unit to which 
 attached and follow it into action. In the cavalry and field artil- 
 lery it may be advisable to temporarily separate combat trains from 
 the troops. 
 
 Field Trains. — Field trains include all personnel, vehicles, 
 and animals attached to organizations or headquarters for the 
 transportation of the authorized allowance of baggage, rations, and 
 grain, and include rolling kitchens, if supplied. Wagons of sutlers, 
 correspondents, etc., accompanying a field force by proper author- 
 ity are assigned to the field train of the organization to which their 
 owners are attached. On the march the headquarters wagons of 
 brigades and divisions are generally attached to some regimental 
 field train. 
 
 Field trains are assigned to regiments and independent bat- 
 talions and are habitually divided into two sections: (1) A baggage 
 section carrying baggage; and (2) a ration section carrying rations 
 and grain exclusively, and including rolling kitchens, if supplied. 
 For transportation of baggage each organization is assigned its 
 proportionate space on the vehicles of the baggage section. 
 
 When an organization is operating independently, the field 
 trains are under the direct control of the organization commander. 
 
TRANSPORT AND CONVOYS 577 
 
 When organizations are not operating independently, field trains 
 are ordinarily ordered to be grouped by the division commander 
 and the senior line officer present with the train assumes command 
 and moves it as directed by the superior authority. When the field 
 trains are ordered grouped with the divisional train they are, for 
 the time being, under the orders of the commander of trains. 
 
 The field trains are not again placed at the disposition of the 
 organization until so ordered by the division commander. During 
 combat the division commander holds the grouped trains well to> 
 the rear, thus relieving the roads of unnecessary vehicles. 
 
 In the late afternoon, or at the end of a march or close of 
 a combat, the division commander directs the field trains to move 
 up immediately in rear of the troops, and informs the commanding 
 officers of organizations that their baggage sections and one day's 
 rations from their ration sections have been ordered to be at a 
 designated place. The organization commander at once sends an. 
 orderly to the designated place to conduct the vehicles to the: 
 organization. As soon as practicable after the arrival in camp of 
 the ration vehicles they are unloaded and, without delay, rejoin the 
 grouped portions of the ration vehicles. The division commander 
 usually returns the baggage sections to the same place early the 
 following morning. 
 
 Ammunition, Supply, Sanitary, and Engineer Trains. — The 
 ammunition train includes all vehicles, animals, and personnel em- 
 ployed in transporting the divisional artillery and infantry ammuni- 
 tion reserve, or in bringing up the same from the refilling point to- 
 the combat trains of organizations. 
 
 The supply train includes all vehicles, animals and personnel 
 employed in transporting the divisional ration and grain reserve,. 
 or in bringing up the same from the refilling point to the dis- 
 tributing point. To it may also be attached herds of beef cattle, 
 remounts, vehicles carrying reserve quartermaster supplies, and 
 reserve transportation. 
 
 The sanitary train includes all vehicles, animals, personnel, 
 and reserve sanitary material, not attached to organizations, em- 
 ployed in collecting and caring for the sick and wounded of the 
 division pending their evacuation by the line of communication. 
 
 The engineer train includes all vehicles, animals, and per- 
 sonnel for transporting heavy entrenching tools, explosives, and 
 other engineer equipments and material which, under ordinary 
 conditions, is required to accompany the division. 
 
 Ammunition, Supply, Sanitary, and Engineer Columns. — 
 These columns belong to the line of communications and are at- 
 tached to the advance section of its supply, sanitary, and telegraph 
 services. They are the means whereby transportation, equipment, 
 supplies, evacuation, and field hospitals, and ambulance companies, 
 
578 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 not continually required with a division, may be pushed forward 
 when needed. 
 
 Commander of Trains. — A commander of trains is assigned 
 for each division, together with the necessary assistants and troops. 
 He controls the marching and camping of the combined ammuni- 
 tion, supply, sanitary, and engineering trains. He is also charged 
 with all matters of general police in the rear of the division while 
 on the march and throughout the command while it is in camp. 
 
 When the trains of more than one division are marching on 
 the same road, the field army commander or other superior author- 
 ity designates an officer, usually a general staff officer, to decide 
 all questions of precedence in the movement and camping of the 
 trains of the different divisions. 
 
 When combat is imminent, the ammunition, sanitary, and 
 engineer trains are ordered released from the control of the com- 
 mander of trains. Upon the completion of the period of combat 
 and when no longer required to operate independently, these trains 
 revert to the control of the commander of trains. 
 
 When troops are in camp, out of the presence of the enemy, 
 ammunition, supply, sanitary, and engineer trains may be ordered 
 released from the control of the commander of trains and operated 
 directly under the orders of their respective chiefs of service. 
 
 SUPPLY, SANITARY AND TELEGRAPH SERVICE 
 
 The commander of the line of communications is in charge 
 of all supply and sanitary matters and of the construction and 
 maintenance of all lines of information within the limits of his 
 command. He is responsible that the reserve of supplies on hand 
 in his various depots shall be maintained between the maximum 
 and minimum amounts fixed by the commander of the field forces. 
 He furnishes the War Department a copy of a list of the stores 
 required, showing the maximum and minimum amounts to be kept 
 on hand, and keeps the War Department informed of the amount 
 of funds needed for the prosecution of his work. He forwards his 
 requisitions for supplies not procurable in the theater of operations 
 to the War Department or to such depots as the War Department 
 may designate for furnishing particular supplies. 
 
 He prepares, and enforces stringent regulations for the 
 physical examination of officers and enlisted men, who are sick or 
 wounded, to the end that the force in the theater of operations 
 suffers no depletion incident to the return to the home country of 
 malingerers, or those who within a reasonable length of time will 
 be able to return to duty. 
 
 For purposes of control and co-ordination of the supply, 
 sanitary, and telegraph service, a line of communications is ordi- 
 
TRANSPORT AND CONVOYS 579 
 
 narily divided into sections, as follows: A base section and an 
 advance section, each with an assistant chief of staff in charge 
 competent to issue orders in the name of the commander of the 
 line of communications. In certain unusual cases, due to an exten' 
 sive prolongation of the line of communications, an intermediate 
 section may be required. An advance section is required at the 
 head of each important route of supply diverging from the base. 
 
 The operations of a base or intermediate section extend up 
 to, but do not include, the depots, sanitary units, and telegraph 
 stations of the next section in advance. Each section provides for 
 the supply of the line of communication troops within its limits. 
 So far as possible formal accountability is terminated and replaced 
 by a system of responsibility when supplies are turned over to 
 troops or trains in the zone of the advance and to troops and trains 
 of the section of defense in the zone of the line of communication. 
 Commanders and staff officers of all grades are responsible for the 
 proper use and disposition of supplies issued to their organizations 
 and for supplies temporarily in their charge. 
 
 If no service of military railways be organized, it is the 
 function of the base sections to provide and operate the necessary 
 means of transport or to make shipments by commercial means 
 between the base and the section next in advance. Under similar 
 conditions it is the function of intermediate sections, if operated, 
 to connect in the same manner with the section next in advance. 
 All personnel necessary to the proper functioning of the supply, 
 sanitary, and telegraph service report at the base for assignment 
 to duty. Here advance and intermediate sections are organized 
 and sent forward as required. 
 
 Base Section. — The assistant chief of staff with the base 
 section is charged with co-ordinating the work of the quarter- 
 master, medical, engineer, ordnance, and signal base groups. He 
 is informed of the probable requirements of the advance and inter- 
 mediate sections, transmits this information to the officers in 
 charge of the various groups, and issues the orders for meeting 
 these requirements. All requisitions are viseed by the assistant 
 chief of staff of the base section before being transmitted to the 
 point from which supplies are furnished. All supplies (except 
 those for the service of military railways) shipped into the base 
 either for use of the field forces or for troops of the line of com- 
 munication are consigned to the " Quartermaster," " Surgeon," etc., 
 at the base. 
 
 Advance Section. — The assistant chief of staff with the ad- 
 vance section is charged with co-ordinating the work of the quar- 
 termaster, medical, engineer, ordnance, and signal advance groups. 
 The operations of these groups extend to and include the refilling 
 points of the division supply trains, the evacuation points for sick 
 
580 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 and wounded, and, in certain instances, to the distributing points. 
 The signal advance group establishes and maintains lines of infor- 
 mation with the headquarters of the field forces. To the advance 
 section are attached ammunition, supply, sanitary, and engineering 
 columns. The strength and composition of these columns are de- 
 pendent upon the character of operations reasonably probable. 
 
 The position of the advance depot is fixed from time to time 
 by the commander of the field forces. The headquarters of the 
 advance section is at the advance depot and it is with the assistant 
 chief of staff at this point that the commanders in advance make 
 all arrangements for the evacuation of sick and wounded, and for 
 supply. Ordinarily the advance depot will be on a line of railroad, 
 and as near the field forces as possible. In consequence, it is more 
 or less exposed to the enemy and, therefore, an undue accumula- 
 tion of supplies at this point is undesirable. The positions of re- 
 filling, rendezvous, and evacuation points either may be fixed by 
 the commander of the field forces or he may delegate in orders 
 this authority to division commanders. 
 
 The allowance of transportation fixed by regulations for the 
 divisional trains is that needed for carrying mobile reserves and for 
 bringing up from the line of communications, ammunition, rations, 
 and grain, and for the temporary care only of sick and wounded. 
 For all other classes of supplies, for the evacuation of the sick and 
 wounded, and for special engineer equipment, transportation must, 
 therefore, be provided by the different columns attached to the 
 advance section. 
 
 SERVICE OF MILITARY RAILWAYS 
 
 When extensive military operations of a field force are de- 
 pendent on a line or lines of railway for its supply in advance of 
 the base, a service of military railways is organized, the construc- 
 tion, operation, and maintenance of which is a duty of the corps of 
 engineers. 
 
 The work of reconstruction at the railhead is ordinarily kept 
 separate from the other work on the line in rear and is done by 
 troops, with such civilian assistance as is procurable. The officer 
 in charge of this work is directly under the military head of the 
 line of railway on which he is working and is responsible for the 
 prompt reconstruction of the line. As rapidly as practicable such 
 reconstruction sections are assigned to the division immediately 
 in rear for operation and maintenance. 
 
 The staff of civilian assistants consist of such railway of- 
 ficials, operatives, and other employees as may be available or 
 necesssary for the proper working of the military railways. As far 
 
TRANSPORT AND CONVOYS 581 
 
 as military conditions will permit, civilians are used for the opera- 
 tion, maintenance, and construction of the military railways, of- 
 ficers and soldiers being used only when military conditions render 
 it necessary. These civilians are subject to military supervision, 
 and are responsible in their various departments and subdivisions 
 for executing the duties assigned to them in accordance with the 
 plans of the director of railways. 
 
 The relations betwen the civilians of the railway service, 
 except as modified by the director of railways, are such as exist 
 between those of corresponding grades on an ordinary railway. 
 The military staff receive their orders and instructions from their 
 next higher military railway superiors, and are subject to them 
 only. Each member of this staff is the military adviser of the senior 
 civilian in charge of the department or subdivision to which he is 
 assigned. He ordinarily leaves the actual working of the road to 
 his civil colleague, advising him of the ends desired and the military 
 conditions involved, and intervenes in the actual working of the 
 road only when convinced that the civilian is not taking the neces- 
 sary steps to meet the requirements. The officer's decision on 
 matters within his own department or subdivision can be overruled 
 only by his next military railway superior. 
 
 The military railway supply depots are operated and main- 
 tained under the director of railways by the railway staff. All rail- 
 way supplies and materials shipped into the base are consigned to 
 the " director of railways." 
 
 CHANNELS OF CORRESPONDENCE 
 
 The commander of the line of communications must have 
 the greatest possible freedom of action with reference to communi- 
 cating with the War Department on matters of routine. All such 
 communications are signed " By authority of the commander of the 
 field forces" and are in general confined to the following subjects, 
 viz.: 1. Arrangements for maintaining the supply of stores and 
 animals. 2. Matters relating to fiscal affairs or requirements. 3. 
 Irregularities, defects, and deficiencies which come to his attention 
 in the territorial or administrative zone to the rear of the base. 
 4. Arrangements for augmenting or replacing the staff and civilian 
 personnel of the line of communications. 5. Arrangements for the 
 evacuation of prisoners and of sick and wounded from the base. 
 
 After the system of supply and evacuation of sick and 
 wounded has been fixed by the commander of the field forces, the 
 commander of the line of communications and the assistant chief 
 of staff of each advance section are authorized to communicate 
 directly with the commanders whom they are ordered to supply on 
 all detail matters relating to supply, evacuation of wounded, and 
 
582 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 maintenance of lines of information. Inversely, such commanders 
 are authorized to communicate with the assistant chief of staff of 
 the advance section in their immediate rear or with the commander 
 of the line of communications on the same subjects. 
 
 EXPLOSIVES AND MUNITIONS 
 
 The Interstate Commerce Commission prescribes the regu- 
 lations for the transportation of explosives, and these regulations 
 should be consulted and carefully followed by those whose duty 
 it is to arrange for such transportation. But all persons who may 
 have to do with the handling of explosives should exercise great 
 care to prevent shocks and falls to the containers. 
 
 Careful men should be chosen to handle explosives, the 
 platform and feet of the men being as free as possible from grit, 
 and all precautions against fire should be taken. Safe storage 
 room should be provided and the period of storage should be as 
 short as possible. Unauthorized persons must be kept away from 
 the explosives. 
 
 Loading in Cars. — Packages receive their greatest stress in 
 a direction parallel to the length of the car and must be loaded so 
 as to offer their greatest resistance in that direction. Boxes of 
 dangerous explosives must rest on their bottoms, the long dimen- 
 sion parallel to the length of the car. 
 
 A car must not contain more than 70,000 pounds gross weight 
 of explosives. This does not apply to small-arms ammunition or 
 ammunition for cannon. 
 
 When the lading of a car includes explosives and exceeds 
 5,000 pounds, the weight of the lading must be distributed in ap- 
 proximately equal parts in both ends of the car. Explosives packed 
 in kegs must be loaded on their sides with the ends toward ends 
 of car. Packages of explosives must not be placed in the space 
 opposite the doors. Large casks, barrels, or drums must be loaded 
 on their sides or ends. 
 
 Packages containing any of the explosives for the transpor- 
 tation of which a certified and placarded car is prescribed must 
 be stayed (blocked or braced) to prevent change of position by 
 the ordinary shocks incident to transportation. Special care must 
 be used to prevent them from falling to the floor or from having 
 anything fall on them or slide against them during transit. Ship- 
 ments for different destinations must be stayed or secured separately. 
 
 Detonating fuses or blasting caps or electric blasting caps 
 must not be loaded in a car or stored with high explosives of any 
 kind, including explosive projectiles, nor with wet nitrocellulose. 
 Wet fulminate of mercury must not be loaded in the same car 
 with dangerous explosives. 
 
TRANSPORT AND CONVOYS 5&5 
 
 When loading explosives and other freight in the same car, 
 both the explosives and the other freight must be stayed. Leaking 
 or damaged packages of explosives must not be shipped. 
 
 Cars must be inspected to see that they are in proper condi- 
 tion. When a car loaded with explosives is being inspected at 
 night, electric or other suitable covered lights must be used. 
 Naked lights are forbidden. 
 
 Cars to be placarded " explosives " must be box cars of not 
 less than 60,000 pounds capacity with friction draft gear, equipped 
 with air and hand brakes in good condition, must have no loose 
 boards, cracks, etc., in roof, sides, or ends through which sparks 
 may enter, doors must shut tightly, and if necessary must be 
 stripped, journals in condition to reduce to minimum danger of 
 hot boxes, lids of journals in place. Cars must be carefully swept 
 and care taken that all projecting nails or other iron projections 
 are removed or covered. 
 
 WATER TRANSPORT 
 
 The army transport service is organized as a special branch 
 of the Quartermaster Corps, United States Army, for the purpose 
 of transporting troops and supplies by water. 
 
 Under war conditions, i. e., where ports of embarkation for 
 the scene of intended hostilities have been established, the trans- 
 port service at such ports is under the supervision of the com- 
 mander of the port of embarkation. 
 
 The commander of the port of embarkation, his staff and per- 
 sonnel are not subject to the orders of the commanding officer of 
 troops at the concentration camp or the converse. Cordial co- 
 operation between these commanders is essential to the efficient 
 performance of their respective duties. 
 
 The commander of the port of embarkation prepares the 
 schedules for the distribution and embarkation of the troops, 
 materiel, and supplies on transports. The commander of the camp 
 issues the orders necessary to carry out the schedules. Under all 
 conditions these schedules will be made only after consultation 
 with the commander of the troops involved. 
 
 When a landing or disembarkation in the face of opposition 
 is anticipated, the distribution and plan of embarkation is made to 
 suit the tactical requirements of the situation, and in case of dif- 
 ference of opinion the final decision rests with the commander cf 
 the troops. When no opposition to landing is expected the final 
 decision rests with the commander of the port of embarkation. 
 
 Transports are fitted for the service for which intended, and 
 are classified as: Troop transports, animal transports, cargo trans- 
 ports, and hospital ships. 
 
584 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Ordinarily the troops to form an expedition are assembled 
 in temporary camps near the port of embarkation several days be- 
 fore the probable date of sailing. When the fleet has control of 
 the sea, and single transports may therefore carry re-enforcements 
 without escort, arrangements may be made to march the troops 
 from the cars direct to the transports. 
 
 The order of embarkation of an army and its distribution 
 on board ship are governed by its tactical application on landing 
 and the order in which its component parts will be required on 
 shore. The probable order of disembarkation should therefore be 
 determined beforehand. Provided space is not unduly sacrificed, 
 units are embarked complete with their animals and materiel, but 
 if special rapidity of disembarkation is important, mounted troops 
 should be divided up by troops, batteries, etc., amongst the trans- 
 ports instead of being conveyed in a few separate vessels. 
 
 On the day set for sailing, all camp equipage and baggage 
 still in possession of the troops and required to be stowed on the 
 transport are conveyed to the wharf, accompanied by details of 
 men to load this property and to guard it pending the arrival of 
 the command. 
 
 Stores that will be required first on disembarking should be 
 put on board last; the ammunition is loaded first and put in the 
 magazine, which is locked and the key kept by the master. The 
 property and baggage of each company should be stored separately 
 as far as possible, and every article and package should be properly 
 labeled. 
 
 Vehicles need not, as a rule, be knocked down, but should 
 be hoisted aboard loaded. The height to which military vehicles 
 should be loaded will in no case exceed 8 feet 6 inches from the 
 ground. Poles of wagons should be lashed to them. 
 
 Aeroplanes may either be embarked in a partially dismantled 
 condition or be completely dismantled and packed in boxes and 
 treated as ordinary stores. The former method has the advantage 
 of rapidity, but a special ship with open decks and large hatches 
 should be provided for the purpose. 
 
 Commanding officers of organizations supervise the loading 
 of stores and animals for which they are responsible. 
 
 • Departure from camp should be so timed that the whole 
 command will be on board for the first meal which is served at 
 the next regular meal -hour after embarkation. 
 
 The command is marched to the pier at convenient intervals, 
 in such formations as the commanding officer of troops may direct. 
 The first transport guard under command of its officer marches 
 with the first battalion. Upon arrival at the pier the guard is 
 marched on board and is immediately posted and instructed under 
 the direction of the new officer of the day. 
 
TRANSPORT AND CONVOYS 585 
 
 The assignment of quarters having been previously explained 
 to company commanders, the command is then marched on board 
 by company, and each company is conducted to its quarters; rifles 
 are placed in the racks and packs and equipment stowed in the 
 proper places. To avoid confusion and to keep the gangways clear, 
 all men not on duty are held in their quarters until the whole 
 command is embarked. 
 
 The men should be informed as to the location of the water 
 supply, latrines, and wash rooms, and the rules as to their use. 
 
 After the command has embarked neither officers nor men 
 are allowed to leave the ship without authority of the commanding 
 officer of troops. 
 
 No one goes on the bridge except the commanding officer 
 of troops and the authorized ship's officers and employees, and 
 these only when their duties require it. 
 
 The men are assigned to messes and informed of the ship's 
 orders and the ship's signals. 
 
 TRANSPORTATION OF ANIMALS 
 
 For the transportation of animals the transport service 
 should be equipped with large steamers provided with bilge keels. 
 The interior fittings should be of the most substantial character, 
 the construction and arrangement of stalls being in accordance 
 with approved plans on file in the office of the Quartermaster 
 General. 
 
 Before loading the animals the quartermaster in charge 
 should satisfy himself that ample forage and water are provided 
 for the voyage; that the provisions for lighting and ventilation are 
 satisfactory; that there is a sufficient number of attendants; that 
 adequate veterinary supplies, disinfectants, and appliances for feed- 
 ing, watering, grooming, and policing are on board, and that the 
 ship is clean and sanitary. 
 
 All animals suffering from infectious or contagious disease 
 and those which are weak or very old should be separated as unfit 
 for embarkation. 
 
 For short voyages and immediate service upon landing the 
 animals may be shod; but when the voyage is to occupy a month 
 or more the shoes should be removed. 
 
 Animals should not be watered or fed for several hours bo- 
 fore embarkation. 
 
 EMBARKATION 
 
 With the transport at the wharf the animals are led on board 
 on ramps, or they are hoisted by means of slings or flying stalls. 
 
586 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 The ramps, decks, etc., should be covered with sawdust or litter; 
 the ramps should have closed sides 5 feet high. On reaching the 
 stable deck the animals are at once led to the farthest stalls, where 
 a feed of hay should be ready for them. 
 
 When animals are slung, all the apparatus is carefully in- 
 spected beforehand, and great care is taken to prevent injury in 
 hoisting or lowering. Timid or restive horses should be blind- 
 folded. 
 
 When a transport can not move alongside a wharf the 
 animals must be conveyed to it in lighters or flatboats and hoisted 
 or led on board. To reach the lighters from shore, gangways or 
 temporary platforms may be used. 
 
 Horses that are accustomed to each other should be put in 
 contiguous stalls. 
 
 In rough weather, bags filled with anything soft will often 
 preserve animals from injury. 
 
 TONNAGE TABLES 
 
 Gross tonnage is the total cubic space below deck and the 
 total cubic contents of closed spaces above deck. Net tonnage is 
 the gross tonnage minus all spaces not available for freight and 
 after deducting accommodation for crew and space ^occupied by 
 engine rooms, coal bunkers, etc. Gross and net tonnage are figured 
 at 100 cubic feet per ton. Freight tonnage is a measure of cubic 
 capacity, a freight ton being 40 cubic feet of cargo space. 
 
 In making calculations as to gross tonnage required by a 
 body of troops, 4 tons per man and 9 tons per animal and 10 tons 
 per vehicle for ocean voyages should be allowed. For short voy- 
 ages the above allowances for men and animals would be reduced 
 as no fittings would be provided for the men, and only the simplest 
 fittings, consistent with security, for the horses. 
 
 As regards the tonnage required for guns, vehicles, etc., the 
 stowage of such articles depends solely on clear deck or floor space, 
 and all height above that of the vehicle is lost tonnage. In some 
 ships the holds may be only just deep enough to take the highest 
 vehicles, while in others there may be several feet to spare, yet 
 only the same number of vehicles can be stowed in each. 
 
 CONVOYS BY LAND AND WATER 
 
 The term convoy on land is usually applied to those trains 
 by which supplies are forwarded to an army from depots or maga- 
 zines in rear, and to trains bringing in supplies collected by requisi- 
 tion. The trains directly attached to a military force are generally 
 sufficiently protected by the presence of troops and by train guards. 
 
TRANSPORT AND CONVOYS 587 
 
 Wagon Convoys. — As the difficulty of controlling and pro- 
 tecting a convoy increases rapidly with its length, it should not, as 
 a rule, contain more than 100 wagons. Such a train occupies about 
 1 mile of road space. An officer, with such assistants as may be 
 available, is placed in charge of the transportation. He divides the 
 train into sections of 20 to 30 wagons and places a non-commis- 
 sioned officer or wagon master in charge of each section. Military 
 police are assigned to preserve order, protect property, render 
 assistance in case of accidents, and take part in the defense. With 
 hired or impressed transportation a strong guard is required. 
 
 A convoy marches with a distance of about 25 yards between 
 sections, about 2 yards between wagons, and at a rate of 2 to 2^'2 
 miles an hour, including halts. The march is similar to that of a 
 body of troops, except for breathing spells in ascending long slopes 
 and delays to lock wheels on steep descents. Long halts are 
 avoided. The slov/est teams are placed in the lead. Broken 
 wagons are removed from the road, their loads being transferred 
 to spare wagons or distributed among other wagons of the train. 
 
 Security. — Security for a convoy is furnished by the escort, 
 which, as a rule, is composed of infantry, with enough cavalry for 
 scouting and communication, and some engineers. The proportion 
 of cavalry varies, being greater in open than in close country. The 
 strength of the escort depends upon the importance and size of 
 the train, the risk, nature of the country, length of journey, etc. 
 A train containing explosives requires a strong escort in order to 
 keep the enemy from firing into it. 
 
 The senior line officer on duty with the troops commands 
 the convoy. He consults with the officer in charge of the trans- 
 portation, and, if practicable, defers to the later's wishes as to the 
 hours of starting, length of marches, parking of the train, military 
 police, etc., Officers casually with a convoy exercise no authority 
 therein. 
 
 Distribution of Troops. — When a convoy is to march, the 
 commander assigns military police to the different sections, and 
 distributes the remainder of the escort. The advance cavalry, if 
 any, precedes the train 3 to 5 miles, scouting to the front and flanks. 
 It is accompanied by the necessary guides and interpreters. Care- 
 ful examination is made of bridges and defiles and of the country 
 in the vicinity; temporary guards are left at such points until the 
 support comes up. The remainder of the advance guard marches 
 about a mile in front of the train. The advance guard commander 
 examines the country with a view to selecting suitable places for 
 halting or parking the convoy, should the enemy be encountered. 
 The head of the train is never permitted to enter a defile until the 
 advance guard is in possession of the farther end. 
 
588 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 The main body marches at the most important point, which 
 may be near the head, in rear, or opposite the center of the train, 
 the latter being the usual position. If the main body marches 
 opposite the center it is generally advisable to place a section of 
 infantry at the head and another at the tail of the train for its 
 immediate protection. 
 
 The rear guard marches a short distance in rear of the train, 
 with the usual rear guard formation. Its strength is ordinarily 
 about one-sixth of the escort. 
 
 Camping. — The place for camping is usually selected by the 
 advance guard commander, due regard being paid to the water 
 supply, fuel, grass, and facilities for defense. A field inclosed by 
 wire fence is advantageous. Herding should not be undertaken 
 unless there is little danger from attack, or lack of forage de- 
 mands it. 
 
 On going into camp or during long halts, the train is parked, 
 the formation depending upon the proximity and character of the 
 enemy and the amount of ground available. When the enemy is 
 known to be distant the train is usually parked in column of sec- 
 tions or half sections, with distances of about 20 yards between sub- 
 divisions, and intervals of 6 to 8 yards between wagons. A com- 
 pact formation is secured by placing the wagons axle to axle and 
 tying the animals to picket lines in front of the wagons. 
 
 For purposes of defense wagons may be placed in two lines 
 facing each other, or in the form of a square, rectangle, oval or 
 circle, the poles inside; the inclosure thus formed furnishes shelter 
 for the men and animals. When there is time, wire entanglements 
 are constructed and shelter trenches dug outside the corral. 
 
 A diamond-shaped corral is recommended for emergencies, 
 as it can be rapidly formed and the march quickly resumed. The 
 animals of the first two sections are unhitched and placed inside; 
 openings are left where necessary. If the nature of the ground 
 permits, the teams of the first two sections may countermarch 
 before forming the corral, thus obviating the necessity of un- 
 hitching. The camp is protected by the necessary outposts. 
 
 Defense of a Convoy. — The chief duty of the escort is to keep 
 the enemy from gaining a position permitting effective fire on the 
 train. With efficient security a convoy can not be surprised. 
 
 The flanks of a convoy are its most vulnerable parts. If the 
 enemy is reported near, the wagons are closed up and the march 
 is continued in the most orderly manner possible; if practicable, 
 the wagons are formed in double column. 
 
 The escort fights only when necessary, and does not pursue 
 when the enemy is repulsed. If the enemy holds a commanding 
 position or a defile on the line of march, he is either dislodged by 
 the escort or the convoy takes another road. 
 
TRANSPORT AND CONVOYS 589 
 
 The advance cavalry reports the presence of the enemy with 
 the utmost dispatch so that the commander may change the direc- 
 tion of march, park the train, or, if necessary, begin a retreat. 
 
 If menaced by small parties of the enemy, a convoy continues 
 its march under protection of the escort; if attacked by a superior 
 force, the train is parked or a corral formed, skirmshers being 
 thrown out to delay the enemy and gain time for the formation. 
 The commander selects good defensive positions at some distance 
 from the train, intrenches if possible, and prepares for a stubborn 
 resistance. Couriers are dispatched to apprise the nearest troops 
 of the situation. Should the enemy be repulsed, his retreat is 
 carefully verified before the march is resumed. 
 
 If it is evident that the train can not be saved, the com- 
 mander endeavors to escape with the most valuable part, the re- 
 mainder being set on fire or otherwise destroyed. 
 
 Attack of a Convoy. — The most favorable time for attacking 
 a convoy is when it is passing through woods, a defile, or over a 
 bridge; when it is going around a sharp bend in the road; when 
 ascending or descending difficult slopes or passing over bad sec- 
 tions of the road; when the convoy is beginning to form a corral; 
 when the teams are being watered; or, generally, whenever the 
 conditions are such that the escort can not quickly prepare for 
 defense. 
 
 The attacking force endeavors to bring the convoy to a halt, 
 and to throw it into confusion by making an attack from an un- 
 expected quarter. The fire of artillery and of machine guns is 
 very effective. If a convoy is captured, the parts that can not be 
 carried off are destroyed. 
 
 CONDUCTING PRISONERS 
 
 In addition to an escort to repel attempts at rescue, a guard 
 of about 10 foot soldiers and several mounted men is required for 
 every 100 prisoners. The captives are formed into companies and 
 marched in column, their officers marching separately. Prisoners 
 are treated kindly, but must be given to understand that any at- 
 tempt to escape will draw fire. If the convoy is attacked, they are 
 ordered to lie down. At night they are placed in suitable well- 
 lighted buildings or inclosures. 
 
 CONVOYS BY WATER 
 
 On interior waterways, water transportation derives its 
 security principally from the presence of troops in the field. For 
 protection against guerillas and raiding parties, a shallow-draft 
 
WO MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 steamboat, provided with machine guns and shelter against rifle 
 fire, carries part of the escor£ and precedes the transports. Means 
 for rapidly disembarking the escort are provided in order that 
 hostile parties on shore may be quickly dislodged. In the case of 
 narrow streams or canals lined with woods or other cover, it may 
 be necessary to have the escort march on both flanks and clear the 
 country as it advances. 
 
 At sea, on the Great Lakes, and on large rivers, inlets, and 
 estuaries, convoy escort duty is performed by the navy in accord- 
 ance with the following rules prepared by the joint board: 
 
 1. All matters relating to the purchase, charter, fitting out, 
 equipping, and maintenance of transports, engaging their officers 
 and crews, and providing rules for their government, their interior 
 discipline and administration, is controlled by the army. 
 
 2. If practicable, all transports carrying troops or animals 
 are supplied with distilling apparatus adequate for the supply of 
 water required. As a reserve in case of emergency, a distilling 
 ship, furnished by the navy, if practicable, accompanies each 
 convoy. 
 
 3. All matters relating to the loading of the transports with 
 troops, animals, or stores, and the quota or cargo to be assigned 
 each vessel, is under the charge of the army. The discharge of 
 troops, animals, and stores from the transports into the boats and 
 their transfer in boats to the shore is in charge of the navy, and is 
 carried out at such time and in such order as the army commander 
 may decide. 
 
 4. An expedition oversea which requires naval convoy being 
 decided upon, as soon as the transports begin to assemble at the 
 rendezvous a naval officer of suitable rank appointed as convoy 
 commander and is supplied with information concerning the 
 strength of the expedition and its proposed objective. The army 
 authorities furnishes him with facilities for inspecting the trans- 
 ports as they assemble, for the purpose of ascertaining whether 
 they are properly fitted with ground tackle, boats, lines, and all 
 equipment necessary for the proper management and control of the 
 convoy while in transit and while disembarking men and animals 
 under the conditions which will probably be met. Defects in this 
 direction are by him called to the attention of the proper army 
 authority, who uses every effort to remedy such defects, in accord- 
 ance with the judgment of the naval convoy commander. 
 
 5. A naval lieutenant and a junior or warrant officer and four 
 quartermasters or signalmen for each transport and supply vessel 
 under convoy are supplied by the Navy Department and are de- 
 tailed by the naval convoy commander to the vessels when they are 
 ready to proceed to the anchorage determined upon as the final 
 rendezvous for departure. Means of making flag, hand semaphore, 
 
TRANSPORT AND CONVOYS 591 
 
 and wigwag signals by day and night are also provided by the 
 Navy Department. 
 
 6. The orders as to the destination of convoy and time of 
 sailing are issued by the army commanding officer under the 
 authority of the War Department and communicated to the naval 
 convoy commander. Should circumstances arise after sailing which 
 render a change in plan or destination necessary or desirable, which 
 change it is not practicable to refer to higher authority, the army 
 commander, after consultation with the naval convoy commander, 
 decides as to such change. The naval convoy commander has 
 control of all movements of the convoy and establishes all orders 
 of sailing and formation. He makes provision for emergencies, 
 such as an attack by an enemy or dispersion of the convoy by 
 weather or other circumstances. He makes his subordinates, 
 placed on the transports and supply vessels, familiar with his dis- 
 positions and plans. Should the transports be separated from the 
 convoying vessels by accident or design, the senior naval officer 
 present and on duty takes charge of the convoy and controls its 
 movements in accordance with the plans of the convoy commander. 
 
 7. The senior naval officer attached to a transport or supply 
 vessel, under the authority of the naval convoy commander and in 
 obedience to his orders and signals, controls entirely movements 
 of the vessel in which he is embarked, including her anchorage. 
 He has no other authority on board. The master and officers of 
 the vessel perform their navigation duties affecting her speed and 
 movement under his direction, and should there be any opposition 
 to or interference with his authority in any way he calls upon the 
 commanding officer of troops on board, who takes such steps with 
 the force under his command as may be necessary to enforce the 
 authority of the naval officer attached to the vessel. 
 
 8. The time, place, and order of landing is decided upon by 
 the army officer commanding, who consults with the naval convoy 
 commander as to naval assistance, such as the covering and pro- 
 tection of the landing by the artillery of the men-of-war and use 
 of naval boats. This assistance the naval convoy commander ren- 
 ders to the utmost extent practicable and with the sole object in 
 view of assisting to the utmost the plan of campaign of the army 
 commanding officer. After the order of landing is made known to 
 him, the naval convoy commander, in accordance therewith, con- 
 trols the placing of the transports and supply vessels for disem- 
 barking the troops, animals, munitions, and stores, and controls 
 the loading and unloading of boats and has control over such area 
 of the beach as may be necessary for the proper execution of the 
 above. The naval convoy commander also controls the withdrawal 
 of transports, when discharged, to the harbor and anchorage 
 
 38 
 
592 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 selected. In case of re-embarkation under naval convoy the same 
 general procedure governs. 
 
 9. It is deemed desirable that the army commanding officer, 
 if convenient, be embarked in the flagship of the naval convoy com- 
 mander. If not convenient, the army commanding officer's trans- 
 port should be out of the formation and near the flagship of the 
 naval convoy commander, in order that communication between 
 them may be readily had at any time, and in this case the senior 
 naval officer assigned to transports should be embarked in the 
 same transport as the army commanding officer. 
 
 TONNAGE TABLES 
 
 Gross tonnage is the total cubic space below deck and the 
 total cubic contents of closed spaces above deck. 
 
 Net tonnage is the gross tonnage minus all spaces not avail- 
 able for freight and after deducting accommodation for the crew 
 and space occupied by engine rooms, coal bunkers, etc. 
 
 Freight tonnage is a measure of cubic capacity, a freight- 
 ton being 40 cubic feet of cargo space. 
 
 In making calculations as to the tonnage required by a body 
 of troops 4 tons per man and 12 tons per horse for ocean voyages, 
 and 2 tons per man and 8 tons per horse for short voyages should 
 be allowed. An ocean voyage in this connection means that troops 
 are conveyed in transports fitted up in accordance with the Ad- 
 miralty Transport Regulations. For short voyages no fittings for 
 men would be provided and only the simplest fittings, consistent 
 with security, for the horses. 
 
 As regards the tonnage required for guns, vehicles, etc., the 
 stowage of such articles depends solely on clear floor space, and 
 all height above that of the vehicles is lost tonnage. In some ships 
 the holds may be only just deep enough to take the highest 
 vehicles, while in others there may be 9 or 10 feet to spare, yet 
 only the same number of vehicles can be stowed in each. No 
 attempt is, therefore, made to give this information. The space 
 required for the various vehicles in common use can be obtained 
 from prepared tables. 
 
CHAPTER XXI 
 
 WHEEL, PACK AND MOTOR TRANSPORTATION 
 AND TRANSPORT EQUIPMENT 
 
 In wheel transportation, the wagon is the unit, and each 
 animal can haul, on a conservative estimate, 1,200 pounds gross or 
 700 pounds net load. In pack transportation, the animal is the unit, 
 and each can carry, also on a conservative estimate, 300 pounds 
 gross or 225 pounds net load. A given quantity of freight carried 
 on packs requires three times as many animals as would be neces- 
 sary to carry it on wheels. The larger number of animals means 
 a proportionate increase of the forage to be provided and in the 
 labor of feeding, shoeing, etc. If, however, the country and sea- 
 son are favorable for grazing, the pack mule will get on without 
 any forage, while the draft mule can not. Other disadvantages of 
 pack service are that packages must be limited in size and weight 
 much more closely than for wagons; long articles, as tent poles, 
 can not conveniently be carried except by special construction, and 
 loading of pack cargoes is an expert service which must be per- 
 formed by a few trained men, while loading of wagons is work in 
 which all can participate. 
 
 The great advantage of pack transportation is its mobility, 
 and this consideration is often paramount. A good pack train, 
 well handled, can make 2 miles to 1 of the best wagon trains on 
 good roads and more on bad ones, and can besides go where there 
 are no roads and where the country is so rough that roads could 
 hardly be made and wagons could not pass them if they were made. 
 
 Wagon transportation should be used unless the country is 
 impracticable or the rate of march too rapid for wheels. The per- 
 manent pack train should be limited to the probable requirements 
 of rapidly moving columns, and in those the baggage, etc., should 
 be kept down to an absolute minimum. When great difficulties of 
 wagon transportation are foreseen, the draft mules should be 
 broken to pack service and enough aparejos carried in the train so 
 that in case the wagons must be abandoned, % to l /3 of the loads 
 may be placed on the mules and the march continued. The combi- 
 nation of harness and pack saddle which naturally suggests itself in 
 this connection, is not practicable. Such a combination would make 
 a very poor harness and a worse pack saddle. 
 
594 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 The mule is the standard draft and pack animal of the United 
 States service. He can best be described and understood by not- 
 ing his points of difference from the horse, which he resembles 
 very closely. The points of difference in conformation are mainly 
 larger, thicker head, longer ears and smaller feet, larger girth, 
 shorter legs, and longer body. The relative disposition of bones 
 and their angles are the same as for the horse. 
 
 Where extensive bogs are found, as in some parts of Alaska, 
 horses are used for pack service, selection and breeding being 
 conducted with a view to the maximum size of foot. 
 
 The mule is tougher and hardier than the horse, less sub- 
 ject to disease or to inflammation from slight injuries, and usually 
 yields more readily to treatment. He is nearly exempt from some 
 common diseases of the horse, and especially from colds In the 
 field, colic and kicks or other contusions, are his principal troubles. 
 When injured he does not exhibit lameness as quickly as the horse, 
 and on this account needs more careful watching. 
 
 Selection of Mules. — The cross between a jack and a mare 
 is that most used and is the best. Of these, experience seems to 
 indicate that mules resemble the sire — that is, small or medium 
 sized, with strong markings, large ears, and small feet — are hardier, 
 while those resembling the mare, good-sized, smaller ears, larger 
 feet, and no jack markings, are likely to show less endurance. 
 Color does not seem to give any indication of constitution or dis- 
 position except as above noted. Mules for immediate use should 
 not be taken under 4 years old. A mule sound and healthy at 4 
 years should, with proper care and treatment, last until he is 18. 
 
 A mule should be judged as to his age, strength, endurance, 
 and disposition. Indications of age are not very precise as to exact 
 years, but are clear enough as to the question whether the mule 
 is too young or too old for service. At 4 years, which should be 
 the minimum age, 4 of the 6 incisors in each jaw are permanent, 
 and the others, the end ones, are temporary or milk teeth. The 
 difference is plain, as the milk teeth are white and smaller than the 
 others and are smooth outside and grooved inside while the perma- 
 nent teeth are grooved outside and smooth inside. 
 
 For indications of disposition look to the head and eye. 
 Avoid mules with extra long heads; also those with hollow or 
 dish faces. The eyes should be set well apart and stand out 
 prominently. Eyes close together or sunken show a mean dis- 
 position. A good mule has a soft, kindly look in his eye which is 
 difficult to describe but is easily recognized. The ears should be 
 mobile, and in young animals constantly moving; one pointing 
 forward and one back is a good sign; laying both ears clear back 
 when approached is a bad sign; but animals at rest and undis- 
 turbed frequently lay the ears back. 
 
WHEEL, PACK AND MOTOR TRANSPORTATION 595 
 
 Feeding. — The ration for the mule is 9 pounds of oats or 
 corn and 14 pounds of hay, the latter the same as for the horse, 
 the former % less. Bran when issued is in lieu of grain, pound 
 for pound. One hundred pounds of straw per month is allowed 
 for bedding, or the same amount of hay if straw can not be had. 
 The smaller grain ration is determined by the smaller average 
 size of the mule and does not mean that he is a lighter eater than 
 the horse or that he can do the same work with less nutrition. 
 The ration is right for the average mule at average work. If he 
 is extra large or is worked beyond this limit, he must have more 
 grain or its equivalent in other food, or he will fall off in con- 
 dition. 
 
 While the mule is less particular about his food than the 
 horse, and will keep himself alive when a horse would starve, it 
 is none the less important that his food should be clean and sound. 
 He. is particularly sensitive to sudden changes of diet even when 
 the old food and the new is each good of its kind. Changes from 
 grain to grass and the reverse, or from one kind of grain to an- 
 other, should be made gradually. In addition to a proper quantity 
 of food, the animal must have time to eat it. All of the hay and 
 more than half' of the grain should be fed at night, and the morn- 
 ing feed should be given at least an hour before hitching up. Pack 
 mules frequently have the entire ration at night and are not fed at 
 all in the morning. In the field, the mules can be fed at the picket 
 line by putting a layer of hay along the line, making a hollow or 
 nest in front of each mule and pouring the grain into it. When 
 no hay is fed and the ground is not dry and clean, lay down sacks 
 on which to place the grain. 
 
 Bran moistened with water to the consistency of brown 
 sugar should be given occasionally, and always if there are signs 
 of constipation. It may be given alone or mixed with a part ra- 
 tion of grain. It must be freshly mixed to make sure that it is 
 not in the least sour. This and a little fresh grass when it can be 
 had are sufficient usually to keep the bowels right. Purgatives 
 should not be given except under the advice of a veterinarian or 
 when constipation persists in spite of the simple remedies sug- 
 gested. An ounce of nitrate of potash, or, if this can not be had, 
 about a pint of wood ashes mixed with the bran mash, will slightly 
 increase its laxative effect. 
 
 Salt. — Mules require a certain amount of salt, of which they 
 are the best judges. The allowance is 2 ounces per week for each 
 animal, which may be increased to 12 ounces per month, in the 
 discretion of the commanding officer. In a corral, lumps of rock 
 salt may be kept in boxes from which the mules will lick as much 
 as they need. If glanders should make its appearance anywhere in 
 the vicinity, the use of these boxes should be discontinued and salt 
 
596 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 fed to the animals separately. This is best done in the bran mash. 
 On the march salt must be fed in the same way. If the mules are 
 found licking each other or the harness, or gnawing wagons or 
 mangers, it is an indication of lack of salt. 
 
 If the mules are herded for grazing at night, there should 
 be a bell horse to keep them from straggling. The bell horse 
 should be hobbled but not picketed if it can be avoided. There 
 also should be a herd guard on duty. Pack animals are habitually 
 trained to follow a bell horse, but draft mules are not. Horses 
 have a peculiar fascination for the mule, and if one is turned into 
 a corral with a bunch of mules for 2 or 3 days, they will follow 
 him anywhere and can not be induced to leave him. If a pack 
 train is short of grain, the bell horse should have an ample ration, 
 since he can not graze along the line of march while the pack 
 mules can and do. 
 
 In open country a white or gray bell horse will make it possi- 
 ble to locate the train at a much greater distance. This may or may 
 not be desirable, according to circumstances. This remark ap- 
 plies also to white or gray mules. 
 
 Water. — A mule requires from 4 to 6 gallons of water a day, 
 depending on the season and his work. In an arid climate 2 or 3 
 times as much may be required. In an emergency, he may be 
 worked with what he will drink at one watering a day, but when- 
 ever possible he should be watered two or three times a day. In 
 corrals there should be, except in freezing weather, a constant 
 supply so that the animals can drink whenever they desire to do so. 
 It is as important that the water be pure and wholesome as for 
 any other animal. In fact the mule is rather particular about his 
 drinking water. In every herd, some animals will refuse water 
 which others drink and which appears to be good. No pains should 
 be spared to find water which these animals will drink. 
 
 If the mules have had enough water at night they often will 
 not drink before starting in the morning. In such case every effort 
 must be made to get water at the end of the first hour's march. 
 Especial attention is required on this point, as the watering of 
 draft mules on the road generally involves unhitching the teams 
 or carrying the water in buckets, either of which operations causes 
 trouble and delay and is likely to be neglected. In crossing a 
 Stream with soft bottom, if the mules are thirsty they should be 
 watered before driving in; otherwise they may stop to drink and 
 mire themselves or the wagon. A stream encountered at the end of 
 a march should usually be crossed before going into camp. 
 
 Disease and Treatment. — The normal condition of a mule 
 is indicated by a pulse of 34 to 38 per minute, and a temperature 
 of 99 degress. The pulse can best be taken inside the lower jaw 
 or inside the foreleg just above the fetlock. Temperature is taken 
 
WHEEL, PACK AND MOTOR TRANSPORTATION 597 
 
 by a clinical thermometer inserted in the rectum for five minutes. 
 Disease is almost always accompanied by an increase of tempera- 
 ture or pulse, or both. The pulse may run to 100 per minute 
 or even more. A strong, full pulse of normal rates is a very good 
 indication of freedom from disease or injury. The temperature in 
 some diseases runs from 107 to 109 degrees. In taking either tem- 
 perature or pulse, avoid exciting or worrying the animal. The nor- 
 mal rate of respiration when at rest is 12 per minute. 
 
 The diseases and injuries here described include those most 
 likely to be encountered in field service, those in which effective 
 treatment can be given by persons who are not skilled veterinari- 
 ans, and those in which prompt action is necessary to prevent 
 contagion. 
 
 Administration of Medicines. — Liquid medicines are given as 
 a drench. Put the liquid into a long-necked bottle without a 
 shoulder, and see that there are no sharp edges or projections 
 about the mouth or neck. Raise the animal's head until the mouth 
 is higher than the throat. Insert the neck of the bottle in the 
 side of the mouth between the incisors and the molars. Point it 
 toward the throat and allow the medicine to run out slowly and 
 with intermissions if necessary. 
 
 Powders without any disagreeable taste or oder may be dis- 
 solved in water and sprinkled on the feed or put into the drinking 
 water. 
 
 Balls to contain dry medicines may be made by the ad- 
 dition of honey, sirup, or soap, using oil meal if necessary for re- 
 quired consistency. They should be about 2 inches long and f£ 
 inch in diameter, freshly made, and inclosed in tissue paper or 
 gelatine capsules. 
 
 The mixture may be given a sticky consistency and placed 
 on the tongue with a paddle or spoon. This form is called an 
 electuary. 
 
 Diarrhoea. — Usually results from too laxative diet or ex- 
 posure. Put the animal on dry feed without salt and keep dry 
 and warm. Do not work more than necessary. In aggravated 
 cases give ^4 pint of raw linseed oil or 1 dram of powdered opium. 
 
 Spasmodic Colic. — The animal appears to be in distress, 
 looks around at its flanks, paws, kicks at its belly, attempts to 
 evacuate the bowels and to pass urine. Pulse and respiration 
 accelerated. The attacks are intermittent and between them the 
 animal returns to apparently normal condition. 
 
 Give a drench of 1 pint of raw linseed oil. If the animal 
 has not been overfed and the case is light, 1 dram of powdered 
 ginger mixed in water will do. Give ample room to move about. 
 
 Flatulent Colic. — More serious and less frequent than the 
 former; pain apparently less severe, but continuous; animal un- 
 
598 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 steady on its legs; extremities cold; excessive distention of 
 abdomen. In severe cases it is necessary to puncture the animal 
 to relieve the distention. The puncture is made in the right 
 flank in the space bounded by the backbone, the hip bone, and 
 the last rib, and at the point of greatest distension. The puncture 
 is made with the trocar directly downward and inward. Leave the 
 cannula in the opening temporarily. 
 
 Poll Evil. — An abscess on the top of the head immediately 
 behind the ears. Troublesome mainly for its unfavorable situation 
 for treatment. Keep bowels open and reduce inflammation by 
 applications of cold water. After pus has formed, open clear to 
 the bottom so that pus can readily run out from the lowest part. 
 Poultice and keep open until discharge of pus has entirely stopped. 
 Use antiseptic dressings. 
 
 Strangles. — An inflammation of the glands of the throat 
 and neck, resulting in the formation of an abscess. Good care 
 and soft food, varied as much as possible to stimulate the appetite, 
 are all that is required until the tumor heads, when it should be 
 freely opened and drained until it is free of pus. 
 
 Glanders. — A yellowish, sticky discharge from the nose, with 
 ulcers inside the nostrils, at first distinct, then with ragged edges 
 and finally confluent; enlargement and hardening of one or both 
 glands below the jaws; staring coat; difficult respiration; extreme 
 debility and profuse perspiration on the slightest exertion; fetid 
 odor from nostrils in advanced cases. The disease is contagious 
 and incurable. As soon as suspected, the animal must be isolated, 
 and when the disease is recognized, he should be killed and burned 
 or deeply buried. 
 
 Farcy. — A different and milder manifestation of the same 
 poison as in glanders. Ulcers appear on head, body or legs; they 
 are commonly called farcy buds or buttons. When the legs are 
 affected, they swell, and the buds are usually below the knees 
 or hocks., oftenest in a line down the front of the fore leg, begin- 
 ning at top and running to the bottom. In the early stage, the 
 buds are hard lumps beneath the skin. Later they enlarge and 
 suppurate through the skin. Before this condition is reached, the 
 animal should be killed. 
 
 Surra. — A disease resembling glanders, prevalent in the 
 Philippine Islands. It is probably a wound disease, caused by con- 
 tact of the infectious agent with a wounded surface, either skin 
 or mucous membrane. At first loss of appetite, constipation, fever 
 and thirst; later a dropsical swelling, usually beginning around 
 the belly and immediately or quickly extending to legs and feet, 
 with rapid and extreme emaciation. Sometimes the submaxillary 
 glands are involved, with discharge from the nose resembling that 
 of glanders. A very characteristic symptom is dragging the hind 
 
WHEEL, PACK AND MOTOR TRANSPORTATION 599 
 
 feet in walking. The disease runs from 3 to 4 weeks and some- 
 times longer. No remedy is as yet known. Isolate as soon as 
 suspected, and, when the diagnosis is certain, destroy the animal 
 and burn or bury the carcass. 
 
 Mange. — Small pustules form on the skin,, usually beginning 
 at the roots of mane and tail. The discharges form a crust under 
 which the hair loosens and falls out. The disease is contagious and 
 animals affected must be isolated and usual precautions taken. 
 Cleanse the affected parts thoroughly with soap and water. If 
 the skin is affected over a large surface, only a part of it should 
 be gone over with the carbolic solution each day, to avoid car- 
 bolic-acid poisoning. 
 
 Scratches. — An inflamed condition of the skin of the heel 
 with crusts giving a watery discharge. Caused by exposure to wet 
 and cold, sometimes by trimming the fetlocks. Keep the parts 
 dry and clean. Wash, if at all, with warm water and castile soap 
 and dry thoroughly after washing. If the skin is unbroken, use 
 fresh lard and vaseline; dust with powdered alum twice a day. A 
 dry place for the animal to stand is necessary to a cure. 
 
 Thrust. — A disease of the frog, usually behind, accompanied 
 by an offensive discharge. It results from uncleanliness. Keep 
 the frog clean and dry; pare away ragged parts and open the 
 cracks to facilitate discharge; dust with calomel and dress with 
 iodoform or pine tar. 
 
 Laminitis or Founder. — An acute inflammation of the proc- 
 esses which connect the wall of the hoof with the coffin bone. 
 More common in the front feet; very painful and causes extreme 
 lameness and stiffness with much heat in the foot. Overexer- 
 tion, indigestion and watering when heated are most frequent 
 causes. The animal can scarcely be induced to move and tries to 
 take the weight off the toes by standing on the heels, or, if the 
 fore feet only are affected, by drawing the hind feet forward 
 under the body. 
 
 Lockjaw. — Induced by pricking the foot with rusty iron, or 
 by punctured wounds. The disease is caused by a microbe which 
 thrives in rich soils,, as of highly cultivated gardens, and in the 
 tropics. Common in the Philippine Islands as a result of punc- 
 tured wounds. 
 
 There is difficulty in swallowing and rigidity of the limbs; 
 ears erect and to the front; nostrils dilated; legs spread apart, and 
 tail persistently held erect. General muscular rigidity; obstinate 
 constipation and torpidity of the liver. The climax usually comes 
 in 3 or 4 days. 
 
 Rope Burns. — Abrasion of the skin under the fetlock by 
 rubbing against a rope. Very frequent, especially with mules 
 not accustomed to being tethered or picketed. If not severe, 
 
600 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 cleanse with soap and apply ointments or any kind of clean 
 grease. For severe cases, use the same treatment and bandage. 
 
 Pricking the Foot. — This may result from picking up a 
 nail or from one improperly driven in the shoe. If the point of 
 injury can not be seen, locate it by pressure. The mule will flinch 
 when the sore spot is touched. If suppuration has not set in, 
 clean the part, treat it with antiseptic, and stop the orifice with 
 a plug of sterilized material. If pus has formed, a free exit for 
 it must be provided and maintained. It may be necessary to cut 
 away a considerable amount of horn to do this. A puncture of 
 the frog is managed in a similar way. 
 
 Wounds and Bruises. — The prime requisites of treatment are 
 the arrest of hemorrhage; removal of foreign objects if possible; 
 cleansing and sterilizing the wound; replacement of parts in 
 proper relative positions by stitches or bandages, and a provi- 
 sion for the discharge of pus from the bottom of the wound. In 
 some cases the greatest possible freedom from motion is de- 
 sirable. 
 
 The healing of wounds in mules is almost always by sup- 
 puration. Before the tissues unite they assume a granular ap- 
 pearance. This granulation should begin at the deepest part and 
 progress regularly outward. If granulation appears first near the 
 outside, care must be taken to preserve a channel by which the 
 pus may discharge freely from below. A tube, or a string of tow 
 or other clean fibrous material dipped in melted wax or paraffin, 
 will answer. This can be withdrawn when the wound is dressed,, 
 the accumulated pus pressed out, and the string replaced. 
 
 Spring Tonic. — If mules are sluggish in early spring, lose 
 their appetites, and are slow in shedding out, their condition may 
 be improved by giving a small quantity of saltpeter in soft feed 
 once a week for a month or so. If nothing else can be had, 
 give a teaspoonful of powdered sulphur and a half pint of wood 
 ashes. 
 
 Shoeing. — A mule's feet are designed to carry his weight 
 partly on the lower edge of the outer wall and partly on the 
 sole and frog. The pressure of the frog on the ground gives 
 a better foothold, and besides causes a lateral pressure on the 
 inside of the wall which resists the natural tendency of the hoof 
 to contract. The wall is constantly growing, and on a soft 
 elastic footing it wears away at a rate equal to its growth and 
 is always of the right length to take its share of the load. On 
 a harder footing, such as is presented by most roads, the wall 
 wears faster than it grows, and is constantly shortening, letting 
 the sole down so that it carries too much of the load and lame- 
 ness results. To prevent this, shoeing is resorted to. But when 
 shoes are on, there is no wear of the walls, which grow longer and 
 
WHEEL, PACK AND MOTOR TRANSPORTATION 601 
 
 raise the sole and frog, removing the internal pressure from the 
 wall and allowing it to contract and cause lameness. The art of 
 good shoeing consists in providing a metal armor for the lower 
 edge of the wall with the least possible interference with any 
 other part of the foot, or with the natural relations of wall, sole, 
 and frog. If the sole and frog have received proper daily care 
 there will be no excuse for the shoer to touch either of them 
 with any tool. If the bottom of the foot is foul, the shoer may 
 clean it out, but always with a scraping, never with a cutting, tool. 
 Cutting the sole and frog is the business of the veterinarian or 
 farrier, not the shoer. 
 
 Mule shoes are supplied in several sizes. Numbers 2 to 5 
 will answer all ordinary requirements. The No. 2 shoe is 3}%. 
 inches wide by 5^ inches long, and the No. 5 is 4^4 inches wide 
 by 7 inches long; all are J / 2 inch thick, and are punched for 4 
 holes on a side. The top surface of the shoe is slightly beveled, 
 the outside being 1/32 inch higher than the inside. The nail holes 
 on each side are connected on the bottom of the shoe by a counter- 
 sunk groove. The shoes are packed in kegs of 100 lbs. each. A 
 keg of No. 2 contains 100 shoes; of No. 3, 85 shoes; of No. 4, 72 
 shoes, and of No. 5, 60 shoes. 
 
 The nails used with the above sizes of shoes are Nos. 5, 6, 7 
 and 8. No. 5 is 2 inches long; No. 6, 2% inches, No. 7, 2*4 inches 
 and No. 8, 2^2 inches. The heads and point bevels are formed on 
 the outside; the inside of the nail is a plane surface. Nails are 
 supplied in kegs of 100 lbs. No. 5 nails run 190 to the lb.; No. 6, 
 140; No. 7, 100 and No. 8, 80. 
 
 The old shoe should be carefully removed by cutting off the 
 clinches and drawing the nails singly. Starting the shoe and pry- 
 ing it off, bringing all the nails with it, is dangerous. The bottom 
 of the wall should then be cut down level with the sole at the toe 
 and left a little longer at the heel. The heel wears a little under 
 the shoe and will rarely require much cutting. The rasp is used 
 to cross level the bottom on the wall, which should be accurately 
 done, so that the mule will stand square on the shoe. The shoe is 
 now to be fitted accurately, so that its outer edge will follow the 
 circumference of the hoof all around. The fit must be made close 
 enough so that no filing of the sides of the wall will be necessary 
 to complete it. The shoe is then applied hot for a moment, and 
 the high points indicated by burning are worked down. The shoe 
 should then be applied hot long enough to slightly sear the lower 
 surface of the wall, but no longer. It should then be cooled and 
 nailed on. In nailing, begin with the front or toe nails and drive 
 them in their order to the rear. After all are driven, cut off the 
 points near the hoof, rasp the clinches thin enough to turn easily, 
 but do not let the rasp cut the horn. Turn the clinches down 
 
602 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 snug, but do not try to drive them into the hoof, nor use a file on 
 them to smooth up. 
 
 Management of Vicious Mules. — Ordinary cases can be 
 handled by lifting the foot with a strap or rope. Take hold of the 
 pastern and be sure that the rope can not slide so far as to cause 
 a burn. For a hind foot, draw forward between the legs or to a 
 collar; for a fore foot, bend sharply at the knee and strap the 
 pastern to the upper leg. For bad cases in the field, throw the 
 mule and shoe him while down. For the shop, construct a frame 
 of stout timbers in which he can be tied in every direction by 
 ropes, straps or canvas bands. Twitches on the ears should never 
 be used. If absolutely necessary to control the animal, put a 
 twitch on the nose. 
 
 Animal Power. — The capacity of an animal to exert a trac- 
 tive effort decreases as speed and time increase. As a basis, it 
 may be assumed that an average draft mule can pull on a level 80 
 pounds at 2y 2 miles an hour for 10 hours every day, or, in other 
 words, can pull 80 pounds over 25 miles of average level roads 
 every day. If a pull of 160 pounds is required, it can be made 
 over \2y 2 miles a day only, the lesser distance being covered by 
 a slower gait or longer rests, or as is usually the case, partly by 
 each. An animal can exert 2y 2 times the normal pull for a few 
 minutes at a time, and 5 times for a few seconds, provided in each 
 case the demand is not repeated too frequently. 
 
 The load which can be hauled on any pull depends mainly 
 on the kind and condition of the road and a little on the wagon, 
 especially as to width of tire and size of wheels. For the standard 
 Army wagon and on a level average dirt road in good condition 
 the load corresponding to 80 pounds standard pull may be taken 
 at 1,000 pounds per animal. Of this, 300 pounds will be wagon, 
 leaving 700 pounds net freight. Any reduction of this load to 
 lessen the pull must come out of the 700 pounds. To reduce the 
 pull to 40 pounds, 500 pounds must be taken from the freight, 
 leaving 200 pounds only to be hauled. This 200 pounds pulled 
 over 25 miles would equal 5,000 pounds pulled over 1 mile, while if 
 the full load of 700 pounds is hauled over \2 l / 2 miles, which can be 
 done with the same effort, the result equals 700X12^ = 8,750 
 pounds hauled 1 mile. If the length of the march is fixed, the 
 animals can be relieved only by reducing the pull; otherwise it is 
 better to relieve them by shortening the march. 
 
 On hilly roads there is no traction on the down grades and 
 an increased gait is usually taken without appreciable extra exer- 
 tion. This saves time, which may be spent in rests, allowing 
 greater effort on the up grades. Up to 8% grade, the load can be 
 retained by reducing the distance. Up to 3% grade, the distance 
 can be maintained by reducing the pull. Above 8%, both pull and 
 
WHEEL, PACK AND MOTOR TRANSPORTATION 603 
 
 distance must be reduced. The reduction of pull may be accom- 
 plished by removing part of the freight, by doubling up teams, or 
 by putting men on drag ropes. 
 
 The foregoing is based on the supposition that the animals 
 have the full ration every day and remain in as good condition as 
 when they started. In emergencies they can do more work than 
 indicated, but will go off in condition and some will give out en- 
 tirely. In campaign, animals are overworked as a rule, and finish in. 
 very poor condition. This is necessary because adequate transpor- 
 tation is rarely available and what there is must be worked at 
 a killing rate. When marches are intermittent, mules may be 
 pushed, since what they lose in 2 or 3 days' overwork can be made 
 up by a week's rest with good care. 
 
 Harness. — The harness supplied for heavy draft is of three 
 kinds, known as army wagon harness, 4-mule ambulance and wagon 
 harness, and ambulance harness. The first is distinguished by the 
 absence of a saddle; by its breeching, which is of flat leather un- 
 stitched, and its traces, which are of chain throughout and pass 
 through leather pipes to prevent chafing. The second is distin- 
 guished by its traces, which are of leather to the breeching, with 
 chain extensions. The third has all leather traces. 
 
 Most 6-mule teams are driven with a jerk line, the driver 
 riding the near wheeler. Four-mule teams in the bridge train are 
 driven in the same way. All other 4-mule teams are driven with 
 lines from a seat on the wagon. The 6-mule harness includes a 
 riding saddle, jerk line, check rein, jockey stick, and blacksnake 
 whip. A set of 4-mule harness includes a pair of wheel lines, a 
 pair of lead lines, a whipstock, and lash. 
 
 Proper fitting of the harness is very important. The bridle 
 should be loosely fitted, the crownpiece and throatlatch not too 
 tight; the brow band band in the right place; the cheek pieces 
 so adjusted that the bit will hang in the mouth just clear of the" 
 angle of the lips, not far from it and not touching it, especially not 
 drawing it up into wrinkles. . The bit should be of the right length 
 for the width of the jaw. Less damage will be done, however, if 
 the bit is too long than if too short. If the bit tends to irritate 
 the mule's mouth at the ends, relief may be given by putting a 
 large leather washer around the bit inside the ring. The blinds 
 must be so adjusted as not to touch the eyelashes. 
 
 The fit of the collar requires close attention. If it is too 
 small it will cut off the wind; if too large it is likely to make the 
 shoulders sore. When the collar is on and adjusted, there should 
 be room to insert the open hand between the bottom of the collar 
 and the windpipe, and not much more. Collars should always be 
 buckled when off the mules. A collar which is the right size but 
 not the right shape can be improved by soaking it in water and 
 
604 
 
 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 putting it on wet. A day's work in the rain will produce the same 
 result. The undersurface of the collar should be kept clean and 
 soft. Do not scrape it, but rub or wash it clean. The same remark 
 applies to every part of the harness which touches the mule's skin. 
 Cleaning the outside of a harness is good for the harness only; 
 cleaning the inside is good for both mule and harness. The driver 
 should be provided with two or more small pads of sheep skin with 
 throngs attached. If the skin is abraded by the harness, two of 
 these pads may be lashed to the underside, one on each side of the 
 sore, and will afford relief until the march is over and regular treat- 
 ment can be applied. The hames should be so adjusted to fit the 
 collar closely without pinching it out of shape. 
 
 ? 
 
 7TH" 01V. 2ND. VOL. ENGRS B 
 
 SctJe of Feet 
 
 T n «• ■ ■ 1 
 
 SPRING TOOL WAGON. 
 
 To clean harness, hang a set on a pole or line; wet a sponge 
 in clean water and rub gently over the harness until the dirt is 
 softened. Rinse the sponge frequently and renew the water as 
 often as necessary. Next rub the sponge on the harness soap until 
 a good lather is formed. Give the harness a thorough coating of 
 it and continue the rubbing until all dirt is removed. It may be 
 necessary to use a thin piece of wood to get some spots clean. 
 When the harness is clean rub up a very thick lather and coat the 
 leather evenly with it, allowing it to dry without rubbing. After 
 the lather has been absorbed and the leather is dry, dip a small 
 clean sponge in harness dressing and touch the harness lightly, 
 rubbing just enough to spread the dressing evenly. 
 
WHEEL, PACK AND MOTOR TRANSPORTATION 605 
 
 If the leather is very hard, after cleaning as above, take a 
 pint of neat's-foot oil and a teaspoonful of lampblack to each single 
 set. Mix thoroughly until a black glossy appearance is produced 
 and apply an even coat with a small sponge, rubbing it well in. 
 In cold weather warm the oil enough to make it flow freely, but 
 do not let it get hot. After thoroughly dry, apply harness dressing. 
 
 Harness should be looked over carefully every day. If 
 stitches are broken, leather worn or cut, or any metal parts cracked 
 or broken, have the defect remedied at once. If stitches are taken, 
 be careful not to leave knots on the inner surface of the harness. 
 Fasten at beginning and end by drop stitches. In the field provide 
 supports for the harness and keep it off the ground when not in use. 
 
 COMPANY TOOL WAGON. 
 
 Wagons. — For general freighting, the wagons in use in the 
 United States service are the army six, weighing 1,950 pounds, and 
 carrying 4,000 pounds with a 6-mule jerk-line team, and the escort, 
 weighing 1,500 pounds and carrying 3,000 pounds with a four-line 
 team. The army six-wagon is no longer furnished by the Quarter- 
 master Corps for use in campaigning, being limited to use in garri- 
 sons. 
 
 The bridge equipage is carried on two types of wagons, the 
 ponton wagon, weighing 2,200 pounds, and carrying 2,900 pounds, 
 and the chess wagon, weighing 1,750 pounds, and carrying 2,300 to 
 2,700 pounds. The ponton wagon is used for the wooden ponton. 
 The chess wagon is used for all other bridge loads. 
 
606 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 To keep a wagon in order it is only necessary to keep all 
 nuts tightened, the wheels greased, and to wash the mud off when 
 opportunity offers. Four to six pounds of axle grease per wagon 
 per month will be ample. In dry sand wagons in constant service 
 should be greased daily. On hard roads they should be greased 
 every 40 to 50 miles. Always clean off the old grease before put- 
 ing on the new. In washing use as much water and as little rub- 
 bing as possible. 
 
 The following spare parts and extras should be carried on 
 each army six and escort wagon: 1 axe; 2 extra axle nuts; 1 
 galvanized-iron bucket; 1 horse brush; 1 currycomb; 1 pick; 150 
 feet rope, ^ inch or Y\ inch; 1 doubletree; 2 cans axle grease; 1 
 lantern; 3 open links; 1 pole, extra; 1 reach,, extra; 2 singletrees; 
 1 wrench; coil of stove wire. 
 
 A similar list should be carried for the bridge wagons, but 
 preferably in supply wagons, not on the wagons themselves. For 
 the latter, spare wheels should also be carried. 
 
 Pack Saddles. — The adopted pack saddle is of the Spanish 
 type, and is commonly called by its Spanish name, aparejo. Its 
 principal parts, are the body, the cover, the cincha, and the crup- 
 per. These parts have subdivisions, which are less important, 
 The accessories added to the above to make the aparejo complete 
 are the corona, the blanket,, the lash rope with its cincha, the 
 sling ropes, the lair ropes, and the mantas or pack covers. 
 
 The body of the aparejo consists of 2 pieces of heavy leather 
 24 inches wide by 58, 60 or 62 inches long, sewed together at the 
 edges and across the middle of the length, forming 2 pouches, 
 into which moss or hay is stuffed to form pads fitting the con- 
 tour of the animal on either side of the backbone. In the Ameri- 
 can form, the pads are given a peculiar elastic stiffness by means 
 of ribs of wood or metal extending from a saddle piece at the 
 top of each pouch to a boot piece at the bottom. These ribs 
 are stiffer at the front and more flexible at the back, varying 
 uniformly between. They convert each pad into an elastic lever, 
 by which the pull of the cincha on the bottom acts to raise the 
 aparejo and its load from the backbone, while the stuffing dis- 
 tributes the load uniformly over a large space on the ribs. The 
 stuffing is introduced through a hand-hole in the middle of the 
 underside of each pad, through which it is always accessible,, and 
 the finest art of the packer consists in fitting the pads to the 
 shape of the particular animal which is to carry the aparejo, and 
 keeping them so regardless of changes in the animal's condi- 
 tion by shifting, removing, or renewing the stuffing. If a bunch 
 rises on the animal, it can be worked down by taking out stuffing 
 immediately over it so as to take off the pressure at that point. 
 Determine the proper point by wetting the top of the bunch and 
 
WHEEL, PACK AND MOTOR TRANSPORTATION 607 
 
 laying the aparejo on the mule. Aparejos and mules are num- 
 bered and the same pack is always on the same mule. 
 
 The function of the crupper is not what would naturally be 
 expected. If the aparejo is properly set up and fitted there will be 
 no tendency to move back or forward. The crupper is in reality a 
 steadying lever to keep the aparejo from rocking fore and aft as 
 the mule travels. For this purpose, the dock piece is large, 
 smooth and soft, and the crupper is wide, stiff and firmly laced 
 to the body. The crupper is adjustable in length, and must be 
 
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 APAREJO. 
 
 accurately fitted so that when the aparejo is in its proper place 
 the dock piece will ride between tail and dock without pressing 
 on either. 
 
 The cover is permanently attached to the body and may be 
 considered a part of it. 
 
 The cincha is of heavy canvas, doubled, and 10 inches wide. 
 It is long enough to reach from the«near boot under the mule 
 and around the aparejo to a little beyond the middle. The ends 
 are connected by the latigo, or cincha strap. 
 
608 
 
 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 The corona is a pad usually of several thicknesses of blanket, 
 with a number or design which identifies the pack. It is im- 
 portant that the corona shall not be separated from its aparejo. 
 
 Off the mules the aparejos are placed in a row on the 
 ground or on skids, standing on their boots. The cincha, folded 
 with the latigo inside, rests on the aparejo. The crupper is 
 turned so that the dock piece rests on the cincha. The corona is 
 placed on top of all. Canvas covers are stretched over the line 
 
 APAREJO PROPERLY ADJUSTED. 
 
 of aparejos and tied down. The line'of aparejos so arranged is 
 usually referred to as the rigging. 
 
 Each packer is provided with a blind. The mules are trained 
 to stand perfectly still when blinded, and if it is necessary to move 
 a mule even by a step, the blind should be lifted. 
 
 To place the aparejo on the mule the corona is first put 
 smoothly on, followed by the blanket folded to 6 thicknesses. The 
 aparejo is then put on slightly in rear of its place. The crupper 
 is turned, the dock piece adjusted, the aparejo settled to its place, 
 
WHEEL, PACK AND MOTOR TRANSPORTATION 609 
 
 and the cincha unfolded, placed and tightened. Never put on or 
 adjust a pack with the mule's head uphill. 
 
 Loads are divided into side packs and top packs. Side 
 packs should be of approximately equal weight and size. A keg 
 of paint on one side and an equal weight of oakum on the other 
 do not make a proper load. Side packs should not be longer than 
 30 inches, wider than 20 inches,, nor deeper than 12 inches. If the 
 side packs do not fill out a load, the rest is placed between them 
 as a top pack. Articles which by their size and shape are not 
 suitable for side packs are carried on top. The centre of gravity 
 of the entire load should be below the top of the saddle, and 
 the lower the better. For miscellaneous cargoes, the freight 
 is made up into side and top packs, each wrapped in a manta, 
 or canvas cover, and tied, or laired up with lair ropes. If a pack 
 contains articles of different weights, place the heaviest at the 
 bottom. The side packs are slung across the aparejo by the sling 
 ropes and lashed on with the lash rope and cincha in the form of 
 the diamond hitch. Such a load must remain unbroken until the 
 end of the march. 
 
 In taking off the lashed packs, the lash rope is removed; its 
 cincha laid on the ground in the middle of the line to be occu- 
 pied. The lash rope is coiled down on the cincha and its end 
 stretched out 10 feet to one side. The sling rope is then un- 
 fastened, the packs dropped from the aparejo and laid on the 
 lash rope lengthwise with the cincha. The sling rope is coiled 
 on the packs, and tne end of tne lasn rope brought up on top. The 
 cincha of the second pack is laid down on one side of the first 
 and parallel to it at 2 feet distance, but with the end of the lash 
 rope on the opposite siae. Tne packs,, etc., are placed on it. The 
 third pack is placed on the otner siae of the middle one, and so 
 on until all are down in a line. After all cargoes are off, the 
 aparejos are removed. Cargoes are also covered with pieces of 
 canvas called cargo covers. Mantas may be used if there are 
 spare ones. 
 
 Marches. — A draft mule is rested by a halt; a pack mule is 
 not unless unloaded. Wagon trains should start early and make 
 frequent halts. These should be of two classes, longer ones at 
 regular time intervals, and shorter ones of a minute or two after 
 every unusually hard pull. The length and interval of the longer 
 halts will depend upon the time and distance to be made. 
 
 As a rule, if a mule has made one dead pull, he will not 
 try to pull again on the same load in the same place. When it 
 is evident that the team must stop, the driver should stop it before 
 it is stalled; otherwise, in most cases; he can not get another pull 
 out of the team. A very slight change of conditions will often 
 encourage stalled mules to pull again. Cases have been reported 
 
610 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 in which reversing the near and off mules had the desired effect. 
 A little visible assistance, as a few men on dragropes, has an ex- 
 cellent effect. Most mules on a hard pull will not go into the 
 collar gradually as a horse does, but will throw themselves for- 
 ward, and if the load does not move,, will immediately fall back. 
 It is difficult to get a steady lay-down pull out of a team of mules 
 in which every animal is doing his best at the same moment. A. 
 team of two mules on a hard pull will often seesaw on the double- 
 trees without pulling as much as either could alone. It is better 
 to have stop chains on the doubletrees, leaving only enough slack 
 to prevent one mule from shirking. 
 
 It may be quicker in case of great obstacles, to unload 
 wagons and take them to pieces and carry over, than to attempt 
 to haul over. A portage may also be made when otherwise the 
 train could not advance at all. 
 
 A pack train should be allowed to make its march without 
 halts except for water, if it can be done. They may start later or 
 get in earlier, according to circumstances. If the column is of 
 great length, no relief can be given them in this way, and they 
 must halt with the rest. 
 
 When going into bivouac or camp, the company and head- 
 quarters ration and baggage wagons are conducted at once to the 
 sites of their respective kitchens. If a bivouac, they remain there 
 all night, unless in the presence of the enemy; if a camp, they are 
 unloaded, and join the rest of the train in park. 
 
 The train is parked in line, preferably to leeward of the 
 camp, and on ground which does not drain toward it. The picket 
 line will be stretched parallel to the wagon line and preferably in 
 front of it, though always on dry, gently sloping ground, if it can 
 be found. The best site is along a ridge with the ground sloping 
 both ways from'the line. The mules stand on both sides, and there 
 should be 3 yards of line for each 4 mules. If the 4-mule wagons 
 are 3 yards apart in park and the 6-mule wagons A x / 2 yards apart, 
 tongue to tongue, each team at the picket line may stand in 
 front of its own wagon, which is a very convenient arrangement. 
 
 Picket lines are of two kinds, ground and high. A ground 
 line is stretched on the ground, attached at its ends and at inter- 
 vals of about 30 yards, to stakes or some other form of holdfast. 
 A 1-inch diameter rope of sufficient length should be carried for 
 the purpose, but, if necessary, a ground line may be made up of 
 picket or. lash ropes. A high line is stretched on trees or stakes 
 set in the ground. If stakes are used, they should be at least 8 
 feet long set 3 feet in the ground. At A l / 2 feet from the ground, 
 holes should be bored large enough to take the line. From each 
 end post the line should run obliquely to the ground and be at- 
 tached to a holdfast. A high line for temporary use may be ob- 
 
WHEEL, PACK AND MOTOR TRANSPORTATION 611 
 
 tained by running every fifth wagon to the front and stretching 
 the line across them. The end wagons should be loaded ones, 
 and all must have the brakes set. Picket lines will be stretched 
 with tackle if any is at hand; otherwise, by the following method: 
 Attach the rope at one end and lead it through all the supports or 
 fastenings; about 15 feet from the other end make a bowline in 
 the rope, pass the end around or through the end fastening and 
 back through the bowline. By hauling on the end of the rope the 
 necessary strain may be set on the line, the bowline acting as a 
 .single block. The end stakes of a high line should incline outward 
 slightly. 
 
 The picket line should be ditched if it is to be used for 
 some time, and if rain threatens it should be ditched even for a 
 
 GROUND PICKET LINE. 
 
 bivouac. The only exception is when the line is on a ridge and 
 the ground slopes from it in both directions. Open a ditch on the 
 high side about 3 yards from the line. If the ground slopes along 
 the line, the ditch will be parallel to it, and will have an outlet 
 at the lower end; otherwise, the ditch must be farther uphill at 
 the middle,, and will have an outlet at each end. This drainage 
 should be kept in mind in locating the line. 
 
 Stable Duties. — The prime requisites in stabling mules are 
 free circulation of air without drafts, equable temperature, dry- 
 ness, and cleanliness. Grain is fed at reveille by the stable order- 
 lies. When the animals have finished eating, those to be used 
 are harnessed and hitched up. The rest are turned into the corral 
 or tied at the picket line. The stable police then fork all clean 
 
612 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 and dry bedding to the head of the stall and work the rest of the 
 manure into piles ready for loading. The manure wagon is 
 driven down the aisle and loaded. The hay is then distributed to 
 the mangers and the additional bedding is procured and spread. 
 The aisle may then be washed with hose and brooms if the air 
 is dry; if damp, do not wash, but sweep up with stable brooms.' 
 The evening feed is put in the mangers at afternoon stables. 
 
 Mules of the same team should stand together, and their 
 harness should be hung on racks in rear of their stalls. It is much 
 better to have harness covers to keep off dust. 
 
 Grooming is quite as important to the mule as to the horse, 
 but he does not get so much of it, and in the nature of things he 
 can not. He should be groomed every day if it can possibly be 
 done. When coming in from a long muddy march the wet mud 
 should be wiped off with a wisp of straw before it dries and 
 hardens. If the animal will not stand, tie up a hind foot. Always 
 tie up the foot on the side opposite to that which is to be groomed. 
 
 Shipping Mules by Rail. — The cars furnished may be either: 
 
 The palace stock car, length 36 to 40 feet, capacity 16 to 20 
 head; each animal in a separate stall, with a compartment for atr 
 tendants, or 
 
 The improved stock car, length 36 feet, capacity 20 to 24 
 head, with facilities for feeding and watering in car, or 
 
 The ordinary stock car, length 30 to 34 feet, capacity 16 to 
 20 head, with no appliances of any kind. 
 
 Before loading, examine the car carefully to see that the 
 floors are not rotten or broken; that the sides are secure, and that 
 there are no projecting nails or splinters on the inside. The car 
 should be cleaned and the floor covered with sand or sawdust. 
 Hay or straw should never be allowed in a stock car on account 
 of the danger from fire. The man in charge should be provided 
 with a lantern, bucket and hatchet. The latter is to be used to 
 cut away part of a board in case an animal gets his hoof through 
 the side of the car. 
 
 Except in very hot weather, pack the animals snugly in the 
 car, as they will ride better than if loosely packed. If an animal 
 falls down in the car it will be almost impossible for it to get up 
 without assistance. The attendant should enter the car at the 
 end and crawl along the side nearest the animal's head until he 
 is reached. Take him by the halter and raise his head. With this 
 assistance he will probably get up. For loading, use the railroad 
 platform or the loading ramp found at railroad stations, or make 
 a ramp well supported, with strong sides, and with cleats on the 
 floor to prevent slipping. Lanyards should be attached to each 
 side of the floor near the middle and made fast to truss rods or 
 
WHEEL, PACK AND MOTOR TRANSPORTATION 613 
 
 door fittings of the car to prevent the ramp from sliding off the 
 doorsill. 
 
 If lumber is not at hand a ramp may be made of poles and 
 brush supported on trestles and floored like a bridge. As a last 
 resort throw up a ramp of earth, reaching as near as possible to 
 the side of the car, and bridge the gap with the car door. For 
 loading with improvised facilities, always try to get the car into a 
 shallow cut. 
 
 Lead the animals up the ramp and into the car and take off 
 the halter straps but not the halters. If the mules are shy of the 
 ramp a little hay thrown on it will make them less timid. Very 
 obstinate cases can be handled by passing a rope around the 
 haunches and having a few men pull on each end. The first 
 animal is led to one end of the car and the second to the other 
 end, leaving the middle for the last ones loaded. The animals 
 face opposite sides of the car alternately. Each one led in must 
 be held until the next one is in place. Load quietly and avoid 
 exciting the animals either by haste or by unnecessary delay. It 
 may occasionally be necessary to blindfold an animal before he 
 can be led in. Animals in transit should be fed and watered once 
 a day at least, or twice if opportunity offers. If closely packed in 
 ordinary cars they should be unloaded and exercised once in 48 
 hours and given 6 hours' rest. 
 
 Shipping Animals by Sea. — Ships must be especially fitted 
 up and equipped for this service. Free ventilation and cleanliness 
 are of the utmost importance. Air ports should be large and 
 numerous and wind sails must be set up in every hatch to each 
 deck. If there are dead spaces, special air shafts must be built 
 to supply them. If there is machinery on board, forced ventilation 
 should be employed. Animals do best on deck, except in very 
 heavy weather, and should never be put below the water line. 
 Stalls are built in double rows lengthwise of the ship facing each 
 other,, with a 4-foot aisle between. There should be a passageway 
 athwartships at each end of each compartment, and if the vessel 
 is wide enough the outside rows of stalls shouuld be 3 feet from the 
 sides of the ship. 
 
 Stanchions 6 by 6 inches are set up 30 inches center to center, 
 lengthwise, and 6 feet 6 inches center to center athwartship be- 
 tween the posts of the same stall. The stanchions are well 
 secured at top and lightly to the deck. Before setting up, the 
 stanchions are mortised for the side boards. The stanchions 
 should be further stayed near the tops by ties in both directions, 
 fastened to or firmly butting against the framework of the vessel. 
 The ties should run straight, disregarding the curve and sheer of 
 decks. A false floor of 2-inch plank 8 to 12 inches wide is spiked 
 or bolted to the deck, the planks running lengthwise of the stalls, 
 
614 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 with 34-inch space between them. If the ship is to be used for 
 this purpose for a considerable time, the floor should be double, 
 with tar paper between the courses. The floor is cut closely around 
 the feet of the stanchions. Hardwood cleats are placed across 
 the stall and fastened to the false floor with screws. In spiking 
 down the false floor the nails should be so driven that their 
 heads will be covered by these cleats. Larger cleats are laid 
 lengthwise from foot to rear posts. The stall partitions are of 
 2-inch plank, smoothly planed inserted in the mortises in the 
 stanchions, and the rear ends are closed by haunch pieces. These 
 are fastened by lag screws to a plank bolted to the rear posts. 
 The haunch piece is adjustable in height and should be placed so 
 that its bottom edge will catch the mule 2 inches above the hock. 
 The front is best closed by a heavy canvas band 8 inches wide, 
 with re-enforced edges, a spreading stick at each end and a grom- 
 met in each corner for lashing it to the front posts. A light strap 
 over the neck will keep this band in place like a breast collar and 
 the lashings may be left slack enough to permit the mule to 
 sway and ride easier. Projecting nails must be avoided, edges and 
 corners smoothed and rounded, knot holes trimmed out and splint- 
 ers removed, and all parts which the mule can reach with his 
 teeth should be sheathed with metal or wrapped with wire. 
 
 For deck stalls the posts are capped to form supports for a 
 roof of 2-inch stuff, which should be covered with tar paper. The 
 stalls must also be strongly cross-braced. This is best done by 
 inserting diagonals between the posts of every fifth or sixth 
 partition. The entire structure must be thoroughly strapped or 
 tied down to the deck. 
 
 Under no circumstances should any stock be loaded until the 
 ship is ready to sail, completely equipped, supplied and manned. 
 
 Watering is easily done by buckets filled from a hose, the 
 nozzle of which is carried along the aisle. The nozzle should have 
 a cock to enable the flow to be controlled at the end. The supply 
 should not be less than 10 gallons per mule per day. If condensers 
 are used, there should be several days' supply in fresh-water tanks 
 to provide against a breakdown of the machinery or the use of 
 water not thoroughly cooled. 
 
 Feeding is best done on the false floor in front of the stalls. 
 Cleats may be nailed down to form shallow boxes to hold the 
 grain in place. In heavy weather it may be better to use nose- 
 bags. Grain should be fed early in the morning. None should be 
 given the first day out. The second day a half ration should be 
 fed and increased by small quantities if found necessary to keep 
 the animals in condition. Bran mashes with salt should be fed once 
 a week. After feeding, the deck should be thoroughly cleaned 
 
WHEEL, PACK AND MOTOR TRANSPORTATION 615 
 
 and such disinfectants as are to be used should be applied. Then 
 the hay should be fed. 
 
 It is better to leave one vacant stall in each tier. Remove 
 the side boards and shift the next animal into the vacant stall 
 Clean his stall thoroughly and shift the second animal into it, anci 
 so on. 
 
 In loading and unloading the animals should be led up and 
 down ramps and gangways if possible. If they are to be trans- 
 ferred to or from lighters, or dropped into the water to swim 
 ashore, a sling or flying stall must be used. After landing, animals 
 should be corraled with the shortest possible march and should 
 be allowed to rest 3 or 4 days under conditions which permit 
 gradual increase of activity. 
 
 The sling should be 5 feet long and 2 feet wide, of heavy 
 canvas, reinforced at the edges by a 2-inch binding of the same. 
 A hem is made at each end to take a 2-inch spreader. A loop of 
 1% inch rope is attached to each end, around the sticks, one 9 
 inches long and the other 3 feet long, measured from the middle 
 of the sticks to the middle of the loop when stretched. The long 
 loop has a heavy iron ring, 3 inches inside diameter fixed at its 
 middle point. Breast and haunch ropes 24 inch diameter are sewed 
 across the canvas 3 inches from the sticks and on the outside of 
 the sling. They should be 9 feet long each way from the center 
 of the sling. The sling is placed under the mule's barrel, the end 
 of the long loop passed through the short one and the hook of 
 the hoisting block engaged in the ring. The small ropes are passed 
 around the shoulders and haunches and tied. The animal should 
 be lifted from his feet quickly and set down gradually. 
 
 The flying stall is a stoutly framed box open at the top and 
 high enough to prevent the mule jumping out. The inside should 
 be smooth, 6 feet 6 inches long and 30 inches wide. The ends 
 should be hinged at the bottom to open outward, with heavy 
 latches at top arranged to be operated by lines from a distance. 
 The floor should have several cleats running from side to side. At 
 each corner a J^-inch rod should run from bottom to top, termi- 
 nating in a heavy eye or ring. To the rings slings should be fast- 
 ened converging to the center where they are joined together to 
 take the hook of the fall. The slings should be kept apart by 
 spreaders high enough to clear the mule's head to prevent a cross 
 strain on the sides. Guys should be provided to control the stall 
 in raising and lowering to prevent its striking the edges of hatches. 
 
 For a short voyage and work immediately on landing, ani- 
 mals may be shipped with shoes on. In this case shoes should be 
 recently set. For long voyages, shoes should be removed. 
 
 Animals should not be shipped in high condition. If not 
 worked up to the time of embarking, give exercise and reduce feed. 
 
616 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Accountability for Public Animals. — A file of descriptive 
 lists of public animals is kept with the records of every officer re- 
 sponsible for such animals. It contains a description of every ani- 
 mal received and transferred, showing the kind, name, age, size, 
 color, marks, brands, or other peculiarities of each; how and when 
 acquired, and, if disposed of, in what manner; the name of his rider 
 and driver, and the use to which applied. 
 
 A complete descriptive list of each animal is made at the 
 time of purchase and accompanies him wherever he may be trans- 
 ferred. 
 
 When public animals are issued or transferred, the person 
 in charge is provided with full and accurate descriptive lists, which 
 he delivers to the receiving officer. 
 
 Public animals on the day received are branded with the 
 letters "US" on the left fore shoulder, the letters to be 2 inches 
 in height. 
 
 Public animals are assigned to their riders or drivers, who 
 do not exchange or surrender them to the use of any other person 
 without the permission of the company commander, quartermaster, 
 or other officer responsible. 
 
 Company Packs. — The ordinary transport packs carry man- 
 tas (or pack covers), blinds, lair ropes, slings ropes, lash ropes (all 
 furnished by the Quartermaster Corps), forage and miscellaneous 
 supplies not part of the prescribed pioneer equipment. The special 
 pack boxes are carried on the ordinary transport aparejo, on which 
 they are slung by a special small leather saddle 10 by 24 inches, 
 which fits along the ridge of the aparejo and is lashed thereto with 
 a leather thong. This saddle has two hooks on each side, from 
 which are hung the pack boxes. The pack boxes are further se- 
 cured on the aparejo by means of a cincha 22 inches long, fastened 
 to the lower part of the boxes and passing under the mule. 
 
 Diamond Hitch. — The formation of the diamond hitch and 
 tightening of the load are accomplished by two packers, one, termed 
 the "near" packer, who stands on the near side of the animal, fac- 
 ing toward the rear; the other, termed the "off" packer, stands on 
 the off side of the animal, facing toward the front. The side packs, 
 being slung on the animal, the "near" packer throws the end of 
 the lash rope over in rear of the animal and the cincha portion 
 tinder the animal's belly convenient to the " off" packer, who picks 
 up the end of the lash rope and the cincha portion with the left 
 hand and stands erect. 
 
 The " near " packer takes hold of the lash rope with the right 
 hand about 5 or 6 feet from the cincha and another hold with the 
 left hand, holding about 2 feet between the hands; he stands close 
 to the animal's neck with both hands extended downward; he 
 draws the right hand backward and, with one motion, swings the 
 
WHEEL, PACK AND MOTOR TRANSPORTATION 617 
 
 rope so when it falls it will lie fore and aft between the side packs, 
 clearing the animal's haunch, and the packer dropping the rope 
 held by the left hand. 
 
 With the right hand still holding the rope, he draws a por- 
 tion between the packs by lowering the right hand by his side, 
 arm's length; then, reaching up, he grips the rope with the left hand 
 keeping the thumb under the rope, he draws another portion be- 
 tween the packs by lowering the left hand by his side, arm's length. 
 
 THE DIAMOND HITCH. 
 
 The packer then swings the hanging portion outward to the 
 right, bringing the left hand, still holding the rope, to the elbow of 
 the right arm; then raises both hands, leaving the loop on the out- 
 side of the right arm. 
 
 Now, bring the right hand, holding the rope, to the center 
 of the pack and, with both hands, throw the standing rope held in 
 She right hand over the center of the load to the "off" packer, and 
 the running rope between the packs held in the left hand over the 
 animal's neck, allowing the back of the left hand to rest on the ani- 
 
618 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 mal's neck. With the right hand draw 6 feet or more of the run- 
 ning portion between the packs to form the rear half of the dia- 
 mond and throw this rope to the rear of the "near" pack, freeing 
 both hands of the rope. 
 
 The "near" packer takes hold of the running rope on the 
 mule's neck with the left hand forward of the right and, with the 
 assistance of the "off" packer brings the running rope to the center 
 of the load on the side of the standing rope, at the same time slip- 
 ping the right hand down the rope to a point about midway between 
 the pack and the "boot"; reaches for this rope by passing the left 
 hand between the standing rope and the aparejo and grips the 
 rope above the right hand; slips both hands down the rope, at the 
 same time parting them from each other for a space of about 10 
 inches; then, holding the rope in a horizontal position, jams this 
 portion down between the two cinchas under the aparejo, and the 
 hitch is formed on the "near" side ready to tighten. 
 
 To make the hitch on the "off" side, the "off" packer, having 
 picked up the end of the rope and cincha, holds them in the left 
 hand with mouth of cincha hook to the front. He looks for the 
 standing rope to be thrown over the center of the load by the 
 "near" packer. As the rope comes over, he grips it as high as his 
 arm can conveniently reach and immediately places the cincha hook 
 about 6 or 8 inches under the aparejo and draws down the slack 
 on the standing rope by one or two quick pulls; then, lowering the 
 cincha hook for convenience, he engages the standing rope on the 
 cincha hook from inside, drawing the rope outward, or from above, 
 drawing downward. This will leave the standing rope next to the 
 aparejo and the running rope on the outside of the hook. 
 
 The left hand, holding the end of the rope, is now placed on 
 top of the running rope between the right hand and the cincha 
 hook; both ropes are gripped with the thumb under the running 
 rope; the right hand is allowed to slip upward on the running rope, 
 and, with the assistance of the "near" packer, this rope is brought 
 to the center of the load; the left hand will immediately follow 
 the right hand to the center of the load, which brings both hands 
 together. 
 
 With the right hand draw the end of the rope forward which 
 is held by the left hand so that about 12 inches will fall on the 
 "near" side of the animal's neck, and the hitch is formed, ready to 
 tighten. 
 
 The Double Hitch. — The double hitch is made as described 
 for the single diamond hitch, with the two following exceptions: 
 
 The "near" packer, before passing the running rope to rear 
 of pack, brings the running rope up, from the animal's neck, and 
 lays it on the center of the load, in front of the standing rope. 
 He then takes sufficient slack on the running rope between the 
 
WHEEL, PACK AND MOTOR TRANSPORTATION 619 
 
 packs and lays or throws it to rear of load, thus causing it to ride 
 over both the running and the standing ropes; he then takes the 
 rope in front of the standing rope and brings it down from right 
 to left between the standing rope and pack and under the boot of 
 the aparejo in the customary manner. 
 
 The "off" packer, instead of placing the end of rope between 
 the standing and running ropes, places it under both, then raises 
 to center of load, and drops about 12 inches of end on "rear" side 
 of animal's neck, and hitch is formed ready to tighten. 
 
 The hitch is tightened in the usual manner, as in the opera- 
 tion of the "diamond." 
 
 MOTOR TRANSPORTATION 
 
 The company commander of an organization equipped with 
 motor transportation is responsible for everything connected with 
 its operation and maintenance. He should formulate rules for the 
 proper handling of the vehicles on the road and in camp or garri- 
 son and see that the same are rigidly enforced. He should estab- 
 lish the division of responsibility with reference to operation, re- 
 pair, and upkeep of the mechanical equipment of his company and 
 see that each member is thoroughly familiar therewith. He should 
 personally see that all motor governors are properly sealed and 
 keep the sealing tool in his personal possession. He should keep 
 accurate check on all gasoline, lubricating supplies, tools, and spare 
 parts. It is a favorite practice to use gasoline for many purposes 
 except fuel. Motor parts, being high priced and readily salable, 
 can only with difficulty be protected against theft. 
 
 Chiefs of section are responsible for the proper operation 
 and maintenance of the motor vehicles under their direct supervi- 
 sion. This especially applies when, as will frequently happen, the 
 section is operating detached. In this case a mechanic, if available, 
 should always be assigned to duty with the section. 
 
 MBCHANICS 
 
 In organizations supplied wholly or in part with motor trans- 
 portation a mechanic or mechanics are designated to assist in the 
 repair of vehicles. In the telegraph company five mechanics are 
 provided; a chief mechanic and one for assignment to each section, 
 if desired. 
 
 The chief mechanic, assisted by the other mechanics, has 
 general supervision over the mechanism of the motor vehicle equip- 
 ment, as well as the detailed repair work. He is in charge of the 
 company repair outfit and utilizes it for the above purpose as ne- 
 
620 
 
 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 cessity requires. He sees that the assistant mechanics are quali- 
 fied and if necessary instructs them. 
 
 DRIVERS 
 
 The duties of the driver include the keeping of his assigned 
 vehicle and its equipment in proper repair and working order. He 
 is required to be familiar with the mechanism of his vehicle and its 
 proper operation. Repair work performed by drivers is limited to 
 that class designated as minor repairs. Work on the motor, igni- 
 tion and lighting systems, or on the interior mechanism of running 
 parts should be performed normally under direct supervision and 
 orders of the chief mechanic or one of his assistants. Drivers are 
 responsible for proper lubrication at all times and promptly report 
 any defect noted or repair needed. Each is responsible that the ve- 
 hicle under his charge is not subjected to abuse of any kind and 
 that all regulations in force regarding operation and maintenance 
 are properly observed. 
 
 CLASSES OF VEHICLES AND EQUIPMENT 
 
 Field trucks furnished organizations by the Quartermaster 
 Corps are of standard make and are normally equipped with the 
 war body. The inside dimensions of this body are as follows: 
 
 
 Length. 
 
 Width. 
 
 Depth. 
 
 1 V^-ton 
 
 Feet 
 10 
 12 
 
 Feet Inches 
 
 5 1 
 
 6 6 
 
 Feet 
 2 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 The most suitable car for loading vehicles of all kinds 
 shipped on their own wheels (except motor vehicles^ including 
 artillery, engineer and signal corps organizations, is the 36-foot 
 drop-end gondola car. 
 
CHAPTER XXII 
 
 BRIDGES, PONTOONS, METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION 
 AND THE CROSSING OF RIVERS 
 
 When an army has to cross a stream passage may be made 
 on a bridge, by fording, by use of boats, rafts or ferries, or on ice. 
 Tactical requirements will determine the general location of the 
 point of crossing, and within the limits imposed by these require- 
 ments the site of crossing must be selected and the method 
 adopted that is best suited to the site. 
 
 When once constructed a bridge is the most rapid means 
 of crossing a stream. Its disadvantages are the time and material 
 required and the small chance of secrecy in its construction. 
 
 The site is selected as a result of reconnaissance to verify 
 and complete the information shown by existing maps. To meet 
 tactical requirements the near shore in an advance should afford 
 concealment for the preparatory work in connection with the 
 bridge, and should, if possible, facilitate a converging fire upon 
 the enemy, while the farther shore should be open to favor develop- 
 ment. In a retreat it is desirable that the near shore shall have 
 high ground suitable for defensive positions, while the farther 
 shore should favor concealment. The best site is in a straight 
 reach or a gentle bend; if in a bend the passage should be toward 
 the convex bank in an advance and toward the concave bank in 
 a retreat. The drawing exhibits a bridge-head composed of a 
 redan with flanks, flanked by two redoubts on the opposite bank 
 of the river. These works are supposed to be in the neighborhood 
 of hills, from which it is necessary that they should be defiladed. 
 This is effected by traverses to cover the bridge, and by a traverse 
 across the center of each redoubt. The immediate banks should 
 be firm and of equal height, the current regular, moderate, and 
 parallel to the banks, and the bed should afford good anchorage 
 and be free from snags, bowlders, and other obstructions. The 
 velocity of current can be measured by timing the passage of a 
 floating object over a measured length of stream. If not in excess 
 of 3 or 4 feet per second no special difficulty need be expected; 
 with greater velocities it will be necessary to use precautions such 
 
622 
 
 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 as extra anchors or guy ropes leading to points on the banks up- 
 stream. 
 
 The reconnaissance should furnish information as to the 
 liability of freshets and their probable height, the rise and fall in 
 tidal streams, the width and depth of the stream, the presence or 
 absence of navigation, the nature of existing facilities such as roads 
 or fords, and the presence of bridge material such as timber, rope, 
 or wire. The depth can be measured by sounding with a pole or a 
 sounding line. The width should be measured as accurately as 
 practicable. Narrow streams can be measured by stretching a 
 line across. Wider streams can be measured by triangulation from 
 
 BRIDGE-HEAD FLANKED BY TWO REDOUBTS. 
 
 a base line, using the most accurate instrument at hand. Tributary 
 streams near the site, especially if concealed from the view of 
 the enemy, are advantageous, as they may be used for storage of 
 material or the construction of parts of the bridge which are after- 
 wards floated into place. An island may facilitate crossing by 
 reducing the length of bridge required or affording secure 
 anchorage for a bridge built below the island. The approaches 
 are important. An easy exit is particularly essential. A bridge 
 easy of access and difficult of exit will cause crowding, accidents, 
 and delay. Where possible, the approaches should be straight and 
 in line with the bridge for at least 20 yards next to the bridge; 
 
BRIDGES AND PONTOONS 623 
 
 the grades should not be steeper than 1 on 10 if possible, and in 
 no case steeper than 1 on 7. 
 
 Kinds of Bridges. — The kind of bridge to be built depends 
 on the nature of the obstacle to be crossed, the load to be carried, 
 and the materials and time available. Military bridges are 
 divided primarily into floating and fixed. The types of floating 
 bridges most commonly used are the ponton bridge, built with 
 the equipage carried with the army, and bridges built with boats 
 or barges. Types less frequently used are the bridges built with 
 casks, rafts, timber, inflated skins, and other means in the nature 
 of bridging expedients. The fixed bridges best adapted to military 
 use are pile, trestle, spar, and suspension bridges. Other types that 
 may be used at times are cribwork, steel girder, trussed, and canti- 
 lever bridges. The type selected should fit the conditions of the 
 site, should be of simple design, and should admit of easy and rapid 
 construction. 
 
 Light Equipage. — With each cavalry division there is an 
 engineer train, of which the ponton section consists of three divi- 
 sions, each having 8 pontons, 2 trestles, and other materials suffi- 
 cient for 185 feet of bridge. By combining the three ponton divi- 
 sions a bridge about 510 ieet long may be built. The ponton con- 
 sists of a frame which is knocked down for transportation and 
 assembled when needed. A canvas cover placed on the frame com- 
 pletes the ponton, which is 21 feet long, 5 feet 4 inches wide, and 
 2 feet 4 inches deep. The balks are 4 z / 2 inches by 4 l / 2 inches by 22 
 feet, except the trestle balks, which are 5 inches by 5 inches by 21 
 feet 8 inches. The chess are \ l / 2 inches by 12 inches by 11 feet. 
 The canvas pontons will not resist ice nor driftwood, and they are 
 liable to injury in handling on shore or in water containing snags. 
 In spite of these disadvantages the light equipage makes a prac- 
 ticable and satisfactory bridge. 
 
 Standard Heavy Bridge. — The bridge starts from a sill laid 
 on the bank near the water's edge. If the water is too shallow for 
 a ponton at 20 feet out from the sill, a trestle is used as the first 
 support in the water. Additional trestles may be used if necessary 
 and available. Pontons are then added to the bridge and are 
 spaced 20 feet center to center. This is known as the construction 
 by successive pontons and is the usual way of building the bridge. 
 The bridge may be completed at the far side of the river with a 
 trestle and a sill, or if there is deep water close to shore the trestle 
 may be omitted. In a river with a moderate current each alternate 
 ponton is anchored upstream and each fourth one is anchored 
 downstream Every ponton that has a downstream anchor must 
 also have an upstream anchor. 
 
 The normal heavy bridge will carry infantry in column of 
 squads, cavalry in column of twos, or a concentrated load of 4,750 
 40 
 
624 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 pounds. By increasing the equipage 25 per cent and reducing the 
 span between boats, the concentrated load may be increased to 
 6,700 pounds. By increasing the equipage 50 per cent and further 
 reducing the span, a concentrated load of 13,700 pounds may be 
 carried. If there is a shortage of material, the interval between 
 boats may be increased, in which case the capacity is reduced to 
 a concentrated load of 3,400 pounds. The normal heavy bridge 
 will carry the 3-inch field gun or the loaded escort wagon. It will 
 carry the 1^-ton truck unloaded. If seven balk are used instead of 
 five, it will carry this truck fully loaded, or the 4.7-inch gun, or the 
 3-ton truck unloaded. The 3-ton truck fully loaded can be carried 
 only in case the equipage is increased 50 per cent and the spans 
 correspondingly reduced as mentioned above, and then only if an 
 additional or much heavier floor is laid over the balk. In no case 
 should the concentrated load placed on the bridge exceed 13,700 
 pounds, and whenever it is desirable to pass a load in excess of 
 the prescribed load for the bridge as built, the operation should 
 be under the personal supervision of the engineer officer in charge 
 of the bridge. 
 
 Standard Light Bridge. — The bridge with the light equipage 
 is built in the same way as the heavy bridge. The spans are 
 shorter than in the normal heavy bridge, the pontons being 15 feet 
 6 inches center to center, or 10 feet 2 inches in the clear. The light 
 bridge will carry infantry in column of squads, cavalry in column 
 of twos, the 3-inch field gun, the loaded escort wagon, or the V/z- 
 ton truck unloaded. Nothing is gained by increasing the quantity 
 of light equipage in a given length of bridge, as the normal bridge 
 will carry as great a load as the boats will safely support. 
 
 Weight of Troops. — Some of the loads (in pounds per linear 
 foot) to which military bridges may be subjected are as follows: 
 
 Infantry, single file 140 
 
 Infantry, column of twos 280 
 
 Infantry, column of fours 560 
 
 Cavalry, single file 196 
 
 Cavalry, column of twos 392 
 
 Infantry in heavy marching order averages 200 pounds per 
 man, and when unarmed 160 pounds. Infantry crowded in a dis- 
 organized mass may weigh as much as 133 pounds per square foot 
 of standing room. 
 
 Transportation of Equipage. — When moved by rail ponton 
 equipage is preferably shipped with all wagons fully loaded. The 
 40-foot car of the end-opening gondola type is the most suitable, 
 but flat cars can be used. Cars shorter than 36 feet are unsuitable. 
 Each division of heavy equipage requires ten 40-foot cars, and 
 each division of light equipage seven. For over-sea transportation 
 
BRIDGES AND PONTOONS 625 
 
 the loads are removed from the wagons and the latter are taken 
 apart. The pontons should be stowed so as to be readily accessible 
 for use in landing. 
 
 FIXED BRIDGES 
 
 Pile Bridges. — Piles are posts driven into the ground, gen- 
 erally in a vertical position. They are driven in bents, usually of 
 three or four piles each. If more than 10 feet high the bent should 
 be strengthened with sway braces, which are diagonal planks 
 spiked or bolted to the piles. The piles may be driven with a maul, 
 or with a pile driver operated by hand or by machinery. The 
 bent is completed by sawing off the piles at the same level and 
 placing on them a heavy timber called a cap, which is fastened to 
 each pile with a drift bolt. The roadway bearers are laid from 
 bent to bent, preferably extending over two bents and breaking 
 joints. 
 
 Trestle Bridges. — This type is applicable in a shallow stream 
 with a firm bottom. Trestles may be framed of dimension lumber, 
 or, as is more usual, they may be made of timber cut in the vicinity 
 of the bridge. A bridge may be built with the trestles forming a 
 part of the ponton equipage if the depth of the stream and the 
 nature of the bottom are favorable. This is a two-legged trestle 
 that may be quickly put together and launched in place from a 
 ponton. Trestle bridges are dangerous in streams having a soft 
 bottom and a swift current, as the bottom is liable to scour around 
 the trestles, causing them to give way under a load. 
 
 Trestles may be placed in position by hand in dry situations, 
 and also in shallow streams of moderate current when the weather 
 permits men to work in the water. This method facilitates rapid 
 construction, as several trestles can be placed simultaneously. 
 Alternative methods are slower of execution, since but one trestle 
 can be placed at a time if the bridge be built from one end, or two 
 if work is prosecuted from both ends. 
 
 Spar Bridges. — These are bridges built with round timbers 
 lashed together, and are used for crossing compartively narrow 
 and deep depressions, either watercourses or dry ravines. There 
 are two general forms, the single lock and the double lock. In 
 the first form, two inclined frames meet and lock together at their 
 tops. In the second form, two inclined frames each meet and lock 
 with an end of an intermediate frame lying horizontally between 
 their tops. Each frame is built like the two-legged trestle. In each 
 case the roadway is completed with round or sawn timbers, de"- 
 pending on what is available. In building a spar bridge it is im- 
 portant to make an accurate cross section of the opening to be 
 bridged and also to construct the frames with great care, other- 
 
626 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 wise they will not lock properly. The single lock is suitable for 
 spans of 30 feet or less, and the double lock for spans not exceed- 
 ing 45 feet. The most important members, the legs or standards of 
 the frames and the crosspieces or transsoms that carry the road- 
 way, should be timbers 8 to 10 inches in diameter. The roadway 
 bearers or balks should be 6 inches in diameter for spans of 15 
 feet. The remaining timbers may be from 3 to 6 inches in diam- 
 eter. The lashings are made with rope one-half inch in diameter. 
 
 CRIB CONSTRUCTION 
 
 In dry situations the cribs are built on the site and no fasten- 
 ings are required. The ground is prepared to receive the bottom 
 timbers, level and bearing firmly toward the ends and but lightly 
 in the middle. The sticks of the next course are laid across their 
 ends, noting that they rest fair and do not rock. If logs are used, 
 the ends are flattened sufficiently to give bearing surfaces. With 
 dimension timbers each piece which does not lay fair must be 
 given a solid bearing by shims or wedges before the next one is 
 put on. These small pieces must be fastened so that they can not 
 jar out. 
 
 The part of a crib that is to stand in water must be tied to- 
 gether and adapted to form a cage for the ballast. Enough of the 
 ballast to overcome the flotation of the wood should be so con- 
 fined that it can not escape. For the rest, it is better to leave the 
 ballast free to run out through the floor of the crib and fill any 
 cavities in the bottom which may exist or be formed by the scour 
 of the current. A crib may be given a level bearing on a rough 
 or sloping bottom by holding it in the desired position and throw- 
 ing in ballast which runs through. 
 
 Cribs are built on shore usually on inclined ways, and when 
 up to a sufficient height to form a substantial raft may be launched. 
 They are built up to a little more than the depth of the water in 
 which they are to stand and are floated to their places. The sink- 
 ing ballast is then placed in the closed compartments or on the 
 floor prepared to receive it, until the crib is well grounded. 
 
 LANDING PIERS 
 
 Temporary piers for the discharge of vessels are usually 
 built in the same manner as bridges with pile or cribwork supports. 
 The chief difference is in the provision made against lateral thrusts, 
 which are much greater than in the case of bridges. Vessels warp- 
 ing in and out and even striking the pier, which can not be avoided, 
 cause excessive lateral strains which call for special features in 
 addition to much heavier construction throughout. 
 
BRIDGES AND PONTOONS 627 
 
 Lighters can be discharged at a properly constructed dock in 
 considerable seaway. Transports can also be discharged in a mod- 
 erate seaway by providing adequate mooring devices at bow, 
 stern, and on the outside, so that the vessel can be held alongside 
 of the pier, but not touching it. Only in perfectly protected situa- 
 tions can a large ship lie directly against a pier. 
 
 The best mooring is a massive structure of piles driven close 
 together and connected near their tops by a cable, or by bolts, or 
 both. Such a construction is often called a dolphin. It yields 
 readily to the first impact and develops resistance steadily but 
 rapidly. 
 
 FLOATING BRIDGES 
 
 Bridges of this class have several disadvantages, due to 
 change in grade of roadway with change of water level and with 
 change of load, and to their limited capacity, which can not exceed 
 the flotation of the supports. As a rule, such bridges are resorted 
 to only when the materials for them are plentiful and the materials 
 for other kinds scarce. 
 
 This rule finds an important exception in the organized 
 bridge equipage prepared in advance to be carried with an army. 
 Such a bridge possesses a great advantage in the paramount ele- 
 ment of time, since it can be laid, crossed, and taken up in less 
 time than any other form of bridge can be built, and its component 
 parts can be used as water transportation for several important 
 purposes which no other kind of bridge can subserve. 
 
 The bridge equipage adopted for the United States service 
 is of two forms, heavy and light. The heavy equipage is sufficient 
 in capacity for all requirements of an army on the march, and is 
 mobile enough to be carried at the ordinary rate of marching. In 
 the light equipage, capacity is somewhat sacrificed for the sake of 
 further mobility to enable a bridge to be carried with a rapidly 
 moving column. 
 
 Both heavy and light equipage are organized into trains and 
 in each the train is composed of four divisions each complete in 
 itself, with the necessary materials and tools for repairs and the 
 requisite wagon transportation for land carriage. With one tram 
 four short bridges can be built, or two twice the length in the same 
 or different localities, or three three-fourths the length or one of 
 four times the length in the same locality, with obvious inter- 
 mediate combinations. 
 
 The principal parts in both forms of bridge are pontons or 
 boats; the longitudinal bearers or stringers joining them called 
 balks; the cross planks, called chess, and the beams which hold the 
 chess in position, called side rails. 
 
628 
 
 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Heavy Equipage. — A division is loaded on 16 wagons. Eight 
 of them are called pontoon wagons and carry each a pontoon, 7 long 
 
 FLOATING BRIDGE BY SUCCESSIVE BAYS. 
 
 balks, anchor, cable, 5 oars, 2 boat hooks, 20 lashings, 6 rack sticks, 
 2 scoops, ax, hatchet, bucket, and 20 pounds spun yarn. Four 
 
BRIDGES AND PONTOONS 629 
 
 of the wagons carry chess or floor planks only, 60 each, or enough 
 for 3 bays, and are called chess wagons. Two wagons carry eacn 
 a complete trestle, 7 long balks, 7 trestle balks, 2 abutment sills, 
 and 2 coils of rope. The tool wagon carries axes, shovels, picks, 
 tools and materials for carpentry, saddlery, calking and painting, 
 and spare cordage. The forge wagon carries a forge, smithing 
 tools, iron and other materials. Each wagon is drawn by 6 mules 
 with one driver. 
 
 Supporting Power of Boats. — The boats of the heavy train 
 are of wood, of about 9 l /i tons displacement, and weigh 1,600 lbs. 
 Each can carry 40 infantrymen armed and fully equipped besides 
 its crew, a total of about 9,300 lbs. This load crowds the boat and 
 should be used only in favorable conditions. In rough water or 
 swift currents 20 men and the crew make a suitable load. The pon- 
 toon is cranky, and uneven loading and shifting of load must be 
 avoided. 
 
 Boat Bridges. — When it becomes necessary to use boats 
 found on the stream or elsewhere, select those as nearly of one size 
 as possible. Of these, use the largest for the shore ends and for 
 the swiftest currents. Estimate their supporting power roughly 
 by comparing their size with the pontoon boat, heavy or light. Sup- 
 port the balks on saddle sills and transoms blocked up from the 
 frames of the boats. If boats differing very much in displacement 
 are used, make the bays supported by the small boats shorter than 
 those supported by the larger ones. Avoid getting a very large 
 and a very small boat adjacent. With scow-built barges, which 
 will usually have excess of supporting power, a serviceable bridg"e 
 is readily built. If the boats are large and well decked, they may 
 be placed endwise in the bridge, separated by 20 feet or more, the 
 intervals spanned by bays of roadway and the decks used for road- 
 way on the boats themselves. With boats of different shapes and 
 sizes, such a bridge should be attempted with great caution, and 
 only under exceptional circumstances. 
 
 Barrel Piers. — When barrels are available, floating piers can 
 be made by assembling a sufficient number of them by means of 
 timbers or lashings, or both combined. An ordinary 50-gallon 
 barrel has a buoyancy of about 400 pounds when completely sub- 
 merged; those of other sizes in proportion to their capacity. The 
 supporting power of any barrel or keg can be determined with 
 sufficient accuracy by weighing it when full of water and again 
 when empty; the difference will be the supporting power. 
 
 The number of barrels required for a pier is obtained by 
 dividing the total load to be borne by the supporting power of one 
 barrel. A margin of 20 or 25 per cent should be allowed, as the 
 barrels of a pier must not be completely submerged. 
 
 In forming the piers the barrels are laid out in line with the 
 
630 
 
 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 bungs uppermost. The gunwale timbers are placed over and the 
 rope slings under the ends, the slings secured to the gunwales at 
 each end of the line. Between each pair of barrels on each side a 
 brace is secured to the sling and then led around the gunwale on 
 its own side, round the opposite brace rope and back again to its 
 own gunwale, where it is made fast. Care must be taken in launch- 
 
 BARREL PIERS, 
 ing to avoid injuring the ropes by chafing on the ground. The 
 rafts so formed may be united into larger ones. 
 
 Where timber is available the best method of forming a 
 barrel pier is to make an inverted box crib of lumber or timbers 
 nailed, bolted, or lashed together. If the crib is as strong as it 
 should be, it may be inverted over the barrels, which will require 
 no other fastenings. 
 
BRIDGES AND PONTOONS 631 
 
 Raft Piers. — Rafts of timber may be used for floating piers 
 when other materials are not at hand. They are durable if not dis- 
 turbed and secure against being sunk by hostile fire. Their defects 
 are comparatively small and decreasing buoyancy, great weight 
 and bulk. 
 
 Construction of rafts is done in the water if possible. Ar- 
 range the logs side by side to form upstream. The upstream ends 
 should be beveled on the lower side. The logs are held together 
 by cross timbers pinned or spiked over the tops. Where the logs 
 are of small size additional sticks may be placed in the intervals 
 between the others, or two or more courses may be built up, the 
 logs of each layer at right angles to those below. The latter 
 method has been found advantageous in constructing rafts of 
 bamboo. 
 
 Anchorage of Floating Bridges. — The anchorage of the piers 
 of a floating bridge is of the greatest importance. The piers should 
 be so constructed and placed as to present the least obstruction 
 to the current. In non-tidal streams all the bows are placed up- 
 stream; in tidal estuaries they should alternate up and down 
 stream. The piers near the shore should be secured by strong 
 cables to rocks, trees, or deadmen on the shore both above and 
 below. 
 
 For the heavy and light bridge equipage the anchors pro- 
 vided are sufficient, and in moderate currents it will answer to 
 anchor alternate boats upstream and every fourth one downstream; 
 the downstream anchors always on boats which have upstream 
 anchors also. In swifj: currents it may be necessary to anchor 
 every boat upstream. Even in slack water every second or third 
 boat should be anchored both up and down stream to reduce 
 oscillation. 
 
 For any other kind of floating bridge every pier must be 
 securely anchored. Ordinary anchors can be relied upon in good 
 holding ground only; when it is poor or the current unusually 
 swift, two anchors may be used, one backing up the other. 
 
 Construction' of Floating Bridges. — The regular bridge 
 equipage is designed for unloading, construction, removal, and re- 
 loading in the shortest possible time. There are four methods ot 
 construction, depending upon the character of the stream, the kind 
 and location of materials, the force available, and the proximity 
 of the enemy. It may be desirable to combine two or more of 
 these methods. The methods available are: (1) by successive 
 bags, (2) by parts, (3) by rafts, and (4) by conversion. 
 
 Comparison of the Four Methods. — The method of construc- 
 tion by successive pontons possesses the great advantages over 
 the others of being applicable to all streams, whatever may be 
 their velocity, and of requiring the minimum quantity of equipage, 
 
632 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 the fewest pontoniers, and the shortest time for its construction. 
 
 FLOATING BRIDGE BY RAFTS. 
 However, the labor of constructing a bridge by this method 
 
BRIDGES AND PONTOONS 633 
 
 increases rapidly with the number of bays. Thus the balk and chess 
 carriers in constructing a bridge of 40 bays are obliged to walk 
 6^4 miles; in one of 50 bays, nearly 10^2 miles; of 60 bays, 14^4 
 miles; and of 100 bays, 40 miles. 
 
 The method by parts ordinarily is used in connection with 
 the method by successive pontons. When the bridge is to be more 
 than 40 bays in length these methods are combined as follows: 
 The bridge is begun at both ends, if possible, by successive pon- 
 tons and is pushed on rapidly toward the middle of the stream. 
 The two portions thus formed are connected by parts which are 
 constructed in the meanwhile along the river bank above the 
 bridge. 
 
 The method by rafts is employed when the passage of a 
 river is to be forced, and when the rafts can be constructed un- 
 observed by the enemy, in which case the pontoniers will be ex- 
 posed to fire but a short time; that is, while the rafts are floating 
 into position and being connected. In order that this method of 
 construction should be. successful, the current must be moderate, 
 and there must be a reasonable distance above the bridge posi- 
 tions where the rafts can be constructed undisturbed by the enemy. 
 Such positions would be afforded by islands or tributaries in our 
 possession. This method is also employed when the bridge is 
 liable to injury from floating bodies, as the portion threatened 
 can be readily disconnected, dropped out of the bridge, and re- 
 stored to its place when the danger is past. It may be used by 
 an army hard pressed in retreat, as the rafts on the enemy's side 
 of the river may be disconnected and moved to a place of safety. 
 
 The construction by conversion is a still more difficult 
 operation. To insure success the current must be moderate, the 
 holding ground good, and the pontoniers skillful, intelligent, and 
 cool. The awkwardness of a single man, the dragging of an 
 anchor, or the parting of a cable may cause the failure of the 
 entire operation. The opportunities for employing this method 
 successfully are exceedingly rare. 
 
 Draw Spans in Floating Bridges. — To form a draw a raft is 
 introduced into the bridge over the channel of navigation. The 
 attachments of the false balks are adapted to convenient removal 
 and replacement. To open the draw the raft is disconnected from 
 the bridge, the upstream cables slacked off, the raft dropped out 
 of the opening, made fast at one end to the bridge and allowed to 
 swing around. If the current does not suffice, the raft must be 
 moved by hauling on the downstream cables and on a swinging 
 cable laid for the purpose. A wide draw in a strong current may 
 be made of two rafts, one swinging on each end of the bridge. 
 The draw is closed by hauling the raft around until parallel to the 
 bridge and just below it, and then hauling it into the gap. 
 
634 
 
 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Care must be taken to provide a free hinging motion be- 
 tween abutment or trestle bays and those next to them. In case 
 
 DRAW SPANS IN FLOATING BRIDGES. 
 
 of a staunch boat with straight sides, the balks may join on one 
 gunwale, one set only extending across. The hinge should be on 
 
BRIDGES AND PONTOONS 635 
 
 the side toward the abutment or trestle. A saddle sill on the first 
 pier to receive the balks will answer. In fact, with the exception 
 of the heavy bridge train, balks will usually be supported on saddle 
 sills. 
 
 Precautions in Passing Floating Bridges. — Infantry must 
 break step and music cease; distances must be maintained or ex- 
 tended; riders and drivers must dismount and all horses must be 
 led. Halting on a bridge should be avoided. If it is absolutely 
 necessary to halt on a floating bridge, concentrated loads, such as 
 the wheels of wagons and guns, should rest between piers. Inter- 
 ruptions of the column of march and alternations of direction 
 should be made as few as possible. The greatest strains on the 
 bridge occur when part of it is empty and the rest loaded. The 
 column should also be so arranged as to make the alternations 
 among the different classes of loads, as troops, artillery, and trains, 
 as infrequent as possible. • 
 
 If a bridge begins to sway or oscillate considerably the 
 column must be halted and not allowed to resume its march until 
 the swaying has ceased. 
 
 Protection of Floating Bridges. — The bridge must be kept 
 clear of drift and other floating objects, especial attention being 
 given to the anchor cables. If the objects are not too large or too 
 numerous they may be passed under the bridge by men working 
 with pike poles from the piers and roadway. Large trees may 
 be disposed of in this way by sawing them up into logs of manage- 
 able length. Floating objects may be prevented from striking 
 the bridge by a guard upstream, or by a draw span in the bridge, 
 or by a floating boom crossing the stream obliquely. 
 
 A guard, if used, is placed about 1,000 yards above the 
 bridge. It is stationed in boats at different points across the 
 stream and is provided with cables, grapnels, anchors, dogs, ham- 
 mers, saws, etc. The business of this guard is to anchor or tow 
 ashore dangerous drifting bodies. 
 
 The floating boom is constructed of trees united by chains 
 and forms a continuous barrier to surface drift. Its general direc- 
 tion should form an angle of about 20° with the current, giving it 
 a length about 2^4 times the width of the river. A boom is not 
 a very reliable protection. 
 
 A guard should always be posted at a floating bridge with a 
 sentry at each end, and, if the bridge is long, at intermediate 
 points. Sentries turn out the guard whenever the bridge is in 
 danger from any cause. The body of the guard should be stationed 
 near one end of the bridge. 
 
 Ice, if thin or rotten, is a serious obstacle to crossing a 
 stream; if thick and sound, it is a very good bridge itself. Boats 
 used in ice must be protected with chafing pieces, especially near 
 
636 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 the water line at the bows. Heavy ice, rapidly moving, makes a 
 crossing impracticable. With sound ice, infantry may pass on 3 
 inches thickness and cavalry on 4, but with large intervals. Field- 
 pieces are safe on 6 inches, and ice 10 inches thick will carry any 
 load that an army is likely to have. 
 
 Loads may be carried on lesser thicknesses or on unsound 
 ice by distributing the weights. Infantry may cross on lines of 
 planks. The wheels of wagons may be skidded on planks. Wagon 
 boxes may be placed on boards and used as sleds to cross supplies. 
 Animals may be hauled across on platforms. 
 
 In shallow lakes, springs are apt to cause weak spots. A 
 path should be carefully examined by chopping through the ice at. 
 frequent intervals to determine its thickness and quality, and when 
 a safe track is found it should be marked on both sides by bushes 
 stuck in holes in the ice. 
 
 BARGES 
 
 Barges are useful in towing and lightering, are easy to 
 manage, and are staunch in rough weather. In swift currents the 
 barge or scow cannot be held broadside to the stream. The road- 
 way must then be made across instead of along the deck. To make 
 the bridles, attach the end of the main cable at the middle of the 
 bow. Stop the bight of a line to the cable 50 to 75 feet above the 
 scow and lead its ends to tackles on the starboard and port sides. 
 By slacking the port tackle and holding the starboard a bridle is 
 formed to the right, and by the reverse process a bridle is formed 
 to the left. If it be desired to stop quickly, as on landing or avoid- 
 ing floating objects, let both tackles go, and the scow rides at 
 ease on the main cable. 
 
 A barge which is operated by the force of the current is 
 designed to carry two field pieces, with four horses each, side by 
 side. It has a traveler or trolley running on a cable stretched 
 across the stream. Instead of being decked it has the flooring on 
 the bottom of the boat. For temporary use, loose planks called 
 dunnage can be laid on the bottom frames. 
 
 CANTILEVERS 
 
 A cantilever is a projecting or overhanging support, trans- 
 mitting all of its load to one of its ends. 
 
 The cantilever principle may be utilized in military field 
 bridges for short spans and moderate loads. The main points to 
 be observed are that the maximum pressure on the abutment is 
 greater than the heaviest load, live and dead, on the projecting 
 
BRIDGES AND PONTOONS 637 
 
 part ©f the cantilever; that any settlement of the abutment causes 
 a greater disturbance of the bridge; and that the weight or resist- 
 ance of the anchor multiplied by its distance from the abutment 
 must be greater than the greatest concentrated load multiplied by 
 the length of the projecting part, or the greatest uniform load 
 multiplied by half that length. 
 
 If the anchorage is beneath the beams, the roadway may be 
 laid directly upon them. If the anchorage is above the beams, 
 separate road bearers must be provided resting on transoms car- 
 ried by the cantilevers, and high enough at the inner end to pass 
 over the anchorage; or the cantilevers may be at the sides only. 
 
 The safe load of a cantilever, concentrated or uniform, is Y\ 
 of the corresponding safe load of the same beam supported at both 
 ends with the same span. The deflection of the cantilever under 
 any load less than the safe load is 10 to 16 times greater than the 
 deflection of the same beam under the same load when supported 
 at both ends. Much greater vibrations must be expected than in 
 girder or truss bridges. 
 
 If the two cantilevers meet at the middle of the bridge they 
 must be fastened together. This doubles the safe concentrated 
 load for the bridge, making it equal to one-half the safe uniform 
 load of both cantilevers instead of one, or one-half the safe con- 
 centrated load on a beam of the size and length of one cantilever 
 supported at both ends. 
 
 If the cantilevers do not meet, the gap is filled by a girder 
 or truss supported by the ends of the cantilevers. This arrange- 
 ment may be useful in case timbers too short to span the gap have 
 to be used. To get the maximum strength for timbers of a given 
 size, the cantilevers should be Vi and the girder % of the span. 
 
 When objects of sufficient mass and stability are available, 
 the counter-balance is not necessary and the cantilevers take the 
 form of brackets. If the opposite brackets meet and are well con- 
 nected the structure becomes of the spar-bridge type, and there is 
 no overturning moment on the abutments. 
 
 TRUSS BRIDGES 
 
 A truss is a compound beam the parts of which are so dis- 
 posed as to form one or more triangles in the same plane. The 
 triangle is the only closed figure which is rigid. Four given sides 
 may be formed into an infinite number of quadrilaterals, and simil- 
 arly for a greater number of sides. It is only the resistance of the 
 joints to bending which prevents the distortion of any of these 
 figures, or its complete collapse. But a given three sides can be 
 formed into one triangle and only one; hence, if the joints do not 
 

 638 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 separate, no side of a triangle can leave the position in which it is 
 placed for another in the same plane. 
 
 Except in some of the simplest forms, the parts of a truss 
 are subjected to tension and compression only, transverse strains 
 being practically eliminated. For this reason parts can be com- 
 bined into a truss of much greater length and supporting power 
 than a possible single beam. The simplest form is the trussed 
 beam, in which a part of the load is taken up at an intermediate 
 point and transferred directly to the ends. 
 
 In the king-post truss, the upright member is in tension and 
 carries x /> the gross load on the truss, or % the gross load on the 
 bridge. One-half of this, or % the gross load on the bridge, is 
 transmitted in compression by the inclined struts from the apex 
 to the ends of the beam, causing stresses. 
 
 In the queen-post truss, two points of the beam are sup- 
 ported, forming three equal bays. The counter braces in the mid- 
 dle panel are frequently omitted, and the resulting combination of 
 two triangles and a parallelogram is not rigid and is not a true 
 truss. As half of the bridge is loaded the other half tends to rise, 
 permitting the loaded half to sink, the beam taking the form of 
 an S. If the beam be stiff enough to withstand this double bending 
 effect, the bridge will be safe, but no stronger than if the beam 
 were divided into two bays instead of three. In this form each post 
 carries ]/e of the total load, dead and live, on the bridge, all of 
 which is transmitted down the corresponding strut. 
 
 The stresses in king and queen post trusses depend upon the 
 load and the inclination of the struts. The load may be stated in 
 tons or lbs. for the entire bridge. The inclination of the struts is 
 represented by the ratio between the height of posts and the length 
 of bay. 
 
 Besides the stresses on rods and struts there is a tension 
 on the beam. It varies in the same way as the other stresses, and 
 sufficient cross section must be given the beam to withstand it, in 
 addition to that figured for the transverse strength. In the queen- 
 post truss the upper horizontal member or straining beam takes 
 this same stress, but in compression. 
 
 Inverted Forms. — Both king and queen post trusses may be 
 inverted. All stresses of tension and compression are then re- 
 versed. The principles of design are not affected by the change, 
 but wood must be used for posts, and iron is much better for the 
 inclined members and for the lower chords of queen-post trusses. 
 The rods are best made double, one on each side of the beam, and 
 fastened to bolts through the beam at the middle point of its depth. 
 Three or more inverted trusses may be placed beneath a single- 
 track roadway. Of the erect type but two can be used. Double- 
 track bridges are often built with three erect trusses. 
 
BRIDGES AND PONTOONS 
 
 639 
 
 Erection of Small Trusses. — With a single beam long enough 
 to span the opening the truss may be built in place. The same may- 
 be done with a spliced beam, provided it is stiff enough to support 
 its own weight plus that of the men and materials necessary to 
 complete the truss. 
 
 The simplest way to get a beam across an opening is to at- 
 tach a rope to one end and pass it over to the other side; then 
 launch the beam out and haul the front end up with the rope. 
 
 The Fink Truss. — This is a superposition of king-post truss- 
 es. It is practicable in the inverted form only, but may be elevated 
 on posts. In this case all the posts are better made of equal 
 
 FINK TRUSS. 
 
 length to form the supports of the roadway. A primary post sup- 
 ports the middle, which becomes a central support for two secon- 
 dary trusses, and the two points supported by the secondary posts 
 BB, become in turn supports for four tertiary trusses CC, and so 
 on. The stresses for secondary and tertiary trusses are worked 
 out in the same way, taking l / 2 the load on the bridge for the 
 secondaries and % for the tertiaries. 
 
 The Howe Truss. — This useful form consists of two parallel 
 chords, usually continuous built-up beams, divided by posts in ten- 
 sion into equal panels, each of which has diagonals in compression. 
 The upper chord is in compression, the lower in tension. Each 
 
640 
 
 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 chord is made up of three or more parallel timbers of uniform size, 
 with lengths adapted to properly distribute the splices. The tim- 
 bers are separated by the diameter of the largest rods so that the 
 latter may pass through the spaces. The main braces are one less 
 in number than the pieces in the chord and abut, top and bottom, 
 against angle blocks of metal or hard wood, triangular in section 
 and extending entirely across the chord. Against these blocks 
 the counter braces, one less in number than the main braces, 
 also abut. The vertical rods of each post are equal in number to 
 the main braces. The ends of struts abut squarely against the ends 
 of the block and are kept in place by tightening up the nuts on the 
 rods. Iron angle blocks are formed to hold the braces in place 
 even if slightly loose. When wooden blocks are used, cleats should 
 
 HOWE TRUSS. 
 
 be nailed on or dowels inserted in the ends of the braces for the 
 same purpose. The timbers of the Howe truss are all square- 
 sawed and have no mortises or tenons. 
 
 The stresses in a chord of a Howe truss are a maximum at 
 the center and when the truss is loaded throughout its length. 
 This maximum stress = the total load on the bridge X span in feet 
 -f- 16 times height of truss in feet. 
 
 The chord stress in the end panels will not exceed J4 the 
 load on the bridge unless the length of the panel is greater than 
 its height, which should never be the case. Between these lower and 
 higher limits the chord stresses vary, but not by equal increments. 
 The change is more rapid near the ends and less so toward the 
 middle. For wooden trusses, convenience in framing requires that 
 all chord pieces have one dimension the same, and it is not cus- 
 
BRIDGES AND PONTOONS 
 
 641 
 
 tomary to make more than one change in the aggregate chord 
 sections. This is done by bolting extra timbers on each side of the 
 lower chord over its middle third. 
 
 The Pratt Truss. — The form and the distribution of stresses 
 are the same as the Howe truss. The disposition of materials in 
 web members is reversed, the verticals being of wood and in 
 compression and the diagonals of metal and in tension. The 
 arrangement at panel points is modified accordingly. The chords 
 are the same as for a Howe truss of the same span, height, and 
 load. 
 
 PRATT TRUSS. 
 
 In both Howe and Pratt trusses care must be taken not to 
 introduce unnecessary initial strain by setting up the rods too 
 tight. The upper chord should be V/2 inches longer than the lower 
 one for each 100 feet of span; the excess to be divided equally 
 among the panels. This prevents the upper chord becoming short- 
 er than the lower when it is compressed and the lower one 
 stretched by the load. The effect when the bridge is light is to 
 give the truss a slight crown or camber. 
 
 The Lattice Truss. — This truss may be constructed entirely 
 }f 2 or 3 inch planks and wooden pins, avoiding the latter if bolts 
 :an be had. The disposition of material is clearly shown in the 
 drawing. If there are three sets of planks, the pairs must be in the 
 
642 
 
 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 position of braces and the single planks of counter braces. The 
 planks are 2 or 3 inches thick and 9 to 12 inches wide, according 
 to the span. They are placed about 2Yi feet apart, measured along 
 the edges. Two to four pins or bolts, depending on width of plank, 
 are placed at each intersection. The chords are formed of planks 
 or timbers, with an aggregate cross section determined by the 
 general rule for trusses, and are pinned or bolted to the upper and 
 lower edges of the lattice as indicated. 
 
 If the roadway be on the lower chord, its upper edge must 
 be so placed that the transom can pass through the lattice and rest 
 on it. 
 
 The lateral bracing may be as described for other trusses, 
 and is very important, as a chief defect of the lattice truss is its 
 lack of lateral stiffness. 
 
 The lattice truss may be used for highway bridges up to 150 
 feet span with depth of one-sixth the span. 
 
 LATTICE TRUSS. 
 
 SUSPENSION BRIDGES 
 
 In this type of bridge the roadway is hung to two or more 
 cables stretched from bank to bank, with their ends attached to 
 fastenings called anchorages. The cables are allowed to sag; the 
 greater the sag the less the tension, but the more the vibration. 
 A sag of one-seventh to one-twelfth the span is the best for field 
 bridges. This fraction is referred to as the ratio of deflection. 
 The cables are usually passed over elevated supports called towers, 
 to keep their lowest point above the roadway. The parts of the 
 cable between the towers and the anchorages are called backstays. 
 The connection between cables and roadway is by rods called 
 suspenders, ties or slings. There is a sling at each end of each 
 transom. 
 
 In military field operations the suspension bridge is best 
 adapted to light loads or long spans or the two combined. The 
 
BRIDGES AND PONTOONS 643 
 
 construction of a suspension bridge for heavy traffic is usually 
 impracticable with field equipment. When materials for a non- 
 floating bridge must be carried with a column, the suspension type 
 is best, because it is lightest for a given capacity and its materials 
 are divisible into small portions for transportation. 
 
 Tension on Backstays. — If the cables are free to move on 
 the tops of the towers, the tension on the backstays will always be 
 the same as that on the cables. In this case the towers are station- 
 ary and should be massive. 
 
 If the cables are fixed to the tops of the towers, the tension 
 on the backstays will be equal to, less than, or greater than the 
 tension on the cable, accordingly as the slope of the backstay at 
 the top of the tower is equal to, less than, or greater than the 
 slope of the cable. It is usually best to make these slopes equal. 
 
 Stresses on the Towers. — When the slopes of cables and 
 backstays are equal, the stresses on each tower will be vertical and 
 equal to the entire weight and load of the clear span. 
 
 When these slopes are unequal the pressure on the towers 
 will be oblique. If the slope of the backstay is less than that of 
 the cable, the tower will tend to revolve or slide toward the an- 
 chorage, and the pressure on each tower will be less than the 
 weight and load of clear span. If the slope of the backstay is 
 greater than that of the cable, the towers will tend to revolve or 
 slide toward each other, and the stresses in each will be greater 
 than the weight and load of clear span. 
 
 When possible, the horizontal distance from the foot of a 
 tower to the corresponding backstay should be Ya, of the clear span 
 or greater. In such case the tension on the backstay will not ex- 
 ceed that on the cable, and the pressure on the tower will not ex- 
 ceed the total weight and load of the clear span. 
 
 Anchorages. — These are of prime importance and must be 
 secure and as rigid as possible. Their character will often be de- 
 termined by accidents of the site. When the stumps of large trees 
 are available they will usually be chosen. Ledge rock or large 
 bowlders are the best, but require care and some skill in making 
 the fastenings. Heavy staples leaded or wedged into holes drilled 
 into the rock will usually be most convenient. If Portland cement 
 :an be had, a grouting will hold the iron firmly after it is set. 
 
 Lengths of Slings depend upon the curve of the main cables 
 ind the camber of the roadway. The latter must be liberal in field 
 suspension bridges. The cables will stretch, especially those made 
 )f wire rope, and the anchorages and tower footings will give more 
 or less. One-fiftieth of the span will usually be enough. 
 
 The lengths of slings are reckoned from the cable to the 
 ower side of the transoms in a vertical line. They must be deter- 
 nined in advance and adhered to during construction, regardless 
 
644 
 
 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 of the appearance of the bridge when partially done. When the 
 roadway is completed the distortion will disappear. 
 
 Railway Bridges. — A railroad bridge should not be built on 
 an incline if it can be avoided. The approaches at each end should 
 be straight and nearly level for a distance equal to at least twice the 
 maximum train length. 
 
 Foundations must be especially unyielding, as settlement is 
 more troublesome than in other bridges. 
 
 For a single-track standard-gauge railway bridge, the clear 
 width between trusses or girders should be 14 feet. In double- 
 track bridges the distance from center to center of tracks must not 
 be less than 13 feet. No part of the truss may be less than 7 feet 
 from the center of the nearest track, at a height exceeding 1 foot 
 above the rail. The clear headroom must be 21 feet above the base 
 of the rail for a width of 6 feet over each track. 
 
 Stringers are put under the rails and are best made in two 
 or more pieces long enough to span two bays and breaking joints. 
 The pieces are separated about 2 inches by blocks and well bolted 
 together. Ties are placed 18 to 24 inches center to center, and 
 every third or fourth one should be spiked to the stringers. A 
 guardrail should be placed along the ends of the ties, and it is 
 better to place under the tie a lighter stringer and bolt the guard- 
 rails to it. 
 
 Thickness of flooring in inches to carry wagons and artillery 
 for varying distances between balks. 
 
 
 Thickness 
 
 of Flooring. 
 
 Distance Between 
 
 
 
 Balks (s. in feet). 
 
 Wagons and Light Artillery. 
 
 Siege Artillery. 
 
 
 Plank. 
 
 Poles. 
 
 Plank. 
 
 Poles. 
 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 1.0 
 
 1.4 
 
 2.3 
 
 2.0 
 
 3.5 
 
 1.5 
 
 1.7 
 
 3.2 
 
 2.4 
 
 4.0 
 
 2.0 
 
 2.0 
 
 3.5 
 
 2.8 
 
 4.4 
 
 2.5 
 
 2.2 
 
 3.8 
 
 3.2 
 
 4.8 
 
 3.0 
 
 2.4 
 
 4.0 
 
 3.6 
 
 5.1 
 
 3.5 
 
 2.6 
 
 4.3 
 
 3.7 
 
 5.4 
 
 4.0 
 
 2.8 
 
 4.5 
 
 4.0 
 
 5.6 
 
 For a footbridge, the thickness of flooring in inches may be 
 safely taken as one-half the span between balks in feet. 
 
 Ferries. — A ferry may be operated by stretching a cabh 
 across the river and pulling the boat by hand along the cable 
 Another method is to use a long rope fastened to a point upstream 
 either on the bank or to an island or anchor in midstream, and nav- 
 igate the boat back and forth by utilizing the force of the current 
 
BRIDGES AND PONTOONS 645 
 
 acting obliquely on the boat. This is called a flying ferry. The 
 wooden ponton will carry 40 infantrymen armed and fully equipped, 
 in addition to the crew, under favorable conditions. In rough 
 water or swift currents the load should be reduced to 20 men be- 
 sides the crew. The normal load of the canvas ponton is 20 men 
 and crew; this should be reduced for unfavorable conditions. 
 
 Fords. — Fords may be used by small bodies of troops with- 
 out bridge equipage, but they are unreliable crossings and are gen- 
 erally unsatisfactory for large bodies. If the current is moderate 
 a depth of ZYz feet may be passed by infantry and Ay 2 by cavalry. 
 Artillery and wagons can cross water 3 feet deep, but if the con- 
 tents of wagons are to be kept dry the depth should not exceed 
 2]/ 2 feet. The bottom should be even, hard, and tenacious. The 
 presence of large stones, mud, or sand will make fording difficult 
 or impracticable. A ford may be rendered impassable by a freshet 
 or by the deepening resulting from the loss of material stirred up 
 and carried away during the passage of troops. Infantry should 
 •cross in column of squads and cavalry in column of twos. All men, 
 ianimals, and vehicles should maintain sufficient distances to pre- 
 vent any damming effect on the stream. Boats or mounted men 
 should be stationed downstream to rescue any men that may be 
 -swept off their feet. A ford may be destroyed by filling the deep- 
 est part with harrows, teeth up, or with planks filled with spikes, 
 with barbed wire, or other obstructions. 
 
 Swimming. — Small parties of selected men may swim a 
 stream successfully, but the attempt to cross with any considerable 
 lumber by this method is likely to result in heavy losses by drown- 
 ng. If boats or rafts are available, horses may be taken across 
 )y swimming. The horse equipments, except the bridle, are taken 
 )ff, and a man on the boat or raft holds each horse by the head 
 luring the passage. If there is little or no current, the horses can 
 iwim on both the upstream and downstream sides of the boat or 
 aft; if the current is swift, they can swim only on the downstream 
 ide. Three horses can be conducted across on one side of a pon- 
 on, or six if they can go on both sides. 
 
 Aerial Ropeways. — If a stream has high banks, with trees 
 »r other means available as anchorages, it may be practicable to 
 tretch a rope across and transport men and materials in chairs, 
 •askets or slings suspended from the rope. 
 
CHAPTER XXIII 
 
 FIELD FORTIFICATION, GENERAL CONSTRUC- 
 TION, MINING AND DEMOLITIONS 
 
 Fortification is the art of increasing by engineering devices 
 the fighting power of troops occupying a position. These devices 
 have for their object to increase the effect of the fire action of 
 troops protected by the fortifications and their mobility on the 
 field, or to diminish the effect of the fire action of the assailant and 
 his mobility. 
 
 Field fortification decreases losses and increases the offen- 
 sive power of troops who use it properly; it permits troops to halt 
 in safety under fire and to resume the advance when conditions 
 are more favorable. In order to avoid enormous losses it is abso- 
 lutely necessary to employ it and to fortify step by step the 
 ground won. It likewise enables troops to hold the enemy with 
 weak forces on one part of the front in order to mass forces and 
 strike him on another part. 
 
 LOCATION 
 
 No natural or artificial strength of position will of itself 
 compensate for loss of initiative when an enemy has time and 
 liberty to maneuver. The choice of a position and its preparation 
 must be made with a view of economizing the power expended on 
 defense in order that the power of offense may be increased. 
 
 The influence of ground upon the effect of fire must be one 
 of the first considerations in selecting a position. A clear field 
 of fire and ground over which artillery and infantry can act in 
 combination are of great importance, but this importance is rela- 
 tive to the ground over which the enemy must move; thus it is 
 better for the defense to have moderate facilities for the co-opera- 
 tion of infantry and artillery fire and for the attack to have none 
 than for the defense to have good ground, but the attack better. 
 The most favorable ground for the ultimate assumption of the 
 offensive is that which lends itself most to the co-operation of all 
 arms, and especially that which allows the advance to be covered 
 by artillery and infantry fire. Ground from which any portion of 
 
FIELD FORTIFICATION, GENERAL CONSTRUCTION 647 
 
 the front or flanks of a position can be enfiladed is dangerous to 
 the defense. 
 
 When it is intended to occupy a defensive position the chief 
 points to be noted are: (a) The best distribution of the infantry 
 and the means of protecting the flanks, (b) The positions for the 
 artillery, which should be posted so as to command: (1) The posi- 
 tions which the enemy may endeavor to seize in order to develop 
 an effective fire against the position. (2) The probable positions 
 of the enemy's artillery, (c) Any points the possession of which 
 might exercise a decisive influence on the issue of the fight, (d) 
 The most favorable lines of attack. (e) The most favorable 
 ground for the counter attack, (f) Ground to be occupied by the 
 general reserve and by the cavalrv. (g) Positions to be occupied 
 in case of retreat. 
 
 ORGANIZATION OF A POSITION 
 
 . J The organization of a position does not imply the estab- 
 
 I lishment of a continuous firing trench. The terrain in front of a 
 : position is best covered by a combination of frontal and flank fire 
 from distinct elements such as trenches, blockhouses, prepared 
 buildings, etc., separated by small intervals; thus economizing 
 i in personnel,, which is one of the advantages of fortification, and 
 j minimizing the effect of the enemy's artillery fire. Each of these 
 elements is occupied by a fixed garrison, which should always be 
 a complete unit, the strength of which, variable according to 
 circumstances, may be as much as a platoon. These elements are 
 not uniformly distributed along the front; their distribution is 
 determined by the features of the terrain, the necessity of having 
 I a greater volume of fire at one point than at another, in one direc- 
 ; tion than another, and other tactical considerations. A line can 
 i always be forced at some points so that it is necessary to have 
 I elements in rear which come into action when the first have fallen. 
 It is therefore necessary to disperse the elements laterally and 
 in depth. 
 I A strong point is a group of elements, thus disposed, which, 
 
 1 by their mutual support, should permit the garrison to hold and 
 • stop the enemy by its fire. It should be surrounded by a con- 
 i tinuous obstacle. It should always be occupied by a fixed unit 
 responsible for its defense. The strength of this unit depends 
 ■ upon the importance of the strong point; it is generally a com- 
 pany or a subdivision of a company. The strong points should 
 be distributed along the front according to the importance of 
 1 the portions of the terrain to be held, and the facilities for flank- 
 ing fire. They will then be grouped together in places, leaving 
 intervals between them, varying in width. 
 
648 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Fire action alone will not always be sufficient for the de- 
 fense of a position; the defensive position should be organized 
 with a view to the execution of immediate counter attacks for 
 the purpose of recapturing any part of the position that has 
 been taken by the enemy. For this purpose it is necessary to have 
 other strong points in rear of those of the firing line, and reserves 
 for the purpose of executing counter attacks. 
 
 The strong points should be grouped together laterally . 
 and in depth. These groups are called supporting points. Their 
 defense should be assigned to a tactical unit, usually a battalion 
 or regiment, which will furnish the garrison of the different 
 strong points and the force for the local reserves. Artillery 
 may sometimes be assigned to certain supporting points. The 
 supporting point is generally surrounded by a continuous ob- 
 stacle. The intervals between supporting points are covered b}' 
 means adapted to the tactical conditions and the terrain. 
 
 The combination of several supporting points under one 
 commander forms a sector. Each sector furnishes its own re- 
 serves distinct from those of the supporting points. It gener- 
 ally has artillery attached. 
 
 The organization described is called an intrenched zone; 
 that nearest the enemy is called the first intrenched zone. In 
 rear, there should always be organized a second intrenched zone,' 
 and if advisable a third, all similar to the first. 
 
 The trenches nearest the enemy are called the firing trenches; 
 close behind these and connected with them at frequent intervals 
 by approach trenches are the cover trenches, which are usually 
 continuous within each strong point, and afford easy lateral com- 
 munication. The combination of these trenches forms the strong 
 points for the firing line. 
 
 In rear of the strong points of the firing line is a line of! 
 strong points made up of firing, cover, and approach trenches and ' 
 called the support trenches. These strong points are usually 
 connected laterally by communicating trenches, and with the strong 
 points of the firing line by approach trenches. 
 
 In rear of the support trenches are strong points organized 
 in a manner similar to those in advance, and called reserve trenches; 
 these are usually connected laterally by communicating trenches; 
 and with the support trenches by approach trenches. Between the 
 support and the reserve trenches there may be strong points 
 called intermediate trenches. The approach and communicating 
 trenches may be prepared for firing at certain points to cover 
 effectively, by frontal and flanking fire,, ground not well covered 
 from the strong points. 
 
 The above organization is a gradual development made dur- 
 ing a prolonged occupation of a position in trench warfare such 
 
FIELD FORTIFICATION, GENERAL CONSTRUCTION 649 
 
 as developed on the western front in Europe. In the initial 
 occupation of a position the first step would be the construction 
 of the strong points for the firing line, with their firing trenches 
 and obstacles first, then their cover, approach, and communicating 
 trenches. Ordi-narily this construction would be all that would 
 be done by hired labor in the preparation of a defensive line not 
 in the presence of the enemy, such as the defensive line for the 
 mobile forces intended for the defense of a seacoast city. The 
 next step would be the construction of the strong points for the 
 support trenches, with the necessary communicating and approach 
 trenches. Finally the defensive zone would be completed by the 
 construction of the reserve and intermediate trenches organized 
 into strong points, and all of these into supporting points and 
 sectors. 
 
 FIRING TRENCHES 
 
 These should usually be constructed in short lengths for 
 a squad, section or platoon, arranged so that they are mutually 
 supporting and thoroughly cover the ground by both frontal and 
 flanking fire. If longer than required for a squad they should be 
 of an irregular or indented trace and be traversed at intervals 
 of from 5 to 8 yards so as to give protection from enfilade fire and 
 localize the effect of shell bursts. 
 
 If the firing trenches are located under fire when an attack 
 has been halted, the location is determined by the line at which 
 the troops are forced to halt, and dig themselves in. This line 
 may in some cases be a hostile trench captured in the course of 
 the attack. Ordinarily each man will construct individual cover in 
 the form of a lying trench, which he will gradually improve to 
 a sitting, kneeling or standing trench. Small adjustments of 
 position may be made by the officers with a view to getting the 
 best possible line under the circumstances. The individual pits 
 are connected up into squad or longer length when night falls, 
 iand the trace and location can then be rectified. 
 
 If the enemy has been found in a strong defensive position 
 .and an attack has not been made, or has resulted in a withdrawal, 
 ,a line of firing trenches may be located under cover of night from 
 .500 to 600 yards, or even more from the enemy, the exact distance 
 depending upon the ground, the facilities for natural cover, and 
 !the tactical condition. This line may be made fairly strong and 
 :omplete before any further advance is attempted. Then under 
 :over of darkness or fog, or a heavy bombardment, a new firing 
 :rench may be constructed at a distance of 200 to 300 yards from 
 ,:he enemy. 
 
 When not in the presence of the enemy, a careful reconnais- 
 
650 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 sance should first be made and the firing trenches can then be 
 located with due rer n rd to the terrain, the tactical requirements and 
 economy of men. 
 
 The following general rules should govern the location 
 of the firing trenches: (1) The field of fire should be such as to 
 expose an attacking enemy to fire for at least the last 200 to 300 
 yards of his advance. To insure this it may be necessary to 
 clear the foreground. With well-trained troops a shorter field of 
 fire may be sufficient, provided it is covered by frontal and flanking 
 fire and is strengthened by a good obstacle, which should be well 
 screened from the distant view of the enemy. (2) Concealment 
 of the trenches is of the greatest importance. (3) The de- 
 fenders should be screened from the enemy's view and sheltered 
 from his fire by natural or artificial cover so arranged as to afford 
 the maximum development of rifle fire. (4) The foreground should 
 contain natural obstacles to break up the formations of attacking 
 troops, but not afford them cover. (5) There should be good 
 communications within the position and over ground that may 
 be used for counter attacks. (6) The trenches should not be placed 
 too near unalterable features that reveal their location or furnish 
 good range marks for the enemy. (7) The location of firing 
 trenches on the crest or forward slope, though exposing them to 
 view and bombardment, gives a feeling of superiority to the troops 
 and increases their morale; enables the support, reserve, communi- 
 cating and approach trenches to be well concealed; offers greater 
 facilities for observation and for the assembly of troops for the 
 assault close to the firing trenches and unobserved. (8) The 
 location of firing trenches behind the crest of a slight ridge screens 
 them from view and fire of the enemy's artillery, unless he has in 
 his possession high ground giving a view of the reverse slope. 
 Special conditions, such as the enemy's local superiority in artil- 
 lery, may justify the deliberate choice of such a position, but it 
 must not be too far down the reverse slope, arrangements must 
 be made to deny the enemy access to the crest of the ridge, and 
 there must be a number of saps forward to the crest to allow a 
 continuous observation of the front slope. (9) In woods the 
 trenches should be located 10 to 20 yards from the front edge; 
 the natural appearance of the woods should not be changed, but 
 a clear field of fire obtained by cutting some of the brush, small 
 trees and low branches. 
 
 PROFILES 
 
 Profiles for firing trenches should satisfy the following 
 conditions: (1) The trench should be as narrow as possible, yet 
 wide enough to allow of movement behind the line of men manning 
 
FIELD FORTIFICATION, GENERAL CONSTRUCTION 651 
 
 the parapet. The slopes should be kept as steep as possible. The 
 width at the top is usually from 2y 2 to 3 feet at first; later, when 
 enlarged for the movement of men along it, 4 to 5 feet. (2) The 
 height of the parapet should be as small as possible, while great 
 enough to give a clear field of fire. This height should not usually 
 be over 1 foot. (3) The parapet must be bullet proof and have 
 a flat front slope. A thickness of 5 feet is usually sufficient. (4) 
 The relief should be such as to permit firing. This requires 1 
 foot lying down, 3 feet kneeling, and A l / 2 feet standing. The rear 
 of the trench is deepened later for communication. (5) There 
 must be a parados to give protection against the blast of high 
 explosive shells. (6) A 1-foot berm should be left on both sides of 
 the trench to keep loose earth from falling into it. The front 
 berm serves as an elbow rest. (7) The profile should be progres- 
 
 Ditch- 
 
 Paraget 
 |«Hor.Cov> 
 
 rr*L_j£nnrTt£Q£!}: 
 
 wmm. 
 
 PROFILE. 
 
 sive and rapidly executed; it should give protection and permit 
 firing while being constructed. 
 
 Cover, approach and communicating trenches should ordi- 
 narily have a width at the top of from 4 to 5 feet and a relief of 
 not less than 7 feet, with a parapet from 1 to 2 feet high. They 
 may be prepared for firing on one or both sides by providing a 
 firing banquette ty 2 feet below the crest of the parapet and widen- 
 ing the trench. 
 
 Traverses. — Traverses afford the best method for protection 
 against enfilade fire and to localize the effects of shells bursting 
 in the trench. To be effective against heavy artillery they must 
 be at least 2 yards wide on top and constructed if possible of undis- 
 turbed earth. They should be spaced from 5 to 8 yards apart and 
 
652 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 should project at least 1 yard beyond the face of the rear wall of 
 the trench. They may be provided with a firing banquette to 
 permit a flank fire along a trench in case part of it is captured. 
 
 For straight-approach trenches the best type is the island 
 traverse, with the trench going around it on both sides. Sections 
 of trench subject to special exposure are sometimes protected 
 with bridge traverses built across the top of the trench or indi- 
 vidual niches may be constructed between traverses. Approach 
 trenches are usually protected from enfilade fire by giving them a 
 zigzag trace. 
 
 Head cover is the term applied to any horizontal cover 
 which may be provided above the plane of fire. It is obtained 
 by notching or loopholing the top of the parapet. 
 
 (a) Notches. — When the relief of the trench is too great for 
 a man to fire standing or when the height of the parapet is more 
 than 1 foot above the level of the ground, notches may be made in 
 
 DETACHED TRAVERSES. 
 
 the parapet. The simplest way to make them and give support to 
 their sides and make them the least visible is to arrange sand bags 
 on top of the parapet. 
 
 (b) Loopholes. — When overhead cover is used loopholes are 
 necessary. They may be constructed of sandbags, wood,, steel, 
 hurdles or other material. The sky as a background should be 
 avoided by raising the parados or placing a canvas curtain behind 
 the loophole and closing the opening with a metal cover, which can 
 be removed when the loophole is in use. Loopholes should be 
 concealed by using grass, brush, canvas or empty sandbags. 
 
 In addition to their visibility, loopholes have the disad- 
 vantage that they cause a pause in the fire of the defender when 
 the attack reaches the most deadly zone of fire, because the de- 
 fenders have to withdraw their rifles to prepare for bayonet 
 fighting. Arrangements should therefore be made for firing over 
 the parapet by constructing banquettes between the loopholes. 
 In all firing trenches, however, a few loopholes are desirable for 
 the use of snipers, and there may be one or two between each two 
 traverses. All night firing should be over the parapet. 
 
FIELD FORTIFICATION, GENERAL CONSTRUCTION 653 
 
 Overhead Cover. — The garrison of a trench must have shel- 
 ter against bombardment by high explosive shells and against the 
 weather. This is secured by shelters, which are classified as 
 splinter proofs or bombproofs, according as they are designed to 
 afford protection against splinters of shells bursting over or near 
 them or against shells hitting them direct and bursting on impact. 
 
 (a) For the garrison of the firing trench small shelters may 
 be constructed under the parapet, but the greater part of the 
 garrison should be protected during a bombardment by shelters 
 constructed along the cover trenches. Shelters under the parapet 
 of the firing trench must: (1) Not interrupt the line of fire. (2) 
 
 TRENCH FOR FIRE THROUGH AND OVER PARAPET, 
 
 Be capable of construction after the trench is finished. (3) Permit 
 the parapet to be manned quickly. 
 
 (b) In the cover trenches there must be a number of shelters 
 so that the garrison which must be kept there in the heaviest bom- 
 bardment will be completely sheltered. To limit the effect of 
 hits there should be a number of small shelters rather than a few 
 large ones. The maximum capacity should be 25 men. Cave shel- 
 ters must be used if the soil and natural features are favorable for 
 their construction and arrangements can be made to get out of 
 them quickly. 
 
 (c) In the support and reserve trenches and in rear cave 
 
654 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 shelters and shelters utilizing natural cover, such as quarries and 
 cellars of buildings, may be used. The shelters may also be 
 larger. 
 
 (d) General Principles. — (1) A shelter is valuable only when 
 it offers complete protection and permits the men to get out of 
 it in time. For complete protection it should have a roof strong 
 enough to keep out the heaviest shells. Splinter-proof cover is 
 afforded by a layer of logs or beams 6 or more inches thick covered 
 with not less than 12 inches of earth. Bomb-proof cover against 
 6-inch high explosive shells is afforded by a layer of rails or beams, 
 18 inches of earth, a layer of brick or broken stone, 2^4 feet of 
 earth, another layer of brick or stone 6 to 12 inches thick, and over 
 all 6 inches of earth. Cave shelters may be as much as 30 feet 
 under undisturbed earth. 
 
 (2) To enable men to get out in time there must be a look- 
 out placed to one side of the entrance in a protected niche in the 
 parapet, and provided with means to give the alarm. The exit 
 may also be held under fire of an arrangement known as a traverse 
 block house, built of rails and concrete. Certain shelters may 
 also be provided with long periscopes to be placed in the venti- 
 lating hole of the shelter. 
 
 (3) A burster layer of 6 to 12 inches of brick or stone should 
 always be provided near the top surface of the roof. Over this 
 burster layer should be a layer of not less than 6 inches nor more 
 than 12 inches of earth to decrease danger from the scattering of 
 the brick or stone by the burst of the shell. 
 
 (4) The water tightness of the roof is secured by placing 
 over the layer of logs roofing paper, corrugated iron, tin,, canvas, 
 tiles, etc. 
 
 (5) Drainage should be secured by sloping the floor of the 
 shelter toward a drainage pit constructed near the entrance. 
 
 (6) Ventilation should be provided by holes which may be 
 drilled with an earth auger, near one of the walls of the shelter. 
 
 (7) Protection against asphyxiating gas is secured by placing 
 two curtains of canvas at the entrance, which should be lowered 
 when the alarm is given. There must always be in the shelter 
 a barrel of solution of hyposulphite of soda, which is sprayed into 
 the air. 
 
 (8) The walls of deep shelters should be strongly revetted 
 to prevent their caving in. Tools should be stored in them so that 
 the men can dig out if the exit is blocked by a shell burst. An 
 earth auger enables a hole to be bored rapidly, through which 
 food, water and air may be obtained quickly. Cover shelters 
 should always be provided with two entrances. Food, water, 
 ammunition, grenades and rockets to warn the lines in rear 
 should be stored in the shelters. 
 
FIELD FORTIFICATION, GENERAL CONSTRUCTION 655 
 
 (9) Arrangements should be made for heating and drying the 
 shelters with stoves. 
 
 Revetments. — The deep, narrow trenches, with steep walls 
 now used require careful revetment, especially where the soil 
 does not weather well. To keep the men comfortable and the 
 trenches clean and free from mud requires a substantial revetment. 
 Some soils are apparently firm and stand at a steep slope when 
 first excavated, but under the action of the weather the side walls 
 soon slough off, obstruct the trenches, and make them muddy in 
 rainy weather. In case of long-continued occupancy of the 
 trenches, timber and plank revetment will gradually replace the 
 lighter forms. The trench walls, the seats, benches and steps in 
 soft ground, especially if they are likely to be much used, should 
 be revetted. If possible this should be done when the trenches are 
 first constructed. 
 
 When of planks or boards, they should be placed on top of 
 one another, behind stakes, and backed up with earth. The stakes 
 should be driven in at the foot of the slope at the desired inclina- 
 tion and at intervals of from 1 to 2 yards. Every second or third 
 stake should be anchored to stakes under the parapet by means 
 of wire, withes, or rope, fastened at about two-thirds of the height 
 of the revetment. 
 
 When of branches or brush, the branches or brush is heaped 
 up, like the boards, behind the stakes and sufficiently pressed 
 together to keep the earth at the back from filtering through. 
 If it is not desirable or possible to anchor the stakes separately, a 
 pole can be fastened along them near the top, and this can be 
 anchored at intervals of from 4 to 6 feet. 
 
 When of woven brush the pickets are driven at intervals of 
 from 1 to 1^2 feet; they are temporarily joined together at the top 
 with a pole. The wattles are alternately passed in front and 
 behind the pickets and interwoven. The pickets should be an- 
 chored. 
 
 When of hurdles, they are placed close together and the 
 sharpened stakes driven into the ground and anchored. Hurdles 
 are especially suitable for use after a work is finished to 
 strengthen it. 
 
 When of sod, the sod should be cut to a size of 18 by 9 by 4 
 inches. They are laid grass down like brick masonry. If bricks 
 are used, the method of laying them is the same. 
 
 When of fragments of hard earth, stone or sand bags, the 
 method of construction is the same as for sod or brick. 
 
 When of expanded metal, it should be supported by stakes 
 about 2]/ 2 inches in diameter, at intervals of about 18 inches; the 
 stakes should be anchored, and the metal fastened to them with 
 42 
 
656 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 staples. Rabbit wire or poultry wire netting may be used in the 
 same way. 
 
 Fascines are generally used for making steps; they may also 
 be used for wide trenches. 
 
 Gabions may be used for very wide trenches, such as assem- 
 bly points. They are placed side by side. 
 
 Steps. — Trenches must be provided with means to permit 
 troops to leave them rapidly to make an attack. Steps should be 
 revetted with one or more rows of fascines. Ladders have the ad- 
 vantage of not widening the trench. They are placed vertically 
 against the front wall of the trench. Ramps parallel to the firing 
 trench may be constructed at the ends of the branches of a zigzag 
 communicating or approach trench. 
 
 Drainage. — Drainage is essential to the preservation of the 
 trenches and the health and comfort of the troops. In deliberate 
 works it is well to study the drainage question in detail and to con- 
 struct special ditches of ample capacity before work on the trenches 
 proper is begun. In trenches constructed in the presence of the 
 enemy, drainage pits should be constructed which can be emptied 
 by bailing or pumping. The bottom of the trench should slope to- 
 ward the back where a shallow ditch may be constructed, sloping 
 to a drainage pit. Where the soil is impermeable an endeavor 
 should be made to reach a permeable layer by boring with an earth 
 auger. In hilly terrain the water may be drained off by pipes 
 placed under the parapet. 
 
 The drainage and flooring of approach and communicating 
 trenches, constantly used, is specially important, and should be 
 considered in their location. A good form of floor grating is in 
 lengths of 6 feet, 18 to 24 inches wide, made of cross pieces of Y\ 
 by 4 inch boards, nailed to two longitudinal pieces of timber about 
 3 by 4 inches, set on edge. When timber for flooring is not avail- 
 able, drains filled with broken stone should be constructed in the 
 bottom of the trench, which should always be convex. 
 
 Obstacles. — The object of an obstacle is to check a hostile 
 rush and delay the enemy under the close fire of the defense. An 
 obstacle should be at such distance from the parapet that it is 
 difficult for hostile bombers to crawl up to it and throw bombs 
 into the trench. On the other hand, the obstacle should be under 
 close observation and fire of the defense. If the front edge of the 
 obstacle is 40 yards from the trench, these conditions are fulfilled. 
 If possible the obstacle should be concealed for purposes of sur- 
 prise and to decrease its liability to injury by artillery fire; it should 
 form no shelter for the enemy. Some form of wire entanglement 
 is ordinarily used. Obstacles are ordinarily placed all around 
 strong and supporting points and often on both sides of approach 
 trenches. Passages through them for counterattacks are usually 
 
FIELD FORTIFICATION, GENERAL CONSTRUCTION 657 
 
 covered by machine gun fire. The quantity of wire required is 
 enormous; for a strong defensive position at least 100 miles of wire 
 to the mile of front must be provided. At important points the wire 
 entanglement is placed in belts 20 feet wide, two or more belts 
 about 20 yards apart being used. The trace of the obstacle should 
 not be parallel to the firing trench, so that it can be flanked by 
 rifle and machine gun fire can not be used by the hostile ar- 
 tillery for ranging on the trenches. The modern form is a com- 
 promise between the high and the low wire entanglement and is 
 generally from 2 to 2^ feet high. The wire is strung loosely, and 
 many forms of spirals and hoops have been devised. Barbed wire 
 is ordinarily used; the posts are of wood or iron; the iron ones; 
 are provided with eyelets for attaching the wire, and the lower end: 
 is auger twisted for about 18 inches so that it can be screwed se- 
 curely into the ground at night without noise, a great advantage 
 when in close proximity to the enemy. There are usually three 
 rows of posts set in quincunx order from 6 to 8 feet apart. 
 
 When the lines are too close to permit the placing of posts 
 portable obstacles in the nature of a chevaux de frise, triangular 
 pyramids of timber thoroughly wired, or timber or steel frames 
 and sawbucks wired, are thrown out in front of the trenches. 
 
 Concealment. — The trenches and other works should be made 
 as nearly invisible as possible, and their concealment should be 
 completed by treating the front slope of the parapet so that its- 
 appearance from the front and from aircraft will correspond to 
 that of the surrounding ground. Crops should be replaced where 
 disturbed, and carefully arranged; bushes should be planted to hide 
 the parapet, the men on watch, riflemen, and observers. Sod should 
 be preserved and placed on the parapet and parados. 
 
 Dummy Trenches. — Dummy trenches and works should be 
 freely employed so as to deceive the enemy as to the strength of 
 the defender and to scatter his fire. These works should be made 
 slightly more visible than the regular works, so as to attract the 
 attention of the enemy, without causing him to suspect their true 
 nature. Their occupation should also be simulated and the damage 
 caused to them by artillery fire must be repaired, so that the enemy 
 will not discover his mistake. 
 
 Observations. — The observation of the enemy is of first im- 
 portance in position warfare. It should give •complete knowledge 
 of all elements of the hostile line and prompt information of any 
 movement of the enemy. It is effected by observation from the 
 ground and from aircraft. 
 
 Observation from the ground is divided into three echelons: 
 
 (a) In front of the firing line from small posts and listening posts. 
 
 (b) On the firing line by sentinels and lookouts, (c) In rear of 
 
658 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 the firing line, by artillery observers, sentinels, and lookouts of the 
 shelters. 
 
 Small posts or listening posts consist of pits, shot holes, or- 
 ganized shell craters, or short trenches for from 1 to 8 men in front 
 of the firing trenches and connected with them by sap or low mine 
 gallery. They should be as nearly invisible as possible and provided 
 with loopholes. Protection at short range from grenades is secured 
 by a network of wire. 
 
 Observation on the firing line is effected by lookout posts 
 organized preferably at the salients where the view is more ex- 
 tended. They are provided with periscopes, range finders, and 
 large-scale maps. They should be concealed by all possible means, 
 as good observation is possible only when done without knowledge 
 of the enemy. The posts should preferably be constructed on the 
 right of a traverse and in an excavation in front of the trench wall. 
 
 The observation posts, even of the infantry, are not necessar- 
 ily in the firing line or in the listening posts. Often in rear, points 
 will be found which will give an excellent view and will not attract 
 the enemy's attention. The term " observatory " is often employed 
 for observation posts of this kind; they should be protected and 
 have means of communication such as telephone, heliograph, mes- 
 senger, carrier pigeons, wireless. They may belong to the infan- 
 try, the artillery, or higher commands. The observatory may be 
 occupied by the commander himself or by an observer who repre- 
 sents him. In any case the observatory should be near the command 
 post. It must have a low parapet, be defiladed from view, and 
 proof against large projectiles. 
 
 The location of the lookout posts and observatories must be 
 determined in accordance with a complete plan for each supporting 
 point or sector of defense. No part of the hostile front should be 
 free from observation, and parts of the front favorable for an at- 
 tack by the enemy should be specially watched. An observatory 
 should be located near the command posts of the commanders of 
 strong points, supporting points, and sectors. Those of the last 
 two must have extended views over the whole of the terrain. 
 
 Illumination of the Battle Field. — In position warfare it is 
 necessary — (a) To discover and keep in touch with the movements 
 of the enemy at night, (b) To seek out and illuminate hostile ob- 
 jectives so as to fire upon them, (c) To blind the enemy. 
 
 These results are obtained with searchlights. The smaller 
 ones, about 12 inches, are acetylene and have a short range. The 
 larger, about 24 inches, are electric and have a longer range. They 
 can also be used for signaling. They are placed in shelters similar 
 to those for machine guns, located so as to flank the line of fire. 
 Flares, rockets, etc., are also used. 
 
FIELD FORTIFICATION, GENERAL CONSTRUCTION 659 
 
 Lines of Information. — During a bombardment the mainten- 
 ance of lines of information becomes very difficult, but it must be 
 accomplished by all possible methods, such as: (a) Installing tele- 
 phones under strong shelters, (b) Using lead-covered cable, buried 
 6 feet deep, especially for the lines connecting the regimental, bri- 
 gade, division, and corps headquarters, (c) Placing rockets in all 
 shelters and observatories where officers or sergeants are posted, 
 (d) Preparing posts for visual signaling, safe from bombardment 
 and defiladed from view of the enemy. These posts are constructed 
 in shelters similar to those for searchlights, and are provided with 
 horizontal loopholes with openings to the flank or rear. 
 
 Depots for Material and Ammunition. — These consist of gal- 
 leries of variable dimensions, opened in the walls of the trenches, 
 and usually lined with timber. The entrance should be closed with 
 a strong door. They are used to store water, rations, ammunition, 
 grenades, pioneer tools, portable searchlights, field glasses, maps, 
 range finders, periscopes, lighting pistols, and rockets. Depots for 
 engineer material are usually installed in the angles of the approach 
 trenches. Depots for water, rations, tools, and sand bags are usu- 
 ally established about 20 yards to the right of the company com- 
 mand post. Depots for arms, ammunition, bombs, grenades, and 
 rockets are about 20 yards to the left of the same post. An inven- 
 tory of material should be kept up to date at the company com- 
 mand post. 
 
 Machine Guns. — The general principles of their employment 
 are: (a) The personnel and material should be protected from 
 fire as much as possible. 
 
 (b) In order that they may be available at the moment of 
 attack, it is indispensable that they survive the bombardment. 
 Their protection must therefore be specially provided for by em- 
 ploying all the following means: (1) Placing them under shelter. 
 (2) Making their emplacements invisible. (3) Dispersing them 
 laterally and in depth by arranging them in echelon. 
 
 (c) Casemates must be used only when they can not be seen 
 by the enemy, such as on the reverse slope, or in woods, or in vil- 
 lages. 
 
 (d) The great importance of making them invisible necessi- 
 tates the construction of firing emplacements outside the shelters, 
 but close enough to enable the guns to be put into action with the 
 least possible delay. 
 
 (e) The firing emplacement may be protected by a light 
 roof with very small height, or it may be entirely without over- 
 head protection. The emplacement may consist simply of a pit 
 in the open field, situated in front or in rear of the firing trench, 
 and connected with the shelter by an underground passage. The 
 machine gun should be placed in action at the last moment; it may 
 
660 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 be simply placed on the edge of the pit without any protection, or 
 preferably it should be covered by a light shield, or a low parapet 
 carefully blended with the natural slope of the ground. The pit 
 should be carefully hidden so that it can not be discovered by the 
 enemy. Emplacements of this nature are frequently employed in 
 rear of the firing line. 
 
 (f) When the firing trench is situated on the reverse slope, 
 machine guns should be emplaced in concealed pits in front of 
 the trench, on the crest if practicable, and connected with the 
 trench by underground passages. 
 
 (g) The requirement of concealment makes it necessary to 
 conceal all the approaches to the firing emplacements by making 
 them underground, and to increase the number of emplacements 
 so that it will not be necessary to fire daily from those to be used 
 in case of an attack. 
 
 (h) The emplacement of too many machine guns in the firing 
 line is dangerous; in order to stop an attack they should be eche- 
 loned to the rear. In favorable terrain, flank fire should be pro- 
 vided, to mow down the attacking lines as they push forward. 
 Therefore, the available machine guns should be distributed be- 
 tween the firing trench and the terrain in rear, with each emplace- 
 ment prepared in a manner suitable to the terrain and the tactical 
 requirement. 
 
 Trench Weapons. — In trench warfare, batteries of light mor- 
 tars and other trench weapons are generally emplaced between 
 the cover and support trenches. They may be with or without over- 
 head cover. When overhead cover is used, alternative emplace- 
 ments without it should be constructed near by, if practicable. The 
 emplacements should be concealed as much as possible, and their 
 parapets should not be higher than those of the adjacent trenches. 
 The guns should be dispersed laterally and in depth as are machine 
 guns. 
 
 Command Posts. — Besides their combat positions near the 
 firing trenches each commander of a tactical unit should have an 
 individual rest shelter. Each must have a specific identifying let- 
 ter or number so that the positions of all headquarters can be defi- 
 nitely known. They must be marked by large signboards and on 
 the map, so that they may form definite reference points. They 
 must be large enough to shelter the commander and his immediate 
 staff and orderlies, and be supplied with the necessary equipment 
 for a field headquarters. Company command posts must have near 
 them the depots for materials, so that the troops will always know 
 where to find these materials. 
 
 First-aid Stations. — These should be connected with the cover 
 and firing trenches by a communicating or approach trench wide 
 enough for a litter to be carried through it. They are constructed 
 
 
FIELD FORTIFICATION, GENERAL CONSTRUCTION 661 
 
 like other shelters. The walls should be covered with straw or 
 hurdle work, which must be frequently changed. They should be 
 at least 8 by 12 feet in plan. Two cots should be placed against 
 one wall, and a bench for the wounded to sit on against the other. 
 
 Kitchens. — These should be constructed in shelters. The 
 stove pipe should project somewhat above the top of the shelter 
 to secure good draft. In addition, numerous ventilating holes must 
 be made. The shelters should be large enough to accommodate 
 the rolling kitchens. Small fires built of dry wood in the bottom 
 of deep trenches do not betray their positions. 
 
 Latrines. — These should be constructed in the vicinity of all 
 trenches. They may be covered or open, revetted if practicable, and 
 provided with seats or supports. They must be kept constantly 
 clean; the excreta covered with earth and the position changed 
 when the pit is three-quarters full. When trenches are occupied 
 for more than a few days the excreta must be caught in tins and 
 removed daily. They are usually arranged on both sides of a spe- 
 cial communicating trench, which should be paved with stones for 
 about 10 yard-s. 
 
 Lavatories. — These should be improvised of tin or wood so 
 as to form a number of basins in a row, with holes in the bottom, 
 placed above a trough which receives and carries off the water to 
 a drainage pit. There should be a grating for the men to stand on 
 and the floor of the trench should have a decided slope for drain- 
 age. They should be constructed on a special trench, covered it 
 practicable. 
 
 Shower Baths. — These should be installed in a deep shelter 
 or a cave shelter. A simple arrangement is to provide one or two 
 kettles for heating water, tubs or casks for storing it, placed about 
 9 feet above the celling of the shelter. The casks should be con- 
 nected with a pipe fitting with sprinklers, properly spaced. There 
 should be a grating on the floor and the bottom of the approach 
 trench should have a steep slope toward a drainage pit. 
 
 Water Supply. — This usually consists of several large casks 
 filled through pipes if practicable; otherwise the water is carried 
 to them. There should be an interval of at least 10 yards between 
 casks to avoid crowding and mud puddles. 
 
 Sign-posting the Approach and Communicating Trenches. — 
 At all crossings two sign boards must be set into the berm so that 
 they may be seen by a person going in either direction. An ap- 
 proach must keep its name or number throughout its length. At 
 all crossings the main approach should be about a foot deeper 
 than the intersecting trenches or minor approach. Generally sep- 
 arate approach trenches should be provided for traffic to the front 
 (in) and to the rear (out). Everything that hinders movement in 
 approach and communicating trenches should be rigidly suppressed. 
 
662 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Maintenance. — Order and sanitary conditions must be rigidly- 
 exacted in the trenches, or they will soon become untenable or very 
 unhealthful. The trenches after prolonged use deteriorate, not 
 only from the fire of the enemy, but also from the effects of the 
 weather. They must be constantly repaired. Walls which break 
 down must be revetted; firing banquettes must be constantly re- 
 paired with planks, fascines, or other revetting material. Damaged 
 parapets must be repaired; berms must be kept at proper width. 
 Drainage pits must; be watched carefully and kept cleaned out. It 
 requires constant work to keep the trenches clean and sanitary. 
 
 When parts of trenches are captured, steps must be taken 
 immediately to clear them of insects which swarm in them and 
 transmit disease germs, particularly typhus. Straw should be 
 burned in the trenches and shelters, and all woodwork should be 
 whitewashed. 
 
 Protection Against Asphyxiating Gas. — The principal and 
 most effective protection is to provide all occupants of trenches 
 with gas masks, and require them to be constantly ready to put 
 them on when the gas alarm is given. They must not be removed 
 except by order of the senior officer or non-commissioned officer 
 present. Lookouts should be provided with some means of giving 
 a special alarm at the approach of asphyxiating gas. 
 
 Protection Against Bombs and Grenades. — This is secured 
 by a grill of wire netting placed in front of the trench. The top 
 of the grill should be placed so that a bomb passing over it will 
 clear the trench. 
 
 Trip and Alarm Wires. — These should be provided at import- 
 ant points. They may be arranged to light a flare or give some 
 other signal to disclose the advance of the enemy. 
 
 Villages and Buildings. — Villages such as are found in Eu- 
 rope, placed in a state of defense, make the best kind of a support- 
 ing point. If the defense is properly organized, their capture has 
 usually proved a long and costly operation. Cellars with their roofs 
 shored up and reinforced form excellent shelters, and good com- 
 munications entirely underground can be made by breaking through 
 from cellar to cellar. The organization of the defense of. a village 
 is similar to that described for a supporting point. The field of 
 fire for interior lines of resistance must be improved wherever nec- 
 essary by the thorough demolition of buildings and the removal 
 and spreading of debris. 
 
 It is often advisable to include substantial masonry build- 
 ings in the firing line. Experience shows it to be very hard to 
 dislodge a determined defender from a properly organized build- 
 ing. On the other hand, buildings in or near the front invariably 
 draw much artillery fire. For this reason a building should not 
 Hormally be occupied by day unless it has cellars which can be 
 
FIELD FORTIFICATION, GENERAL CONSTRUCTION 663 
 
 ^~=; c/rid /irfq Uun ■■-—-^== d^= 
 
 DEFENSE OF A FORTIFIED VILLAGE, 
 
664 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 improved to provide good bombproof cover, or similar cover can 
 be made quite close to the building and connected with it by com- 
 municating and approach trenches. Otherwise, if the building has 
 been organized for defense, a garrison should be detailed which 
 will occupy it only at the last moment in case of attack. The de- 
 fensive arrangements should be concentrated on the first floor and 
 cellar. 
 
 In the building itself the work to be done is: (a) Reinforce 
 the cellar roof, with concrete if possible, and shore it up to enable 
 it to carry the extra protection and the debris which shelling will 
 bring down upon it. (b) Loophole the walls as near the ground 
 as practicable, (c) Reinforce the walls up to the loopholes with 
 earth, sandbags, etc. (d) Block up and loophole the ground floor 
 doors and windows, (e) Construct overhead cover over the loop- 
 holes to protect from falling debris. 
 
 Outside the building, construct firing trenches in front and 
 on the flanks, and connect them and the building by communicating 
 and approach trenches. 
 
 In the drawing showing the defense of a fortified village, W 
 shows the loopholed walls; P, parapets and ditches; c, ditto of 
 casks; x, abatis; r, stockades; b, barriers; t t, free communication, 
 road or passage; H, fortified house; K, keep. In the attack of this 
 fortified village, D D, is a flying sap-parallel or trench of cover; 
 B, open field battery; E, ditto, advanced to breach; F, one Im- 
 pounder and one 24-pounder howitzer, to enfilade flanking defences 
 e e' e", breaches; A, storming party; Z, supporting ditto; s s s, firing 
 party and skirmishers; S a, false attacks, to divert the attention of 
 the garrison at the moment of the real assault. 
 
 Method of executing field fortification work. — When the 
 tactical situation permits the execution of the work in safety: 
 
 (1) Establish the trace, place the eye at the height of the 
 interior crest (1 foot). Mark out the trace with stones, stakes, 
 or tape. Mark the points of change of direction (maximum 
 120°). Mark the position of each traverse between squads (min- 
 imum thickness of traverse, 2 yards). (2) Deploy the working 
 party along the trace by such method as the tactical conditions 
 demand. (3) Place the rifles and packs on the rear side, the 
 rifles in reach. (4) Mark out the tasks on the ground with a 
 pick. Mark out the traverses in the same manner. (5) Strip the 
 sod from the ground to be excavated and rapidly construct a 
 mask or small parapet with it, with a steep slope on the rear. 
 (6) Dig as vertically as possible. As soon as the parapet affords 
 sufficient protection, the men designated construct the trench 
 around the traverses, commencing at both ends. (7) Make a 
 parados as soon as the depth of the trench exceeds that for a 
 kneeling trench (2 feet). (8) Conceal the trenches by means of 
 
FIELD FORTIFICATION, GENERAL CONSTRUCTION 665 
 
 sod taken from the site of the parapet and parados and give them 
 the appearance of the surrounding ground. (9) Arrange approaches 
 masked from view by brush, etc. (10) Proceed with obstacles, 
 head cover, clearing, etc. 
 
 When circumstances render night work necessary, special 
 dispositions must be made: (1) Except when absolutely impos- 
 sible, stake out the trace before complete darkness. (2) If the 
 trace can be marked only at night, utilize visible reference points 
 such as white paper, stones, or tape, flash lights, etc. (3) For the 
 distribution of the work and commencement of it, employ the 
 same principles as for daywork. (4) Avoid, except the inevitable 
 noise of the tools, anything that may reveal the presence of the 
 workers (cigarettes, conversation, etc.). (5) Protect the workers 
 by patrols stationed to the front. 
 
 MINING 
 
 Underground communications are classed according to their 
 directions as galleries, which are horizontal or nearly so, and 
 shafts, which are vertical or nearly so. 
 
 Galleries are classed according to their size as great or 
 grand galleries, which are 6 ft. high by 7 ft. wide; common gal- 
 leries, 6 ft. by 3y 2 ft; half galleries, A l / 2 ft. by 3 ft.; branches, 
 3y 2 ft. by 2y 2 ft, and small branches, 2*/ 2 ft. by 2 ft When the 
 formation of the ground permits, earth augers may be used, 
 forming bores or drill holes. 
 
 Shafts may be drill holes or wells, or may range in size 
 from the smallest in which a man can work, say 3 ft. by 3 ft., to any 
 size which may be required, seldom more than 6 by 10 ft 
 
 The dimensions of galleries and shafts are determined by 
 the use to be made of them, their length, and the minimum space 
 in which men can work. If troops or guns are to be passed 
 through galleries they must be made large enough for that pur- 
 pose. Grand and common galleries usually meet these require- 
 ments. Galleries used only to reach the proper point to place 
 the explosives are made of the size which is most rapidly driven 
 and can be sufficiently ventilated. This is usually the half gal- 
 lery in which men can work without too much constraint, through 
 which the excavated earth can be transported by efficient methods, 
 and in which reasonable ventilation can be maintained by simple 
 means. 
 
 Branches or small branches may be used when near the 
 objective points. They are rapidly driven for short distances, 20 
 feet or so, but when longer, the difficulties of digging, earth dis- 
 posal, and ventilation become too great. When the soil permits 
 
666 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 the use of augers, bores will usually be employed for this purpose. 
 The quantity of explosive placed at any point is called a charge. 
 The place prepared for the reception of the charge is called the 
 mine chamber or simply the chamber. 
 
 The primary requisites of subterraneous excavations are 
 accuracy of direction, prevention of caving, ventilation, drainage, 
 and lighting. The restricted space usually requires not only that 
 men shall work in constrained positions, but also that special 
 tools be provided of smaller size than those used for open earth 
 work. A special tool called the push pick is very convenient in 
 soft earth. Picks and shovels for mining are similar in form to 
 standard tools, but are smaller, and have shorter handles. 
 
 Accuracy of direction may be secured in sufficient degree 
 by refined application of methods described in Reconnaissance. 
 The principal characteristic of underground surveying is the 
 absence of daylight. All targets must be luminous, and readings of 
 instruments may be made by artificial light. As a rule, the less 
 light there is in the gallery, other than the target and reading 
 lights, the better. The best target is a light of medium strength 
 behind a narrow slit, and is easily improvised. 
 
 In large galleries a transit may be used, and in smaller ones 
 a plane table or prismatic compass. The box compass can not 
 be sighted and read with sufficient accuracy for this work. Com- 
 pass courses can not be relied upon as the needle is subject to 
 abnormal fluctuation when used underground. At each change of 
 direction the back azimuth and azimuth must be carefully read and 
 the angle between them used to determine the change. The light 
 used for reading a compass should be non-magnetic and non- 
 electric, or if not so, must be held in exactly the same position 
 during both readings. 
 
 The greatest accuracy need not be maintained during the 
 construction of galleries, though carelessness must be avoided. 
 When the immediate vicinity of the chamber or other objective 
 point is reached the entire line must be checked as accurately as 
 possible, and the length and direction of the branch or drill hole 
 necessary to reach the objective point must be determined. The 
 digging having been substantially completed, the galleries may 
 be kept clear of men to facilitate work when this final survey is 
 made. 
 
 The first step in any mining operation is to locate the 
 objective point with respect to the point of departure by the best 
 practicable measurements above the ground, preferably intersec- 
 tions with a transit from a carefully measured base. This posi- 
 tion should be plotted on a good map. If no obstructions are 
 suspected, a straight line from the point of departure to the objec- 
 tive should be adopted for the gallery, and its length and azimuth 
 
FIELD FORTIFICATION, GENERAL CONSTRUCTION 667 
 
 determined. A profile of the ground along the line of the gallery 
 permits determination of the proper slope or slopes. 
 
 The transfer of the azimuth underground depends on whether 
 the gallery starts from a shaft, from a reverse slope, or, if not 
 very deep, from a level with a descending branch. In the second 
 and third cases, which will be the rule in military mining, the 
 azimuth may be established in the gallery by a transit or compass 
 used in the ordinary way. In the case of a shaft, which will be 
 the exception, the azimuth must be established across the top or 
 mouth and transferred to the bottom by means of plumb lines. 
 The plumb lines should be fine wires, the bobs true and heavy, 
 suspended in water if necessary to steady them, and the marking 
 should be done by scratches on the heads of nails or tacks. Dur- 
 ing construction the alignment may be kept by a line stretched 
 along the gallery and the elevations by the field level. 
 
 In case an unexpected deviation is necessary, as to avoid an 
 obstacle, it may be made to suit the conditions found and after- 
 ward measured and plotted on the chart. The necessary change 
 to be made after the obstacle is passed, in order to direct the gal- 
 lery again on the objective, is determined from the chart and the 
 proper bevel made and sent into the gallery with instructions to 
 make that change to right or left at a stated distance from the last 
 angle. 
 
 Gradients are determined by the field level. Points at which 
 changes of slopes are to be made must be determined from the 
 chart and the necessary data sent in, showing the point where the 
 change is to be made and designating both old and new slopes. 
 In checking, gradients should be determined with clinometer or 
 transit, sighting from one horizontal angle to the next, if it can 
 be done, otherwise taking as few sights as possible. 
 
 Prevention of caving is accomplished by linings. In very 
 firm soil it is sometimes practicable to drive small shafts and 
 galleries short distances without lining them; but if they are to 
 stand for any length of time there is always danger of their caving 
 in, and especially so if the neighboring soil is shaken by the ex- 
 plosions of projectiles or mines. When it is considered safe to 
 use them, unlined shafts should be elliptical in plan, and the roofs 
 of the galleries should be pointed arches. As a rule, however, 
 both shafts and galleries should be lined. Those which are per • 
 manent in their character, as the main galleries of the counter, 
 mines of a permanent work, are lined with masonry. Galleries 
 constructed during a siege are lined with wood. Wooden linings 
 are of two general types, known as cases, and frames and sheeting. 
 
 Cases are of plank, 6 to 9 inches wide and not less than \ l / 2 
 inches thick, as a rule. They are formed of two pieces with tenons > 
 
668 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 called stanchions, and are placed vertically. The top is called a cap 
 sill and the bottom a ground sill. 
 
 In grand galleries the tenons at the top of the stanchions are 
 usually shorter than the thickness of the cap sill, and those at the 
 bottom, as well as the mortises in the ground sill, are omitted. 
 The stanchious are kept from collapsing by blocks nailed to the 
 ground sills. These blocks are 2 inches thick and wide enough 
 (about 9 inches) to guide the wheels of a gun carriage and prevent 
 the hub striking the stanchions. 
 
 In cases for smaller galleries also the tenons are sometimes 
 omitted at the bottom of the stanchions, the mortises in the ground 
 sills cut an inch or two deeper, and the stanchions kept from col- 
 lapsing by keys driven in the mortises. 
 
 Frames are made of scantling. Pieces of the latter are 
 named as for cases. Sheeting is of plank, sawed to the desired 
 length and beveled at one end. Sheeting should ordinarily be 1 
 foot longer than the distances between frames. Frame distance 
 is generally 4 feet and the length of sheeting 5 feet. Round stuff 
 may be used for frames and also for sheeting, though the latter is 
 not easy. The middle of each cap and ground sill, both in frames 
 and cases, is marked by a saw cut or otherwise. 
 
 Precautions. — In sinking shafts especial care must be taken 
 to make the excavation no larger than is required for placing the 
 lining, since if a vacant space is left outside the lining the sides 
 of the shaft may give way through its entire height and fall against 
 the lining with a blow which will crush it in. This has often been 
 the cause of fatal accidents both in shafts and galleries. 
 
 / Partly lined shafts, i. e., those in which the sheeting planks 
 are separated from each other by greater or less intervals, should 
 only be used for small depths and when they are expected to stand 
 for a very short time. They are a constant menace to the miners, 
 owing to the danger of their caving in, and in a much greater de- 
 gree to the probability of stones, etc., falling from the unpro- 
 tected parts and seriously injuring or killing the men at the 
 bottom. 
 
 Driving a Gallery With Frames and Sheeting. — If from a 
 shaft, the direction of the gallery has already been marked by the 
 scores on the shaft frames; but it must be verified by plumb lines, 
 and two small pickets driven on the line of its axis, which is 
 located exactly by small nails, one driven in the head of each 
 picket. 
 
 Two gage rods are prepared, giving the extreme height and 
 breadth of the excavation, i. e., the height of the frame plus two 
 thicknesses of top sheeting, and the breadth of the frame plus four 
 thicknesses of side sheeting. The middle of each gage rod is also 
 plainly marked. 
 
FIELD FORTIFICATION, GENERAL CONSTRUCTION 669 
 
 A gallery frame is set up against the side of the shaft, its 
 ground sill flush with the bottom frame of the shaft; or its stanch- 
 ions may rest upon the shaft frame as a ground sill. This frame 
 is carefully located and fastened in position with battens and 
 braces. If the shaft sheeting on that side has been omitted, which 
 can usually be done, the top gallery sheeting is started on top 
 of the cap sill and driven until held in place by the earth. It is 
 given a proper upward pitch by a scantling laid across the outer 
 ends and held down by fastening to or under the shaft frame. The 
 side sheeting is started in the same way against the outer faces of 
 the stanchions and given an outward slant by bracing the outer 
 ends slightly away from the sides of the shaft. Earth is now 
 excavated and the sheeting advanced all around, keeping the front 
 ends in solid earth far enough to hold them steady. 
 
 In this way the gallery is advanced one gallery interval, 
 usually about 4 feet when a second frame is placed. Its position is 
 verified by the score marks; for direction, by a line; for grade, by a 
 spirit, mason's, or field level, and for verticality, by a plumb line. 
 It is then secured in place by nailing battens' to it and the preced- 
 ing frame. Wedges are inserted between the frame and the 
 sheeting and the gallery is continued by the same methods. When 
 the sheeting is advanced only by hard driving, the frames are 
 slightly inclined to the rear at first and are afterwards driven 
 forward until vertical. 
 
 If, while advancing the sheeting, the pressure upon it be- 
 comes so great as to spring it, a false frame must be used. 
 
 This consists of a cap sill, ground sill and two stanchions, 
 connected by mortises and tenons. The stanchions have tenons 
 and the sills mortises at each end. The cap sill is usually rounded 
 on top and, for facility in setting up and removing, its mortises are 
 longer than the width of the tenons. The latter are held in place 
 by wedges when the frame is in position. The false frame is usu- 
 ally made of the same height as the common frames and, when 
 side sheeting is used, wider by twice the thickness of this sheeting. 
 When side sheeting is not used, its outside width may be equal to 
 the clear width of the gallery. 
 
 In using the frame the ground sill is first placed accurately 
 in position at a half interval in advance, the stanchions are set up, 
 and the cap sill placed upon them and wedged. The whole frame 
 is then raised about 2 inches by folding wedges placed under each 
 end of the ground sill, and is secured by battens. The sheeting 
 will now rest directly upon the cap sill and stanchions and have 
 enough inclination to clear the next frame by its own thickness, as 
 is required. The next frame is then set up, the wedges driven 
 under the sheeting, and the false frame removed, which is easily 
 done, owing to its construction. 
 
670 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 If the gallery is not started from a shaft, a steep working 
 face must be obtained and the first frame set up and braced, in cor- 
 rect position with respect to the center line marked on the ground. 
 The subsequent operations are as above described, except that 
 means must be provided to hold the rear ends of sheeting to give 
 them the necessary upward and outward slant, or else a false frame 
 used 
 
 If it has been necessary in sinking the shaft to drive the 
 sheeting on the side from which the gallery is to be broken out, the 
 gallery frame is set as before and the sheeting behind it driven 
 down until it barely engages the bottom edge of the cap sill of 
 the gallery frame. The top gallery sheeting is then inserted and 
 partly driven as before. The shaft sheeting outside the gallery 
 stanchions is then cut away and the side gallery sheeting started. 
 The middle plank of the shaft sheeting is prized down with a bar 
 engaged under the cap sill until free at the top, when it is pulled 
 outward and removed. Excavation proceeds through the gap thus 
 made, and as the other planks come free they are removed. I*f 
 the earth runs too free at any stage of the operation it can be 
 checked by short horizontal stop plank, placed against or inside the 
 sheeting or inside the gallery frame after all sheeting has been 
 removed. 
 
 To continue the gallery in such soil a shield may be used 
 to prevent the earth in front and above from caving into the 
 gallery. When the excavation at top of gallery has advanced as 
 far as it is safe to go without causing the caving to extend beyond 
 the top sheeting, a piece of plank a foot wide and in length equal 
 to the width of the gallery is placed directly under the top sheet- 
 ing and against the face of the excavation and is held in place by 
 braces at its ends secured to the gallery lining. The earth is exr 
 cavated until a second plank of the shield can be placed in the same 
 way as before under the first one. This is continued until the entire 
 face is covered. The top and side sheeting are then driven for- 
 ward and the top plank of the shield is removed and replaced in 
 advance, after which each plank is removed and replaced in suc- 
 cession, as above described. 
 
 Partly Lined Galleries. — In very firm soil side sheeting may 
 be omitted entirely, and in that less firm the side planks need not 
 be in contact. When the side sheeting is omitted the width of 
 excavation may be reduced to the clear width of the gallery and 
 the stanchions be let into the side wall flush with its surface. In 
 this case the ground sills are frequently omitted, the stanchions 
 resting upon wooden blocks, stones, or directly upon the earth, 
 To save material, the planks of the top sheeting are sometimes 
 more or less separated also. This can only be recommended 
 when rapid and temporary work is required with limited materials, 
 
FIELD FORTIFICATION, GENERAL CONSTRUCTION 671 
 
 and in these cases the earth between the planks should be sup- 
 ported by packing of sticks, brush, etc. 
 
 Inclined Galleries. — If the gallery, instead of being horizon- 
 tal, is ascending or descending the proper slope is obtained by the 
 use of a field level or a mason's level properly marked or set for 
 the slope. 
 
 In driving descending galleries better progress will be made 
 and less material used if the frames are set at right angles to the 
 axis of the gallery, and this is the usual custom. In driving ascend- 
 ing galleries this is impracticable and the frames are set vertically. 
 In all other respects inclined galleries are driven in the same man- 
 ner as horizonatal ones. 
 
 Change of Slope. — To pass from a horizontal to an ascend- 
 ing gallery it is only necessary to give the top sheeting the proper 
 angle by holding down its back end with a piece of scantling placed 
 across the gallery for that purpose; and, to give the side sheeting 
 the proper inclination, cutting trenches ih the bottom of trie gal- 
 lery for the lower pieces, if necessary. 
 
 In passing from a horizontal to a descending gallery the 
 roof may be carried forward horizontally, and the floor given the 
 desired pitch by increasing the height of the consecutive frames, 
 until enough headroom is obtained to allow the top sheeting for 
 the descending gallery to be inserted at the proper height and in 
 the new direction. The frame at this point is made with a cap sill 
 (upon which the sheeting rests directly), and a second crosspiece 
 below it, serving as a cap sill for the descending gallery. From 
 this point forward the frames may be set perpendicular to the 
 axis of the gallery, as previously stated. 
 
 If the descending gallery is very steep and the horizontal 
 pressure of the soil great, it may be necessary to strengthen the 
 stanchions of the last two or three vertical frames by crosspieces 
 near their upper ends. 
 
 In changing direction horizontally with frames and sheeting, 
 if the soil will stand for a distance of one frame interval, or even 
 less, its is only necessary to place one or more frames at an angle 
 until the necessary change is secured. The sheeting on the outside 
 is placed by running the forward end past the frame and then 
 inserting the rear end behind the last bay of sheeting. 
 
 In sinking a shaft with cases, a case of the required size 
 is put together and accurately placed upon the site of the shaft, 
 Whose dimensions are marked upon the ground outside of it. The 
 case is then removed and the earth excavated to the depth of the 
 case, which is placed in the excavation with its top flush with the 
 surface of the ground. Its position is carefully verified and it is 
 secured in position by packing earth around it. The excavation is 
 
672 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 then continued for the depth of another case, which is put in place 
 as follows: 
 
 One end piece is placed in position, the tenons of the two 
 sides are inserted in the mortises at its ends, and the side pieces 
 are pushed back into position; a pocket-shaped excavation is made 
 with a push pick beyond the end of one of the side pieces and run- 
 ning back 3 or 4 inches into the side wall; the remaining end piece 
 is inserted in this cavity far enough to allow the mortise at its other 
 end to slip over its corresponding tenon; it is then drawn back and 
 the tenons at both ends fitted into their mortises. The notches cut 
 in the sides of the pieces allow them to be easily handled. 
 
 The next case is placed in the same waj", care being taken 
 not to excavate two consecutive pockets at. the same corner. It 
 is well to fill up these pockets by stuffing in sods from below 
 before placing the next case. 
 
 Driving a Gallery With Cases. — This is practicable only 
 when the soil is somewhat firm. In breaking out from a shaft, a 
 frame is first placed inside the shaft to support the ends of the 
 shaft cases resting against the pieces which are to be removed. 
 The latter pieces are then taken out and grooves are cut in the 
 earth for the ground sill, stanchions, and cap sill of the gallery, 
 and these are put in place in a manner entirely analogous to that 
 described for sinking a shaft. This case is set flush with the inside 
 of the shaft and supports the side pieces, whose tenons rest upon 
 its stanchions. The projecting earth is then cut away and grooves 
 are cut for the next case, which is placed in position and the exca- 
 vation continued as before. 
 
 If the gallery is not started from a shaft, a vertical face is 
 obtained and the cases are placed as above described. 
 
 When the earth shows a tendency to cave, which it fre- 
 quently will in great galleries, the cap sill must be put in position 
 and supported while the miner excavates the grooves for the 
 ground sill and stanchions, for which purpose two crutches are 
 used. 
 
 Change of Direction in Galleries Lined With Cases. — Slight 
 changes in direction in a horizontal plane can be easily and gradu- 
 ally made by setting each case a little obliquely to the one preced- 
 ing it and separating the stanchions on one side while they touch 
 on the other, supporting the roof in the wedge-shaped openings, 
 if necessary, with pieces of wood, etc. For an abrupt change it 
 is better to break out a rectangular return from the side of the 
 gallery and pass from this into the required direction by gradual 
 change. 
 
 If the return is to be of the same height as the gallery of 
 departure, the cap sills of the latter, for a distance equal to the 
 width of the return, are lifted off the tenons of the stanchions by 
 
 
FIELD FORTIFICATION, GENERAL CONSTRUCTION 673 
 
 struts and wedges, and the first case of the return is set as in 
 breaking out from a shaft; the ground sill is, however, narrowed by 
 the thickness of the stanchions of the gallery of departure so that 
 the face of the case of the return is flush with the inside of the 
 gallery of departure, and the ends of the cap sills of the latter rest 
 upon the cap sill of the first case of the return. 
 
 Ventilation. — A gallery can not be driven more than 60 feet 
 without artificial ventilation. The only possible way of ventilating 
 a gallery with a single opening is to force fresh air into the work- 
 ing breast, which may be done through a duct of wood or metal, 
 or through a canvas or other hose. A pressure blower, worked 
 by hand or power, is among the essential items of a mining equip- 
 ment. For excavations of moderate extent, a portable forge will 
 form a convenient ventilating device. If a gallery passes under 
 surface cover, a drill hole made through the roof and breaking 
 the surface under protection of the cover may be used to promote 
 ventilation. 
 
 In a system of galleries, having two or more outlets, air 
 may be exhausted from one and drawn in through the other. 
 Screens or doors may be arranged to compel the desired distribu- 
 tion of fresh air. Vacuum operation will never be so satisfactory 
 as plenum. If there is considerable difference of level, as a shaft 
 or rapidly ascending gallery, a fire built at or near the upper outlet 
 will create a current throughout. 
 
 Drainage. — Much water is not likely to be encountered in 
 military mining, but what there is must be taken care of, or it will 
 collect at the lowest point and flood the mine. If water shows 
 itself or is suspected, dead-level galleries must be avoided, and all 
 slopes should fall toward a point or points where the water can 
 be disposed of. If the mine has a level outlet, nothing is required 
 except to so regulate the slopes that all water will run to the 
 mouth. If the mine is entered by a shaft, a pit or sump must 
 be formed at the bottom into which water can collect and from 
 which it can be raised to the surface by pumping or bailing. A 
 slope of 1% will usually suffice for drainage if the floor of the 
 gallery is sloped laterally and a fairly smooth gutter formed along 
 one side. 
 
 The mine chamber should be nearly cubical or a cylinder 
 with length about equal to diameter. If it is to stand for some 
 time before loading, or if of a large size, its sides and top must 
 be supported by a lining. The chamber is frequently no more 
 than so much of the end of a gallery, branch, or drill hole as is 
 necessary to contain the charge. 
 
 Explosive. — A satisfactory explosive for the purposes of 
 military engineering must be: (1) Stable as to its constitution and 
 characteristics for a long period. (2) Unaffected by ordinary 
 
674 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 variations of temperature and moisture. (3) Insensitive to shocks 
 of handling, transportation, projectiles, and neighboring explo- 
 sions. (4) Not too difficult of detonation. (5) Quick enough to 
 give good results when not confined and slow enough to give good 
 results when confined. (6) Convenient in form and consistency for 
 packing and loading and for making up charges of various weights. 
 
 These conditions point to a high explosive of medium 
 strength, of granular or plastic consistency, put up in waterproof 
 cylindrical cartridges of standard size and length. A number of 
 explosives meeting these requirements fairly well are on the mar- 
 ket. No One of them is so distinctly superior as to warrant its 
 adoption to the exclusion of the rest, and the only one most easily 
 procured at the time and place of need will probably be used. 
 
 Care and Handling of High Explosives. — Such powders as 
 have been described as suitable for use in military engineering 
 operations are, when in sound condition, less liable to accidental 
 explosion than gunpowder. It is the more disastrous result of 
 a premature explosion, rather than the greater probability of its 
 occurrence, that has caused high explosives to be regarded as 
 especially dangerous. The following precautions should always be 
 taken: 
 
 Gun cotton should be kept saturated with 30 per cent, of its 
 weight of water. If not hermetically sealed, the packages should 
 be examined once a month or oftener and resaturated. The cotton 
 required for primers must be stored dry and kept free from 
 moisture. The cakes may be dipped in melted paraffin. The dry 
 cotton must be kept well apart from any other explosives and from 
 caps. If dry primers are not at hand, wet cakes must be dried at 
 a temperature not exceeding 120° F. 
 
 Firing Devices. — The detonating compound in general use 
 is fulminate of mercury, and all methods of firing involve the explo- 
 sion of a small quantity of fulminate inclosed in a cap or fuse and 
 placed in the charge. The fulminate is easily ignited and very 
 violent, which qualities have determined its use. It is unstable, cor- 
 rosive, spoiled by moisture, and highly sensitive to shock and fric- 
 tion. Except strength, it possesses no characteristic which does 
 not tend to unfit it for military purposes. It is used as a matter 
 of necessity. Caps and fuses must be carefully handled, must not 
 be assembled in considerable quantities, and must be kept away 
 from the explosive. 
 
 Bickford or safety fuse is used to ignite the fulminate when 
 electricity is not available. It consists of a powder thread wrapped 
 with a waterproof tape, a double wrapping or double tape preferred. 
 This fuse may be used in wet holes, but for under-water use it 
 should have a continuous rubber coating. Time fuse burns at an 
 average rate of 3 feet per minute, but the rate is not regular, and 
 
FIELD FORTIFICATION, GENERAL CONSTRUCTION 675 
 
 when time is important the rate of burning should be tested. In- 
 stantaneous fuse burns at a rate of 120 feet per second. The 
 taping of this fuse is in a different color from the time fuse and it 
 is also covered with a netting of coarse thread, making it easily 
 distinguishable by sight and touch, so that there can be no excuse 
 for mistaking one fuse for the other, day or night. 
 
 When it is necessary to splice different pieces of fuse of 
 either kind, the ends to be joined should be cut obliquely. Care 
 must be taken that the powder at the end of the cut does not fall 
 out. The cut ends are placed carefully in juxtaposition, and before 
 closing a few grains of powder should be dropped in and com- 
 pressed between them. The splice is completed by wrapping with 
 rubber tape if available, otherwise with any material at hand which 
 will keep the ends in contact in their proper position. It is obvious 
 that this splice must be completely protected from the strain. 
 
 Caps or detonators are of two forms, adopted for firing with 
 powder fuse, or by electricity. In both forms the fulminate, usual- 
 ly mixed in proportion of 10 parts to 1 by weight with nitrate or 
 chlorate of potassium to reduce its corrosive action, is contained 
 in a copper capsule. In the first form it is held in place by a wad 
 of shellac, collodion, or paper, and the end is left open for the 
 insertion of the fuse. The latter is cut off square, care being taken 
 that the powder at the end does not sift out, and the cut end is 
 inserted in the cap and pressed down snugly on the fulminate. A 
 twisting motion which might scrape the fulminate must be avoided. 
 The case is then crimped around the fuse with a special tool, and 
 the cap is ready for use. 
 
 In the electrical cap, which is commonly called a fuse, the 
 fulminate is held in place by a block of sulphur, or sometimes of 
 wood, which fills the end. 
 
 Simultaneous Ignitions. — When a total blast is divided into 
 a number of charges, it is important that all should go at the 
 same instant. This will not be easy with time fuse, and that 
 method will not be used unless absolutely necessary. If it is used, 
 certain precautions must be observed to avoid total failure. The 
 fuse must be so laid that the total length from the firing point 
 to each charge will be the same. It will be better to use time 
 fuse to a common point near the charge, and instantaneous fuse 
 from there on. The fuse need not be in straight lines, but must 
 be laid out so that the sparks from the burning end can not reach 
 any part in front of it. Though not absolutely necessary with in- 
 stantaneous fuse, it is well worth while to make different lines 
 as nearly equal in length as possible. 
 
 In simultaneous ignitions by electricity, the fuses are con- 
 nected in series; that is to say, they are all placed in the same cir- 
 cuit. A lead from the firing apparatus is connected to one wire 
 
676 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 of a fuse on one flank. The other wire of this fuse is connected 
 to a wire of the next fuse, and so on, until the last fuse is reached, 
 the second wire of which is connected back by a lead to the fir- 
 ing point. 
 
 Priming. — The cap is inserted in a cartridge, usually caWed a 
 primer. If but one primer is used, it should be placed near the 
 center of the charge when the size and shape of the charge permit 
 it to go in that position. If the cartridges are placed in a drill hole, 
 as in rock blasting and some demolitions, the primer is put in last 
 with the cap end down. The projection of about % to % inch of 
 the cap case above the surface of the powder is to prevent the 
 latter from taking fire from the sparks of the fuse and burning 
 partially before the fuse goes, which should it occur, will reduce 
 the force of the explosion, or may cause complete failure. Primers 
 must be prepared at a safe distance from the charge and from the 
 store of caps and should be placed as short a time as possible 
 before firing. 
 
 Misfires. — In case of a misfire there is risk in approaching 
 the holes for several minutes, if electric firing is used, and for sev- 
 eral hours in case of firing by fuse. Rules to this effect are laid 
 down where safety to human life is a paramount consideration. 
 They should be recognized in military operations to the extent 
 which circumstances permit. There is also danger in attempting 
 to reprime a charge, especially if tamping must be removed. The 
 danger is reduced by care and by avoiding hard-metal tools and 
 appliances; if possible, the tamping should be removed with wood- 
 en tools. In any case, leave a few inches of tamping above the 
 charge undisturbed, then place several sticks of powder and a 
 primer on top of the first charge and fire again. When conditions 
 permit, it is better practice not to attempt repriming, but to place 
 a new charge in a position to do all or a part of the work of the 
 first charge. 
 
 The causes of misfires are various. With electricity, if none 
 of the charges explode, the cause is probably due to overloading 
 the machine, or a short circuit in the leads, or a complete break. 
 An effectual, but less probable, cause is deterioration of all the 
 primers. If part of the charges fire and others do not, the cause 
 will probably be found to be either a defective cap, due to mois- 
 ture or a broken bridge, or a short circuit in the fuse wires, which 
 prevents current going through one fuse but not the others; or 
 the sensitiveness of the caps may not be uniform, and there may 
 be one or more so sensitive that they explode and break the cir- 
 cuit before the bridges of the others have become heated to the 
 point of ignition. 
 
 Loading. — The charge should fill the chamber as nearly as 
 practicable. If drill holes are used, they should be just large 
 
FIELD FORTIFICATION, GENERAL CONSTRUCTION 677 
 
 enough to permit a cartridge to slip down without jamming. In 
 quarrying, cartridges are frequently slit open before they are 
 placed in the hole, so that with a slight pressure of the tamping 
 rod, they spread and fill the hole completely. When large charges 
 of free running powder are to be used, such as dynamite, jovite, 
 and rack-a-rock, the cartridges may be opened and the contents 
 put in bulk into another receptacle. As a rule, however, such 
 charges are made up by bunching sticks or strings of cartridges 
 and tying them together. The making up, and every possible 
 detail of preparation, should be done above ground, leaving as 
 little to do in the mine as possible. Charges must not be made 
 up into sizes or weights which can not be conveniently carried 
 through the galleries and placed in the chamber. 
 
 Tamping is less important for high explosives than for gun- 
 powder, since the former do a fair proportion of their work with- 
 out tamping, while the latter does practically none. Light tamp- 
 ing is desirable, however, and may consist of the excavated earth 
 replaced in the communication next to the chamber to a distance 
 of 6 to 10 feet. The use of high explosives facilitates tamping, 
 because so many charges can be placed in drill holes, which are 
 easily tamped. 
 
 For drill holes in rock which will hold it, water is the best 
 possible tamping, otherwise sand or stone dust may be used. If 
 the hole points upward, the top should be covered with a board or 
 thick brush to stop the tamping which is blown out like a pro- 
 jectile. If neighboring ground can not be cleared for firing, the 
 entire surface of the probable crater should be masked by brush 
 or timbers piled upon it, and weighted down if necessary. 
 
 Effects of Explosion. — It may be assumed as sufficiently 
 exact for present purposes that charges of the same explosive de- 
 velop total energies directly proportional to their weights. This 
 energy is exterted in all directions in compression of the surround- 
 ing medium. The distance at which this disturbance remains suf- 
 ficient to destroy galleries is called the radius of rupture. The 
 surface joining the ends of these radii is called the surface of 
 rupture. If the charge is large enough, further relief of pres- 
 sure is afforded by the bodily displacement of a part of the sur- 
 rounding medium on the side which presents the shortest dis- 
 tance from the charge to the surface. The relief of pressure on 
 one side shortens all radii of rupture which have a component in 
 that direction, but does not appreciably affect those which have 
 no such component. Hence, when material is displaced the sur- 
 face of rupture is ellipsoidal; when no material is displaced it is 
 spherical. 
 
 Land Mines. — This term is applied to mines or groups of 
 mines usually formed by excavation from the surface and designed 
 
678 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 to be exploded at the moment the enemy is over them. Such 
 mines are usually employed in front of defensive positions and 
 in connection with visible obstacles. It is not permissible to 
 plant such mines in any ground which is not obviously prepared 
 for defense. Any person who ventures on space so prepared does 
 so at his peril, but if there is a road or path open to passage 
 through such ground mines must not be placed therein, or in a 
 place where the explosion would injure persons occupying the 
 road. If any defensive works or recognized obstacles are thrown 
 across the road, indicating that it is closed to traffic, the road may 
 be mined to a reasonable distance in front of them. 
 
 The charges are placed deep enough only to avoid artillery 
 projectiles. If no artillery fire is to be expected they may be placed 
 just under the surface. If a bore hole is sufficient the charge is 
 placed at the bottom and the hole well tamped. If an open pit is 
 dug the mine chamber should be in firm ground at one side and 
 the hole back-filled and well rammed. 
 
 Mine Tactics. — In siege operations mining is done at close 
 quarters, and is, or should be, opposed by countermining by the 
 enemy. There is then a double purpose in view; to reach the 
 original objective by placing the charge where intended and firing 
 it, and while so doing to detect and circumvent any attempt of 
 the enemy to interfere, or to prosecute any enterprise of his own. 
 
 The only information of neighboring operations which is 
 obtainable results from the sound of working carried through the 
 earth. In compact soil an ordinary blow of a pick can be heard 
 at a distance of 40 feet and the most careful working is audible 
 to a distance of 20 feet. Other sounds, such as rumbling of trucks 
 and especially tamping, can be heard farther. These distances vary 
 with the character of the soil and the skill of the listener. When 
 more than one gallery is driven they should be parallel and not 
 farther apart than twice the range of hearing, so that an enemy's 
 gallery penetrating between them will be heard from one or both.- 
 Returns may be run out from the extreme galleries to detect the 
 sound of working on the flanks. Such galleries are called listeners. 
 They should not be large. 
 
 Efforts must be made to detect the enemy's working and 
 to avoid, so far as possible, giving him like information. At oc- 
 casional and irregular intervals all work should cease, all extrane- 
 ous sounds be cut off, and men with quick and trained hearing 
 should listen for sounds of working and estimate the distance and 
 direction. A map of the galleries should be kept, and whenever two 
 headings are approaching, listening should be done in them and 
 the estimates made by the men compared with the measurements 
 on the map as a check on the range of hearing. Accuracy of per- 
 ception of the sounds may be tested by tapping messages across. 
 
FIELD FORTIFICATION, GENERAL CONSTRUCTION 679 
 
 When hostile parties have approached within destructive 
 range of each other the one who fires first is the winner, but the 
 nearer he is, or the longer he holds his fire, the more complete the 
 victory. Each party is on the alert to discover when the other 
 party is getting ready to fire, and hence the greatest care must be 
 taken to sophisticate the sounds connected with loading. Digging 
 should continue at some point near the end, and all movements of 
 trucks or other operations which make a noise should be contin- 
 ued not less frequently and certainly not more frequently than 
 during the digging. Especially should tamping be cautiously done. 
 The most probable mistake is premature firing, and it should be 
 impressed upon all concerned that it is better to come into actual 
 collision with the enemy's miners than to fire prematurely. 
 
 Galleries are much more vulnerable to a side than an end 
 attack. If the enemy's heading can be located, an attempt should 
 be made to get a position on one side of his gallery. The best 
 position is nearly abreast of the end, a little in rear, so that if he 
 is still digging a considerable length of his gallery will be de- 
 stroyed, or if he is loading or loaded his mine will be exploded. 
 
 DEMOLITIONS 
 
 Military demolitions have for their purpose to destroy or 
 make unserviceable any object in the theater of war the preserva- 
 tion of which would be unfavorable to the army or favorable to 
 the enemy, excepting always objects neutralized by international 
 convention or the laws of war. 
 
 The principal objects of demolition may be divided in two 
 general classes, viz.: Natural or artificial objects having no in- 
 trinsic or permanent value, such as accidents of ground and struc- 
 tures of purely military character; and natural or artificial objects 
 having intrinsic or permanent value, or adapted to useful purposes 
 in time of peace, such as buildings and communications. 
 
 Demolition is permissible only under a military necessity. 
 For the first class of objects above the military necessity is ob- 
 vious, since the destruction is aimed directly and exclusively at the 
 enemy's fighting efficiency. 
 
 For the second class, the destruction affects others besides 
 the armed enemy, and for this class the existence of a military 
 necessity justifying demolition can not be presumed but must be 
 determined at the moment, and the amount and character of de- 
 struction or disablement explicitly ordered by competent au- 
 thority. 
 
 Demolitions of a local character, which have no effect else- 
 where, may be made on the order of the immediate commander, 
 
680 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 as may also demolitions of a more serious character, but which 
 are necessary to the safety of a local force. For example, a small 
 force in retreat may interrupt a bridge to avoid capture, but the 
 destruction should go no farther than is necessary to produce the 
 result immediately desired by detaining the pursuers long enough 
 to enable the pursued to make their escape. Demolitions which 
 are intended to, or in their ultimate consequences may, affect a 
 larger force or a greater territory, must be ordered by the com- 
 manding general of an army or other force operating independent- 
 ly. In case of doubt, orders should be sought from the highest 
 accessible commander. An officer upon whom work of demoli- 
 tion is devolved should, if not provided with proper orders, ask for 
 them. 
 
 Methods Employed. — Demolitions may be made by fire, by 
 mechanical means, or by explosives. Fire is the only recourse 
 when absolute destruction is necessary, as in case of food sup- 
 plies, munitions of war, structural materials, etc. Soluble matter, 
 as gunpowder, sugar, salt, etc., might be destroyed in water, but 
 this method is laborious. Burning is equally effective and much 
 easier. For quick results with slow-burning materials a quantity 
 of highly combustible stuff must be collected. A small fire gains 
 headway very slowly and much time is lost. Care must be taken 
 that the fire does does not spread to objects not intended to be 
 destroyed. 
 
 Demolition by mechanical means is too simple to require, 
 and too varied to permit, detailed description. Reference is made 
 to a few cases in which the best method may not be obvious. 
 
 Abatis is difficult to destroy. If the trees are dry, time 
 suffices, and concealment is not essential, fire is best; otherwise, 
 if working from the front, cut up and carry away enough trees to 
 make a passage through. Ii working from the rear, loosen the 
 fastenings of the butts and haul away bodily with ropes. 
 
 Wire entanglements must be cut with nippers, the more and 
 shorter the pieces the better. Wire may be cut with an axe or 
 machete if a block of wood is held behind it as an anvil. Trous 
 de loup are leveled by shoveling the walls into the pits, or bridged 
 with planks, fascines, or other materials. 
 
 Palisades and stockades may be cut down with axes or saws, 
 or the earth may be dug away from one side and the logs pulled 
 over. 
 
 Railroads. Operations may be directed against rolling stock, 
 bridges, culverts, tunnels or track, or accessories, such as water 
 stations, telegraphs. 
 
 Locomotives are temporarily disabled by removing valves 
 or other small vital parts; permanently, by building a fire in a dry 
 boiler or by detonating a charge of explosive in the boiler. In 
 
FIELD FORTIFICATION, GENERAL CONSTRUCTION 681 
 
 haste, piston or connecting rods, links, etc., may be destroyed by 
 explosives, or a hole may be blown in the bottom of the tender 
 tank. Cars may be burned or wrecked by collisions or derailment. 
 The best places are in deep cuts or tunnels. A head-on collision in 
 a tunnel will put it out of use for some time. 
 
 Wooden bridges may be burned or small ones may be pried 
 off their seats by levers or dragged off with tackle. 
 
 Track may be destroyed by taking it up, burning the ties, 
 heating the rails on the fires and twisting them with bars through 
 the bolt holes, with a chain and lever, or a hook and lever. Twist- 
 ing is much better than bending, as twisted rails must be rerolled 
 before they can be used. The rail should be hot for the greater 
 part of its length, so as to take a long twist. A quick track de- 
 molition requiring considerable time to repair, but not injuring 
 the track material, may be made by loosening the ties over a 
 stretch of track, taking off the end fish plates, putting a line of 
 men along one side, two men to each tie, and turning the track 
 over bodily. This plan works best on a high embankment. 
 
 Telegraph lines are temporarily disabled by breaks, in which 
 the wires are cut, grounds, in which the wires are connected to the 
 ground, and crosses, in which a metallic connection is made be- 
 tween the wires. A ground may be made by connecting a wire 
 to the rail or to a bar or plate of metal in damp earth. Copper is 
 best. A connection with water or gas pipe forms a ground. All 
 faults should be carefully concealed from view, so as to prolong 
 the time necessary to locate them. If a raid is made on a tele- 
 graph office, remove the instruments, bare and brighten the ends 
 of all wires, and tie them together with a wrapping of brightened 
 copper wire. Incoming and outgoing wires should be tied sepa- 
 rately. 
 
 To destroy a telegraph line cut down and burn poles, cut 
 and tangle wires, and break insulators. 
 
 Guns. — Smash the sights and firing gear; endeavor to dent 
 or burr the corners of the breech-closing wedge, and damage the 
 elevating gear. Unscrew the striker plug and take it out ; fire one 
 or two rifle bullets into the opening. Clos i e the breech, then with- 
 draw the hand lever about 1 inch, and beat down the lever until 
 the hinge joint is distorted. Ammunition to be destroyed should 
 be placed in a deep pit and set on fire. 
 
 Demolitions With Explosives. — The degree of success at- 
 tained in demolitions with explosives depends upon the experience 
 of the powder men doing the work. The explosive adopted foi 
 our service is triton (trinitrotoluene, trinitrotoluol, trotyl, TNT). 
 It may often become necessary to use whatever explosive is at 
 hand; for this reason data for their use is given. The best results 
 can be obtained with any particular explosive only after much 
 
682 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 practice, and in using an unfamiliar one the maxim should be: 
 " Do not spare the powder." There are many uncertainties attend- 
 ing the military use of explosives, and local conditions frequently 
 raise a doubt as to the efficiency of the application of formulated 
 methods. For this reason the weight of the charge should often 
 be increased as much as 50 per cent over what might be used 
 under favorable conditions. Similarly, judgment has to be used in 
 the employment of strange caps, for in military work the two un- 
 pardonable mistakes are to have the charge too small or to have 
 it fail to explode. When in doubt as to the effectiveness of the 
 caps, use two or more close together. Where a lifting effect is 
 desired, gunpowder should be used; but, when a cutting or shatter- 
 ing effect is necessary, a high explosive is better, such as triton, 
 dynamite, guncotton. 
 
 Triton is a neutral compound, very stable, of great strength, 
 yet highly insensitive. It is furnished with the demolition outfit 
 in compressed block form. The strongest of detonators should be 
 used, especially if the blocks are highly compressed. Lead azide 
 detonators are particularly effective; as are also the tetryl caps 
 which are the standard detonators for our service. Triton absorbs 
 moisture, making detonation very difficult. For this reason and 
 to prevent crumbling, the blocks are given a thin electro-plating 
 of copper. Tetryl caps will detonate water-soaked triton. There 
 are no objectionable gases of explosion, but a heavy black smoke 
 is produced, due to free carbon. 
 
 Dynamites consist of a granular base, usually called dope, 
 partly saturated with nitroglycerin. They are classed according to 
 the percentage by weight of the nitroglycerin contained, as 75 
 per cent dynamite, 60 per cent dynamite, and so on. The grades 
 No. 1, No. 2, and No. 3, often used, refer to 75, 50 and 25 per cent 
 dynamites, respectively. At extremes of temperature, high or 
 low, an exudation of free nitroglycerin is likely to occur, making 
 the dynamite extremely sensitive and dangerous. This danger 
 increases with the degree of saturation. Dynamites higher than 60 
 per cent will probably not be suitable for military purposes 
 on this account. The tendency to exudation is greater when the 
 cartridges stand on end, and care should be taken to keep them 
 on the side in storage and transportation. Dynamite freezes in 
 moderately cold weather (40°), and if no exudation has taken place 
 becomes comparatively free from danger of explosion by concus- 
 sion and is considered perfectly safe to handle. It is very difficult 
 to explode when frozen, has less strength, and is not considered 
 fit to use in that condition. In the frozen state, it is easily ex- 
 ploded by heat and the operation of thawing, if carelessly con- 
 ducted, is one of great danger. It should never be taken near a 
 fire or very hot metal, but should be thawed in a mild, diffused 
 
FIELD FORTIFICATION, GENERAL CONSTRUCTION 683 
 
 heat, acting for a considerable time. The cartridge must never be 
 placed on end to thaw out. Packing in fresh manure, or inclosing 
 in a chamber with cans of hot water are the safest methods of 
 thawing dynamite. Plenty of time must be given. A cartridge 
 soft on the outside may be frozen in the middle. None of the 
 dynamites are fit for use as a military explosive in a cold climate. 
 It is usually packed in paraffined paper cartridges about 1*4 inches 
 diameter by 8 inches long, containing about 0.6 of a pound. 
 
 Guncotton has been used extensively in military operations 
 and has some advantages. When dry it is apt to deteriorate; when 
 wet it is perfectly safe, but can be fired only by a primer of dry 
 guncotton or other high explosive. The dry cotton must be kept 
 perfectly dry and separate from the wet. It is difficult to fuse 
 unless holes are left in the cartridge to receive the cap. The wet 
 should be saturated with 30 per cent of its weight of water. If 
 dry primers are not at hand, wet cakes must be dried at a tempera- 
 ture not exceeding 120° F. 
 
 Gunpowder charges must be tamped, and should be made 
 up in as compact a form as possible. The powder should be placed 
 in a well-tarred sandbag, or, failing that, in one sandbag inside 
 a second one. A sandbag will hold about 40 pounds. 
 
 Firing Devices. — High explosives can be fired by detonation 
 only. The detonating cap usually consists of a small quantity of 
 fulminate of mercury inclosed in a copper cap or fuse. The fulmi- 
 nate is easily ignited and very violent; it is unstable, corrosive, 
 spoiled by moisture, and highly sensitive to shock and friction. 
 Caps and fuses must be carefully handled, must not be assembled 
 in considerable quantities, and must be kept away from the explo- 
 sive. 
 
 Bickford or safety fuse is used to ignite the fulminate when 
 electricity is not available. It may be used in wet holes, but 
 for under-water use it should have a continuous rubber coating. 
 
 Time fuse burns at an average rate of 3 feet per minute. 
 When time is important the rate of burning should be tested. 
 
 Instantaneous fuse burns at a rate of 120 feet per minute. 
 The taping is of different color from the time fuse and it is covered 
 with a netting of coarse thread, making it easily distinguishable 
 by sight and touch, so that there can be no excuse for mistaking 
 one fuse from the other, day or night. For firing by electricity 
 a magneto-electric machine is used with an electrical cap. 
 
 A charge is connected up for detonation as follows: The 
 fuse (time alone or time with instantaneous) is cut to the required 
 length. The end to be ignited is cut on a slant to expose as much 
 powder as possible. The end to be inserted in the cap is cut 
 straight across, and is then gently inserted into the open end of 
 the cap. This end of the cap is then crimped to make it grip on 
 
684 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 the fuse and so prevent its being withdrawn. The cap is placed 
 in close contact with the charge or in one of the holes in a block 
 so as to fill the entire length of the hole. If the hole is too large, 
 a piece of paper or grass must be wrapped around the cap to make 
 it fit tightly; if too small, it must be enlarged with a piece of wood, 
 but not with the cap. The charge must be in close contact with 
 the object to be demolished, and each slab or block must be in 
 contact with those next to it. 
 
 The amount of guncotton (untamped) required for various 
 charges can be calculated or obtained direct from the following 
 table: For triton the charge should be increased by one-sixth; 
 for 50 per cent dynamite, two-thirds; for 75 per cent dynamite the 
 charge is the same as for guncotton. If the charge is tamped, the 
 amount can be halved. In the presence of the enemy charges may 
 be placed hurriedly, and so under unfavorable conditions, and 
 therefore should be increased by 50 per cent. 
 
 The object of the demolition can only be properly attained 
 through accurate grasp of the tactical situation. It is unpardon- 
 able to completely wreck a line of communications which friendly 
 troops may require in the near future. It is likewise unpardonable 
 to fail to use every means to wreck a line of communications that 
 is to pass immediately into the hostile control for a long future 
 period. Demolition of bridges or other important structures 
 should not be executed except by authority of the commander in 
 the area involved, or in extreme emergency. 
 
 The two general types of charges are: Concentrated charges 
 and charges in a row. Concentrated charges in which the explo- 
 sive is bunched are the rule. One cap in one triton block will de- 
 tonate completely all blocks placed closely around the primed 
 block. For maximum effect, the charge should approximate the 
 cubical shape. 
 
 Charges in a row or small distributed charges are the excep- j 
 tion. If the blocks are placed closely together, one block de- 
 tonated will detonate the entire row. As a precaution, a string of 
 blocks placed on detonating cord may be placed along the entire 
 row. If the charge is placed in small drilled holes, the triton stick 
 is to be used. Otherwise the triton block is admirably adapted for 
 bunching into masses of the most effective form. 
 
 In priming the charge, the cap is to be firmly seated in the 
 cap hole, with the fuse (if used) securely crimped in the cap or 
 the lead wires connected securely (if electrical detonation is used). 
 It is notable that triton will usually detonate with a No. 6 com- 
 mercial cap if a boosting charge of powdered triton is used. If 
 detonating cord is used, the cord must be dry when passed through 
 the triton block. 
 
 The problem of securing simultaneous detonation is one 
 
FIELD FORTIFICATION, GENERAL CONSTRUCTION 685 
 
 calling for much practice. The various methods of obtaining 
 simultaneous detonation are, in order of excellence: (1) Electricity 
 with detonating cord. (2) Electricity. (3) Time fuse with deto- 
 nating cord. (4) Time fuse with induced detonation. (5) Time 
 fuse with instantaneous fuse. (6) Time fuse. 
 
 Timber. — Timber can be destroyed by fire or by cutting. 
 Trees 16 inches in diameter or under are more quickly destroyed 
 by cutting than by explosives. Explosives are used principally 
 where the demolition has to be delayed until a given moment and 
 then executed instantly. Single charges are computed as follows : 
 
 Charge outside timber, N=.03 D 2 , 
 
 Charge inside timber, N=.008 D\ 
 in which N == number of half-pound blocks of tritron and D == least 
 diameter of timber in inches. If the timber be green, tough, or 
 knotty, the charge is increased 50 per cent. A rough rule for com- 
 pressed triton charges is to allow six blocks per square foot of 
 cross section for outside charges and two blocks per square foot 
 for inside charges. For timbers 24 inches or less in diameter bore 
 a hole to within 1 inch of the opposite face and fill to 1 inch from 
 the top with triton. 
 
 If triton sticks are used and inserted in bore holes in the 
 timber, the formula becomes Ni = .01 X D 2 , in which Ni = the num- 
 ber of sticks of triton weighing .4 of a pound each and D = the 
 least diameter of the timber in inches. 
 
 Steel. — Bessemer steel crystallizes, breaks, and throws its 
 fragments generally away from the explosive. Open-hearth steel 
 tears and may throw fragments in any direction. These fragments 
 are frequently large and projected with force enough to carry them 
 from 400 to 1,000 yards or more. Extra precautions must be taken 
 to shield the firing detachment. Tree trunks 12 inches or more in 
 diameter make good field shelter. 
 
 Steel Bridges. — In destroying a bridge, try to cut the com- 
 plete cross section. Charges should be placed in the upper and 
 lower members of the trusses on both sides of the road. The 
 best place for rupture is near the abutment where the chords have 
 the least cross section, except in a cantilever bridge, which should 
 be cut over the towers. By choosing the panel points for the loca- 
 tion of the charges, they may easily be confined and tamped, and 
 maximum results will be obtained with the smallest number of 
 charges. 
 
 In the case of a heavy bridge, the amount of explosive car- 
 ried will frequently be adequate to cut only one chord. In this 
 case, the chord in tension is cut; that is, the lower chord, except 
 in the case of a cantilever. Members in tension are nearly always 
 made up of bars of rectangular cross section and should be cut at 
 
686 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 a point near the abutment where the least cross section of steel is 
 used. A cantilever truss is destroyed by cutting the upper chord 
 near the tower. 
 
 Railroads. — One block of triton laid against the web will 
 take a 6-inch section out of a 90-pound rail that is spiked to ties. 
 One block on top will not break it, but two will take out a 6-inch 
 section. 
 
 In order to interrupt traffic, break as many rails as time will 
 permit. It is a good plan to break each rail in two places, several 
 feet apart. If the charges are placed on opposite sides of the 
 rail, the fuses can be lighted at the same time, and the first charge 
 that detonates will not displace the other. 
 
 To destroy. the railroad roadbed, the best location of the 
 charge is in a culvert, such as are generally found under heavy 
 fills. 
 
 Blocking a tunnel effectively interrupts railroad traffic. If 
 the tunnel is lined with masonry or passes through sound rock, 
 arrange for a head-on collision at the center of the tunnel between 
 a car or locomotive, and another moving locomotive. In case of 
 a double-track tunnel, such a collision should occur on each track. 
 
 In case of a timbered tunnel, the timber bents may be de- 
 molished by cutting the vertical posts. The bents demolished 
 should be located at the point where the heaviest load is carried 
 by the timbering. This point can often be located by observing 
 the effects of the weight in distorting the timber. Generally, the 
 heaviest load is carried at the point where the timber bents are 
 most closely spaced. 
 
 Field guns and howitzers may be destroyed (a) by placing 
 a shell in the breech, closing the breech, and detonating a block 
 of triton, tamped against the fuse of the shell; or (b) by filling the 
 bore, just forward of the first hoop, with from two to five blocks 
 of triton, tamping it firmly at both ends with sod, closing the 
 breech, and detonating the triton; or (c) by placing from 12 to 15 
 blocks on the outside of the tube just forward of the first hoop. 
 Methods (a) and (b) throw fragments with great violence and are 
 as dangerous as they are reliable. Method (c) is the safest for the 
 firing detachment, but the least reliable. A gun may be disabled 
 temporarily by opening the breech, setting a block of triton against 
 the hinge, partially closing the breech, and detonating the ex- 
 plosive. 
 
 A vehicle of any kind is disabled by detonating three triton 
 blocks against one of the axles. 
 
 Ice can be removed by blasting if there is a current to carry 
 the loosened blocks away and clear water near to receive them. 
 The connection with the shore should first be broken. Small 
 charges rather close together are necessary; on the surface covered 
 
FIELD FORTIFICATION, GENERAL CONSTRUCTION 687 
 
 with earth if the ice is thin, in drill holes if very thick. This work 
 will be progressive, and charges, distances, etc., can be determined 
 by trial better than from any rule. 
 
 Demolition Equipment. — Each company of engineers carries 
 on each of its two tool wagons a demolition outfit and supplies, 
 as shown below. In addition it has two pack demolition outfits, 
 each with demolition tools and supplies, including 45 pounds of 
 explosive. Each squadron of cavalry has a pack demolition outfit 
 with demolition equipment and supplies, including 80 pounds of 
 explosive. 
 
 Demolition Equipment of Engineer Troops 
 
 Company tool wagons. 
 
 Augers, earth, handled 
 
 Augers, ship, K-inch, handled 
 
 Bars, pinch, large 
 
 Bars, wood, tamping 
 
 Boxes, cap 
 
 Boxes, match 
 
 Chisels, cold 
 
 Circuit detectors 
 
 Crimpers 
 
 Drills, single-bit, long 
 
 Drills, single-bit, short 
 
 Hammers, sledge, 8-pound 
 
 Magneto exploders 
 
 Pick mattocks, E. D. pattern, "intrenching," handled. 
 
 Reels, wire, firing 
 
 Shovels, E. D. pattern, "intrenching" 
 
 Spoons, miner's, long 
 
 Wire, firing, double lead, No. 14, feet 
 
 Cord, drill 
 
 SUPPLIES. 
 
 Caps, tetryl, nonelectric 
 
 Caps, tetryl, electric 
 
 Explosive, pounds 
 
 Fuse, Bickford, feet 
 
 Fuse, instantaneous, feet 
 
 Matches, safety, boxes, dozen 
 
 Tape, insulating, rolls 
 
 Twine, hemp, 2-ounce balls 
 
 On the 2 
 
 On the 1 
 
 tool wagons 
 
 tool 
 
 wagon 
 
 of pioneer 
 
 of mounted 
 
 company. 
 
 company. 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 
 
 2,000 
 
 
 1,000 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 
 
 100 
 
 
 50 
 
 200 
 
 
 100 
 
 200 
 
 
 100 
 
 200 
 
 
 100 
 
 200 
 
 
 100 
 
 1 
 
 
 y* 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 
 
 44 
 
CHAPTER XXIV 
 
 MAP READING, ORIENTATION, CONVENTIONAL 
 SIGNS AND MILITARY SKETCHING 
 
 Map reading is essentially the reverse of map making. In 
 the latter process ground is measured and studied with a view of 
 forming a mental picture of how a map of it will look. In, the 
 former — map reading — a map is measured and studied for the pur- 
 pose of forming a mental picture of how the ground itself looks. 
 All rules and principles stated as to relations between ground 
 and map are to be used in studying relations of map to ground. 
 
 SCALES 
 
 There are three methods by which the scale of a map maj 
 be represented: (a) By words and figures, as 3 inches^l mile; 1 
 inch=600 feet, (b) By representative fraction, which means that 
 1 unit on the map (numerator) represents a certain number of the 
 same units on the ground (denominator). For example, 1/63,360 
 means that 1 inch on the map represents 63,360 inches or 1 mile 
 on the ground. 1/21,120 means that 1 inch on the map represents 
 21,120 inches or one-third of a mile on the ground; or 3 inches 
 represents 1 mile, (c) By graphical scale, that is, a line drawn on 
 the map, divided into equal parts, each part being marked with the 
 distance that it represents on the ground. 
 
 Scaling Distance from a Map.— There are four methods: 
 (1) Apply a piece of straight-edged paper to the distance be- 
 tween any two points and mark the distance on the paper. Then 
 apply the paper to the graphical scale and read the number of 
 units indicated. Or copy the graphical scale on the edge of the 
 paper and apply directly to the map. (2) Take the distance off 
 with a pair of dividers, and apply the dividers thus set to the 
 graphical scale. (3) Use a map measurer. Set the hand to read 
 zero; roll the small wheel over the distance; then roll the wheel in 
 an opposite direction along the graphical scale, noting the number 
 of units passed over. Or, having rolled over the distance, note the 
 number of inches on the dial and multiply this by the number of 
 miles or other units per inch. (4) Apply a scale of inches to the 
 distance to be measured, and multiply this distance by the num- 
 ber of miles per inch shown by the map. 
 
 Differences of elevation are represented by contours or by 
 hachures; with each method the heights of prominent points are 
 usually indicated by numerals on the map. 
 
 Contours are lines drawn on the map which represent points 
 
MAP READING AND MILITARY SKETCHING 669 
 
 on the ground of equal elevation. They are the projection on the 
 map of lines cut on the ground by imaginary horizontal planes 
 that are the same distance apart. The horizontal distance on the 
 ground between two contours is called the horizontal equivalent 
 (H. E.). The distance between two contours on the map is 
 called the map distance (M. D.). The contour interval (V. I.) is 
 the vertical distance between successive imaginary planes. In 
 order that the M. D. may be constant for a given slope, the con- 
 tour interval must vary with the scale of the map. 
 
 Hachures are short parallel or slightly divergent lines run- 
 ning in the direction of the steepest slope. They are seldom used 
 in our maps, but are found on some German maps. The slopes 
 are roughly indicated by varying the blackness and nearness of 
 the hachures. The darker the section, the steeper the slope; 
 where no hachures are found on a hachured map, the ground is 
 either a hilltop or flat lowland. 
 
 Slopes are usually given in one of three ways: In degrees, 
 in percentage, in gradients. 
 
 (1) A 1-degree slope means that the angle between the 
 horizontal and the given line is 1 degree (1°). 
 
 (2) A slope is said to be 1, 2, 3, etc., per cent, when 100 units 
 horizontally correspond to rises of 1, 2, 3, etc., of the same units 
 vertically. 
 
 (3) A slope is said to be one on one (1/1),. two on three 
 (2/3), etc., when one vertical corresponds to one horizontal, two 
 vertical to three horizontal units, etc. The numerator refers to the 
 vertical units. 
 
 An approximate rule for expressing in gradients a slope 
 given in degrees is to divide the number of degrees by 60. Thus 
 a slope of 5° is equivalent to 1/12. This rule does not hold for 
 steep slopes, but is approximately correct up to 20°. 
 
 Slopes may be uniform, convex, or concave. Generally, if 
 the slope between two points is convex they are not visible from 
 each other; if the slope is concave they are visible. On a uniform 
 slope contours are equal distances apart; on a steep slope they 
 are near together; on a flat slope they are far apart; on a convex 
 slope they are far apart at the top and close together at the bot- 
 tom of the slope; on a concave slope the reverse is true. 
 
 Directions on Maps. — Having given the means for determin- 
 ing horizontal distances and relative elevations represented on a 
 map, the next step is to determine horizontal directions. The 
 direction line from which other directions are measured is usually 
 the true north and south line (true meridian), or the plane of the 
 magnetic needle (magnetic meridian). These do not usually co- 
 incide. The angle between them is called the magnetic declina- 
 tion and is usually given as (so many) ° east (west). It is im- 
 
690 
 
 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 po.rtant to know this angle, because maps usually show the true 
 meridian, and an observer usually has a magnetic compass. 
 
 The position of the true meridian may be found as follows: 
 Point the hour hand of a watch toward the sun; the line joining 
 the pivot and the point midway between the hour hand and the 
 XII on the dial will point toward the south. To point the hour 
 hand exactly at the sun, stick a pin as at A and bring the hour 
 hand into its shadow. 
 
 At night a line drawn toward the north star from the ob- 
 server's position is approximately a true meridian. The line join- 
 ing the pointers of the dipper, prolonged about six times its length, 
 passes nearly through the north star, which can be recognized by 
 its brilliancy.* 
 
 * Held Maps and Sketches. 
 
 The following abbreviations and signs are authorized for use on field maps and 
 sketches. For more elaborate map work the authorized conventional signs as 
 given in the manual of " Conventional Signs, United States Army Maps/' are used. 
 
 Abbreviations other than those given should not be used. 
 
 A. 
 
 r 
 
 B.S 
 »t 
 
 con. 
 
 f: 
 
 O.S. 
 
 Arroyo* 
 
 Abutment 
 
 Arch. 
 
 Brick. 
 
 Blacksmith Shopi 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 Branch. 
 
 Bridge. 
 
 Cape, 
 
 Cemetery. 
 
 Concrete. 
 
 Covered* 
 
 Creek. 
 
 Culvert. 
 
 Drug Store. 
 
 East. 
 
 Estuary. 
 
 Fordabie* 
 
 Fori. 
 
 G.S 
 k.p. 
 
 ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 General Store. 
 
 Girder. 
 
 Gristmill. 
 
 Lat 
 
 Ldg. 
 L.S. 
 
 L.H. 
 
 Island. 
 
 Junction. 
 
 King-post 
 
 Lake. . 
 
 Latitude. 
 
 Landing. 
 
 $, Life-Saving Station, st 
 
 Pt 
 o.p 
 
 h 
 
 s. 
 
 I'.H. 
 
 S.M. 
 Sta. 
 
 Point. 
 
 P 
 
 Lighthouse 
 
 Longitude. 
 
 Mountain. 
 
 Mountains. 
 
 North. 
 
 Not fordabie. 
 
 Pier. 
 
 Plank. 
 
 Post Office* 
 
 f-6. 
 Tres. 
 
 &T 
 
 w.w 
 w. 
 
 w. 
 
 wd- 
 
 (iver. 
 
 Roundhouse* 
 
 Railroad. 
 
 South. 
 
 Steel. 
 
 Schoolhousa* 
 
 Sawmill. 
 
 Station. 
 
 Stone. 
 
 Stream. 
 
 Tollgate.. 
 
 Trestle. 
 
 Truss. 
 
 Water Tank. 
 
 Waterworks. 
 
 West. 
 
 Wood. 
 
 Wide. 
 
 filGNS— HELD VAP3 AND SKETCHES. 
 
 Telegraph line 
 
 Railroads 
 
 Roads 
 
 fences 
 
 ,.. Els*.. 
 
 muimniE ** 
 
 Symbol (modified beto»} «»»»»»»«» 
 
 Alonf improved road * « ■ ' 
 
 Along unimproved road ••»»^•"*»'■*•»"» , 
 
 Alongtrail *" r *"*" r " r " f iTj 
 
 Single track - 
 
 Double track *• 
 
 Trolley ** 
 
 Improved sss 
 
 Unimproved ss = sss=== = *=-- « = *««=«* 
 
 Trail 
 
 barbed wire — ■ " ■ ■ ■■ - ■ — ■ ' ' ■ 
 
 smooth wire — ■ ■ » - 
 
 wood 
 atone 
 lher«ge 
 
MAP READING AND MILITARY SKETCHING 691 
 
 Orienting a Map. — In order that directions on the map and 
 on the ground shall coincide, it is necessary for the map to be 
 oriented; that is, the true meridian of the map must lie in the 
 true meridian through the observer's position on the ground. 
 Every road, stream, or other feature on the map will then be 
 parallel to its true position on the ground, and all objects shown 
 on the map can be identfied and picked out on the ground. 
 
 TO ORIENT THE MAP 
 
 With Compass. — If the magnetic meridian is shown on the 
 map, lay the compass over it (produce if necessary) and, without 
 disturbing the compass, turn the map slowly round until the 
 north end of the north point on the map is exactly under the north 
 end of the needle. If the true meridian only is shown and you 
 know the local magnetic declination, plot the magnetic meridian 
 on the map with a protractor and proceed as before. If you have 
 no protractor lay .the compass on the true meridian and turn the 
 map until this line makes, with the needle, an angle equal to the 
 magnetic declination and on the correct side of it. 
 
 By Objects. — A map can be oriented by an object on the 
 ground without using the magnetic compass. 
 
 (a) Identify the spot where you stand as some point marked 
 on the map. Also identify on the map some distant object you 
 can see. Join these two on the map by a straight line. Then 
 turn the map about the point marking your position till this line 
 points to the distant object. 
 
 (b) When you do not know your position place yourself 
 between or in prolongation of a line joining any two points which 
 can be identified. Revolve the map until the line joining the two 
 points on the map points to the two places on the ground. 
 
 A map can be set roughly for reading by identifying on the 
 map several prominent objects that can be seen. The map is then 
 held so that the directions between these objects as they appear 
 on the ground and on the map are parallel to each other. 
 
 To Locate One's Position on a Map. — When the map is 
 oriented by compass sight along a ruler at an object on the ground 
 while keeping the ruler on the position of this object on the map 
 and draw a line toward your body. Do the same with respect to 
 a second point visible on the ground and shown on the map. The 
 intersection of these two points is your map position. 
 
 (2) When the map is oriented by an object sight at some 
 object not in the line used for orientation, keeping the ruler on the 
 plotted position of this object and draw a line until it cuts the 
 direction line used for orienting the map. This is your position 
 
692 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 on the map. • Any straight line on the map such as a road is useful 
 for orienting and thus finding your position. Usually your posi- 
 tion may be found by characteristic landmarks, as crossroads, a 
 railroad crossing, a junction of streams, etc. 
 
 Using Maps in the Field. — (1) Observe the scale, see if it is 
 in familiar units and how many inches equal 1 mile, so that you 
 can make rapid mental estimates of the distance between prom- 
 inent points shown. Get the scale relation firmly fixed in mind for 
 the map under consideration. (2) Learn the contour interval 
 from the numbering on the contours or by observing the number 
 of contour intervals between two known elevations^, usually 
 marked on hilltops or crossroads. This will give you a clear 
 idea of the relative height of hills and depressions of streams, 
 and will tell you which are commanding positions, good view 
 points, etc. (3) Observe the position of the true and magnetic 
 meridians and the number of degrees of declination. (4) Pick out 
 the streams on the ground and map and trace them by eye 
 throughout their visibility. This is a most necessary step in ac- 
 quiring a good general knowledge of the ground and map, be- 
 cause the streams form the framework of the area upon which the 
 contours are based. (5) Next pick out the tops of all hills and 
 trace the highest lines of all the ridges. (6) Next construct (if 
 not given) a scale of M. Ds. for the map and learn the general 
 character of the slopes of the ground. See where the flattest and 
 steepest parts occur and the approximately greatest angle of slope, 
 also where troops can meneuver. (7) Pick out all towns and 
 villages, noting their names, sizes, etc. (8) Trace all roads and 
 railroads and get a good idea which are the main roads and which 
 only field tracks. (9) Next take up the particular points to be in- 
 vestigated and study the map with these in view. For instance, 
 where are good defensive positions, camp sites, lines of observa- 
 tion,, good roads with easy grades for the passage of trains, etc. 
 
 MILITARY SKETCHING 
 
 The Engineer Department issues a standard reconnaissance 
 equipment based solely on the plane-table method. The outfit is 
 divided into equipment, which is permanent, and supplies, which 
 are expendable. 
 
 One outfit is issued to each regimental and battalion head- 
 quarters of the infantry, cavalry, and field artillery, and three to 
 each engineer tool wagon, giving six per company or three per 
 mounted company. Headquarters of higher engineer units, and 
 of division and chief engineers not attached to engineer units, 
 receive normally three such outfits, but division and chief engineers 
 may receive a larger number if they so requisition. 
 
MAP READING AND MILITARY SKETCHING 693 
 
 The alidade is a triangular scale, 10 3/16 inches long, weighted 
 at the ends, is conveniently graduated and has blank spaces for 
 pasting on individual scales of paces, walk, trot, and gallop. 
 
 The board has a compass needle 3 inches long and quite 
 sensitive. At each corner is a clip to hold the paper firmly in 
 place. No plumb bob is provided, but a hole is accurately bored 
 so that a plumb bob can be improvised and use made of the slope 
 scale on the board in case the clinometer should be lost. The 
 plate on the back of the board is let in flush so that the board can 
 be turned freely on the tripod for orientation and then firmly 
 clamped by a slight turn of the tripod screw. As the tripod is 
 not ordinarily used in mounted sketching, holes have been bored 
 at the corners of the board for the insertion of a carrying cord 
 if desired. 
 
 The tripod is of wood with telescoping legs, which fold to 
 15 inches or extend to about 40 inches and detach from the top 
 for packing in the container. The top, also of wood, is provided 
 with a heavy thumbscrew for attaching the board, and is covered 
 with felt to give a firm bearing without sticking or binding. 
 
 The celluloid sheets are for use instead of sketching paper 
 during rainy weather. 
 
 Scales. — These are for position and outpost sketches, 6 inches=* 
 1 mile, V. I. 10 feet; road sketches, 3 inches=l mile, V. I. 20 feet; 
 extended operations, 1 inch=l mile, V. I. 60 feet. Place sketches 
 should be made on the 6-inch scale, with 10-foot contours, unless 
 they join or extend road sketches, in which case they are made on 
 the 3-inch scale with 20-foot contours. The use of this system 
 enables one scale of map distances to be used, and a given M. D. 
 between contours always represents the same slope, no matter 
 which of the scales is used. The sketcher should learn the M. D. 
 corresponding to one, three, five, and seven degrees of slope, so 
 that he can plot them accurately from memory; he can then draw 
 contours rapidly to show slopes from 1° to 14°. For example, 
 y 2 ° slope is represented by two lengths of the 1° distance; 2° by 
 one-half of the 1° distance; V/2 by twice the 7° distance, etc. 
 This ability to convert ground slopes immediately to map distances 
 is the key to rapid contouring. 
 
 Measurements Made in Military Sketching. — The measure- 
 ments required are for the distance, horizontal direction, slope, and 
 elevation. 
 
 (1) The Methods of Distance Measurement. — The units used 
 are the sketcher's stride in inches; the distance in inches passed 
 over by the sketcher's horse per minute at a trot, and at a walk; 
 the distance in inches passed over by one revolution of a wheel; 
 100 yards as estimated by a skilled sketcher. 
 
694 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 (a) The stride (2 paces) is the unit ordinarily used for 
 position and outpost sketching for the controlling measurements. 
 The sketcher should determine the length of his stride by pacing 
 at least twice an accurately measured course from one-half to 
 2 miles long, over ground of varying slopes, keeping a record 
 of the number of strides with a pace tally, held in the left hand, 
 and pressed each time the right foot comes to the ground. The 
 average number of strides for the course is thus determined, and 
 from this the length in inches of the stride determined, and a 
 scale of strides at 6 inches=l mile constructed. 
 
 (b) Horse's walk and trot is the unit ordinarily used for road 
 sketching. The horse's rate should be determined by riding him 
 several times over an accurately measured course at a walk and 
 at a trot. Care must be taken not to rate the horse faster than he 
 can travel for a day's work. If a sketch must be made on an un- 
 rated horse when no time is available for rating, the sketcher 
 should use the scales of average walk and trot, a mile in 16 min- 
 utes at a walk, and in 8 minutes at a trot. Having determined the 
 rate of the horse, a scale of minutes, halves, and quarters should be 
 constructed. 
 
 (c) Rules for Correcting Scales. — Scales of strides and of the 
 walk and trot should be tested in actual sketching and corrected 
 if necessary. A sketch smaller than intended (scale too small) is 
 caused by having assumed the horse's gait to be slower or the 
 stride shorter than it actually is. 
 
 (d) The Distance Passed Over by a Revolution of a Wheel. — 
 This method of determining distance is of great value in making 
 road sketches, especially in combined work, because of the uni- 
 formity secured. The length covered per revolution is best de- 
 termined by driving over a measured course and dividing the 
 length of the course by the number of revolutions. The number 
 of revolutions is recorded by an odometer attached to the axle j 
 of a front wheel; or a piece of white cloth may be tied around the 
 tire and the rotations of the wheel recorded on a pace tally. 
 If no measured course is available over which to determine the 
 length of one revolution, the circumference of the wheel is found 
 by multiplying the diameter by 3.1416. 
 
 (e) Estimation of Distances. — An essential qualification for a 
 rapid and accurate sketcher is the ability to estimate distances with 
 less than 10 per cent error up to 600 yards, and within 15 per cent, 
 error up to a mile. This can be acquired by constant practice 
 in making estimates of various distances and then verifying the 
 estimates by accurate measurements. Estimates of distance should 
 be made in yards, and 100 yards should be definitely fixed in mind 
 as a reference unit. In all estimation of distance the sketcher 
 
MAP READING AND MILITARY SKETCHING 
 
 695 
 
 should bear in mind the effect of conditions of ground and light 
 on estimates. 
 
 Objects Appear Nearer Than They Really Are: (a) When 
 the sun is behind the observer and the object is in the bright light, 
 (b) When seen over a body of water, snow, or level plain, (c) 
 When below the observer, (d) When in high altitudes and very 
 clear atmosphere. In these cases add to the normal estimate. 
 
 Objects Seem Further Away Than They Really Are: (a) 
 when up a steep hill from the observer, (b) In poor light such as 
 fog. (c) When seen across undulating ground. In these cases sub- 
 tract from the normal estimate. 
 
 Objects Are Distinguishable to Average Eyes at the Follow- 
 ing Distances: 9 to 12 miles, church spires; 5 to 7 miles, windmills; 
 2 to 2y 2 miles, chimneys; 2,000 yards, trunks of large trees; 600 
 yards, individuals of a column; 500 yards, individual panes of glass 
 in windows; 400 yards, arms and legs of dismounted men. 
 
 But visual acuity differs and the sketcher should learn for 
 himself at what distances objects can be seen by him and their 
 
 Infantry 
 In column o-a-o-oo-o 
 
 In line C 
 
 Cavalry 
 In column BBBBB& 
 
 Palisades 
 
 Wire 
 entanglement 
 
 ■HHHfH 
 
 V-tf 
 
 Fort 
 
 Camp 
 Trenches 
 
 Gun 
 battery 
 
 Mortar 
 batte/y 
 
 Redoubt 
 
 A 
 
 AA1A.AA 
 AAA.AAA 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 AM* H"^^ 
 
 Chevaux de 
 frise 
 
 MILITARY SIGNS. 
 
696 
 
 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Regimental JEEe&dqxvzrfers 
 
 Brigade 
 
 Division* * 
 
 Corps " 
 
 Infantry in line 
 
 Infantry zn column. 
 Cavalry in, H™, 
 
 Cavalry in* column 
 Mounted Infantry 
 
 Sentry - 
 
 Vidette- 
 
 Picket^Cav. and Infty. 
 Support - ■ *» - 
 Wagon train, , 
 
 Adjutant General 
 Quarter-master — 
 
 Commissary 
 
 fei 
 
 2B 
 
 *0*3C 
 
 50^30 
 
 8AC 
 
 
 l|l ijl «{« lj» ^ 
 
 ■ ■■6 
 
 tfc CS3 
 
 eSi c*3 
 
 .-£« ■£-* •£-£•£-£•3-3 
 
MAP READING AND MILITARY SKETCHING 697 
 
 Medical Corps 
 Ordnance 
 
 Signal Corps- 
 
 Engineer Corps. 
 Gun Battery 
 
 Mortar Battery- 
 
 2brt—.,^~.J2TZie plan, to he 
 RedoubtX snoivn if known, L 
 
 Camp~ ™~™ „.«, 
 
 Battle 
 
 Trench 
 
 P> 
 
 P 
 
 ! ,|, 
 
 -K 
 
 AAA 
 
 ...<?« 
 
 OBSTACLES 
 
 NOTE'- When color is used execute thesein red 
 
 Abattis sp V V Hf 
 
 Tfire entanglement 
 
 Palisades 
 
 Contact Mines \ 
 
 o°o°o° 
 
 Controlled Mines. , 
 Dernolitions 
 
 .c =: ? T b>> 
 
698 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 appearance at different ranges, by noting objects on the ground 
 and scaling their distances from a good map. 
 
 Telegraph and telephone poles are usually set at fixed dis- 
 tances along any one line, so that the sketcher, by pacing one 
 interval or by dividing a known distance by the number of poles 
 contained, may secure their distance apart and make accurate 
 measurements as far as the poles are visible. 
 
 The Estimation of Ground Distances Directly as Spaces on 
 the Sketch. — The sketcher should learn to estimate the map space 
 corresponding to a given ground distance. This power is 
 rapidly acquired by using a scale of hundreds of yards as the 
 unit of plotting. The sketcher should plot, by estimation, 
 100 yards, then test it with his scale and repeat until he can 
 do it with no appreciable error. 
 
 (2) Method of Measuring the Horizontal Direction of an 
 Unknown Point from a Known Point. — Set up, level, and orient the 
 sketching board. The board is said to be oriented when the 
 compass needle is parallel to the sides of the compass trough. 
 Assume a point on the paper as the location of the known occu- 
 pied point in such a position that the ground to be sketched will 
 fall on the sheet. Pivot the alidade on the assumed point, and 
 sight along it, directing it on the unknown point; then draw a 
 line along the alidade. 
 
 (3) Method of Measuring Slope. — Slopes may be measured 
 with the service clinometer, or by using a plumb bob attached to 
 the sketching board in connection with the slope scale on the 
 board. The ability to estimate correctly the general slope be- 
 tween two points is important for accurate and rapid contouring. 
 This is gained by making a systematic series of estimates of 
 slopes over various kinds of ground, verifying each estimate with 
 a careful clinometer reading. 
 
 (4) Method of Measuring Elevation. — The elevation may be 
 found from the slope and the distance by applying to the plotted 
 distance the M. D. corresponding to the slope. Elevations de- 
 termined in this manner are affected by errors in both slope and 
 distance. If the slope is correct but the distance too great, then 
 the M. D. for the slope is contained too many times in the 
 plotted distance, giving too great an elevation. The ability to 
 estimate accurately differences of elevation is of the greatest 
 value in rapid contouring, because these direct estimates of ele- 
 vation are found to be more nearly correct than the elevations 
 determined by estimation of slope and distance. Estimates of 
 elevation should be made by determining a horizontal plane 
 (using the clinometer if necessary) and estimating the elevation 
 of the unknown point above or below this plane by comparison 
 with the heights of objects in the vicinity, such as telegraph poles, 
 
MAP READING AND MILITARY SKETCHING 699 
 
 trees, etc. The sketcher should learn the height of such objects 
 in the vicinity. By carrying forward with long sights (using 
 the clinometer at zero) points of equal elevation along a tra- 
 verse, elevations throughout a day's road sketch can be attained 
 with sufficient accuracy. 
 
 Military sketches should show: All lines of communication: 
 Roads, trails, railroads (with towns to which they lead and railroad 
 stations), rivers, lakes, canals, telegraph and telephone lines. 
 
 All objects giving cover or forming obstacles: Woods, tall 
 growths of grain, swamps, unfordable bodies of water, ravines., 
 rugged cliffs, stone walls, fences, hedges, cuts, and fills. 
 
 The configuration of the ground: Contours showing all hills 
 in their true location and shape, the character of their slopes and 
 their relative heights, all ravines and slight undulations afford- 
 ing a sheltered line of movement to troops. 
 
 All easily distinguished landmarks: Isolated trees of un- 
 usual type, such as Lombardy poplars; houses, especially those of 
 stone and those at crossroads; villages and towns to show the 
 general plan of streets and houses. 
 
 All military dispositions: Defensive works (trenches, ob- 
 stacles, etc.); bodies of troops drawn to scale. 
 
 The vulnerable points of lines of communication: Bridges, 
 culverts, locks and dams, ferries and fords, with the character of 
 each. 
 
 All stores and supplies for men and animals: Water supply, 
 grazing rounds, storehouses of grain, etc. 
 
 Classification of Military Sketches.— Military sketches are 
 classified as individual or combined sketches. An individual sketch 
 is of limited extent, executed by one person. A combined sketch 
 is the result of the simultaneous work of a number of sketchers, 
 so combined as to make a map covering a number of parallel 
 roads (combined road sketch), or an area extending across the 
 front of the command (combined position sketch). 
 
 Military sketches are also classified according to their ob- 
 ject or the method of their execution as: 
 
 (a) Area sketches, which are of three kinds: Position, out- 
 post, and place sketches, (b) Road sketches. 
 
 A position sketch is one of a military position, camp site, 
 etc., made by a sketcher who has access to all parts of the area to 
 be sketched. 
 
 An outpost sketch, as its name indicates, shows the military 
 features of ground along the friendly outpost line and as far 
 toward the hostile position as may be sketched from the rear of 
 and along the line of observation. 
 
 A place sketch is one of an area, made by a sketcher from 
 one point of observation. Such a sketch may cover ground 
 
700 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 in front of an outpost line or it may serve to extend toward 
 the enemy a position or road sketch from the farthest point 
 which can be reached by the sketcher. 
 
 Principal Requirements. — In making a military sketch the 
 principal requirements are clearness, accuracy sufficient for all 
 military requirements, simplicity, and the completed sketch in the 
 time available. 
 
 Methods of Sketching. — The location of the critical points 
 (points of abrupt change of general slope, of abrupt change of 
 direction of a road, stream junctions, etc.) must first be deter- 
 mined horizontally and vertically. 
 
 Execution of a position sketch: (a) Select and traverse a 
 base line, (b) Locate a series of critical points over the area by 
 intersection, (c) Fill in detail in the vicinity of these triangulation 
 points, (d) Fill in detail around other important points located 
 by resection, (e) Fill in all other required details by traverse to 
 all necessary points not visible from the intersection or resection 
 stations, (f) It is important that the sketch have sufficient depth 
 to show lateral communications in rear of line that will probably 
 be occupied. Points to which roads to the rear lead should be 
 indicated in margin in writing. 
 
 Execution of an Outpost Sketch. — An outpost sketch is exe- 
 cuted in the same manner as a position sketch except that the 
 sketcher cannot advance beyond the line of observation, but 
 must show the ground from one-half to 2 miles in front of this 
 line toward the enemy. Critical points in front of the line of 
 observation must be located by traverses along the base and inter- 
 sections from stations on the base. The base might be located 
 some distance in rear of the outpost line if necessary to avoid 
 exposure to fire along the line of observation, and from this re- 
 tired base critical points could be located on the line of observa- 
 tion by intersection or resection. These points can then be occu- 
 pied to obtain the necessary critical points in front. It is important 
 that the sketch have sufficient depth to show lateral communica- 
 tions in rear of line that will probably be occupied. Points to 
 which roads to the rear lead should be indicated in margin in 
 writing. 
 
 Execution of a Road Sketch. — A road sketch is normally 
 made mounted on account of the rapidity of work thereby secured. 
 A large part of the work is done by traversing the road and esti- 
 mating offsets. Intersection locations are not usually required at 
 more than 400 or 500 yards from the road, and no resection work 
 is usually possible. Details should usually be limited to' 400 
 yards from the road, except for prominent positions, etc. All 
 plotting should be done dismounted, but notes should be made on 
 the timing pad of important details passed while mounted and mov- 
 
MAP READING AND MILITARY SKETCHING 701 
 
 ing between stations. Halts are usually required every three or 
 four minutes. A stop watch is very convenient for this work. 
 
 Execution of a Place Sketch. — A place sketch is made 
 under the supposition that the sketcher is limited to a single 
 point of observation overlooking the area to be sketched. The 
 work is executed in a manner similar to a position sketch except 
 that all control points are located by determining distance with 
 range finder (or by estimation), elevations with clinometer (or 
 by estimation). First locate stream lines, next roads, then hilltops,, 
 and finally contours and minor details. 
 
 The place sketch is made under the same conditions as a 
 perspective sketch, but has the advantage that it represents truly 
 to scale the features of the ground in their relation to each other 
 as estimated by the sketcher, and to be interpreted need not be 
 examined from the point occupied by the sketcher. 
 
 Points to be observed in sketching: (a) Be sure the intersec- 
 tion and resection points are well marked to avoid sighting back 
 on the wrong point, (b) Study the area carefully and do not sight 
 any point that will not help the work. . (c) Keep constantly in 
 view the scale of the sketch, the contour interval, and the smallest 
 distance that can be shown, (d) Be sure that the orientations are 
 correct and that the board is clamped after orientation. The 
 forward sight to the next station should be made as soon after 
 orientation as the position of the occupied station is plotted, 
 (e) After the first set-up always orient by back sight if pos- 
 sible, (f) Do not leave a station until all the details up to that 
 point are put in. (g) Try to put equal care and time on all parts 
 of the sketch. 
 
 Combined position sketches are executed by dividing up the 
 sketchers into groups of two, and assigning to each group an area 
 one-half mile wide by two or more miles deep. A control road 
 or other line is usually selected along one side of the area to be 
 sketched. The groups are deployed along this road at intervals 
 of one-half mile. No. 1 of each group accompanied by No. 2 
 of the adjacent group sketches a strip of terrain about one-half 
 mile wide along the boundary line between their areas, the re- 
 quired depth of the area. This sketch is then cut apart along the 
 boundary line, and each sketcher takes the part pertaining to his 
 area, and meets the other number of his group at the center of the 
 group area. The two parts of the sketch of the group area are 
 then placed 3 inches apart on a sketching board, and the two 
 sketchers of the group return to the control road along the cen- 
 ter of their area, sketching the parts of their area not already 
 sketched. The sketches can then be combined at a designated as- 
 sembly point. 
 
 The vertical control is given by the chief of the sketchers, 
 
702 
 
 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 who determines elevations along the control road with an aneroid 
 barometer. 
 
 Combined road sketches of two or more parallel roads 
 are executed by assigning a party of sketchers to each road. 
 One, the director, marks out the road to be sketched by posting 
 numbered cards of a given color at all road junctions. Another, 
 
 Hlllllinill Single Track R.R. 
 llillllilllll Double Track R.R. 
 
 © W Open Woods, Sire 
 
 U|JC(i iTuuua. guv 
 
 of circle Indicates 
 size of Trees. 
 
 \l 1/ Wooden XI ng Post 
 
 " ™^Si£s. Bridge 24 ft. Span, 
 
 " 24T12 12 ft. Deck 
 
 ' ' \ io ~ IO ft. above Water, 
 
 4#*S 
 
 6 OOo 
 
 *» o 
 O o O 
 
 o o 
 
 ftough Symbol for 
 Woods. 
 
 and Suspension 
 Bridges. 
 
 " 3 ft. Deep. 
 
 Wire Entanglement. 
 
 bemolition (Diagonal 
 lines' indicate Trees 
 
 mti . and Buildings have been 
 T //y//?77 destroyed and leveled.) 
 
 Cultivated Land. 
 
 OQ969 
 
 fi> © jQ © 9 Orchard* 
 
 *<5B7 
 
 JSl ^ -*- Woods with U nd er. 
 •^ ^ A a growth. 
 
 1 — 1 I — I School House. 
 £3 £3 Court House. 
 
 g| Masonry -Buiidlng. 
 
 |^| Frame Building. 
 
 S IB Church. 
 •— x-^-x-^-x— • Barbed Wjre Fence. 
 
 " o e o— Common Wire Fence, 
 
 A/VWWyvwv Wood Fence. 
 mnruium Stone Wall. 
 COOOOOOO Hedge. 
 
 » Main, or Improved Road. 
 
 Woods, Outline of 
 Woods Indicated. 
 
 ZZZ.ZZ Unimproved Road. 
 Trail, or Bridle Path. 
 
 . Hj. Stream, 13 ft wide, 
 ~ 18 ft. deep and not 
 Fordabie. 
 
 T~T T TT Telegraph Line. 
 CONVENTIONAL SIGNS. 
 
 the principal sketcher, sketches the main road. The remaining 
 members, assistant sketchers, sketch in turn all connecting roads 
 leading to the right to the next parallel road marked by cards 
 of a different color; or, in case of the right party, a fixed dis- 
 tance to the right. They note on the cards when they leave 
 
MAP READING AND MILITARY SKETCHING 703 
 
 their main road to sketch the cross road, and mark on their 
 sketches the numbers and colors of the cards indicating the road. 
 They then return to their main road and sketch the next con- 
 necting road indicated by a card not marked as having been 
 sketched. The sketches of the parallel and connecting roads are 
 combined at a designated assembly point. 
 
 eridg» 
 
 Indicate character and span by abbreviations 
 Example: 
 
 Meaning wooden kingpost bridge.40 feet long, 20 feet vtdft, 
 and 10 feet above the water 
 
 Indicate character by abbreviation* 
 Exawptef^s^tf^av^. 
 
 Meaning a stream 15 feet wide. 8 feet deep. and not fbrdable. 
 House • Church* School house -SH 
 
 Hfoods ^vJ^&J 0rchardsO3 Cultivated Land(gjt] 
 
 If boundary fines are fences they are Indicated as such 
 Brush, crops crgrassjmpxtart as covered ISftgM 
 
 Cemetery | ♦»♦♦•»♦! Trees.taolated 
 
 Cwlandfill- ; Cut ; cut lOfeet deep 
 
 ; r * ; fiHIOfeethilh 
 
 CONVENTIONAL SIGNS. 
 
 The vertical control is given by the director of each party, 
 who marks the elevation obtained with an aneroid barometer upon 
 each card, 
 
 Compilation. — Sketches when turned in are consolidated, 
 usually by pasting them in their proper relative positions on a 
 
704 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 large sheet of paper, or else by pasting them together at their 
 edges so that corresponding features will join. If one of them 
 does not exactly fit, as will often happen, the adjustment is best 
 made by cutting the sketch into two or more pieces and moving 
 them with respect to each other so as to absorb the discrepancy. 
 Thus, if a piece of road is half an inch too short, cut it at three or 
 four places on lines perpendicular to the road and separate the 
 pieces by a sixth or eighth of an inch. If too long, overlap the 
 pieces instead of separating them. If a road or other feature is out 
 of azimuth, make a cut through one of its ends and swing it into 
 place. These operations may be combined. The adjustment is 
 rapid and sufficiently exact. If a sketch is too much out to be 
 adjusted by this process, it will usually be of little value and time 
 will be saved by leaving it out of the compilation and filling in the 
 gap free-hand, using the sketch as a guide. 
 
 Map Reproduction. — If the sketches are made on tracing 
 paper or celluloid they may be reproduced by blue printing or 
 by lithography. Equipment and supplies for these methods are 
 carried in a wagon assigned to the headquarters of an engineer 
 regiment. If the sketches are made on ordinary paper they 
 must be traced on tracing linen or paper for reproduction. 
 Simple sketches may be done with special ink and reproduced 
 with the hectograph equipment carried on the tool wagon of each 
 engineer company. 
 
 Map Enlargement. — Maps may be enlarged with a panto- 
 graph,, carried in the headquarters wagon of an engineer regi- 
 ment; or by drawing squares of convenient size on the original 
 map, and then drawing on the paper on which the new map is to 
 be made squares whose sides bear the required ratio to the sides 
 of the squares on the original. 
 
 Conventional Signs. — In making a road sketch it is wise to 
 use only the conventional signs and abbreviations authorized for 
 use on field maps and sketches. Signs and abbreviations other than 
 those above given and illustrated should not be used. They are 
 sufficient to give all necessary information, are well known by all 
 military men and the sketches can be read as easily as they can 
 be made. All sketches should be self-contained and self-explana- 
 tory. 
 
CHAPTER XXV 
 
 MILITARY JURISDICTION, COURTS MARTIAL 
 AND THE LAWS OF WAR 
 
 The source of military jurisdiction is the Constitution, the 
 specific provisions relating to its being found in powers granted to 
 Congress, in the authority vested in the President, and in a pro- 
 vision of the fifth amendment. Military jurisdiction is of four 
 kinds, viz.: 
 
 (a) Military government (the law of hostile occupation); 
 that is, military power exercised by a belligerent by virtue of his 
 occupation of an enemy's territory, over such territory and its in- 
 habitants. This belongs to the law of war and therefore to the 
 law of nations. When a conquered territory is ceded to the con- 
 queror, military government continues until civil government is 
 established by the new sovereign. 
 
 (b) Martial law at home (or, as a domestic fact); by which 
 is meant military power exercised in time of war, insurrection, or 
 rebellion in parts of the country retaining their allegiance, and 
 over persons and things not ordinarily subjected to it. 
 
 (c) Martial law applied to the Army; that is, military power 
 extending in time of war, insurrection, or rebellion, over persons 
 in the military service, as to obligations arising out of such emer- 
 gency and not falling within the domain of military law, nor other- 
 wise regulated by law. The last two divisions (b) and (c) are 
 applications of the doctrine of necessity to a condition of war. 
 They spring from the right of national self-preservation. 
 
 (d) Military law; which is the legal system that regulates 
 the government of the military establishment. It is a branch of 
 the municipal law, and in the United States derives its existence 
 from special constitutional grants of power. It is both written and 
 unwritten. The sources of written military law are the Articles 
 of War enacted by Congress August 29, 1916; other statutory en- 
 actments relating to the military service; the Army Regulations; 
 and general and special orders and decisions promulgated by the 
 War Department and by department, post, and other commanders. 
 The unwritten military law is the " custom of war," consisting of 
 customs of service, both in peace and war. 
 
706 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Military jurisdiction is exercised through the following mili- 
 tary tribunals: 
 
 (a) Military commissions and provost courts, for the trial of 
 offenders against the laws of war and under martial law. 
 
 (b) Courts martial — general, special, and summary — for the 
 trial of offenders against military law. 
 
 The general court martial has concurrent jurisdiction with 
 military commissions and provost courts to try offenders against 
 the laws of war. 
 
 (c) Courts of inquiry, for the examination of transactions of 
 or accusations or imputations against officers or soldiers. 
 
 PERSONS SUBJECT TO MILITARY LAW 
 
 The following persons are subject to the Articles of War: 
 (a) All officers and soldiers belonging to the Regular Army of the 
 United States; all volunteers, from the dates of their muster or 
 acceptance into the military service of the United States; and all 
 other persons lawfully called, drafted, or ordered into, or to duty, 
 or for training in the said service, from the dates they are required 
 by the terms of the call, draft, or order to obey the same, (b) 
 Cadets, (c) Officers and soldiers of the Marine Corps when de- 
 tached for service with the armies of the United States by order 
 of the President, (d) Officers and enlisted men of the Medical 
 Department of the Navy, serving with a body of marines detached 
 for service with the Army in accordance with the provisions of 
 section sixteen hundred and twenty-one of the Revised Statutes, 
 shall, while so serving, be subject to the Rules and Articles of War 
 prescribed for the government of the Army in the same manner 
 as the officers and men of the Marine Corps while so serving, 
 (e) All retainers to the camp and all persons accompanying or 
 serving with the armies of the United States without the territorial 
 jurisdiction of the United States, and in time of war all such re- 
 tainers and persons accompanying or serving with the armies of 
 the United States in the field, both within and without the terri- 
 torial jurisdiction of the United States though not otherwise sub- 
 ject to the Articles of War. (f) All persons under sentence ad- 
 judged by courts martial, (g) Army field clerks, (h) Field clerks, 
 Quartermaster Corps. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION AND COMPOSITION OF COURTS 
 MARTIAL 
 
 Courts martial are classified as general courts martial, special 
 courts martial and summary courts martial. 
 
MILITARY JURISDICTION 707 
 
 Who Competent to Serve. — All officers in the military service 
 of the United States, and officers of the Marine Corps when de- 
 tached for service with the Army by order of the President, shall 
 be competent to serve on courts martial for the trial of any 
 persons who may lawfully be brought before such courts for trial. 
 
 Exceptions. — (a) No officer shall be eligible to sit as a mem- 
 ber of a general or special court martial when he is the accuser 
 or a witness for the prosecution; but when there is only one officer 
 present with a command he shall be the summary court martial of 
 that command and shall hear and determine cases brought before 
 him. (b) Chaplains, veterinarians, dental surgeons, and second 
 lieutenants in the Quartermaster Corps are not in practice detailed 
 as members of courts martial. 
 
 Number of Members. — Courts martial shall be composed of 
 the following number of officers, viz.: 
 
 (a) General Courts Martial. — Any number from 5 to 13, in- 
 clusive. 
 
 A general court martial shall not consist of less than 13 
 officers when that number can be convened without manifest in- 
 jury to the service. The Articles of War governing the number 
 of members which may sit upon a general or a special court martial 
 are merely directory to the officer appointing the court, and his 
 decision as to the number which can be convened without manifest 
 injury to the service (within the maximum and minimum limits 
 prescribed by law), being a matter submitted to his sound dis- 
 cretion, must be conclusive. While a number less than five can 
 not be organized as a general court martial or proceed with a trial, 
 they may perform such acts as are preliminary to the organization 
 and action of the court. Less than five members may adjourn 
 from day to day, and where five are present and one of them is 
 challenged, the remaining four may determine upon the sufficiency 
 of the objection. A court reduced to four members and thereupon 
 adjourning for an indefinite period does not dissolve itself. The 
 appointing authority may at any time complete it by the addition of 
 a new member or members and order it to reassemble for business. 
 But if any evidence has been taken before the court is reduced 
 below five, it should be dissolved and a new one ordered. 
 
 If for any reason a general court martial is reduced below 
 five members it will direct the judge advocate to report the facts to 
 the convening authority and wait his orders. The report by the 
 judge advocate will, in all cases, be made through the commanding 
 officer of the post, command, or station where the court is sitting, 
 who will indorse thereon the names of a sufficient number of avail- 
 able officers whom he recommends be detailed on the court to 
 enable it to proceed. More than enough to make a quorum should 
 be recommended where practicable in order to provide for future 
 
708 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 contingencies, and so far as can be foreseen the officers recom- 
 mended should not be liable to challenge in any case to be tried. 
 If there be no such officer or officers available, the commanding 
 officer will so state. This report will be made by wire whenever 
 deemed advisable in order to prevent unnecessary delay in trying 
 cases. Similar action will be taken before trial by the judge advo- 
 cate and commanding officer whenever the former knows or has 
 good reason to believe that the court will be reduced below a 
 quorum at the time of trial. It is the duty of commanding officers 
 to keep in touch with the business before general courts martial 
 being held within the limits of their commands and from time to 
 time to take the initiative in making recommendations to the ap- 
 pointing authority as to relieving or adding members, changing 
 the judge advocate, or appointing a new court, and as to other 
 matters relating to such courts, so that they may proceed expedi- 
 tiously and in cooperation with other official business. 
 
 (b) Special Courts Martial. — Any number of officers from 
 three to five, inclusive. The remarks under (a) ante apply equally 
 to a special court martial where its membership is reduced below 
 the minimum required by law, except that in the case of special 
 court martial the report of the judge advocate will be made to the 
 convening authority, who will, without unnecessary delay, detail 
 a sufficient number of qualified officers to enable it to proceed or 
 appoint a new court. 
 
 (c) Summary Courts Martial. — A summary court martial con- 
 sists of one officer. 
 
 " In the Military Service of the United States."— (a) An offi- 
 cer suspended from rank should not be detailed to sit as a member 
 of a court martial during the period of suspension, (b) A retired 
 officer may be assigned with his consent to active duty upon 
 courts martial in time of peace, and if employed on active duty in 
 time of war in the discretion of the President, he is eligible for 
 court martial duty. At other times he is not available for such 
 duty except that when placed in command of a post under the act 
 of August 29, 1916, or when assigned to recruiting duty he may act 
 as summary court martial when he is the only officer present, 
 (c) Volunteers become eligible for duty as members of courts mar- 
 tial from the dates of their muster or acceptance into the military 
 service of the United States, members of the Officers' Reserve 
 Corps ordered to active service by the Secretary of War, and all 
 other officers lawfully called, drafted, or ordered into, or to duty 
 or for training in, the said service, from the date they are required 
 by the terms of the call, draft, or order to obey the same. 
 
 Marine Officers. — Marine officers can be detached for duty 
 with the Army only by order of the President, and their eligibility 
 to sit as members of courts martial to try persons subject to 
 
MILITARY JURISDICTION 709 
 
 military law continues only during the time they are serving under 
 such order. When any part of the Marine Corps is present with 
 the Army and engaged in a common enterprise with it, without 
 an order of the President detaching it for service with the Army, 
 the case is one of cooperation and not of incorporation, and in 
 such a case no officer of the Marine Corps can exercise command 
 over the Army any more than a naval officer can when some part 
 of the Navy is cooperating with the Army, and the converse is true 
 of Army officers cooperating with the Marine Corps. 
 
 No Distinction Between Regulars and Other Forces. — No 
 distinction now exists in the matter of eligibility for court martial 
 duty among the various classes of officers in the military service 
 of the United States for the trial of any person subject to military 
 law. 
 
 Rank of Members. — (a) The order appointing a general or a 
 special court martial should name the members in order of rank, 
 and they will sit according to rank. 
 
 In no case shall an officer, when it can be avoided, be tried 
 by officers inferior to him in rank. This provision like that in 
 reference to the number of members of a general or special court 
 martial is not prohibitory but directory only upon the convening 
 authority. Its effect is to leave to the discretion of that officer, as 
 the conclusive authority and judge, the determination of the ques- 
 tion of the rank of the members, with only the general instruction 
 that superiors in rank to the accused shall be selected, so far as 
 the exigencies and interests of the service will permit. 
 
 (b) Rank among officers of the Regular Army, forces drafted 
 or called into the service of the United States, and Volunteers is 
 determined according to the rules laid down in the Articles of 
 War. 
 
 APPOINTMENT OF COURTS MARTIAL 
 
 General courts martial may be appointed by the following 
 authorities, viz: (a) The President of the United States, (h) The 
 commanding officer of a territorial division, (c) The commanding 
 officer of a territorial department, (d) The Superintendent of the 
 Military Academy, (e) The commanding officer of an army, 
 (f) The commanding officer of an army corps, (g) The command- 
 ing officer of a (tactical) division, (h) The commanding officer 
 of a separate brigade, (i) The commanding officer of any district 
 or of any force or body of troops, when empowered by the Presi- 
 dent to do so. 
 
 Exceptions. — (1) When any of the foregoing commanders is 
 the accuser or the prosecutor of the person or persons to be tri 
 
 Lried 
 
 (i A 
 
710 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 the court shall be appointed by superior competent authority; (2) 
 the Superintendent of the Military Academy is not empowered to 
 convene a general court martial for the trial of an officer. 
 
 Power of the President to Appoint. — In addition to the gen- 
 eral statutory authority conferred upon the President to appoint 
 general courts martial he is also empowered to do so by virtue 
 of being Commander in Chief of the Army and in the particular 
 case provided for by the Revised Statute 1230. 
 
 When any officer, dismissed by order of the President, 
 makes, in writing, an application for trial, setting forth, under 
 oath, that he has been wrongfully dismissed, the President shall, 
 as soon as the necessities of the service may permit, convene a 
 court martial to try such officer on the charges on which he shall 
 have been dismissed. And if a court martial is not so convened 
 within six months from the presentation of such application for 
 trial, or if such court, being convened, does not award dismissal 
 or death as the punishment of such officer, the order of dismissal 
 by the President shall be void. 
 
 Superintendent of the Military Academy. — The Superintend- 
 ent of the Military Academy is authorized to convene general 
 courts martial for the trial of cadets only; the act of March 2, 
 1913, extended this authority to include all persons (except offi- 
 cers) subject to military law under his command. This authority 
 was continued in the Code of 1916. 
 
 Whether the commander who convened the court is to be 
 regarded as the " accuser or prosecutor " where he has had to do 
 with the preparing and preferring of the charges, is mainly to be 
 determined by his animus in the matter. He may, like any other 
 officer, initiate an investigation of an officer's conduct and for- 
 mally prefer, as his individual act, charges against such officer; 
 or by reason of a personal interest adverse to the accused he 
 may adopt practically as his own charges initiated by another; 
 in which case he is clearly the accuser or prosecutor within the 
 article. On the other hand, it is his duty to determine, when the 
 facts are brought to his knowledge, whether an officer within his 
 command charged with a military offense shall in the interest of 
 discipline and for the good of the service be brought to trial. To 
 this end he may formally refer or revise or cause to be revised 
 and then formally referred, charges preferred against such officer 
 by another; or when the facts of an alleged offense are com- 
 municated to him, he may direct a suitable officer, as a member 
 of his staff, or the proper commander of the accused, to investigate 
 the matter, formulate and prefer such charges as the facts may 
 warrant, and having been submitted to him, he may revise and 
 refer them for trial as in other cases; all this he may do in the 
 proper performance of his official duty without becoming the ac- 
 
MILITARY JURISDICTION 711 
 
 cuser or prosecutor in the case. Of course he can not be deemed 
 such accuser or prosecutor where he causes charges to be pre- 
 ferred and proceeds to convene the court by direction of the Sec- 
 retary of War or a competent military superior. It is not essential 
 that the commander who convenes the court martial for the trial 
 of an officer should sign the charges to make the " accuser or 
 prosecutor," within the meaning of this article. Nor is the fact 
 that they have been signed by another conclusive on the question 
 whether the convening commander is the actual accuser or prose- 
 cutor. The objection that such commander is such, calls in ques- 
 tion the legal constitution of the court, and while such objection, 
 if known or believed to exist, should regularly be interposed at 
 or before the arraignment it may be taken during the trial at any 
 stage of the proceedings. If not admitted by the prosecution to 
 exist, the accused is entitled to prove it like any other issue. 
 
 Power to Appoint an Attribute of Command. — As the au- 
 thority to appoint general courts martial is an attribute of com- 
 mand, a commanding officer can not delegate to another officer 
 such as his adjutant or any other staff officer or subordinate the 
 authority to appoint a court, detail an additional member, or re- 
 lieve a member. If the authority to appoint a general court- 
 martial is vested by law in a commanding officer he retains that 
 authority, wherever he may be, so long as he continues to be such 
 commanding officer. In the absence of orders or legislation, per- 
 sonal presence within the territorial limits of his department is not 
 essential to the validity of commands given by a department com- 
 mander to be executed within the department. Therefore he may 
 appoint a court martial while absent from his department if he 
 continues to exercise command. But a department commander de- 
 tached and absent from his command for any considerable period 
 by reason of having received a leave of absence (whether of a 
 formal or informal character), or having been placed upon a dis- 
 tinct and separate duty, is held to be in a status incompatible with 
 a full and legal exercise of such authority and therefore incom- 
 petent during such absence to order a general court martial as 
 department commander, even though no other officer has been 
 assigned or has succeeded to the command of the department. 
 
 Rank of Appointing Authority. — The power of the various 
 commanders to appoint general courts martial is independent of 
 their rank, but no officer other than those enumerated can appoint 
 a general court martial no matter what his rank may be. An 
 officer who succeeds to any command or duty stands in regard to 
 his duties in the same situation as his predecessor. In the event 
 of the death or disability of the permanent commander of a terri- 
 torial department, or his temporary absence from the limits of 
 
 A 
 
712 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 his command, the senior line officer present and on duty therein 
 will exercise the command of the department, unless otherwise 
 ordered, until relieved by proper authority. 
 
 An officer who has power to appoint a court martial may 
 control its existence, dissolve it, and determine the cases to be re- 
 ferred to it for trial, but he can not control the exercise by the 
 court of powers vested in it by law. 
 
 SPECIAL COURTS MARTIAL 
 
 Special courts martial may be appointed by the following 
 authorities, viz: (a) The commanding officer of a district, (b) 
 The commanding officer of a garrison, (c) The commanding offi- 
 cer of a fort, (d) The commanding officer of a camp, (e) The 
 commanding officer of any place other than (a), (b), (c), and (d) 
 where troops are on duty, (f) The commanding officer of a 
 brigade, (g) The commanding officer of a regiment, (h) The 
 commanding officer of a detached battalion, (i) The commanding 
 officer of any other detached command. 
 
 Exception. — When any one of the foregoing commanding 
 officers is the accuser or the prosecutor of the person or persons 
 to be tried, the court shall be appointed by superior authority. 
 
 When any superior authority deems it desirable, he may 
 appoint a special court martial for any part of his command. 
 
 Commanding Officer as "Accuser or Prosecutor."-r-The 
 rules laid down for determining when a commander is the 
 accuser or prosecutor apply equally to trials by special courts 
 martial. When a superior appoints a court because of such dis- 
 qualification on the part of a subordinate commanding officer, he 
 will specify in the order the names of the person or persons to be 
 tried, and the court will adjourn sine die upon the completion of 
 the last case which it is ordered to try. 
 
 Rank of Appointing Authority. — As in the case of general 
 courts martial, the test of the power to appoint a special court 
 martial is whether the officer is one of the commanders designated 
 in the 9th Article of War. Such authority is an incidenjt of his 
 power to command, and is independent of his rank. 
 
 Commanding Officer as Member. — When but two officers in 
 addition to the commanding officer are available for detail on a 
 special court martial, the commanding officer will not detail him- 
 self as a member of such court. In such a case, if superior au- 
 thority desires to appoint a special court martial for such com- 
 mand, the commanding officer, if otherwise eligible, may be ap- 
 pointed as a member thereof. 
 
MILITARY JURISDICTION 713 
 
 SUMMARY COURTS MARTIAL 
 
 Summary courts martial may be appointed by the following 
 authorities, viz: (a) The commanding officer of a garrison, (b) 
 The commanding officer of a fort, (c) The commanding officer 
 of a camp, (d) The commanding officer of any other place not 
 enumerated in (a), (b), and (c) where troops are on duty, (e) 
 The commanding officer of a regiment, (f) The commanding offi- 
 cer of a detached battalion, (g) The commanding officer of a 
 detached company, (h) The commanding officer of any other de- 
 tachment not enumerated in (f) and (g). 
 
 A summary court martial may in any case be appointed by 
 superior authority when by the latter deemed desirable. 
 
 When More Than One Officer Present. — When more than 
 one officer is present the summary court martial will be appointed 
 from staff officers or available line officers junior to the com- 
 manding officer. The commanding officer will not in such cases 
 designate himself as the summary court martial. The senior offi- 
 cer on duty at a recruiting station is a " commanding officer " in 
 the sense of the last preceding sentence when there is another offi- 
 cer present at the same station, even though the latter may be 
 serving in an auxiliary or branch station. 
 
 When But One Officer Present. — When but one officer is 
 present with a command he shall be the summary court martial of 
 that command and shall hear and determine cases brought before 
 him. In such a case, no order appointing the court will be issued 
 but the officer will enter on the record that he is the " only officer 
 present with the command." 
 
 " Detachment " Defined. — A battalion or other unit is " de- 
 tached " when isolated or removed from the immediate disciplin- 
 ary control of a superior of the same branch of the service in 
 such a manner as to make its commander primarily the one to be 
 looked to by superior authority as the officer responsible for the 
 administration of the discipline of the enlisted men composing the 
 same. The term is used in a disciplinary sense, and is not neces- 
 sarily limited to what constitutes detachment in a physical or 
 tactical sense. The commanding officers of such units as field 
 signal battalions, aero squadrons, field bakeries, and ammunition, 
 engineer, or sanitary trains, if their respective commands are in- 
 dependent, except in so far as they constitute parts of a division, 
 and if their commanders are responsible directly to the division 
 commander for the maintenance of discipline in those commands, 
 are competent to appoint summary courts for the same, subject to 
 the power of the division commander to appoint summary courts 
 for all subordinate organizations and detachments under his com- 
 mand if by him deemed advisable. 
 
 A 
 
714 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 So likewise the various service schools, such as the Mounted 
 Service School at Fort Riley, though they may be located within 
 the immediate limits of higher commands, constitute " detach- 
 ments " within the meaning of the 10th Article of War, and the 
 commandants thereof have power to appoint summary courts 
 martial for the trial of enlisted men connected with such schools, 
 subject to the right of the commanding officer of the garrison or 
 fort to appoint such courts when by him deemed desirable. 
 
 Power of Brigade Commanders. — A brigade commander is 
 responsible for the instruction, tactical efficiency and prepared- 
 ness for war service of his brigade. If the brigade is serving at 
 one garrison or post he has, by virtue of his power as such garri- 
 son or post commander, authority to retain within himself the 
 appointing. power of all summary courts within his command, but 
 if he does not exercise the authority which is vested in him by 
 statute he allows the appointing power, including the power of re- 
 view, to pass to regimental (and detachment) commanders. If 
 the brigade is acting as a tactical unit in the field, he may as 
 superior authority, appoint summary courts martial for his com- 
 mand whenever he deems it desirable, but such authority will 
 ordinarily be exercised by the regimental commanders. 
 
 For each general or special court martial the authority ap- 
 pointing the court shall appoint a judge advocate, and for each 
 general court martial one or more assistant judge advocates when 
 necessary. 
 
 JURISDICTION IN GENERAL 
 
 The jurisdiction of a court martial is its power to try and 
 determine cases legally referred to it and, in case of a finding of 
 guilty, to award a punishment for the offense within its prescribed 
 limits. Being courts of special and limited jurisidiction their or- 
 ganization, powers, and mode of procedure must conform to all the 
 statutory provisions relating to their jurisdiction. 
 
 Courts Martial Not Part of Federal Judicial System. — While 
 courts martial have no part of the jurisdiction set apart under the 
 article of the Constitution which relates to the judicial power of 
 the United States they have an equally certain constitutional 
 source. They are established under the constitutional power of 
 Congress to make rules for the government and regulation of the 
 land forces of the United States, and are recognized in the provi- 
 sions of the fifth amendment expressly exempting " cases arising 
 in the land and naval forces" from the requirement as to present- 
 ment and indictment by grand jury. They are tribunals appointed 
 by military orders issued under authority of law. The power to 
 appoint them, as well as the power to act upon their proceedings, is 
 
MILITARY JURISDICTION 715 
 
 vested by law in certain commanding officers. Their jurisdiction 
 is entirely criminal. They have no power to adjudge damage for 
 personal injuries or private wrongs, nor to collect private debts. 
 Their judgments upon subjects within their limited jurisdiction, 
 when duly approved or confirmed, are as legal and valid as those of 
 any other tribunals. No appeal can be taken from them, nor can 
 they be set aside, or reviewed by the courts of the United States, 
 nor of any State, but United States courts may, on writ of habeas 
 corpus, inquire into the legality of detention of a person held by 
 military authority, at any time, either before or during trial or 
 while serving sentence, and will order him discharged if it appears 
 to the satisfaction of the court that any of the statutory require- 
 ments conferring jurisdiction have not been fulfilled. Their sen- 
 tences have in themselves no legal effect until they have received 
 the approval or confirmation of the proper commanding officer 
 With such approval or confirmation, however, their sentences be- 
 come operative and are as effective as the sentences of civil courts 
 having criminal jurisdiction, and are entitled to the same legal 
 consideration. 
 
 ARREST AND CONFINEMENT 
 
 An officer charged with crime or with a serious offense under 
 the Articles of War shall be placed in arrest by the commanding 
 officer, and in exceptional cases an officer so charged may be 
 placed in confinement by the same authority. 
 
 A soldier charged with crime or with a serious offense under 
 the Articles of War shall be placed in confinement, and when 
 charged with a minor offense he may be placed in arrest. 
 
 Any other person subject to military law charged with crime 
 or with a serious offense under the Articles of War shall be placed 
 in confinement or in arrest, as circumstances may require; and 
 when charged with a minor offense such person may be placed in 
 arrest. Any person placed in arrest shall thereby be restricted to 
 his barracks, quarters, or tent, unless such limits shall be enlarged 
 by proper authority. Any officer who breaks his arrest or who 
 escapes from confinement before he is set at liberty by proper 
 authority shall be dismissed from the service or suffer such other 
 punishment as a court martial may direct; and any other person 
 subject to military law who escapes from confinement or who 
 breaks his arrest before he is set at liberty by proper authority 
 shall be punished as a court martial may direct. 
 
 A failure to place a person subject to military law in arrest 
 or confinement or the disregard of any custom or formality con- 
 nected therewith does not affect the jurisdiction of a court. 
 
716 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Who May Order Arrests. — (a) Only commanding officers 
 have power to place officers in arrest, except as provided in the 
 68th Article of War. 
 
 (b) A judge advocate of a court martial has no authority to 
 place in arrest an officer or soldier about to be tried by the court,- 
 or to compel the attendance of the accused before the court by 
 requiring a non-commissioned officer to bring him, or otherwise. 
 These are duties which devolve upon the convening authority, or 
 upon the post commander or other proper officer in whose custody 
 or command the accused is at the time. 
 
 (c) A court martial has no control over the nature of the 
 arrest or other status of restraint of a prisoner except as regards 
 his personal freedom in its presence. It cannot place an accused 
 person in arrest or confinement nor can the court, even with a view 
 to facilitate his defense, interfere to cause a close arrest to be en- 
 larged. The officer in command is alone responsible for the 
 prisoners in his charge. 
 
 PREPARATION OF CHARGES 
 
 A charge corresponds to a civil indictment. It consists of 
 two parts — the technical " charge," which should designate the al- 
 leged crime or offense as a violation of a particular Article of War 
 or other statute, and the " specification," which sets forth the facts 
 constituting the same. The requisite of a charge is that it sha 
 he laid under the proper Article of War or other statute; of a spe 
 iication, that it shall set forth in simple and concise language facts 
 sufficient to constitute the particular offense and in such manner as 
 to enable a person of common understanding to know what is in- 
 tended. The general term " charges," in the sense that the word 
 " charge " is used in the first sentence of this paragraph, includes 
 any number of technical charges and their specifications. 
 
 Who May Initiate Charges. — Military charges, though com- 
 monly originating with military persons, may also be initiated by 
 civilians. Indeed, it is but performing a public duty for a civilian 
 who becomes cognizant of a serious offense committed by an of- 
 ficer or a soldier to bring it to the attention of the proper com- 
 mander. A charge may likewise originate with an enlisted man. 
 But by the usage of the service all military charges should be 
 formally preferred by — that is, authenticated by the signature of — 
 a commissioned officer. Charges proceeding from a person out- 
 side the Army and based upon testimony not in the possession or 
 kpowledge of the military authorities, should, in general, be re- 
 quired to be sustained by affidavits or other reliable evidence, as a 
 condition to their being adopted. 
 
MILITARY JURISDICTION 717 
 
 Who May Prefer Charges. — Any officer may prefer charges. 
 An officer is not disqualified from preferring charges by the fact 
 that he is himself under charges or in arrest. 
 
 Signing Charges. — The officer preferring charges will sign 
 his name following the last specification, adding his rank and or- 
 ganization in the Army. 
 
 The signing of charges, like orders, with the name of an 
 officer, adding "by order of" his commander, is unusual and not 
 'to be recommended. The signature of the officer preferring charges 
 forms no part of the charges themselves, but such signature will 
 nevertheless be copied into the record of trial by a general or 
 special court martial, in order that it may affirmatively appear 
 whether the officer preferring the charges (who is prima facie the 
 accuser) sat as a member of the court. 
 
 ACTION UPON CHARGES 
 
 All charges for trial by court martial will be prepared in 
 triplicate, using the prescribed charge sheet as a first sheet and 
 using such additional sheets of ordinary paper as are required. 
 They will be accompanied — 
 
 (a) Except when trial is to be had by summary court, by a 
 brief statement of the substance of all material testimony ex- 
 pected from each material witness, both those for the prosecution 
 1 nd those for the defense, together with all available and necessary 
 c formation as to any other actual or probable testimony or evi- 
 dence in the case; and 
 
 (b) In the case of a soldier, by properly authenticated evi- 
 dence of convictions, if any, of an offense or offenses committed 
 by him during his current enlistment and within one year next 
 preceding the date of the alleged commission by him of any of- 
 fenses set forth in the charges. 
 
 They will be forwarded by the officer preferring them to the 
 officer immediately exercising summary court martial jurisdiction 
 over the command to which the accused belongs, and will by him 
 and by each superior commander into whose hands they may come 
 either be referred to a court martial within his jurisdiction for 
 trial, forwarded to the next superior authority exercising court 
 martial jurisdiction over the command to which the accused be- 
 longs or pertains, or otherwise disposed of as circumstances may 
 appear to require. . 
 
 Investigation of Charges.— If the officer immediately ex- 
 ercising summary court martial jurisdiction over the command to 
 which the accused belongs or pertains decides to forward the 
 charges to superior authority he will, before so Joirg, either care- 
 
718 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 fully investigate them himself or will cause an officer other than 
 the officer preferring the charges to investigate them carefully 
 and to report to him, orally or otherwise, the result of such in- 
 vestigation. The officer investigating the charges will afford to 
 the accused an opportunity to make any statement, offer any evi- 
 dence, or present any matter in extenuation that he may desire to 
 have considered in connection with the accusation against him. 
 If the accused desires to submit nothing, the indorsement will so 
 state. In his indorsement forwarding the charges to superior 
 authority the commanding officer will include: 
 
 (a) The name of the officer who investigated the charges; 
 (b) the opinion of both such officer and himself as to whether 
 the several charges can be sustained; (c) the substance of such 
 material statement, if any, as the accused may have voluntarily 
 made in connection with the case during the investigation thereof; 
 (d) a summary of the extenuating circumstances, if any, connected 
 with the case; (e) his recommendation of action to be taken. 
 
 Prompt Action Required. — No person put in arrest shall be 
 continued in confinement more than eight days, or until such time 
 as a court martial can be assembled. When any person is put in 
 arrest for the purpose of trial, except at remote military posts or 
 stations, the officer by whose order he is arrested shall see that 
 a copy of the charges on which he is to be tried is served upon 
 him within eight days after his arrest, and that he is brought to 
 trial within ten days thereafter; unless the necessities of the service 
 prevent such trial; and then he shall be brought to trial within 
 thirty days after the expiration of said, ten days. If a copy of the 
 charges be not served, or the arrested person be not brought to 
 trial, as herein required, the arrest shall cease. But persons re- 
 leased from arrest, Under the provisions of the 70th Article of War, 
 may be tried whenever the exigencies of the service shall permit, 
 within twelve months after such release from arrest. 
 
 COURT MARTIAL ORGANIZATION 
 
 The authority appointing a general or special court martial 
 designates the place for holding the court, hour of meeting, the 
 members of the court, and the judge advocate. A general or 
 special court martial assembles at its first session in accordance 
 with the order convening it; thereafter, according to adjournment. 
 Courts will be assembled at posts or stations where trial will be 
 attended with the least expense. A member stationed at the place 
 where the court sits is liable to duty with his command during ad- 
 journment from day to day. Subject to any instructions that may 
 be given by the authority that appoints the court, the court will 
 determine the hours of holding its sessions. 
 
MILITARY JURISDICTION 
 
 719 
 
 Uniform. — For regulations regarding uniform to be worn by- 
 members of courts martial, the judge advocate, the accused, and 
 witnesses see Regulations for the Uniform of the United States 
 Army. In any case of doubt (as where the court consists of mem- 
 bers but recently mustered into service), the president of the court 
 will designate the uniform in the notice sent to members notifying 
 them of the place and hour of meeting of the first session. 
 
 Q raniDCNt 
 
 
 
 I, 
 
 t 
 
 
 
 MtMQCRNO.1 O 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 O MEMBER NO.r 
 
 MEMBER N0.3 O 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 O MEMBER No.4 
 
 MEMBER NO* O 
 
 □ 
 
 D 
 
 O MEMBER NO.B 
 
 MEMBER N6.7 O 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 O MEMBER NOB 
 
 MEMBER MO.ft O 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 O MEMBER NO.* 
 
 AMUSED O 
 
 
 
 o. 
 
 *Y*BEi O 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 JUOOC ADVOCATV 
 
 O 
 
 INTERPOL I IR 
 
 Seating of Court. — When the court is ready to proceed it is 
 called to order by the president. Members will be seated accord- 
 ing to rank, alternately to the right and left of the president. The 
 judge advocate, the accused, and his counsel are seated so as to be 
 most easily seen and heard by all the members of the court. The 
 reporter should be seated near the judge advocate. 
 
 Roll Call. — At the beginning of each session the judge advo- 
 cate verifies the presence or absence of the members of the court 
 46 
 
720 MILITARY TRAINING' 
 
 by calling each officer's name or by informally noting his presence 
 or absence. This verification is noted in the record. When the 
 accused and his counsel appear before the court for the first time 
 the judge advocate will announce their names to the court. 
 
 Absence of Member. — A member of a court martial who 
 knows, or has reason to believe, that he will, for a proper reason, 
 be absent from a session of the court, will inform the judge advo- 
 cate accordingly. When a member of a court martial is absent 
 from a session thereof, the judge advocate will cause that fact, 
 together with the reason for such absence if known to him, to be 
 shown in the record of proceedings. If the reason for such 
 absence is not known to the judge advocate, he will cause the 
 record to show the member as absent, cause unknown. 
 
 Duties of the President. — A president of the court will not 
 be announced. The officer senior in rank present will act as such. 
 The president does not by virtue of being such exercise command 
 of any kind. He is in no sense the commanding officer of the 
 court, and can not by virtue of being president give an order to a 
 member. As the organ of the court he gives the directions neces- 
 sary to the regular and proper conduct of the proceedings; but a 
 failure to comply with a direction given by him, while it may con- 
 stitute a neglect to the prejudice of good order and military dis- 
 cipline, can not properly be charged as a violation of the 64th 
 Article of War. Neither the court nor the president is authorized 
 to place the judge advocate in arrest. Only the proper command- 
 ing officer can impose an arrest. It is the duty of the command- 
 ing officer to secure the attendance of the accused before the court. 
 The president is the presiding officer of the court, and as such is 
 the organ of the court to maintain order and conduct its business. 
 In addition, he has the duties and privileges of other members. He 
 has an equal vote with other members in deciding all questions, 
 including challenges, findings, sentence, acquittal, and adjourn- 
 ments. He speaks and acts for the court in every instance where a 
 rule of action has been prescribed by law, regulations, or its own 
 resolution, and has no authority to open or close the court or make 
 a ruling upon the admissibility of evidence, the competency of wit- 
 nesses, or method of procedure without the acquiescence of the 
 court or by custom of the service. He administers the oath to the 
 judge advocate and authenticates by his signature all acts, orders, 
 and proceedings of the court requiring it. It is his duty to take the 
 proper steps to insure prompt trial and disposition of all charges 
 referred for trial and to keep the court advised thereof. 
 
 Voting. — Members of a general or special court martial, in 
 giving their votes, shall begin with the junior in rank. In all de- 
 liberations, including those on challenges, findings, sentence, ac- 
 quittal, and adjournments, the law secures the absolute equality 
 
 . 
 
MILITARY JURISDICTION 721 
 
 of the members, the president having no greater rights in such 
 matters than any other member. A tie vote on the findings is a 
 vote of "not guilty"; a tie vote on a proposed sentence or on a 
 challenge or any objection or motion is a vote in the negative. 
 The sentence is not adopted and the challenge, objection, or mo- 
 tion is not sustained. When the offense charged includes a minor 
 offense, voting shall first be had upon the major offense. 
 
 All convictions and sentences (other than those involving 
 death), whether by general or special court martial, may be de- 
 termined by a majority of the members present. Refusal to vote 
 on any question arising during the proceedings constitutes a neglect 
 to the prejudice of good order and military discipline. 
 
 Closed Sessions. — Members take an oath not to disclose or 
 discover the vote or opinion of any particular member of the court 
 martial. In order to avoid disclosing or discovering such vote or 
 opinion the court is closed while voting upon any question. When 
 the court is closed all persons (including the judge advocate) with- 
 draw. In important cases, where delay would ensue due to the 
 number of spectators present, the court itself may withdraw to an- 
 other room prepared for the purpose for deliberating in closed 
 session. It is not necessary, however, for the court to go into 
 closed session in every case requiring action, where such action 
 would be unanimous and business can properly be transacted with- 
 out disclosing the vote or opinion of any member. Thus, on a 
 request by the judge advocate or the accused for a short recess, 
 it is proper for the president to announce "without objection, the 
 request will be granted," or words to that effect. Similarly, if 
 the accused objects to a member because he preferred the charges 
 and is the accuser and the member admits the fact, he may be 
 excused without going into closed session. If any member believes 
 the matter should be passed upon in closed session, it is proper for 
 him to move that the court be closed, whereupon the president will 
 announce that the court be cleared. 
 
 Sitting with Closed Doors. — A court martial is authorized, 
 in its discretion, to sit with doors closed to the public. Except, 
 however, when temporarily closed for deliberation, courts martial 
 in this country are almost invariably open to the public during a 
 trial. But in a particular case where the offenses charged were of 
 a scandalous nature, it was recommended that the court be directed 
 to sit with doors closed to the public. 
 
 Change in Membership.— Although it is undesirable to 
 change the membership of a court during a trial it is within the 
 discretion of the appointing officer in a proper case to relieve 
 members or appoint new members. The promotion of a member 
 during the trial of a case does not affect his competency as a 
 member. He should sit according to his changed rank. The rule 
 
722 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 is that no member who has been absent during the taking of evi- 
 dence shall thereafter take part in the trial; but the non-observance 
 of this rule shall not be construed as invalidating the proceedings 
 of courts martial if no objection is made, and the court permits the 
 member to sit. The rule, however, should be complied with when 
 practicable. Especially should a member who has been absent dur- 
 ing an important part of the proceedings not be permitted to re- 
 sume his seat. Where a member who has been absent is per- 
 mitted to resume his seat, or a new member is added after the 
 trial of the case has begun, all proceedings and evidence during his 
 absence should be read over to him in open court before the case 
 proceeds further and the record should show this fact; but in pro- 
 ceedings in revision the presence of any member who did not vote 
 on the findings and sentence will invalidate the proceedings in 
 revision. 
 
 THE JUDGE ADVOCATE 
 
 The prompt, speedy, and thorough trial of a court martial 
 case is principally dependent upon the judge advocate. He will, 
 accordingly, be carefully selected. Where it can be avoided, no 
 officer will be detailed as judge advocate of a general court martial 
 until he has had experience as a member or as an assistant judge 
 advocate of a court. 
 
 General Duties. — The judge advocate of a general or special 
 court martial shall prosecute in the name of the United States, and 
 shall, under the direction of the court, prepare the record of its 
 proceedings. Before the court assembles the judge advocate will 
 obtain a suitable room for the court, see that it is in order, procure 
 the requisite stationery, summon necessary witnesses, make a pre- 
 liminary examination of the latter, and, as far as possible, systema- 
 tize his plans for conducting the case. During the trial he exe- 
 cutes all orders of the court; reads the appointing order and any 
 modifying orders to the accused; swears the members of the court, 
 the reporter, interpreter, and all witnesses; arraigns the accused; 
 examines witnesses; keeps or superintends, under the direction of 
 the court, the keeping of a complete and accurate record of the 
 proceedings; and affixes his signature to each day's proceedings. 
 Whenever the court adjourns to meet at the call of the presi- 
 dent, the judge advocate will notify the members of the time 
 designated by the president for reassembling. In conjunction 
 with the president of the court, he authenticates the record by 
 his signature and, at the end of the trial, transmits the same to the 
 reviewing authority. In case the record can not be authenticated 
 by the judge advocate by reason of his death, disability, or absence, 
 it shall be signed by the president and an assistant judge advocate, 
 
MILITARY JURISDICTION 723 
 
 if any; and if there be no assistant judge advocate, or in case of his 
 death, disability, or absence, then by the president and one other 
 member of the court. 
 
 ASSISTANT JUDGE ADVOCATE 
 
 The authority appointing a general court martial shall ap- 
 point one or more assistant judge advocates when necessary. An 
 assistant judge advocate of a general court martial shall be com- 
 petent to perform any duty devolved by law, regulation, or the 
 custom of the service upon the judge advocate of the court. 
 
 Duties. — An assistant judge advocate will perform such du- 
 ties in connection with the trial as the judge advocate may desig- 
 nate. Ordinarily he will be expected to relieve the judge advo- 
 cate of minor details, such as arranging for a place of meeting of 
 the court, stationery, and messenger service, stenographers and 
 interpreters, subpoenaing witnesses, and notifying the court of 
 the place and hour of meeting. During trial he will be expected to 
 see that witnesses are on hand when needed, that all details of 
 procedure are observed and the record accurately kept. He may 
 also be intrusted by the judge advocate with the investigation 
 before trial and proof during trial of any special phase of the 
 charges, or he may, where the judge advocate is otherwise en- 
 gaged, take charge of the complete trial of a case. While the 
 judge advocate and assistant judge advocate will ordinarily be 
 present during trial, if their duties require the presence of either 
 of them elsewhere, he may be excused by the court; but the fact 
 of his withdrawal or absence, the reason therefor, and his return 
 to the court will be noted in the record. 
 
 COUNSEL 
 
 The accused shall have the right to be represented before 
 a general or special court martial by counsel of his own selection, 
 for his defense, if such counsel be reasonably available. Civilian 
 counsel will not be provided at the expense of the Government. 
 Should the accused request the appointment as his counsel of an 
 officer stationed at the station where the court sits, and such 
 officer be not a member of the court, the commanding officer will 
 appoint such officer as counsel if he is reasonably available. Should 
 the commanding officer decide that the officer desired by the ac- 
 cused is not reasonably available, the accused may appeal to the 
 officer appointing the court, whose decision shall be final. If the 
 counsel desired by the accused is not under the control of the 
 
724 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 commanding officer where the trial is held, application for counsel 
 will be submitted by the accused in writing to the appointing au- 
 thority, whose decision as to whether the officer desired is 
 " reasonably available " is final. Officers of the Judge Advocate 
 General's Department are not available for appointment as coun- 
 sel for the defense in trials by courts martial. 
 
 Duty of Officer as Counsel. — An officer acting as counsel be- 
 fore a general or special court martial should perform such duties 
 as usually devolve upon the counsel for a defendant before civil 
 courts in criminal cases. He should guard the interests of the ac- 
 cused by all honorable and legitimate means known to the law, 
 but should not obstruct the proceedings with frivolous and mani- 
 festly useless objections or discussions. 
 
 INTERPRETER 
 
 Under such regulations as the Secretary of War may from 
 time to time prescribe, the president of a court martial or military 
 commission, or court of inquiry, or a summary court, may ap- 
 point an interpreter, who shall interpret for the court or commis- 
 sion. Interpreters may be employed whenever necessary with- 
 out application to the appointing authority. They will be allowed 
 the pay and allowances of civilian witnesses, which will be paid 
 by the Quartermaster Corps on vouchers certified by the judge 
 advocate or recorder. 
 
 CHALLENGES 
 
 The composition of the court martial having been made 
 known to the accused by the reading of the appointing order, to- 
 gether with any orders which have operated to modify the 
 composition of the court as originally constituted, he is asked by 
 the judge advocate whether he objects to being tried by any mem- 
 ber present named in the order and modifying orders. If his 
 reply be in the negative, the court and judge advocate are sworn; 
 if, on the other hand, the accused has objection to a member, he 
 exercises his right in this respect by challenging, in turn, each 
 member to whom he objects. Members of a general or special 
 court martial may be challenged by the accused, but only for 
 cause stated to the court. The court shall determine the rele- 
 vancy and validity thereof, and shall not receive a challenge to 
 more than one member at a time. Neither a summary court offi- 
 cer nor the judge advocate of a general or special court martial is 
 subject to challenge. 
 
MILITARY JURISDICTION 725 
 
 The various classes of challenges recognized at common law 
 have been practically reduced in courts martial practice to two, 
 viz., (1) principal challenges, or those where the member must be 
 excused upon proof of the ground for challenges as alleged; (2) 
 for favor, where the court must decide whether the facts proved 
 constitute cause to excuse the member. 
 
 OATHS 
 
 The challenges having been disposed of, the judge advo- 
 cate of a general or special court martial shall administer to the 
 members of the court, before they proceed upon any trial, the fol- 
 lowing oath or affirmation: 
 
 You, A. B., do swear (or affirm) that you will well and truly 
 try and determine, according to the evidence, the matter now be- 
 fore you, between the United States of America and the person to 
 be tried, and that you will duly administer justice, without par- 
 tiality, favor, or affection, according to the provisions of the rules 
 and articles for the government of the Armies of the United 
 States, and if any doubt should arise, not explained by said articles, 
 then according to your conscience, the best of your understanding, 
 and the custom of war in like cases; and you do further swear (or 
 affirm) that you will not divulge the findings or sentence of the 
 court until they shall be published by the proper authority, except 
 to the judge advocate and assistant judge advocate; neither will 
 you disclose or discover the vote or opinion of any particular mem- 
 ber of the court martial, unless required to give evidence thereof 
 as a witness by a court of justice in due course of law. So help you 
 God. 
 
 In case of affirmation the closing sentence of adjuration will 
 be omitted. 
 
 When more than one case is tried by the same court, the 
 oath must be administered anew for each case. 
 
 The oaths or affirmations prescribed in the 19th Article of 
 War for the members, the judge advocate, a witness, and others 
 will always be administered, but in addition there may be such 
 additional ceremony or acts as will make the oath or affirmation 
 binding on the conscience of the person taking it. 
 
 Oath of Judge Advocate. — When the oath or affirmation has 
 been administered to the members of a general or special court 
 martial, the president of the court shall administer to the judge 
 advocate and to each assistant judge advocate, if any, the oath or 
 affirmation in the following form: 
 
 You, A. B., do swear (or affirm) that you will not divulge the 
 findings or sentence of the court to any but the proper authority 
 until they shall be duly disclosed by the same. So help you God. 
 
726 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Oath of Witness. — All persons who give evidence before a 
 court martial shall be examined on oath or affirmation in the fol- 
 lowing form, administered by the judge advocate: 
 
 You swear (or affirm) that the evidence you shall give in 
 the case now in hearing shall be the truth, the whole truth, and 
 nothing but the truth. So help you God. 
 
 If either the judge advocate or assistant judge advocate is 
 to testify, the oath or affirmation will be administered by the other 
 or by the president. 
 
 Oath of Reporter. — Every reporter of the proceedings of a 
 court martial shall, before entering upon his duties, make oath or 
 affirmation in the following form, administered by the judge ad- 
 vocate: 
 
 You swear (or affirm) that you will faithfully perform the 
 duties of reporter to this court. So help you God. 
 
 Oath of Interpreter. — Every interpreter in the trial of any 
 case before a court martial shall, before entering upon his duties, 
 make oath or affirmation in the following form, administered by 
 the judge advocate: 
 
 You swear (or affirm) that you will truly interpret in the 
 case now in hearing. So help you God. 
 
 Oath to Test Competency. — When a member of a general or 
 special court martial is challenged and it is desired to question him 
 regarding his eligibility to sit as a member in the trial of a case, 
 the judge advocate will administer to him the following oath: 
 
 You swear that you will true answers make to questions 
 touching your competency as a member of the court in this case. 
 So help you God. 
 
 ARRAIGNMENT 
 
 On the swearing in of the members and the judge advocate, 
 the organization of the court is complete for the trial of the 
 charges in the case then before the court. In each case tried by 
 the court the appointing order must be read anew, a new oppor- 
 tunity to challenge must be given, and the members, judge advo- 
 cate, reporter, and interpreter must be sworn anew. In each case 
 the proceedings must be complete without reference to any other 
 case. 
 
 Procedure. — The court being organized, and both parties 
 ready to proceed, the judge advocate will read the charges and 
 specifications, separately and in order, to the accused and ask him 
 how he pleads to each. The order pursued, in case of several 
 charges or specifications, will be to arraign on the first, second, 
 etc., specifications to the first charge, then on the first charge, 
 and so on with the rest. The reading of the charges and specifi- 
 
MILITARY JURISDICTION 727 
 
 cations and the pleas of the accused in answer thereto constitute 
 the arraignment of the accused. In reading the charges the judge 
 advocate will also read the name and rank of the officer pre- 
 ferring them. 
 
 PLEAS 
 
 In court martial procedure the usual pleas are the follow- 
 ing: (a) Pleas to the jurisdiction; (b) pleas in abatement; (c) 
 pleas in bar of trial; and (d) please to the general issue. The 
 first three mentioned are also known as special pleas. These 
 pleas should be made in the order named. 
 
 ATTENDANCE OF WITNESSES 
 
 Every judge advocate of a general or special court martial, 
 and every summary court martial shall have power to issue the 
 like process to compel witnesses to appear and testify which courts 
 of the United States, having criminal jurisidiction, may lawfully 
 issue; but such process shall run to any part of the United States, 
 its Territories, and possessions. The authority to issue such process 
 is in terms vested solely in the judge advocate of a general or special 
 court martial and in a summary court martial, and it is by them 
 alone that the process can be initiated. The judge advocate, how- 
 ever, will sometimes property consult the court as to the desira- 
 bility of resorting to an attachment; especially where any consider- 
 able time may be required for the service and return of the same, 
 and an unusual adjournment may thus be necessitated. He will 
 also properly resort to it whenever the court in its desire to secure 
 the best or material evidence not otherwise procurable calls upon 
 him for the purpose. 
 
 CIRCUMSTANTIAL EVIDENCE 
 
 Circumstantial evidence is not resorted to because there is 
 an absence of direct or testimonial evidence. It is introduced even 
 when there is direct evidence; nor is it an inferior substitute for 
 direct evidence. Circumstantial evidence may furnish a safe and 
 satisfactory ground for belief, while on the other hand direct or 
 testimonial evidence may leave the court in doubt. The proper 
 effect of circumstantial as compared with direct evidence has been 
 stated as follows: 
 
 When circumstances connect themselves closely with each 
 other, when they form a large and strong body so as to carry con- 
 
728 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 viction to the minds of a jury, it may be proof of a more satis- 
 factory sort than that which is direct. In some lamentable in- 
 stances it has been known that a short story has been got by heart 
 by two or three witnesses; they have been consistent with them- 
 selves, they have been consistent with each other, swearing posi- 
 tively to a fact, which fact has turned out afterwards not to be 
 true. It is almost impossible for a variety of witnesses, speaking 
 to a variety of circumstances, so to concoct a story as to impose 
 upon a jury by a fabrication of that sort, so that where it is cogent, 
 strong, and powerful, where the witnesses do not contradict each 
 other or do not contradict themselves, it may be evidence more 
 satisfactory than even direct evidence, and there are more instances 
 than one where that has been the case. In a case depending upon 
 circumstantial evidence the court, in order to convict, must find 
 the circumstances to be satisfactorily proved as facts, and must 
 also find that those facts clearly and unequivocally imply the guilt 
 of the accused and can not reasonably be reconciled with any 
 hypothesis of his innocence. 
 
 TESTIMONIAL EVIDENCE 
 
 Testimonial evidence is the statement of some person offered 
 as evidencing the fact asserted by it. For example, a statement 
 that a rifle was discharged at a certain hour and place is testi- 
 monial evidence that it was so discharged. 
 
 Such statements may be made either in court or out of court. 
 If made in court as a witness, then the witness must be " com- 
 petent." If made out of court, then even if he is competent, the 
 statement is not admissible, because the hearsay rule forbids. 
 
 The competency of the witness is therefore the important 
 thing to determine before admitting testimonial evidence. 
 
 Competency Rule in General. — The modern tendency, as evi- 
 denced to a great extent by statutes of different States, and to a 
 limited extent by Federal statutes, is to recognize practically no 
 grounds for incompetency, but to admit the material and relevant 
 testimony of a witness offered by either side and leave his credit to 
 be estimated according to all the circumstances. 
 
 PRESUMPTIONS 
 
 Presumptions constitute a large part of the law of evidence. 
 They are of two kinds — presumptions of law and presumptions of 
 fact. 
 
 Broadly speaking, a presumption of law is a rule of law that 
 when certain circumstances exist the court must presume certain 
 
MILITARY JURISDICTION 729 
 
 other circumstances. Presumptions of law are divided into conclu- 
 sive and disputable presumptions. In case of a conclusive presump- 
 tion of law the presumption can not be contradicted. For example, 
 all residents of a country are conclusively presumed to know its 
 laws. This presumption is in force in the practice of courts martial 
 so far as concerns offenses that constitute civil crimes. In case of a 
 disputable presumption of law, the presumption can be contra- 
 dicted. For example, it is presumed that a sane person intends the 
 natural and probable consequences of his acts; a person is pre- 
 sumed to be innocent until proven guilty; all persons are presumed 
 to be sane; persons acting as public officers are presumed to be 
 legally in office and to properly perform their duties; and malice is 
 presumed from the use of a deadly weapon. Evidence may be in- 
 troduced to rebut such presumptions. 
 
 Presumptions of fact are nothing more than logical in- 
 ferences, from facts already proved, as to the existence of other 
 facts. This kind of a presumption is not made as a rule of law 
 but as a matter of human reason. All evidence in a case, except 
 that which directly proves the allegations in the specifications, 
 leads at once to presumptions of fact. Such presumptions are the 
 basis of all circumstantial evidence. It is in making such pre- 
 sumptions that the members of the court should especially exercise 
 their common sense and their knowledge of human nature and the 
 ways of the world. Facts in evidence showing a motive or absence 
 of motive on the part of the accused, preparations or the absence 
 of preparations for the commission of crime, a failure to account 
 for suspicious circumstances, acts showing a criminal conscious- 
 ness (as concealment, disguise, or flight), the suppression of evi- 
 dence, the possession of weapons or instruments that might have 
 been used in the commission of the offense, the possession soon 
 after larceny or embezzlement of the articles stolen or embezzled, 
 are a proper basis for presumptions of fact. 
 
 JUDICIAL NOTICE 
 
 Courts will recognize the existence and truth of certain mat- 
 ters bearing upon the issue before them of their own motion and 
 without requiring the production of evidence. Such acceptance is 
 known as " taking judicial notice " of them. This is done as to 
 all matters of law and all facts which are so notorious as to need 
 no evidence. To the former class belong the laws which the court 
 applies in the decision of the cases before it, including the Con- 
 stitution, laws, and treaties of the United States, those of the State 
 in which it sits, the common law, and the law of nations. They 
 also take notice of the great seal of the United States, those of the 
 
730 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 several States, the seal of courts of record, notaries public, etc. 
 Under the latter head they will take judicial notice of the ordinary- 
 divisions of time, of calendar and lunar months, of weeks and days, 
 and of the hours of the day; of astronomical and physical facts; of 
 the laws of nature, including their ordinary operations and conse- 
 quences; of the Government of the United States and those of the 
 several States and their heads; of war and peace; and of the great 
 facts of ^history as recorded in the works of writers of standard 
 authority. So in addition all courts martial will take judicial 
 notice of the organization of the Army, the statutes relating to the 
 Army, the Army 'Regulations, the contents of the several manuals 
 issued, the existence and situation of military departments, reserva- 
 tions, and posts, and the stations of troops as published to the 
 Army, the fact that an officer belongs to a certain organization, 
 etc. General and special orders, general court martial orders, and 
 bulletins of the War Department and headquarters of the several 
 military departments may ordinarily be proved by printed official 
 copies in the usual form. A court martial will in general properly 
 take judicial notice of the printed order as genuine and correct. A 
 court martial, however, should not in general accept in evidence, 
 if objected to, a printed or written order which has not been made 
 public to the Army without some proof of its genuineness and 
 official character. Special and summary courts will take judicial 
 notice of the published orders of the regimental and post com- 
 mander. Where the price of an article furnished by the Govern- 
 ment is published to the Army in orders, bulletins, or price lists, 
 it will not be necessary to prove the price, as the court will take 
 judicial notice of it. It is proper, although not necessary, for the 
 judge advocate to state to the court that the price as set out in 
 the charges is the same as that fixed by the order, bulletin, of price 
 list. If the court is uncertain as to the fact which it is called upon 
 to notice judicially, it may refer to any person or to any document 
 or book of reference to satisfy itself with regard thereto, or it may 
 refuse to take judicial notice of the fact unless and until the party 
 calling upon jt to do so shall produce such document or book of 
 reference. 
 
 FINDINGS 
 
 After the statements and arguments, if any are made, have 
 been concluded the court will proceed to its judgment which con- 
 sists of the findings and sentence. Members of a general or spe- 
 cial court martial, in giving their votes, shall begin with the 
 junior in rank. The votes of the members must be based upon 
 and governed by the testimony in the case considered in connec- 
 
MILITARY JURISDICTION 731 
 
 tion with the plea. The charges and specifications are voted upon 
 in the same order that is followed in arraigning the accused, the 
 fir.st specification to the first charge being voted upon, then the 
 second, third, and thereafter in order, followed by a vote upon the 
 charge itself; and so on with the other charges. A tie vote on a 
 finding is a finding of not guilty. 
 
 All convictions whether by general or special court martial 
 may be determined by a majority of the members present, except 
 that no person shall by general court martial be convicted of an 
 offense for which the death penalty is made mandatory by law, 
 unless by the concurrence of two-thirds of the members of said 
 court martial and for an offense in the Articles of War expressly 
 made punishable by death. 
 
 Where issues arise during the progress of a trial, as for 
 instance as to the competency of members or witnesses, and evi- 
 dence is taken, the question at issue is determined by preponder- 
 ance of evidence; but in order to convict of the charges and 
 specifications or any part of them the court must be satisfied of the 
 guilt of the accused beyond a reasonable doubt. 
 
 ACTION ON THE PROCEEDINGS 
 
 The term appointing authority is employed to designate the 
 officer whose province and duty it is to take action upon the pro- 
 ceedings of a court martial after the same are terminated, and, 
 when the record is transmitted to him for such action, to approve 
 or disapprove the sentence or acquittal. This officer is ordinarily 
 the commander who has convened the court. In his absence, how- 
 ever, or where the command has been otherwise changed, his 
 successor in command, or the officer commanding for the time being 
 is invested with the same authority to pass upon the proceedings 
 and order the execution of the sentence in a case of conviction. 
 
 Record of Action by Appointing Authority. — Upon the re- 
 ceipt of the proceedings by the appointing authority, he will state 
 at the end thereof in each case his decisions and orders. 
 
 Sentence Not Effective Until Approved. — No sentence of a 
 court martial shall be carried into execution until the same shall 
 have been approved by the officer appointing the court or by the 
 officer commanding for the time being. The acquittal of the ac- 
 cused does not entitle him to be released at once from confine- 
 ment as in cases before civil courts. The acquittal is not ef- 
 fective until it has been acted on by the proper reviewing au- 
 thority. But the announcement of the result of trial in orders 
 is not essential to the validity of the sentence or acquittal. It is 
 not necessary for the reviewing authority to approve the findings 
 and proceedings. 
 
732 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Effect of Approval and Dissapproval.— While approval gives 
 life and operation to a sentence, disapproval, on the other hand, 
 nullifies it. A disapproval of the sentence of a court martial by 
 the reviewing authority is not a mere expression of disappro- 
 bation but is a final determinate act putting an end to the pro- 
 ceedings in the particular case and rendering them entirely nuga- 
 tory and inoperative; and the legal effect of a disapproval is the 
 same whether or not the officer disapproving is authorized finally 
 to confirm the sentence. But to be thus operative a disapproval 
 should be expressed. The effect of the entire disapproval of a 
 sentence is not merely to annul the same as such but also to 
 prevent the accruing of any disability or forfeiture, which would 
 have been incidental upon an approval. 
 
 SYSTEM OF COURT MARTIAL FOR NATIONAL GUARD 
 NOT IN THE REGULAR SERVICE 
 
 Except in organizations in the service of the United States, 
 courts martial in the National Guard shall be of three kinds, namely, 
 general courts martial, special courts martial, and summary courts 
 martial. They shall be constituted like, and have cognizance of 
 the same subjects, and possess like powers, except as to punish- 
 ments, as similar courts provided for by the laws and regulations 
 governing the Army of the United States, and the proceedings of 
 courts martial of the National Guard shall follow the forms and 
 modes of procedure prescribed for said similar courts. 
 
 General courts martial of the National Guard not in the 
 service of the United States may be convened by orders of the 
 President, or of the Governors of the respective States and Terri- 
 tories, or by the commanding general of the National Guard 
 of the District of Columbia, and such courts shall have the power 
 to impose fines not exceeding $200; to sentence to forfeiture of 
 pay and allowances; to a reprimand; to dismissal or dishonor- 
 able discharge from the service; to reduction of non-commissioned 
 officers to the ranks; or any two or more of such punishments 
 may be combined in the sentences imposed by such courts. 
 
 In the National Guard, not in the service of the United 
 States, the commanding officer of each garrison, fort, post, camp, 
 or other place, brigade, regiment, detached battalion, or other 
 detached command, may appoint special courts martial for his 
 command; but such special courts martial may in any case be 
 appointed by superior authority when by the latter deemed de- 
 sirable. Special courts martial shall have power to try any per- 
 son subject to military law, except a commissioned officer, for any 
 crime or offense made punishable by the military laws of the 
 
MILITARY JURISDICTION 733 
 
 United States, and such special courts martial shall have the 
 same powers of punishment as do general courts martial, except 
 that fines imposed by such courts shall not exceed $100. 
 
 In the National Guard, not in the service of the United 
 States, the commanding officer of each garrison, fort, post, or other 
 place, regiment or corps, detached battalion, company, or other 
 detachment of the National Guard may appoint for such place or 
 command a summary court to consist of one officer, who shall 
 have power to administer oaths and to try the enlisted men of 
 such place or command for breaches of discipline and violations 
 of laws governing such organizations; and said court, when satis- 
 fied of the guilt of such soldier, may impose fines not exceeding 
 $25 for any single offense; may sentence non-commissioned officers 
 to reduction to the ranks; may sentence to forfeiture of pay and 
 allowances. The proceedings of such court shall be informal, and 
 the minutes thereof shall be the same as prescribed for summary 
 courts of the Army of the United States. 
 
 All courts martial of the National Guard, not in the service 
 of the United States, including summary courts, shall have power 
 to sentence to confinement in lieu of fines authorized to be im- 
 posed: Provided, That such sentences of confinement shall not ex- 
 ceed one day for each dollar of fine authorized. 
 
 No sentence of dismissal from the service or dishonorable 
 discharge, imposed by a National Guard court martial, not in the 
 service of the United States, shall be executed until approved by 
 the Governor of the State or Territory concerned, or by the com- 
 manding general of the National Guard of the District of Col- 
 umbia. 
 
 In the National Guard, not in the service of the United 
 States, presidents of courts martial and summary court officers 
 shall have power to issue warrants to arrest accused persons and 
 to bring them before the court for trial ^whenever 'such persons 
 shall have disobeyed an order in writing from the convening au- 
 thority to appear before such court, a copy of the charge or charges 
 having been delivered to the accused with such order, and to issue 
 subpoenas and subpoenas duces tecum and to enforce by attach- 
 ment attendance of witnesses and the production of books and 
 papers, and to sentence for a refusal to be sworn or to answer as 
 provided in actions before civil courts. 
 
 All processes and 'sentences of said courts shall be executed 
 by such civil officers as may be prescribed by the laws of the sev- 
 eral States and Territories, and in any State where no provision 
 shall have been made for such action, and in the Territories and the 
 District of Columbia, such processes and sentences shall be exe- 
 cuted by a United States marshal or his duly appointed deputy, and 
 it shall be the duty of any United States marshal to execute all such 
 
734 
 
 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 processes and sentences and make return thereof to the officer 
 issuing or imposing the same. 
 
 FORM FOR RECORD OF TRIAL BY GENERAL COURT 
 
 MARTIAL 
 
 Record of Trial by General Court Martial of 
 
 Index 
 
 Page 
 
 Arraignment . 
 
 Pleas 
 
 Statement by accused 
 
 Address by counsel 
 
 Reply by judge advocate 
 
 Findings 
 
 Previous convictions submitted 
 
 Sentence (or acquittal) 
 
 Proceedings in revision 
 
 Testimony 
 
 Deposition of Capt. 
 Deposition of Pvt. - 
 Letter of . . . 
 
 Name of witness. 
 
 Direct. 
 
 Cross. 
 
 Redirect. 
 
 Examina- 
 tion by 
 
 Recalled. 
 
 
 Page. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Page. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Number. 
 
 Page where 
 introduced. 
 
 ,- i £ ,, , not desired by accused. 
 
 Carbon copy of the record \ t . , , .. J , 
 
 I furnished the accused. 
 
MILITARY JURISDICTION 735 
 
 Proceedings of a general court martial which convened at 
 '• — , , pursuant to the following order: 
 
 (Here insert a literal copy of the order appointing the 
 court and, following it, copies of any orders modifying the detail.) 
 
 Fort , , 
 
 19- 
 
 The court met pursuant to the foregoing order at 
 
 o'clock — . m. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Maj. , 5th Cavalry. 
 
 Capt. , Medical Corps. 
 
 First Lieut. , 10th Infantry. 
 
 First Lieut. , 5th Cavalry. 
 
 Second Lieut. , Coast Artillery Corps. 
 
 First Lieut. , 5th Cavalry, judge advocate. 
 
 Second Lieut. , 29th Infantry, assistant judge advocate. 
 
 Absent. 
 
 Capt. , Coast Artillery Corps (detached service). 
 
 Second Lieut. , 10th Infantry (leave of absence). 
 
 The court proceeded to the trial of Private , Company 
 
 , Infantry, who, on appearing before the court, stated 
 
 that he did not desire counsel or introduced as counsel. 
 
 was sworn as reporter. 
 
 Capt. announced that he was the accuser and was 
 
 excused and withdrew. 
 
 (If an interpreter is to be used he should be sworn when his 
 services are required.) 
 
 The order appointing the court (and the order or orders 
 modifying the detail, if any) was (or were) read to the accused, and 
 he was asked if he objected to being tried by any member present 
 named therein; to which he replied in the negative; or 
 
 Defense: (Insert statement.) 
 
 Captain : 
 
 (Insert the statement of the challenged member, who ordi- 
 narily should respond to the challenge by briefly admitting or 
 denying the grounds of the challenge. Should the accused, after 
 the statement, desire to call upon the member to testify as to his 
 competency, the record should continue:) 
 
 The accused having requested that the challenged member 
 be sworn as to his competency to act as a member of the court, 
 was sworn by the judge advocate and testified as follows: 
 
 The court was closed, and on being opened the president an- 
 
736 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 nounced in the presence of the accused and his counsel, that the 
 challenge was not sustained or that the challenge was sustained. 
 
 If the challenge is sustained: then withdrew. 
 
 The accused was asked if he objected to any other member 
 present, to which he replied in the negative or 
 
 Defense: 
 
 (Insert objection in full, record, and continue as before until 
 accused replies in the negative.) 
 
 The members of the court, the judge advocate, and the as- 
 sistant judge advocate were then sworn. 
 
 (If delay is desired, request should now be made and the 
 proceedings recorded. If no continuance is requested, the record 
 should continue:) 
 
 The accused was then arraigned upon the following charges 
 and specifications: 
 
 Charge I: Violation of the Article of War. 
 
 Specification: In that, etc. 
 
 Charge II: Violation of the Article of War. 
 
 Specification 1: In that, etc. 
 
 Specification 2: In that, etc. 
 
 , Capt. Infantry. 
 
 To which the accused pleaded: 
 
 To the specification, Charge I: Guilty or Not guilty. 
 
 To Charge I: Guilty or Not Guilty. 
 
 To Specification 1, Charge II: Guilty or Not guilty. 
 
 To Specification 2, Charge II: Guilty or Not guilty. 
 
 To Charge II: Guilty or Not guilty. 
 
 The paragraphs of the Manual for Courts Martial that set 
 out the gist of each of the several offenses were read to the court 
 by the judge advocate. 
 
 Sergt. John Jones, Company , — Infantry, a wit- 
 ness for the prosecution, was sworn and testified as follows: 
 
 Questions by prosecution: 
 Q. Do you know the accused? If so, state who he is. 
 
 A. I do; Pvt. , Company , - — Infantry. 
 
 (The succeeding questions of the prosecution and their an- 
 swers should follow in order.) 
 
 Questions by defense: 
 
 Q. ? 
 
 A. . 
 
 (If the defense declines to cross-examine the witness, the 
 record should state:) 
 
 The defense declined to cross-examine the witness. 
 
MILITARY JURISDICTION 737 
 
 Questions by prosecution: 
 
 Q. ? 
 
 A. . 
 
 Questions by defense: 
 
 Q. ? 
 
 A. . 
 
 Questions by court: 
 
 Q. ? 
 
 A. . 
 
 Prosecution: (Insert objection.) 
 Member: (Insert reply, etc.) 
 
 (If the accused or another member object, the record would 
 proceed in a corresponding way.) 
 
 The court was closed, and on being opened the president 
 announced in the presence of the accused and his counsel that the 
 objection was sustained or was not sustained. 
 
 (In the latter case the record should continue:) 
 
 The question was then repeated: 
 
 A. . 
 
 (If the court considers it necessary to hear the testimony of 
 the witness read or the witness desires to have any part of his 
 testimony read for correction, the record will show the fact and 
 the corrections, if any.) 
 
 (After the proper foundation for the introduction of a writing 
 has been laid the record will continue.) 
 
 Prosecution: "I offer in evidence the" (Describe the writ- 
 ing or other proposed exhibit). 
 
 Defense: (Insert his reply. If there is no objection the 
 record will continue.) 
 
 The paper (or other proposed exhibit) was then received in 
 
 evidence and is appended marked (insert the number of the 
 
 exhibit). 
 
 (If there is objection the record will continue by stating any 
 further remarks of the prosecution.) 
 
 The court was closed, and on being opened the president an- 
 nounced in the presence of the accused and his counsel that the 
 objection was sustained (or was not sustained). 
 
 (If the objection is not sustained the record will continue 
 as in the case where there is no objection. If the objection is sus- 
 tained there will be no further entry.) 
 
 (If it is the defense that seeks to introduce the writing, the 
 record would proceed in a corresponding manner.) 
 
738 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 (At the close of the prosecution the record should continue.) 
 
 Prosecution: The prosecution rests. 
 
 (If the court adjourns to meet another day the record should 
 continue.) 
 
 The court then, at o'clock - — . m., adjourned to meet 
 
 at o'clock — . m. on . 
 
 First Lieutenant 5th Cavalry, Judge Advocate. 
 
 Fort , , 19—. 
 
 The court met, pursuant to adjournment, at o'clock 
 
 p— : . m. 
 
 Present: 
 
 All the members of the court, the judge advocate, and the as- 
 sistant judge advocate. 
 
 The accused, his counsel, and the reporter were also present. 
 
 (If the proceedings of the previous day are required to bei 
 read, the fact will be recorded in the following form: 
 
 The proceedings of — were read and approved, or cor- 
 rected, as follows: 
 
 (In the latter case enumerate corrections, giving page and 
 line on which they occur.) 
 
 Gorpl. John Smith, Company , Infantry, a wit- 
 ness for the defense, was sworn and testified as follows: 
 
 Questions by prosecution: 
 
 (When considered desirable, the first question may be as to 
 the identity of the witness.) 
 
 Q. Do you know the accused? If so, state who he is. 
 A. . 
 
 Questions by defense: 
 
 Q. ? 
 
 A. -. 
 
 (Should the accused testify in his own behalf, the record will 
 continue.) 
 
 The accused, at his own request, was sworn and testified as 
 follows: 
 
 Questions by defense: 
 
 Q. ? 
 
 A. . 
 
 (If the defense offers no other witness, the record should 
 continue.) 
 
MILITARY JURISDICTION 739 
 
 The defense had no further testimony to offer and no state- 
 ment to make, or, having no further testimony to offer, made the 
 following verbal statement. 
 
 Or, having no further testimony to offer, submitted a written 
 statement, which was read to the court, and is hereto appended and 
 marked — . 
 
 Or, requested until o'clock — . m. to prepare his de- 
 fense. 
 
 (If the court takes a recess during the time asked for, the 
 record will continue.) 
 
 The court then took a recess until o'clock — . m., at 
 
 which hour the members of the court, the judge advocate, the as- 
 sistant judge advocate, the accused, his counsel, and the reporter, 
 resumed their seats. 
 
 (Or, if the court has other business before it, the record may 
 continue.) 
 
 The court then proceeded to other business, and at 
 
 o'clock — . m. resumed the trial of this case, at which hour, etc. 
 
 Defense: (Insert statement). 
 
 Or, The defense read to the court a statement, which is 
 hereto appended and marked — . 
 
 The prosecution: (Insert statement). 
 
 Or, The prosecution read to the court a statement, which is 
 hereto appended and marked — . 
 
 The court was closed, and finds the accused: 
 
 Of the specification, Charge I: Guilty or, Not guilty. 
 
 Of Charge I: Guilty or Not guilty. 
 
 Of Specification 1, Charge II: Guilty, except the words 
 " ," substituting therefor the words " "; of the ex- 
 cepted words, " Not guilty " and of the substituted words " Guilty." 
 
 Of Specification 2, Charge II: Guilty or Not guilty. 
 
 Of Charge II: Guilty or Not guilty, or Not guilty, but 
 guilty of . 
 
 (If a soldier is found guilty, the record should continue.) 
 
 The court was opened and the judge advocate stated, in the 
 presence of the accused and his counsel, that he had no evidence 
 of previous convictions to submit. 
 
 Or, read the evidence of previous convictions, copies 
 
 of which are hereto appended and marked " 4," " 5," etc. 
 
 (If the defense has any statement to make in regard to the 
 previous convictions or statement of service, it will be recorded.) 
 
 The court was closed, and sentences the accused to . 
 
 (No previous convictions, or accused acquitted.) 
 
 The court sentences the accused, Private , 
 
 Infantry, to , etc., or acquits the accused. 
 
740 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 The court, at — m., was opened and proceeded to other 
 business. 
 
 Or, adjourned until — m., the instant. 
 
 Or, adjourned to meet at the call of the president. 
 
 Major, 5th Cavalry, President. 
 
 First Lieutenant, 5th Cavalry, Judge Advocate. 
 (At least two blank sheets will be inserted after the adjourn- 
 ment and before the exhibits for the decision and orders of the 
 reviewing authority.) 
 
 Binding and Brief 
 
 (The papers forming the complete record will be securely 
 bound together at the top (easily removed clips or paper fasteners 
 will not be used) and the record folded in four folds and briefed on 
 the first fold, as follows: 
 
 Private, Company , Infantry. 
 
 Trial by general court martial. 
 
 Form for Revision of Record 
 
 Fort 
 
 
 -, 19—. 
 
 The court reconvened at o'clock — . m., pursuant to 
 
 -the following indorsement: 
 
 (Insert copy of indorsement.) 
 
 Present 
 
 Maj. , 5th Cavalary. 
 
 Capt. , Medical Corps. 
 
 First Lieut. , 10th Infantry. 
 
 First Lieut. , 5th Cavalry. 
 
 First Lieut. , 5th Cavalry, judge advocate. 
 
 Second Lieut. , Coast Artillery Corps. 
 
 Second Lieut. , 29th Infantry, assistant judge advocate. 
 
 Absent 
 (Insert names of absentees and state cause of absence, if 
 
 known.) 
 
 The judge advocate read to the court the foregoing indorse- 
 ment of the convening authority. 
 
MILITARY JURISDICTION 741 
 
 The court was closed and revokes its former findings and 
 sentence, and finds the accused, etc. 
 
 Or, revokes its former sentence and sentences the accused, 
 
 etc. 
 
 Or, respectfully adheres to its former findings and sentence. 
 Or, amends the record by, etc. 
 
 The judge advocate was then recalled and the court at 
 - — . m., etc. 
 
 Major, 5th Cavalry, President. 
 
 First Lieutenant, 5th Cavalry, Judge Advocate. 
 (The record of revision will be appended to the original 
 proceedings, following them immediately, before the exhibits, and 
 will be forwarded by indorsement on the charges to the appoint- 
 ing authority.) 
 
 FORM FOR RECORD OF TRIAL BY A SPECIAL COURT 
 
 MARTIAL 
 
 Fort , 
 
 -, 19- 
 
 The special court martial appointed by paragraph , 
 
 Special Orders, No. , Headquarters , , 19 — as 
 
 modified by paragraph , Special Orders, No. , Head- 
 quarters , met at , — m. 
 
 PRESENT 
 ABSENT 
 
 The court proceeded to the trial of Private . Company 
 
 , Infantry, who, on appearing before the court (stated 
 
 that he did not desire counsel) (introduced as counsel). 
 
 ( was sworn as reporter.) 
 
 (Capt. , because ineligible, was excused and withdrew.) 
 
 (First Lieuts. and were, upon challenge, ex- 
 cused and withdrew.) 
 
 The accused stated that he had no objection to trial by any 
 member (remaining) present. 
 
 The members of the court and the judge advocate were 
 sworn. 
 
 The accused was arraigned upon the following charges and 
 specifications: 
 
 Charge I: Violation of the Article of War. 
 
 Specification: In that, etc. 
 
 Charge II: Violation of the Article of War. 
 
742 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Specification 1 : In that, etc. 
 Specification 2: In that, etc. 
 
 Pleas 
 
 To all specifications and charges: 
 To the Specification, Charge I: — 
 To Charge I: . 
 
 Captain, Infantry. 
 
 To Specification 1, Charge II: . 
 
 To Specification 2, Charge II: . 
 
 To Charge II: . 
 
 The following-named persons were sworn and testified: 
 
 Sergt. , Infantry. 
 
 Corpl. , Infantry. 
 
 Pvt. , Infantry. 
 
 The defense was given full opportunity to examine each wit- 
 ness. 
 
 (The depositions of the following-named persons were re- 
 ceived in evidence and are hereto appended marked — , — , — .) 
 
 The accused (at his own request was sworn and testified) 
 (made a statement to the court). 
 
 The accused stated that he had nothing further to offer. 
 
 The court was closed and finds the accused: 
 
 Of all specifications and charges: . 
 
 Of the Specification, Charge I: . 
 
 Of Charge I : ■ . 
 
 Of Specication 1, Charge II: . 
 
 Of Specification 2, Charge II: . 
 
 Of Charge II: . 
 
 (The court therefore acquits him.) 
 
 The court was opened and the judge advocate, in the pres- 
 ence of the accused (and his counsel) (stated that he had no evi- 
 dence of previous convictions to submit) (read the evidence of 
 : previous convictions.) 
 
 (The court was closed and sentences the accused to .) 
 
 The court was opened and (proceeded to other business) 
 (adjourned.) 
 
 Major, Infantry, President. 
 
 First Lieutenant, Infantry, Judge Advocate. 
 
 Approved, , 191 — . 
 
 Colonel, Infantry, Commanding. 
 
MILITARY JURISDICTION 743 
 
 FORM FOR RECORD OF TRIAL BY SUMMARY COURT 
 
 Charge Sheet. No. in Summary Court Record . 
 
 (Place) Date) 
 
 (Surname) (Christian name) (Rank and organization) 
 
 Date current enlistment: . Rate of pay: . 
 
 Previous service: 
 
 (Give dates, with character given on each discharge) 
 Date of 
 
 Arrest: . 
 
 Conviction : . 
 
 No. of previous convictions: 
 
 Witnesses* 
 
 First Sergt. , Company , Infantry. 
 
 Private , Company , Infantry. 
 
 Charge I: Violation of the Article of War. 
 
 Specification: In that, etc. 
 
 Charge II: Violation of the Article of War. 
 
 Specification 1: In that, etc. 
 Specification 2: In that, etc. 
 
 [1st Ind.] 
 
 Headquarters , , 19 — . To Capt. , < 
 
 Infantry, Summary Court, for trial. 
 
 By order of Col. . 
 
 Captain, Infantry, Adjutant. 
 
 Findings: (If the findings as to all the specifications and 
 charges are the same, a single proper entry, such as " Guilty," or 
 " Not guilty," will be made. If necessary, however, in order to 
 show the facts, detailed entries will be made.) 
 
 Sentence: . 
 
 Captain, Infantry, Summary Court. 
 
 Approved: , 19 — . 
 
 Colonel, Infantry, Commanding. 
 
 FORMS FOR SENTENCES 
 
 A sentence adjudged by a court martial will, in a proper 
 case, be expressed substantially in one or another of the forms fol- 
 
744 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 lowing. When desirable, in a proper case, two or more of the 
 forms may be combined. 
 
 1. To have his pay for days detained. 
 
 2. To have two-thirds (or other fraction) of his pay per 
 month for months detained. 
 
 3. To forfeit days' pay. 
 
 4. To forfeit two-thirds (or other fraction) of his pay per 
 month for months. 
 
 5. To perform hard labor for days (or months). 
 
 6. To be confined at hard labor for days (or months). 
 
 7. To be confined at hard labor, at such place as the review- 
 ing authority may direct, for days (or months or years). 
 
 8. To be confined at hard labor, at such place as the re- 
 viewing authority may direct, for months and to forfeit two- 
 thirds (or other fraction) of his pay per month for a like period. 
 
 9. To be dishonorably discharged the service and to forfeit 
 all pay and allowances due or to become due. 
 
 10. To be dishonorably discharged the service, to forfeit all 
 pay and allowances due or to become due, and to be confined at 
 hard labor, at such place as the reviewing authority may direct, 
 for days (or months or years). 
 
 11. To be reduced to the ranks. 
 
 12. To vacate all rights and privileges arising from his cer- 
 tificate of eligibility. 
 
 13. To be admonished. 
 
 14. To be reprimanded. 
 
 15. To be restricted to the limits of his post (or other place) 
 for months. 
 
 16. To be suspended from duty for months. 
 
 17. To be suspended from command for months 
 
 18. To be suspended from rank for months. 
 
 19. To be reduced in rank files. 
 
 20. To be reduced in rank so that his name shall appear 
 in the lineal list of officers of his arm next below that of . 
 
 21. To be dismissed the service. 
 
 22. To pay to the United States a fine of dollars and 
 
 to be confined at hard labor, at such place as the reviewing author- 
 ity may direct, until said fine is so paid, but for not more than 
 months (or years). 
 
 23. To pay to the United States a fine of dollars, to 
 
 be confined at hard labor, at such place as the reviewing authority 
 may direct, for months (or years), and to be further con- 
 fined at hard labor until said fine is so paid, but for not more than 
 
 ■ months (or years), in addition to the months or 
 
 years) hereinbefore adjudged. 
 
MILITARY JURISDICTION 745 
 
 24. To be confined at hard labor, at such place as the re- 
 viewing authority may direct, for the term of his natural life. 
 
 25. To be shot to death with musketry. 
 
 26. To be hanged by the neck until dead. 
 
 FORMS FOR ORDERS VACATING SUSPENSIONS 
 
 Headquarters , , 191 — . 
 
 1. So much of the order published in Court-Martial 
 
 Order No. — , , 191 — , these headquarters, , 191 — 
 
 {or found in a record of trial by summary court approved , 
 
 191 — ), as suspends execution of sentence in the case of is 
 
 vacated and said sentence will be carried into execution. 
 
 By order of Col. . 
 
 Adjutant. 
 
 Headquarters , , 191 — . 
 
 2. So much of the order published in Court-Martial 
 
 Order No. — , , 191 — , these headquarters, , 191 — 
 
 {or found in a record of trial by summary court approved , 
 
 191 — ), as suspends execution of sentence to confinement {or for- 
 feiture of pay) in the case of is vacated and that part of said 
 
 sentence will be carried into execution. 
 
 By order of Col. . 
 
 Adjutant. 
 
 Headquarters , , 191 — . 
 
 3. So much of the order published in General Court-Martial 
 Order No. — , , 191 — , these headquarters, as suspends execu- 
 tion of sentence to dishonorable discharge in the case of is 
 
 vacated and that part of said sentence will be carried into 
 execution. 
 
 By order of Col. . 
 
 , Adjutant. 
 
 The discipline and reputation of the Army are deeply in- 
 volved in the manner in which military courts are conducted and 
 justice administered. The duties, therefore, that devolve on officers 
 appointed to sit as members of courts martial are of the most grave 
 and important character. That these duties may be discharged 
 with justice and propriety it is incumbent on all officers to apply 
 themselves diligently to the acquirement of a competent knowledge 
 of military law, to make themselves perfectly acquainted with all 
 orders and regulations, and with the practice of military courts. 
 
CHAPTER XXVI 
 
 LAND WARFARE, CONDUCT OF HOSTILITIES 
 AND TREATMENT OF ENEMY PROPERTY 
 
 The object of war is to bring about the complete submission 
 of the enemy as soon as possible by means of regulated violence. 
 The conduct of war is regulated by certain well-established rules 
 designated as the laws of war, which comprise the rules, both 
 written and unwritten, for the carrying on of war, both on land 
 and at sea. 
 
 Military Necessity. — Military necessity justifies a resort to all 
 the measures which are not forbidden by the modern laws and 
 customs of war, and admits of all direct destruction of life or limb 
 of armed enemies, and of other persons whose destruction is 
 incidentally unavoidable in the armed contests of war; it allows 
 of the capturing of every armed enemy, and of every enemy of 
 importance to the hostile government, or of peculiar danger to the 
 captor; it allows of all destruction of property, and obstruction of 
 ways and channels of traffic, travel, or communication, and of all 
 withholding of sustenance or means of life from the enemy; of the 
 appropriation of whatever the enemy's country affords that is 
 necessary for the subsistence and safety of the army, and of such 
 deception as does not involve the breaking of good faith, either 
 positively pledged, regarding agreements entered into during the 
 war, or .supposed by the modern law of war to exist. 
 
 Military necessity does not admit of cruelty — that is, the 
 infliction of suffering for the sake of suffering or for revenge, nor 
 of maiming or wounding except in fight, nor of torture to extort 
 confessions. It does not admit of the use of poison in any way, 
 nor of the wanton devastation of a district. It admits of decep- 
 tion, but disclaims acts of perfidy; and, in general, military neces- 
 sity does not include any act of hostility which makes the return to 
 peace unnecessarily difficult. 
 
 Martial Law. — Martial law is simply military authority ex- 
 ercised in accordance with the laws and usages of war. There are 
 under the Constitution three kinds of military jurisdiction — one to 
 be exercised in both peace and war; another to be exercised in 
 time of foreign war without the boundaries of the United 
 
LAND WARFARE 747 
 
 States, or in time of rebellion or ciivl war within States or 
 districts occupied by rebels treated as belligerents; and, third, to 
 be exercised in time of invasion of insurrection within the limits 
 of the United States, or during rebellion within the limits of States 
 maintaining adhesion to the National Government, when the public 
 danger requires its exercise. The first of these may be called 
 jurisdiction under military law, and is found in Acts of Congress 
 prescribing Rules and Articles of War, or otherwise providing for 
 the government of the national forces; the second may be dis- 
 tinguished as military government, superseding, as far as may be 
 deemed expedient, the local law, and exercised by the military 
 commander under the direction of the President, with the express 
 or implied sanction of Congress; while the third may be denomi- 
 nated martial law proper, and is called into action by Congress, 
 or temporarily, when the action of Congress can not be invited, 
 and in the case of justifying or excusing peril, by the President, in 
 times of insurrection or invasion, or of civil or foreign war, within 
 districts or localities where ordinary law no longer adequately 
 secures public safety and private rights. This distinction has 
 never since been sustained by the Supreme Court, although mili- 
 tary writers have made use of the term " military government " to 
 designate the jurisdiction exercised over enemy territory by the 
 military, regarding enemy territory to include that of a foreign 
 state and also that part of the belligerent state that has been ac- 
 corded recognition of belligerency, and " martial law " to designate 
 the jurisdiction exercised by the military power over parts of the 
 dominant state that is in rebellion or insurrection without being 
 recognized as belligerents, or, in a word, treating "martial law" as 
 a domestic fact. 
 
 Martial law extends to property and to all persons in the 
 occupied territory, whether they are subjects of the enemy or aliens 
 to that government. 
 
 Military Jurisdiction. — Military jurisdiction is of two kinds: 
 First, that which is conferred and defined by statute; second, that 
 which is derived from the common law of war. Military offenses 
 under the statute law must be tried in the manner therein directed, 
 but military offenses which do not come within the statute must be 
 tried and punished under the common law of war. The character 
 of the courts which exercise these jurisdictions depends upon the 
 local laws of each particular country. In the armies of the United 
 States the first is exercised by courts-martial, while cases which 
 do not come within the Rules and Articles of War, or the juris- 
 diction conferred by statute on courts-martial, are tried by military 
 commissions. 
 
 Whenever feasible, martial law is carried out in cases of 
 individual offenders by military courts; but sentences of death are 
 
748 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 executed only with the approval of the Chief Executive, provided 
 the urgency of the case does not require a speedier execution, and 
 then only with the approval of the commander of the occupying 
 forces. 
 
 The law of war not only disclaims all cruelty and bad faith 
 concerning engagements concluded with the enemy during the war, 
 but also the breaking of treaty obligations entered into by bel- 
 ligerents in time of peace and avowedly intended to remain in force 
 in case of war between the contracting powers. It disclaims all 
 extortion and other transactions for individual gain; all acts of 
 private revenge, or connivance at such acts. Offenses to the con- 
 trary are severely punished, and especially so if committed by 
 officers. 
 
 THE COMMENCEMENT OF HOSTILITIES 
 
 The contracting parties recognize that hostilities between 
 themselves must not commence without previous and explicit warn- 
 ing in the form either of a reasoned declaration of war or of an 
 ultimatum accompanied by a conditional declaration of war. 
 
 Nothing in the foregoing rule requires that any time shall 
 elapse between the actual declaration of war and the commence- 
 ment of hostilities. It is still possible, therefore, to make a sudden 
 and unexpected declaration of war and thus surprise an unprepared 
 enemy. 
 
 The existence of a state of war must be notified to the neutral 
 powers without delay, but shall not take effect in regard to them 
 until after the receipt of a notification, which may, however, be 
 given by telegraph. Neutral powers, nevertheless, can not rely 
 on the absence of notification if it is clearly established that they 
 were in fact aware of the existence of a state of war. 
 
 TREATMENT OF RESIDENT ENEMY SUBJECTS 
 
 The first effect of war between two states is to cause every 
 subject of the one to become an enemy of every subject of the 
 other, since it is impossible to sever the subjects from their states. 
 
 Every belligerent state possesses the inherent right to take 
 such steps as it may deem necessary for the control of all persons 
 whose conduct or presence appears dangerous to its safety. In 
 strict law enemy subjects located or resident in hostile territory 
 may be detained, interned in designated localities, or expelled 
 from the country. 
 
 It is now universally recognized that hostilities are restricted 
 to the armed forces of belligerents, and that the unarmed citizens 
 
LAND WARFARE 749 
 
 who refrain from acts of hostility and pursue their ordinary avoca- 
 tions must be distinguished from the armed forces of the bel- 
 ligerent, must be treated leniently, must not be injured in their lives 
 or liberty, except for cause or after due trial, and must not, as a 
 rule, be deprived of their private property. 
 
 Enemy subjects are not made prisoners en masse on the 
 breaking out of hostilities. Persons known to be active or reserve 
 officers, or reservists, of the hostile army, as well as persons sus- 
 pected of communicating with the enemy, are detained and, if 
 deemed advisable, interned on the ground of self-preservation, in 
 the exercise of the right of control. 
 
 In modern practice the expulsion of the citizens or subjects 
 of the enemy is generally decreed from seaports, fortresses, de- 
 fended areas, and the actual or contemplated theatres of operation. 
 From other territory the practice is not uniform, expulsion being 
 resorted to usually for grave reasons of state only. When decreed, 
 the persons expelled should be given such reasonable notice, con- 
 sistent with public safety, as will enable them to arrange for the 
 collection, disposal, and removal of their goods and property. 
 
 THE ARMED FORCES OF BELLIGERENTS 
 
 The enemy population is divided in war into two general 
 classes, known as the armed forces and the peaceful population. 
 Both classes have distinct rights, duties, and disabilities, and no 
 person can belong to both classes at one and the same time. 
 
 The laws, rights, and duties of war apply not only to armies, 
 but also to militia and volunteer corps fulfilling the following con- 
 ditions: 
 
 1. To be commanded by a person responsible for his subordi- 
 nates; 2. To have a fixed distinctive emblem recognizable at a dis- 
 tance; 3. To carry arms openly; and 4. To conduct their operations 
 in accordance with the laws and usages of war. In countries where 
 militia or volunteer corps constitute the army, or form part of it, 
 they are included under the denomination " army." 
 
 The members of the army as above defined are entitled to 
 recognition as belligerent forces whether they have joined volun- 
 tarily, or have been compelled to do so by state law, and whether 
 they joined before or after war is declared, and whether they are 
 nationals of the enemy or of a neutral state. 
 
 The first condition above is satisfied if commanded by a 
 regularly or temporarily commissioned officer, or by a person of 
 position and authority, or if the officers, non-commissioned officers, 
 and men are furnished with certificates or badges, granted by the 
 government of the state, that will distinguish them from persons 
 acting on their own responsibility. 
 
750 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 The second requirement is satisfied by the wearing of a 
 uniform, or even less than a complete uniform. The distance 
 that the sign must be visible is left vague and undetermined and the 
 practice is not uniform. This requirement is satisfied certainly if 
 this sign is " easily distinguishable by the naked eye of ordinary 
 people " at a distance at which the form of an individual can be 
 determined. Every nation making use of these troops should adopt, 
 before hostilities commence, either a uniform or a distinctive sign 
 which will fulfill the required conditions and give notice of the same 
 to the enemy, although this notification is not required. 
 
 The third condition is imposed to prevent making use of arms 
 for active opposition and afterwards discarding or concealing them 
 on the approach of the enemy, and is not satisfied by carrying con- 
 cealed weapons, such as pistols, daggers, sword sticks, etc. 
 
 When such troops are utilized they must be instructed in and 
 be required to conform to the laws of war, and especially as to cer- 
 tain essentials, such as the use of treachery, maltreatment of 
 prisoners, the wounded and dead, violations of or improper conduct 
 toward flags of truce, pillage, unnecessary violence, and destruction 
 of property, etc. 
 
 The inhabitants of a territory which has not been occupied, 
 who, on the approach of the enemy, spontaneously take up arms to 
 resist the invading troops without having had time to organize 
 themselves, are regarded as belligerents if they carry arms openly 
 and if they respect the laws and customs of war. No belligerent 
 has the right to declare that he will treat every captured man in 
 arms of a levee en masse as a brigand or bandit. Certain classes 
 of those forming part of a lavee en masse can not claim the privi- 
 leges accorded in the preceding paragraph. Among these are de- 
 serters, subjects of the invading belligerent, and those who are 
 known to have violated the laws and customs of war. 
 
 If the people of a country, or any portion of the same, 
 already occupied by an army, rise against it, they are violators of 
 the laws of war, and are not entitled to their protection. 
 
 The determination of the status of captured troops is to be 
 left to courts organized for the purpose. Summary executions are 
 no longer contemplated under the laws of war. The officers' duty 
 is to hold the persons of those captured, and leave the question of 
 their being regulars, irregulars, deserters, etc., to the determination 
 of competent authority. 
 
 The law of nations knows no distinction of color, so that the 
 enrolling of individuals belonging to civilized colored races and 
 the employment of whole regiments of colored troops is duly 
 authorized. The employment of savage tribes or barbarous races 
 should not be resorted to in wars between civilized nations. 
 
 The armed forces of the belligerent parties may consist of 
 
LAND WARFARE 751 
 
 combatants and non-combatants. In case of capture by the enemy, 
 both have a right to be treated as prisoners of war. 
 
 PRISONERS OF WAR 
 
 A prisoner of war is an individual whom the enemy, upon 
 capture, temporarily deprives of his personal liberty on account of 
 his participation directly or indirectly in the hostilities, and whom 
 the laws of war 'prescribe shall be treated with certain considera- 
 tions. 
 
 The law of nations allows every sovereign Government to 
 make war upon another sovereign State, and, therefore, admits of 
 no rules or laws different from those of regular warfare, regarding 
 the treatment of prisoners of war, although they may belong to the 
 army of a Government which the captor may consider as a wanton 
 and unjust assailant. 
 
 The armed forces of the belligerent parties may consist of 
 combatants and non-combatants. In the case of capture by the 
 enemy, both have a right to be treated as prisoners of war. 
 
 Individuals who follow an army without directly belonging 
 to it, such as newspaper correspondents, and reporters, sutlers, and 
 contractors, who fall into the enemy's hands and whom the latter 
 thinks expedient to detain, are entitled to be treated as prisoners 
 of war, provided they are in possession of a certificate from the 
 military authorities of the army which they accompanied. 
 
 In addition to the armed forces, both combatant and non- 
 combatant, and civilians authorized to accompany armies, the fol- 
 lowing may be made prisoners of war: 
 
 (a) The sovereign and members of the royal family, the 
 President or head of a republican State, and the ministers who 
 direct the policy of a State, (b) Civil officials and diplomatic 
 agents attached to the army, (c) Persons whose services are of 
 particular use and benefit to the hostile army or its government, 
 such as the higher civil officials, diplomatic agents, couriers, guides, 
 etc.; also all persons who may be harmful to the opposing State 
 while at liberty, such as prominent and influential political leaders, 
 journalists, local authorities, clergymen, and teachers, in case they 
 incite the people to resistance, (d) The citizens who rise en masse 
 to defend their territory or district from invasion by the enemy. 
 
 Military attaches and diplomatic agents of neutral powers 
 accompanying an army in the field, or found within a captured 
 fortress, are not ordinarily held as prisoners, provided they have 
 proper papers of identification in their possession and take no part 
 in the hostilities. They may, however, be ordered out of the 
 theater of war, and if necessary, handed over by the captor to 
 the ministers of their respective countries. 
 48 
 
752 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Subject to the care that must be taken of them, the sick and 
 wounded of an army who fall into the power of the other bel- 
 ligerent become prisoners of war, and the general rules of inter- 
 national law in respect to prisoners become applicable to them. 
 
 Prisoners of war are in the power of the hostile government, 
 but not of the individuals or corps who capture them. They must 
 be humanely treated. 
 
 All physical suffering, all brutality which is not necessitated 
 as an indispensable measure for guarding prisoners, are formally 
 prohibited. If prisoners commit crimes or acts punishable accord- 
 ing to the ordinary penal or military laws, they are subjected to 
 the military jurisdiction of the state of the captor. 
 
 All their personal belongings, except arms, horses, and mili- 
 tary papers, remain their property. This rule does not authorize 
 prisoners to retain large sums of money, or other articles which 
 might facilitate their escape. Such money and articles are usually 
 taken from them, receipts are given, and they are returned at the 
 end of the war. This rule does not compel the captor to be re- 
 sponsible for such personal belongings of prisoners as they are 
 unable to transport with them. In practice personal belongings 
 are understood to include military uniform, clothing, and kit re- 
 quired for personal use, although technically they may belong to 
 their Government. All captures and booty, except personal belong- 
 ings of prisoners, become the property of the belligerent Govern- 
 ment and not of individuals or units capturing them. 
 
 Every prisoner of war, if he is questioned on the subject, 
 is bound to give his true name and rank, and if he infringes this 
 rule he is liable to have the advantages accorded to prisoners of 
 his class curtailed. Although a prisoner of war is bound, under 
 the penalties named, to state truthfully his name and rank, yet he | 
 is not bound to reply to other questions. The captor is entitled 
 to take advantage of every means, humane and not coercive, in 
 order to obtain all information possible from a prisoner with 
 regard to the numbers, movements, and location of the enemy, but 
 the prisoner can not be punished for giving false information about 
 his own army. 
 
 Prisoners of war may be interned in a town, fortress, camp, 
 or other place, and bound not to go beyond certain fixed limits; but 
 they can not be confined except as an indispensable measure of 
 safety and only while the circumstances which necessitate the 
 measure continue to exist. The distinction herein intended is 
 between restriction to a specified locality and close confinement, ire 
 Prisoners of war must not be regarded as criminals or convicts, fce 
 They are guarded as a measure of security and not of punishment. flri 
 The object of internment is solely to prevent prisoners from fur-Jft 
 ther participation in the war. Anything, therefore, may be donefe 
 
 in 
 
LAND WARFARE 753 
 
 that is necessary to secure this end, but nothing more. Restrictions 
 and inconveniences are unavoidable, freedom of movement within 
 the area of internment should be permitted unless there are special 
 reasons to the contrary. The place selected for internment should 
 not possess an injurious climate. 
 
 Prisoners of war when confined for security should not be 
 placed in prisons, penitentiaries, or other places for the imprison- 
 ment of convicts, but should be confined in rooms that are clean, 
 sanitary, and as decent as possible. 
 
 The Government into whose hands prisoners of war have 
 fallen is charged with their maintenance. In the absence of a 
 special agreement between the belligerents, prisoners of" War are 
 treated, as regards board, lodging, and clothing, on the same foot- 
 ing as the troops of the Government who captured them. Prisoners 
 are only entitled to what is customarily used in the captor's coun- 
 try, but due allowance should, if possible, be made for differences 
 of habits, and captured supplies should be used if they are available. 
 
 The State may utilize the labor of prisoners of war according 
 . to their rank and aptitude, officers excepted. The tasks shall not 
 . be excessive and shall have no connection with the Operations 
 of the war. Prisoners may be authorized to work for the public 
 service, for private persons, or on their own account. Work done 
 for the State is paid at the rates in force for the work of a similar 
 kind done by soldiers of the national army, or, if there are none 
 in force, at a rate according to the work executed. When the work 
 is for other branches of the public service or for private persons 
 j the conditions are settled in agreement with the military authori- 
 ties. The wages of the prisoners go toward improving their posi- 
 tion, and the balance is paid them on their release, after deducting 
 j the cost of their maintenance. 
 
 Work, even upon fortifications, at a distance from the scene 
 of operations, would not seem to be prohibited by this article. 
 That the excess of money earned by prisoners, over that paid for 
 purchasing comforts and small luxuries, can be retained by the 
 captor in compensation for cost of maintenance, in case their 
 Government fails to provide for their maintenance in the treaty 
 of peace, is well settled. The practice, however, is against such 
 retention. 
 
 Prisoners of war shall be subject to the laws, regulations 
 and orders in force in the army of the State in whose power they 
 are. Any act of insubordination justifies the adoption towards 
 them of such measures of severity as may be considered necessary. 
 Prisoners of war may be fired upon and may be shot down while 
 attempting to escape, or if they resist their guard, or attempt to 
 assist their own army in any way. They may be executed by sen- 
 tence of a proper court for any offense punishable with death under 
 
754 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 the laws of the captor, after due trial and conviction. It may well 
 be doubted whether such extreme necessity can ever arise that will 
 compel or warrant a commander to kill his prisoners on the 
 ground of self-preservation. 
 
 For all crimes and misdemeanors, including conspiracy, 
 mutiny, revolt, or insubordination, prisoners of war are subject to 
 trial and punishment in the same way as soldiers of the army 
 which captured them. If a conspiracy is discovered, the purpose 
 of which is a united or general escape, the conspirators may be 
 rigorously punished, even with death; and capital punishment may 
 also be inflicted upon prisoners of war who are found to have 
 plotted rebellion against the authority of the captors, whether in 
 union with fellow prisoners or other persons. A prisoner of war 
 remains answerable for his crimes committed against the captor's 
 army or people, committed before he was captured, and for which 
 he has not been punished by his own army. 
 
 Prisoners of war may be set at liberty on parole if the laws 
 of their country allow, and, in such cases, they are bound, on their 
 personal honor, scrupulously to fulfill, both towards their own 
 Government and the Government by whom they were made pris- 
 oners, the engagements they have contracted. In such cases their 
 own Government is bound neither to require of nor accept from 
 them any service incompatible with the parole given. The parole 
 should be in writing and be signed, by the prisoners. The condi- 
 tions thereof should be distinctly stated, so as to fix as definitely 
 as possible exactly what acts the prisoner must refrain from doing; 
 that is, whether he is bound to refrain from all acts against the 
 captor or whether he must refrain only from taking part directly 
 in military operations against the captor, and may accept office and 
 render indirect aid or assistance to his own Government. 
 
 No non-commissioned officer or private can give his parole 
 except through an officer. Individual paroles not given through 
 an officer are not only void, but subjects the individuals giving 
 them to the punishment of death as deserters. The only admissible 
 exception is where individuals properly separated from their com- 
 mands have suffered long confinement without the possibility of 
 being paroled through an officer. Commissioned officers can give 
 their parole only with the permission of a military superior, as long 
 as such superior in rank is within reach. No paroling on the battle 
 field, no paroling of entire bodies of troops after a battle, and no 
 dismissal of large numbers of prisoners, with a general declaration 
 that they are paroled, is permitted or of any value. A belligerent 
 Government may declare, by a general order, whether it will allow 
 paroling, and on what conditions it will allow it. Such order is 
 communicated to the enemy. 
 
 Escaped prisoners who are retaken before being able to re- 
 
LAND WARFARE 755 
 
 join their own army or before leaving the territory occupied by the 
 army which captured them are liable to disciplinary punishment. 
 
 The words " disciplinary punishment " are intended to ex- 
 clude a sentence of death. The usual punishment for attempts to 
 escape consist in curtailment of privileges or closer confinement or 
 detention. Prisoners who, after succeeding in escaping, are again 
 taken prisoners, are not liable to punishment on account of the 
 previous flight. 
 
 A prisoner of war can not be compelled to accept his libertv 
 on parole; similarly the hostile Government is not obliged to 
 accede to the request of the prisoner to be set at liberty on parole. 
 
 Prisoners of war liberated on parole and recaptured bearing 
 arms against the Government to whom they had pledged their 
 honor, or against the allies of that Government, forfeit their right 
 to be treated as prisoners of war, and can be brought before the 
 courts. 
 
 BUREAU OF INFORMATION 
 
 A bureau of information for prisoners of war is instituted 
 on the commencement of hostilities in each of the belligerent 
 States, and, when necessary, in neutral countries which have re- 
 ceived belligerents in their territory. It is the function of this 
 office to reply to all inquiries about the prisoners. It receives 
 from the various services concerned full information respecting 
 internments and transfers, releases on parole, exchanges, escapes, 
 admissions into hospitals, deaths, as well as other information 
 necessary to enable it to make out and keep up to date an indi- 
 vidual return for each prisoner of war. The office must state in 
 this return the regimental number, name and surname, age, place 
 of origin, rank, unit, wounds, date and place of capture, internment, 
 wounding, and death, as well as any observations of a special 
 character. The individual return is sent to the Government of the 
 other belligerent after the conclusion of peace. 
 
 It is likewise the function of the bureau to receive and collect 
 all objects of personal use, valuables, letters, etc., found on the field 
 of battle or left by prisoners who have been released on parole, or 
 exchanged, or who have escaped, or died in hospitals or am- 
 bulances, and to forward them to those concerned. 
 
 Bureaus of information enjoy the privilege of free postage. 
 Letters, money orders, and valuables, as well as parcels by post, 
 intended for prisoners of war, or dispatched by them, are exempt 
 from all postal duties in the countries of origin and destination, 
 as well as in the countries they pass through. 
 
 Presents and relief in kind for prisoners of war are admitted 
 free of all import or other duties, as well as of payments for car- 
 riage by the state railways. 
 
756 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 The foregoing rule does not preclude censorship and regula- 
 tions which the belligerent holding the prisoners may decide to 
 establish with regard to receipt and dispatch of letters and other 
 articles referred to. 
 
 PRISONERS' RELIEF SOCIETIES 
 
 Relief societies for prisoners of war which are properly con- 
 stituted in accordance with the laws of their country and with 
 the object of serving as the channel for charitable effort shall 
 receive from the belligerents, for themselves and their duly ac- 
 credited agents, every facility for the efficient performance of their 
 humane task within the bounds imposed by military necessities and 
 administrative regulations. For the purpose of distributing relief, 
 agents of these societies may be admitted to the places of intern- 
 ment, as also to. the halting place of repatriated prisoners, if fur- 
 nished with a personal permit by the military authorities and on 
 giving an undertaking in writing to comply with all measures of 
 order and police which the latter may issue. 
 
 PAY OF OFFICERS, RELIGIOUS PRIVILEGES AND WILLS 
 
 Officers taken prisoners receive the same rate of pay as 
 officers of corresponding rank in the country where they are de- 
 tained, the amount to be ultimately refunded by their own Govern- 
 ment. 
 
 Prisoners of war enjoy complete liberty in the exercise of 
 their religion, including attendance at the services of the church 
 to which they may belong, on the sole condition that they comply 
 with the measures of order and police issued by the military 
 authorities. 
 
 The wills of prisoners of war are received or drawn up in 
 the same way as for soldiers of the national army. 
 
 The same rules are observed regarding death certificates as 
 well as for the burial of prisoners of war, due regard being paid to 
 their grade and rank. 
 
 EXCHANGES 
 
 The exchange of prisoners is an act of convenience to both 
 belligerents. If no general cartel has been concluded, it can not 
 be demanded by either of them. No belligerent is obliged to ex- 
 change prisoners of war. 
 
LAND WARFARE 757 
 
 No exchange of prisoners is made except after complete 
 capture, and after an accurate account of them and a list of the 
 captured officers have been taken. 
 
 Exchanges of prisoners take place, number for number, rank 
 for rank, disability for disability, with added condition for added 
 condition — such, for instance, as not to serve for a certain period. 
 
 In exchanging prisoners of war such numbers of persons 
 of inferior rank may be substituted as an equivalent for one of 
 superior rank as may be agreed upon by cartel, which requires the 
 sanction of the Government or of the commander of the army in 
 the field. 
 
 The surplus number of prisoners of war remaining after an 
 exchange has taken place is sometimes released either for the pay- 
 ment of a stipulated sum of money or, in urgent cases, of pro- 
 visions, clothing, or other necessaries. Such arrangement, how- 
 ever, requires the sanction of the highest authority. 
 
 Spies, war traitors, and war rebels are not exchanged accord- 
 ing to the common law of war. The exchange of such persons 
 would require a special cartel, authorized by the Government, or, 
 at a great distance from it, by the chief commander of the army 
 in the field. 
 
 After the conclusion of peace, the repatriaticn of prisoners 
 of war is carried out as quickly as possible. The immediate repat- 
 riation of prisoners of war is not always possible, due to the fol- 
 lowing causes: 1. Insufficiency of transport; 2. Obvious risk to 
 captor State in restoring to the vanquished power troops of 
 which it has been deprived; and 3. Some prisoners of war may be 
 undergoing punishment for offenses committed during their im- 
 prisonment. 
 
 THE SICK, WOUNDED AND DEAD 
 
 The duties of belligerents with regard to the wounded and 
 sick are governed by the Geneva Convention (of 1906). 
 
 The duties of neutral powers as regards wounded and sick 
 who are permitted to enter their territories are dealt with in the 
 "Convention concerning the rights and duties of neutral powers 
 and persons" at The Hague in 1907. 
 
 Officers, soldiers and other persons officially attached to 
 armies, who are sick or wounded, are respected and cared for, with- 
 out distinction of nationality, by the belligerent in whose power 
 they are. This provision extends to all belligerents who may 
 be described as all those persons who may demand the treatment 
 and privileges accorded to prisoners of war. It does not impose 
 obligations to aid inhabitants or other persons not officially 
 attached to armies who may be wounded by chance or accident as 
 
758 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 a result of the hostilities in progress. But the dictates of humanity 
 demand that inhabitants so wounded be aided if the other inhab- 
 itants are without facilities to give them proper care, and they can 
 be so aided without neglecting the sick and wounded of either 
 belligerent. 
 
 A belligerent, however, when compelled to leave his sick or 
 wounded in the hands of his adversary, leaves with them, so far 
 as military conditions permit, a portion of the personnel and 
 materiel of his sanitary service to assist in caring for them. 
 
 Necessarily the commander of the army, who is compelled 
 by the military situation to abandon his wounded, must determine 
 what the precise exigencies of the situation permit him to do with 
 regard to leaving his medical personnel and materiel behind for 
 the care of his wounded and sick; but it is clearly intended that he 
 relieve the victor left in possession of the battle field, as far as 
 practicable, of the additional burdens involved in the care of the 
 enemy sick and wounded as well as his own. 
 
 Subject to the care that must be taken of them under the 
 preceding paragraph, the sick and wounded of an army who fall 
 into the power of the other belligerents become prisoners of war, 
 and the general rules of international law in respect to prisoners 
 become applicable to them. 
 
 The belligerents remain free, however, to mutually agree 
 upon such clauses, by way of exception or favor, in relation to 
 the wounded or sick as they may deem proper. They especially 
 have authority to agree — (a) To mutually return the sick and 
 wounded left on the field of battle after an engagement, (b) To 
 send back to their own country the sick and wounded who have 
 recovered, or who are in a condition to be transported and whom 
 they do not desire to retain as prisoners, (c) To send the sick 
 and wounded of the enemy to a neutral State, with the consent 
 of the latter and on condition that it shall charge itself with their 
 internment until the close of hostilities. 
 
 These must be regarded purely as suggestions to command- 
 ers as proper relaxations of the rigor of the rules applicable to 
 the wounded or sick, since commanders are "free to agree" as to 
 the foregoing, as well as to many other questions not suggested by 
 these rules, regardless of this article of the convention. 
 
 After every engagement the belligerent who remains in 
 possession of the field of battle takes measures to search for the 
 wounded and to protect the wounded and dead from robbery and 
 ill-treatment. 
 
 The foregoing duty of policing the field of battle imposed 
 Upon the victor after the fight contemplates that he take every 
 means in his power to comply therewith. 
 
 The obligations imposed upon commanders as to protection 
 
LAND WARFARE 759 
 
 of the wounded and sick from pillage and maltreatment contem- 
 plate that all guilty persons, whether subject to military law or 
 civilians, be severely punished for acts of pillage and maltreatment 
 of the wounded and dead. No statute has been passed by Congress 
 specifically applicable to the punishment of violators of this article 
 since the convention was agreed to. In the absence of such legis- 
 lation, however, offenders, both military and civilian, are proceeded 
 against as marauders by commanding officers in the field. 
 
 As soon as possible each belligerent forwards to the author- 
 ities of their country or army a list of names of the sick and 
 wounded taken in charge by him. 
 
 Belligerents keep each other mutually advised of internments 
 and transfers, together with admissions to hospitals and deaths 
 which occur among the sick and wounded in their hands. 
 
 The foregoing provisions relate obviously to the wounded 
 and sick of the enemy, since the duties referred to with regard 
 to wounded, sick, and dead of his own army are regulated by the 
 internal laws of the belligerent. The proper channel of communi- 
 cation of such information to the enemy is through the Prisoners' 
 Bureau of Information. 
 
 Military authority may make an appeal to the charitable zeal 
 of the inhabitants to receive and, under its supervision, to care for 
 the sick and wounded of the armies, granting to persons respond- 
 ing to such appeals special protection and certain immunities. 
 
 The corresponding article of the Geneva Convention of 1864 
 is so modified in this that commanders in the field are relieved of 
 the suggested obligation of informing the inhabitants of the appeal 
 addressed to their humanity. It also withdraws the privileges con- 
 tained in the convention of 1864, and very properly places the 
 entire subject under military supervision. The collection and re- 
 moval of the wounded are best performed under military super- 
 vision, even when the labor must be requisitioned, because it is 
 only under such supervision that it can be properly regulated and 
 controlled. 
 
 SANITARY FORMATIONS AND ESTABLISHMENTS 
 
 Mobile sanitary formations (i.e., those which are intended to 
 accompany armies in the field) and the fixed establishments belong- 
 ing to the sanitary service are protected and respected by bellig- 
 erents. 
 
 By mobile sanitary formations must be understood all organ- 
 izations which follow the troops on the field of battle. In our 
 service is included the following: (1) Regimental equipment; (2) 
 Ambulance companies; (3) Field hospitals; (4) The reserve medical 
 supply; (5) The sanitary column, including (a) Ambulance column, 
 
760 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 (b) Evacuation hospital; (6) Hospital trains; (7) Hospital boats; 
 (8) Red Cross transport column. , 
 
 The term "fixed establishments" is clearly intended to cover 
 stationary or general hospitals, whether actually movable or located, 
 on the line of communications, or at a base, and in our service 
 would include: (1) The base medical supply depot; (2) Base hos- 
 pitals; (3) Casual camps; (4) Convalescent camps; and (5) Red 
 Cross hospital columns. 
 
 By "respect and protection" it is intended that they shall 
 not be fired upon, and shall be protected in the discharge of their 
 duties, and this is applicable to both classes, irrespective of the fact 
 of the actual presence therein of the sick or wounded. They are 
 protected from deliberate attack. The protection due to sanitary 
 formations and establishments ceases if they are used to commit 
 acts injurious to the enemy. 
 
 By cessation of protection is understood that these units 
 may be fired on and the personnel taken prisoners and in a proper 
 case reprisals may be resorted to. As examples of harmful acts 
 may be cited — taking part in the campaign, sheltering spies of com- 
 batants, placing these units directly in the line of fire of the enemy, 
 or in a strategic position, where they restrict military, operations 
 or conceal guns, or making use of sanitary trains to transport 
 effectives, etc. Since sanitary formations should be placed in con- 
 cealed points where protected from the enemy's fire, the placing of 
 such units as indicated may excuse their being fired upon and the 
 detention of their personnel, but before firing upon them it is best, 
 if possible, to direct them to withdraw. 
 
 Although the sanitary personnel may carry arms of self- 
 defense, they should not resist with such arms their being captured 
 by the enemy. These arms are for their personal defense and for 
 protection of the sick and wounded under their charge against 
 marauders and the like. 
 
 Due to the fact that in some armies trained soldiers are used 
 as medical orderlies, it is expressly provided that a picket or sen- 
 tinel taken from a combatant arm may be used as a guard to a 
 sanitary formation. Such guard, when furnished with authority in 
 due form, is entitled to the same privileges as those of the medical 
 personnel while so employed. 
 
 It is indispensable, however, that such picket or sentinel be 
 provided with a written order that he can show to the adversary. 
 Such pickets or guards are not made prisoners of war. 
 
 PERSONNEL 
 
 The personnel charged exclusively with the removal, trans- 
 portation, and treatment of the sick and wounded, as well as with 
 the administration of sanitary formations and establishments, and 
 
LAND WARFARE 761 
 
 the chaplains attached to armies, are respected and protected under 
 all circumstances. If they fall into the hands of the enemy they 
 are not considered as prisoners of war. 
 
 The personnel here intended by the words "charged exclu- 
 sively" is clearly the officers and men of the army service corps, 
 including drivers of transports attached to the medical service for 
 the entire campaign, so that musicians and other soldiers, tempor- 
 arily employed as litter bearers, are not placed under the protection 
 of the convention. These latter should be supplied with a special 
 brassard or certificate. 
 
 The medical personnel above referred to, chaplains, and 
 guards, are protected from deliberate attack. There is no just cause 
 for complaint, as a violation of the convention, if they are acci- 
 dentally killed or wounded in the execution of their duties. 
 
 Voluntary Aid Societies. — The personnel of voluntary aid 
 societies, duly recognized and authorized by their own Govern- 
 ments, who are employed in the sanitary formations and estab- 
 lishments of armies, are assimilated to the personnel contemplated, 
 upon condition that the said personnel shall be subject to military 
 laws and regulations. 
 
 Each State makes known to the other, either in time of 
 peace or at the opening or during the progress of hostilities, and 
 in any case before actual employment, the names of the societies 
 which it has authorized to render assistance, under its responsi- 
 bility, in the official sanitary service of its armies. 
 
 The National Red Cross. — The National Red Cross of 
 America is the only volunteer aid society that can be employed 
 by the land and naval forces of the United States in future wars 
 to aid the medical personnel, and their employment must be under 
 the responsibility of the Government as part of the medical per- 
 sonnel and establishments of its Army, and they must be assigned 
 to duties in localities designated by competent military authority. 
 
 The personnel and establishments of voluntary aid societies, 
 while so employed, are entitled to the same privileges and protec- 
 tion as that to which the Army Medical Service is entitled under 
 certain conditions, which are: "a," That the societies are duly 
 recognized and authorized by their Government, "b" That the 
 names of the societies to be employed must be notified to the 
 enemy before any of the personnel is actually employed, "c" That 
 the personnel is subject to military law. 
 
 In past wars so many irregularities and even acts of hostility 
 have been committed by members of volunteer aid societies that 
 the conditions above mentioned have been found necessary. Com- 
 manders, before permitting their employment, should therefore 
 assure themselves that these conditions have been strictly com- 
 plied with. 
 
762 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Volunteer Societies of Neutrals. — A recognized society of a 
 neutral State can only lend the services of its sanitary personnel 
 and formations to a belligerent with the prior consent of its own 
 Government and the authority of such belligerent. The belligerent 
 who has accepted such assistance is required to notify the enemy 
 before making any use thereof. 
 
 It is necessary to secure the consent of the neutral Govern- 
 ment as well as that of the belligerent into whose service it pro- 
 poses to enter, but it is not necessary to obtain the consent of the 
 other belligerent who is notified of the fact of employment. Such 
 employment in this country must be accomplished through the 
 National Red Cross of America. 
 
 CAPTURED MEDICAL PERSONNEL 
 
 In interpreting the foregoing obligations two things, among 
 others, must be carefully considered: (1) That the sanitary forma- 
 tions must not be placed in position to take back useful informa- 
 tion to their army, and (2) that these rules are not meant to justify 
 depriving the enemy of the services of his medical personnel for 
 an indefinite period of time. The former clearly precludes the 
 absolute freedom of movement of this medical personnel in the 
 theater of war, even though claiming to be engaged in collecting, 
 aiding, or removing the wounded and sick. Medical personnel of 
 the enemy persisting in approaching places after being ordered to 
 halt may be fired on as an extreme measure. -There is nothing in 
 the Geneva Convention conferring immunity from search of its 
 medical personnel and units, and they may be stopped by the same 
 means as a ship. 
 
 The medical personnel of a force which capitulates may be 
 detained to attend the sick and wounded included in the surrender 
 and sent back gradually. It is not left to this captured personnel 
 to choose its own route, or the time of its return, both of which 
 are determined by the captor in conformity to military exigencies. 
 
 While they remain in his power, the enemy secures to the 
 personnel mentioned the same pay and allowances to which per- 
 sons of the same grade in his own army are entitled. 
 
 MEDICAL MATERIEL 
 
 If mobile sanitary formations fall into the power of the 
 enemy, they retain their materiel, including the teams, whatever 
 may be the means of transportation, and the conducting personnel. 
 Competent military authority, however, has the right to employ it 
 
LAND WARFARE 763 
 
 in caring for the sick and wounded. The restitution of the materiel 
 takes place in accordance with the conditions prescribed for the 
 sanitary personnel, and, as far as possible, at the same time. 
 
 The obligation to return the teams of mobile sanitary for- 
 mations is applicable to teams secured by requisition, but there is 
 no obligation to provide teams to facilitate the return of the 
 materiel of captured mobile sanitary formations should they have 
 lost all or part of their own animals by casualties. 
 
 Buildings and materiel pertaining to fixed establishments 
 remain subject to the laws of war, but can not be diverted from 
 their use so long as they are necessary for the sick and wounded. 
 Commanders of troops engaged in operations, however, may use 
 them, in case of important military necessity, if, before such use, 
 the sick and wounded who are in them have been provided for. 
 
 The buildings of fixed medical establishments, hospitals, and 
 depots can not, from their nature, be sent back to the enemy. It is 
 contemplated that they shall be used for medical purposes so long 
 as necessary for the wounded and sick, except in cases of urgent 
 military necessity; but if other arrangements are made for the wel- 
 fare of the wounded and sick found in them, there is nothing to 
 prohibit the fortification and use of such buildings by the captor. 
 The materiel is such hospital or other fixed sanitary establishment 
 follows the fate of the buildings and becomes the property of the 
 captor. 
 
 The materiel of aid societies is regarded as private property 
 and, as such, is respected under all circumstances, save that it is 
 subject to the recognized right of requisition by belligerents in 
 conformity to the laws and usages of war. 
 
 Uncertainty as to the Rule. — There is a marked distinction 
 as to treatment accorded to materiel of mobile sanitary formations, 
 of fixed establishments, and of convoys for the evacuation of the 
 sick and wounded; and since volunteer aid societies employ 
 materiel in the same units, it is uncertain what treatment should 
 be accorded it when found in fixed establishments and with con- 
 voys. It is believed that this materiel should be treated under all 
 circumstances as private property; but, wherever found, it is sub- 
 ject to requisition. 
 
 Convoys of Evacuation. — Convoys of evacuation shall be 
 treated as mobile sanitary formations subject to the following 
 special provisions: 
 
 1. A belligerent intercepting a convoy may, if required by 
 military necessity, break up such convoy, charging himself with 
 the care of the sick and wounded whom it contains. 
 
 2. In this case the obligation to return the sanitary personnel 
 is extended to include the entire military personnel employed, 
 
764 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 under competent orders, in the transportation and protection of 
 the convoy. 
 
 The obligation to return the sanitary materiel applies to 
 railway trains and vessels intended for interior navigation which 
 have been especially equipped for evacuation purposes, as well as 
 to the ordinary vehicles, trains, and vessels which belong to the 
 sanitary service. 
 
 Military vehicles, with their teams, other than those belong- 
 ing to the sanitary service, may be captured. 
 
 The civil personnel and the various means of transportation 
 obtained by requisition, including railway materiel and vessels 
 utilized for convoys, are subject to the general rules of interna- 
 tional law. 
 
 The belligerents can not only break up the convoy but can 
 also detain it for a definite period of time, confine it to a certain 
 route, or designate the place where it is to report. 
 
 The personnel of the convoy may be — 1. Medical; 2. Rail- 
 way, loaned for transport purposes; 3. Military guards; 4; Civil 
 requisitioned, which should be released, if not again requisitioned 
 by the captor. 
 
 The Materiel. — The materiel may belong to — 1. The regular 
 medical service of the enemy, or to aid societies recognized by 
 him; Tor, 2. May consist of things requisitioned; that is, carriages, 
 boats, etc; or, 3. May consist of carriages, with their teams, bor- 
 rowed from military units, which are then subject to capture. 
 
 THE DISTINCTIVE EMBLEM 
 
 Out of respect to Switzerland the heraldic emblem of the 
 red cross on a white ground, formed by the reversal of the Federal 
 colors, is continued as the emblem and distinctive sign of the san- 
 itary service of armies. This emblem appears on flags and bras- 
 sards as well as upon all materiel appertaining to the sanitary 
 service, with the permission of the competent military authority. 
 ...... .The Brassard.^-Certain personnel wear attached to the left 
 
 arm a brassard bearing a red cross on a white ground, which is 
 issued and stamped by competent military authority, and accom- 
 panied by a certificate of identity in the case of persons attached 
 to the sanitary service of armies who do not have military uni- 
 forms. The convention of 1864 with regard to the use of the 
 brassard differs from that of 1906 in that the latter requires that 
 it be fixed to the arm and be permanently worn. 
 
 For the protection of persons to whom brassards are issued 
 and to prevent their improper use by spies and others, as well as 
 to conform to requirements, a register should be kept showing 
 the names and description of the persons to whom brassards have 
 
LAND WARFARE 765 
 
 been issued. The brassard should be stamped with a special mark 
 or number by the War Department. In case of persons not 
 wearing a military uniform a certificate must be issued containing 
 the name, description, and number of the person to whom issued. 
 
 The Medical Department is charged with the duty of provid- 
 ing, stamping, and delivering brassards to all persons entitled to 
 neutrality (protection), and of providing and delivering necessary 
 certificates of identity to persons attached to the sanitary service 
 who do not have a military uniform. 
 
 The distinctive flag of the convention can only be displayed 
 over the sanitary formations and establishments which the conven- 
 tion provides shall be respected, and with the consent of the mil- 
 itary authorities. It is accompanied by the national flag of the 
 belligerent to whose service the formation or establishment is 
 attached. 
 
 Sanitary formations which have fallen into the power of the 
 enemy, however, shall fly no other flag than that of the Red Cross 
 so long as they continue in that situation. 
 
 Flags Designated. — The flag of the Geneva Convention, to 
 be used in connection with the national flag in time of war with 
 a signatory of the convention, is as follows: 
 
 For general hospitals, white bunting, 9 by 5 feet, with a red 
 cross of bunting 4 feet high and 4 feet wide in the center; arms, 
 of cross to be 16 inches wide. 
 
 For field hospitals, white bunting, 6 by 4 feet, with a red 
 cross of bunting 3 feet high and 3 feet wide in the center 1 ; arms 
 of cross to be 12 inches wide. 
 
 For ambulances and for guidons to mark the way to field 
 hospitals, white bunting, 28 by 16 inches, with a red cross of bunt- 
 ing 12 inches high and 12 inches wide in the center; arms of cross 
 to be 4 inches wide. 
 
 Military Hospital Ships. — Military hospital ships are dis- 
 tinguished by being painted white outside with a horizontal band 
 of green about a meter and a half in breadth. 
 
 The hospital ships equipped wholly or in part at the expense 
 of private individuals or officially recognized relief societies are 
 distinguished by being painted white outside with a horizontal 
 band of red about a meter and a half in breadth. 
 
 The boats of the ships above mentioned, as also small craft 
 which may be used for hospital work, are distinguished by similar 
 painting. 
 
 All hospital ships shall make themselves known by hoisting, 
 with their national flag, the white flag with a red cross provided 
 by the Geneva Convention, and, further, if they belong to a neutral 
 State, by flying at the mainmast the national flag of the belligerent 
 under whose control they are placed. 
 

 766 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Hospital ships which are detained by the enemy must haul 
 down the national flag of the belligerent to whom they belong. 
 
 The ships and boats above mentioned which wish to insure 
 by night the freedom from interference to which they are entitled 
 must, subject to the assent of the belligerent they are accompany- 
 ing, take the necessary measures to render their special painting 
 sufficiently plain. 
 
 Sanitary Formations of Neutral Countries. — The sanitary 
 formations of neutral countries which, under the conditions set 
 forth, have been authorized to render their services fly, with the 
 flag of the convention, the national flag of the belligerent to which 
 they are attached. 
 
 Protection and Use of the Flag. — The emblem of the red 
 cross on a white ground and the words "Red Cross" or "Geneva 
 Cross" may only be used, whether in time of peace or war, to 
 protect or designate sanitary formations and establishments. 
 
 After each engagement the commander in possession of the 
 field takes measures to insure protection against pillage and mal- 
 treatment. He sees that a careful examination is made of the 
 bodies of the dead prior to their interment or incineration. 
 
 As soon as possible each belligerent forwards to the author- 
 ities of their country or army the marks or military papers of 
 identification found upon the bodies of the dead. They (the bellig- 
 erents) collect all objects of personal use, valuables, letters,, etc., 
 which are found upon the field of battle, or have been left by the 
 sick and wounded who have died in sanitary formations or other 
 establishments, for transmission to persons in interest through the 
 authorities of their own country. 
 
 THE CONDUCT OF HOSTILITIES 
 
 The right of belligerents to adopt means of injuring the 
 enemy is not unlimited. 
 
 On general principles it is permissible to destroy your enemy 
 and it is immaterial how this is accomplished. But in practice the 
 means employed are definitely restricted by international declar- 
 ations and conventions, and by the laws and usages of war. Gen- 
 erally speaking, the means to be employed include both force and 
 stratagem, and there is included therein the killing and disabling 
 the enemy, forcing him by defeat and exhaustion to surrender, 
 the investment, bombardment or siege of his fortresses and 
 defended places, the damage, destruction, and appropriation of 
 property, and injury to the general resources of the country. 
 
 The Use of Poison. — In addition to the prohibitions pro- 
 vided by special conventions, it" is especially forbidden to employ 
 
LAND WARFARE 767 
 
 poison or poisoned weapons. This prohibition extends to the 
 use of means calculated to spread contagious diseases, and in- 
 cludes the deliberate contamination of sources of water by throw- 
 ing into same dead animals and all poisonous substances of any 
 kind, but does not prohibit measures being taken to dry up springs 
 or divert rivers and aqueducts from their courses. 
 
 The Use of Treachery. — It is especially forbidden to kill or 
 wound treacherously individuals belonging to the hostile nation 
 or army. Civilized nations look with horror upon offers of rewards 
 for the assassination of enemies, and the perpetrator of such an 
 act has no claim to be treated as a combatant, but should be treated 
 as a criminal. So, too, the proclaiming of an individual belonging 
 to the hostile army, or a citizen or subject of the hostile govern- 
 ment, an outlaw, who may be slain without trial by a captor. 
 
 Injuring an Enemy Who Has Surrendered. — It is especially 
 forbidden to kill or wound an enemy who, having laid down his 
 arms, or having no longer means of defense, has surrendered at 
 discretion. War is for the purpose of overcoming armed resist- 
 ance, and no vengeance can be taken because an individual has 
 done his duty to the last. And whoever intentionally inflicts 
 additional wounds on an enemy already wholly disabled, or kills 
 such an enemy, or who orders or encourages soldiers to do so, 
 suffers death, if duly convicted, whether he belongs to the Army 
 of the United States or is an enemy captured after having com- 
 mitted the misdeed. 
 
 Refusal of Quarter. — It is especially forbidden to declare 
 that no quarter will be given. It is no longer contemplated that 
 quarter will be refused to the garrison of a fortress carried by 
 assault, to the defenders of an undefended place who did not sur- 
 render when threatened with bombardment, or to a weak garrison 
 which obstinately and uselessly persevered in defending a fortified 
 place against overwhelming odds. 
 
 Employment of Arms, Etc., Causing Unnecessary Injury. — 
 It is especially forbidden to employ arms, projectiles, or material 
 of a nature to cause unnecessary injury. This prohibition is not 
 intended to apply to the use of explosives contained in artillery pro- 
 jectiles, mines, aerial torpedoes, or hand grenades, but it does 
 include the use of lances with barbed heads, irregular-shaped 
 bullets, projectiles filled with glass, etc., and the use of any sub- 
 stance on these bullets that would tend to unnecessarily inflame a 
 wound inflicted by them, and the scoring of the surface or filing 
 off the ends of the hard case of such bullets. 
 
 Train Wrecking, Etc. — Train wrecking and setting on fire 
 camps or military depots are legitimate means of injuring the 
 enemy when carried out by the members of the armed forces. 
 
768 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Wrecking of trains should be limited strictly to cases which tend 
 directly to weaken the enemy's military forces. 
 
 Subjects Not to be Compelled to Take Part in Operations 
 Against Their Own Country.— A belligerent is likewise forbidden 
 to compel the nationals of the hostile party to take part in the 
 operations of war directed against their own country, even if they 
 were in the belligerent's service before the commencement of the 
 war. 
 
 STRATAGEMS 
 
 Ruses of war and the employment of measures necessary for 
 obtaining information about the enemy and the country are con- 
 sidered permissible. 
 
 Good Faith. — Absolute good faith with the enemy must be 
 observed as a rule of conduct. Without it war will degenerate 
 into excesses and violences, ending only in the total destruction 
 of one or both of the belligerents. In general, belligerents may 
 resort to such measures for mystifying or misleading the enemy, 
 which the enemy ought to take measures to secure himself against, 
 such as the employment of spies, inducing soldiers to desert, to 
 surrender, to rebel, or to give false information to the enemy. 
 
 Must Not Involve Treachery or Perfidy. — The ruses of war 
 are, however, legitimate so long as they do not involve treachery 
 or perfidy on the part of the belligerent resorting to them. They 
 are forbidden if they contravene any generally accepted rule. The 
 line of demarcation, however, between legitimate ruses and for- 
 bidden acts of treachery and perfidy is sometimes rather indistinct, 
 and with regard to same the writers of authority have dis- 
 agreed. For example: It would be an improper practice to secure j 
 an advantage of the enemy by deliberate lying which involves a 
 breach of faith, or when there is a moral obligation to speak the 
 truth, such as declaring that an armistice had been agreed upon 
 when such was not the case. On the other hand, it is a perfectly 
 proper ruse to summon a force to surrender on the ground that it 
 is surrounded, and thereby induce such surrender with a small 
 force. 
 
 Legitimate Ruses. — Among legitimate ruses may be counted 
 surprises; ambushes; feigning attacks, retreats, or flights; simulat- 
 ing quiet and inactivity; giving large outposts or a strong advanced 
 guard to a small force; constructing works, bridges, etc., which it 
 is not intended to use; transmitting false or misleading signals and 
 telegraph messages, and sending false dispatches and newspapers, 
 with a view to their being intercepted by the enemy; lighting camp 
 fires where there are no troops; making use of the enemy's signals, 
 bugle and trumpet calls, watchwords, and words of command; pre- 
 
LAND WARFARE 769 
 
 tending to communicate with troops or re-enforcements which have 
 no existence; moving landmarks; putting up dummy guns or laying 
 dummy mines; removing badges from uniforms; clothing the men 
 of a single unit in the uniform of several different units so that 
 prisoners and dead may give the idea of a large force. 
 
 Use of Flags, Insignia, Military Uniforms of the Enemy. — 
 It is especially forbidden to make improper use of a flag of truce, of 
 the national flag, or of the military insignia and uniform of the 
 enemy, as well as of the distinctive badges of the Geneva Conven- 
 tion. 
 
 Flags of Truce. — Flags of truce must not be used surrepti- 
 tiously to obtain military information or merely to obtain time to 
 effect a retreat or secure re-enforcements or to feign a surrender in 
 order to surprise an enemy. An officer receiving them is not on 
 this account absolved from the duty of exercising proper precau- 
 tions with regard to them. 
 
 National Flags, Insignia, and Uniforms as a Ruse. — In prac- 
 tice it has been authorized to make use of these as a ruse. The 
 foregoing rule does not prohibit such use, but does prohibit their 
 improper use. It is certainly forbidden to make use of them dur- 
 ing a combat. Before opening fire upon the enemy they must be 
 discarded. Whether the enemy flag can be displayed and h ; s uni- 
 form worn to effect an advance or to withdraw is not settled. In 
 this country it has always been authorized to utilize uniforms cap- 
 tured from the enemy, provided some striking mark or sign is 
 attached to distinguish the American soldier from the enemy. All 
 distinctive badges or marks of the enemy should be removed before 
 making use of them. It is believed that such uniforms should not 
 be used except in case of absolute necessity. 
 
 Improper Use of Distinctive Badges of Geneva Convention. 
 — The Red Cross flag must be limited to the protection of units and 
 material provided for in the Geneva Convention. As examples of 
 the improper use may be cited covering wagons containing ammu- 
 nition or nonmedical stores, a hospital train used to facilitate the 
 escape of combatants, firing from a tent or building flying the Red- 
 Cross flag, using a hospital or other building accorded such pro- 
 tection as an observatory or military office or store, or generally 
 for committing acts of hostility. 
 
 ESPIONAGE AND TREASON 
 
 A person can only be considered a spy when, acting clan- 
 destinely or on false pretenses, he obtains or endeavors to obtain 
 information in the zone of operations of a belligerent, with the 
 intention of communicating it to the hostile party. Thus, soldiers 
 not wearing a disguise who have penetrated into the zone of oper- 
 

 770 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 ations of the hostile army, for the purpose of obtaining information, 
 are not considered spies; similarly, the following are not considered 
 spies: Soldiers and civilians, carrying out their mission openly, 
 intrusted with the delivery of dispatches intended either for their 
 own army or for the enemy's army. To this class belong likewise 
 persons sent in balloons for the purpose of carrying dispatches and, 
 generally, of maintaining communications between different parts 
 of an army or a territory. 
 
 Recognition of Necessity for Obtaining Information. — In the 
 foregoing rule is distinct recognition of the necessity for employing 
 spies and other secret agents for obtaining information about the 
 enemy, so that the acquirement of such information by secret 
 methods is regulated by the laws and usages of war. The definition 
 above comprehends all classes, whether officers, soldiers, or civil- 
 ians, and, like the criminal law, makes no distinction as to sex. As 
 to the offense, it limits the same to securing information clandes- 
 tinely or on false pretences in the zone of operations. It does not 
 include all cases in which a person makes or endeavors to make 
 unauthorized or secret communication to the enemy. These latter 
 cases must therefore be dealt with under the laws relating to 
 treason and espionage. 
 
 Treason. — All unauthorized or secret communication with 
 the enemy is considered treasonable by the law of war. Foreign 
 residents in an invaded or occupied territory, or foreign visitors in 
 the same, can claim no immunity from this law. They may com- 
 municate with foreign parts or with the inhabitants of the hostile 
 country so far as military authority permits, but no further. 
 
 War Traitor. — A traitor under the law, or a war traitor, is 
 a person in a place or district under martial law (military govern- 
 ment) who, unauthorized by the military commander, gives infor- 
 mation of any kind to the enemy or holds intercourse with him. 
 
 If the citizen or subject of a country or place invaded or 
 conquered gives information to his own Government, from which 
 he is separated by the hostile army, or to the army of his Govern- 
 ment, he is a war traitor. 
 
 If a citizen of a hostile and invaded district voluntarily 
 serves as a guide to the enemy, or offers to do so, he is deemed 
 a war traitor. 
 
 Punishment of Spies. — The spy is punishable with death, 
 whether or not he succeed in obtaining the information or in con- 
 veying it to the enemy. 
 
 Punishment of Treason. — The war traitor is always severely 
 punished. If his offense consists in betraying to the enemy any- 
 thing concerning the condition, safety, operations, or plans of the 
 troops holding or occupying the place or district, his punishment 
 is death. 
 
LAND WARFARE 771 
 
 Spy Immune from Punishment After Joining His Own Army. 
 
 — A spy who, after rejoining the army to which he belongs, is 
 subsequently captured by the enemy, is treated as a prisoner of 
 war, and incurs no responsibility for his previous acts of espionage. 
 This immunity does not extend to persons guilty of treason, who 
 may be arrested at any place or any time within the jurisdiction. 
 And it is not necessary for traitors to be caught in the act in order 
 that they may be punished. 
 
 Assisting Espionage Punishable. — Assisting or favoring es- 
 pionage or treason and knowingly concealing a spy may be made 
 the subject of charges; and such acts are by the customary laws 
 of war equally punishable. 
 
 BOMBARDMENTS, ASSAULTS AND SIEGES 
 
 The attack, or bombardment, by whatever means, of towns, 
 villages, dwellings, or buildings which are undefended is prohibited. 
 
 The Use of Balloons. — The addition of the words "by what- 
 ever means" was for the purpose of making it clear that the bom- 
 bardment of these undefended localities from balloons or aero- 
 planes is prohibited. 
 
 Defended Place Denned. — Investment, bombardment, assault 
 and siege have always been recognized as legitimate means of war- 
 fare, but under the foregoing rule their use is limited to defended 
 places, which certainly will include the following: 
 
 (a) A fort or fortified place, (b) A town surrounded by de- 
 tached forts is considered jointly with such forts as an indivisible 
 whole, as a defended place, (c) A place that is occupied by a 
 military force or through which such force is passing is a defended 
 place. The occupation of such place by sanitary troops alone is 
 not sufficient to consider it a defended place. 
 
 Throwing Projectiles from Balloons on Forts and Fortified 
 Places. — There is no prohibition in The Hague Rules or in other 
 conventions against throwing authorized projectiles from balloons 
 or aeroplanes into forts and fortified places. 
 
 Notice of Bombardment. — The officer in command of an 
 attacking force must, before commencing a bombardment, except 
 in case of assault, do all in his power to warn the authorities. 
 
 The American Rule. — Commanders, whenever admissible, in- 
 form the enemy of their intention to bombard a place, so that the 
 non-combatants, and especially the women and children, may be 
 removed before the bombardment commences. But it is no infrac- 
 tion of the common law of war to omit thus to inform the enemy. 
 Surprise may be a necessity. 
 
 There is no rule of law which compels the commander of an 
 investing force to authorize the population, including women, 
 
772 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 children, aged, sick, wounded, subjects of neutral powers, or tem- 
 porary residents, to leave the besieged locality, even when a bom- 
 bardment is about to commence. It is entirely within the discre- 
 tion of the besieging commander whether he will permit them to 
 leave or not and under what conditions. 
 
 Diplomatic Agents of Neutrals. — Diplomatic agents of a neu- 
 tral power should not be prevented from leaving a besieged place 
 before hostilities commence. This privilege can not be claimed 
 while hostilities are in progress. The same privileges should prop- 
 erly be accorded to a consular officer of a neutral power. Should 
 they voluntarily decide to remain, they must undergo the same 
 treatment as other inhabitants. 
 
 Persons in Zone Between Troops. — Persons dwelling in the 
 zone between the opposing forces in the first stages of a siege 
 are treated as inhabitants of the invaded locality. 
 
 Individuals Leaving Without Permission. — Individuals who 
 attempt to leave or enter a besieged place without obtaining the 
 necessary permission are liable to be fired on and may be sent back 
 into the besieged place or detained and put on trial as suspects. 
 
 Persons Expelled May Be Sent Back. — When a commander 
 of a besieged place expels the non-combatants, in order to lessen 
 the number of those who consume his stock of provisions, it is law- 
 ful, though an extreme measure, to drive them back, so as to hasten 
 the surrender. 
 
 Not Compelled to Cease Fire When Expelled. — It is not nec- 
 essary to cease or relax fire because the enemy sends women and 
 children out of his lines in order to get them to a place of safety, 
 or to employ compassion, but fire must not be intentionally opened 
 in their direction. 
 
 Can Forbid Communication With Besieged Place. — The 
 commander of the investing force has the absolute right to forbid 
 all communication between the besieged place and the outside. 
 The application of this rule to diplomatic envoys of neutral powers 
 is unsettled. 
 
 Buildings Dedicated to Religious Works, Etc., to be Spared. 
 — In sieges and bombardments all necessary steps must be taken 
 to spare, as far as possible, buildings dedicated to religion, art. 
 science, or charitable purposes, historic monuments, hospitals, and 
 places where the sick and wounded are collected, provided that they 
 are not being used at the time for military purposes. 
 
 It is the duty of the besieged to indicate the presence of such 
 buildings or places by distinctive and visible signs, which are 
 notified to the enemy beforehand. 
 
 Use of Geneva Flag Limited to Hospitals, Etc.— Only hos- 
 pitals and places where the sick and wounded are located can be 
 indicated by means of the red cross on a white ground. It is 
 
LAND WARFARE 773 
 
 certainly desirable, in order to avoid injury from actual or erratic 
 shots, that the sick and wounded in besieged places should be con- 
 centrated in some safe place, preferably in neutral territory, if 
 possible to arrange. It is the duty of the inhabitants to indicate 
 such monuments, edifices, or places by visible signs, which consist 
 of large, stiff rectangular panels divided diagonally into two colored 
 triangular portions, the upper portion black, the lower portion 
 white. 
 
 Buildings Protected Can Not be Used for Military Purposes. 
 « — The besieging forces are not required to observe the signs indi- 
 cating inviolability of buildings that are known to be used for mil- 
 itary purposes, such as quarters for officers and men, as observa- 
 tories, or signaling stations. 
 
 Pillage Forbidden.— The pillage of a town or any place, even 
 when taken by assault, is prohibited, and severely punished under 
 , the Articles of War. 
 
 INTERCOURSE BETWEEN BELLIGERENTS 
 
 All intercourse between the territories occupied by bellig- 
 erent armies, whether by traffic, by letter, by travel, or in any other 
 way, ceases. This is the general rule, to be observed without 
 special proclamation. 
 
 Exceptions to this rule, whether by safe-conduct, or permis- 
 sion to trade on a small or large scale, or by exchanging mails, or 
 by travel from one territory into the other, can take place only 
 according to agreement approved by the Government or by the 
 highest military authority. Contraventions of this rule are highly 
 punishable. 
 
 It is absolutely essential in all non-hostile relations that the 
 most scrupulous good faith be observed by both parties, and that 
 no advantage not intended to be given by the adversary be taken 
 ! under any circumstances. 
 
 Ambassadors and other diplomatic agents of neutral powers, 
 accredited to the enemy, may receive safe-conduct through the ter- 
 ritories occupied by the belligerents, unless there are military 
 reasons to the contrary, and unless they may reach the place of 
 their destination conveniently by another route. It implies no 
 international affront if the safe-conduct is declined. Such passes 
 ! are usually given by the supreme authority of the State, and not 
 by the subordinates. 
 
 These non-hostile relations are usually comprised under the 
 "headings of parlementaires, and flags of truce, armistices, capitula- 
 tions, passports, safe-conducts, safeguards, cartels and other similar 
 undertakings. 
 
774 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 PARLEMENTAIRES AND FLAGS OF TRUCE 
 
 Parlementaires are ordinarily agents in the non-hostile 
 intercourse of belligerent armies. Their duties include every form 
 of communication with the enemy in the field. 
 
 A person is regarded as a parlementaire (bearing a flag of 
 truce) who has been authorized by one of the belligerents to enter 
 into communication with the other, and who advances bearing a 
 white flag. He has a right to inviolability, as well as the trum- 
 peter, bugler or drummer, the flag bearer, and interpreter who may 
 accompany him. 
 
 All soldiers, of whatever grade, should be thoroughly 
 acquainted with the qualifications and privileges accorded parle- 
 mentaires and with the proper method of receiving them when 
 they present themselves. 
 
 Signification of White Flag. — The white flag, when used by 
 troops, indicates a desire to communicate with the enemy. The 
 hoisting of a white flag has no other signification in international 
 law. It may indicate that the party hoisting it desires to open 
 communication with a view to an armistice or a surrender. If 
 hoisted in action by individual soldiers or a small party, it has come 
 to signify surrender. It is essential, therefore, to determine 
 whether the flag was actually hoisted by authority of the com- 
 mander. 
 
 The enemy is not required to cease firing when a white flag 
 is raised. To indicate that the hoisting is authorized, the bellig- 
 erent should cease firing. He should also send a parlementaire. 
 
 Fire Not to Be Directed on the Parlementaire. — The fire 
 should not be intentionally directed on the person carrying the 
 flag or upon those with him; if, however, the parlementaire or 
 those near him present themselves during an engagement and are 
 killed or wounded, it furnishes no ground for complaint. It is the 
 duty of the parlementaire to select a propitious moment for dis- 
 playing his flag, such as during the intervals of active operations, 
 and to avoid the dangerous zone by making a detour. 
 
 The parlementaire, in addition to presenting himself under 
 cover of a white flag, must be duly authorized in a written instru- 
 ment signed by the commander of the forces. 
 
 No Communication at Night. — No provision is made for 
 opening communication with an enemy during the hours of dark- 
 ness, when a white flag can not be seen. An attempt to send a 
 parlementaire at night is very dangerous, and at best uncertain. 
 The commander to whom a parlementaire is sent is not obliged 
 to receive him under all circumstances. He may take all the neces- 
 sary steps to prevent the parlementaire from taking advantage of 
 
LAND WARFARE 775 
 
 his mission to obtain information. In case of abuse, he has the 
 right to detain the envoy temporarily. 
 
 May Prescribe Formalities. — The commander may declare 
 the formalities and conditions upon which he will receive a parle- 
 mentaire and fix the hour and place at which he must appear. 
 The present rule is that a belligerent may not declare beforehand, 
 even for a specified period — except in case of reprisal for abuses of 
 the flag of truce — that he will not receive parlementaires. An 
 unnecessary repetition of visits need not be allowed. 
 
 Only three persons are authorized to accompany the parle- 
 mentaire. These, under the rule, are entitled to the same 
 immunity. In case he is to have more than these, authority for 
 the same should be previously obtained. He may be accompanied 
 by a less number, and may even go alone with the flag of truce. 
 It is advisable to have at least a trumpeter, bugler, or drummer 
 with him in order to more readily and surely make known his 
 status, thereby avoiding danger as much as possible. 
 
 Formalities in the Reception of Parlementaires. — 1. The 
 parlementaire, with necessary authorization and with his duly 
 authorized attendants, should approach the enemy's outpost or 
 lines at a slow pace. When he arrives near enough to be recog- 
 nized — that is, seen and heard — he causes his trumpet or bugle to 
 be sounded or drum to be beaten and his flag to be waved. 2. He 
 then advances at a slow pace toward the line, carefully obeying all 
 instructions signaled or given him by any party of the enemy sent 
 out to meet or conduct him. 3. He will then proceed to the point 
 and by the route designated for receiving him. He may be fur- 
 nished an escort for this by the enemy. 4. On arriving at the post 
 of admittance the bearer and his escort dismount, and, leaving the 
 escort at a convenient distance in rear, he proceeds on foot to the 
 commander or senior officer of the post and states his mission. 5. 
 The escort should not attempt to enter the lines with the parle- 
 mentaire, and must obey all instructions or signals given them. 
 6. Marked courtesy must be observed on both sides. Conversation 
 should be prudent and not touch upon the military operations. 
 Great care will be exercised not to ack for nor to impart informa- 
 tion. 7. The parlementaire will be treated with all the honors due 
 to his rank and station and furnished an escort or guard in case of 
 necessity. 8. A parlementaire can not of strict right claim to pass 
 the outposts, nor can he demand to be conducted into the pres- 
 ence of the commanding officer. His message, if written, may be 
 transmitted to the commanding officer; if verbal, he may be 
 required to reduce it to writing or deliver it orally to such person 
 as may be designated to receive it. If he is sent to the rear for 
 any reason whatever, he should be blindfolded and sent by a 
 circuitous route. 9. In cases where resort is had to a decision 
 
776 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 from higher authority, the parlementaire must wait until same is 
 returned. 10. The parlementaire will be permitted to retire and 
 return with the same formalities and precautions as upon arrival. 
 
 Detention of Parlementaire. — In addition to right of deten- 
 tion for abuse of his position, a parlementaire may be detained in 
 case he has seen anything, or obtained knowledge which may be 
 detrimental to the enemy, or if his departure should reveal infor- 
 mation of the movement of troops. He should be detained only so 
 long as circumstances imperatively demand, and information should 
 be sent at once to his commander as to such detention, as well as 
 of any other action taken against him or against his party. The 
 parlementaire loses his right of inviolability if it is proved in a 
 clear and incontestable manner that he has taken advantage of 
 his privileged position to provoke or commit an act of treachery. 
 
 Abuse of Flag of Truce. — It constitutes an abuse of the flag 
 of truce for an enemy not to halt and cease firing while the par- 
 lementaire sent by him is advancing and being received by the 
 other party. Likewise, if the flag of truce is made use of for the 
 purpose of inducing the enemy to believe that a parlementaire 
 is going to be sent when no such intention exists. It is also an 
 abuse of a flag of truce to carry out operations under the protection 
 granted by the enemy to the pretended flag of truce. An abuse of 
 a flag of truce may authorize a resort to reprisals. 
 
 CAPITULATIONS 
 
 A capitulation is an agreement entered into between com- 
 manders of belligerent forces for the surrender of a body of troops, 
 a "fortress, or other defended locality, or a district of the theater of 
 operations. 
 
 Capitulations are essentially military agreements, which in- 
 volve the cessation of further resistance by the force of the enemy 
 which capitulate. The surrender of a territory is frequently spoken 
 of as an evacuation. 
 
 Capitulations agreed upon between the contracting powers 
 must take into account the rules of military honor. Once settled, 
 they must be scrupulously observed by both parties. 
 
 Powers of Commanders. — The commander of a fort or place 
 and the commander-in-chief of an army are presumed to be duly 
 authorized to enter into capitulations, being responsible to their 
 respective Governments for any excess of power in stipulations 
 entered into by them. His powers do not extend beyond what is 
 necessary for the exercise of his command. He does not possess 
 power to treat for a permanent cession of the place under his com- 
 mand, for the surrender of a territory, for the cessation of hos- 
 
LAND WARFARE 777 
 
 tilities in a district beyond his command, or generally to make or 
 agree to terms of a political nature or such as will take effect after 
 the termination of hostilities. 
 
 Forms of Capitulation. — There is no specified form for capitu- 
 lations. They may be concluded either orally or in writing, but 
 in order to avoid disputes which may arise as to the terms thereof 
 it is best, whenever possible, that they be reduced to writing. The 
 convention should contain in precise terms every condition to be 
 imposed; the time, manner, and execution should be laid down in 
 the most precise and unequivocal terms. In case of an uncondi- 
 tional surrender following an assault, the terms might be oral, but 
 should be reduced to writing if practicable. 
 
 In the terms of capitulation the following subjects are usually 
 determined: 
 
 (a) The fate of the garrison, including those persons who 
 may have assisted them: These are usually declared to be prisoners 
 of war, but it frequently occurs that on account of their valorous 
 resistance they are authorized to march out from the garrison with 
 the " honors of war." 
 
 (b) The disarming of the place and of the defenders: It 
 frequently occurs that the officers are allowed to retain their arms, 
 equipment, and certain specified articles of personal property. 
 
 (c) The turning over of the arms and materiel, and, in a 
 proper case, the locating of the mine defenses, etc.: The French, 
 Russian, and other Governments require that in every case the 
 commander of the place must not surrender until he has destroyed 
 all flags, but this should be done before signing the capitulation. 
 
 (d) Provisions relative to private property of prisoners, in- 
 cluding personal belongings and valuables: Usually prisoners re- 
 tain the ownership of their effects, personal belongings and 
 valuables. However, they can be deprived temporarily of the 
 possession of them as a measure of safety. 
 
 (e) The evacuation of and taking possession of the sur- 
 rendered place. The provisions relative to the withdrawal of the 
 defenders and the entering into possession by the besiegers are 
 fixed in advance with absolute precision, according to the circum- 
 stances of each case. Commissions are named for the delivery and 
 taking possession, respectively. 
 
 (f) Provisions relative to the medical personnel, sick, and 
 wounded. 
 
 (g) Provisions for taking over the civil government and 
 property of the place, with regard to th'e peaceable population. 
 These, together with the preparation of the lists of prisoners, 
 repatriation of prisoners, etc., may be arranged in what is known 
 as the appendix to the original terms of the convention. 
 
 t 
 
rm MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 (h) Stipulations with regard to the immediate handing over 
 to the besiegers of certain forts or places, or other similar provi- 
 sions, as a pledge for the fulfillment of the capitulation. 
 
 Damage or Destruction of Property Prohibited After Capitu- 
 lation. — So soon as a capitulation is signed, the capitulator has no 
 right to demolish, destroy, or injure the works, arms, stores, 
 or ammunition in his possession during the time which elapses 
 between the signing and the execution of the capitulation, unless 
 otherwise stipulated in same. 
 
 Denunciation of Capitulation. — A capitulation can be de- 
 nounced and hostilities immediately resumed for failure to execute 
 any clause which has been agreed upon, or in case it was obtained 
 through breach of faith. 
 
 ARMISTICES 
 
 An armistice is the cessation of active hostilities for a period 
 agreed on between belligerents. It must be agreed upon in writing 
 and duly ratified by the highest authorities of the contending 
 parties. 
 
 An armistice suspends military operations by mutual agree- 
 ment between the belligerent parties. If its duration is not defined, 
 the belligerent parties may resume operations at any time, provided 
 always that the enemy is warned within the time agreed upon, in 
 accordance with the terms of the armistice. 
 
 An armistice is not a partial or a temporary peace; it is only 
 the suspension of military operations to the extent agreed upon by 
 the parties. 
 
 An armistice is binding upon the belligerents from the day 
 of the agreed commencement, but the officers of the armies are 
 responsible from the day only when they receive official information 
 of its existence. 
 
 In all armistices it is of the utmost importance that the 
 exact moment for the commencement and for the termination of 
 same shall be fixed in the terms thereof beyond any possibility of 
 mistake or misconception. 
 
 An armistice need not in terms prohibit actual hostilities. 
 Anything else may be done during an armistice that is not in ex- 
 press terms prohibited by the agreement. 
 
 Form of Armistice. — No special form for an armistice is pre- 
 scribed. It should, whenever practicable, be reduced to writing, 
 in order to avoid misunderstandings and for purposes of reference 
 should differences of opinion arise. It should be drafted with the 
 greatest precision and with absolute clearness as to statements. 
 
 An armistice may be general or local. The first suspends 
 
LAND WARFARE 779 
 
 the military operations of the belligerent States everywhere; the 
 second only between certain fractions of the belligerent armies and 
 within a fixed radius. 
 
 General Armistice. — General armistices are of a combined 
 political and military character. They usually precede the negotia- 
 tions for peace, but may be concluded for other purposes. Due to 
 its political importance, a general armistice is concluded by the 
 Governments concerned or by their commanders-in-chief, and afe 
 ratified in all cases. General armistices are frequently arranged by 
 diplomatic representatives. 
 
 Local Armistice. — A local armistice suspends operations be- 
 tween certain portions of the belligerent forces, or within a desig- 
 nated district of the theater of operations. A local armistice may 
 be concluded by the military forces only, or by the naval forces 
 only, or between a less number than all of the belligerents at war. 
 
 Suspension of Arms. — A suspension of arms is a form of 
 armistice concluded between commanders of armies, or even of 
 detachments, for some local military purpose: such as to bury the 
 dead, to collect the wounded, to arrange for exchange of prisoners, 
 to enable a commander to communicate with his Government or 
 superior officer. 
 
 Notification of Armistice. — An armistice must be notified 
 officially and in good time to the competent authorities and to the 
 troops. Hostilities are suspended immediately after notification, or 
 on the date fixed. 
 
 It rests with the contracting parties to settle, in the terms of 
 the armistice, what intercourse may be held in the theater of war 
 with and between the populations. 
 
 If nothing is stipulated, the intercourse remains suspended, 
 as during actual hostilities. 
 
 What Stipulations Armistice Should Contain. — The following 
 stipulations should be incorporated in an armistice: 
 
 (a) The precise date, day, and hour of the commencement 
 of the armistice. The date of commencement of an armistice may 
 be different for different parts of an army. 
 
 (b) The duration may be for a definite or indefinite period, 
 and may terminate with or without notice of expiration. In case 
 it is indefinite, a belligerent may resume operations at any time, 
 with due notice given. If the term is fixed and no agreement has 
 been made for prolonging same, hostilities may be resumed without 
 notice in the absence of positive terms to the contrary. An armis- 
 tice commences, in the absence of express mention to the contrary, 
 at the moment it is signed. 
 
 (c) The principal lines and all other marks or signs neces- 
 sary to determine the locations of the belligerent troops should 
 
780 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 be fixed. Belligerents frequently make use of maps with the lines 
 indicated shown thereon, which maps are made part of the con- 
 vention. A neutral zone is frequently determined upon between 
 the two armies. These lines are not to be crossed or the zone 
 entered except by parlementaires or other parties by special agree- 
 ment for specified purposes, such as to bury the dead and collect 
 the wounded. 
 
 (d) In the absence of stipulations to the contrary, each 
 belligerent will exercise toward the inhabitants the rights of 
 belligerents over occupied territory, such as billeting troops, 
 requisitioning supplies, etc., as well as all intercourse between 
 them. 
 
 (e) In the absence of stipulations to the contrary, each 
 belligerent is authorized to make movements of troops within his 
 own lines, to receive and instruct recruits, to construct intrench- 
 ments, to repair bridges, to establish new batteries, and, in general, 
 to take advantage of the time and means at his disposal to pre- 
 pare for resuming hostilities. This includes the right to continue 
 espionage, but does not include the right to introduce supplies 
 into a fortress unless especially stipulated in the agreement. 
 
 Denunciation of Armistice. — Any serious violation of the 
 armistice by one of the parties gives the other party the right of 
 denouncing it, and even, in cases of urgency, of recommenc- 
 ing hostilities immediately. 
 
 To denounce an armistice without some very serious breach, 
 and to surprise the enemy before he can have time to put himself 
 on guard, would constitute an act of perfidy. In the absence of 
 extreme urgency, some delay should be given between the de- 
 nunciation and resumption of hostilities. 
 
 The existence of an armistice does not warrant relaxation 
 of vigilance in the service of security and protection, or in the 
 preparedness of troops for action, or exposing positions to the 
 enemy. 
 
 A violation of the terms of the armistice by individuals 
 acting on their own initiative only entitles the injured party to 
 demand punishment of the offenders or, if necessary, compen- 
 sation for the losses sustained. 
 
 PASSPORTS, SAFE-CONDUCTS, SAFEGUARDS, AND 
 CARTELS 
 
 A passport is a written document given to a person or per- 
 sons by a commander of belligerent forces authorizing him or them 
 to travel 'unmolested within the district occupied by his troops. 
 
LAND WARFARE 781 
 
 A safe-conduct is a document given to an enemy, alien, or 
 other person or persons by a commander of belligerent forces 
 authorizing him or them to go into places which they could rrot 
 reach without coming into collision with armed forces actively 
 operating against the enemy; also a written authority or license 
 to carry goods to or out of, or to trade in, a certain place or places 
 otherwise forbidden by the laws of war, given by a commander of 
 belligerent forces to an enemy, alien, or other person. 
 
 Both passports and safe-conducts fall within the scope of 
 international law when granted by arrangement with the enemy 
 or with a neutral power. The passports and safe-conducts as to 
 persons are individual and nontransferable. A safe-conduct for 
 goods, while restricted to the articles named in it, may be trans- 
 ferred from one person to another, provided it does not designate 
 who is to carry the goods or to trade. They may be transferred 
 when the licensee is designated if the transferee is approved by 
 the authorizing belligerent. The term "pass" is now frequently 
 used instead of the older term " passport," and likewise the word 
 "permit"; the word "pass" being used for a general permission 
 to do certain things, the word "permit" being used like the 
 word " safe-conduct," to signify permission to do a particular 
 thing. 
 
 Passports and safe-conducts may be revoked by the com- 
 mander issuing them or by his superiors for reasons of military 
 expediency, but, until revoked, they are binding upon grantors 
 and their successors. When a time is specified in the document 
 it is valid only during such time. These documents should not 
 be revoked for the purpose of securing the persons of the hold- 
 ers who should be given time to withdraw in safety; in case of 
 violation of their terms the privilege will be withdrawn and the 
 case investigated. They are valid in the district of the com- 
 mander who grants them only. 
 
 Licenses to trade are general and special. A general license 
 relaxes the exercise of the rights of war, generally or partially, in 
 relation to any community or individuals liable to be affected by 
 their operation. A special license is one given to individuals for 
 a particular voyage or journey for the importation or exportation 
 of particular goods. 
 
 A safeguard is a detachment of soldiers posted or detailed 
 by a commander of troops for the purpose of protecting some per- 
 son or persons, or a particular village, building, or other prop- 
 erty. The term " safe-guard " is also used to designate a written 
 order by a commander of belligerent forces for the protection 
 of an enemy subject or enemy property. It is usually directed 
 to the succeeding commander requesting the grant of protection 
 to such individuals or property. 
 
782 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Soldiers on duty as safeguards are guaranteed against the 
 application of the laws of war, and it is customary to send them 
 back to their army when the locality is occupied by the enemy, 
 together with their baggage and arms, as soon as military exi- 
 gencies permit. 
 
 In the customary military sense a cartel is an agreement 
 entered into by belligerents for the exchange of prisoners of war. 
 In its broader sense it is a convention concluded between bellig- 
 erents for the purpose of arranging or regulating certain kinds 
 of non-hostile intercourse otherwise prohibited by the existence 
 of the war. The cartel is voidable as soon as either party has 
 violated it. 
 
 Form of Passport. 
 
 (Place and date of issue.) 
 
 Authority is hereby granted to Mr. (or other title) 
 
 living at (if on a mission, state the same), to pass out of 
 
 the lines for the purpose of (state object of journey) 
 
 He will cross the lines by the road from A to B (or at a 
 
 designated point) during the (forenoon, afternoon, or 
 
 day) of (date). 
 
 He is authorized to take with him (persons, 
 
 articles, carriages, etc.). 
 
 He will proceed to (name of destination) by the route C. 
 D. E. 
 
 Photograph or 
 finger print 
 or signature. 
 
 (Signature of officer.) 
 
 (Rank, etc.) 
 Note. — This passport is strictly personal 
 and will be void unless used on the date stated. 
 
 Note. — Blank forms for these should be issued at the com- 
 mencement of hostilities. A photograph should be attached where 
 a pass is for an extended period. A finger print or signature can 
 be substituted if desired. 
 
 In making application for a passport from the State Depart- 
 ment, the applicant must make affidavit containing statement of 
 his citizenship, residence, occupation, destination, and object of 
 journey, and to which an oath of allegience is attached. Attached 
 is a description of the applicant and identification with address of 
 witness testifying to applicant's identity. (This is or has been 
 waived in certain cases.) 
 
LAND WARFARE 783 
 
 Form of Safe Conduct. 
 
 Photograph 
 
 * 
 
 (Place and date of issue.) 
 residing at 
 
 (or if on a mission, the mission to be stated) is 
 
 authorized to proceed to for the 
 
 purpose of 
 
 He will follow the route A. B. C. 
 
 He is authorized to take with him (persons, articles, vehicles). 
 
 This safe conduct is good until 
 
 All military authorities are directed to protect the bearer of this 
 
 safe conduct and in nowise to molest him. 
 
 y 
 
 (Signature of officer.) 
 
 (Rank, etc.) 
 Note. — This safe conduct is strictly personal and shall be 
 void unless used within the time fixed. 
 
 Forms of Safeguard 
 
 (Date and place of issue.) 
 
 All officers and enlisted men belonging to the 
 
 (Name the army or subdivision thereof.) 
 
 are directed to respect the premises of 
 
 situated at 
 
 No requisitions thereon, nor damage thereto, will be per- 
 mitted, and protection will be afforded by all officers and enlisted 
 men against any person who shall attempt to act in violation of 
 this order. 
 
 (Signature of officer.) 
 (Rank, etc.) 
 
 MILITARY AUTHORITY OVER THE TERRITORY OF 
 THE HOSTILE STATE 
 
 Territory is considered occupied when it is actually placed 
 ander the authority of the hostile army. The occupation extends 
 mly to the territory where such authority has been established 
 ind can be exercised. 
 
 Military occupation is a question of fact. It presupposes a 
 lostile invasion as a result of which the invader has rendered the 
 50 
 
784 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 invaded Government incapable of publicly exercising its authority, 
 and that the invader is in position to substitute and has substituted 
 his own authority for that of the legitimate Government in the 
 territory invaded. 
 
 Being an incident of war, military occupation confers upon 
 the invading force the right to exercise control for the period of 
 occupation. It does not transfer the sovereignty to the occupant, 
 but simply the authority or power to exercise some of the rights 
 of sovereignty. The exercise of these rights results from the 
 established power of the occupant and is considered legitimate by 
 reason of the necessity for maintaining law and order, indispensable 
 for both the inhabitants and for the occupying force. 
 
 Invasion. — The state of invasion corresponds with the period 
 of resistance. Invasion is not necessarily occupation, although it 
 precedes it and may frequently coincide with it. An invader may 
 push rapidly through a large portion of enemy country without 
 establishing that effective control which is essential to the status 
 of occupation. He may send small raiding parties or flying col- 
 umns, reconnoitering detachments, etc., into or through a district 
 where they may be temporarily located and exercise control, yet 
 when they pass on it can not be said that such district is under 
 his military occupation. 
 
 Subjugation and Conquest. — Subjugation and conquest imply 
 the annexation of the property or territory by the conqueror 
 through the treaty of peace, and with it the sovereignty. Military 
 occupation is based upon the fact of possession and is essentially 
 provisional until the conclusion of peace or the annihilation of the 
 adversary, when sovereignty passes and military occupation tech- 
 nically ceases. 
 
 It follows from the definition that military occupation must 
 be both actual and effective; that is, the organized resistance must 
 be overcome and the forces in possession have taken measures to 
 establish law and order. It is sufficient that the occupying army 
 can, within a reasonable time, send detachments of troops to make 
 its authority felt within the occupied district. It is immaterial by 
 what methods the authority is exercised, whether by fixed garri- 
 sons or flying columns, small or large forces. 
 
 The existence of a fort or defended area within the occupied 
 district, provided such place is invested, does not render the occu- 
 pation of the remainder of the district ineffective, nor is the con- 
 sent of the inhabitants in any manner essential. 
 
 In a strict legal sense no proclamation of military occupation L 
 is necessary. On account of the special relations established between ( 
 the inhabitants of the occupied territory and the occupant by virtue re< 
 of the presence of the invading force, the fact of military occupa- 0ri 
 
LAND WARFARE 785 
 
 tion, with the extent of territory affected by the same, should be 
 made known by proclamation. 
 
 Commencement of Occupation. — In the absence of a procla- 
 mation or similar notice the exact time of commencement of occu- 
 pation may be difficult to fix. The presence of a sufficient force 
 to disarm the inhabitants or enforce submission and the cessation 
 of local resistance due to the defeat of the enemy's forces deter- 
 mine the commencement of occupation. 
 
 Occupation once acquired must be maintained. In case the 
 occupant evacuates the district or is driven out of the same by the 
 enemy, or by a levee en masse, and the legitimate government 
 actually resumes its functions, the occupation ceases. It does not 
 cease, however, if the occupant, after establishing his authority,, 
 moves forward against the enemy, leaving a smaller force to ad- 
 minister the affairs of the district Nor does the existence of a 
 rebellion or the operation of guerrilla bands cause it to cease unless 
 the legitimate government is reestablished and the occupant fails; 
 to promptly suppress such rebellion or guerrilla operations. Hos- 
 tile military occupation ceases on the conclusion of peace. 
 
 Administration of Occupied Territory. — Military government 
 is the organization through which a belligerent exercises authority 
 over the territory of the enemy invaded and occupied by him. 
 The necessity for such government arises from the failure or ina- 
 bility of the legitimate government to exercise its functions on 
 account of the military operations or occupation. 
 
 The authority of the legitimate power having in fact passed 
 into the hands of the occupant, the latter takes all the measures 
 in his power to restore, and insure, as far as possible, public order 
 and safety, while respecting, unless absolutely prevented, the laws 
 in force in the country. 
 
 All the functions of the hostile government — legislative, ex- 
 ecutive or administrative — whether of a general, provisional, or 
 local character, cease under military occupation, or continue only 
 with the sanction, or, if deemed necessary, the participation of the 
 occupier or invader. 
 
 It is immaterial whether the government established over an 
 enemy's territory be called a military or civil government. Its 
 character is the same and the source of its authority is the same. 
 'It is a government imposed by force, and the legality of its acts 
 ire determined by the laws of war. During military occupation 
 t may exercise all the powers given by the laws of war. 
 
 The Laws in Force. — The principal object of the occupant is 
 
 J :o provide for the security of the invading army and to contribute 
 
 o its support and efficiency and the success of its operations. In 
 
 estoring public order and safety he will continue in force the 
 
 ordinary civil and criminal laws of the occupied territory which 
 
786 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 do not conflict with this object. These laws are administered by the 
 local officials as far as practicable. All crimes not of a military 
 nature and which do not affect the safety of the invading army are 
 left to the jurisdiction of the local courts. 
 
 The military occupant may suspend existing laws and 
 promulgate new ones when the exigencies of the military service 
 demand such action. 
 
 Nature of Laws Suspended. — The occupant will naturally 
 alter or suspend all laws of a political nature as well as political 
 privileges and all laws which affect the welfare and safety of his 
 command. Of this class are those relating to recruitment in occu- 
 pied territory, the right of assembly, the right to bear arms, the 
 right of suffrage, the freedom of the press, the right to quit or 
 travel freely in occupied territory. Such suspensions should be 
 made known to the inhabitants. 
 
 Nature of Laws Promulgated. — An occupant may create new 
 laws for the government of a country where none exists. He will 
 promulgate such new laws and regulations as military necessity de- 
 mands. In this class are included those laws which come into 
 being as a result of military rule; that is, those which establish 
 new crimes and offenses incident to a state of war and are neces- 
 sary for the control of the country and the protection of the 
 army. 
 
 It is especially forbidden to declare abolished, supended, or 
 inadmissible in a court of law the rights and rights of action of 
 the nationals of the hostile party. 
 
 .The occupant has the unquestioned right to regulate com- 
 mercial intercourse in occupied territory; i. e., he may prohibit 
 entirely or place such restrictions and limitations upon such inter- 
 course as he considers desirable for military purposes. 
 
 The military occupant may establish censorship of the press 
 and of telegraphic and postal correspondence. He may prohibit 
 entirely the publication of newspapers, prescribe regulations for 
 their publication and circulation and especially in unoccupied por- 
 tions of the territory and in neutral countries. He is not required 
 to furnish facilities for postal service, but may take charge of them 
 himself, especially if the officials of the occupied district fail to 
 act or to obey his orders. 
 
 The military occupant exercises authority over all means of 
 transportation, both public and private within the occupied district, 
 and may seize and utilize the same and regulate their operation. 
 
 If, in the territory occupied, the occupant collects the taxes, 
 dues, and tolls imposed for the benefit of the State, he does so, as 
 far as is possible, in accordance with the rules of assessment and 
 incidence in force, and in consequence is bound to defray the ex- 
 penses of the administration of the occupied territory to the same 
 
LAND WARFARE 787 
 
 extent as the legitimate Government was so bound. The imposi- 
 tion of taxes being an attribute of sovereignty, no new taxes 
 should be imposed by the occupant. The occupant may, however, 
 levy contributions and requisitions. 
 
 If due to the flight or unwillingness of the local officials, it 
 is impracticable to follow the rules of incidence and assessment in 
 force, then the total amount of the taxes to be paid may be al- 
 lotted among the districts, towns, etc., and the local authorities be 
 required to collect it as a capitation tax or otherwise. 
 
 The first charge upon the State taxes is for the cost of local 
 maintenance. The balance may be used for the purposes of the 
 occupant. 
 
 The words " for the benefit of the State " were inserted in 
 the article to exclude local dues collected by local authorities. The 
 occupant will supervise the expenditure of such revenue and pre- 
 vent its hostile use. 
 
 EFFECTS OF OCCUPATION ON THE POPULATION 
 
 The occupant can determine and enforce from the inhabi- 
 tants of occupied territory such obedience as may be necessary 
 for the security of his forces, for the maintenance of law and order, 
 and the proper administration of the country. It is forbidden to 
 compel the inhabitants of occupied territory to swear allegiance 
 to the hostile power. Family honor and rights, the lives of persons, 
 as well as religious convictions and practice, must be respected. 
 
 United States Rule. — The United States acknowledge and 
 protect, in hostile countries occupied by them, religion and moral- 
 ity; the persons of inhabitants, especially those of women; and 
 the sacredness of domestic relations. Offenses to the contrary are 
 rigorously punished. 
 
 In return for such considerate treatment, it is the duty of the 
 inhabitants to carry on their ordinary peaceful pursuits, to behave 
 in an absolutely peaceful manner, to take no part whatever in the 
 hostilities carried on, to refrain from all injurious acts toward 
 the troops or in respect of their operations, and to render strict 
 obedience to the officials of the occupant. 
 
 Limitation as to Service of Inhabitants. — Services are not de- 
 manded from inhabitants except for the needs of the army of occu- 
 pation. They are of such a nature as not to involve the inhabi- 
 tants in the obligation of taking part in military operations against 
 their own country. 
 
 Such services are only demanded on the authority of the 
 commander in the locality occupied. 
 
 General Right to Requisition Services. — Services of the in- 
 habitants of occupied territory may be requisitioned for the needs 
 
788 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 of the Army. These include the services of professional men and 
 tradesmen, such as surgeons, carpenters, butchers, bakers, etc., 
 employees of gas, electric light, and water works, and of other 
 public utilities, and of sanitary boards in connection with their 
 ordinary vocations. The officials and employees of railways, 
 canals, river or coastwise steamship companies, telegraph, tele- 
 phone, postal and similar services, and drivers of transport, 
 whether employed by the State or private companies, may be 
 requisitioned to perform their professional duties so long as the 
 duties required do not directly concern the operation of the war 
 against their own country. 
 
 The occupant can requisition labor to restore the general 
 condition of the public works of the country to that of peace; 
 that is, to repair roads, bridges, railways, and as well to bury the 
 dead and collect the wounded. In short, under the rules of obedi- 
 ence, they may be called upon to perform such work as may be 
 necessary for the ordinary purposes of government, including 
 police and sanitary work. 
 
 The prohibition against forcing the inhabitants to take part 
 in the operations of war against their own country precludes 
 requisitioning their services upon works directly promoting the 
 ends of the war, such as construction of forts, fortifications, and 
 entrenchments; but there is no objection to their being employed 
 voluntarily, for pay, on this class of work, except the military 
 reason of preventing information concerning such work from fall- 
 ing into the hands of the enemy. 
 
 OFFICIALS IN OCCUPIED TERRITORY 
 
 The occupant may require such officials as are continued in 
 their offices to take an oath to perform their duties conscientiously 
 and not to act to his prejudice. Every such official who declines to 
 take such oath may be expelled; but, whether they do so or not, 
 they owe strict obedience to the occupant. 
 
 It is to the best interests of the occupant, and more especially 
 to that of the population, that at least some of the civil officials 
 should remain in their offices in order to assist in the mainte- 
 nance of order, as well as for the safety of the inhabitants them- 
 selves and of their property. 
 
 Municipal officials, including the judges and magistrates, 
 sanitary and police authorities, as well as the staffs of museums, 
 libraries, and all establishments entitled to special protection dur- 
 ing hostilities, should remain and be retained in office if consistent 
 with the safety of the Army. The political officials, as well as 
 railway, postal, telegraph, and telephone officials, will probably 
 cease work. 
 
 ^ 
 
LAND WARFARE 789 
 
 The salaries of civil officials of the hostile government who 
 remain in the invaded territory, and continue the work of their 
 offices, especially those who can properly continue it under the 
 circumstances arising out of the war — such as judges, adminis* 
 trative or police officers, officers of city or communal governments 
 — are paid from the public revenues of the invaded territory, until 
 the military government has reason wholly or partially to dispense 
 with their services. Salaries or incomes connected with purely 
 honorary titles are always suspended. 
 
 An official of the hostile government who has accepted ser- 
 vice under the occupant should be permitted to resign and should 
 not be punished for exercising such privilege. Such official should 
 not be forced to exercise his functions against his will. 
 
 By virtue of his powers of control the occupant is duly em- 
 powered to remove officials of every character. He will on prin- 
 ciple remove political officials. Any official considered dangerous 
 to the occupant may be removed, made a prisoner of war, or ex- 
 pelled from the occupied territory. 
 
 Acts of civil officers that are harmful or injurious to the 
 occupant will be dealt with under the laws of war. Other wrongs 
 or crimes committed by them will be punished according to the 
 law of the land. 
 
 TREATMENT OF ENEMY PROPERTY 
 
 It is especially forbidden to destroy or seize the enemy's 
 property, unless such destruction or seizure be imperatively de- 
 manded by the necessities of war. 
 
 The rule is that in war a belligerent can destroy or seize 
 all property of whatever nature, public or private, hostile or neu- 
 tral, unless such property is specifically protected by some definite 
 law of war, provided such destruction or seizure is imperatively 
 demanded by the necessities of war. 
 
 Devastation. — The measure of permissible devastation is 
 found in the strict necessities of war. As an end in itself, as a sep- 
 arate measure of war, devastation is not sanctioned by the law of 
 war. There must be some reasonably close connection between the 
 destruction of property and the overcoming of the enemy's army. 
 Thus the rule requiring respect for private property is not violated 
 through damage resulting from operations, movements, or combats 
 of the army; that is, real estate may be utilized for marches, camp 
 sites, construction of trenches, etc. Buildings may be used for 
 shelter for troops, the sick and wounded, for animals, for recon- 
 naissance, cover, defense, etc. Fences, woods, crops, buildings, etc., 
 may be demolished cut down, and removed to clear a field of fire, 
 
790 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 to construct bridges, to furnish fuel if imperatively needed for the 
 army. 
 
 American Rule. — This rule (respect for private property, etc.) 
 does not interfere with the rights of the victorious invader to tax 
 the people or their property, to levy forced loans, to billet soldiers, 
 or to appropriate property, especially houses, boats or ships, lands, 
 and churches, for temporary and military use. Private property 
 can not be confiscated. 
 
 All captures and booty belong, according to the modern law 
 of war, primarily to the Government of the captor. Prize money 
 whether on land or sea can now only be claimed under local law. 
 Neither officers nor soldiers are allowed to make use of their posi- 
 tion or power in the hostile country for private gain, not even for 
 commercial transactions otherwise legitimate. Offenses to the con- 
 trary committed by commissioned officers will be punished with 
 cashiering or such other punishment as the nature of the offense 
 may require; if by soldiers, they shall be punished according to 
 the nature of the offense. Pillage is formally forbidden. 
 
 Private property can be seized only by way of military 
 necessity for the support or other benefit of the Army or of the 
 occupant. All destruction of property not commanded by the au- 
 thorized officer, all pillage or sacking, even after taking a town 
 or place by assault, are prohibited under the penalty of death, or 
 such other severe punishment as may seem adequate to the gravity 
 of the offense. A soldier, officer, or private, in the act of committing 
 such violence, and disobeying a superior ordering him to abstain 
 from it, may be lawfully killed on the spot by such superior. 
 
 All appliances, whether on land, at sea, or in the air, adapted 
 for the transmission of news, or for the transport of persons or 
 things, exclusive of cases governed by naval law, depots of arms, 
 and, generally, all kinds of ammunition of war, may be seized, 
 even if they belong to private individuals, but must be restored and 
 compensation fixed when peace is declared. 
 
 The foregoing rules includes everything susceptible of direct 
 military use, such as cables, telephone and telegraph plants, horses, 
 and other draft and riding animals, motors, bicycles, motorcycles, 
 carts, wagons, carriages, railways, railway plants, tramways, ships 
 in port, all manner of craft in canals and rivers, balloons, airships, 
 aeroplanes, depots of arms, whether military or sporting, and in 
 general all kinds of war material. 
 
 The destruction of the foregoing property and all damages to 
 the same are justifiable if it is required by the exigencies of the 
 war. 
 
 Submarine cables connecting an occupied territory with a 
 neutral territory are not seized or destroyed except in the case of 
 
 5^ 
 
LAND WARFARE 791 
 
 absolute necessity. They must likewise be restored and compen- 
 sation fixed when peace is made. 
 
 REQUISITIONS 
 
 Requisitions in kind are not demanded from municipalities 
 or inhabitants except for the needs of the army of occupation. 
 They are in proportion to the resources of the country, and of 
 such a nature as not to involve the inhabitants in the obligation of 
 taking part in military operations against their own country. 
 
 Such requisitions are only demanded on the authority of the 
 commander in the locality occupied. 
 
 Contributions in kind shall as far as possible be paid for in 
 cash; if not, a receipt shall be given and the payment of the amount 
 due shall be made as soon as possible. 
 
 Practically everything may be requisitioned that is necessary 
 for the maintenance of the Army and not of direct military use, 
 such as fuel and food supplies, clothing, wine, tobacco, printing 
 presses, type, etc., leather, cloth, etc. Billeting of troops for quar- 
 ters and subsistence is also authorized. 
 
 Requisitions must be made under the authority of the com- 
 mander in the locality. No prescribed method is fixed, but if 
 practicable requisitions should be accomplished through the local 
 authorities by systematic collection in bulk. They may be made 
 direct by the detachments if local authorities fail for any reason. 
 Billeting may be resorted to if deemed advisable. 
 
 The expression " needs of the army " was adopted rather 
 than " necessities of the war" as more favorable to the inhabitants, 
 but the commander is not thereby limited to the absolute needs of 
 the troops actually present. The object was to avoid reducing the 
 population to starvation. 
 
 The prices of articles requisitioned to be paid for, can and 
 should be fixed by the commander. The prices of commodities on 
 sale may also be regulated and limits placed on the hours and 
 places of trading. All authorities agree that it is good policy to 
 pay cash if possible and to take up receipts as soon as possible. 
 
 If cash is paid, coercion will seldom be necessary. The coer- 
 cive measures adopted are limited to the amount and kind necessary 
 to secure the articles requisitioned. 
 
 CONTRIBUTIONS 
 
 If, in addition to the taxes mentioned above, the occupant 
 levies other money contributions in the occupied territory, this is 
 only for the needs of the army or of the administration of the 
 territory in question. 
 
792 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 No contribution shall be collected except under a written 
 order, and on the responsibility of a commander in chief. 
 
 The collection of the said contribution shall only be effected 
 as far as possible in accordance with the rules of assessment and 
 incidence of the taxes in force. 
 
 For every contribution a receipt shall be given to the con- 
 tributor. No general penalty, pecuniary or otherwise, is inflicted 
 upon the population on account of acts of individuals for which 
 they can not be regarded as jointly and severally responsible. 
 
 Collective punishments may be inflicted for such offenses as 
 the community has committed or permitted to be committed. Such 
 offenses are not necessarily limited to violations of the laws of 
 war. Any breach of the occupant's proclamations or martial-law 
 regulations may be punished collectively. For instance, a town 
 or village may be held collectively responsible for damage done to 
 railways, telegraphs, roads, and bridges in the vicinity. The most 
 frequent form of collective punishment consists in fines. 
 
 REAL PROPERTY OF A STATE 
 
 The occupying State is regarded as admintstrator and usu- 
 fructuary of public buildings, real estate, forests, and agricultural 
 estates belonging to the hostile State, and situated in the occupied 
 territory. It must safeguard the capital of these properties, and 
 administer them in accordance with the rules of unufruct. 
 
 The occupant does not have the absolute right of disposal 
 or sale of enemy's real property. As administrator or usufructuary 
 he should not exercise his rights in such wasteful and negligent 
 manner as to seriously impair its value. He may, however, lease 
 or utilize public lands or buildings, sell the crops, cut and sell tim- 
 ber, and work the mines. A lease or contract should not extend 
 beyond the conclusion of the war. 
 
 Real property of a State which is of direct military use, 
 such as forts, arsenals, dockyards, magazines, barracks, railways, 
 canals, bridges, piers, wharves, remain in the hands of the occu- 
 pant until the close of the war and may be destroyed or dam- 
 aged, if deemed necessary, in military operations. 
 
 The property of municipalities, that of institutions dedicated 
 to religion, charity and education, the arts and sciences, even when 
 State property, is treated as private property. All seize of, de- 
 struction or willful damage done to institutions of this character, 
 historic monuments, works of art, science, is forbidden, and should 
 be made the subject of legal proceedings. 
 
 The property included in the foregoing rule may be utilized 
 in case of necessity for quartering the troops, the sick and wounded, 
 
 L 
 
LAND WARFARE 793 
 
 horses, stores, etc., and generally as prescribed for private property. 
 Such property must, however, be secured against all avoidable in- 
 jury, even when located in fortified places which are subject to 
 seizure or bombardment. 
 
 An army of occupation can only take possession of cash 
 funds, and realizable securities which are strictly the property of 
 the State, depots of arms, means of transport, stores and supplies, 
 and, generally, all movable property belonging to the State which 
 may be used for military operations. 
 
 All movable property belonging to the State directly suscep- 
 tible of military use may be taken possession of as booty and 
 utilized for the benefit of the invader's Government. Other mov- 
 able property, not directly susceptible of military use, must be 
 respected and can not be appropriated. 
 
 Where the ownership of property is unknown — that is, where 
 there is any doubt as to whether it is public or private, as fre- 
 quently happens — it should be treated as public property until 
 ownership is definitely settled. 
 
 PENALTIES FOR VIOLATIONS OF THE LAWS OF WAR 
 
 A belligerent party which violates the provisions of the said 
 regulations is, if the case demands, liable to pay compensation. It 
 is responsible for all acts committed by persons forming part of 
 its armed forces. 
 
 From the inherent nature of war as a last remedy of States, 
 and from the nature of governments themselves, no penalties can be 
 directed against the State itself, although certain practical measures 
 are recognized in international law for securing the legitimate con- 
 duct of war by belligerents which are considered under the fol- 
 lowing heads: (a) Public complaints; (b) punishment of individ- 
 uals; (c) reprisals or retaliation; and (d) taking hostages. 
 
 Complaints. — (1) Complaints through the public, and es- 
 pecially foreign, press have force solely through the formation of 
 adverse public opinion, which no nation at war can afford to dis- 
 regard. 
 
 (2) Complaints sent through neutral States — the only channel 
 of diplomatic intercourse — may result in mediation or good of- 
 fices, or intervention. 
 
 (3) Complaints sent direct by parliamentaires made use of 
 between commanders of belligerent forces produce results in the 
 future avoidance of acts complained of or in the punishment of 
 offenders for violations of the laws of war. 
 
 Offenses Committed by Land Forces. — The principal offenses 
 of this class are: Making use of poisoned and otherwise forbidden 
 
794 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 arms and ammunition; killing of the wounded; refusal of quarter; 
 treacherous request for quarter; maltreatment of dead bodies on the 
 battle field; ill treatment of prisoners of war; breach of parole by 
 prisoners of war; firing on undefended localities; abuse of the flag 
 of truce; firing on the flag of truce; abuse of the Red Cross flag and 
 emblem; and other violations of the Geneva Convention; use of 
 civilian clothing by troops to conceal their military character dur- 
 ing battle; bombardment of hospitals and other privileged build- 
 ings, improper use of privileged buildings for military purposes; 
 poisoning of wells and streams; pillage and purposeless destruction; 
 ill-treatment of inhabitants in occupied territory. Individuals of the 
 armed forces are not punished for these offenses in case they are 
 committed under the orders or sanction of their government or 
 commanders. The commanders ordering the commission of such 
 acts, or under whose authority they are committed by their troops, 
 may be punished by the belligerent into whose hands they may 
 fall. 
 
 When an entire corps, or body of troops, systematically dis- 
 regards the laws of war, e. g., by refusal of quarter, any individuals 
 belonging to it who are taken prisoners may be treated as impli- 
 cated in the offense. All troops of the enemy known or discovered 
 to give no quarter in general, or to any portion of the army, receive 
 none. 
 
 Persons who take up arms and commit hostilities without 
 having complied with the conditions prescribed for securing the 
 privilege of belligerents, are, when captured by the enemy, liable to 
 punishment for such hostile acts as war criminals. 
 
 War Rebels. — War rebels are persons within an occupied ter- 
 ritory who rise in arms against the occupying or conquering army, 
 or against the authorities established by the same. If captured, they 
 may suffer death, whether they rise singly, in small or large bands, 
 and whether called upon to do so by their own, but expelled gov- 
 ernment or not. They are not prisoners of war; nor are they, if 
 discovered and secured before their conspiracy has matured to an 
 actual rising or armed violence. 
 
 Highway Robbers and Pirates of War. — Men, or squads of 
 men, who commit hostilities, whether by fighting, or by inroads for 
 destruction or plunder, or by raids of any kind, without commission, 
 without being part and portion of the organized hostile army, and 
 without sharing continuously in the war, but who do so with inter- 
 mitting returns to their homes and avocations, or with the oc- 
 casional assumption of the semblance of peaceful pursuits, divesting 
 themselves of the character or appearance of soldiers — such men, 
 or squads of men, are not public enemies, and, therefore, if cap- 
 tured, are not entitled to the privileges of prisoners of war, but 
 shall be treated summarily as highway robbers and pirates. 
 
LAND WARFARE 795 
 
 Acts Punished as War Treason. — Some of the principal acts 
 punished as treasonable by belligerents in invaded territory, when 
 committed by the inhabitants, are espionage, supplying information 
 to the enemy, damage to railways, war material, telegraphs, or 
 other means of communication; aiding prisoners of war to escape; 
 conspiracy against the armed forces of the enemy or members 
 thereof; intentional misleading of troops while acting as guides; 
 voluntary assistance to the enemy by giving money or serving as 
 guides; inducing soldiers to serve as spies, to desert, or to sur- 
 render; bribing soldiers in the interest of the enemy; damage or 
 alteration to military notices and signposts in the interests of the 
 enemy; fouling sources of water supply and concealing animals, 
 vehicles, supplies, and fuel in the interest of the enemy; knowingly 
 aiding the advance or retirement of the enemy; circulating procla- 
 mations in the interests of the enemy. 
 
 Armed Prowlers. — Armed prowlers, by whatever names they 
 may be called, or persons of the enemy's territory, who steal within 
 the lines of the hostile army for the purpose of robbing, killing, or 
 of destroying bridges, roads, or canals, or of robbing or destroying 
 the mail, or of cutting the telegraph wires, are not entitled to the 
 privileges of the prisoners of war. 
 
 ■" Marauders. — Marauders are individuals, either civilians or 
 
 soldiers, who have left their corps, and who follow armies on the 
 march or appear on battlefields, either singly or in bands, in quest 
 of booty, and rob, maltreat, or murder stragglers and wounded, 
 and pillage the dead. Their acts are considered acts of illegitimate 
 warfare, and the punishment is imposed in the interest of either 
 belligerent. 
 
 Other Crimes. — There are many other crimes or offenses 
 which are the result of war and which a belligerent may forbid 
 and punish in the maintenance of order and the safety of his army, 
 such as evasion of censorship regulations; making false claim* for 
 damage; making false accusations against the troops; furnishing 
 liquor to soldiers; being in possession of animals, stores, or sup- 
 plies pertaining to the army, and, generally, neglect and disobedi- 
 ence of orders of the Government, including police and sanitary 
 regulations. All such crimes should be defined and the liability to 
 punishment therefor made known to the inhabitants. In every case 
 trial of individuals before military or other courts designated by the 
 belligerent should precede punishment. 
 
 Punishments. — All war crimes are subject to the death pen- 
 alty, although the fact of trial indicates that a lesser penalty may 
 be pronounced. The punishment should be deterrent, and in im- 
 posing a sentence of imprisonment it is not necessary to take into 
 consideration the end of the war, which fact does not necessarily 
 
 J 
 
796 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 limit the imprisonment imposed. Any other construction of this 
 would result in belligerents imposing the extreme penalty of death 
 in all cases. 
 
 Crimes punishable by all penal codes, such as arson, murder, 
 maiming, assaults, highway robbery, theft, burglary, fraud, forgery, 
 and rape, if committed by an American soldier in a hostile country 
 against its inhabitants, are not only punishable as at home, but in 
 all cases in which death is not inflicted, the severer punishment shall 
 be preferred. 
 
 Reprisals. — Reprisals are acts of retaliation, resorted to by 
 one belligerent against the enemy individuals or property for 
 illegal acts of warfare committed by the other belligerent, for the 
 purpose of forcing future compliance with the recognized rules of 
 civilized warfare. 
 
 Retaliation. — The law of war can no more wholly dispense 
 with retaliation than can the law of nations, of which it is a branch. 
 Yet civilized nations acknowledge retaliation as the sternest feature 
 of war. A reckless enemy often leaves to his opponent no other 
 means of securing himself against the repetition of barbarous 
 outrage. 
 
 Retaliation will, therefore, never be resorted to as a measure 
 of mere revenge, but only as a means of protective retribution, and, 
 moreover, cautiously and unavoidably; that is to say, retaliation 
 shall only be resorted to after careful inquiry into the real occur- 
 rence, and the character of the misdeeds that may demand retri- 
 bution. Unjust or inconsiderate retaliation removes the belligerents 
 farther and farther from the mitigating rules of regular war, and 
 by rapid steps leads them nearer to the internecine wars of sav- 
 ages. 
 
 The illegal acts of warfare may be committed by a govern- 
 ment, by its military commanders, or by a community, or individ- 
 uals thereof whom it is impossible to apprehend, try, and punish. 
 
 All prisoners of war are liable to the infliction of retaliatory 
 measures. Persons guilty of no offense whatever may be punished 
 as retaliation for the guilty acts of others. 
 
 Reprisals should never be resorted to by individual soldiers 
 but solely under the direct orders of a commander. The rule re- 
 quiring careful inquiry into the real occurrence will always be 
 followed unless the safety of the troops requires immediate drastic 
 action and the persons who actually committed the offense can 
 not be ascertained. 
 
 The acts resorted to as reprisal need not conform to those 
 complained of by the injured party, but should not be excessive or 
 exceed the degree of violence committed by the enemy. Villages 
 or houses, etc., may be burned for acts of hostility committed from 
 them where the guilty individuals can not be identified, tried and 
 
LAND WARFARE 797 
 
 punished. Collective punishments may be inflicted either in form 
 of fine or otherwise. 
 
 Hostages. — Hostages have been taken in recent wars for the 
 following purposes: (1) To insure proper treatment of wounded 
 and sick when left behind in hostile localities; (2) to protect the 
 lives of prisoners of war and railroad officials who have fallen 
 into the hands of irregular troops or whose lives have been 
 threatened; (3) to protect lines of communication by placing them 
 on engines of trains in occupied territory; (4) to insure compliance 
 with requisitions, contributions, etc. When a hostage is accepted he 
 is treated as a prisoner of war. 
 
 NEUTRALITY 
 
 Neutrality on the part of a State not a party to the war, 
 consists in refraining from all participation in the war, and in exer- 
 cising absolute impartiality in preventing, tolerating, and regulating 
 certain acts on his own part, by its subjects and by the belliger- 
 ents. It is the duty of belligerents to respect the territory and 
 rights of the neutral States. 
 
 The existence of a state of war must be notified to the neutral 
 powers without delay, and does not take effect with regard to them 
 until after the receipt of a notification, which may, however, be 
 given by telegraph. Neutral powers, nevertheless, can not rely 
 on the absence of notification if it is clearly established that they 
 were in fact aware of the existence of a state of war. 
 
 NEUTRAL RIGHTS AND DUTIES 
 
 Inviolability of Territory. — The territory of neutral powers is 
 inviolable. Belligerents are forbidden to move troops or convoys 
 of either munitions of war or supplies across the territory of a 
 neutral power. The fact of a neutral power resisting, even by 
 force, attempts to violate its neutrality can not be regarded as a 
 hostile act. 
 
 Patrolling the Frontier. — It is quite usual, frequently neces- 
 sary, and therefore the duty of a neutral power whose territory is 
 adjacent to a theater of war, to mobilize a portion of its forces to 
 enforce its neutrality along the frontier. That is to prevent troops 
 of either belligerent to enter its territory, to intern such as may be 
 permitted to enter, and generally to enforce its neutrality duties. 
 
 Should the neutral State be unable, or fail for any reasons, to 
 prevent violations of its neutrality by the troops of one belligerent 
 entering or passing through its territory, the other belligerent may 
 be justified in attacking the enemy forces on this territory. 
 
798 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Convoys of Munitions and Supplies. — A distinction must be 
 drawn between the official acts of the belligerent State in convoy- 
 ing or shipping munitions and supplies through neutral territory 
 as part of an expedition and the shipment of such supplies com- 
 mercially. The former is forbidden while the latter is not. 
 
 Forming Corps of Combatants and Recruiting Forbidden. — 
 Corps of combatants can not be formed nor recruiting agencies 
 opened on the territory of a neutral power to assist the belliger- 
 ents. 
 
 The establishment of recruiting agencies, the actual recruit- 
 ing of men, the formation and organization of hostile expeditions 
 on neutral territory, and the passage across its frontiers of organ- 
 ized bodies of men intending to enlist are prohibited. 
 
 This prohibition does not extend to the medical personnel 
 and units of a recognized voluntary aid society duly authorized to 
 join one of the belligerents. 
 
 The responsibility of a neutral power is not engaged by the 
 fact of individuals crossing the frontier separately to offer their 
 services to one of the belligerents. 
 
 The prohibition in the two foregoing rules is directed against 
 organized bodies which only require to be armed to become an 
 immediate fighting force. Individuals crossing the frontier singly 
 or in small bands that are unorganized create no obligation on the 
 neutral State. 
 
 Nationals of a belligerent State are permitted freely to leave 
 neutral territory to join the armies of their country. 
 
 Officers of the land forces of neutral powers on the active 
 list should not be permitted to join a belligerent, and having 
 joined such belligerent forces should be recalled. 
 
 Neutral Not Bound to Prevent Shipment of Supplies. — A 
 neutral power is not called upon to prevent the export or trans- 
 port, on behalf of one or other of the belligerents, of arms, muni- 
 tions of war, or, in general, of anything which can be of use to an 
 army or a fleet. 
 
 A neutral state, as such, is prohibited from furnishing sup- 
 plies, munitions of war, or to make loans to a belligerent. It is 
 also forbidden to permit the use of its territory for the fitting out 
 of hostile expeditions. It should issue a proclamation of neutrality. 
 
 Commercial transactions by neutral companies, citizens, or 
 persons resident in its territory with belligerents are not pro- 
 hibited. That is, a belligerent can purchase from neutral compan- 
 ies, citizens, or persons within its territory supplies, munitions of 
 war, or anything that can be of use to an army or fleet, which can 
 be exported or transported without involving the neutral state. 
 
 A neutral power is not called upon to forbid or restrict the 
 use on behalf of the belligerents of telegraph or telephone cables 
 
LAND WARFARE 799 
 
 or of wireless telegraph apparatus belonging to it or to companies 
 or private individuals. 
 
 The liberty of a neutral State to transmit dispatches by- 
 means of its telegraph lines on land, its submarine cables, and 
 wireless apparatus does not imply the power to use them or per- 
 mit their use to lend a manifest assistance to one of the belliger- 
 ents. 
 
 Use of Neutral Territory to Establish Wireless Telegraphy. — 
 Belligerents are likewise forbidden to: (a) Erect on the territory 
 of a neutral power a wireless telegraphy station or other apparatus 
 for the purpose of communicating with belligerent forces on land 
 or sea. (b) Use any installation of this kind established by them 
 before the war on the territory of a neutral power for purely mili- 
 tary purposes, and which has not been opened for the service of 
 public messages. 
 
 Internment. — A neutral power which receives on its terri- 
 tory troops belonging to the belligerent armies may intern them, 
 as far as possible, at a distance from the theater of war. 
 
 It may keep them in camps and even confine them in fort- 
 resses or in places set apart for this purpose. 
 
 It may decide whether officers can be left at liberty on giving 
 their parole not to leave the neutral territory without permission. 
 
 A neutral is not bound to permit belligerent troops to enter 
 its territory. On the other hand it may permit them to do so with- 
 out violating its neutrality. But they must be interned or con- 
 fined in places designated by the neutral. They will naturally be 
 disarmed and placed under the necessary guard, thereby occupying 
 in many respects the same status as prisoners of war. 
 
 If troops or soldiers of a belligerent are permitted to seek 
 refuge in neutral territory, the neutral can impose the terms upon 
 which they may do so. In case of large bodies of troops seeking 
 refuge in neutral territory, these conditions are usually stipulated 
 in a convention drawn up by and between the duly authorized 
 representative of the neutral power and the senior officer of the 
 troops. 
 
 Beyond the right of deciding which, if any, of the officers are 
 to be paroled, no conditions are specified and no penalties are pre- 
 scribed for breach of parole. 
 
 The munitions, stores, and effects which the interned troops 
 bring with them should be restored to their Government at the ter- 
 mination of the war. 
 
 In the absence of a special convention to the contrary, the 
 neutral power supply the interned with the food, clothing and 
 relief required by humanity. 
 
 At the conclusion of peace the expenses caused by the intern- 
 ment are made good. 
 
800 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 A neutral power which receives escaped prisoners of war 
 leaves them at liberty. If it allows them to remain in its territory- 
 it may assign them a place of residence. 
 
 The same rule applies to prisoners of war brought by troops 
 taking refuge in a territory of a neutral power. 
 
 A neutral power may authorize the passage into its territory 
 of the sick and wounded belonging to the belligerent armies, on 
 condition that the trains bringing them carry neither personnel nor 
 war material. In such a case, the neutral power is bound to take 
 whatever measures of safety and control are necessary for the | 
 purpose. 
 
 The sick or wounded brought under these conditions into 
 neutral territory by one of the belligerents, and belonging to the 
 hostile party, must be guarded by the neutral power so as to insure 
 their not taking part again in the military operations. The same 
 duty devolves on the neutral State with regard to wounded or sick 
 of the other army who may be committed to its care. 
 
 The neutral power is under no obligation to permit the pas- 
 sage of a convoy of evacuation of sick and wounded through its 
 territory, but when permitted to pass, the neutral must exercise 
 control, must see that neither personnel nor materiel is carried, 
 and generally must accord impartiality of treatment to the bellig- 
 erents. 
 
 There is no indicated necessity for obtaining the consent of 
 the other belligerent before granting authority for the passage of 
 the convoy, but this action seems advisable, especially where the 
 passage of a considerable body of sick and wounded is contem- 
 plated. 
 
 The sick and wounded of the belligerent convoying them 
 may be carried through to their own territory. If, however, they 
 are left in the neutral's territory they must be interned so as to 
 insure their not taking part again in the war. 
 
 Sick and wounded prisoners of war brought into neutral ter- 
 ritory as part of a convoy of evacuation, granted right of passage 
 through neutral territory, can not be transported to their own 
 country nor liberated, as are prisoners of war escaping into or 
 brought by troops seeking asylum in neutral territory, but must 
 be detained by the neutral power. 
 
 The medical personnel belonging to belligerent forces, who 
 have sought asylum and are interned, can be released by the neutral 
 and permitted to return to their own State or army. Medical per- 
 sonnel and materiel necessary for the care of the sick and wounded 
 of a convoy of evacuation, permitted to pass through neutral ter- 
 ritory, may be permitted to accompany the convoy. The neutral 
 State may retain the necessary medical personnel and materiel for 
 the care of the sick and wounded left in its care, and, failing this, 
 
LAND WARFARE 801 
 
 may furnish same and will have expense of same refunded by the 
 belligerent concerned after the termination of the war. 
 
 The nationals of a State which is not taking part in the war 
 are considered as neutrals. 
 
 Neutral persons resident in occupied territory are not entitled 
 to claim different treatment, in general, from that accorded the 
 other inhabitants. They must refrain from all participation in the 
 war, from all hostile acts, and observe strictly the rules of the 
 occupant. 
 
 Diplomatic agents of neutral sovereigns and Governments 
 must be treated with all courtesy, and be permitted such freedom 
 of action as is possible to allow, with due regard to the necessities 
 of the war. 
 
 All subjects of neutral powers whether resident or tem- 
 porarily visiting in occupied territory may be punished for offenses 
 committed by them to the same extent and in the same manner 
 as enemy subjects. 
 
 A neutral can not avail himself of his neutrality: (a) If he 
 commits hostile acts against a belligerent, (b) If he commits acts 
 in favor of a belligerent, particularly if he voluntarily enlists in 
 the ranks of the armed force of one of the parties. In such a case, 
 the neutral is not more severely treated by the belligerent as 
 against whom he has abandoned his neturality than a national of 
 the other belligerent State could be for the same act. 
 
 The following acts are not considered as committed in favor 
 of one belligerent: (a) Supplies furnished or loans made to one 
 of the belligerents, provided that the person who furnishes the 
 supplies or who makes the loans lives neither in the territory of 
 the other party nor in the territory occupied by him, and that the 
 supplies do not come from these territories, (b) Services rendered 
 in matters of police or civil administration. 
 
 Railway material coming from the territory of neutral 
 powers, whether it be the property of the said powers or of com- 
 panies or private persons, and recognizable as such, is not requisi- 
 tioned or utilized by a belligerent except where and to the extent 
 that it is absolutely necessary. It is sent back as soon as possible 
 to the country of origin. A neutral power may likewise, in case of 
 necessity, retain and utilize to an equal extent material coming 
 from the territory of the belligerent power. 
 
 AUTOMATIC SUBMARINE CONTACT MINES 
 
 There are three general classes of mines: (1) Observation 
 mines which are anchored along the coast and connected therewith 
 by wires by which they can be exploded electrically. (2) Anchored 
 
802 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 automatic contact mines which are attached to heavy weights, and 
 which can be placed at any required depth below the surface; these 
 mines are exploded automatically by contact with heavy bodies 
 sucjj as ships. (3) Unanchored automatic contact mines which also 
 explode by contact. 
 
 It is forbidden to lay unanchored automatic contact mines 
 unless they be so constructed as to become harmless one hour at 
 most after those who laid them have lost control over them. 
 
 It is forbidden to lay automatic contact mines off the coasts 
 and ports of the enemy, with the sole object of intercepting com- 
 mercial navigation. 
 
 It is not probable that a belligerent resorting to the use 
 of these contact mines off the coasts and ports of his enemy will 
 hesitate to disavow the intention of intercepting commercial navi- 
 gation. In its present form this rule permits the use of such 
 mines so as to cause great risks to neutral navigation. 
 
 It is forbidden to lay anchored automatic contact mines 
 which do not become harmless as soon as they have broken 
 loose from their moorings. 
 
 When anchored automatic contact mines are employed, 
 every possible precaution must be taken for the security of peace- 
 ful navigation. The belligerents undertake to provide, as far as 
 possible, for these mines becoming harmless after a limited time 
 has elapsed, and, where the mines cease to be under observation, 
 to notify danger zones, as soon as military exigencies permit, by 
 a notice to mariners, which must also be communicated to the 
 Governments through the diplomatic channel. 
 
 Neutral Powers Can Lay Mines. — Neutral powers which lay 
 automatic contact mines off their coasts must observe the same 
 rules and take the same precautions as are imposed on belligerents. 
 
 The neutral power must give notice to mariners in advance 
 of the places where automatic contact mines have been laid. This 
 notice must be communicated at once to the Governments through 
 the diplomatic channel. 
 
 Must Remove Mines at Close of War. — At the close of the 
 war the contracting powers undertake to do their utmost to remove 
 the mines which they have laid, each power removing its own 
 mines. 
 
 As regards anchored automatic contact mines laid by one 
 of the belligerents off the coast of the other, their position must 
 be notified to the other party by the power which laid them, and 
 each power must proceed with the least possible delay to remove 
 the mines in its own waters. 
 
 Torpedoes. — It is forbidden to use torpedoes which do not 
 become harmless when they have missed their mark. 
 
CHAPTER XXVII 
 
 MILITARY GYMNASTICS AND PHYSICAL TRAIN- 
 ING IN THE MILITARY SERVICE 
 
 " A System of Military Gymnastic Exercises and a System of 
 Land-taught Swimming" was prepared and published by the author 
 in 1881, under the instructions of the Superintendent of the United 
 States Military Academy, for the use of the cadets and military 
 colleges. The object of this course of gymnastics was to develop 
 and increase the physical powers of the cadet or soldier by advanc- 
 ing him, step by step, from the preliminary extension movements 
 to the most arduous and complicated machine exercises, his 
 advancement being always regulated by his growing strength and 
 capacity. Later Major Herman J. Koehler, United States Army, 
 enlarged this system which developed into the Manual of Physical 
 Training used by the United States Army, which aims to attain 
 the development of the physical attributes of every individual to 
 the fullest extent of his possibilities. These may be summed up 
 as (1) General health and bodily vigor; (2) Muscular strength 
 and endurance; (3) Self-endurance; (4) Smartness, activity, and 
 precision. 
 
 It is upon the first of these, health and bodily vigor, that the 
 development of all the other qualities so essential in a soldier are 
 dependent, and for that reason the maintenance of robust health 
 and the development of organic vigor should be considered the 
 primary object of this training. 
 
 The tendency of the age is to treat all conditions of health 
 from a pathological standpoint; and while much has been accom- 
 plished in the way of increasing the resistive powers of the human 
 organism against the inroads of disease by means of inoculation 
 and other methods of prevention, the development of the inherent 
 power of resistance, which every individual possesses in a greater 
 or lesser degree by means of natural physiological methods, has 
 been much neglected. 
 
 It is not sufficient, however, for a soldier to be healthy; his 
 profession demands that he possess more than the average amount 
 of muscular strength and endurance in addition to good health, 
 in order that he may be ready to exchange the comparative com- 
 
804 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 forts of barrack life for the hardships of field service at any 
 moment without diminishing his effectiveness. Hence, the prepara- 
 tory training he receives must contain those elements that will 
 enable him to do so successfully. 
 
 With robust health as a basis and with the knowledge that 
 he is the possessor of more than average strength and endurance, 
 he must be taught how to value the former and how to use the latter 
 to the best advantage. By doing so he will unwittingly develop 
 self-reliance, which, after all, is a physical quality, as it induces 
 men to dare because of the consciousness to do. 
 
 Smartness, activity and precision are the physical expressions 
 of mental activity. All are essential soldierly qualities, as they 
 make for self-respect, neatness, and grace, which combined spell 
 discipline. Precision and exactitude should therefore always be 
 insisted upon in the performance of all exercises prescribed. 
 
 In the endeavor to attain the objects referred to above the 
 soldier is the recipient of a course of training that can not fail to 
 develop him harmoniously, and the liability of developing one 
 portion of his body at the expense of another is obviated. 
 
 SCOPE 
 
 The material at the disposal of instructors embraces: 1. Set 
 ting-up exercises; 2. Marching at quick or double time and running; | 
 3. Dumb-bell, club, : nd rifle exercises; 4. Climbing; 5. Jumping; 
 6. Apparatus work; 7. Gymnastic contests; 8. Athletics; 9. Swim- 
 ming; 10. Boxing and wrestling. 
 
 Setting-up exercises are the foundation upon which the entire |o 
 course of training in the service is based. Their importance can idi 
 not be overestimated, as by means of them alone it is possible to jj 
 effect an all-around development impossible of attainment by any |tf 
 other method. They should therefore form a very important part 
 of every drill. 
 
 Marching in quick time and exercises calling into action the 
 various parts of the body while marching tend to develop coordi- 
 nation, upon which to a great extent poise, posture, carriage, and 
 rhythm are dependent. Marching in double time is a heart and 
 lung developing exercise of moderate severity. Running, on the 
 other hand, especially when continued for long periods, or at a 
 high rate of speed, or when taken in conjunction with leg exer- 
 cises, affects those organs in a very marked degree. Both double 
 time and running are invaluable in the development of endur- 
 ance and organic vigor. 
 
 Dumb-bell exercises are closely allied to the setting-up exer- 
 cises and differ from these only by the extra weight that is imposed |j e 
 by the bells, which should, however, never exceed 2 pounds. 
 
MILITARY GYMNASTICS— PHYSICAL TRAINING 80S 
 
 Club exercises are of use principally as a means for the develop- 
 ment of coordination and grace in the upper extremities; their 
 weight, since muscular development is not aimed at, should not 
 exceed 2 pounds. 
 
 Rifle exercises have for their object the development of "handi- 
 ness " with the piece. Owing to the weight of the rifle they are 
 powerful factors in the development of the muscles of the arms, 
 upper back, shoulders, and chest, and when taken in conjunction 
 with trunk and leg exercises they are excellent agents for the all- 
 round development of those who possess the strength to wield 
 the piece to advantage. 
 
 Climbing, on poles or ropes, when both arms and legs are used, 
 brings into action nearly every muscle of the body and exerts 
 considerable influence upon the heart. Where poles or ropes of 
 sufficient length are used this exercise will also develop self- 
 reliance. 
 
 Jumping, when indulged in as a gymnastic exercise, where a 
 series of from 8 to 10 jumps of moderate length are executed suc- 
 cessively, is essentially a leg and heart developing exercise. When 
 form is insisted upon and the nature of the jump is varied by 
 introducing various leg, arm, and trunk movements, it becomes a 
 strong factor in the development of coordination. 
 
 Apparatus work should be supplementary to all other forms of 
 training. The chief object of this work in the service should be to 
 use it as a means for the development of the ability of the soldier 
 to control his body while its weight is supported by or suspended 
 from the arms and hands, in order to enable him to successfully 
 Dvercome and surmount such obstacles as may present themselves 
 luring field service. The exercises composing this part of the 
 training should, therefore, be confined to those that will develop 
 Uhe muscular strength of the entire body in general and that of 
 ; he arms and legs in particular, and at the same time tend to make 
 :he soldier agile and active and teach him decision and self-reliance. 
 
 Gymnastic contests are the simpler forms of antagonistic 
 gymnastics in which the participants are pitted against each other, 
 Und which never fail to induce the usual rivalry for superiority 
 Attending personal contests. Their chief value lies in the develop- 
 ment of agility and quickness of thought and action. They are 
 juite the most interesting of those exercises in which the effort is 
 " ost sight of in the desire to win. 
 
 Athletics, when employed for the sake of their value as a means 
 ''or the development of large numbers, which should be the case 
 n the service, have nothing in common with competitive athletics, 
 .'n other words, their value lies entirely in their usefulness in the 
 levelopment of physical strength, endurance, skill, and not in the 
 naking or breaking of records. 
 
806 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Swimming is of vital importance to every one connected with 
 the service, and it should be made obligatory upon all officers and 
 enlisted men to make themselves proficient in it. Aside from its 
 usefulness it is without doubt the best single means to all round 
 physical development. 
 
 Boxing and wrestling, while not recommended as an obligatory 
 part of the enlisted man's training, should still be encouraged at 
 all times, not only on account of their value as a means to bodily 
 development, but on account of the self-reliance and confidence 
 they give to those who are proficient in them. 
 
 METHODS 
 
 In the employment of the various forms of physical training 
 enumerated above it is necessary that well-defined methods should] 
 be introduced in order that the object of this training may be at- 
 tained in the most thorough and systematic manner. Whenever 
 it is possible this work should be conducted out of doors. In 
 planning these methods the following factors must be considered: 
 (1) the condition and physical aptitude of the men; (2) the facil- 
 ities; (3) the time; (4) instruction material. 
 
 The question of the physical aptitude and general condition, 
 etc., of the men is a very important one, and it should always de- 
 termine the nature and extent of the task expected of them; never 
 should the work be made the determining factor. In general, it is 
 advisable to divide the men into three classes, viz., the recruit 
 class, the intermediate class, and the advanced class. The work 
 for each class should fit the capabilities of the members of that 
 class and in every class it should be arranged progressively. 
 
 Facilities are necessarily to be considered in any plan of in- ; 
 struction, but as most posts are now equipped with better than 
 average facilities the plan herewith laid will answer all purposes. 
 
 Time is a decidedly important factor, and no plan can be made 
 unless those in charge of this work know exactly how much time 
 they have at their disposal. During the suspension of drills five 
 periods a week, each of 45 minutes' duration, should be devoted *> 
 to physical training; during the drill period a 15-minute drill in ' 
 setting-up exercses should be ordered on drill days. The time of 
 day, too, is important. When possible, these drills should be held I 
 in the morning about two hours after breakfast, and at no time ' 
 should they be held immediately before or after a meal. 
 
 The proper use of the instruction material is undoubtedly the 
 most important part of an instructor's duty, for it not only means P 
 the selection of the proper material but its application. Every ex- f 
 ercise has a function peculiarly its own; in other words, it has a 
 certain effect upon a certain part of the body and plays a role in 
 
MILITARY GYMNASTICS— PHYSICAL TRAINING 807 
 
 the development of the men. It is, therefore, the sum of these 
 various exercises properly grouped that constitutes the method. 
 So far as possible every lesson should be planned to embrace 
 setting up exercises that call into action all parts of the body, 
 applied gymnastics, apparatus work, and exercises that develop 
 co-ordination and skill, such as jumping and vaulting. 
 
 The best results are obtained when these exercises which affect 
 the extensor muscles chiefly are followed by those affecting the 
 flexors; i.e., flexion should always be followed by extension, or vice 
 versa. It is also advisable that a movement requiring a consider- 
 able amount of muscular exertion should be followed by one in 
 which this exertion is reduced to a minimum. As a rule, especially 
 in the setting-up exercises, one portion of the body should not be 
 exercised successively; thus, arm exercises should be followed by 
 a trunk exercise, and that in turn by a leg, shoulder, or neck 
 exercise. 
 
 Clubs, dumb-bells, bar-bells, wands, or rifles may be substi- 
 tuted for the setting-up exercises occasionally, and the gymnastic 
 contests may also be used in place of the jumping and vaulting 
 exercises. 
 
 Large numbers may be employed in a body in the setting up 
 exercises and also in the exercises with the clubs, etc. 
 In the applied or apparatus work, unless the facilities afford a suffi- 
 .cient number of the same kind of apparatus, it is advisable to 
 .divide the men into small squads. 
 
 Officers who have been placed in charge of this work must not 
 for an instant lose sight of the fact that to them has been intrusted 
 a part of the soldier's training, which is of great importance, and 
 hat success or failure is dependent entirely upon themselves. Work 
 as important as this is worthy of the best efforts, and it should 
 never be intrusted to those who are not enthusiastic about it. 
 
 Whenever possible the officer in charge should conduct the work 
 personally, as in no profession does the individuality and personal 
 influence of a leader carry such weight as it does in the military. 
 \ well-defined program should be mapped out before the drill 
 pegins, and this should be carried out faithfully. Every day's work 
 mould dovetail into the next and be progressive. 
 
 Instructors should not" fail to do as much as possible themselves, 
 
 f is an example is always more impressive than a precept; it will 
 
 also serve to keep the officer in fit condition. Where commands 
 
 ire large, the athletic officer should be given officer assistants, 
 
 vhom he should train so that they may be able to carry out his 
 
 program intelligently. If officers are not available, he should 
 
 elect likely enlisted men and train them to be leaders and capable 
 
 I'if taking charge of a squad. 
 
 The work should be so conducted that the men are developed 
 
808 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 harmoniously; that is, any tendency to develop one side or one 
 portion of the body at the expense of the other should be avoided. 
 Insist upon accurate and precise execution of every movement. By 
 doing so those other essential qualities, besides strength and en- 
 durance — activity, agility, gracefulness, and accuracy — will also be 
 developed. Exercises which require activity and agility, rather 
 than those that require strength only, should be selected. 
 
 It should be constantly borne in mind that these exercises are 
 the means and not the end; and if there be a doubt in the mind of 
 the instructor as to the effect of an exercise, it is always well to 
 err upon the side of safety. Underdoing is rectifiable; overdoing 
 is often not. The object of this work is not the development of 
 expert gymnasts, but the development of physically sound men by 
 means of a system in which the chances of bodily injury are re- 
 duced to a minimum. When individuals show a special aptitude for 
 gymnastics they may be encouraged,, within limits, to improve this 
 ability, but never at the expense of their fellows. 
 
 The drill should be made attractive, and this can best be ac- 
 complished by employing the mind as well as the body. The 
 movements should be as varied as possible, thus constantly offering 
 the men something new to make them keep their minds on their 
 work. A movement many times repeated presents no attraction 
 and is executed in a purely mechanical manner which should always 
 be discountenanced. 
 
 Short and frequent drills should be given in preference to long 
 ones, which are liable to exhaust all concerned, and exhaustion 
 means lack of interest and benefit. All movements should be care- 
 fully explained, and, if necessary, illustrated by the instructor. 
 
 The lesson should begin with the least violent exercises, grad- 
 ually working up to those that are more so, then gradually work- 
 ing back to the simpler ones, so that the men at the close of the 
 drill will be in as nearly a normal condition as possible. 
 
 When one portion of the body is being exercised, care should 
 be taken that the other parts remain quiet so far as the conforma- 
 tion of the body will allow. The men must learn to exercise any 
 one part of the body independent of the other parts. 
 
 Everything i'n connection with physical training should be such 
 that the men look forward to it with pleasure, not with dread, for 
 the mind exerts more influence over the human body than all the 
 gymnastic paraphernalia that was ever invented. 
 
 Exercise should be carried on as much as possible in the open 
 air; at all times in pure, dry air. All the men except those excused 
 by the post surgeon should be compelled to attend these drills. 
 
 Never exercise the men to the point of exhaustion. If there is 
 evidence of panting, faintness, fatigue, or pain, the exercise should 
 be stopped at once, for it is nature's way of saying " too much." 
 
MILITARY GYMNASTICS— PHYSICAL TRAINING 809 
 
 By constant practice the men should learn to breathe slowly 
 through the nostrils during all exercises, especially while running. 
 A fundamental condition of exercise is unimpeded respiration. 
 Proper breathing should always be insisted upon; "holding the 
 breath" and breathing only when it can no longer be held is in- 
 jurious. Every exercise should be accompanied by an unimpeded 
 and, if possible, by an uninterrupted act of respiration, the inspira- 
 tion and respiration of which depends to a great extent upon the 
 t nature of the exercise. Inhalation should always accompany that 
 part of an exercise which tends to elevate and distend the thorax — - 
 cas raising arms over head laterally, for instance; while that part 
 | of an exercise which exerts a pressure against the walls of the chest 
 , should be accompanied by exhalation, as for example, lowering 
 .arms laterally from shoulders or overhead. 
 
 7 If after exercismg, the breathing becomes labored and dis- 
 
 tressed, it is an unmistakable sign that the work has been exces- 
 sive. Such excessiveness is not infrequently the cause of serious 
 injury to the heart and lungs, or to both. In cases where exercise 
 .produces palpitation, labored respiration, etc., it is advisable to 
 .recommend absolute rest, or to order such exercises that will re- 
 lieve the oppressed and overtaxed organ. Leg exercises slowly 
 executed afford such relief; by drawing the blood from the upper 
 jto the lower extremities they equalize the circulation, thereby 
 lessening the heart's action and quieting the respiration. 
 
 Never exercise immediately after a meal; digestion is more 
 important at this time than extraneous exercise. 
 
 Never eat or drink immediately after exercise; allow the body 
 to recover its normal condition first, and the most beneficial results 
 will follow. If necessary, pure water, not too cold, may be taken 
 in small quantities, but the exercise should be continued, especially 
 M in a state of perspiration. 
 
 Never, if at all possible, allow the underclothing to dry on the 
 Ibody. Muscular action produces an unusual amount of bodily heat; 
 -this should be lost gradually, otherwise the body will be chilled; 
 hence, after exercise, never remove clothing to cool off, but, on the 
 contrary, wear some wrap in addition. In like manner, be well 
 wrapped up on leaving the gymnasium. 
 
 Cold baths, especially when the body is heated, as in the case 
 after exercising violently, should be discouraged. In individual 
 instances such baths may appear apparently beneficial, or at least 
 not injurious; in a majority of cases, however, they can not be used 
 with impunity. Tepid baths are recommended. When impossible 
 to bathe, the flannels worn while exercising should be stripped off, 
 the body sponged with tepid water, and then rubbed thoroughly 
 with coarse towels. After such a sponge the body should be 
 :lothed in clean, warm clothing. 
 
810 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Flannel is the best material to wear next to the body during 
 physical drill, as it absorbs the perspiration, protects the body 
 against drafts and in a mild manner excites the skin. When the 
 conditions permit it the men may be exercised in the ordinary 
 athletic costume, sleeveless shirt, flappers, socks, and gymnasium 
 shoes. 
 
 SETTING UP EXERCISES 
 
 The various movements comprising an exercise are executed 
 by commands and, unless otherwise indicated, the continuation of 
 an exercise is carried out by repeating the command, which usually 
 takes the form of numerals, the numbers depending upon the num- 
 ber of movements that an exercise comprises. Thus, if an exercise 
 consists of two movements, the counts will be one, two; or if it 
 consists of eight movements, the counts will be correspondingly 
 increased; thus every movement is designated by a separate 
 command. 
 
 Occasionally, especially in exercises that are to be executed 
 slowly, words rather than numerals are used, and these must be 
 indicative of the nature of the various movements. In the continu- 
 ation of an exercise the preparatory command is explanatory, the 
 command of execution causes the execution and the continuation 
 is caused by a repetition of numerals denoting the number of move- 
 ments required, or of words describing the movements if words are 
 used. The numerals or words preceding the command. HALT 
 should always be given with a rising inflection on the first numeral 
 or word of command of the last repetition of the exercise in order 
 to prepare the men for the command HALT. 
 
 Each command must indicate, by its tone, how that particular 
 movement is to be executed; thus, if an exercise consists of two 
 movements, one of which is to be energized, the command cor- 
 responding to that movement must be emphasized. 
 
 Judgment must be used in giving commands, for rarely is the 
 cadence of two movements alike; and a command should not only 
 indicate the cadence of an exercise, but also the nature of its 
 execution. Thus, many of the arm exercises are short and snappy; 
 hence the command should be given in a smart tone of voice, and 
 the interval between the commands should be short. 
 
 The leg exercises can not be executed as quickly as those of the 
 arms; therefore, the commands should be slightly drawn out and 
 follow one another in slow succession. 
 
 The trunk exercises, owing to the deliberateness of execution, 
 should be considerably drawn out and follow one another in slow 
 succession. 
 
MILITARY GYMNASTICS— PHYSICAL TRAINING 811 
 
 The antagonistic exercises, where one group of muscles is made 
 to antagonize another, tensing exercises, the commands are drawn 
 still more. In these exercises words are preferable to numerals. 
 In fact it should be the object of the instructor to convey to the 
 men, by the manner of his command, exactly the nature of the 
 exercise. 
 
 All commands should be given in a clear and distinct tone of 
 voice, articulation should be distinct, and an effort should be made 
 to cultivate a voice which will inspire the men with enthusiasm and 
 tend to make them execute the exercses with willingness, snap, 
 and precision. It is not the volume, but the quality, of the voice 
 which is necessary to successful instruction. 
 
 THE POSITION OF ATTENTION 
 
 This is the position an unarmed dismounted soldier assumes 
 when in ranks. During the setting-up exercises, it is assumed 
 whenever the command ATTENTION is given by the instructor. 
 Having allowed his men to rest, the instructor commands: 1. Squad, 
 2. ATTENTION. The word class, section, or company may be 
 substituted for the word " squad." 
 
 At the command attention, the men quickly assume and retain 
 the following position: 
 
 Heels on same line and as near each other as the conformation 
 of the man permits. Feet turned out equally and forming an angle 
 of about 45 degrees. Knees straight without stiffness. The body 
 erect on the hips, the spine extended throughout its entire length. 
 The shoulders falling naturally, are forced back until they are 
 square. Chest arched and slightly raised. The arms hang natur- 
 ally; thumbs along seams of trousers; back of hands out and 
 elbows turned back. Head erect, chin drawn in so that the axis 
 of the head and neck is vertical; eyes straight to the front and, 
 when the nature of the terrain permits it, fixed on an object at 
 their own height. 
 
 Too much attention can not be given to this position, and in- 
 structors are cautioned to insist that the men accustom themselves 
 to it. As a rule, it is so exaggerated that it not only becomes 
 ridiculous, but positively harmful. The men must be taught to 
 assume a natural and graceful position, one from which all rigidity 
 is eliminated and from which action is possible without first relax- 
 ing muscles that have been constrained in an effort to maintain the 
 position of attention. In other words, coordination rather than 
 strength should be depended upon. 
 
 In the position described the weight rests principally upon the 
 balls of the feet, the heels resting lightly upon the ground. The 
 knees are extended easily, but never locked. The body is inclined 
 forward until the front of the thighs is directly over the base of 
 
812 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 the toes; the hips are square and the waist is extended by the 
 erection of the entire spine, but never to such a degree that mobility 
 of the waist is lost. 
 
 In extending the spine, the chest is naturally arched and the 
 abdomen is drawn in, but never to the extent where it interferes 
 with respiration. In extending the spinal column, the shoulders 
 must not be raised, but held loosely in normal position and forced 
 back until the points of the shoulders are at right angles with an 
 anterior-posterior plane running through the body. 
 
 The chin should be square; i. e., horizontal and forced back 
 enough to bring the neck in a vertical plane; the eyes fixed to the 
 front and the object on which they are fixed must be at their own 
 height whenever the nature of the terrain permits it. 
 
 When properly assumed, a vertical line drawn from the top 
 of the head should pass in front of the ear, just in front of the 
 shoulder and of thigh, and find its base at the balls of the feet. 
 
 All muscles should be contracted only enough to maintain this 
 position, which at all times should be a lithesome one, that can be 
 maintained for a long period without fatigue — one that makes for 
 activity and that is based upon a correct anatomical and physiologi- 
 cal basis. 
 
 Instructors correct the position of attention of every man in- 
 dividually and ascertain, when the position has been properly as- 
 sumed, whether the men are " on their toes," i.e., carrying the 
 weight on the balls of the feet, whether they are able to respire 
 properly. This position should be repeated until the men are 
 able to assume it correctly without restraint or rigidity. 
 
 At the command rest or at ease the men, while carrying out 
 the provisions of the drill regulations, should be cautioned to avoid 
 assuming any position that has a tendency to nullify the object of 
 the position of attention; as standing on one leg for instance: 
 allowing the shoulders to slope forward; drooping the head; folding 
 arms across chest, etc. The weight should always be distributed 
 equally upon both legs; the head, trunk, and shoulders remain 
 erect and the arms held in a position that does not restrict the 
 chest or derange the shoulders. 
 
 FORMATIONS 
 
 The men form in a single or double rank, the tallest men on the 
 right. The instructor commands: 1. Count off. At this command, 
 all except the right file execute " eyes right " and, beginning on the 
 right, the men in each rank count 1, 2, 3, 4; each man turns his 
 head and eyes to the front as he counts. 
 
 The instructor then commands: 1. Take distance, 2. MARCH, 
 3. Squad, 4. HALT. 
 
MILITARY GYMNASTICS— PHYSICAL TRAINING 813 
 
 At the command march, No. 1 of the front rank moves straight 
 to the front; Nos. 2, 3, and 4 of the front and Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4 
 of the rear rank in the order named move straight to the front, 
 each stepping off, so as to follow the preceding man at four paces; 
 the command halt is given when all have their distances. 
 
 If it i's desired that a less distance than four paces be taken, 
 the distance desired should be indicated in the preparatory com- 
 mand. The men of the squad may be caused to cover No. 1 front 
 rank by the command cover. 
 
 The instructor then commands: 1. Right (left), 2. FACE, 
 3. COVER. 
 
 At these commands the men face in the direction indicated and 
 cover in file. 
 
 To assemble the squad the instructor commands: 1. Right 
 (left), 2. FACE, 3. Assemble, 4. MARCH. 
 
 After facing and at command march, No. 1 of the front rank 
 stands fast, the other members of both ranks resuming their orig- 
 inal positions, or for convenience in the gymnasium they may be 
 assembled to the rear, in which case the assemblage is made on 
 No. 4 of the rear rank. Unless otherwise indicated, the guide is 
 always right. 
 
 SPECIAL TRAINING 
 
 In addition to the regular squad or class work instructors 
 should, when they notice a physical defect in any man, recommend 
 some exercise which will tend to correct it. 
 
 The most common physical defects are drooping head, round 
 and stooped shoulders, weak back, weak abdomen, and slight depth 
 and width of chest. 
 
 STARTING POSITIONS 
 
 In nearly all the arm exercises it is necessary to hold the arms 
 in some fixed position from which the exercise can be most ad- 
 vantageously executed, and to which position the arms are again 
 returned upon completing the exercise. These positions are termed 
 starting positions; and though it may not be absolutely necessary 
 to assume one of them before or during the employment of any 
 other portion of the body, it is advisable to do so, since they give to 
 the exercise a finished, uniform, and graceful appearance. 
 
 In the following positions, at the command down, resume the 
 attention. Practice in assuming the starting position may be had 
 by repeating the commands of execution, such as raise, down. 
 
 Intervals having been taken and attention assumed, the in- 
 structor commands: 
 
814 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 1. Arms forward, 2. RAISE, 3. Arms, 4. DOWN. 
 
 At the command raise, raise the arms to the front smartly, ex- 
 tended to their full length, till the hands are in front of and at 
 the height of the shoulders, palms down, fingers extended and 
 joined, thumbs under index fingers. At arms down, resume posi- 
 tion of attention. 
 
 1. Arms sideward, 2. RAISE, 3. Arms, 4. DOWN. 
 
 At the command raise, raise the arms laterally until horizontal, 
 palms down, fingers as in 1. The arms are brought down smartly 
 without allowing them to touch the body. 
 
 1. Arms upward, 2. RAISE, 3. Arms, 4. DOWN. 
 
 At the command raise, raise the arms from the sides, extended 
 to their full length, with the forward movement, until they are 
 vertically overhead, back of hands turned outward, fingers extended 
 and joined. 
 
 1. Arms backward, 2. CROSS, 3. Arms, 4. DOWN. 
 
 At the command cross, the arms are folded across the back; 
 hands grasping forearms. 
 
 1. Arms to thrust, 2. RAISE, 3. Arms, 4. DOWN. 
 
 At the command raise, raise the forearms to the front until 
 horizontal, elbow forced back, upper arms against the chest, 
 hands tightly closed, knuckles down. 
 
 1. Hands on hips, 2. PLACE, 3. Arms, 4. DOWN. 
 
 At the command place, place the hands on the hips, the finger 
 tips in line with trouser seams; fingers extended and joined, thumbs 
 to the rear, elbows pressed back. 
 
 1. Hands on shoulders, 2. PLACE, 3. Arms, 4. DOWN. 
 
 At the command place, raise the forearms to the vertical posi- 
 tions, palms inward, without moving the upper arms; then raise 
 the elbows upward and outward until the upper arms are horizontal; 
 at the same time bending the wrist and 'allowing the finger tips to 
 rest lightly on the shoulders. 
 
 1. Fingers in rear of head, 2. PLACE, 3. Arms, 4. DOWN. 
 
 At the command Place, raise the arms and forearms, and 
 place the fingers behind the lower portion of the head, elbows well 
 up and pressed well back. 
 
 These positions should be practiced frequently, and instead of 
 recovering the position of attention after each position, the in- 
 structor may change directly from one to another by giving the 
 proper commands instead of commanding arms, down. These 
 changes should, however, be made only after the positions are 
 thoroughly understood and correctly assumed. 
 
 As these exercises form the basis upon which the entire system 
 of physical training in the service is founded too much importance 
 can not be attached :o them. Through the number and variety 
 of movements they offer it is possible to develop the body har- 
 
MILITARY GYMNASTICS— PHYSICAL TRAINING 815 
 
 moniously with little if any danger of injurious results. They de- 
 velop the muscles and impart vigor and tone to the vital organs 
 and assist them in their functions; they develop endurance and are 
 important factors in the development of smartness, grace, and 
 precision. They should be assiduously practiced, and the fact that 
 they require no apparatus of any description makes it possible to 
 do this Out of doors or even in the most restricted room, proper 
 hygienic conditions being the only adjunct upon which their success 
 is dependent. No physical training drill is complete without them. 
 They should always precede the more strenuous forms of training, 
 as they prepare the body for the greater exertion these forms 
 demand. 
 
 HOPPING EXERCISES 
 
 Hopping is executed by raising the body on the balls of the 
 feet and forcing the body from the ground by a series of quick 
 extensions of the toe and ankle joints; knees remain easily ex- 
 tended, heels together and free from the floor. 
 
 Having assumed a position for the arms, the instructor com- 
 mands: 1. On toes, 2. RISE, 3. HOP. 
 
 At the command hop execute one spring, alighting on the balls 
 of the feet. Continue by repeating one, two. 
 
 LEAPING 
 
 Leaping or jumping as a setting-up exercise has for its object 
 the raising of the body from 8 to 12 inches from the ground; there 
 is, however, no gaining of ground as in gymnastic or athletic 
 jumping. 
 
 At the first command, the arms are rafsed to the front hori- 
 zontal and the body is elevated on the toes. 
 
 At the command leap, the arms are swung downward and back- 
 ward and the knees are slightly bent; without pausing the arms are 
 swung forward again and as they pass through the vertical plane 
 ' the knees are extended and the oody is forced from the floor. 
 
 The moment the feet leave the floor the knees are extended; 
 3 feet are closed and toes depressed; the arms are in the front hori- 
 - zontal; the back is arched and the head is erect. 
 
 In alighting, the balls of the feet touch the floor first, knees 
 i slightly bent; the latter are quickly extended, however, and the 
 ! arms brought down by the sides and the position of attention is 
 assumed. 
 
 WALKING AND MARCHING 
 
 The length of the full step in quick time is 30 inches, measured 
 from heel to heel, and the cadence is at the rate of 120 steps per 
 minute. 
 52 
 
816 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Proper posture and carriage have ever been considered very 
 important in the training of soldiers. In marching, the head and 
 trunk should remain immobile, but without stiffness; as the left 
 foot is carried forward the right forearm is swung forward and 
 inward obliquely across the body until the thumb, knuckles being 
 turned out, reaches a point about the height of the belt plate. The j 
 upper arm does not move beyond the perpendicular plane while 
 the forearm is swung forward, though the arm hangs loosely from 
 the shoulder joint. The forearm swing ends precisely at the 
 moment the left heel strikes the ground; the arm is then relaxed 
 and allowed to swing down and backward by its own weight until 
 it reaches a point -where the thumb is about the breadth of a hand 
 to the rear of the buttocks. As the right arm swings back the left 
 arm is swung forward with the right leg. The forward motion of 
 the arms assists the body in marching by throwing the weight 
 forward and inward upon the opposite foot as it is planted. The 
 head is held erect; body well stretched from the waist; chest 
 arched, and there should be no rotary motion of the body about the 
 spine. 
 
 As the leg is thrown forward the knee is smartly extended, the 
 heel striking the ground first. 
 
 The instructor having explained the principles and illustrated 
 the step and arm swing, commands: 1. Forward, 2. MARCH — and 
 to halt the squad he commands: 1. Squad, 2. HALT. 
 
 In executing the setting-up exercises on the march the cadence I 
 should at first be given slowly and gradually increased as the men 
 become more expert; as some exercises require a slow and others a 
 faster pace, it is best in these cases to allow the cadence of the 
 exercise to determine the cadence of the step. 
 
 The men should march m a single file at proved intervals. The 
 command that causes and discontinues the execution should be 
 given as the left foot strikes the ground. 
 
 On the march, to discontinue the exercise, command: 1. 
 Quick time, 2. MARCH, instead of halt, as when standing. 
 
 All of the arm, wrist, finger, and shoulder exercises, and some 
 of the trunk and neck, may be executed on the march by the same 
 commands and in the same manner as when standing. 
 
 STEPS 
 
 In the steps, the command march given as the left foot strikes 
 the ground, determines the execution, which always begins with 
 the left foot, and is continued until the command: 1. Quick time, 
 2. MARCH, is given, when the direct step is resumed. 
 
turn. 
 
 MILITARY GYMNASTICS— PHYSICAL TRAINING 817 
 
 The different steps are executed at the following commands: 
 
 1. Cross step. 2. MARCH. 
 
 As the legs move forward they are crossed. The body does not 
 
 1. Halting step, 2. MARCH. 
 
 The left foot is advanced and planted; the right foot is brought 
 directly in rear of the left, resting on the ball only; the right is 
 then advanced and planted and the left brought up, and so on. 
 
 1. Foot-balancing step, 2. MARCH. 
 
 The left foot is advanced and planted; the right foot is brought 
 up beside it, heels touching; the body is then raised on the toes 
 and lowered. The right foot is then advanced and planted and the 
 left brought up, and so on. 
 
 1. Continuous change step, 2. MARCH. 
 
 The left foot is advanced and planted; the toes of the right are 
 then advanced near the heel of the left in the halting step; the left 
 foot is then advanced about half a step (15 inches) and the right 
 foot is advanced with the full step and planted; the toes of the 
 left foot are then brought up to the heel of the right foot, which 
 advances a half step, when the left foot is advanced a full step, and 
 so on. 
 
 1. Knee-rocking step, 2. MARCH. 
 
 As each foot is planted it is accompanied by a slight bending 
 and extension in the corresponding knee, the other leg remaining 
 fully extended, heel raised. 
 
 1. Lunging step, 2. MARCH. 
 
 The length of the step is 45 inches, the knee in advance being 
 well bent; the other leg remaining fully extended, heel raised; trunk 
 erect. 
 
 1. Leg-balance step, 2. MARCH. 
 
 The left foot is advanced, ankle high ; it is then swung backward 
 and forward and planted, the body during the swing balancing on 
 the right leg. The right foot is then advanced, swung backward 
 and forward and planted, and so on. 
 
 1. Body-balance step, 2. MARCH. 
 
 The left foot is advanced, ankle high, body being bent slightly 
 to the rear; the left foot is then swung backward, body being bent 
 slightly to the front; the same foot is then swung forward again 
 and planted, the body in the meantime becoming erect. This is 
 repeated with the right foot, and so on. 
 
 1. Heel-and-toe step, 2. MARCH. 
 
 The left foot is advanced and allowed to rest on the heel; it 
 is then swung backward and allowed to rest on the toes; it is 
 once more advanced and planted. This is repeated with the right 
 foot, and so on. 
 
818 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 1. Cross step, raising knees, 2. MARCH. 
 
 Execute the cross step and raise the knees. The cross step may 
 also be executed in combination with the swings of the extended 
 leg. 
 
 The change step may be combined with the following: Cross 
 step, halting step, raising knees, foot-rocking step, on toes, raising 
 heels, swinging and circling legs, heel-and-toe step. These may 
 also be combined with the change step hop. 
 
 1. Continuous change step hop, 2. MARCH. 
 
 Execute the ordinary change step, hopping with the change. 
 
 1. Forward gallop hop, 2. MARCH. 
 
 The left foot is advanced and planted, the right is brought up in 
 rear as in the halting step; this is done four times in succession. 
 The same is done four times with the right foot in advance, and 
 so on. 
 
 1. Sideward gallop hop, 2. MARCH. 
 
 The left foot is advanced, body turning on the right; four hops 
 are then executed sideward on the left foot followed by the right; 
 at the fourth hop the body is turned to the left about and four hops 
 executed sideward on the right foot followed by the left, and so on. 
 
 DOUBLE TIMING 
 
 The length of the step in double time is 36 inches; the cadence 
 is at the rate of 180 steps per minute. To march in double time 
 the instructor commands: 1. Double time, 2. MARCH. 
 
 If at a halt, at the first command shift the weight of the body to 
 the right leg. At the command March raise the forearms, fingers 
 closed, to a horizontal position along the waist line; take up an 
 easy run with the step and cadence of double time, allowing a 
 natural swinging motion to the arms inward and upward in the 
 direction of the opposite shoulder. 
 
 In marching in quick time, at the command, double time, march, 
 given as either foot strikes the ground, take one step in quick time, 
 and then step off in double time. 
 
 When marching in double time and in running the men breathe 
 as much as possible through the nostrils, keeping the mouth closed. 
 
 A few minutes at the beginning of the setting-up exercises 
 should be devoted to double timing. From lasting only a few 
 minutes at the start it may be gradually increased, so that daily 
 drills should enable the men at the end of five or six months to 
 double time for 10 or 15 minutes without becoming fatigued or 
 distressed. 
 
 After the double time the men should be marched for several 
 minutes at quick time; after this the instructor should command: 
 1. Route step, 2. MARCH. 
 
MILITARY GYMNASTICS— PHYSICAL TRAINING 819 
 
 In marching at route step, the men are not required to preserve 
 silence nor keep the step; if marching at proved intervals, the latter 
 is preserved. 
 
 To resume the cadence step in quick time, the instructor com- 
 mands: 1. Squad, 2. ATTENTION. 
 
 Great care must be exercised concerning the duration of the 
 double time and the speed and duration of the run. The demands 
 made upon the men should be increased gradually. 
 
 When exercise rather than distance is desired, the running 
 should be done on the balls of the feet, heels raised from the 
 ground. 
 
 RIFLE EXERCISES 
 
 The object of these exercises, which may also be performed 
 with wands or bar-bells, is to develop the muscles of the arms, 
 shoulders, and back so that the men will become accustomed to 
 the weight of the piece and learn to wield it with that " handiness " 
 so essential to its successful use. When these exercises are com- 
 bined with movements of the various other parts of the body, they 
 serve as a splendid, though rather strenuous, method for the all- 
 round development of the men. As the weight of the piece is 
 considerable instructors are cautioned to be reasonable in their 
 demands. Far better results are obtained if these exercises are 
 performed at commands than when they are grouped and performed 
 for spectacular purposes. 
 
 All the exercises start from the starting position, which is the 
 low extended arm horizontal position in front of the body, arms 
 straight; the right hand grasping the small of the stock and the 
 left hand the barrel; the knuckles turned to the front and the 
 distance between the hands slightly greater than the width of the 
 shoulders. 
 
 This position is assumed at the command: 1. Starting, 2. PO- 
 SITION; at the command position the piece is brought to the port 
 and lowered to the front horizontal snappily. 
 
 To recover the position of order, command: 1. Order, 2. 
 ARMS; the piece is first brought to the port and then ordered. 
 
 ARM COMBINATIONS 
 
 All the following exercises consist of four movements, the third 
 carrying the piece back to the first position, and the fourth to 
 the starting position; in other words, the piece is carried back in 
 reverse order at three and four. 1. Raise piece to high extended 
 
820 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 arm horizontal; flex to the bent arm horizontal in front of 
 shoulders and return in reverse order. 2. Same as above, except 
 that the piece is brought to the shoulders in rear of head. 3. Raise 
 piece as in 1, lower to right horizontal, and return in reverse order. 
 4. Same, left. 5. Raise piece to front bent arm horizontal, shoulder 
 high; thrust piece upward, and return in reverse order. 6. Same, 
 thrusting piece forward or sideward right or left. 7. Raise piece to 
 front extended arm perpendicular, right hand up; reverse bringing 
 left hand up; reverse again and lower. 8. Raise piece to low side 
 perpendicular, left hand up; change to high side perpendicular, 
 right hand up; and return in reverse order. 9. Same on the 
 left. 10. Raise piece to front extended arm horizontal; 
 cross and bend arms to front bent arm horizontal right 
 over left; and return in reverse order. 11. Raise piece to front 
 bent arm horizontal, arms crossed, right over left; change by 
 crossing left over right; reverse and down. 
 
 DUMB-BELLS 
 
 Exercises with dumb-bells are similar in every way to the 
 setting-up exercises, in fact all of the latter may be performed 
 with the dumb-bells. The object of these exercises is the same as 
 that of the setting-up exercises, except that the weight of the 
 dumb-bells necessitates a greater expenditure of muscular energy, 
 chiefly on the part of the muscles of the arms, shoulders, and 
 upper back and chest. It is advisable that light wooden dumb- 
 bells weighing from 2 to 2y 2 pounds be used, as the amount of 
 additional exertion this weight calls for is sufficient for the pur- 
 pose of muscular development without detracting from the activity 
 and suppleness with which an exercise may be performed. These 
 exercises should be restricted to those who have been thoroughly 
 drilled in the setting-up exercises, and for the sake of uniformity 
 the dumb-bells should, unless otherwise specified, be held as 
 follows: In all positions in which the arms assume a horizontal 
 position they are vertical, and when the arms are in a vertical 
 plane the plane of the bells is horizontal. The grip on the bells 
 should, as a rule, always be firm. 
 
 CLUB EXERCISES 
 
 The effect of these exercises, when performed with light clubs, 
 is chiefly a neutral one, hence they are primary factors in the de- 
 velopment of grace and coordination and rhythm. As they tend to 
 supple the muscles and articulations of the shoulders and of the 
 
MILITARY GYMNASTICS— PHYSICAL TRAINING 821 
 
 upper and fore arms and wrist, they are indicated in cases where 
 there is a tendency toward what is ordinarily known as "muscle 
 bound." 
 
 The club exercises consist of arm and wrist circles, the former 
 being divided into extended or full-arm circles and bent or half-arm. 
 circles. In the extended arm circle the shoulder is the pivot and in 
 the bent arm circle the elbow. 
 
 These circles derive their designation from the direction in 
 which the club moves with reference to a median vertical line 
 running through the body; thus an outward circle is one in which 
 the initial movement of the club is away from this line and an 
 inward circle where that movement is toward it; a forward circle 
 is one in which it moves to the front and a backward circle in 
 which it moves to the rear. When both clubs move in the same 
 plane, the direction is either right or left, forward or backward, 
 and when they move in opposite directions the circles are either 
 inward or outward. 
 
 APPARATUS 
 
 The terms "cross" and "side," as used in the text with ref- 
 erence to the various exercises, denote the relation between the 
 longest line of the apparatus and the line running from shoulder 
 to shoulder of the soldier. Thus, a "side rest" is one where the 
 line from shoulder to shoulder of the soldier is parallel to the 
 longest line of the apparatus. In the case of the horse this line 
 is from croup to neck. A "cross rest" is one where the line of 
 the shoulders is perpendicular to the longest line of the apparatus. 
 
 In all dismounts from any apparatus the body invariably alights 
 on the toes, the knees being well bent and separated so the point 
 of the knees is directly over the toes; the body is erect on the hips, 
 head up. From this position the knees are extended quickly and 
 smartly to the position of attention. The entire motion from the 
 moment the toes strike the ground till the position of attention is 
 assumed is a continuous one. 
 
 When exercising on the parallel bars, the horses, or the vaulting 
 bars the hand nearest the apparatus rests on it momentarily while 
 dismounting, but it is lowered to the side smartly when the knees 
 are being extended. The hand farthest from the apparatus is low- 
 ered to the side. When the front of the body is turned to the 
 apparatus in dismounting, both hands rest on it. 
 
 The preparatory command for all exercises on apparatus is 
 Ready; the command of execution, depending upon the character 
 of the movement, is Leap, Mount, or Vault. To alight from any 
 apparatus command Dismount or Drop. 
 
822 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 SIDE HORSE EXERCISES 
 
 Exercises when the take-off is placed at the side of the horse 
 are known as side horse exercises. 
 
 The horse is placed in such a position that the neck is on the 
 left of the take-off. 
 
 As a rule these exercises are executed with the pommels fixed; 
 the height of these pommels being equal to the height of the 
 breast of the average man of the squad. 
 
 The parts of the horse to which reference is made in the ex- 
 ercises are: The neck, saddle, croup, and the pommels. The pom- 
 mel between the neck and the saddle is known as the front and 
 that between the saddle and the croup as the rear pommel. 
 
 The side nearest the take-off is the near and the opposite 
 side the off-side. 
 
 Horse exercises are intended to specially develop activity, 
 agility, and gracefulness, which can, however, be obtained only 
 by constantly insisting that every movement, no matter how 
 simple, be accurately and smartly executed. 
 
 These exercises are of special value in the training of mounted 
 troops, as they teach men the proper coordination of those muscles 
 that are employed in riding. 
 
 LONG HORSE EXERCISES 
 
 On these exercises the horse is placed lengthwise, the pommels 
 being removed and the height of the horse being the same as in the 
 side horse exercises. All these exercises are similar to the side 
 horse exercises. 
 
 HORIZONTAL BAR EXERCISES 
 
 The object of these exercises is not the development of gym- 
 nastic proficiency, but the practice of such simple movements as 
 will develop and bring into play those muscle groups upon which a 
 soldier must depend in successfully overcoming obstacles that 
 may present themselves to him in the field. 
 
 The bar should be placed high enough to allow the soldier to 
 hang in the extended-arm without touching the ground or floor 
 with his toes. In the absence of a regular bar one may be impro- 
 vised of 2 by 4 scantling, the edges being rounded to permit a firm 
 grip. 
 
 The grips used in these various exercises are: (1) ordinary 
 grip, knuckles turned to the rear, the thumbs around the bar. (2) 
 reversed grip, knuckles turned forward, the thumbs around the 
 bar. (3) combined grip, a combination of the two. 
 
MILITARY GYMNASTICS— PHYSICAL TRAINING 823 
 PARALLEL BARS 
 
 All movements of a slow and cumbersome nature, the so-called 
 strength exercises, and those in which considerable continued 
 strain is thrown upon the upper back, chest and arm muscles, 
 should be eliminated; instead, only such that make for activity 
 and agility and in which the support of the body upon the arms is 
 only momentary should be practiced. In many respects these 
 exercises are very similar to those on the horses and vaulting bars, 
 and, like these, their greatest value lies in quick and speedy 
 execution. All of the prescribed exercises are well within the 
 capabilities of men of ordinary strength. 
 
 The exercises should first be practiced on bars 4 feet high, the 
 height being gradually increased to 5 feet as the proficiency of the 
 men increases. The width of the bars should equal the width of 
 the shoulders of the average man of the squad. 
 
 RINGS 
 
 For the best results, rings should be hung on adjustable straps, 
 which will allow them to be used at any height, from height of 
 chest to jumping height. Circular rings whose inside diameter 
 is about 7 inches — outside \% inches more — are the best for all 
 purposes. In all ring exercises the hands grasp the rings with 
 knuckles turned out, the side of the rings being parallel to the 
 sides of the body. 
 
 MOUNTED GYMNASTICS 
 
 Mounted gymnastics comprise exercises that, if properly con- 
 ducted and not pushed beyond the capabilities of the average man, 
 are valuable for supplying the rider and imparting confidence. 
 Those exercises that may occasion hard falls or those that a few 
 men can do and others can not do are destructive of confidence 
 and harmful to progress in equitation, since the soldier who can 
 not do them is prone to think that he is too poor a gymnast to 
 be a good rider. The exercises, then, should be such that every 
 man, with a little practice, can perform them with a fair degree of 
 proficiency. 
 
 Mounted gymnastics in themselves are not an object of in- 
 struction. They are but a means to an end and must be so 
 considered. 
 
 GYMNASTIC CONTESTS 
 
 These exercises are those in which the benefits are lost sight 
 of in the pleasure their attainment provides, which in the case of 
 these contests is the vanquishing of an opponent. The men are 
 
824 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 pitted against each other in pairs; age, height, weight and general 
 physical aptitude being the determining factors in the selection. 
 
 In the contests in which superiority is dependent upon skill and 
 agility no restriction need be placed upon the efforts of the con- 
 testants; but those that are a test of strength and endurance it is 
 well to call a contest a " draw," when the men are equally matched 
 and the contest is likely to be drawn out to the point of exhaus- 
 tion of one or both contestants. 
 
 Contests that require skill and agility should alternate with 
 those that depend upon strength and endurance. In order to 
 facilitate the instruction a number of pairs should be engaged 
 at the same time. 
 
 1. Cane wrestling: The cane to be about an inch in diameter 
 and a yard long, ends rounded. It is grasped with the right hand 
 at the end, knuckles down, and with the left hand, knuckles up, 
 inside of and close to the opponent's right hand. Endeavor is then 
 made to wrest the cane from the opponent. Loss of grip with 
 either hand loses the bout. 
 
 2. Cane twisting: Same cane. as in 1. Contestants grasp it as 
 in 1, only the knuckles of both hands are up, and the arms are 
 extended overhead. Object: The contestants endeavor to make 
 the cane revolve in their opponent's hands without allowing it to 
 do so in their own. The cane must be forced down. 
 
 3. Cane pulling: Contestants sit on the ground, facing each 
 other, legs straight and the soles of the feet in contact. The cane 
 is grasped as in 2 but close to the feet. Object: To pull the op- 
 ponent to his feet. The legs throughout the contest must be kept 
 rigid. 
 
 4. "Bucked" contest: Contestants sit on the ground 
 " bucked;" i. e., the cane is passed under the knees, which are drawn 
 up, and the arms passed under the cane with the fingers laced in 
 front of the ankles. Object: To get the toes under those of the 
 opponent and roll him over. 
 
 5. Single pole pushing: Contestants grasp end of pole, 6 feet 
 long and 2 inches thick, and brace themselves. Object: To push 
 the opponent out of position. 
 
 6. Double pole pushing: The poles are placed under the arms 
 close to the arm pits, ends projecting. Object: Same as in 5. 
 
 7. Double pole pulling: Position as in 6 but standing back 
 to back. Object: To pull the opponent out. of position. 
 
 8. " Cock fight": Contestants hop on one leg with the arms 
 folded closely over the chest. Object: By butting with the fleshy 
 part of the shoulder without raising the arms, or by dodging to 
 make the opponent change his feet or touch the floor with his hand 
 or other part of his body. 
 
 9. One-legged tug of war: Contestants hop on one leg and 
 
MILITARY GYMNASTICS— PHYSICAL TRAINING 825 
 
 grasp hands firmly. Object: To pull the opponent forward or 
 make him place the raised foot on the floor. 
 
 10. The "siege": One contestant stands with one foot in a 
 circle 14 inches in diameter, the other outside, and the arms folded 
 as in 8. Two other contestants, each hopping on one leg, en- 
 deavor to dislodge the one in the circle by butting him with the 
 shoulder. The besieged one is defeated in case he raises the 
 foot in the circle, or removes it entirely from the circle. The be- 
 siegers are defeated in case they change feet or touch the floor as 
 in 8. As soon as either of the latter is defeated his place is im- 
 mediately filled, so that there are always two attacking. The be- 
 sieged should resort to volting, ducking, etc., rather than depend 
 upon his strength. 
 
 11. One-armed tug: Contestants stand facing each other; 
 right hands grasped, feet apart. Object: Without moving feet to 
 pull the opponent forward. Shifting the feet loses the bout. 
 
 12. " Tug royal ": Three contestants stand facing inward and 
 grasp each others wrists securely and with their feet outside a circle 
 about three feet in diameter. Object: By pulling or pushing to 
 make one of the contestants step inside of the circle. 
 
 13. Indian wrestling: Contestants lie upon the ground face up 
 right shoulders in close contact, right elbows locked; at one the 
 right leg is raised overhead and lowered, this is repeated at two, 
 and at three the leg is raised quickly and locked with the op- 
 ponent's right leg. Object: To roll him over by forcing his leg 
 down. 
 
 14. Medicine ball race: Teams of five or six men are organ- 
 ized and a track for each team is marked out. This track consists of 
 marks on the floor or ground at distances of 4 yards. On each 
 of these marks stands a man with legs apart, the team forming a 
 column of files. At ready, get set, the contestants prepare for the 
 race, and at go the first man in the column rolls a medicine ball, 
 which he has on the floor in front of him, through his legs to No. 
 2, he in turn rolls it to 3, etc., when it reaches the last man he picks 
 it up and runs to the starting place with it and, the others all hav- 
 ing shifted back one mark, the rolling is repeated. This continues 
 until the first man brings the ball back to the starting place and 
 every man is in his original position. The ball should be kept roll- 
 ing; each man, as it comes to him, pushing it on quickly. Any ball 
 about 9 inches in diameter will answer; it may be made of strong 
 cloth and stuffed with cotton waste. 
 
 ATHLETICS 
 
 The value of athletic training in the service is dependent upon 
 the effect it has upon the mass, and not upon the effect it has 
 upon the individual few. The training, in order to meet the re- 
 
826 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 quirements of the service, should have nothing in common with 
 competitive athletics, but should be broad enough in the method 
 of its application to reach out and include the development of every 
 man to the extent of his capabilities in those branches of athletics 
 the utility of which to the service is unquestioned. In other 
 words, it should have an applicable value, be educational, and not 
 spectacular, for it is the ability of the average of the mass that 
 determines the efficiency of a fighting machine. Consequently it 
 should be the aim of instructors to place this phase of the training 
 of the men upon precisely the same plane as that of other portions 
 of the soldier's education. 
 
 To attain this, it is necessary to eliminate those athletic events 
 that have nothing to commend them from a military point of view, 
 such as short-distance runs, pole vaulting, and hammer throwing. 
 These events should be confined to the more skillful, for whose 
 benefit an annual field day competition should be arranged. To 
 the service the long distance, the half mile, mile, two and five mile 
 runs, and the jumps are much more essential than the dashes, pole 
 vaulting, etc. 
 
 This training should be conducted entirely out of doors, and 
 in mapping out programs for the outdoor period instructors should 
 alternate this work with the setting-up exercises, gymnastic con- 
 tests and gymnastic games. 
 
 In order to stimulate interest, the men should be grouped into 
 classes upon the basis of ability and promoted or demoted as their 
 progress, or lack of it, warrants. 
 
 Instructors are cautioned to go about this training cautiously 
 and train the men carefully; by doing so they will not fail to obtain 
 good results and avoid those injuries that are directly chargeable 
 to over-indulgence and over-exertion. In the following progres- 
 sive method squads of from 10 to 12 men may be trained at the 
 same time, each squad under the supervision of a non-commissioned 
 officer or trained enlisted man, and all under the direction of the 
 athletic officer. 
 
 A distinction is made between double timing, running, and 
 the flexion run. 
 
 Double timing has for its purpose the quick advancement of 
 troops in the shortest space of time with the least expenditure of 
 physical effort, commensurate with military traditions which still 
 demand that the carriage of the body should assume a certain uni- 
 form attitude during this method of progression. In double timing 
 the saving in physical effort is made by diminishing the leg mo- 
 tions, thereby reducing the height of the flight of the body between 
 the strides when neither foot is upon the ground and by curtailing 
 the height the foot is raised. 
 
 Running is the most expensive, as well as the swiftest method 
 
MILITARY GYMNASTICS— PHYSICAL TRAINING 827 
 
 of progression the body is capable of, and differs from the double 
 timing by the increased number and exaggerated character of the 
 leg motions; by the increased force with which the body is thrust 
 forward and upward by these motions, and by the increased de- 
 mand upon the muscles of the trunk and neck, which are con- 
 tracted in order to give the trunk and head that immobility without 
 which speed is impossible. It is chiefly because of this immobility, 
 which interferes seriously with respiration and which in turn 
 affects the heart action, that running is so exhaustive. Thus, 
 while running will develop lung, heart, and leg power, and endur- 
 ance as no other form of exercise will, it does it with the ever- 
 present liability to injury when carried to excess. Instructors are 
 therefore cautioned to exercise the utmost care in its application, 
 especially when handling untrained men. 
 
 Flexion Run is a method of progression in which physical 
 exertion is reduced to a minimum. The number of strides per min- 
 ute is as in double timing, but a considerable latitude in the car- 
 riage of the body is permitted. As its name implies, the muscles 
 of the entire body are flexed, relaxed as much as possible, and 
 every movement is shorn of every unnecessary exaggeration. The 
 trunk rests loosely upon the hips and is allowed to fall forward 
 until the center of gravity falls on a point about the length of a 
 stride in front of the body; the muscles of the shoulders, chest, 
 and back are relaxed and the arms, flexed at the elbows, hang 
 loosely by the sides; the knees are slightly flexed constantly and 
 should never be fully extended; the feet are raised only high enough 
 to clear the ground and are allowed to swing forward with the soles 
 as nearly parallel to the ground as possible; in striking the ground 
 the heels come in contact with it first, the toes, however, being 
 raised only just high enough to keep them from becoming chafed 
 by rubbing against the front of the shoes. 
 
 When properly assumed, the attitude of the body is such that 
 the weight is constantly falling forward and the legs are moved 
 forward in the effort to establish an ever changing equilibrium. 
 This means of progression has been variously designated as the 
 " dog trot," " running walk," and " fox gait," and is similar to the 
 gait used by Indian runners and the jinrickisha men. 
 
 The advantages of this gait over all others lies in the fact that 
 it produces the maximum results through the minimum of exertion; 
 that the strain on the vital organs is reduced so that it is a little 
 more than that caused by marching in quick time; and that, finally^ 
 it is dependent upon a greatly reduced muscular effort and not 
 upon excessive respiratory, circulatory, or neural effort. When it 
 becomes necessary to move troops rapidly it is almost imperative 
 that they should reach their designation in such physical condition 
 that they may be engaged actively with some assurance of 
 
828 MILITARY TRAINING. 
 
 success; therefore the value of this method to the service can 
 hardly be overestimated. 
 
 SWIMMING 
 
 Arrangements for the instruction in swimming must be deter- 
 mined by the facilities existing at the various posts or stations. 
 At such of the latter where there is sufficient depth of water and 
 available docks, swimming platforms can be readily erected. These 
 platforms; which may be built in sections so that they can be re- 
 moved after the swimming season, should project not less than 4 
 feet beyond the edge of the dock, and the distance from the plat- 
 form floor to the surface of the water should not be less than 30 
 inches. The length of the platform depends upon the available 
 space and the number of men to be instructed. A space of 4 by 12 
 feet should be allowed for each man. 
 
 Uprights of 4 by 4 stuff, projecting 8 feet above the platform 
 and carrying a crosspiece sufficiently long to project at least a 
 foot beyond the outer edge of the platform, should be erected at 
 intervals of 12 feet. These uprights, with their crosspieces, provide 
 the support for the swimmer and they must, therefore be securely 
 bolted to the face of the dock and to the sleepers of the platform, 
 and the crosspiece, which has a swivel pulley large enough to take 
 the swimming rope attached to the outer end, must be braced 
 against the upright. Ladders leading to the platform from the 
 water should be placed where they will not be in the way. 
 
 Where it is impracticable to build the platform described 
 above, the uprights alone will answer the purpose of instructing the 
 men in the stroke, swimming poles being used when the soldier is 
 able to propel himself. 
 
 The simplest device, in connection with giving this instruc- 
 tion from the dock, consists in erecting an upright about 42 inches 
 high close to the edge of the dock, and use it as a fulcrum for the 
 swimming pole, the soldier being suspended from a rope attached 
 to the end of the pole. 
 
 When no docks are available, platforms along the lines de- 
 scribed may be erected in the water on piles or, when this is 
 impracticable, floats with raised platforms and uprights may be 
 substituted. 
 
 In the absence of any facilities, but where the character of 
 the water and the bottom is such as to make it possible, the men 
 must be instructed to assist one another. This is done by standing 
 in water of sufficient depth and holding the one to be instructed in 
 the proper position by placing the left hand under his chin and 
 the right hand between his shoulder blades and assuming a posi- 
 tion that does not interfere with the swimmer's movements. 
 
MILITARY GYMNASTICS— PHYSICAL TRAINING 829 
 BELTS 
 
 These are 3 inches wide, made of canvas, padded on the inside 
 with hair and bound and faced with some soft material that will 
 not irritate the skin. The length should be great enough to 
 bring the ends of the belt to within 4 inches of meeting in the back. 
 On the outside of the belt three ^4-inch iron rings are securely 
 sewed to it at regular intervals, while at each end of the belt 
 there is a larger ring 1 inch in diameter. 
 
 ROPES 
 
 A half inch cotton rope should be used; for beginners 15 feet 
 will be found ample, while 30 feet should be used for those pre- 
 paring to qualify. 
 
 POLES 
 
 These should be of some tough, but light, material, 2 inches 
 in diameter and from 8 to 10 feet long. At one end a swivel pulley 
 is attached through which the swimming rope is run. 
 
 In the absence of projecting swimming platforms, beginners 
 are suspended from the end of these poles resting on the upright 
 fulcrum until they have acquired the stroke. When they begin 
 to make progress and are propelling themselves, the instructor 
 carries the pole in his hands with the end projecting far enough, 
 over the edge of the dock to give the swimmer sufficient space to 
 move in without coming in contact with the dock. 
 
 THE BREAST STROKE 
 
 This stroke having for many years been found the best 
 adapted for military purposes, has been adopted by all armies in 
 which the instruction in swimming is made compulsory. 
 
 It is the basis upon which all other methods of progression 
 in the water are founded, and those who acquire proficiency in its 
 use develop coordination to such a degree that they have no 
 difficulty whatever in acquiring any other stroke, no matter how 
 complicated. 
 
 The character of the movements comprising this stroke brings 
 into play such a great variety of muscle groups, all in accordance 
 with their natural functions and with such an equal distribution 
 of effort, that aside from its usefulness this stroke has an incom- 
 parable value as an agent for all-around development. 
 
 LAND INSTRUCTION 
 
 Various methods are used for swimming instruction on land, 
 and some of them are noted here for the benefit of those who 
 desire to make use of them. 
 
830 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 The appliance most commonly used is the so-called " swim- 
 ming buck," a camp stool slightly wider and higher than the ordi- 
 nary one, upon which the beginner assumes a position in every way 
 similar to that assumed in the water. The instruction proceeds in 
 identically the same way as that described in the water instruction. 
 
 Another method is to lie on the back in a position that ap- 
 proximates as closely as possible to the first position in the water 
 instruction and execute the movements in that position. 
 
 Still another method is to stand on one leg, supporting the 
 body with the hand on the same side, and with the body bent for- 
 ward horizontally and the other arm and leg extended to the front 
 and rear, respectively, execute the movements with one side several 
 times and then repeat it with the other. 
 
 WATER INSTRUCTION 
 
 The belt having been adjusted, which is done by slipping it 
 over the head of the soldier and securing it well up under his arms, 
 being careful not to have it so tight that it will bind his movements 
 or restrict his respiration, and being careful also that the loop of 
 the rope is squarely between the shoulder blades, he is prepared 
 to leap into the water. This should always be insisted upon, since, 
 while it appears drastic, it is most efficacious in overcoming the 
 fear of the water so common amongst adults who have not learned 
 how to swim. 
 
 The soldier having been cautioned not to gasp or open his 
 mouth when he strikes the water and not to throw his arms about 
 wildly, but to open his eyes and to keep cool, leaps from the plat- 
 form at the command Jump, which is executed with the feet 
 striking the water first, legs together and extended, trunk erect, 
 and arms at the sides. 
 
 After reaching the surface, in which he is assisted by the in- 
 structor, he assumes the following position: 
 
 The body, chest down, is fully extended horizontally, the 
 head is bent back; the arms, with fingers extended and closed and 
 thumbs together and palms down, are stretched to the front, hands 
 just under the surface; the legs, with knees straight, are closed and 
 extended horizontally to the rear; the heels are together and the 
 feet are turned out an angle of about 60° and the toes are turned up 
 perpendicular to the surface. 
 
 In assuming this position care should be taken to avoid any 
 tendency toward rigidity; the muscles are stretched, not contracted. 
 
 In this position the instructor commands: 
 1. Arm Stroke, 2. ONE, 3. TWO, 4. THREE. 
 
 At one, the arms fully stretched, palms down, are moved 
 sideward horizontally, in a circular motion of greatest possible 
 radius until they are in a line with the shoulders. 
 
MILITARY GYMNASTICS— PHYSICAL TRAINING 831 
 
 At two, the elbows are flexed until the upper arms touch and 
 are parallel to the chest, the forearms, palms still turned down, con- 
 tinue the motion until the thumbs are brought together directly 
 under the chin. 
 
 At three, the arms are stretched forward to the original 
 position. 
 
 In the beginning a pause should be made in every position 
 to insure accuracy; when that has been attained the arm stroke is 
 executed in one continuous movement in the following manner: 
 
 At o-n-e, drawn out to indicate the character of the move- 
 ment, which is comparatively slow, the arms are brought in line 
 with the shoulders; the moment that movement is about to be com- 
 pleted the command and — two is given, briskly followed by the 
 command three. At and — two, the arms are drawn to the body and 
 extended forward, in a continuous movement; and at three, the 
 arms pause in the first position. 
 
 The cadence indicated here is the regular swimming cadence, 
 the first count requiring as much time as the others combined. 
 The legs may be relaxed while the arms are being exercised. 
 
 Proper breathing is always a source of considerable annoy- 
 ance to beginners, and instructors can not begin too early to teach 
 how and when to inhale and to exhale. This should be done when 
 the arm stroke is taught and insisted upon throughout the instruc- 
 tion until respiration is carried on naturally. The inhalation oc- 
 curs while the arms are being moved outward and sideward, and the 
 exhalation follows immediately after their extension. In quiet water 
 this breathing may be carried on through the nostrils, but in 
 rough water or where there is a tendency to choke because of water 
 entering the nostrils, mouth breathing must be resorted to. 
 
 When the arm movements are understood and accurately per- 
 formed the instructor will command: 
 1. Leg Stroke, 2. ONE, 3. TWO, 4. THREE. 
 
 The arms are held in the forward position without constraint. 
 
 At one, the legs and thighs are flexed on the body by drawing 
 the knees under it until the thighs are slightly beyond the perpen- 
 dicular and the legs horizontal; the heels remain together, the toes 
 turned out and up, but the knees are separated, being in line with 
 the feet. 
 
 At two, the legs are quickly and fully extended in as wide 
 a straddle as possible with an outward and backward motion, the 
 soles of the feet being forced against the water. 
 
 At three, the legs, remaining fully extended, are brought 
 together briskly to the first position. 
 
 As in the arm stroke, a pause should be made in each position 
 to insure accuracy, and when that has been accomplished the leg 
 
832 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 movements should be blended into one continuous motion as 
 follows: 
 
 At one, the legs remain in the first position, and at and, they are 
 drawn up as described above, the movement being executed quietly 
 and without force in order to avoid offering too much resistance 
 to the water; just as the legs reach the prescribed position the 
 commands two and three are given briskly and in quick succession, 
 indicating tnat the completion of sideward movement is followed 
 instantly by the closing of the legs. 
 
 When these movements are thoroughly understood and cor- 
 rectly carried out, the arm and leg movements are combined and, 
 executed at the command: 
 1. Stroke, 2. ONE, 3. AND— TWO, 4. THREE. 
 
 At one, the arms begin the sideward movement, the legs 
 remaining in the first position. 
 
 At and, the arms are drawn in to the body and the knees 
 are brought up. 
 
 At two, the arms are extended forward and the legs side- 
 ward; and at three, the legs are closed, while the arms remain in 
 the first position. 
 
 Until the soldier has learned to coordinate and to grasp what 
 is required of him, it is advisable to pause in each position; when he 
 has succeeded in doing this the stroke is given in the proper swim- 
 ming cadence, the arm movements beginning at one and ceasing at 
 two and pausing at three; while the legs remain motionless in the 
 first position at one, but begin at and and cease at three; a con- 
 siderable pause should be made between strokes. 
 
 It is advisable to impress upon beginners that swimming with 
 this stroke is not dependent upon excessive muscular exertion or 
 rigidity, but that all extensions of the arms and legs are reaches 
 rather than thrusts, and that the body must be relaxed as much as 
 possible. 
 
 Since there is no danger of the body sinking while it is mov- 
 ing, too much stress can hardly be laid upon the importance of the 
 pause between strokes, which in the case of even ordinary swim- 
 mers should be equal to the length of time it takes to complete the 
 stroke, while in powerful swimmers this pause is from three to four 
 times the duration of each stroke, a husbanding of muscular energy 
 which makes it possible to swim long distances without becoming 
 exhausted. The men must also be given to understand that the 
 legs furnish the entire propelling power in which the closing of 
 the legs after the extension is equally as valuable as the extension 
 itself. The arms for ordinary purposes, are used merely for the 
 purpose of buoying up the head, not for the purpose of propulsion, 
 and for that reason they are held and moved in a position that 
 Has the advantage of being the most natural, the least fatiguing, 
 
MILITARY GYMNASTICS— PHYSICAL TRAINING 833 
 
 and that offers the least resistance to the water. Thus the entire 
 burden of the effort devolves upon those members of the body upon 
 which this burden is imposed upon the land, the legs, and not upon 
 those members which nature never intended for such a purpose, 
 the arms. It is due entirely to this natural and equable employ- 
 ment of those members that the breast stroke is used, without 
 exception almost, by all long-distance swimmers when it is a 
 question of endurance rather than of speed. For the latter purpose 
 the hands may be turned with the palms out in the first motion, 
 but this should be restricted to those who have qualified with the 
 regular stroke, and who appreciate the value of the leg stroke. 
 
 When the soldier can execute the movements faultlessly and 
 without the numbers, he is released from further instruction on 
 the stationary line and given instruction on a loose line. The belt, 
 being adjusted as before, is attached to a line that is held in the 
 hands of the instructor. The man now begins the stroke at one 
 end of the platform and as he forces himself forward the instructor 
 advances with him, having the rope taut and standing while the 
 pupil is bringing his arms around and his knees up and slightly 
 slackening the rope and advancing a step as he extends. 
 
 In a short time he begins to carry his own weight, and when 
 he has learned to swim from 30 to 50 strokes he should be made 
 to swim on the arch of a circle whose radius should be constantly 
 increased until he is able to swim several minutes. When he can 
 do this he should be timed daily until he is able to swim for ten 
 minutes, when he should be excused from further instruction, but 
 encouraged to continue practice daily until he has gained confidence 
 in himself and learned to keep himself afloat by other methods 
 besides the breast stroke. 
 
 COMMON FAULTS 
 
 The following are the faults and bad habits most common 
 with beginners: 
 
 The tendency to arch the back in order to raise the head 
 higher above the water than necessary: This causes the body to be 
 held in a constraint position and the legs to sink, thereby presenting 
 a greater resistive surface to the water, causing slow and deep 
 swimming. The body must be relaxed and if necessary the chin 
 may rest upon the surface of the water; this causes the legs to rise. 
 
 Raising the hips while drawing the knees up: This causes 
 the head to be thrown forward into the water and detracts from 
 the power of the leg motions. 
 
 Not flexing the thighs sufficiently, which causes the feet to 
 assume a horizontal instead of a perpendicular position, thereby not 
 
834 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 only decreasing the sideward reach of the leg stroke but also the 
 power of the backward push with the soles of the feet. 
 
 Thrusting the arms forward below the horizontal, thereby 
 lessening the buoyancy of the head which is dragged downward 
 by this movement. 
 
 Failure to draw the upper arms in close to the chin and the 
 hands under the chin, which serves to decrease the buoyancy of 
 the upper trunk and head. 
 
 Thrusting the legs downward instead of straight to the 
 rear, which causes deep swimming and impedes progress. 
 
 Spreading the fingers and failing to keep the thumb close 
 to the first finger, which detracts very decidedly from the buoy- 
 ance power of the arms and hands. 
 
 Not breathing properly, which causes mental anxiety, fa- 
 tigue, and respiratory difficulties. 
 
 Moving the arms too far to the rear, which causes the 
 head to be lowered. 
 
 Disregarding the tempo of the stroke and the pause be- 
 tween the strokes, which always results in loss of confidence 
 and of the stroke. 
 
 SIDE STROKE 
 
 Those who have acquired proficiency in the breast stroke 
 have no difficulty in mastering any other method, by dint of a little 
 practice and perseverance, regular instruction being unnecessary. 
 The side stroke is readily learned, and since it can be carried out 
 on either side it has many advantages over the one-sided methods. 
 
 The swimmer lies upon his side, preferably the right, the 
 head, face turned upward, resting in the water; the body and legs 
 extended without constraint and the right arm stretched straight 
 out under the head in prolongation of the body; the left arm 
 stretched downward over the left thigh with the hand just in rear 
 of the body; palms of both hands down. 
 
 From this position the left forearm is brought up across the 
 chest until the hand, palm down, is close to the chin; the right 
 arm in the meanwhile is pressed downward about 45°, when the 
 elbow is bent and drawn back under the chest until the hand, palm 
 down, is as close as possible to the right shoulder. While the 
 arms are executing these movements, the knees are drawn up 
 precisely as they are in the breast stroke. From this position theif 
 legs are extended and closed as in the breast stroke, except that E 
 they are not so far apart, and the arms are extended, the right 1^ 
 straight out under the head to its original position and the left I 
 arm forward and then backward in as large a circular sweep as ff j 
 
MILITARY GYMNASTICS— PHYSICAL TRAINING 835 
 
 possible until it, too, reaches its original position. After pausing, 
 the length of the pause depending upon the carrying quality of 
 the stroke, the movement is repeated. 
 
 Variety may be given this stroke by the introduction of the 
 " scissors kick," the upper leg being extended straight out to the 
 front and the under leg to the rear, the legs being brought to the 
 first position from there. 
 
 BACK STROKE 
 
 As the body displaces more water when lying on the back 
 than it does in any other position, thus increasing its buoyancy, 
 swimming with the back stroke is the most easily acquired of any 
 stroke. Its greatest value lies in the fact that it affords an ex- 
 hausted swimmer a chance to rest. 
 
 1. With Legs 
 
 The swimmer extends himself in the water, face upward, 
 body and legs extended without constraint; the head submerged lo 
 the ears and the arms lying close to the sides, palms down. In 
 this position he executes the leg movements of the breast stroke, 
 .except that the knees are not drawn up as high and are separated 
 ,more. Care should be taken not to move the hips while the knees 
 are being drawn up and extended, because any motion of the 
 ,hips causes the head to be submerged. 
 
 2. With Legs and Arms 
 
 The position is the same as above. When the knees are 
 being drawn up, the elbows are bent and raised until the upper 
 arms are in line with the shoulders, and the hands, palms down, 
 are close to the chest; as the knees are being extended and the 
 legs closed, the arms are flung out sideward and brought down to 
 ithe sides in a whip-like movement, the palms turned in. 
 
 i 3. With Legs and Overhead Arm Stroke 
 
 < In this stroke the arms are raised forward and overhead, out 
 
 >f the water, and as they enter the water beyond the head they 
 ire brought to the sides of the body with a strong horizontal move- 
 nent, arms extended and palms down. The knees are drawn up 
 
 'ust as the arms enter the water, and they are extended and closed 
 vhile the arms are being brought to the sides. 
 
836 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 TREADING WATER 
 
 The body is held in a perpendicular position and the knees 
 are drawn up and extended downward alternately in quick suc- 
 cession, the hands assisting by pressing the water downward. 
 
 Treading water may also be done by executing the leg mo- 
 tions of the breast stroke in a modified form in quick succession. 
 These movements should be practiced until the swimmer is able 
 to raise his hands out of water. 
 
 FLOATING 
 
 Floating is essential because it affords the swimmer the 
 most complete rest in the water, thus giving him an opportunity 
 to repair his strength. 
 
 In fresh water this means of sustaining the body is possible 
 only in exceptional cases with men; in salt water, however, the 
 inability to float is the exception. 
 
 The swimmer lies in the water horizontally, face up, exert- 
 ing himself just enough to keep his body, arms, and legs fully 
 but not rigidly extended. The whole body, except the face and 
 mouth, should be submerged. The legs may be kept closed or 
 separated; the arms should be held away from the body, hands 
 in the plane of the waist with the palms down; the lungs should 
 be inflated and by short exhalations and proportionately longer 
 inhalation, carried on through the mouth, they should be kept so 
 as much as possible. 
 
 When difficulty is encouraged in floating, a slight sculling 
 movement of the hands, from the wrist, will often suffice to keep 
 the body afloat. If the legs should sink, they may be held flexed 
 at the knees until they are at right angles to the thighs; or the 
 body may be "dished" slightly; that is, bent slightly forward at 
 the waist. 
 
 DIVING 
 
 This may be divided into the ordinary dive, in which the 
 body enters the water at an angle of 45°; the perpendicular, or 
 deep dive, and the shallow dive, in which the body enters the water 
 at an angle of about 30°. 
 
 In preparing to dive the swimmer stands with his toes pro- 
 jecting beyond the edge of the platform and his arms stretched 
 sideward. As he springs off, the arms are swung forward over 
 head, palms together; the head is thrown forward between the 
 arms and the legs are swung up until the body assumes the desired 
 
MILITARY GYMNASTICS— PHYSICAL TRAINING £37 
 
 angle. Arms and legs must be extended and closed, feet depressed. 
 The moment the body enters the water the eyes are opened, the 
 arms and head pressed back, and the legs relaxed; this causes the 
 body to rise to the surface. 
 
 SWIMMING WITH EQUIPMENT 
 
 When the men become proficient swimmers they should be 
 taught to swim with the equipment. 
 
 This instruction should be divided as follows: 1. Swimming 
 in uniform; if blouses are worn they should be unbuttoned. 2. 
 Swimming nude with pack. 3. Swimming nude with pack and 
 ammunition belt. 4. Swimming nude with pack, belt, and rifle. The 
 pack should be adjusted to the body snugly to reduce the lateral 
 motion as much as possible; the canteen should be empty and the 
 rifle should be inserted into the middle of the pack, barrel down, 
 until the breech mechanism projects over the water. 5. Repeat 
 2, 3, and 4, clad in trousers. 6. Same, clad in trousers and shirts. 
 7. Same, in complete uniform. 
 
 Except when the urgency of the emergency does not per- 
 mit it, the men should be permitted to divest themselves of their 
 shoes, leggins and blouses and attach them to the pack. 
 
 Since the buoyancy and water-tightness of the packs is great 
 enough to keep them afloat from 15 to 20 minutes, they lend them- 
 selves admirably to the formation of rafts, when fastened to- 
 gether, to which those who can not swim can cling while being 
 drawn over a stream by a rope, one end of which has been carried 
 over by a swimmer. 
 
 GENERAL HINTS 
 
 1. Swimming should not be indulged in immediately before 
 or after meals, the best time being an hour before or from two to 
 three hours after meals. 
 
 2. The water should not be entered when the body is over- 
 " 'heated or wet with perspiration; cramps or other more serious 
 1 discomforts are likely to result. 
 
 3. The body should be dried thoroughly and the water 
 mould be entered by plunging in head foremost, if practicable, 
 Dr by leaping. 
 
 4. Men should be cautioned not to stand in the water to 
 ;ool off, as doing so has an enervating effect. 
 
 5. While in the water the body should be kept in motion; 
 ' standing about after swimming is liable to cause chills. 
 
838 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 6. When through swimming the water should be quitted 
 at once and the body dried and dressed promptly. 
 
 7. During instructions only those that are employed should 
 leave the dressing rooms; when it is necessary to have more men 
 than can be employed on the platform, those not employed should 
 be made to wear blouses or other covering for the body. 
 
 8. When attacked by cramps the men should be instructed 
 not to lose presence of mind, but to kick out more vigorously than 
 ever if a leg is affected; if an arm, they should turn over on the 
 back and swim with the leg stroke, in the meantime rubbing the 
 affected arm vigorously. 
 
 9. The undertaking of hazardous ventures for the sake of 
 display should meet the unqualified condemnation of those in 
 charge of this instruction, since many fatalities are directly trace- 
 able to such foolhardiness. 
 
 10. Lack of confidence is never overcome by drastic meas- 
 ures or ridicule; gentleness and perseverance are found much more 
 efficacious. Fearsomeness while in the water is usually not due to 
 cowardliness but to a lack of confidence or to an inherent fear 
 over which many who do not lack bravery in other things have 
 no control. 
 
 11. Going to the assistance of a drowning man is at best 
 a very precarious undertaking and should, therefore, be limited to 
 those who are cool-headed and strong swimmers. 
 
 12. In approaching a man in danger extreme caution should 
 be exercised lest he grab his would-be rescuer. The approach 
 should be from the left and rear, leaving the right arm of the res- 
 cuer free for defensive purposes in case he should be clutched. 
 The helpless man's upper arms should be firmly gripped and he 
 should be pulled over on his back, the rescuer, too, turning on his 
 back and towing the other in by using the backstroke. The men 
 should be instructed in this method, using each other as subjects. 
 
 13. In an extremity, when a rescuer finds his life is being 
 endangered, he should not hesitate to resort to extreme measures 
 of self-defense, such as striking with the fist between the eyes, 
 choking, or submerging the head of him to whose rescue he has 
 gone. Restoration to consciousness is readily accomplished, if 
 unconsciousness has resulted from this treatment, once land has 
 been reached. 
 
 RESTORATION OF THOSE APPARENTLY DEAD FROM 
 
 DROWNING 
 
 As soon as the body has been recovered, resuscitation should, 
 if the weather is not inclement, be attempted on the spot. 
 1. Remove all the clothing from the patient's chest. 
 
MILITARY GYMNASTICS— PHYSICAL TRAINING 839 
 
 2. Place him on the ground, face down, and grasp him 
 under the abdomen and raise him up. This will give the water 
 he has swallowed an opportunity to escape and free the air pass- 
 ages. 
 
 3. Turn the patient over, and with a handkerchief wrapped 
 around the first finger clean the mouth and nostrils. 
 
 4. Draw out the tongue and hold it in that position by an 
 elastic band, string, tape, or a strip of cloth torn from a handker- 
 chief; or have an assistant hold it with his fingers wrapped in a 
 handkerchief or cloth. 
 
 5. Use the following method of artificial respiration, which 
 is known as the Sylvester method: Place the patient on his back 
 and lay a roll of clothing, coat, or other garment under his 
 shoulders. This roll must be large enough to raise the shoulders 
 and throw the head slightly to the rear. 
 
 6. Kneel at his head and grasp his arms, one in each hand, 
 with fingers out and thumb in, just below the elbows, and draw 
 the arms outward ,away from the chest, till they meet overhead. 
 This movement imitates respiration. The arms are then turned 
 down and forcibly pressed against the chest for a moment. This 
 movement imitates expiration. Continue these movements per- 
 severingly at the rate of about 15 times per minute until signs of 
 natural respiration are perceived. 
 
 7. While those movements are going on, the clothing re- 
 maining on the patient should be removed by an assistant, with- 
 out interfering with the artificial respiration, however. When the 
 body is stripped it should be dried and covered with such cloth- 
 ing as may be available. 
 
 8. An attempt to produce natural respiration by exciting 
 the respiratory nerves may also be made by holding ammonia to 
 the nostrils, by slapping the chest alternately with cloths wrung 
 out in hot and cold water ,or by tickling the nostrils with a feather. 
 
 9. When breathing has been restored, the limbs of the pa- 
 tient should be rubbed upward, toward the heart, vigorously in 
 order to restore the circulation. The rubbing should be done 
 under the covering as much as possible, and in order to restore 
 the warmth of the body extra covering, hot flannels, bricks, or bot- 
 tles should be applied. 
 
 10. To stimulate the vital organs, small doses of aromatic 
 spirits of ammonia should be given. 
 
 For additional suggestions and information on this subject, 
 see Chapter XXXI. 
 
CHAPTER XXVIII 
 
 MANUAL OF THE BAYONET, COMBINED MOVE- 
 MENTS AND BAYONET COMBAT 
 
 The infantry soldier relies mainly on fire action to disable 
 the enemy, but personal combat is often necessary to obtain suc- 
 cess and he should be instructed in the use of the rifle and bayonet 
 in hand-to-hand encounters. 
 
 The object of this instruction is to teach the soldier how to 
 make effective use of the rifle and bayonet in personal combat; 
 to make him quick and proficient in handling his rifle; to give 
 him an accurate eye and a steady hand; and to give him con- 
 fidence in the bayonet in offense and defense. When skill in these 
 exercises has been acquired, the rifle still remains a most formid- 
 able weapon at close quarters should the bayonet be lost or dis- 
 abled. 
 
 Efficiency of organization in bayonet fighting is judged 
 the skill shown by individuals in personal combat. For this pur 
 pose pairs or groups of opponents, selected at random from among|a 
 recruits and trained soldiers, should engage in assaults, using the 
 fencing equipment provided for the purpose. 
 
 Officers are specially selected and thoroughly instructed non-j 
 commissioned officers act as instructors. Instruction is ordinarily!; 
 given on even ground; but practice should also be had on uneven 
 ground, especially in the attack and defense of intrenchments. 
 
 Before requiring soldiers to take a position or execute a 
 movement for the first time, the instructor executes the same for 
 the purpose of illustration, after which he requires the soldiers to|? 
 execute the movement individually. As soon as the movements t j 
 are executed accurately, the commands are given rapidly, as ex 
 pertness with the bayonet depends chiefly upon quickness of I 
 motion. 
 
 Successful training implies that men will use on the battle 
 field what they have learned on the drill-ground. To do this 
 a man must move to the attack possessed not only of a determina 
 tion to win, but also of a perfect confidence in his third arm— 
 the rifle. Such a confidence is born only of long, constant practice, 
 which is the very essence of bayonet training. 
 
 by 
 ur- 
 
MANUAL OF THE BAYONET 841 
 
 Without this, a bayonet assault will fail. The man who 
 bores in at a dead run enjoys the advantage of a superior morale. 
 The man who waits to fence loses his own nerve and helps the 
 -nemy take heart. The enemy may have a longer weapon than 
 Durs. This gives him the advantage if we stand off and fence, but 
 ?ives us the advantage if we close with him. 
 
 The growth of the spirit of the bayonet is fostered by short 
 :alks on what has already been accomplished with the bayonet. 
 The men must be thoroughly informed of probable treachery on 
 :he part of the enemy. They must be informed of the possible 
 :nemy tricks of pretending to surrender or to be wounded, only 
 :o fire upon or bayonet their prospective captors the instant they 
 essen their aggressiveness. 
 
 The bayonet is the deciding factor in every assault, and the 
 soldier must realize that its successful employment requires of 
 lim not only individual physical courage, but also perfect dis- 
 cipline and a thorough knowledge of teamwork. In a bayonet 
 )ight the nerviest, best disciplined and most skillful man wins — 
 :he will to use the bayonet plus cold steel and thorough training 
 issure success, 
 
 TEAMWORK 
 
 \ While actual bayonet combat is individual, each man must 
 
 -inderstand from the very first that he is fighting for his side 
 
 jind not for himself alone. It follows, therefore, that he must 
 
 5>e familiar with the tactical employment of the bayonet. He 
 
 nust not only know how, but when and when not to use it. For 
 
 nstance, it is absurd for a bayonet man to chase a retreating 
 
 memy and stab him in the back; he has a bullet in his rifle for just 
 
 hat purpose. Again, the man who, forgetting that he is only a 
 
 nember of the team, rushes ahead of his comrades and is always 
 
 fieedlessly killed, thus helping the enemy and wasting his own life, 
 
 its well as the time and efforts of the country he is trying to serve. 
 
 Perfect teamwork is required in order to have a good line in the 
 
 .ttack, but it is of more importance there than on dress parade. 
 
 The bayonet man is frequently called upon to act as pro- 
 
 ector to his constant comrade, the grenade-thrower, who is prac- 
 
 ically unarmed. This one fact requires that the bayonet man be 
 
 amiliar with the tactics of both weapons — bayonet and grenade — 
 
 n mopping-up parties, trench raids, shell holes, and assaulting 
 
 /aves. 
 
 The supreme test of a soldier's training is to demand of him 
 hat he hold a position at the point of the bayonet. In such 
 ases he must know just how to coordinate himself with the 
 
842 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 grenadiers and machine-gunners. He must know just what kind 
 of a counter charge to make and exactly when to start it. 
 
 Finally, there is for the instructor to consider the close rela 
 tion between controlled rifle fire and the bayonet, the last — andj c 
 perhaps the most important phase of bayonet training. 
 
 The exercises are interrupted at first by short and frequent 
 rests. The rests are less frequent as proficiency is attained 
 Fatigue and exhaustion are specially guarded against as they pre-i 
 vent proper interest being taken in the exercises and delay the 
 progress of the instruction. Rests are given from the position of 
 order arms in the manner prescribed in Infantry Drill Regulations. 
 
 NOMENCLATURE AND DESCRIPTION 
 
 The bayonet is a cutting and thrusting weapon consisting 
 of three principal parts, viz,, the blade, guard, and grip. The blade If 
 
 y , , „., , p, 
 
 guard 
 
 / * tA0£ FALSE itXE 
 
 UE3S. 
 
 / 
 
 TAHG 
 
 SACK 
 
 POINT 
 
 ^ 
 
 has the following parts: Edge, false edge, back, grooves, pointy 
 and tang. The length of the blade from guard to point is 16j v 
 inches, the edge 14.5 inches, and the false edge 5.6 inches. The 
 length of the service rifle, bayonet fixed, is 59.4 inches. The weight 
 of the bayonet is 1 pound; weight of rifle without bayonet is 8.69 
 pounds. The center of gravity of the rifle, with bayonet fixed, is, 
 just in front of the rear sight. 
 
 INSTRUCTION WITHOUT THE RIFLE 
 
 The instructor explains the importance of good footwork 
 and impresses on the men the fact that quickness of foot and 
 suppleness of body are as important for attack and defense as 
 is the ability to parry and deliver a strong point or cut. 
 
 All foot movements should be made from the position off 
 guard. As far as practicable, they are made on the balls of the 
 feet to insure quickness and agility. No hard and fast rule can be 
 
MANUAL OF THE BAYONET 843 
 
 ;laid down as to the length of the various foot movements; this 
 depends entirely on the situations occurring in combat. 
 
 The men having taken intervals or distances, the instructor 
 commands: 
 
 1. Bayonet exercise, 2. GUARD. 
 I At the command guard, half face to the right, carry back and 
 
 iplace the right foot about once and a half its length to the rear 
 and about 3 inches to the right, the feet forming with each other 
 jan angle of about 60°, weight of the body balanced equally on 
 Ithe balls of the feet, knees slightly bent, palms of hands on 
 .hips, fingers to the front;, thumbs to the rear, head erect, head 
 and eyes straight to the front. 
 
 To resume the attention, 1. Squad, 2. ATTENTION. The 
 men take the position of the soldier and fix their attention. 
 
 ADVANCE. Advance the left foot quickly about once its 
 s'ength, follow immediately with the right foot the same distance. 
 
 RETIRE. Move the right foot quickly to the rear about 
 Dnce its length, follow immediately with the left foot the same 
 listance. 
 
 1. Front, 2. PASS. Place the right foot quickly about once 
 ts length in front of the left, advance the left foot to its proper 
 position in front of the right. 
 
 1. Rear, 2. PASS. Place the left foot quickly about once 
 ts length in rear of the right;, retire the right foot to its proper 
 position in rear of the left. The passes are used to get quickly 
 vithin striking distance or to withdraw quickly therefrom. 
 
 1. Right, 2. STEP. Step to the right with the right foot 
 ibout once its length and place the left foot in its proper relative 
 >osition. 
 
 1. Left, 2. STEP. Step to the left with the left foot about 
 >nce its length and place the right foot in its proper relative 
 >osition. 
 
 These steps are used to circle around an enemy, to secure a 
 nore favorable line of attack, or to avoid the opponent's attack, 
 fetter ground or more favorable light may be gained in this way. 
 n bayonet fencing and in actual combat the foot first used in 
 tepping to the right or left is the one which at the moment bears 
 he least weight. 
 
 INSTRUCTION WITH THE RIFLE 
 
 The men having taken intervals or distances, the instructor 
 ommands: 
 
 1. Bayonet exercise, 2. GUARD. 
 
 At the second command take the position of guard; at the 
 
844 
 
 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 same time throw the rifle smartly to the front, grasp the rifle 
 with the left hand just below the lower band, fingers between the 
 stock and gun sling, barrel turned slightly to the left, the right 
 hand grasping the small of the stock about 6 inches in front of the 
 right hip, elbows free from the body, bayonet point at the height 
 of the chin. 
 
 1. Order, 2. ARMS. 
 
 Bring the right foot up to the left and the rifle to the posi- 
 tion of order arms, at the same time resuming the position of 
 attention. 
 
 PARRY HIGH AND LOW PARRY 
 
 During the preliminary instruction, attacks and defenses 
 are executed from guard until proficiency is attained, after which 
 they may be executed from any position in which the rifle is 
 held. 
 
 INSTRUCTION WITHOUT THE BAYONET. 
 
 1. Club rifle, 2. SWING. 
 
 Being at order arms, at the preparatory command quickly 
 raise and turn the rifle, regrasping it with both hands between 
 the rear sight and muzzle, barrel down, thumbs around the 
 
MAX UAL OF THE BAYONET 
 
 845 
 
 stock and toward the butt; at the same time raise the rifle 
 above the shoulder farthest from the opponent, butt elevated 
 and to the rear, elbows slightly bent and knees straight. Each 
 individual takes such position of the feet, shoulders, and hands 
 as best accords with his natural dexterity. SWING. Tighten 
 the grasp of the hands and swing the rifle to the front and 
 downward, directing it at the head of the opponent and imme- 
 diately return to the position of club rifle by completing the swing 
 of the rifle downward and to the rear. Repeat by the command, 
 SWING. 
 
 BUTT STRIKE AND CLUB RIFLE SWING. 
 
 The rifle should be swung with sufficient force to break 
 through any guard or parry that may be interposed. Being at club 
 rifle, order arms is resumed by command. The use of this attack 
 against dummies or in fencing is prohibited. 
 
 The position of club rifle may be taken from any position 
 of the rifle prescribed in the Manual of Arms. It will not be 
 taken in personal combat unless the emergency is such as to 
 preclude the use of the bayonet. 
 
846 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 COMBINED MOVEMENTS 
 
 The purpose of combined movements is to develop more 
 vigorous attacks and more effective defenses than are obtained 
 by the single movement; to develop skill in passing from at- 
 tack to defense and the reverse. Every movement to the front 
 should be accompanied by an attack;, which is increased in 
 effectiveness by the forward movement of the body. Every 
 movement to the rear should ordinarily be accompanied by a 
 parry and should always be followed by an attack. Movements 
 to the right or left may be accompanied by attacks or defenses. 
 
 Not more than three movements are used in any combina- 
 tion. The instructor should first indicate the number of move- 
 ments that are to be combined as two movements or three move- 
 ments. The execution is determined by one command of execu- 
 tion, and the position of guard is taken upon the completion of the 
 last movement only. The following are examples: 
 
 Front pass and LUNGE: Right step and THRUST: Left 
 step and low parry RIGHT: Rear pass, parry left and LUNGE: 
 Lunge and cut RIGHT: Parry right and parry HIGH: Butt 
 strike and cut DOWN: Thrust and parry HIGH: Parry high 
 and LUNGE: Advance, thrust and cut RIGHT: Right step ; 
 parry left and cut DOWN: To the left, butt strike and cut 
 DOWN: To the right rear, cut down and butt STRIKE. 
 
 PRACTICAL BAYONET COMBAT e 
 
 h 
 
 The principles of practical bayonet combat should be taughtlp 
 as far as possible during the progress of instruction in bayonet) 
 exercises. 
 
 The soldier must be continually impressed with the extreme 
 importance of the offensive due to its moral effect. Should an 
 attack fail, it should be followed immediately by another attack ai 
 before the opponent has an opportunity to assume the offensive. 
 Keep the opponent on the defensive. If, due to circumstances, it 
 is necessary to take the defensive, constantly watch for an oppor- 
 tunity to assume the offensive and take immediate advantage of it. 
 
 Observe the ground with a view to obtaining the best foot- 
 ing. Time for this will generally be too limited to permit more 
 than a single hasty glance. 
 
 In personal combat watch the opponent's eyes if they can 
 be plainly seen, and do not fix the eyes on his weapon nor upon 
 the point of your attack. If his eyes cannot be plainly seen, 
 as in night attacks, watch the movements of his weapon and 
 of his body. 
 
MANUAL OF THE BAYONET 847 
 
 Keep the body well covered and deliver attacks vigorously. 
 The point of the bayonet should always be kept as nearly as 
 possible in the line of attack. The less the rifle is moved upward, 
 .downward, to the right, or to the left, the better prepared the 
 soldier is for attack or defense. 
 
 Constantly watch for a chance to attack the opponent's 
 left hand. If his bayonet is without a cutting edge he will be at 
 a great disadvantage. 
 
 The butt is used for close and sudden attacks. It is par- 
 ticularly useful for riot duty. From the position of port arms a 
 sentry can strike a severe blow with the butt of the rifle. 
 
 Against a man on foot, armed with a sword, be careful 
 that the muzzle of the rifle is not grasped. All the swordsman's 
 energies will be directed toward getting past the bayonet. At- 
 tack him with short, stabbing thrusts, and keep him beyond strik- 
 ing distance of his weapon. 
 
 The adversary may attempt a greater extension in the 
 thrust and lunge by quitting a grasp of his piece with the left 
 hand and advancing the right as far as possible. When this is 
 done, a sharp parry may cause him to lose control of his rifle,, 
 leaving him exposed to a counter attack, which should follow 
 promptly. 
 
 Against odds a small number of men can fight to best 
 advantage by grouping themselves so as to prevent their being 
 attacked from behind. 
 
 In fighting a mounted man armed with a saber every 
 effort must be made to get on his near or left side, because here 
 his reach is much shorter and his parries much weaker. If not 
 possible to disable such an enemy, attack his horse and then 
 jrenew the attack on the horseman. 
 
 In receiving night attacks the assailant's movements can 
 be best observed from the kneeling or prone position, as his 
 approach generally brings him against the sky line. When he 
 •arrives within attacking distance rise quickly and lunge well for- 
 ward at the middle of his body. 
 
 SIGNALS 
 
 In practicing the various movements, the use of signals 
 should be begun as early as practicable. Their object is to co- 
 Drdinate the eyes with the muscles, thus training the men to see 
 md to avail themselves quickly of openings. The signals were 
 devised to supersede the vicious custom of turning bayonet work 
 I nto a drill by the use of commands, which deadens a soldier's 
 nitiative and ignores the training of his eye. 
 54 
 
848 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 These signals are not imitations of the movements they call 
 for; imitations would be of little advantage to the pupil. The 
 idea is to indicate with the trainer's hand an opening which the 
 pupils perceive and act upon. 
 
 The signals, easily learned, will be used by the men working 
 in pairs — one signalling, the other thrusting, etc. 
 
 To signal for the following positions or movements, the 
 trainer moves as indicated: 
 
 Guard. — Assume it, left hand at back, right elbow at side, 
 right forearm pointing to front, fist closed. 
 
 Short Guard. — Same as guard, except that the arm is drawn 
 straight to the rear until the fist is at the right side. 
 
 Long Thrust. — Clap the right palm, fingers apart and ex- 
 tended, to that part of the body toward which the soldier is to aim. ' 
 
 Short Thrust. — Same as long thrust, except the fist is closed. 
 If pupil is not in position of short guard when he gets the signal, 
 he comes to that position and executes short thrust. 
 
 Jab. — Place both closed fists under the chin. 
 
 Parry. — Strike a blow diagonally across the body in the 
 direction the parry is to be made, fist closed. Follow by signal 
 for thrust. 
 
 Butt Strokes. — Make an upper cut with the fist to indicate a 
 butt stroke to the crotch, a right hook for butt stroke to the jaw, 
 an overhand swing for butt stroke to the head. 
 
 Slash (following butt stroke). — After butt stroke signal, \ 
 carry the hand upward, fingers extended and joined, and slash 
 down. 
 
 Disengage. — Describe an arc with the right hand, fingers ex-| 
 tended and joined, in the direction the disengage is to be made. 
 Make the arc with a forward motion. Follow by signal for thrust. 
 
 Cut-Over. — Describe an arc up and forward with the right 
 hand, fingers extended and joined, in the direction the cut-over is 
 to be made. Follow by signal for thrust. In executing the move- 
 ments the point of the bayonet follows the movement of the 
 trainer's hand, regardless of the relative right or left. When the 
 trainer wishes the pupil to step forward with the rear foot in 
 making any of the movements, the trainer steps to the rear as he 
 gives the signal. 
 
 ASSAULTS 
 
 The part of the body to be attacked is designated, by 
 name, as head, neck, chest, stomach, legs. No attacks are made 
 below the knees. The commands are given and the movements 
 for each line are first explained thoroughly by the instructor; 
 the execution begins at the command assault. Number one exe- 
 
 M. 
 
MANUAL OF THE BAYONET 849 
 
 cutes the attack, and number two parries; conversely, at command, 
 number two attacks and number one parries. 
 
 For convenience in instruction assaults are divided into 
 simple attacks, counter attacks, attacks on the rifle, and feints. 
 
 SIMPLE ATTACKS 
 
 Success in these attacks depends on quickness of move- 
 ment. There are three simple attacks — the straight, the disen- 
 gagement, and the counter disengagement. They are not preceded 
 by a feint. 
 
 In the straight the bayonet is directed straight at an open- 
 ing from the engaged position. Contact with the opponent's 
 rifle may, or may not, be abandoned while making it. If the 
 opening be high or low, contact with the rifle is usually aban- 
 doned on commencing the attack. If the opening be near his 
 guard, the light pressure used in the engage may be continued in 
 the attack. 
 
 Example: Being at the engage right, 1. Number one, at neck 
 (head, chest, right leg, etc.),. thrust; 2. Number two, parry right; 
 J. ASSAULT. 
 
 In the disengagement contact with the opponent's rifle is 
 ibandoned and the point of the bayonet is circled under or over 
 lis bayonet or rifle and directed into the opening attacked. This 
 ittack is delivered by one continuous spiral movement of the 
 jayonet from the moment contact is abandoned. 
 
 Example: Being at the engage right, 1. Number one, at stom- 
 ich (left chest, left leg, etc.), thrust; 2. Number two, parry left 
 [etc.); 3. ASSAULT. 
 
 In the counter disengagement a swift attack is made into 
 :he opening disclosed while the opponent is attempting to change 
 :he engagement of his rifle. It is delivered by one continuous 
 spiral movement of the bayonet into the opening. 
 i Example: Being at the engage right, 1. Number two, engage 
 
 eft; 2. Number one, at chest, thrust; 3. Number two, parry left; 
 % ASSAULT. 
 
 Number two initiates the movement, number one thrusts as 
 ;oon as the opening is made, and number two then attempts to 
 >arry. 
 
 A counter attack or return is one made instantly after or 
 n continuation of a parry. The parry should be as narrow as 
 possible. This makes it more difficult for the opponent to re- 
 rover and counter parry. The counter attack should also be 
 nade at, or just before, the full extension of the opponent's attack, 
 
850 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 as when it is so made, a simple extension of the arms will generally 
 be sufficient to reach the opponent's body. 
 
 Example: Being at engage, 1. Number two, at chest, lunge; 
 
 2. Number one, parry right, and at stomach (chest, head, etc.)i 
 thrust; 3. ASSAULT. 
 
 ATTACKS ON THE RIFLE 
 
 These movements are made for the purpose of forcing or 
 disclosing an opening into which an attack can be made. They 
 are the press, the beat, and the twist. 
 
 In the press the attack quickly presses against the oppo- 
 nent's bayonet or rifle with his own and continues the pressure 
 as the attack is delivered. Example: Being at the engage, 1. Num- 
 ber one, press, and at chest, thrust; 2. Number two, parry right; 
 
 3. ASSAULT. 
 
 The attack by disengagement is particularly effective follow- 
 ing the press. Example: Being at the engage, 1. Number one, 
 press, and at stomach, thrust; 2. Number two, low parry left; 3. 
 ASSAULT. 
 
 The beat is an attack in which a sharp blow is struck 
 against the opponent's rifle for the purpose of forcing him to 
 expose an opening into which an attack immediately follows. It is 
 used when there is but slight opposition or no contact of rifles. 
 Example: Being at the engage, 1. Number one, beat, and at stom- 
 ach (chest, etc.), thrust; 2. Number two, parry left; 3. ASSAULT. 
 
 In the twist the rifle is crossed over the opponent's rifle 
 or bayonet and his bayonet forced downward with a circular! 
 motion and a straight attack made into the opening. It requires; 
 superior strength on the part of the attack. Example: Being at the 
 engage, 1. Number one, twist, and at stomach, thrust; 2. Number 
 two, low parry, left; 3. ASSAULT. 
 
 FEINTS 
 
 Feints are movements which threaten or simulate attacks 
 and are made with a view to inducing an opening or parry that 
 exposes the desired point of attack. They are either single or 
 double, according to the number of such movements made by the 
 attack. 
 
 In order that the attack may be changed quickly, as little 
 force as possible is put into a feint. Example: Being at the en- 
 gage, Number one, feint head thrust; at stomach,, lunge; 2. Num- 
 ber two, parry right and low parry right; 3. ASSAULT. Number 
 one executes the feint and then the attack. Number two executes 
 both parries. 
 
MANUAL OF THE BAYONET 851 
 
 In double feints first one part of the body and then an- 
 other is threatened and a third attacked. Example: Being at the 
 engage, 1. Number one, feint straight thrust at chest; disengage- 
 ment at chest; at stomach, lunge; 2. Number two, parry right, 
 parry left, and low parry left; 3. ASSAULT. 
 
 An opening may be offered or procured by opposition, as 
 in the press or beat. 
 
 In fencing exercises every feint should at first be parried. 
 When the defense is able to judge or divine the character of the 
 attack the feint is not necessarily parried,, but may be nullified by a 
 counter feint. 
 
 A counter feint is a feint following the opponent's feint or 
 following a parry of his attack and generally occurs in combined 
 movements. 
 
 COMBINED MOVEMENTS 
 
 When the men have become thoroughly familiar with the 
 various foot movements, parries, guards, attacks, feints, etc., the 
 instructor combines several of them and gives the commands in 
 quick succession, increasing the rapidity and number of movements 
 <as the men become more skillful. Opponents are changed fre- 
 quently. 
 
 1. Example: Being at the engage, 1. Number one, by disen- 
 gagement at chest, thrust; 2. Number two, parry left, right step 
 (left foot first),, and lunge; 3. ASSAULT. 
 
 i 2. Example: Being at engage left, Number one, press and 
 
 < lunge; 2. Number two, parry right, left step, and thrust; 3. AS- 
 SAULT. 
 
 3. Example: Being at the engage, Number one, by disen- 
 gagement at chest, thrust; 2. Number two, parry left, front pass, 
 and at head butt strike; 3. Number one, right step; 4. ASSAULT. 
 
 A chancery is an attack by means of which the opponent is 
 disarmed, which causes him to lose control of his rifle, or which 
 ^disables his weapon. 
 
 When the different combinations are executed with suffi- 
 cient skill the instructor devises series of movements to be 
 nemorized and executed at the command assault. The accuracy and 
 :elerity of the movements are carefully watched by the instructor, 
 with a view to the correction of faulty execution. 
 
 It is not intended to restrict the number of movements, 
 Dut to leave to the discretion of company commanders and the 
 Vngenuity of instructors the selection of such other exercises as 
 * Accord with the object of the drill. 
 
852 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 VULNERABLE PARTS OF BODY 
 
 The point of the bayonet should be directed against an 
 opponent's throat, especially in hand-to-hand fighting, so that the 
 point will enter easily and make a fatal wound on penetrating a i 
 few inches. Also being near the opponent's face, it tends to make 
 him flinch. Other vulnerable and usually exposed parts are the 
 face, chest, lower abdomen, thighs, and, when the back is turned, 
 the kidneys. The arm pit, which may be reached with a jab, if the 
 throat is protected, is vulnerable because it contains large blood 
 vessels and a nerve center. 
 
 Four to six inches penetration is enough to incapacitate and 
 allow a quick withdrawal, whereas if a bayonet is driven home too 
 far it is often impossible to withdraw it. In such cases a round 
 must be fired to break up the obstruction. 
 
 GUARD. 
 
 Point of the bayonet directed at the base of the. opponent's 
 throat, the rifle, not canted, held firmly but not rigidly with both 
 hands, the left hand, palm against side of rifle, at the most con- 
 venient position in front of the rear sight so that the left arm is 
 only slightly bent, the right hand, palm to the left and just over 
 the navel, grasping the small of the stock, the right forearm press- j 
 ing the upper part of the butt to the body, legs separated as in tak-jc 
 ing a natural step and meeting with resistance, left foot leading, left 
 knee slightly bent, feet separated laterally a few inches and both 
 feet flat on the ground, toes pointed as the man naturally points 
 them in walking. The weight is balanced over both legs. 
 
 The position must not be constrained in any way, but mustjtf 
 be one of aggression, alertness, and readiness to go forward for ai 
 instant attack. The guard position will also be taught with the 
 right foot in front. 
 
 The point of the bayonet is directed at the base of the ^ 
 opponent's throat because that is the most vulnerable part of thei 
 body. The rifle is held with both hands to give the greatest 
 strength. The barrel is up; i. e., "not canted," because this is the 
 most offensive way of holding it. The palms of the hands are 
 against the sides of the rifle because in this position the piece is 
 not canted, and also the wrists are not bent in making the parries 
 The hands are in the positions described because they give theL, 
 best grip of the rifle and get it well advanced toward the opponent ft, 
 so that he can be reached with a minimum movement of the rifle 
 at the same time sufficient play is allowed to run him through 
 The legs are separated as in taking a natural step and meetingL 
 
MANUAL OF THE BAYONET 853 
 
 with resistance because this is what actually happens to a man in 
 bayonet combat. Separating the feet laterally a few inches gives 
 the man a broader and firmer base. The position is not con- 
 strained because if it were the muscles would soon tire and free- 
 dom of motion would be lost. 
 
 SHORT GUARD 
 
 Left hand grasping rifle just under stacking swivel, left arm 
 slightly bent, right hand grasping small of stock, stock against 
 right hip. Point directed at base of opponent's throat. Body, 
 legs, and feet as in guard. 
 
 HIGH PORT 
 
 From the position of guard, without changing the grasp of 
 the hands, carry the piece diagonally across the body until the left 
 wrist is level with and in front of the left shoulder. 
 
 When jumping ditches, surmounting obstacles, etc., the posi- 
 tion of the piece is approximately maintained with the left hand 
 alone, leaving the right hand free. The high port is adopted 
 only when actually preparing to assault. At other times the rifle 
 is carried on the shoulder, at the trail, or slung, according to cir- 
 cumstances. 
 
 LONG THRUST 
 
 Grip the rifle with all your strength and vigorously deliver 
 the point from the guard position to the full extent of the left 
 irm, extending quickly the whole body to the front, butt running 
 along the inside of and against the right forearm. If in making 
 :he thrust the right elbow is carried low, so as to clamp the butt 
 oetween the right forearm and the right side of the body, it fur- 
 nishes a brace against the point being forced aside. In delivering 
 :he thrust the butt remains between the^ right forearm and the 
 oody. The leading knee and ankle are well bent, the rear leg 
 traced with the heel raised, the body inclined well forward. 
 
 The power of a thrust comes from the right arm, the 
 shoulders, the back, the legs, and the weight of the body. The left 
 trm is used more to direct the point of the bayonet. A delivered 
 'hrust throws a man off his balance, but in fighting this is instantly 
 iecovered by stepping forward with the rear foot. After a man 
 las learned the details of a thrust it will always be delivered while 
 hdvancing. 
 
854 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 As additional instruction, the men may be permitted to 
 wield the rifle left handed, that is on the left side of the body 
 left hand at the small of the stock. Many men are able to use this 
 method to advantage. It is also of value in case the left hand is 
 wounded. 
 
 In group fencing it is necessary to have a sufficient number 
 of umpires to decide hits. An individual receiving a hit is with 
 drawn at once from the bout, which is decided in favor of thd 
 group having the numerical superiority at the end. 
 
 LEFT HANDED USE OF RIFLE. 
 
 RULES FOR FENCING AT WILL 
 
 1. Hits on the legs below the knees are not counted. Nd 
 hit counts unless, in the opinion of the instructor, it has sufficient 
 force to disable. 2. Upon receiving a hit, call out "hit." 3. Afte 
 receiving a fair hit a counter attack is not permitted. A position o 
 engage is taken. 4. A second or third hit in a combined attack i< 
 counted only when the first hit was not called. 5. When it is 
 necessary to stop the contest — for example,, because of breaking oi 
 weapons or displacement of means of protection — take the positioi 
 of the order. 6. When it is necessary to suspend the assault io\\ 
 any cause, it is not resumed until the adversary is ready and ir f 
 condition to defend himself. 7. Attacks directed at the crotch art 
 
MANUAL OF THE BAYONET 855 
 
 8. Stepping out of bounds, when estab- 
 lished, counts as a hit. 
 
 When engaging in an assault, first study the adversary's 
 position and proceed by false attacks, executed with speed, to 
 discover, if possible, his instinctive parries. In order to draw 
 the adversary out and induce him to expose that part of the body 
 at which the attack is to be made, it is advisable to simulate 
 in attack by a feint and then make the real attack. 
 
 PA*RY RIGHT (LEFT) 
 
 From the position of guard, vigorously straighten the left 
 arm without bending the wrists or twisting the rifle in the hands, 
 at the same time engaging opponent's piece and deflecting it just 
 clear of your body, forcing your body forward to the full extent 
 Df your reach. Keep the barrel up, the point threatening the 
 Dpponent's body, preferably his throat. If the parry right is 
 properly made, it is easy to kill the opponent with the thrust 
 which immediately follows — in fact, the opponent will usually im- 
 pale himself on your point. In parry left the point is carried out 
 Df line with your opponent's body, but can be quickly brought 
 Dack, as it is nearer this line than the opponent's point. Parry 
 eft is followed up at once either with a thrust or a butt stroke 
 :o the ribs or jaw. During the parry the eyes must be kept on 
 :he point of the weapon being parried, but, having completed the 
 Darry, the eyes are instantly fixed on "the part of the opponent's 
 )ody to be attacked. 
 
 In addition, practice must be given in fending off the oppo- 
 lent's point with either bayonet or rifle in any position. 
 
 THE SHORT THRUST 
 
 Shift the left hand quickly towards the muzzle and draw the 
 fle back to the extent of the right arm, this without unduly 
 1 -elaxing the grasp of the small of the stock, the butt either up- 
 wards or downwards, according as a low or a high thrust is to be 
 nade; then deliver the thrust vigorously to the full extent of the 
 1 eft arm. 
 
 The short thrust is used at a range of about 3 feet, and in 
 
 :lose fighting it is the natural thrust made when the bayonet has 
 
 T ust been withdrawn after a long thrust. If a strong withdrawal 
 
 s necessary, the right hand should be. slipped above the rear sight 
 
 ifter the "short thrust" has been made. 
 
856- MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 THE JAB 
 
 From the position of the short thrust, shift the right hand 
 up the rifle and grasp it above the rear sight, at the same time 
 bringing the rifle to an almost vertical position close to the body, 
 and from this position bend the knees, and, with the full force of 
 the body, stepping in if necessary, jab the point of the bayonet 
 upwards into the throat or other part of the opponent. 
 
 CIRCLE EXERCISES, HAND PARRIES, ETC. 
 
 At the command "Form circle," the pupils, not more than 
 ten in number, form in a circle, facing the trainer with an interval 
 of about three paces, at the position of "guard," bayonet scabbards 
 on. . The trainer thrusts in varying order with the training stick 
 at the pupils, who "parry" from the position of "guard," "short 
 guard," and "jab," and thrust or rush in and jab at trainer, who 
 retires rapidly. 
 
 At a touch from the "training stick," the pupil whirls about 
 and attacks the thrusting ring with the thrust or jab, as the dis- 
 tance between his point and the stick indicates. If the ring is 
 holed, the withdrawal is made and the position of "guard" resumed. 
 If the first effort is a miss, the pupil will come on with "short 
 thrust" and "jab" until successful. 
 
 If the trainer presents the padded end of the stick, the pupil 
 makes butt stroke one at it. If this is a miss, he comes on with 
 butt stroke two, etc., until he hits the padded end. As soon as he 
 hits it he resumes the guard facing out. To practice the pupil 
 in all the butt strokes, the instructor jerks the stick away a short 
 distance just before butt stroke one; hits it, causing the pupil to 
 miss and come on with butt stroke two. Just before butt stroke 
 two hits the stick, the trainer again jerks it away, causing the 
 pupil to miss and come on with a slash. 
 
 Men in pairs, one with rifle in guard position, the other on 
 either side offers the ring or padded end of the stick in varying 
 positions in front and behind. The man with the rifle attacks the 
 stick as laid down above. 
 
 To practice "long thrust," "short thrust," and "jab" against 
 an opponent: One line of men, with bayonets and scabbards 
 placed at long thrusting distance before a line of men without 
 arms. The armed men make a long thrust, stepping in; at a hand 
 .signal made by the unarmed men, the latter step back and with the 
 other hand fend the thrust, grab and hold the bayonet to give the 
 withdrawal the necessary resistance. At a second signal the at- 
 tack is continued by the short thrust, stepping in, the retreat and 
 
MANUAL OF THE BAYONET 857 
 
 fend repeated. The two men, now being at close quarters, a signal 
 for "jab" is made, the defender grabbing the bayonet and resisting 
 the stroke. 
 
 The fend should not be made with the hand indicating the 
 point of attack. The signaling hand should remain in place as a 
 point at which to aim. The signal should be made with the hand 
 on the side of the body at which the attack is to be made. In this 
 way the bayonet is quickly pushed outside the line of the body 
 with the other hand, 
 
 WOODEN RIFLES AND PERSONAL COMBAT 
 
 The wooden rifle, like boxing and wrestling, introduces into 
 the training the most important element of personal contact, with- 
 out which the true fighting spirit cannot be properly developed. 
 The work with the wooden rifles is very slow and easy at first, 
 the men gradually working up speed until they come together at 
 full tilt. Gloves, masks, and plastrons will always be worn, and 
 the instructor is responsible for the prevention of serious acci- 
 dents. Men begin this combat practice by both standing still; then 
 one advances at a walk, the other standing still; then both ad- 
 vancing at a walk; then one man running, the other standing still, 
 and, finally, both men advancing at a run. 
 
 TRENCH COMBAT 
 
 In trench combat, when you come to a turn in the trench, 
 make a quick vault in the next sector of the trench. As you land 
 in the next sector, have your rifle in the guard position (on the 
 right side if the trench turned to the left, on the left side if it 
 turned to the right), ready to beat your opponent's weapon aside 
 or make a quick thrust. There is nothing to be gained by looking 
 first, and it insures your enemy being ready for you. If you come 
 to a place alone where one trench enters another about at right 
 angles, it is well to look first, as one man has no show if there is 
 an enemy on each side of the entrance. If you find one side clear, 
 vault in the other without delaying to look. If two men approach 
 such a trench, say, through a communication trench, they approach 
 as nearly on a line as the width of the trench will permit. One 
 vaults to the right and the other to the left without stopping to 
 find out first whether the trench is occupied, 
 
CHAPTER XXIX 
 
 THE ARMY RATION, ITS ISSUE AND SUBSTITU- 
 TIVE EQUIVALENT ARTICLES 
 
 The allowance for the subsistence of one person for one day 
 is a ration. The garrison ration is intended for troops in gar- 
 rison, and, in time of peace, for troops in maneuver camps; 
 the ration issued to troops on the march in time of peace is 
 prescribed by the commander, and does not exceed the allow- 
 ances prescribed for the garrison ration. The travel ration is 
 for troops traveling otherwise than by marching and separated 
 from cooking facilities. The reserve ration is carried on the per- 
 son of the men and in the trains, and constitutes the reserve for 
 field service. The field ration is the ration prescribed in orders by 
 the commander of the field forces. The Filipino ration is for use 
 of the Philippine Scouts. The Emergency ration is for troops in 
 active campaign for use on occasions of emergency or in the field 
 for purposes of instruction. In time of war, when Philippine Scouts 
 are serving in the field, or when it is impracticable to use the 
 Filipino ration, they are subsisted the same as are regular troops. 
 
 The kinds and quantities of the component articles of the 
 army ration and the substitutive equivalent articles which may be 
 issued in place of such components are as follows: 
 
 GARRISON RATION 
 
 Component Articles and Quantities. 
 
 Substitutive Articles and Quantities. 
 
 
 20 ounces. . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Beef, fresh 
 
 Canned meat, when imprac- 
 ticable to furnish fresh meat 
 
 Hash, corned beef, when im- 
 practicable to furnish fresh 
 
 16 ounces. 
 16 ounces. 
 
 
 
 14 ounces. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 16 ounces. 
 
 
 Turkey, dressed, drawn, on 
 Thanksgiving Day and 
 Christmas, when practic- 
 able 
 
 16 ounces. 
 
 
 
 
THE ARMY RATION 
 
 859 
 
 Component Articles and Quantities. 
 
 Substitutive Articles and Quantities. 
 
 
 18 ounces. . . 
 0.08 ounce.. 
 
 
 18 ounces. 
 
 Flour 
 
 1 Hard bread, to be ordered 
 1 'Fsued only when the inter- 
 1 ests of the Government so 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2.4 ounces. . 
 20 ounces. . . 
 
 1.28 ounces.. 
 
 1.12 ounces. 
 3.2 ounces. . 
 
 /Rice 
 
 
 Beant 
 
 
 1.6 ounces. 
 15 ounces. 
 
 
 [Potatoes, canned 
 
 Onions, In lieu of an equal 
 quantity of potatoes, but 
 not exceeding 20 per cent, 
 of total issue. 
 
 Tomatoes, canned, in lieu of 
 an equal quantity of pota- 
 toes, but not exceeding 20 
 per cent, of total issue. 
 
 Other fresh vegetables (not 
 canned) when they can be 
 obtained in the vicinity or 
 transported in a wholesome 
 condition from a distance, 
 in lieu of an equal quantity 
 of potatoes, but not exceed- 
 ing 30 per cent of total issue. 
 
 Apples, dried or evaporated. . 
 
 Peaches, dried or evaporated . 
 
 Jam, in lieu of an equal quan- 
 tity of prunes, but not ex- 
 ceeding 50 per cent, of total 
 issue. 
 
 Coffee, roasted, not ground. . 
 
 Coffee, green 
 
 
 1.28 ounces. 
 1.28 ounces. 
 
 Coffee, roasted and ground 
 
 1.12 ounces. 
 1.4 ounces. 
 
 
 
 
 Milk, evaporated, un- 
 
 
 
 
 
 0.16 gill. .. . 
 
 f Pickles, cucumber, in lieu of 
 I an equal quantity of vine- 
 | gar, but not exceeding 50 
 [ per cent, of total issue. 
 
 
 Salt 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0.014 ounce. 
 
 0.64 ounce. . 
 0.5 ounce. . . 
 0.32 gill. . . . 
 
 f Cloves 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0.014 ounce. 
 
 
 
 
 Butter 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Flavoring extract, lemon.. 
 
 0.014 ounce. 
 
 
 0.014 ounce. 
 
 
 
 
 Food for troops traveling on United States Army transports is prepared from the 
 articles of subistence stores which compose the ration for troops in garrison, varied by 
 the substitution of other articles of authorized subsistence stores, the total daily cost 
 per man of the food consumed not to exceed 20 per cent, more than the current cost of 
 the garrison ration, except on Thanksgiving Day and Christmas, when 60 per cent, 
 increase over the same current cost is authorized. 
 
560 
 
 MILITARY TRAINING 
 TRAVEL RATION 
 
 Component Articles and Quantities. 
 
 Soft bread 
 
 Beef, corned 
 
 Beans, baked 
 
 Tomatoes, canned 
 
 Jam 
 
 Coffee, roasted and ground 
 
 Sugar . . ... . 
 
 Milk, evaporated, un- 
 sweetened 
 
 18 ounces. . 
 12 ounces. . 
 4 ounces . . . 
 8 ounces. . . 
 1.4 ounces. 
 1.12 ounces 
 2.4 ounces . 
 
 0.5 ounce. 
 
 Substitutive Articles and Quantities. 
 
 Hard bread 
 
 Hash, corned beef . 
 
 16 ounces. 
 12 ounces. 
 
 RESERVE RATION 
 
 Component Articles and Quantities. 
 
 Substitutive Articles and Quantities. 
 
 Bacon 
 
 or meat canned 
 
 Hard bread. 
 
 Coffee, roasted and ground 
 
 Sugar ......:.. ' 2.4 ounces 
 
 Salt -..-. I 0.16 ounce 
 
 1 2 ounces. . . 
 16 ounces. . . 
 16 ounces. . . 
 1.12 ounces. 
 
 One day in each alternate month of the season of practical 
 instruction, not exceeding three days in each year, the use of the 
 reserve ration with individual cooking is required by all troops in 
 the field for purposes of instruction. 
 
 FIELD RATION 
 
 The field ration is the ration prescribed in orders by the 
 commander of the field forces. It consists of the reserve ration 
 in whole or in part, supplemented by articles of food requisitioned 
 or purchased locally, or shipped from the rear, provided such sup- 
 plements or substitutes correspond generally with the component 
 articles or substitutive equivalents of the garrison ration. 
 
 FILIPINO RATION 
 
 Component Articles and Quantities. 
 
 Substitutive Articles and Quantities. 
 
 
 12 ouncea. . . 
 8 ounces. . . . 
 
 
 8 ounces. 
 
 Beef, fresh 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 12 ounces. 
 
 Flour 
 
 fHard bread 
 
 8 ounces. 
 
 
 \Soft bread 
 
 8 ounces. 
 

 THE ARMY RATION 
 
 861 
 
 Component Articles and Quantities. 
 
 Substitutive Articles and Quantities. 
 
 Baking powder, when in 
 field and ovens are not 
 available 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 ounces. . . 
 8 ounces. . . . 
 
 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 
 
 Coffee, roasted and ground 
 
 
 
 Sugar 
 
 
 
 
 Vinegar 
 
 0.08 gill . 
 
 
 
 Salt 
 
 
 
 
 Pepper, black 
 
 0.02 ounce. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Scout orcaniz? 
 
 Lfinns arp r 
 
 ennirpd rn hcp flip pntirp 
 
 • 
 
 allnwanrp 
 
 of the meat component, and not more than 16 ounces of rice per 
 day to be used for each ration. The purchase of 1.6 ounces of 
 beans per ration in substitution of the portion of the rice ration 
 not drawn is made, and use of as large an extent as possible of 
 native products, such as camotes, mongos, and squash will be re- 
 quired. 
 
 EMERGENCY RATION 
 
 r The emergency ration is furnished, in addition to the regu- 
 
 , lar ration, as required for troops on active campaign or in the 
 ' field for purposes of instruction, and is not opened except by order 
 of an officer or in extremity, nor used when regular rations are 
 obtainable. Ration returns upon which emergency rations are 
 drawn bear the certificate of the organization commander that 
 such rations are required for the enlisted men of his organization 
 , and that the money value of any rations previously drawn by him, 
 ! and improperly opened or lost, has been charged against the per- 
 : son responsible. Company and detachment commanders are re- 
 sponsible for the proper care and use of emergency rations car- 
 . ried on the person of the soldier. 
 
 LIQUID COFFEE 
 
 When an enlisted man or an applicant for enlistment, sup- 
 plied with cooked or travel rations, travels unaccompanied by an 
 officer, and it is impracticable to cook coffee en route, he may be 
 supplied with funds for the purchase of liquid coffee in lieu of the 
 coffee, milk and sugar components of the travel ration, at the 
 rate of 21 cents a day for the number of days that the travel is 
 expected to cover, to be paid to each man on the order of the 
 commanding officer who directs the journey, a copy of the order 
 being filed with the voucher on which payment is made. 
 
L 
 
 862 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 On the first of the month, or whenever necessary, the quarter- 
 master computes on the back of the ration and savings account the 
 actual cost of the ration in use at his post at the following rates: 
 
 Garrison ration 
 
 Per Cent. 
 
 Beef, fresh 70 
 
 Bacon, issue 30 
 
 Flour, issue 100 
 
 Baking powder 100 
 
 Beans . . 50 
 
 Rice 50 
 
 Potatoes, fresh 70 
 
 Onions, fresh 20 
 
 Tomatoes, canned 10 
 
 Prunes 30 
 
 Jam 50 
 
 Apples, evaporated ; . . 10 
 
 Peaches, evaporated 10 
 
 Coffee, roasted and ground 100 
 
 Sugar 100 
 
 Milk, evaporated, unsweetened 100 
 
 Vinegar 50 
 
 Pickles, cucumber 50 
 
 Salt 100 
 
 Pepper, black . 100 
 
 Cinnamon 100 
 
 Lard ,. 50 
 
 Lard substitute 50 
 
 Butter 50 
 
 Oleomargarine 50 
 
 Syrup 100 
 
 Flavoring extract, lemon 100 
 
 For Thanksgiving Day or Christmas, when turkey costs 
 more than the regular meat ration, the proper allowance is made 
 on the ration and savings account by adding to the amount due 
 the organization the product of the number of men present on the 
 holiday multiplied by the excess cost of turkey over the regular 
 meat ration. Should a ration of turkey cost less than the regular 
 meat ration the proper deduction is made. 
 
 Travel ration 
 
 Per Cent. 
 
 Soft bread or hard bread 100 
 
 Beef, corned or hash, C. B 100 
 
THE ARMY RATION 863 
 
 _ Per Cent. 
 Beans, baked Kjy 
 
 Tomatoes, canned 100 
 
 J am 100 
 
 Coffee, roasted and ground 100 
 
 Su & ar ...".;; 100 
 
 Milk, evaporated, unsweetened 100 
 
 When 21 cents coffee money is paid, the coffee, sugar, and 
 milk components are not included when computing the travel 
 ration. 
 
 Filipino ration 
 
 „ , , Per Cent. 
 
 Beef, fresh 70 
 
 Bacon, issue 20 
 
 Fish .! ^ .."..:.!! 1 ... ! 1. . M io 
 
 Or— 
 
 Canned meat 70 
 
 Bacon, issue 20 
 
 Fish 10 
 
 Flour, or hard bread, or soft bread 100 
 
 Baking powder, when ovens are not available 100 
 
 Rice, unpolished 100 
 
 Potatoes 80 
 
 Onions 20 
 
 Coffee, roasted and ground 100 
 
 Sugar 100 
 
 Vinegar 100 
 
 Salt 100 
 
 Pepper, black 100 
 
 When reserve rations or surplus ration articles are ordered 
 used, any excess cost of such articles over that of the articles 
 ordinarily used in computing the cost of the ration is credited to 
 the organization on the ration and savings account. Should any 
 article so ordered be cheaper than that ordinarily used, a corre- 
 sponding deduction is made from the organization's credit. The 
 manner of ascertaining the amount of the credit or deduction is 
 shown on the back of the ration and savings account, to which the 
 order of the commanding officer directing the issue will be 
 attached. 
 
 If ration and savings accounts are not paid by a quarter- 
 master in the month during which they accumulated, the proper 
 organization is furnished with an extract of the account showing 
 the amount due, which voucher, duly certified by the quarter- 
 master and approved by the commanding officer, is presented for 
 payment to any quartermaster having funds for the purpose. 
 
864 
 
 MILITARY TRAINING 
 COMMUTATION OF RATIONS 
 
 Commutation of rations may be allowed at the following: 
 rates, under the conditions mentioned, viz: 
 
 Conditions. 
 
 Rate per Day Each. 
 
 Enlisted 
 Men and 
 Nurses. 
 
 Philippine 
 Scouts. 
 
 1. To enlisted men, Philippine Scouts, male or female nurses on 
 
 the expiration of their furloughs or leaves, provided that on 
 or before the last day thereof they have reported at their 
 proper stations or have been discharged 
 
 2. To ordnance sergeants, quartermaster sergeants, senior grade, 
 
 and quartermaster sergeants, Quartermaster Corps (and en- 
 listed men acting as such) on duty at forts and stations where 
 there are no other troops 
 
 3. To an enlisted man, a Philippine Scout, or a male or female 
 
 nurse on detached duty, stationed in a city or town where 
 subsistence is not furnished by the Government; to sergeants 
 detailed for duty with the National Guard, and for duty with 
 disciplinary organizations; to enlisted men detailed for duty 
 at institutions where one or more units of the Reserve 
 Officers' Training Corps are maintained, or at schools or col- 
 leges pursuant to section 56, Act of Congress approved June 
 3, 1916, stationed in a city or town where subsistence is not 
 furnished by the Government 
 
 4. To an enlisted man or a Philippine Scout traveling under orders 
 
 from a place or station at which hia rations have been regu- 
 larly commuted 
 
 5. To an enlisted man or a Philippine Scout traveling under orders 
 
 alone, when the journey can not be performed in 24 hours 
 and it is impracticable to carry rations of any kind (which 
 fact must be stated in the order directing the journey) ; to 
 members of the Regular Army Reserve upon being sum 
 moned for field training and when mobilized by the President 
 and reporting for duty, while traveling from their homes to 
 the places where ordered to report for duty, to members of 
 the Reserve Officers' Training Corps while traveling, except 
 by organization, to and from camps of instruction; and to 
 members of the Enlisted Reserve Corps when ordered into 
 active service, while traveling, except by organization, to and 
 from the place to which ordered 
 
 6. To two enlisted men or Philippine Scouts traveling under orders 
 
 as a detachment, or traveling under orders as a guard to an 
 insane patient or military prisoner, when the journey can not 
 be performed in 24 hours and it is impracticable to carry 
 rations of any kind (which fact must be stated in the order 
 directing the journey), each 
 
 7. To an insane patient or military prisoner traveling under orders 
 
 under guard of one or two enlisted men or Philippine Scouts, 
 when the journey can not be performed in 24 hours and it is 
 impracticable to carry rations of any kind (which fact must 
 be stated in the order directing the journey), to be paid on 
 the order of the commanding officer in advance to, and to be 
 receipted for by, the person to whose charge the patient or 
 military prisoner is committed by the order 
 
 8. To enlisted men or Philippine Scouts selected to contest for 
 
 places or prizes in department or Army rifle competitions, 
 while traveling under orders to and from places of contest, 
 when the journey can not be performed in 24 hours and it is 
 impracticable to carry rations of any kind (which fact must 
 be stated in the order) each 
 
 $0.30 
 
 1.00 
 
 $0.30 
 
 .50 
 
 .75 
 
 1.50 
 
 1.50 
 
 .50 
 
 1.50 
 
 .75 
 
 .75 
 
 .75 
 
 .75 
 
THE ARMY RATION 
 
 865 
 
 Applicants for enlistment and recruits forwarded from re- 
 cruiting stations, recruiting depots, or other military posts are fur- 
 nished the following allowances for subsistence while traveling, 
 
 When 1 or 2 men are forwarded. 
 
 For a journey of 24 hours or less. 
 
 Travel rations, or cooked rations, to be 
 obtained from the contractor for meals 
 or from the company or general mess. 
 
 For a journey of more than 24 hours. 
 
 Commutation of rations at not exceeding 
 50 cents a meal ($1.50 a day) for each 
 man. 
 
 When more than 2 men are forwarded. 
 
 For a journey of 24 hours or less. 
 
 For a detachment of 3 or more men: 
 Travel rations (or, if not available, 
 cooked rations, to be obtained from the 
 contractor for meals or from the com- 
 pany or general mess). 
 
 For a journey of more than 24 hours . 
 
 For a detachment of 3 or more men: 
 Travel rations if available, or, if not 
 available, commutation of rations at 
 not exceeding 50 cents a meal ($1.50 a 
 day) for each man. 
 
 Commutation of rations is not allowed to enlisted men serv- 
 ing where subsistence is furnished by the Government; or travel- 
 ing under orders when they can carry and cook their rations, or 
 can carry cooked or travel rations; or traveling under orders on 
 Army transports or by steamboat or steamship where the passage 
 rates include meals; or failing to report at their proper stations on 
 or before the last day of furlough unless discharged; or recruiting 
 parties at their stations; nor to civil employees. Commutation of 
 rations is not allowed to members of the Regular Army Reserve 
 while in field training or after reporting when mobilized for active 
 service in the event of actual or threatened hostilities, nor to mem- 
 bers of the Reserve Officers' Training Corps while in camps of in- 
 struction, nor to citizens while at camps of instruction, nor to 
 members of the Enlisted Reserve Corps while in active service for 
 purposes of instruction or training or after reporting when ordered 
 to active service in the event of actual or threatened hostilities. 
 
 An enlisted man traveling on duty under orders on a vessel 
 of the United States Army Transport Service is not allowed any 
 commutation of rations for the time he is abroad. He is quartered 
 with the enlisted men aboard and messes with them, and the proper 
 transport officer indorses upon the travel order in the possession 
 of the soldier the dates between which subsistence was so fur- 
 nished. The travel order so indorsed is turned over by the enlisted 
 man at the end of the journey to the quartermaster by whom com- 
 mutation of rations for any portion of the journey is paid, who 
 files it with the voucher on which payment is made. If commuta- 
 tion of rations is ordered paid in advance, the probable time on 
 
 h 
 
866 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 shipboard must be taken into account in determining the number 
 of days' commutation to be allowed, and the paying officer indorses 
 the original order and makes payment on a certified copy thereof. 
 
 The garrison ration is intended to be issued in kind whenever 
 possible. The approximate net weight of the garrison ration is 4.5 
 pounds. The reserve ration is the simplest efficient ration and con- 
 stitutes the reserve carried for field service. The approximate net 
 weight of the reserve ration is 2 pounds. The field ration is the ra- 
 tion prescribed in orders by the commander of the field forces. It 
 consists of the reserve ration in whole or in part, supplemented by 
 articles requisitioned or purchased locally or shipped from the rear, 
 provided such supplement or substitutes correspond generally with 
 the component articles or substitute equivalent of the garrison 
 ration. 
 
 In many cases it will be possible to supply a much more 
 varied ration to troops of the line of communications and to the 
 advance forces, when halted in the immediate vicinity of the line of 
 communications, than to troops at a distance from it. The allow- 
 ance of transportation for field rations with the division is based 
 on carrying a 3-pound gross weight ration. While it is ordinar- 
 ily possible to supply the full garrison ration to troops in mobil- 
 ization and concentration camps, nevertheless, in the absence of 
 orders to the contrary, these commanders have the same author- 
 ity as commanders of the field force in the theater of operations 
 with reference to prescribing the ration to be issued their com- 
 mands. 
 
 In the field the authorized allowances must often be reduced 
 and supplemented by grazing and other kinds of food, such as 
 green forage, beans, peas, rice, palay, wheat, and rye. The amount 
 of each issued depends upon circumstances. Wheat and rye should 
 be crushed, and fed sparingly (about one-fourth of the allowance). 
 For unshelled corn, add about one quarter weight. 
 
 The commander of the field forces in the theater of opera- 
 tions may authorize in written orders the issue of increased allow- 
 ances of forage for the animals of his command worn down by 
 hard campaigning. Ordinarily this will be possible only during 
 periods when the animals are within the immediate vicinity of the 
 line of communications. 
 
 On the march grain is the only forage carried, and recourse 
 must be had to grazing, if it is not possible to procure long forage 
 in the country traversed. The allowance of transportation of the 
 forage ration with a division is based on carrying a 12-pound 
 ration of grain for each horse and a 9-pound ration of grain for 
 each mule. 
 
 Disposition of Rations. — Organizations of all arms of a divi- 
 sion carry on the man or animal and in field trains the same num- 
 
THE ARMY RATION 867 
 
 ber of days' rations. The same rule applies to grain carried on 
 animals and vehicles. They are all distributed between men and 
 vehicles of the ration section of the field train in the same manner 
 and, therefore, must be replenished from the supply train or column 
 at the same time. 
 
 In campaign a command carries as a part of its normal 
 equipment the following rations and forage: 
 
 (a) On each man: At least two days' reserve ration. Civil 
 employees, etc., accompanying the combatant forces are also re- 
 quired to carry with them the same reserve as enlisted men. For 
 each draft animal: On each vehicle, a reserve of 1 day's grain ra- 
 tion for its draft animals. 
 
 Reserve rations are consumed only in case of extreme neces- 
 sity, when no other supplies are available. They are not to be con- 
 sumed or renewed without an express order from the officer in 
 command of the troops who is responsible for the provision of 
 supplies, namely, the division commander or other independent de- 
 tachment commander. Every officer within the limits of his com- 
 mand is held responsible for the enforcement of this regulation. 
 Reserve rations consumed must be replaced at the first opportunity. 
 
 In addition to the foregoing, commanders require each man 
 on the march to carry the unconsumed portion of the day's ra- 
 tion issued the night before, for the noonday meal. In the same 
 manner, cavalry and field artillery carry on their horses a portion 
 of their grain ration issued the night before, for a noonday feed. 
 
 (b) In the ration section of the field train: For each man two 
 days' field, one day's reserve, and for each animal two days' grain 
 rations. Organizations equipped with rolling kitchens carry one 
 day's field ration in the rolling kitchen, a corresponding reduc- 
 tion being made in the number of other vehicles attached to the 
 ration section. The one day's reserve ration is intended to provide 
 for replacing immediately any reserve ration carried by the man 
 which may be consumed. The two remaining days' field rations 
 are more varied in character. 
 
 (c) In Supply Train: Of an infantry division two days' 
 field and grain rations. Of a cavalry division one day's field and 
 grain rations. Independent cavalry, when in front or on the flanks 
 of an army, have to depend to a great extent on the resources of 
 the country. The rapid operations of cavalry often necessitate 
 complete separation from slow moving field and supply trains dur- 
 ing extended periods. Autotrucks are employed, whenever pos- 
 sible, in the supply of independent cavalry. 
 
 Operations of the Supply Service. — Ordinarily rations and 
 grain are issued to troops during the afternoon from the ration 
 section of the field train sent forward for the purpose. These sup- 
 plies provide the evening meal, the following day's breakfast, and 
 
868 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 the lunch to be carried on the man, and in addition, grain for the 
 evening's feed, the following morning's feed, as well as the noon- 
 day feed to be carried in the nosebag. 
 
 In the presence of the enemy the same method is used with 
 organizations equipped with rolling kitchens, the endeavor being 
 to furnish two hot meals, evening and morning, and a cold lunch 
 to be carried on the man. When not in the presence of the enemy 
 and on the march, the rolling kitchen usually marches with the 
 combat train and a hot lunch is supplied. 
 
 Empty vehicles of the ration section are conducted to the 
 designated distributing point at the hour specified (usually during 
 the morning), refill, and rejoin the grouped field trains. 
 
 Rolling kitchens are refilled whenever empty, usually in the 
 early morning, by the other vehicles of their ration section. 
 
 The supplies carried in the supply train may be held as a re- 
 serve or, on the other hand, the supply train may be so operated 
 as to form the connecting link between the refilling point and the 
 distributing point. When operating as a connecting link, the sup- 
 ply train of a division is ordinarily divided into sections, each 
 carrying one day's supply. 
 
 The service of supply is directed and controlled in orders 
 and instructions issued by the division commander. These orders 
 fix the distributing point or points to which the empty vehicles of 
 the ration sections of the field trains are to be sent for resupply. 
 The commander of trains is advised by division headquarters of 
 the location of the refilling point to which the empty vehicles of 
 the supply train can be sent for replenishment. The commander 
 of trains then directs the movement forward of the necessary num- 
 ber of loaded vehicles of the supply train to the distributing points, 
 and makes arrangements for their prompt return and for reloading 
 all empty vehicles of the supply train at refilling points. 
 
 When supply columns are operated by the line of communi- 
 cations the division commander advises the assistant chief of staff 
 of the advance section as to most convenient rendezvous point and 
 has the supply column met at this point by a representative of the 
 commander of trains and conducted to the distributing points. 
 
 The positions of the distributing points are subject to fre- 
 quent changes and are ordinarily communicated to the division 
 daily in orders. It is not necessary to inform the whole division 
 as to the positions of refilling and rendezvous points, but informa- 
 tion as to the points fixed must be communicated to the comman- 
 der of trains. 
 
 The division quartermaster keeps the chief of staff informed 
 at all times of the state of the ration and forage supply of the di- 
 vision, the condition of the quartermaster equipment and suggests 
 the means for their replenishment. He controls the operation of 
 
THE ARMY RATION 
 
 869 
 
 detachments sent out for the purpose of purchasing or otherwise 
 collecting supplies. Such supplies, transport, or animals, as may 
 be procured are turned over to organizations or to the supply train. 
 He daily formulates and presents to the chief of staff all orders 
 relating to the resupply of the ration vehicles and advises as to 
 the most suitable places for refilling, rendezvous, and distributing 
 points. 
 
 The quartermaster in charge of the supply train is the sub- 
 ordinate of the commander of trains and operates his train as di- 
 rected by the latter authority. He is responsible for the efficient 
 operation of the supply train and commands its personnel. 
 
 Fresh Beef. — Whenever possible, troops should be supplied 
 with fresh beef. This supply may be effected either by driving 
 herds of cattle with the supply train or preferably by sending up 
 special transportation from the line of communications with frozen 
 beef to the distributing points. In the first case the cattle are or- 
 dinarily slaughtered by the supply train personnel at appropriate 
 times and turned over to the field trains at the distributing point. 
 In the second case the movement of the frozen meat to the desig- 
 nated distributing points is effected by the supply column of the 
 line of communications. 
 
 A study of the following drawing, which illustrates the 
 retail method of cutting beef and shows the comparative weights 
 
 of the various cuts, will enable the quartermaster or inspector to 
 know what cuts are being delivered and to see that the meat 
 received is according to specifications as to quality, etc. The 
 inspector should demand that the delivery be " from fore and hind 
 quarter meat proportionally, including all the best cuts thereof." 
 Both dark-red lean meat and yellow fat indicate age, while 
 light-red lean meat and white fat indicate youth. The marrow 
 in the bones of a young animal is soft and red, and that of an old 
 
 J 
 
870 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 animal is hard and light in color. Soft, white, and wide cartilage 
 indicates a young animal, while hard, dark, and thin cartilage indi- 
 cates an old animal. Looking along the backbone, the character 
 of the cartilage between the vertebrae can be easily determined. 
 This cartilage generally becomes hard at the age of 6 or 7 years. 
 The cartilage of the breastbone becomes hard in an old animal. 
 'At each post at which a veterinarian is stationed and which 
 is supplied with fresh beef by local dealers from cattle slaughtered 
 in the vicinity, the commanding officer, whenever in his opinion it 
 is practicable to do so, causes the veterinarian to inspect the cattle 
 before they are slaughtered and the beef when delivered at the 
 post, with a view to determining whether the contract require- 
 ments have been met, and to report in writing to the command- 
 ing officer the result of such inspection. 
 
 All quartermasters and organization commanders are en- 
 joined to give the question of beef inspection their most serious 
 consideration, with a view to preventing fraud on the part of con- 
 tractors, and for the betterment of the company messes. Unless 
 the officers responsible for the inspection of beef are familiar 
 with the specifications for fresh beef, determination of sex, age, 
 and quality, fraud is sure to ensue, to the manifest detriment of 
 the organization and corresponding advantage to the contractor. 
 
 Fresh or Field Bread. — Fresh or field bread is issued troops 
 as often as possible. The bread is baked by bakery companies 
 attached to the line of communications. Fresh bread is issued 
 to troops in the immediate vicinity of the field bakeries. Field 
 bread is issued and transported by supply and field trains in the 
 same manner as other components of the ration. 
 
 Sales Stores. — Sales stores are not supplied in advance of 
 the line of communications. When troops have gone into perma- 
 nent camp or cantonment, the advance end of the line of com- 
 munications will usually be established at that point and stores 
 sold. It may be possible at certain times for the line of communi- 
 cation to send forward to the combatant troops transportation 
 loaded with this class of stores. 
 
CHAPTER XXX 
 
 ORDERS, LETTERS OF INSTRUCTION AND 
 OFFICIAL CORRESPONDENCE 
 
 The expression of the will of leaders is conveyed by written 
 or verbal orders or in letters of instruction, and the art of giving 
 proper orders and instructions to troops is one of the most im- 
 portant features in the exercise of command. At the beginning 
 of operations and from time to time thereafter the plans of the 
 superior leaders are communicated in the form of letters of in- 
 struction. These regulate movements over large areas and for 
 considerable periods of time. 
 
 Field Orders. — Field orders regulate the tactical and such 
 strategical actions of troops as are not carried in letters of in- 
 struction. The field orders of field army and division commanders 
 are almost invariably written. When conditions demand the issu- 
 ance of verbal orders, written orders follow. The field orders of 
 brigade commanders are usually written. The field orders of 
 regimental and smaller unit commanders are usually verbal. The 
 object of field orders is to bring about a course of action, in ac- 
 cordance with the intention of the leader, suited to the situation 
 and with full cooperation between all arms and service. They are 
 issued for marches, halts, formation of camps or bivouacs, advance, 
 flank and rear guards, outposts, combat, etc. In active operations, 
 especially during engagements, numerous field orders are issued 
 in fragmentary form — either verbally or in the form of notes, brief 
 dispatches, messages, orders for assembly, etc. — which do not con- 
 tain all the requirements of a formal written field order; but when- 
 ever detailed instructions for operations are given, whether ver- 
 bally or in writing, the sequence prescribed for the body of a for- 
 mal field order is preserved. Administrative details are usually 
 covered in " orders," but when circumstances make it more con- 
 venient they may be included in field orders. 
 
 To give subordinate leaders an opportunity to study the 
 situation, field orders should reach them in ample time. As a 
 rule, however, it is desirable to keep contemplated movements 
 secret as long as possible, and to confine knowledge thereof to 
 

 872 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 chiefs of staff departments and leaders of the larger units. In 
 large commands it requires some time for formal orders to reach 
 all the lower units; this may be roughly estimated at one hour for 
 a brigade and one hour and a half for a division. The hour stated 
 in the heading of an order is the hour of signature. Orders not 
 connected with the tactical or strategical action of troops, but 
 necessary in the ordinary administration of military affairs, are 
 called general orders, orders, and special orders, according to 
 circumstances. 
 
 General Orders. — General orders include, generally, (1) all 
 detailed instructions necessary in carrying out certain general 
 regulations or orders issued from a superior headquarters; (2) all 
 standing instructions, to the end that frequent repetition may be 
 avoided; and (3) proceedings of general and special courts martial. 
 General orders are issued by commanders of armies, field armies, 
 divisions, brigades, regiments and separate battalions. 
 
 Orders. — Orders, in contradistinction to field, general, and 
 special orders, are used by commanders of divisions and seperate 
 brigades for regulating the movements and resupply of the field 
 trains, fixing the position of distributing points (rations and for- 
 age), authorizing the use of reserve rations, providing for the re- 
 filling of combat trains after combat or march, providing for 
 ambulance and hospital service in camps, and for furnishing such 
 other similar information or instructions as it is desired to com- 
 municate to troops. They also include such instructions as may 
 be sent to the commander of trains, relative to the movements 
 and disposition of the trains and information with regard to the 
 arrangements made with the line of communication relative to the 
 positions of refilling, rendezvous, and evacuation points. When 
 necessary, orders are used by commanders of battalions forming 
 parts of regiments, and smaller units and detachments, for the 
 same class of instructions as are promulgated by higher com- 
 manders in general orders. 
 
 Special Orders. — These cover only such matters relating to 
 the movements or assignment of individuals as are not necessary 
 to be communicated generally to the command. 
 
 Verbal Orders. — When not communicated by the leader in 
 person, verbal orders are carried by staff officers or messengers. 
 Important verbal orders are recorded as soon as practicable after 
 issue. As there is always a possibility of controversy as to their 
 wording, verbal orders are sent by messengers in case of necessity 
 only, and when so sent rarely contain more than one definite man- 
 date. For example: " The brigade will halt three hours at ." 
 
 More latitude is allowed in sending verbal orders by officers. The 
 bearer of a verbal order or message is required to repeat it before 
 starting. 
 
ORDERS AND LETTERS OF INSTRUCTION 873 
 
 COMPOSITION OF FORMAL FIELD ORDERS 
 
 To frame a suitable field order, the leader must make an 
 estimate of the situation, culminating in a decision upon a definite 
 plan of action. He must then actually draft or word the orders 
 which will carry his decision into effect. 
 
 An estimate of the situation involves a careful consideration, 
 from the commander's viewpoint, of all the circumstances affecting 
 the particular problem. In making this estimate he considers his 
 mission as set forth in the orders or instructions under which he 
 is acting, or as deduced by him from his knowledge of the situation, 
 all available information of the enemy (strength, position, move- 
 ments, probable intentions, etc.), conditions affecting his own com- 
 mand (strength, position, supporting troops., etc.), and the terrain 
 in so far as it affects the particular military situation. He then 
 compares the various plans of action open to him and decides upon 
 the one that will best enable him to accomplish his mission. 
 
 Clear and decisive orders are the logical result of definite 
 and sure decisions and are the means of transforming the decision 
 into action. In framing field orders the integrity of tactical units 
 is preserved whenever practicable. Expressions depending upon 
 the viewpoint of the observer, such as right, left, in front of, be- 
 hind, on this side, beyond, etc., are avoided, reference being made 
 to points of the compass instead. The terms right and left, how- 
 ever, may be applied to individuals or bodies of men, or to the 
 banks of a stream; in the latter case the observer is supposed to 
 be facing downstream. The terms right flank and left flank are 
 fixed designations. They apply primarily to the right and left of a 
 command when facing the army and do not change when the com- 
 mand is retreating. The head of a column is its leading element, 
 no matter in what direction the column is facing; the other ex- 
 tremity is the tail. 
 
 To minimize the possibility of error, geographical names are 
 written or printed in ROMAN CAPITALS; when the spelling 
 does not conform to the pronunciation, the latter is shown pho- 
 netically in parentheses, thus: Bicester (Bister), Gila (Hee-la). 
 When two or more places or features on the map have the same 
 name they are distinguished by reference to other points; a road is 
 designated by connecting two or more names of places on the 
 road with dashes, thus: Leavenworth — Lowemont — Atchison road. 
 As a rule, an affirmative form of expression is used. Such an order 
 as: "The supply train will not accompany the division," is defec- 
 tive, because the gist of the order depends upon the single word 
 " not." 
 
 Field orders are brief; short sentences are easily understood; 
 conjectures, expectations, reasons for measures adopted, and de- 
 
874 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 tailed instructions for a variety of possible events, do not inspire 
 confidence, and should be avoided. In framing field orders such 
 expressions as "attempt to capture," " try to hold," " as far as 
 possible," "as well as you can," etc., are forbidden. They tend to 
 divide responsibility between the commander and his subordinates. 
 An order should not trespass upon the province of a subordinate. 
 It should contain everything beyond the independent authority of 
 the subordinate, but nothing more. 
 
 When the transmission of orders involves a considerable 
 period of time, during which the situation may change, detailed 
 instructions are avoided. The same rule holds when orders may 
 have to be carried out under unforseen circumstances. In such 
 cases letters of guidance are preferable; they lay stress upon the 
 object to be attained, and leave open the means to be employed. 
 Orders attempting to arrange matters too far in advance may have 
 to be recalled and others substituted; such changes impose need- 
 less hardships upon a command and injure its morale. 
 
 Details of time and place are carefully stated. Subordinate 
 commanders and staff officers regulate their watches by the time 
 kept at headquarters. Orders issued by subordinates should not 
 be mere repetitions of those from higher authority with additions 
 of their own. New orders are generally clearer and more satis- 
 factory. 
 
 FORM OF FIELD ORDERS 
 
 To enable the will of the commander to be quickly under- 
 stood, to secure prompt co-operation among his subordinates, and 
 for ready reference, field orders are required to follow a general 
 form. This form divides an order into sections or parts and assigns 
 to each a particular class of information. The parts are the head- 
 ing, the distribution of troops, the body, and the ending. The 
 following field orders for outposts and rear guards will serve as 
 examples: 
 
 Field Orders [Title] 
 
 No.— [Place] 
 
 [References to map used] [Date and hour] 
 
 Troops 1. [Information of enemy and of 
 
 our supporting troops] 
 
 2. [Plan of commander — to estab- 
 lish outpost, approximate line of re- 
 sistance] 
 (a) Advance Cavalry: 3. (a) [Instructions for the advance 
 
 [Commander] cavalry — contact with enemy, roads 
 
 [Troops] or country to be specially watched, 
 
 special mission] 
 
ORDERS AND LETTERS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 875 
 
 (b) Supports: 
 
 No. 1. [Commander] 
 [Troops] 
 
 No. 2. [Commander] 
 [Troops] 
 
 No. 3. [Commander] 
 [Troops] 
 
 (c) Detached Post: 
 
 [Commander] 
 [Troops] 
 
 (d) Reserve: 
 
 [Commander] 
 [Troops] 
 [How and to whom issued] 
 
 (b) [Instructions for supports — po- 
 sitions they are to occupy, and sec- 
 tions of line of resistance which they 
 are to hold, intrenching, etc.] 
 
 (c) [Instructions for detached post 
 — position to be occupied, duties, 
 amount of resistance] 
 
 (d) [Instructions for reserve — loca- 
 tion, observation of flanks, conduct 
 in case of attack, duties of special 
 troops] 
 
 4. [Instruction for field train if nec- 
 essary] 
 
 5. [Place of commander or where 
 messages may be sent, location of 
 lines of information] 
 
 [Authentication] 
 
 It is sometimes necessary to issue two outpost orders; the 
 first as above, containing general instructions; the second, issued 
 after an inspection of the line, and containing more definite in- 
 structions or involving changes. 
 
 Field Orders 
 No.— 
 [Reference to map u 
 Troops 
 
 (a) Reserve — in order 
 
 march: 
 
 [Troops] 
 
 (b) Support: 
 
 [Commander] 
 [Troops] 
 
 (c) Rear Cavalry: 
 
 [Commander] 
 [Troops] 
 
 (For Rear Guards) 
 
 [Title] 
 [Place] 
 sed] [Date and hour] 
 
 1. [Information of enemy and of 
 our supporting troops] 
 
 2. [Plan of commander — mission of 
 rear guard] 
 
 of 3. (a) [Instructions for reserve — 
 place and time of departure, or ap- 
 proximate distance from main body, 
 reconnaissance] 
 
 (b) [Instructions for the support — 
 place and time of departure or dis- 
 tance from reserve, any special recon- 
 naissance] 
 
 (c) [Instructions for rear cavalry — 
 place and time of departure, road or 
 country to be covered, special mis- 
 sion] 
 
876 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 (d). Right (left) Flank (d) [Instructions for flank guard- 
 Guard: place and time of departure, route, 
 [Commander] special mission] 
 
 [Troops] 4. [Instructions for field train when 
 
 necessary — usually to join train of 
 main body] 
 5. [Place of commander or where messages may be sent — loca- 
 tion of lines of information] 
 
 [How and to whom issued] [Authentication] 
 
 The Heading. — The heading contains the title or name of 
 the issuing officer's command, the place, date, and hour of issue, 
 the number of the order and reference to map used. The title 
 with the place, date, and number thus fully identifies an order. 
 Whether named in the title or elsewhere in the order, the abbre- 
 viated form for the designation of tactical organizations is 
 preferable. 
 
 Nearly every command of any size is composed of troops 
 from the different arms or special services, or both, and when not 
 constituting a divison, brigade, or other authorized Unit, the ques- 
 tion arises whether to call such a command a " detachment " or 
 to give it the tactical designation of the predominating arm or 
 special service. If there is a predominating element the title of 
 the command is that of the predominating element, unless the 
 proportion of auxiliary troops or special troops equals or exceeds 
 that prescribed for a division, in which case the command is a 
 detachment. 
 
 The Distribution of Troops. — The distribution of troops 
 shows the tactical components into which a command is divided 
 (advance guard, main body, etc.) and the troops assigned to each. 
 It is generally used in march orders and in the first field order 
 applying to a command newly created or organized. In other 
 cases it is usually more convenient to name the troops in the body 
 of the order, where their duties are prescribed. When a "distribu- 
 tion " is used it is headed " Troops," and in written or printed 
 orders is placed on the left of the body, occupying about one- 
 third of the page. The tactical components are marked with let- 
 tered subheads (a), (b), etc., the troops listed under each perform- 
 ing the task prescribed in the similarly marked paragraph of the 
 body of the order. 
 
 The Body. — The body contains information and instructions 
 for the command, and is arranged in numbered paragraphs as 
 follows: 
 
 Paragraph 1 contains such information of the enemy and of 
 our supporting troops as it is desirable or proper that subordinates 
 should know. 
 
ORDERS AND LETTERS OF INSTRUCTION 877 
 
 Paragraph 2 contains the general plan of the commander, or 
 so much thereof as will insure co-operation of all parts of the 
 command. 
 
 Paragraph 3 contains all the detailed tactical dispositions 
 adopted by the commander to carry out the plan outlined in para- 
 graph 2, including the tasks assigned to each of the several com- 
 batant fractions of the command. These tasks are given under 
 lettered subheads (a), (b), etc., the leading fraction, or the one 
 having the most important duty to perform, being generally con- 
 sidered first. For instance: In. an attack order it is customary 
 to consider the artillery first; in a march order, troops are con- 
 sidered according to their position in the column. 
 
 Paragraph 4 contains instructions for the trains and may 
 designate the position of ammunition distributing stations, dress- 
 ing stations, and stations for slightly wounded. 
 
 The last paragraph, usually paragraph 5, shows where the 
 commander can be found or messages may be sent. In orders of 
 subordinate commanders, this paragraph also gives the location of 
 " lines of information," if any have been established. This para- 
 graph is most important. 
 
 If additional paragraphs are necessary, they are incor- 
 porated, properly numbered, after paragraph 4. Sometimes it is 
 unnecessary to include instructions for the trains; but whatever 
 the number of paragraphs the last always shows where the com- 
 mander can be found, etc. 
 
 No abbreviations are used in the body of the order except 
 a. m. and p. m. for morning and afternoon, the authorized ab- 
 breviations for tactical organizations, and those customary in 
 designating rank. In naming a night both days should be men- 
 tioned, thus: Night 4/5 Feb. 08. 
 
 The Ending. — The ending contains the authentication of the 
 order and a statement of how it is communicated to the command. 
 This statement is an important feature of a field order and is made 
 by the officer signing the order, he being responsible that it is 
 properly distributed. 
 
 Before orders are issued they are carefully tested to see that 
 the entire command is accounted for. 
 
 MARCH TABLE 
 
 In movements of large forces on several roads, it is some- 
 times desirable to prescribe the daily marches of the various 
 columns for two or more days. In such cases the order may often 
 be simplified by appending or incorporating a march table usually 
 in the following form, each column providing its own security. 
 
878 
 
 < Army, from- 
 
 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 March Table 
 [date], to 
 
 [date]. 
 
 [Reference to map used.] 
 
 Date. 
 
 -Division. 
 
 Location of main 
 body or of ad- 
 vance guard at 
 the end of each 
 day's march, and 
 line of march, if 
 necessary. 
 
 -Division. 
 
 Location of main 
 body or of ad- 
 vance guard at 
 the end of each 
 day's march, and 
 line of march, if 
 necessary. 
 
 Army 
 Headquarters. 
 
 Location at end of 
 each day's march. 
 
 OFFICIAL CORRESPONDENCE 
 
 The following forms and methods of writing letters and in- 
 dorsements are prescribed and used in all official correspondence 
 in the service of the War Department and the Army and with 
 bureaus of executive departments: 
 
 Heading, Subject, and Number of Letter. — The letter will 
 begin with the place and date; below this, beginning at the left j 
 margin, will come the word " From," followed by the official 
 designation of the writer or, in the absence of any official desig- 
 nation, the name of the writer with his rank and regiment, corps, 
 or department; below this, also beginning at the left margin, will 
 come the word " To," followed by the official designation or name 
 of the person addressed. Next will come the subject of the com- 
 munication, indicated as briefly as possible and in not to exceed 
 10 words. The words " From," " To," and " Subject " will begin 
 on the same vertical line. The sending office number of the com- 
 munication will appear in the upper left-hand corner. 
 
 Example 
 
 176. 
 
 Headquarters Eastern Division, 
 Governors Island, N. Y., May 25, 1911. 
 From: The Adjutant General. 
 To: Captain John A. Smith, 1st Inf. 
 
 (Through C. O. Madison Barracks, N. Y.) 
 Subject: Delay in submitting reports. 
 
 The division commander directs that you submit without 
 further delay the reports of your recent inspection of the Or- 
 
ORDERS AND LETTERS OF INSTRUCTION 879 
 
 ganized Militia of the State of New York, and that you submit 
 an explanation of your failure to comply with Par. 6, S. O. 25, c. S., 
 these headquarters. T ™ HENRY 
 
 In case of letter paper, the upper third, and in the case of 
 foolscap, the upper fourth of the sheet, will be devoted solely to 
 the matter described in this paragraph. 
 
 Body. — : Then will come the body of the letter, which, when 
 typewritten, will be written single, spaced, with a, double space 
 between paragraphs, which will be numbered consecutively. 
 
 Signature. — The body of the letter will be followed by the 
 signature. If the rank and the regiment, corps, or department of 
 the writer appear at the beginning of the letter they will not ap- 
 pear after his name; but if they do not appear at the beginning 
 of the letter they will follow under his name as at present. 
 
 Examples 
 
 200. Company A, 24th Infantry. 
 
 Madison Barracks, N. Y., Jan. 3, 1911. 
 From: Commanding Officer, Co. A, 24th Inf. 
 To: The Commanding Officer. 
 Subject: Private Smith's case. 
 
 The case of Private Smith has been investigated and charges 
 have been preferred under the 62 Article of War. 
 
 ROBERT JONES, 
 1st Lt, 24th Inf. 
 
 190. Madison Barracks, N. Y., 
 
 Jan. 10, 1911. 
 From: Capt. John A. Smith, 24th Inf. 
 To: The Adjutant General, U. S. A. 
 Subject: Leave of absence. 
 
 I have this day taken advantage of the leave granted me by 
 Par. 1, S. O. 1, Headquarters D. E., 1911. My address will be c/o 
 Army and Navy Club, 107 West 43d Street, New York. 
 
 JOHN A. SMITH. 
 
 Omission of Ceremonial Forms. — All ceremonial forms at 
 the beginning and end of letters, such as " Sir," " I have the 
 honor," " I would respectfully," " Very respectfully," etc., will be 
 omitted. 
 
 Use of Only One Side of Sheet. — Only one side of the paper 
 will be used, the writing beginning about 1 inch from the top. 
 56 
 
880 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Office Marks. — The stamps bearing office numbers will be 
 placed on the back of the lower fold of the first sheet. The re- 
 ceived and received-back stamps will be placed immediately below 
 the body of the letter, and, in the case of indorsements, imme- 
 diately after the proper indorsement. When a communication of 
 two or more sheets is filed, the back of the lower fold of the first 
 sheet will be on the outside, thus exposing to view the office 
 numbers. 
 
 Folding. — Letter paper will be folded in three and foolscap 
 in four equal folds, parallel with the writing; the top fold will be 
 folded toward the back of the letter and the lower fold over the 
 face of the letter. In three-fold letters both the brief and the 
 office mark will be on the outside. In three-fold letters of more 
 than one sheet the two lower folds of the sheets other than the 
 first will be placed between the first and second folds of the first 
 sheet, thus exposing to view both the brief and the office mark. 
 In four-fold letters, whether of one or more sheets, the brief will 
 be exposed to view by covering the office-mark fold or the office^, 
 mark be exposed to view by covering the brief, according as it is 
 desired to keep either the one or the other exposed to view for 
 the purpose in hand. 
 
 Inclosures. — All inclosures will be numbered and will bej 
 given the proper office marks. Inclosures to the original communi 
 cation will be noted on the face of the letter to the left of the 
 signature. If others are added when an indorsement is made, their) 
 number will be noted at the foot of the indorsement to which 
 they pertain and also on the back of the lower fold of the first 
 sheet of the original communication. To the latter notation will 
 be added the number of the indorsement to which they belong 
 thus: "One inclosure — fifth indorsement." Inclosures to indorse-h, 
 ments are numbered in the same series as those to the original i 
 paper and the number of the indorsement to which they belong is £ 
 added below. If few in number and not bulky, inclosures may be 
 kept inside the original paper; otherwise they will be folded to- 
 gether in a wrapper marked " Inclosures." Officers through whose 
 hands official papers pass will make the inclosures secure when 
 they are not so. The entry of serial numbers on inclosures and 
 of notations on papers to show the presence of inclosures to ar 
 original communication or to show inclosures added to or with- 
 drawn from a case when indorsements are written, as illustrated ^ 
 by the Correspondence Model distributed by the Adjutant General 
 of the the Army, will be made in the office in which the inclosures eti 
 concerned originate or are added or withdrawn. The total num 
 ber of inclosures accompanying a paper will be noted at the foot oi^ 
 
 each indorsement thereon. 
 
 rill 
 
 n, 
 
ORDERS AND LETTERS OF INSTRUCTION 881 
 
 INDORSEMENTS 
 
 The writing width of indorsements will be the same as that 
 of letters. The first indorsement will begin about one-half inch 
 below the rank after the signature of the writer of the letter, and 
 succeeding indorsements will follow one another serially, with a 
 space of about one-half inch between indorsements. 
 
 When typewritten, all indorsements will be written single- 
 spaced with a double space between paragraphs. The paragraphs 
 will be numbered consecutively. Should one or more additional 
 sheets be necessary for indorsements, sheets of the same size as 
 the letter will be usel. 
 
 In referring, transmitting, forwarding, and returning papers, 
 the expressions "Respectfully referred," "Respectfully trans- 
 mitted," " Respectfully forwarded," and " Respectfully returned," 
 will be omitted. 
 
 Indorsements of a routine nature, referring, transmitting, 
 forwarding, and returning papers, will not be signed with the full 
 lame, but with the initials. For example: 
 
 1st Ind. 
 headquarters 24 Inf., Madison Bks., N. Y., Jan. 1, 1911— To C. O., 
 
 Co. C, 24 Inf. 
 i To note and return. M. A. R. 
 
 2d Ind. 
 : :o. C, 24 Inf., Madison Bks., N. Y., Jan. 2, 1911— To the Com- 
 manding Officer. 
 
 Returned. Contents noted. I. K. S. 
 
 Nothing in this order shall be construed as prohibiting the 
 Practice that obtains at department and other headquarters of 
 referring, transmitting, forwarding, and returning papers to the 
 i-arious staff officers thereat without signature or initials. 
 
 LETTERS AND INDORSEMENTS 
 
 The pages, beginning with the first, will be numbered mid- 
 day about one-half inch from the bottom. In referring to an 
 idorsement by number, the number of the page will also be 
 •iven. Thus: "5th Ind., page 3." 
 
 All letters and indorsements that are typewritten excepting 
 otters of transmittal, reports of taking leave of absence, periodical 
 eports, and other communications of a similar nature, will be 
 »iade with two carbon copies. One copy will be retained for the 
 ecords of the office in which the letter was written, and the other 
 rill be forwarded with the communication for the files of the first 
 
882 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 office in which a complete copy of the communication is required 
 for the records. The carbon copy retained for the office record 
 will be initialed by the person responsible for the letter, and such 
 person is charged with the duty of seeing that the name of the 
 official who signs the letter and any changes made before signa- 
 ture are inserted in the carbon. When a complete copy of a com- 
 munication is not required for the records of an intermediate 
 office the carbon copy will be forwarded to the next office. In 
 offices authorized to use the record card system the carbon copies 
 will be made on sheets of perforated paper, furnished by the 
 Quartermaster's Department, with perforated sections the same 
 width as the standard record file cards. The sheets will be torn 
 along the perforations and the sections attached to the record file 
 cards. In other offices the carbon copies will be made on ordinary 
 paper and the retained copy filed in the document file. The pro- 
 visions of this paragraph apply only to communications addressed 
 to individuals and offices within the military service. 
 
 Press copies will not be used except by written authority of 
 the Secretary of War. 
 
 All classes of official communications other than that ad- 
 dressed to the Adjutant General of the Army will be addressed to 
 the commanding officer concerned. The following example may 
 be used as a guide in carrying out the instructions relative to letters 
 and indorsements: 
 
 20. Fort Riley, Kans. 
 
 October 27, 1910. 
 From: The Ordnance Officer. 
 To: The Commanding Officer, 7th Cav. 
 Subject: New system of issuing ordnance stores. 
 
 1. In compliance with instructions contained in a letter from 
 the Adjutant General's Office, dated November 27, 1909, regarding 
 the testing of a new system of issuing ordnance stores, the follow- 
 ing report concerning the working of this system is submitted. 
 
 2. As far as I have been able to observe, the new system has 
 no disadvantages. Its advantages are: 
 
 ******* 
 
 A B -, 
 
 1st Lt., 7th Cav. 6 , 
 1st Ind. 
 Headquarters 7th Cav., Ft. Riley, Kans., Oct. 29, 1910— To the C 
 O., Ft. Riley, Kans. 
 
 I concur in the conclusions of the Ordnance Officer. 
 
 C D , 
 
 Major, 7th Cav., Comdg. 
 
ORDERS AND LETTERS OF INSTRUCTION 883 
 
 2d Ind. 
 Headquarters Ft. Riley, Kans., Nov. 1, 1910— To Comdg. Gen., 
 Dept. of the Mo. 
 Approved. 
 
 E F , 
 
 Brig. Gen., Comdg. 
 (Stamp) To Chief Ordnance Officer. 
 
 3d Ind. 
 Headquarters Dept. of the Mo., Nov. 2, 1910— To the Adjt. Gen., 
 U. S. A. 
 
 Approved. 
 
 G H , 
 
 Brig. Gen., Comdg. 
 j 4th Ind. 
 
 \. G. O., Nov. 5, 1910— To the C. of O. 
 ] 
 
 56949—204 5th Ind. Ghs— Bam 
 
 pffice of the C. of O., Nov. 9, 1910— To Comdg. Officer, Seek 
 Island Arsenal. 
 
 For remark with reference to paragraph 2 of the within 
 etter. By order of the Chief of Ordnance. 
 
 I J , 
 
 Capt., Ord. Dept. 
 
 159—181 
 
 6949—204 6th Ind. Hf— L 
 
 lock Island Arsenal, 111., Nov. 14, 1910— To the Chief of Ordnance. 
 
 1. It is the practice at this arsenal to make shipments of all 
 rticles required on * * * * * 
 
 2. The final shipment in this particular case was delayed by 
 :ie failure of to supply acceptable * * * 
 
 K L , 
 
 Lt. Col., Ord. Dept., Comdg. 
 (Stamp) Rec'd back, O. C. of O., Nov. 16, 1910. 
 
 5949_204 7th Ind. JMy 
 
 )ffice of the C. of O., Nov. 17, 1910— To The Adjt. Gen., U. S. A. 
 Returned in connection with O. O. file 36949—198 (A. G. O. 
 527570). 
 
 M N , 
 
 Lt. Col., Ord. Dept., 
 (Stamp) Rec'd back, A. G. O., Nov. 18, 1910. Actg. C. of O. 
 
884 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 1527570 8th Ind. 
 
 War Department, A. G. O., Nov. 18, 1910— To Comdg. Gen., Dept. 
 of the Lakes; Comdg. Gen., Dept. of Dakota; Comdg. Gen., 
 Dept. of the Mo.; etc. * * * 
 
 Returned in connection with papers referred to in the pre- 
 ceding indorsement hereon. The early return of all papers is 
 desired. By order of the Secretary of War. 
 
 O P , 
 
 Adjutant General. 
 9th Ind. 
 Headquarters Dept. of the Lakes, Nov. 22, 1910 — To Comdg. Gen. 
 Dept. of Dakota. 
 
 Noted. R S , 
 
 Brig. Gen., Comdg. 
 10th Ind. 
 (Stamped indorsement.) 
 
 A. G. O. D. D. 
 
 Nov. 25, 1910. 
 
 To the Chief Ordnance Officer. 
 
 Correspondence in Battalions or Squadrons. — Correspond- 
 ence relating to the personnel, instruction, discipline, or equipment 
 of a company, battery, or troop in battalion or squadron will pass 
 through the battalion or squadron commander. No official record, 
 however, will be kept by the battalion or squadron commander of 
 such correspondence. 
 
 Prompt Reply to Be Made to Official Communications. — 
 Officers who fail to make prompt reply to official communications L 
 without satisfactory excuse for the delay will be subjected to j s j 
 disciplinary measures. 
 
 When, in order to make proper reply, it is necessary to ex- 
 amine papers not at hand or to consult with other persons at a 
 distance, or when for other sufficient reason full and prompt reply 
 is impossible, acknowledgment of the receipt of the communica- 
 tion will be made at once with a statement giving the cause of the 
 anticipated delay. 
 
 The comanding officer of every Army post and station will 
 take such steps as he may deem expedient to insure prompt replyjL 
 by officers of his command to official communications sent them L 
 which require reply. j th 
 
 fo, 
 fh 
 
 Hi 
 
 ar 
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CHAPTER XXXI 
 
 PERSONAL HYGIENE, FIRST AID AND MILITARY 
 SURGICAL TREATMENT 
 
 It is a terrible truth that a soldier who violates the rules 
 of health may be the means of destroying more of his comrades 
 than are killed by the bullets of the enemy. It is therefore most 
 important that every soldier should learn how to take care of his 
 health when in the field and that he should also insist that his 
 comrades do not violate any of the rules prescribed for this pur- 
 pose. A great many diseases are due to germs, which are either 
 little animals or plants so very small that they can only be seen 
 by aid of the microscope. All disease caused by germs are " catch- 
 ing." All other diseases are not "catching." 
 
 There are only five ways of catching disease: (a) Getting 
 certain germs on the body by touching some one or something 
 which has them on it. Thus, one may catch venereal diseases, 
 smallpox, measles, scarlet fever, chicken pox, mumps, boils, body 
 lice, ringworm, barber's itch, dhobie itch, and some other diseases. 
 Wounds are infected in this manner, (b) Breathing in certain 
 ?erms which float in the air. In this way one may catch pneu- 
 monia, consumption, influenza, diphtheria, whooping cough, ton- 
 sillitis, spinal meningitis, measles and certain other diseases, (c) 
 Taking certain germs in through the mouth in eating or drinking. 
 Dysentery, cholera, typhoid fever, diarrhea, and intestinal worms 
 f may be caught in this manner, (d) Having certain germs injected 
 into the body by the bites of insects, such as mosquitoes, fleas, and 
 bedbugs. Malaria, yellow fever, dengue fever, and bubonic plague 
 "nay be caught in this way. (e) Inheriting the germ from one's 
 parents. 
 
 Persons may have these germs sometimes without ap- 
 >arently being sick with any disease. Such person and persons 
 who are sick with the diseases are a great source of danger to 
 Dthers about them. Germs which multiply in such persons are 
 found in their urine and excretions from the bowels; in discharges 
 from ulcers and abscesses; in the spit or particles coughed or 
 sneezed into the air; in the perspiration or scales from the skin; 
 ind in the blood sucked up by biting insects. Those who have 
 aken care of their health and who have not become weakened bv 
 
886 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 bad habits, exposure, and fatigue are not only less liable to catch 
 disease, but are more apt to recover when taken sick. Knowing 
 all these things, the soldier can understand the reasons for the 
 following rules and how important it is that they should be carried! 
 out by each and every person: 
 
 Stay away from persons having "catching" diseases. If| 
 you have any disease, don't try to cure it yourself, but go to the 
 surgeon. Insist that other soldiers do likewise. 
 
 Typhoid fever is one of the most dangerous and common 
 camp diseases. Modern medicine has, however, discovered an 
 effective preventive for this disease in the typhoid prophylactic, 
 which renders the person immune from typhoid fever. The treat- j 
 ment consists in injecting into the arm a preventive serum. The 
 injection is given three times at 10-day intervals. All enlisted men \ 
 should take this prophylactic, which will be administered by the r 
 medical officer free of charge. |il 
 
 Association with lewd women is dangerous. It may result [ 
 in disabling you for life. It is the cause of a disease (syphilis)h 
 which may be transmitted by a parent to his children. Soldiers j 
 with venereal diseases should not use basins or toilet articles usedj 
 by others, as the germs of these diseases if gotten into the eye very r 
 often causes blindness. Likewise, if they use the same drinking t 
 cup used by others, they may give others the disease. They should i 
 promptly report their trouble to the surgeon, that they may receive^ 
 the best medical advice and attention. \\ 
 
 Should a soldier expose himself to infection by having inter-j;i 
 course with an unknown woman, he should report as soon as pos-i 
 sible afterwards to the regimental infirmary for prophylactic treat-jij 
 ment, which, if taken within a few hours after intercourse, willjiri 
 prevent to a large degree the liability of contracting any disease.! 
 
 Cooked germs are dead and therefore harmless. Watery 
 even when clear, may be alive with deadly germs. Therefore, whenjii 
 the conditions are such that the commanding officer orders all 
 drinking water to be boiled, be careful to live up to this order, ft 
 
 Use the latrines and don't, go elsewhere to relieve yourself.]]? 
 In open latrines cover your deposit with dirt, as it breeds flies andju 
 may also be full of germs. Flies carry germs from one place tojai 
 another. Therefore see that your food and mess kit are protected jj 
 from them. All slops and scraps of food scattered about camp) . 
 soon produce bad odors and draw flies. Therefore do your partjig 
 toward keeping the camp free from disease by carefully depositing^ 
 such refuse in the pits or cans used for this purpose. 
 
 Urinate only in the latrines, or in the cans set out for thrsj 
 purpose, never on the ground around camp, because it not onlyuc 
 causes bad smells, but urine sometimes contains the germs of 0] 
 " catching " diseases. 
 
PERSONAL HYGIENE 887 
 
 Soapy water thrown on the ground soon produces bad odors. 
 Therefore in camps of several days' duration this water should be 
 thrown in covered pits or in cans used for this purpose. 
 
 As certain mosquitoes can transmit malaria and yellow fever, 
 use your mosquito bar for this reason, as well as for personal com- 
 fort. 
 
 Keep the mouth clean by brushing the teeth once or twice a 
 day. It helps to prevent the teeth from decaying. Decayed teeth 
 ':ause toothache. They also lead one to swallow food without 
 'properly chewing it, and this leads to stomach troubles of various 
 kinds. Foods left around and between the teeth is bad for teeth 
 and forms good breeding places for germs. 
 
 Keep the skin clean. Through the pores of the skin the 
 fjody gets rid of much waste and poisonous matter. Therefore 
 remove this and keep the pores open by bathing once every day, 
 f possible. If water is scarce, rub the body over with a wet towel. 
 Kf no water is at hand, take a dry rub. Wash, carefully, the arm 
 )its, between the legs, and underneath the foreskin, as this will 
 >revent chafing. 
 
 The skin protects the sensitive parts underneath from any 
 
 injury and helps to keep out germs. Therefore when blisters are 
 
 formed don't tear off the skin. Insert a needle under the skin a 
 
 tittle distance back from the blister and push it through to the 
 
 pposite side. Press cut the liquid through the holes thus formed. 
 
 leat the needle red hot first, with a match or candle, to kill the 
 
 erms. 
 
 When the skin is broken (in cuts and wounds) keep the 
 pening covered with a bandage to keep out germs and dirt; other- 
 wise the sore may fester. Pus is always caused by germs. 
 
 Keep the hair short. Long hair and a long beard in the field 
 enerally means a dirty head and a dirty face and favors skin 
 diseases, lice, and dandruff. 
 
 Don't let any part of the body become chilled, as this very 
 
 ften is the direct cause of diarrhea, dysentery, pneumonia, rheu- 
 
 atism, and other diseases. Wet clothes may be worn while 
 
 arching or exercising without bad results, but there is great 
 
 Hnger if one rests in wet clothing, as the body may become ' 
 
 lilled. Don't sit or lie or sleep directly on damp ground, as this 
 
 o sure to chill the body. When hot or perspiring or when wear- 
 
 !g damp clothes, don't remain where a breeze can strike you. You 
 
 S e sure to become chilled. 
 
 Every day, if possible, hang the blanket and clothing out to 
 
 ?r in the sun; shake or beat them with a small stick. Wash shirts. 
 
 tderwear, and socks frequently. The danger of blood poisoning 
 
 lorn a wound is greately increased if the bullet passes through 
 
 rty clothes. 
 
888 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Ditch the tent as soon as you can, particularly a shelter tent, 
 even if you camp for one night only. Otherwise a little rain may 
 ruin a whole night's rest. Always prepare the bed before dark. 
 Level off the ground and scrape out a little hollow for the hips. 
 Get some straw or dry grass, if possible. Green grass or branches 
 from trees are better than nothing. Sleep on your poncho. Thi9 
 keeps the dampness from coming up from the ground and chilling 
 the body. 
 
 The use of intoxicating liquor is particularly dangerous in 
 the field. Its excessive use, even at long intervals, breaks down 
 one's system. Drinking men are more apt to get sick and less 
 liable to get well than are their more sober comrades. If alcohol 
 is taken at all, it is best after the work of the day is over. It 
 should never be taken when the body is exposed to severe cold, as 
 it diminishes the resistance of the body. Hot tea or coffee is much 
 preferable under the circumstances. 
 
 THE CARE OF THE FEET 
 
 All soldiers should be familiar with the proper methods of 
 caring for the feet. The Germans treat sore feet as a military 
 offense, as it is generally due to carelessness, neglect, or ignorance 
 on the part of the soldier. 
 
 The most important factor in the care of the feet and the 
 marching ability of the soldier is the shoe. Civilian shoes, par- 
 ticularly light, patent leather, or low shoes, are sure to cause in- 
 jury and in time will ruin a man's foot. Only the marching shoe 
 issued by the Quartermaster Corps should be worn, and they must 
 be properly fitted to the individual. It will not suffice to order a 
 marching shoe of the same size as one's ordinary civilian shoes, for 
 it must be remembered that a soldier may have to march many 
 miles daily over rough roads and carrying a heavy pack. The pack 
 itself causes the foot to spread out to a larger size, and the rough 
 roads give so much exercise to the muscles of the feet that they 
 swell greatly through the increased blood supply. 
 
 Do not start out on a march wearing new shoes. This is 
 a frequent cause of sore feet. New shoes should be properly 
 broken in before beginning a march by wearing them for several 
 hours daily for a week before the march, and they should be 
 adapted to the contours of the feet by stretching them with shoe 
 stretchers with adjustable knobs to take the pressure off painful 
 corns and bunions. Such stretchers are issued by the Quarter- 
 master Corps, and there should be one or more pair in every com- 
 p^tiv of infantry. Should this be impracticable, then the following 
 is suggested: The soldier stands in his new shoes in about 2^'° 
 
PERSONAL HYGIENE 889 
 
 inches of water for about five minutes until the leather is thor- 
 oughly pliable and moist; he should then walk for about an hour 
 on a level surface, letting the shoes dry on his feet, to the irregu- 
 larities of which the leather is thus moulded in the same way as 
 it was previously moulded over the shoe last. On taking the shoes 
 off a very little neat's-foot oil should be rubbed into the leather to 
 prevent its hardening and cracking. If it is desired to waterproof 
 shoes at any time, a considerable amount of neat's-foot oil should 
 be rubbed into the leather. Waterproof leather causes the feet of 
 some men to perspire unduly and keeps them constantly soft. 
 
 Light woolen or heavy woolen socks are habitually worn for 
 marching. Cotton socks are not worn unless specifically ordered 
 by the surgeon. The socks should be large enough to permit free 
 movement of the toes, but not so loose as to permit of wrinkling. 
 Darned socks, or socks with holes in them, should not be worn 
 in marching. Until the feet have hardened they should be dusted 
 with foot powder, which can be obtained at the regimental in- 
 firmary, before each day's march. Clean socks should be worn 
 daily. 
 
 As soon as possible after reaching camp after a day of 
 
 [marching the feet should be washed with soap and water, and the 
 
 N soldier should put on a dry pair of socks and his extra pair of shoes 
 
 ■ from his surplus kit. If the skin is tender, or the feet perspire, 
 
 wash with warm salt water or alum water, but do not soak the feet 
 
 a long time, as this, although very comforting at the time, tends 
 
 to keep them soft. Should blisters appear on the feet, prick and 
 
 evacuate them by pricking at the lower edge with a pin which has 
 
 been passed through the flame of a match and cover them with 
 
 zinc oxide plaster applied hot. If serious abrasions appear on the 
 
 feet, or corns, bunions, and ingrowing nails cause trouble, have 
 
 your name placed on sick report and apply to the surgeon for 
 
 treatment. Cut the toe nails square (fairly close in the middle, but 
 
 leaving the sides somewhat longer), as this prevents ingrowing 
 
 [ nails. 
 
 FIRST AID RULES 
 
 The bandages and dressings contained in the first-aid packet 
 have been so treated as to destroy any germs thereon. Therefore, 
 ,'when dressing a wound, be careful not to touch or handle that part 
 I of the dressing which is to be applied to the wound. 
 
 A sick or injured person should always be made to lie down 
 on his back, if practicable, as this is the most comfortable posi- 
 tion, and all muscles may be relaxed. 
 
 All tight articles of clothing and equipment should be 
 loosened, so as not to interfere with breathing or the circulation 
 
890 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 of the blood. Belts, collars, and the trousers at the waist should 
 be opened. 
 
 Don't let mere onlookers crowd about the patient. They 
 prevent him from getting fresh air and also make him nervous and 
 excited. 
 
 In case of injury the heart action is generally weak from 
 shock, and the body, therefore, grows somewhat cold. Do not 
 remove any more clothing than is necessary to expose the injury. 
 Cut or rip the clothing, but don't pull it. Try to disturb the patient 
 as little as possible. 
 
 Do not touch a wound with your fingers or a handkerchief, 
 or with anything else but the first aid dressing. Do not wash the 
 wound with water, as you may infect it. 
 
 Do not administer stimulants (whisky, brandy, wine, etc.) 
 unless ordered to do so by a doctor. While in a few cases stimu- 
 lants are of benefit, in a great many cases they do positive harm, 
 especially where there has been any bleeding. 
 
 The heart may be considered as a pump and the arteries as 
 a rubber hose, which carry the blood from the heart to every part 
 of the body. The veins are the hose which carry the blood back 
 to the heart. Every wound bleeds some, but, unless a large artery 
 or a large vein is cut, the bleeding will stop after a short while if 
 the patient is kept quiet and the first-aid dressing is bound over 
 the wound so as to make pressure on it. 
 
 When a large artery is cut the blood gushes out in spurts 
 every time the heart beats. In this case it is necessary to stop the 
 flow of blood by pressing upon the hose somewhere between the 
 heart and the leak. 
 
 Pressure may be applied by means of a tourniquet. Place a 
 pad of tightly rolled cloth or paper, or any suitable object, over the 
 artery. Tie a bandage loosely about the limb and then insert the 
 bayonet, or a stick, and twist up the bandage until the pressure of 
 the pad on the artery stops the leak. Twist the bandage slowly 
 and stop as soon as the blood ceases to flow, in order not to bruise 
 the flesh or muscles unnecessarily. 
 
 A tourniquet may cause pain and swelling of the limb, and 
 if left on too long may cause the limb to die. Therefore, about 
 every hour or so, loosen the bandage very carefully, but if the 
 bleeding continues pressure must be applied again. In this case 
 apply the pressure with the thumb for five or ten minutes, as this 
 cuts off only the main artery and leaves some of the smaller 
 arteries and the veins free to restore some of the circulation. 
 When a tourniquet is painful, it is too tight and should be care- 
 fully loosened a little. 
 
 A broken bone is called a fracture. The great danger in the 
 case of a fracture is that the sharp, jagged edges of the bones may a 
 
PERSONAL HYGIENE 891 
 
 stick through the flesh and skin, or tear and bruise the arteries, 
 veins, and muscles. If the skin is not broken, a fracture is not so 
 serious, as no germs can get in. Therefore never move a person 
 with a broken bone until the fracture has been so fixed that the 
 broken ends of the bone can not move. 
 
 If the leg or arm is broken, straighten the limb gently, and, 
 if necessary, pull upon the end firmly to get the bones in place. 
 Then bind the limb firmly to a splint to hold it in place. A splint 
 may be made of any straight, stiff material — a shingle or piece of 
 board, a bayonet, a rifle, a straight branch of a tree, etc. What- 
 ever material you use must be well padded on the side next to the 
 limb. Be careful never to place the bandages over the fracture, 
 but always above and below. 
 
 Many surgeons think that the method of binding a broken 
 leg to the well one, and of binding the arm to the body, is the best 
 plan in the field, as being the quickest and one that serves the 
 immediate purpose. 
 
 With wounds about the body, the chest and abdomen you 
 must not meddle, except to protect them, when possible without 
 much handling, with the materials of the packet. 
 
 FAINTING, SHOCK AND HEAT EXHAUSTION 
 
 The symptoms of fainting, shock and heat exhaustion are 
 very similar. The face is pale, the skin cool and moist, the pulse 
 is weak, and generally the patient is unconscious. Keep the patient 
 quiet, resting on his back, with his head low, Loosen the clothing, 
 but keep the patient warm, and give stimulants (whisky, hot coffee, 
 tea, etc.). 
 
 SUNSTROKE 
 
 In the case of sunstroke the face is flushed, the skin is dry 
 and very hot, and the pulse is full and strong. In this case place 
 the patient in a cool spot, remove the clothing, and make every 
 effort to lessen the heat in the body by cold applications to the 
 head and surface generally. Do not, under any circumstances, 
 give any stimulants or hot drinks. 
 
 FREEZING AND FROSTBITE 
 
 The part frozen, which looks white or bluish white, and is 
 cold, should be very slowly raised in temperature by brisk but 
 careful rubbing in a cool place and never near a fire. Stimulant9 
 are to be given cautiously when the patient can swallow, and fol- 
 
892 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 lowed by small amounts of warm liquid nourishment. The object 
 is to restore the circulation of the blood and the natural warmth 
 gradually and not violently. Care and patience are necessary to 
 do this. 
 
 RESUSCITATION OF THE APPARENTLY DROWNED 
 
 In the instruction of the Army in First Aid the method 
 of resuscitation of the apparently drowned, as described by 
 " Schaefer," is taught instead of the " Sylvester Method," formerly 
 used. The Schaefer method of artificial respiration is also applic- 
 able in cases of electric shock, asphyxiation by gas, and of the 
 failure of respiration following concussion of the brain. 
 
 Being under water for four or five minutes is generally fatal, 
 but an effort to revive the apparently drowned should alway be 
 made, unless it is known that the body has been under water for a 
 very long time. The attempt to revive the patient should not be 
 delayed for the purpose of removing his clothes or placing him in 
 
 ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION. FIRST MOVEMENT. 
 
 the ambulance. Begin the procedure as soon as he is out of the 
 water, on the shore or in the boat. The first and most important 
 thing is to start artificial respiration without delay. 
 
 The Schaefer method is preferred because it can be carried 
 out by one person without assistance, and because its procedure 
 is not exhausting to the operator, thus permitting him, if required, 
 to continue it for one or two hours. When it is known that a per- 
 son has been under water for but a few minutes continue the 
 artificial respiration for at least one and a half to two hours before 
 considering the case hopeless. Once the patient has begun to 
 
PERSONAL HYGIENE 893 
 
 breathe watch carefully to see that he does not stop again. Should 
 the breathing be very faint, or should he stop breathing, assist him 
 again with artificial respiration. After he starts breathing do not 
 lift him nor permit him to stand until the breathing has become 
 full and regular. 
 
 As soon as the patient is removed from the water, turn him 
 face to the ground, clasp your hands under his waist, and raise the 
 body so any water may drain out of the air passages while the head 
 remains low. 
 
 SCHAEFER METHOD 
 
 The patient is laid on his stomach, arms extended from hi9 
 body beyond his head, face turned to one side so that the mouth 
 and nose do not touch the ground. This position causes the tongua 
 to fall forward of its own weight and so prevents its falling back 
 
 ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION. SECOND MOVEMENT. 
 
 into the air passages. Turning the head to one side prevents the 
 face coming into contact with mud or water during the operation. 
 The position also facilitates the removal from the mouth of foreign 
 bodies, such as tobacco, chewing gun, false teeth, etc., and favors 
 the expulsion of mucus, blood, vomitus, serum, or any liquid that 
 may be in the air passages. 
 
 The operator kneels, straddles one or both of the patient's 
 thighs, and faces his head. Locating the lowest rib, the operator, 
 with his thumbs nearly parallel to his fingers, places his hands so 
 that the little finger curls over the twelfth rib. If the hands are 
 on the pelvic bones the object of the work is defeated; hence the 
 bones of the pelvis are first located in order to avoid them. The 
 hands must be free from the pelvis and resting on the lowest rib. 
 By operating on the bare back it is easier to locate the lower ribs 
 and avoid the pelvis. The nearer the ends of the ribs the hands 
 
894 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 are placed without sliding off the better. The hands are thus re- 
 moved from the spine, the fingers being nearly out of sight. 
 
 The fingers help some, but the chief pressure is exerted by 
 the heels (thenar and hpothenar eminences) of the hands, with the 
 weight coming straight from the shoulders. It is a waste of energy 
 to bend the arms at the elbows and shove in from the sides, be- 
 cause the muscles of the back are stronger than the muscles of 
 the arms. 
 
 The operator's arms are held straight, and his weight is 
 brought from the shoulders by bringing his body and shoulders 
 forward. This weight is gradually increased until at the end of 
 the three seconds of vertical pressure upon the lower ribs of the 
 patient the force is felt to be heavy enough to compress the parts; 
 then the weight is suddenly removed. If there is danger of not 
 returning the hands to the right position again, they can remain 
 lightly in »place; but it is usually better to remove the hands en- 
 tirely. If the operator is light and the patient an overweight adult, 
 he can utilize over 80 per cent of his weight by raising his knees 
 from the ground and supporting himself entirely on his toes and 
 the heels of his hands, the latter properly placed on the ends of 
 the floating ribs of the patient. In this manner he can work as 
 effectively as a heavy man. 
 
 A light feather or a piece of absorbent cotton drawn out thin 
 and held near the nose by some one will indicate by its movements 
 whether or not there is a current of air going and coming with each 
 forced expiration and spontaneous inspiration. 
 
 The natural rate of breathing is 12 to 15 times per minute. 
 The rate of operation should not exceed this. The lungs must 
 be thoroughly emptied by three seconds of pressure, then refilling 
 takes care of itself. Pressure and release of pressure — one complete 
 respiration — occupies about five seconds. If the operator is alone, 
 he can be guided in each act by his own deep, regular respiration 
 or by counting or by his watch lying by his side. If comrades are 
 present, he can be advised by them. 
 
 The duration of the efforts as artificial respiration should 
 ordinarily exceed an hour; indefinitely longer if there are any evi- 
 dences of returning animation, by way of breathing, speaking, or 
 movements. There are liable to be evidences of life within 25 
 minutes in patients who will recover from electric shock, but where 
 there is doubt the patient should be given the benefit of the doubt. 
 In drowning, recoveries are on record after two hours or more of 
 unconsciousness; hence, the Schaefer method, being easy of opera- 
 tion, is more likely to be persisted in. 
 
 Aromatic spirit of ammonia may be poured on a handker- 
 chief and held continuously within 3 inches of the face and nose. 
 If other ammonia preparations are used, they should be diluted or 
 
PERSONAL HYGIENE 895 
 
 held farther away. When the operator is a heavy man, it is neces- 
 sary to caution him not to bring force too violently upon the ribs r 
 as one of them might be broken. Do not attempt to give liquids 
 of any kind to the patient while unconscious. Apply warm blankets*- 
 and hot-water bottles as soon as they can be obtained. 
 
 THE FIRST AID PACKET 
 
 When a ball enters or goes through the muscles or soft 
 parts of the body alone, generally nothing need be done except to 
 protect the wound or wounds with the contents of the first aid 
 packet. Each packet contains: 
 
 (1) Two bandages of absorbent sublimated (1:1000) gauze, 
 4 by 84 inches. 
 
 (2) Two compresses of absorbent sublimated (1:1000) gauze, 
 each composed of y 2 square yard of gauze, folded so as to make a 
 compress 3 J / 2 by 7 inches. One compress to be placed lengthwise 
 in the center of each bandage and retained in position by sewing 
 along one end and across the center. The loose end of the com- 
 press is then folded on the sewed part and held by one or two 
 stitches, thus making a compress 2> l / 2 by 3 J / 2 inches. Each bandage 
 thus prepared to be rolled loosely from each end, with the roll 
 toward the back of the bandage, until the compress is reached. 
 The latter is now folded through the center and the flattened rolls 
 of the bandage laid on either side of the folded compress. Each 
 bandage then to be wrapped separately in parchment or waxed 
 paper. 
 
 (3) Two No. 3 safety pins wrapped in waxed paper. Two 
 compressers and the safety pins are then wrapped together in 
 tough paper on which simple directions for application are printed. 
 The packet thus prepared to be placed in a hermetically sealed 
 metal case with a suitable arrangement for easy opening. All con- 
 tents of the case must be sterile. Dimensions of the case should 
 not execeed 4 by 2 l /i by 16 inches. 
 
 The shell-wound dressing consists of: (1) One compress 
 composed of 1 square yard of absorbent sublimated (1:1000) gauze, 
 so folded as to make a pad 6 by 9 inches. Across the back of 
 each end of this compress is placed a piece of gauze bandage 3 
 inches wide by 48 inches long projecting beyond the compress 21 
 inches on each side. These bandages are held in position by stitch- 
 ing along the edges of the compress; the tails are loosely rolled 
 and placed on the back of the compress. The compress thus made 
 is wrapped in parchment or waxed paper. (2) One bandage, 3 
 inches wide by 5 yards long, of absorbent sublimated (1:1000) 
 gauze, loosely rolled and wrapped in parchment or waxed paper. 
 
896 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 (3) Two No. 3 safety pins wrapped in waxed paper. The whole 
 dressing is wrapped in tough paper with directions for application 
 printed thereon. The short bandages sewed to the compress axe 
 for the purpose of temporarily fixing the compress on the wound, 
 after which it is firmly bound on by the roller bandage. 
 
 To apply the first aid packet carefully remove the wrapper 
 and proceed as follows: 1. If there is only one wound, carefully 
 remove the paper from one of the two packages without unfolding 
 compress or bandage and hold by grasping the outside rolls of 
 bandage between the thumb and fingers. When ready to dress 
 wound, open compress by pulling on the two rolls, being careful 
 not to touch the inside of the compress with fingers or anything 
 else. Still holding one roll of the bandage in each hand, apply the 
 compress to the wound, then wrap the bandage around the limb or 
 part and tie the ends together or fasten with safety pins. The 
 second compress and bandage may be applied over the first, or it 
 may be used for a sling if the arm is wounded or to bind both 
 legs together if one is injured. 
 
 2. If there are two wounds opposite each other, apply to one 
 wound a compress with unrolled bandage, and hold it in place by 
 the bandage of the compress used to cover the other wound. 
 
 3. If there are two wounds not opposite each other tie a 
 compress over each. 
 
 4. If the wound is too large to be covered by the compress 
 find and break the stitch holding the compress together, unfold it, 
 and apply as directed above. 
 
 5. Be careful not to touch the wound with your fingers nor 
 handle it in any way, for the dirt on your hands is harmful, and 
 you must disturb a wound as little as possible. Never wash the 
 -wound except under the orders of a medical officer. 
 
 Generally this is all that is necessay for the first treatment, 
 and sometimes it is all that is needed for several days. The im- 
 portance of the care with which this first dressing is made can not 
 be too seriously insisted upon. It is better to leave a wound un- 
 dressed than to dress it •carelessly or ignorantly, so that the dress- 
 ing must soon be removed. 
 
 REGIMENTAL MEDICAL SERVICE 
 
 Very urgent treatment is given at the first aid station imme- 
 diately behind the first-line trenches. The personnel here is as- 
 signed by the medical officer in command. The evacuation and 
 transport of the wounded to the regimental dressing stations is 
 made by the regimental stretcher bearers, the musicians co- 
 operating. The dressing station is established behind the reserves 
 of the regiment, in a dry, sheltered place. 
 
PERSONAL HYGIENE 897 
 
 Duties. — Dressings, simple treatment, and starting the hos- 
 pital record. Those wounded who are able to fight are dressed 
 and sent back to their units. Those able to walk are formed in 
 detachments and directed to an assembling place under the com- 
 mand of a wounded officer or non-commissioned officer. Those 
 unable to walk are evacuated to ambulances either by the divisional 
 litter bearer group or the corps litter bearer group, or by automo- 
 bile sanitary sections (ambulance corps). No wounded should go 
 to the rear without passing through the dressing station, the posi- 
 tion of which should be well known. Special measures are taken 
 if the number of wounded is much increased. The number of 
 stretcher bearers is increased sufficiently to allow systematic ex- 
 ploration of the terrain, and the prisoners utilized under the direc- 
 tion of regimental stretcher bearers. Extend the reinforced 
 divisional •stretcher bearers of the territorials and prisoners right 
 up to the battalion first aid stations. 
 
 MILITARY SURGERY 
 
 War surgery differs materially from that which is seen in 
 civil practice. The wounds in warfare are much more severe, and 
 owing to the difficulties of transportation and the delays in col- 
 lecting the wounded from the battle field, complications usually 
 set in before surgical aid can be given. The subsequent effects ot 
 early surgical procedure can rarely be gauged by the surgeon and 
 it is a distinct disadvantage that in war surgery there can be little 
 continuity of treatment. In modern warfare, the opposing armies 
 being sheltered in trenches and there being relatively little hand- 
 to-hand fighting, the wounds are principally those caused by pro- 
 jectiles, either in the form of bullets, shells or grenades. As an 
 evolution of trench warfare various methods of inflicting wounds 
 and injuring the attacking forces have been devised; and bayonet 
 wounds, while still comparatively uncommon, are frequently the 
 result of encounters between scouting parties and in trench raids. 
 
 Projectiles may be classified as from hand weapons, from 
 artillery and from grenades, bombs and mines: 
 
 Projectiles from Hand Weapons. — Under this heading are 
 included rifles, revolvers and machine guns. Most of the bullets 
 are uniform in construction and consist essentially of* a central 
 core of hardened lead surrounded by a casing of nickel, cupro- 
 nickel, steel, copper or German silver. Frequently the jacket com- 
 pletely surrounds the lead core, while in many bullets the base of 
 the lead is not covered. The French bullet D and others are made 
 entirely of copper composition. The shape of the majority of the 
 bullets now used in cylindro-ogival rather than cylindro-conical, 
 
898 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 the former possessing a greater initial velocity and offering less 
 wind resistance and, consequently, having a greater range. The 
 bullet S of the German Mauser is a cylindro-ogival projectile of 
 hardened lead in a soft steel envelope covered with German silver; 
 the cylindrical part is about one-fourth of the total length, the 
 ogival part (f£ inch) being very pointed. This bullet, with a caliber 
 of .28 inch, and a length of 1.10 inches, weighs 154 grains. The 
 Austrian Mannlicher bullet consists of a core of hard lead com- 
 pressed into an envelope, with an outer casing of steel; it weighs 
 244 grains, is 1% inches long, and has a diameter of .31 inch. It is 
 of cylindro-conical truncated form, rounded and not pointed. The 
 Turkish bullet is essentially the same as the German bullet S. The 
 French bullet D consists of solid copper composition with casing, 
 is bi-ogival, very sharp in front and truncated at the base. Its 
 caliber is .31 inch, length 1.53 inches, and weight 197 grains. The 
 Russian bullet is ogival-shaped, with a blunt end, having a casing 
 of German silver over a core of hard lead. The caliber is .30 inch, 
 length 1.2 inches, weight 211 grains. The Belgian bullet is 
 ogival with a blunt end, the central core being of hard lead covered 
 with German silver. Its caliber is .30 inch, length 1.18 inches, and 
 weight 213 grains. The English bullet is of cylindro-ogival shape 
 with a central core of hard lead covered with German silver casing. 
 Its caliber is .30 inch, length 1.2 inches, and weight 215 grains. The 
 United States Army bullet has a pointed rather than an ogival head. 
 It is 1.095 inches in length, .3085 inch in diameter, weighs 150 
 grains, and is composed of a lead core surrounded by a jacket of 
 cupro-nickel. The velocity of translation is 2,700 feet at the muzzle, 
 and the velocity of rotation is 3,270 turns per second as it leaves 
 the rifle. When firing standing, the point-blank range is 2,155.8 
 feet. Some ballistical knowledge is requisite in order to understand 
 the effects which bullets have on the tissues. When a bullet leaves 
 the rifle, three motions (translation, rotation and oscillation) are 
 imparted to it. The remaining velocity (the speed of the bullet at 
 various distances) decreases with the distance, owing to the weight 
 of the bullet and to the resistance of the air. The remaining speed 
 is in inverse ratio to the square of the diameter of the bullet and 
 in direct proportion to its length and weight. The power of bul- 
 lets to inflict damage is the resultant between two forces — the 
 weight of the projectile and its velocity. The penetrative force of 
 a bullet depends upon its power at the time of impact, and also 
 upon the amount of resistance which it meets. For bullets of the 
 same speed, the resistance opposed by tissue to penetration is in 
 inverse ratio to the square of the diameter. When a bullet enters 
 the tissues it may either enter in the same shape as when it left 
 the rifle, or, owing to a ricochet, it may become deformed before 
 striking. Wounds caused by ricochet and deformed bullets are 
 
PERSONAL HYGIENE 899 
 
 more serious than those made by bullets striking direct. The 
 destructive effect of the bullet may be increased by filing off the 
 point, by cutting grooves across the tip, or by reversing the bullet 
 in the casing. This gives rise to the " mushrooming " effect when 
 the bullet meets with resistance, and is extremely multilating. 
 
 Projectiles from Artillery. — These projectiles consist of high 
 explosive shells, and shrapnel. High explosive shells are cylinders 
 of iron and steel with conical heads. They have thick walls, and 
 the hollow cores are filled with explosive charges which are ex- 
 ploded by means of time fuses. The casings are ruptured and 
 fragmented, and each individual fragment as well as the fuse be- 
 comes in itself a projectile capable of inflicting serious and lace- 
 rated wounds. Stones, bricks, timbers, etc., from buildings, 
 trenches, dug-outs, etc., set in motion by the force of the explo- 
 sion from shell fire, form secondary projectiles which also cause 
 wounds of great severity. Shrapnel consist of cylinders of steel 
 containing a varying number of round lead bullets about half an 
 inch in diameter. The bursting charges are in the bases, and are 
 exploded by means of time fuses in the heads. Shrapnel have 
 approximately an initial velocity of 1,700 feet per second. At the 
 time of bursting, the lead balls are driven out in the form of a 
 cone at an additional velocity of 300 feet per second. In addition 
 to the high explosive shells and shrapnel, other shells containing 
 poisonous gases have been devised. These shells are projected by 
 artillery, and on bursting liberate the contained gases. They are 
 used to precede attacks on trenches, or may be sent behind the 
 lines into billets and rest camps. These gas shells are classed as 
 tear shells and poison-gas shells. The gas contained in the tear 
 shells has an irritating effect on the eyes and causes a temporary 
 blindness associated with excessive lacrymation. The poison-gas 
 shells are extremely dangerous as regards life, some of them caus- 
 ing instantaneous death when the fumes are inhaled. 
 
 Projectiles from Grenades, Bombs and Mines. — Grenades 
 were formerly used by soldiers, known as grenadiers, who were 
 trained in the art of throwing them. Their use was discontinued 
 during the seventeenth century and was not revived until the Boer 
 war, when dynamite bombs were employed. The modern grenade 
 became extensively used during the Russo-Japanese war. Grenades 
 are all essentially the same, differing only in the manner of their 
 projection, and are classified as hand grenades and rifle grenades. 
 Several standard types of hand grenades are in common use, and 
 various kinds are extemporized from the material at hand, such 
 as jam jars, etc., which are filled with a conglomerate mass of metal 
 and a bursting charge. The oyster grenade, egg bomb and Mills 
 bomb are well known forms of bombs and grenades. Rifle grenades 
 are essentially small high-explosive shells, differing only from the 
 
900 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 other forms in that they have a long rod extending from the head 
 of the grenade and fitting the barrel of the rifle. These grenades 
 are projected by means of a small charge of powder in the rifle. 
 Bombs are much larger than grenades, and are used either in the 
 form of high explosive or incendiary bombs which are dropped 
 from aeroplanes and which are used for the bombardment of 
 towns, supply depots, ammunition dumps and railroad stations. 
 Various types are also used in the trenches and are fired from 
 trench mortars or catapults. Mines may be either marine or ter- 
 restial. The latter consist of charges of high explosive buried in 
 the ground and exploded by means of an electric spark, the earth 
 and rocks thrown up by the explosion forming the projectiles. 
 The nature of gunshot wounds depends upon the projectile 
 causing the injury, the tissues traversed by the missile, whether 
 soft tissues alone or soft tissues and bone are involved, the shape, 
 size and velocity of the missile, the manner in which it strikes, and 
 the amount of resistance which it encounters. Bullets fired from 
 a proximal range, and striking point on, cause only a small punc- 
 ture in the skin; in passing through the integument they separate 
 the tissues without causing a marked degree of trauma, and it is 
 in such wounds as these that are found the most advantageous 
 conditions for healing without evidence of infection. Such bullets 
 carry in with them very little foreign matter, and cause the so- 
 called aseptic or clean bullet wounds. Bullets which become disin- 
 tegrated either just before striking the tissues, or while passing 
 through, besides causing a great amount of injury, also carry into 
 the wound a large quantity of foreign matter, such as contami- 
 nated earth and clothing. Fragments of bone detached by a bullet 
 act as supplementary projectiles, as they are propelled outward and 
 tend to"intensify the action. The wounds from shrapnel bullets are 
 generally penetrative and seldom perforating, but the amount of 
 damage inflicted on the tissues is relatively small unless blood- 
 vessels, viscera or bone be involved. With high explosive shells, 
 owing to its fragmentation of the shell-case and to the size and 
 shape of the individual pieces, the severity of the wound or wounds 
 depends altogether upon the size of the projectile inflicting the 
 injury. Wounds from shell fragments may be simple or multiple 
 depending upon the proximity of the bursting shell. Owing to the 
 irregular nature of the larger fragments, there is much tearing 
 away of tissues, together with some extravasation of blood, and 
 often large masses of extraneous matter are carried into the wound 
 where they produce pus-forming organisms. Wounds from 
 grenades present generally the same appearance as do wounds 
 from smaller shell fragments and have varying degrees or severity 
 depending upon the proximity at which the grenades exploded 
 and the force with which the projectiles were driven into the 
 
PERSONAL HYGIENE 901 
 
 tissues. Projectiles from grenades lose their velocity very rapidly, 
 and it is only at close quarters that they inflict much damage. In 
 wounds of this type large areas of tissue are infected and filled with 
 fragments of the container and also of the contents. 
 
 In military surgery wounds are classified as perforating or 
 seton, non-perforating or penetrating, lacerated and contused, and 
 gutter wounds. Perforating wounds may be caused by bullets, 
 shrapnel, and shell or grenade fragments. If the bullet becomes 
 slightly deflected before striking the wound of entrance varies 
 considerably in size and shape, and the edge becomes very ragged 
 and more inverted, while the amount of contusion to the surround- 
 ing tissues is greater. The wound of exit in this case also presents 
 an entirely different appearance, being a large, ragged lacerated 
 wound in which may be seen the torn ends of muscles, tendons, and 
 fascia, there being a large loss of cutaneous and subcutaneous 
 tissues. Non-perforating or penetrating wounds of the soft parts 
 may be caused by bullets fired at long range or by bullets which 
 have had their velocities reduced by contact with some obstruction 
 which has deformed or disintegrated them. They are also caused 
 by shrapnel bullets and by the smaller shell and grenade fragments. 
 The nature of the wound depends upon the type of projectile caus- 
 ing it. A typical non-perforating or penetrating wound consists 
 essentially of an aperture of varying size in the skin, extending 
 down through the aponeurotic fascia and muscles and forming a 
 cul-de-sac at the bottom of which is the projectile which has caused 
 the injury. Lacerated and contused wounds are usually caused by 
 bullets which have deviated from their true axis, and by shell and 
 grenade fragments. The edges of the wound are torn and lacerated, 
 as are also the deeper structures such as the fascia and muscles. 
 Gutter wounds, classified as superficial and deep, are usually 
 caused by shell fragments or shrapnel bullets, but may be caused 
 by rifle bullets striking the tissues superficially, becoming deflected 
 and ploughing deep furrows or evading through the tissues. 
 
 Bleeding from bullet and shell wounds is generally not severe 
 in cases which are able to be sent to the rear. If a main vessel be 
 injured, the resulting hemorrhage is usually fatal before it can be 
 controlled. Hemorrhages are classified as primary and secondary. 
 Primary hemorrhage is that occurring in freshly traumatised tissues 
 and where vessels of various sizes may be severed. It may be 
 severe and fatal or moderate and easily controlled. As to second- 
 ary hemorrhage, in all suppurating wounds, especially in deep 
 wounds which are liable to form pockets, it must be remembered 
 that at any time during the process of healing there may be a 
 severe hemorrhage due to the sloughing of the walls of blood- 
 vessels which may have been traumatised by the original missile 
 causing the wound. 
 
902 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 The question of drainage is most important, its object being 
 to prevent the accumulation of pus and necrotic tissues. If these 
 cannot rapidly escape and are permitted to accumulate, the process 
 becomes more extensive owing to the tissues being burrowed into 
 and eaten away by the tryptic ferments which are present in con- 
 junction with the pyogenic organisms. 
 
 At the front wounds are treated antiseptically, applying pro- 
 tective dressings and giving a phrophylactic injection of anti- 
 tetanic serum. With large wounds the patients are etherised, 
 necrotic and devitalised tissues removed and the wound swabbed 
 with carbolic, iodine or picric acid, easily accessible foreign bodies 
 being removed and blood-vessels ligated in case of hemorrhage. 
 At the casualty clearing stations more extensive treatment is re- 
 sorted to consisting in the excision and suturing of the wounds and 
 the placing in position of Carrel's tubes, or treatment by means of 
 various antiseptics. More extensive operations are reserved for the 
 base hospitals, where possible a bacteriological examination should 
 be made of every infected case to determine the type of the organ- 
 isms which are causing the infection and the course of treatment to 
 be followed. Treatment of infected wounds resolves itself into 
 the principles of efficient drainage, dressings, antiseptics, salines, 
 baths, compresses, foments, etc. Wounds should be dressed daily 
 and strict aseptic rules must be followed. Instruments only should 
 be allowed to touch the wound and the dressings used. The skin 
 adjoining the wound should be carefully cleansed and fresh strips 
 of vaseline gauze applied. All necrotic detritus and wound secre- 
 tions should be gently wiped away with cotton pledgets saturated 
 in Dakin's solution. In extensive wounds of the legs or arms where 
 there has been a disturbance of the circulation and a consequent 
 devitalization of the parts, a rapid amputation should be done 
 immediately, preferably by the circular method, and the wound 
 left wide open and treated by the Carrel-Dakin method. 
 
 Surgery and bacteriology have demonstrated that wound in- 
 fection is due to the presence of pyogenic bacteria. Consequently 
 if all such bacteria are kept from the wound, infection cannot result. 
 This requires careful sterilization: metal instruments by boiling, 
 fabrics by steaming, the hands of the surgeon by soap, water, and 
 disinfectants, and by the use of rubber gloves, and the skin of the 
 patient by application of tincture of iodine. All this requires ex- 
 tensive apparatus, which it is difficult to provide in the vicinity of 
 the battlefield. Consequently it is the task of war surgery to bring 
 the patient as quickly as possible to a place where these things are 
 assembled. The most advanced sanitary formation where serious 
 operations can be undertaken is the field hospital. Further treat- 
 ment is given in the base and other hospitals at home. In more 
 advanced formations only the most urgent operations, such as the 
 
1 
 
 PERSONAL HYGIENE 903 
 
 stopping of hemorrhages and the opening of the windpipe in case 
 of suffocation, can be undertaken. 
 
 Often the victim, as a result of nerve-shock accompanying 
 the wound, followed by severe blood loss, long exposure, and un- 
 comfortable transportation, arrives at the hospital in a condition 
 which renders even necessary operations impossible. Modern 
 surgery attacks these conditions by saline injections, heart stimu- 
 lants, and blood transfusion. The latter is particularly valuable, 
 but depends on the availability of someone willing to furnish the 
 blood. 
 
 Although the sole cause of the wound infection is the pres- 
 ence of bacteria, the latter does not always cause infection, if the 
 body is strong and if the number of bacteria does not exceed a 
 certain maximum of numbers or virulence. War surgery has taken 
 advantage of this fact. Rifle and shrapnel bullets which strike the 
 victim directly do not carry many bacteria, and unless a bone is 
 struck the healing of the wound is not difficult. The only care of 
 the surgeon is to prevent secondary infection. For this purpose 
 tincture of iodine is applied to the vicinity of the wound, and the 
 latter is bound with sterile material as the bandage carried on 
 the person by the soldier. Splints or plaster of paris are also 
 applied to insure rest. Recovery generally follows in one or two 
 weeks. In the case of wounds produced by grenade or mine frag- 
 ments or by bullets which ricochet, circumstances are different. 
 The wounds are larger and more irregular, the tissues are macerated, 
 generally bones are splintered, and, since the missiles have usually 
 thrown up earth or come in contact with it, and much clothing has 
 been driven into the wound, there are many bacteria introduced. 
 If such wounds are bound up at once, inflammation results, which 
 may result in necessity of amputation of a member or even death. 
 This fact was not realized at the beginning of the European war, 
 but was demonstrated in the first few months. Now the patient is 
 anesthetized as soon as possible, the wound is opened up, rinsed, 
 irrigated, dressed with disinfecting gauze, for example, iodoform 
 gauze; drainage tubes are inserted to accommodate the flow of the 
 wound secretions; bandages are changed daily. By this method 
 " gas infection " is combatted. 
 
 Joint wounds require special treatment, both because such 
 localities favor the multiplication of bacteria and because of the 
 danger of stiffening. The former condition is combatted by inci- 
 sions and drainage, and if necessary by removal of the joint. The 
 latter requires the closing of the wound, the practice of movements, 
 and sometimes operative mobilizing of the joint. 
 
 If a wound infection cannot be conquered, amputation of the 
 member must follow. This is relatively seldom undertaken, and 
 then as a last resort. After the amputation, steps are taken to pre- 
 
904 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 pare the stump to carry an artificial limb. The latter have been 
 so well constructed that in many cases the patient is enabled to 
 take up his calling unimpeded. Wooden legs have been so de- 
 veloped as to enable even the patient who has lost his thigh to 
 proceed without difficulty over plowed land. Artificial hands are 
 now provided which can be manipulated voluntarily by the muscles 
 in the stump. 
 
 A much feared wound infection of earlier wars was tetanus. 
 This infection may occur in small wounds, which show no inflam- 
 mation, and which heal over before symptoms of tetanus appear. 
 The disease manifests itself in muscular paralysis which ends in 
 painful death. The infection has almost disappeared in the case 
 of battle casualties, because the injection of antitetanus serums is 
 now required in the case of every wounded patient. In the few 
 cases in which tetanus appears, it can generally be cured. 
 
 Bone fractures are common results of wounds. The surgeon 
 has two tasks: to restore function and to restore anatomical form. 
 There are two general methods: one by the use of splints and 
 plaster of paris and the other by means of weights attached to 
 the injured member. In the case of large wounds the former 
 method is used, commencing with the setting of the bone under 
 anesthesia. Unless infection is present, bandages are changed 
 frequently to permit movement and massage to restore mobility. 
 The second method is used where applicable, especially in case of a 
 broken leg. The best success is obtained by attaching the weights 
 by means of nails to the bone. In any case, orthopedic methods 
 are employed after the bone has knit until the use of the injured 
 member has been as fully as possible restored. If the bone has knit 
 in a bad position, the defect can be later remedied by resetting, or 
 by cutting into the bone in its sound part and applying the nail 
 extension method. 
 
 A result of the position war has been an increase in the num- 
 ber of skull wounds. The greater number of these is instantly 
 fatal. Nevertheless a number of cases, even where the brain has 
 been pierced, reach the surgeon. The first danger is infection. 
 Prompt operation to remove foreign bodies is therefore necessary. 
 The operation also prevents protrusion of the brain. Even after 
 healing there is danger of brain abscess, which requires a new 
 operation. If the wound is in the vicinity of the brain centers 
 which control the voluntary muscles, convulsions with loss of con- 
 sciousness, like epilepsy, may later result. This is relieved by re- 
 moval of the body which produces the pressure, and sometimes by 
 transplanting tissues from other parts of the body. Holes in the 
 skull are now covered with living bone. 
 
 The great danger of breast wounds is excessive loss of blood; 
 if the wound is large there is danger of suffocation. Prompt clos- 
 
PERSONAL HYGIENE 905 
 
 ing of the wound is necessary. If the bleeding of the lung does 
 not stop automatically, the surgeon uses the pressure difference 
 method, bares the lung surfaces, and sews up the wound. The next 
 danger is an inflammation of the pleura, necessitating removal of 
 part or all of a rib to permit the matter to drain off. 
 
 Abdominal wounds generally result in death unless treated 
 within a few hours. The first danger is excessive loss of blood; the 
 second is peritonitis due to the escape into the abdominal cavity of 
 the contents of the intestines. Rapid and comfortable transporta- 
 tion, well provided hospitals near the front, and skillful surgeons 
 are necessary. The intestines must be sewed up, or removed in 
 part. In case of a bladder wound the bladder must be sewed up; 
 in case of a kidney wound, it may be necessary to remove a kidney. 
 
 The damage caused by the cutting of the spinal cord cannot 
 be remedied; if, however, a wound produces pressure on the cord, 
 function can be restored by removal of the pressure. 
 
 If an artery is cut, death from loss of blood often results. 
 Sometimes, however, the blood clots. To prevent renewal of the 
 bleeding, the artery must be sewed up. There is also danger of 
 aneurism through swelling of the arterial wall or infiltration of 
 blood in the surrounding tissue. An aneurism may cause pressure 
 on the nerves, and may burst. It must therefore be removed. This 
 operation is a very delicate one, as it may result in bleeding to 
 death. If possible the artery is sewed up; if the gap is large, pieces 
 of blood vessel are transplanted. 
 
 In case of cutting of a nerve, function in the muscle affected 
 is seldom automatically restored. The nerve must generally be 
 sewed, and this does not always result in restoration of function, 
 and then only after a long time. In some cases it is necessary to 
 graft the separated ends onto a sound nerve. In some cases func- 
 tion is disturbed because a scar causes pressure on. a nerve. The 
 pressure is generally easily removed. 
 
 If a bullet is imbedded in the body, it need.be- removed only 
 if it presses on a nerve, lies against the wall of a large blood vessel, 
 is imbedded in a joint, produces inflammation, or causes pain. Re- 
 moval is aided by the Roentgen process, which may be applied 
 throughout the operation. Magnetic substances may be extracted 
 by strong electromagnets. 
 
 In wars previous to the introduction of small caliber and 
 high velocity projectiles, wounds of the larger joints were most 
 serious. At the present time, owing to the lesser damaging power 
 of the modern rifle bullet and with the full knowledge of asepsis, 
 such wounds present a much smaller proportion of fatal results 
 than'may be recorded with the old types of armament. The treat- 
 ment of all gunshot injuries involving joints is of great importance, 
 not only as regards the immediate effec\s upon the patient, but 
 
906 MILITARY, TRAINING 
 
 also the ultimate functional result. In all joint injuries the after 
 treatment is a most important factor, as it largely determines the 
 amount of restoration of function. 
 
 In modern warfare, with its many phases, numerous condi- 
 tions attributable to a disturbance of the central nervous system are 
 in daily evidence. Such manifestations, termed "traumatic neu- 
 rosis," are apparently due to a cumulative effect from exposure to 
 concussion from high explosive shells, and also from the strain and 
 nervous excitement preceding and during the attack. The condi- 
 tion manifests itself in numerous ways. Many cases have been 
 reported where there is a marked paraplegia or a total loss of 
 memory. 
 
 REPORT OF SICK AND WOUNDED 
 
 The report of sick and wounded comprises, (1) the report 
 sheet, which provides for general information and numerical tabula- 
 tions concerning the command and the civilians therewith; (2) the 
 nominal check list for a chronological list of cases registered; (3) 
 the report cards for details of the several cases. 
 
 Subject to exceptions, this report is required monthly from 
 every military post and separate command which is attended by a 
 medical officer or civilian physician. It is rendered separately for 
 regular and volunteer troops, that of regulars to embrace all data 
 pertaining to civilians. It is forwarded before the fifth day of the 
 next succeeding month as follows: From a general hospital or 
 other independent post or command direct to the Surgeon General, 
 unless otherwise ordered by him; from a transoceanic Army trans- 
 port to the medical superintendent of the transport service at the 
 transport's home port, for transmittal to the Surgeon General; and 
 from any other organization or hospital to the department surgeon 
 for like transmittal. 
 
 (a) When a hospital is closed or a command is discontinued 
 a report covering the unreported period of service, giving the 
 beginning and the end thereof, is in like manner forwarded within 
 five days thereafter. 
 
 (b) If there has been no case on sick report, either remain- 
 ing from last report or admitted during the month, the report sheet 
 is nevertheless forwarded. It gives the name and strength of the 
 command, etc., with such remarks as may be deemed of interest to 
 the department surgeon or the Surgeon General. 
 
CHAPTER XXXII 
 
 THE CONSTRUCTION, SOLUTION AND CRITIQUE 
 OF A FIRE PROBLEM WITH BALL AMMUNITION 
 
 The troop leader acquires facility in the solution of fire 
 problems by means of map problems, terrain exercises, prelimi- 
 nary exercises without ball ammunition and problems with ball 
 ammunition. The solution of fire problems under assumed battle 
 conditions requires a trained military mind, a knowledge of minor 
 tactics, and a proficiency in musketry. 
 
 Estimate of the Situation. — An estimate of the situation 
 involves a careful consideration, from the commander's viewpoint, 
 of all the circumstances affecting the particular problem. In 
 making this estimate he considers his mission as set forth in the 
 orders or instructions under which he is acting, or as deduced by 
 him from his knowledge of the situation, all available information 
 of the enemy (strength, position, movements, probable intentions, 
 etc.), conditions affecting his own command (strength, position, 
 supporting troops, etc.), and the terrain in so far as it affects the 
 particular military situation. He then compares the various plans 
 of action open to him and decides upon the one that will best en- 
 able him to accomplish his mission. 
 
 The target and adjacent foreground should be given as 
 thorough a study prior to opening fire as the time element and 
 accomplishment of the mission will permit, and it should be kept 
 under constant observation during the entire action. All available 
 field glasses should constantly sweep the front for observation of 
 fire effect and to observe the enemy's change of position so that 
 the leader will be ready to meet the enemy's detachments with 
 fire from whatever quarter of the foreground they may appear. 
 
 Determination of Ranges. — Before a decision can be ren- 
 dered as to the method of adjustment to be employed (sight set- 
 ting to be ordered, or the use of battle or leaf sight, or the em- 
 ployment of combined sights), consideration must be given to the 
 method for obtaining the range or ranges, whether they be ob- 
 tained by estimation by the eye, taken from a map, determined 
 from an instrument or by ranging fire, or actually measured. 
 
 Relative Importance of Targets. — The estimate in this con- 
 nection embodies two factors — the selection of the enemy targets 
 
908 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 that should be fired upon and the determination of the size of the 
 units that will be ordered to fire on the selected targets. 
 
 Strength of Firing Line. — The number of rifles to be placed 
 in the firing line must be sufficient to accomplish the mission. 
 The determination of this strength must be the result of sound 
 judgment exercised by the leader on the ground after a careful 
 analysis of the mission and the means to be employed to accom- 
 plish it. 
 
 Location of Fire Positions. — The nature of the problem and 
 the character of the terrain are the governing features in selecting 
 fire positions. In defensive, outpost, or rear guard actions it is 
 evident that great attention can be given not only to the selection 
 of main and auxiliary fire positions, but to the consideration of 
 advance positions for firing, and to the preparation of carefully 
 chosen positions in rear of the main one. In the attack it may or 
 may not be possible to select more than one firing position at the 
 commencement of the fire fight. However, if it is practicable, it 
 should be done. 
 
 Classes of Firing. — The character of fire (collective or in- 
 dividual) and one of the various classes must be selected. The 
 object to be attained will determine the use of volleys, fire at will, 
 or clip fire. The visibility factor of the target may require indirect 
 fire by use of an auxiliary aiming point, the uncertainty of the 
 correctness of the range may demand ranging fire (individual, col- 
 lective, and selected shots), etc. 
 
 Rate of Fire. — The rate of fire depends upon the purpose 
 of the action, the character of the target, and the available ammu- 
 nition. The rate is affected by many factors, as training, range, 
 size and visibility of target, position of firer, degree of surround- 
 ing excitement, etc. 
 
 Time of Opening Fire. — The time of opening fire is a factor 
 of prime importance and may or may not be left to the discretion 
 of the troop leader with which the problem deals. In any case, 
 fire should not be opened until the director's fire estimate has 
 determined upon the target, sight setting, class and rate of fire, and 
 under no circumstances until the troops are ready to fire. 
 
 Formations in Advancing Under Fire. — The best is the one 
 that will best aid in gaining fire superiority and defeating the 
 enemy with the least loss of men, time, and control. 
 
 Ammunition Supply. — This detail of the estimate for com- 
 pany and troop officers is usually simply a consideration and an 
 appreciation of the amount issued to the individual and how it 
 can best be utilized in fulfilling the assigned mission. For field 
 officers it embodies the question of maintaining the supply and 
 that of issue to troops. 
 
FIRE PROBLEM WITH BALL AMMUNITION 909 
 
 THE FIRE ORDER 
 
 The announcement of the sight setting may or may not co- 
 incide with the range estimate. 
 
 Designation of Targets. — It is necessary here to impress 
 upon one that the degree of the target's visibility determines the 
 extent of definition necessary. Having this in mind, it is seen 
 that the two extremes will be when the target is so obvious that 
 no description whatever is required, and when it is so indistinct 
 that one may be taxed to use a reference point and a combination 
 of the two clocks and finger systems. The goal to be reached is an 
 Unmistakable designation expressed in the simplest and most direct 
 manner in terms common to all. 
 
 Directions as to Occupation of Fire Position. — These direc- 
 tions may not be necessary at all, or they may be very simple and 
 covered in the order with the statement that the unit will occupy 
 " this position " with its right at " that point," or several positions 
 may be designated for the various units to occupy in the opening 
 fire fight against their particular assigned target. In addition to 
 the position from which the fire fight is commenced, the order 
 may announce a second fire position in the foreground that will 
 be occupied in the advance. In defensive rear-guard- and outpost 
 actions it is quite evident that directions may be given for the oc- 
 cupation of several fire positions. There are times when these 
 directions will be unnecessary, and there are occasions when such 
 directions will be so clearly related to the firing that they will 
 logically form part of the fire order. 
 
 Rate of Fire. — The rate of fire may or may not be announced 
 in the order. However, as the rate of fire is so directly related to 
 the vulnerable area of the target as well as to the range, it may be 
 better to announce the rate desired in order to insure that the 
 proper volume of fire is attained within the required time. The 
 rate is increased or decreased by the commands " Faster " and 
 "Slower." 
 
 Class of Fire. — The selection of the kind of fire should result 
 from the estimate and be announced in the order as " Fire at will " 
 or " Clip fire." 
 
 Time of Opening Fire. — Ordinarily this would be con- 
 fined to the estimate and no expression given to it in the order. 
 However, so diversified are the factors in a fire order that some 
 such time announcement as " Open fire when you are ready," 
 etc., may be pertinent. 
 
 Position of Leader During Firing. — The company com- 
 mander or commander of a small firing line will ordinarily be oppo- 
 site the center of the rear of the line he is directing or upon that 
 flank which offers the best opportunity for control of the line, 
 
910 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 observation of the enemy targets, and the fire effect. His position 
 must be such that control is direct or where his will is easily and 
 promptly transmitted. He must be in a position to control the 
 ammunition supply. His position must not be fixed, but it must 
 be known to all of his subordinates. A leader, who has decided to 
 take position on the flank of his deployed line, to observe better 
 the fire fight, and who feels that his subordinates should be in- 
 formed as to his location, as communication might thus better be 
 facilitated, should include his post in the fire order. 
 
 Until facility is obtained in the solution of fire problems, the 
 controlling factors should be taken up in some such orderly man- 
 ner as shown in the foregoing. It is almost certain that a decision 
 reached after consideration of the factors noted will be of more 
 value and more nearly correct than if based simply on mental 
 impressions. 
 
 There will be few occasions in which all of the factors 
 enumerated above will have to be thought out in the estimate and 
 announced in the fire orders. In fact, the simplicity of most prob- 
 lems, particularly those conducted on "A" ranges will make it 
 unnecessary to give any consideration to many of them. Again, 
 it must be remembered that at the moment when the fire orders 
 must be issued many of the factors embraced in the estimate will ! 
 have been considered, some of them in an involuntary manner. 
 On some occasions the fire order may be as simple as " Fire at 
 will." 
 
 THE UMPIRE 
 
 In order to derive the maximum benefits from an exercise, 
 either with or without ball ammunition, it should be followed by 
 a critique delivered on the ground immediately after the conclu- 
 sion of the exercise. 
 
 It is evident that the umpire, who delivers the critique, must 
 know all the conditions influencing the result and must be able not 
 only to diagnose the case but to apply remedial suggestions when- 
 ever necessary. 
 
 The umpire has general charge of the exercise, sees that 
 the data required on the form is properly kept, delivers the critique, 
 and renders decisions whenever necessary. The umpire should 
 be assisted by two or more junior officers in all exercises involving 
 companies or larger organizations. These assistants should keep 
 the record of the details of the leadership and conduct of troops, 
 and one, accompanied by a competent signalist, should be charged 
 with making the report on the conduct of the troops as observed 
 from the enemy's viewpoint, use being made of a periscope when 
 ball ammunition is used. An officer should be designated to note 
 
FIRE PROBLEM WITH BALL AMMUNITION 911 
 
 the statistics required in the " Umpire's record " and to record the 
 time factor. 
 
 The time element should be taken cognizance of when the 
 situation is given out; when the first firing position is reached; 
 when the fire commenced and ceased at each firing position; and 
 when any important order is given or when any incident worthy 
 of note occurs. 
 
 In instructional firing occasions may arise when it might be 
 well to stop the fire in order to call attention to poor control, 
 poor discipline, or to give any other instruction, which is always 
 more readily understood and best absorbed when given at the time 
 of occurrence. , 
 
 The instructor or umpire should impress upon all that the 
 fire problems during the period of instruction are not to be con- 
 sidered as tests, but that the problems are constructed and solved 
 for instructional purposes only. 
 
 On some occasions in the early stages of the training, and 
 particularly where opportunities for combat firing are limited, it 
 may be better for the umpire to correct the sight setting an- 
 nounced, if it varies more than 10 per cent, from the true range, 
 than to spoil the problem by permitting the use of an incorrect 
 setting. This with a view of saving ammunition and giving the 
 officers and non-commissioned officers an opportunity to demon- 
 strate their ability in direction and control and the men their train- 
 ing in fire discipline. In the critique it could be stated what would 
 have been the effect had the announced sight setting been used. 
 There is no use of having the object of the exercise defeated at its 
 commencement by a wild estimate of the range. 
 
 It must be remembered, however, that after the instructional 
 period is completed the fire problem with ball ammunition is the 
 test of an officer or non-commissioned officer and a detachment 
 in fire tactics embodying direction, control, and discipline, and in 
 such cases the umpire should interfere as little as possible with 
 the conduct of the action. However, he may place out of action 
 at any time individuals or groups who expose themselves unduly. 
 
 In order that the results in any complete statistical analysis 
 of the firing may be of value as a study and as a comparison, after 
 firing at a target the ammunition still unfired should be checked in 
 order to determine the number of rounds fired on any given target. 
 
 When a thorough analysis of the firing is to be made the 
 number of rounds fired and hits made at the firing positions are 
 absolutely essential in problems where the test is to determine fire 
 accuracy, influence of fatigue, etc. For example, in a number of 
 German tests i-t was observed, by checking the hits made at each 
 halt, that the fire at 500 yards where rushes were commenced was 
 58 
 
912 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 more accurate than at the closer ranges where the influence of 
 fatigue overcame the training factor. 
 
 The rate of fire in the statistical records represents a num- 
 ber of shots per minute (on a target presenting to the view of 
 the firer the vulnerable area of prone figures), which, if increased 
 or decreased, will result in a decrease of hits per minute. The table 
 rate of fire of the average shot is therefore primarily based on 
 range and the vulnerable area of the prone target. In combat firing 
 exercises the tactical situation requiring the maximum number of 
 hits in a given time on an increased vulnerable target area is a 
 factor which the umpire must consider in judging the rate of fire 
 
 The umpire should insist that in the " setting up " of the 
 exercise it include the targets simulating fire. This feature is one 
 that should never be neglected, and its omission will frequently 
 destroy the good points of the best-prepared firing problem. 
 
 In rendering a decision on the assumed effect of fire of the 
 enemy target, the basis must be the estimated fire efficacy of 
 average shots. The class, rate, and effect of the enemy target's 
 fire, assumed by the umpire, is based on the character of the 
 leadership and conduct of the troops and their own apparent fire 
 effect. 
 
 For example, at the commencement of an exercise, and later 
 during its progress, the troop leader may be informed as to the 
 enemy-target's fire, as follows: (a) He is using "Ranging" pla 
 toon volleys on your position, (b) He is opening " Fire at will " 
 on you. (c) He is using "Fire faster" at a rate of about 10 shots 
 per minute, (d) He has superiority of fire, (e) His fire does not 
 prevent your advancing, etc. Whenever the troop leader is in- 
 formed that he has not superiority of fire, he should make an 
 estimate at once as to the cause or causes of his failure and give 
 action immediately to his decision. 
 
 The umpire's ruling may have been based on one or more of 
 the following conditions: (a) Leader's indifference to enemy's 
 fire; (b) error too great in estimation of range; (c) poor defilade or 
 concealment; (d) rate not sufficiently high or too great; (e) size of 
 rushing units too great; (f) lack of teamwork; (g) poor designa- 
 tion of target; (h) Apportionment of target not clear; (i) fire not 
 wisely distributed on the several target groups; (j) general lackjL 
 of fire control or discipline, etc. In all combat fire exercises where 
 the umpire is to express an opinion on the ground as to the results 
 of the firing, the range and the time of firing in minutes and sec- 
 onds are the essential factors in determining the proper distribu- 
 tion. 
 
 Under no circumstances should the umpire permit an argu- 
 ment as to the result of his decision. This, however, does not 
 forbid the correction of any apparent error in the record. It must 
 
FIRE PROBLEM WITH BALL AMMUNITION 913 
 
 be remembered that the decision of an umpire is rendered in ac- 
 cordance with his best judgment, and though the decision may- 
 appear wrong, the outcome in actual combat, due to the element 
 of chance in war, might have been as he decided. 
 
 THE UMPIRE'S ASSISTANT 
 
 In order that the umpire may draw a more accurate conclu- 
 " sion of the " Leadership and conduct," an assistant, accompanied 
 1 by a competent signalist, should observe the troops and report on 
 L their conduct from the viewpoint of the enemy. When ball am- 
 munition is not used, the assistant should take a position similar 
 J to and among the targets. When ball ammunition is used, the 
 assistant should be provided with a periscope (or improvised one)/ 
 and take a position in the pit or on one flank and on line with 
 the target. 
 
 THE UMPIRE'S RECORD 
 
 The Umpire's Record furnishes the basis for the critique 
 delivered by the umpire, on the ground, at the completion of the 
 exercise, and consists of two parts. The first part covers the 
 tactical phase of the exercise, fire direction, control, and discipline, 
 as a result of the observation of the umpire. The second part is 
 statistical in character and covers essential data from which the 
 umpire draws conclusions and expresses an opinion upon the 
 effectiveness of the fire as affecting the accomplishment of the 
 tmission. 
 
 The data for this record should be of such a character that 
 it can be obtained quickly without reference to long formulas, 
 numerous tables of factors, etc. It must, be as simple as the 
 Umpire's Record in a maneuver problem, if not simpler, for the 
 critique based upon this record is never carried into the " lecture 
 tent," but delivered on the ground. 
 
 PRELIMINARY EXERCISES 
 
 Under no circumstances should an officer or man be allowed 
 
 o participate in a fire problem wherein ball ammunition is used 
 
 intil after he has passed through and been found proficient in a 
 
 'horough preliminary course of training. Ammunition expended 
 
 :c-n fire problems by organizations that have not received this pre- 
 
 iminary training is ammunition wasted. 
 
 The individual known distance course of target practice is 
 demonstration of the thoroughness and correctness of the man's 
 1 reliminary training. In a like manner any problem should be 
 
914 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 a demonstration of the perfection attained by the company in the 
 preliminary training without ball ammunition as a whole in all 
 that relates to fire direction, fire control, and fire discipline. 
 
 As an illustration, the case may be cited of a class of 75 re- 
 'cruits at the school of musketry, that was given a course of pre- 
 liminary instruction along the lines indicated herein, after which 
 the class was formed as a company under platoon and squad 
 leaders selected from the class and given a firing problem involving 
 the securing of the firing data, the issuance of orders, and the exe- 
 cution of the orders by the men. There was absolutely no criticism 
 to be made of the methods of direction, control, and discipline. 
 Therefore lack of range facilities and ammunition should not be 
 offered as an excuse for insufficient training in combat firing, as 
 it is perfectly practicable to have an organization well trained in 
 musketry without having fired a shot in a fire problem. 
 
 However, unless such a course is supplemented by further 
 exercises with ball ammunition, the organization will not know 
 that it is well trained and hence will be lacking in the confidence 
 that such knowledge brings. Exercises with ball ammunition are 
 essential if for no other purpose than to confirm the preliminary 
 training. 
 
 The following exercises and those given heretofore are of- 
 fered as suggested methods in teaching. 
 
 These exercises are for the most part taken from those used 
 at the School of Musketry, and have consequently all been tested. 
 Their use should suggest other similar and more advanced exer- 
 cises, and their construction should follow the same general prin- 
 ciples as for fire problems with ball ammunition. 
 
 I. Object. — Estimation of front of a definite extent at vari- 
 ous ranges. 
 
 Method. — Company commanders will be shown a line and 
 informed: "Somewhere on the line a squad of men representing 
 the right (left) of a hostile line will appear. You will open fire 
 on this hostile line covering a front of 50 (100) yards." 
 
 The company commander will determine and announce the 
 range. He will then determine the extent of front he is directed 
 to cover, and, having done so, will sight two rifles, resting on sand- 
 bag rests, so that one will be directed at the right and the other 
 at the left of the line which he has determined as the extent of 
 front he is to cover. The aiming tripod may be used. 
 
 In estimating fronts the musketry rule, rear sight, or finger 
 system may be used. 
 
 Standards of proficiency: Estimation of ranges, 90 per cent.; 
 estimation of front, 90 per cent. 
 
 II. Object. — Exercise in harmonizing* ranges used through- 
 out a given firing line. 
 
FIRE PROBLEM WITH BALL AMMUNITION 915 
 
 Method. — The company commanders with their " range esti- 
 mators," all in the prone position, will be assigned to an outlined 
 position where the fire fight is to start. The battalion commander 
 will be assigned a position from which he can control, through his 
 company commanders, the opening of fire. On the appearance of 
 the target, a hostile skirmish line, ranges will be estimated. "Time " 
 50 seconds. The battalion commander will then find out the 
 determined ranges by use of the signal. " What range are you 
 using," and announce the harmonized range. Ranges will be sig- 
 naled. When the last company commander has repeated the bat- 
 talion commander's signal the exercise will be closed. 
 
 Time. — No time allowance. The exercise will be completed 
 as soon as practicable. 
 
 III. Object. — Designation of targets. 
 
 Method. — The company will be conducted to a place a few 
 yards from a point where the target is visible. Its captain will be 
 shown the target. He deploys the company, advances it to the 
 position for opening fire, and gives the necessary firing data, in- 
 cluding description of target, assignment of portions of it to pla- 
 toons, etc. 
 
 Platoon leaders will give the necessary firing data to their 
 platoons. The men will set sights and aim at the proper target 
 and sector as understood by them. 
 
 In describing indistinct targets any method, mil rule, rear 
 sight, finger, or clock systems may be used. 
 
 The exercise is repeated for three different targets. 
 
 IV. Object. — The use of auxiliary aiming targets. 
 Methods. — An indistinct target will be selected, the flanks of 
 
 which are marked by signal flags. The company commander is 
 brought to a position from which he can observe the outlined 
 target. The flags will then be ordered down, when the company 
 commander points out to his range estimators and platoon leaders 
 the target from the observing station, determines the range and 
 gives the command for opening fire on the objective, including, 
 for the purpose of instruction, the announcement of an auxiliary 
 aiming target and the consequent sight setting. 
 
 Any mechanical device may be used as an aid in this work. 
 
 V. Object. — Accurate and quick sight setting and the use 
 of combined sights. 
 
 Method. — A well-defined target will be used at a range of 
 over 1,000 yards. The company commander will be shown the tar- 
 get. He then determines the range in the usual manner. The com- 
 pany will be deployed facing the target and the usual firing data 
 given (in this case, on account of time limit, all commands will be 
 given by company commander). 
 
916 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 The company commander is in the prone position. Time is 
 taken from the last word of command announcing the sight setting. 
 Fifteen seconds later the command " time " will be given by the 
 officer in charge of the exercise. At this command, whether sights 
 are set or not, all rifles will be laid on the ground and left un- 
 touched until examined. This concludes the exercise. 
 
 VI. Object. — Teaching fire direction. Elements included: 
 Use of ground, designation of target, determination of front oc- 
 cupied by target, assignment of sectors to platoons, determination 
 of the range, determination of kind of fire to be used, causing fire 
 to be opened at proper time. 
 
 Method. — The company is marched to a place near the point 
 selected for the problem; the position selected is under cover. The 
 company commander is called up and given a problem similar to 
 the following situation: "The enemy, a battalion acting alone, is 
 in position along a line extending east from that fence corner. 
 You will deploy your company here and direct its fire on that por- 
 tion of the hostile line which is occupied by a 10-squad deployed 
 company and whose right rests at that fence corner." 
 
 The captain conducts his company so as -to carry out the 
 orders or directions given him, using suitable tactical formations. 
 
 The exercise is ended immediately after fire is opened. For 
 purposes of comparison and comment the following will be noted: 
 
 (a) Time elapsing between receipt of problem and opening 
 fire. 
 
 (b) Exposure to hostile fire while securing and transmitting 
 firing data and while deploying. 
 
 (c) Clearness in description of target and its division into 
 fronts. 
 
 (d) Extent to which the captain's will, as expressed in his 
 firing data, is carried out by the company. 
 
 VII. Object. — Fire control. 
 
 Method. — The company will be marched to an indicated 
 point where a tactical situation will be presented involving the 
 principles of fire control. 
 
 For the purposes of comparison and comment the following 
 will be noted: (a) The captain's general application of the prin- 
 ciples of fire direction; (b) the detailed elements of fire control; 
 (c) time elements. 
 
 VIII. Object. — Fire discipline. 
 
 .Method. — The company is marched to an indicated point 
 where a tactical situation will be presented. 
 
 For the purposes of comparison and comment the following 
 will be noted: (a) Use of ground; (b) target designation; (c) de- 
 termination of front of target; (d) assignment of objectives to 
 platoon; (e) determination of range; (f) kind of fire used; (g) caus- 
 
FIRE PROBLEM WITH BALL AMMUNITION 917 
 
 ing fire to be opened at proper time; (h) reinforcement of firing 
 line; (i) fire discipline. Ability of men in firing line to transmit 
 firing data (location of target, what the target is, what portion to 
 fire at, range to be used, rate of fire to be employed) to reinforce- 
 ments when they arrive on the firing line, and to do this without 
 any marked cessation in the rate of fire. 
 
 For this exercise two platoons will be on the firing line, 
 deployed at one-pace intervals, the other two platoons constituting 
 the support; after fire has been opened, the firing line will be re- 
 inforced in such a manner that the men of the support will occupy 
 the intervals between the men on the firing line. Firing data 
 will be transmitted from man to man. Twenty seconds later 
 the original firing line will be withdrawn at the command of 
 the director. The reinforcing line will then set their sight at the 
 range given them and 10 seconds later, at the command of " Time," 
 will aim their rifles at what they believe to be their portion of the 
 target. 
 
 The sight setting and the aiming of the rifles will then be 
 verified and the probable value of the fire determined. 
 
 IX. Object. — To apply all the principles of fire direction, 
 fire control, and fire discipline covered in previous exercises, and 
 in addition the use of suitable means to maintain fire superiority 
 during advances of the firing line, particularly the proper distribu- 
 tion of fire cover of the entire target during rushes. 
 
 X. Object. — The application of all the principles of fire 
 direction, fire control, fire discipline covered in previous exercises 
 and iij addition the particular application of the various prescribed 
 methods of communication. 
 
 Method. — The company is assigned a mission requiring it to 
 take up a position and to open fire on an advancing column. The 
 situation will be so drawn as to bring out some of the authorized 
 methods of communication. 
 
 Company and platoon commanders will not use the voice 
 when any part of their unit is firing, nor at any other time when 
 their will can be expressed by a signal. 
 
 XI. Object. — Supply of ammunition of firing line (problem 
 to involve in its solution all of the principles covered in previous 
 exercises). 
 
 Method. — The battalion commander will be handed a tactical 
 situation requiring a march in the presence of an active enemy 
 and later an attack on this enemy's position. It will be conducted 
 by means of the prescribed commands and signals, in accordance 
 with the rules laid down. 
 
 The battalion will be at war strength, accompanied by its 
 combat train; machine gun company and five mounted orderlies 
 attached. 
 
918 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Combat train loaded as prescribed in Tables of Organization 
 for supplies other than ammunition. 
 
 THE CONSTRUCTION OF FIRE PROBLEMS 
 
 A fire problem is an incident or phase in the solution of 
 a tactical problem and should always be so treated. 
 
 The preparation - of a fire problem requires not only a sound 
 knowledge of tactical principles and the requisite experience in 
 .constructing tactical problems, but also a detailed knowledge of 
 the theory of rifle fire and of targets and ranges. In the prepara- 
 tion of a problem the following points should be considered: 
 
 (a) The problem should be so constructed as to impart a 
 lesson in fire tactics. 
 
 (b) The strength of the fire unit should be determined in 
 connection with the tactical lesson to be taught. 
 
 (c) A tactical situation should be selected that will best 
 illustrate the lesson to be imparted. It is believed that the fire 
 problems in general should present one phase of an action. For 
 example, firing on artillery, on moving bodies, opening of an at- 
 tack, carrying the exercise to the second firing position. On 
 extended well-equipped B ranges it will be possible to work out 
 a shifting scene of action, presenting a number of new targets to 
 
 lan advancing line, or advancing targets to a stationary line. 
 
 (d) An estimate should be made of the sight setting that 
 should be used and the rate of fire that should be employed. 
 
 (e) The ground and the direction in which the firing will 
 occur should be considered. The terrain, whenever possible, 
 should be new to the commander. The securing of a great variety 
 of terrain will .usually be impracticable, but there can be presented 
 to the commander new situations involving the use of different 
 targets at different points. 
 
 (f) Attention should be given to the targets that will be 
 employed, having special reference to those that may be available. 
 The target should generally be equal to approximately the num- 
 ber of men or to the front of the detachment firing. If not, it 
 creates a false impression. For instance, a company of 100 rifles 
 firing on a target of 20-30 yards in width, but targets greater in 
 number than the firers, are sometimes used in order to determine 
 whether or not the fire was confined to a particular sector or 
 objective, as directed, or more frequently where the troops are on 
 the defensive and the targets are simulating an attack. 
 
 Targets should be placed in a formation corresponding to 
 the phase of the action. Ordinarily the figures should be placed 
 one to every yard of front. The enemy will take care to expose 
 
FIRE PROBLEM WITH BALL AMMUNITION 919 
 
 himself as little as possible. It will be unusual to have a row of 
 kneeling figures to fire upon at the close ranges. Close-order 
 bodies in all probability would remain a target for a very short 
 period of time. Artillery targets should be spaced with about 20 
 yards interval. Cavalry charges might be represented by tar- 
 gets appearing in succession at 800 yards, at 700, at 600, at 500, 
 etc., each line disappearing from view a few moments before the 
 next appears. 
 
 (g) The amount of ammunition necessary to bring about the 
 result desired should be the result of calculation. The number of 
 cartridges issued should be enough to disable theoretically a se- 
 lected percentage of the targets. If 3,000 rounds are required to 
 disable about one-third of the targets and 1,500 rounds are issued, 
 then only about 15 per cent, of the figures can be expected to be 
 hit. This failure would rest on the problem maker and not on the 
 troops. 
 
 (h) Notation should be made of the time element for the 
 particular unit involved and its bearing upon a time schedule for 
 organization which may follow in the solution of the same 
 problem. 
 
 (i) The time element, in connection with the duration of 
 fire, must be determined by first deciding on the rate of fire to be 
 used at that range, consideration being given to the tactical re- 
 quirements and to the vulnerable area of the target. For example, 
 if a proper rate be eight per minute, then the number of cartridges 
 to be given to each man, divided by eight, will give the number 
 of minutes firing. This calculation forms the basis for the time 
 element and is better than a pure guess, even though a liberal 
 allowance be made for the difference between practical and theo- 
 retical time. 
 
 (j) To insure fresh situations for each commander, every 
 effort must be made to keep those next to fire from receiving 
 information about the problem. 
 
 (k) The question of pits to be constructed and the necessary 
 details to carry out successfully the plans adopted should be 
 given weight and all possible economy made of men and material. 
 
 (1) The problem should be tested to determine if it can be 
 solved in a manner that would prevent the desired lesson from 
 being taught. 
 
 FORM 
 
 The situation should present a simple logical scheme. This 
 gives an opportunity to judge of the tactics employed and while 
 the fire feature of the problem must receive proper consideration 
 it is to be remembered that no effect should be expected with an 
 
920 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 organization conducted tactically in such a manner that it could 
 not reach the firing position. 
 
 MISSION 
 
 It should be definite, and logically emanate from a simply- 
 represented situation. 
 
 The requirement ordinarily might include: (a) An estimate 
 of the situation; (b) an order based on this estimate; (c) the 
 execution of this order. 
 
 In map problems, terrain exercises, etc., (a) and (b) usually 
 will be oral or written, while (c) may include such features of the 
 execution as do not include firing. 
 
 When ammunition is used (a) would be mental, (b) would be 
 given by word of mouth or by signal, and (c) would be carried 
 out in its entirety. 
 
 THE UMPIRE'S REFERENCE TABLES 
 
 The considerations influencing the effect of fire are numer- 
 ous, and while some of them can be clearly shown in terms of hits 
 made or figures struck, there are many which must be based en- 
 tirely on observation and opinion. However, so soon as the prin- 
 cipal factors are known, from a consideration of the record of any 
 firing, a trained umpire can at once express an intelligent decision 
 as to the probable result of the action. What is wanted is a prompt 
 decision from the best obtainable judgment as to the efficacy of the 
 fire and the solution of the fire problem. 
 
 In order to add force to the decision, it is sometimes advis- 
 able to make a comparison with average shots. In order that this 
 comparison may not involve " complicated calculations " various 
 tables have been compiled in order that the percentage of figures 
 struck may be taken from the table at a glance and without com- 
 putation. The compiled table represents the result expected from 
 average shots firing at a correct maximum rate and distributing 
 their fire perfectly while using the correct sight setting. 
 
CHAPTER XXXIII 
 
 TRENCH WARFARE, TRENCH RAIDS AND THE! 
 SERVICE OF THE TRENCHES \/ 
 
 When the advanced positions of opposing armies are close to 
 each other there ensues a series of conflicts which have been 
 designated by the term " Trench warfare." In sieges the forces in 
 closest contact are the advanced parallel, saps,?and mining galleries 
 on the side of the attacker and the intrenched position and coun- 
 termines of the defender; in extended intrenched t fronts the forces 
 in closest contact are in the firing trenches, saps, and mines and 
 countermines of the two sides. 
 
 The methods of conflict in trench warfare are practically the 
 same as in former wars, with modifications due to the advances 
 in science. Hand grenades, bombs, obstacles, etc., were used at 
 Sebastopol, Port Arthur, and at Verdun in 1916. 
 
 The essential difference between capture of intrenched places 
 and victory over extended intrenched fronts lies in the fact that 
 the garrison only of the fortress must be subdued while the nation 
 back of an extended intrenched front must be subdued. While 
 the garrison of a fortress still retains numbers, food, ammunition, 
 and morale it may be possible to capture local strong points, but 
 the garrison will not surrender as long as its power of resistance is 
 not broken; other strong points to the rear will be occupied .and 
 the resistance continued. Similarly, while the nation still retains 
 numbers, food, ammunition, and morale it may be possible to cap- 
 ture local strong points, 2. id force the abandonment of an ex- 
 tended intrenched line, but the nation will not cease making war 
 until its physical or moral power of resistance is broken: other 
 extended intrenched lines to the rear will be occupied and the 
 resistance continued. 
 
 The main objects of trench warfare are to capture local 
 strong points and to break down the resistance of the enemy. The 
 following general principles may be laid down as fundamental. 
 
 (a) "Advance in the open is impossible against enemy fire 
 superiority. 
 
 (b) Advance by open sap work is difficult against enemy 
 artillery fire and almost impossible if the enemy has artillery fire 
 superiority. 
 
922 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 (c) Advance by mining is effective if the enemy has ar- 
 tillery fire superiority. 
 
 (d) An assault against an alert enemy must be preceded 
 by an effective fire of artillery explosive shells to destroy some- 
 what the enemy trenches and obstacles. 
 
 (e) An artillery curtain of fire must be maintained beyond 
 captured enemy trenches in order to assist the successful attack- 
 ers in defending the captured trenches against counter attack. 
 
 Mobile Army. — The situation on the west front in Europe 
 illustrated the effect of having masses of trained men facing each 
 other on a relatively short line. From the North Sea to the bound- 
 ary of Switzerland the battle line extended over a distance of 430 
 miles. The opposing armies had each constructed triple lines 
 of trenches, often supplemented in the rear by a double line of 
 underground shelters where the troops in reserve could rest. Miles 
 upon miles of passageways, saps, galleries, and zigzags afforded 
 means of communication between the trenches. To dig these field 
 fortifications, the allies and Germans are said to have removed 
 about two and one-half times the excavation made at Panama. At 
 a number of points the hostile lines were less than 100 yards apart, 
 and grenades of all types were used in great quantities. There 
 were no flanks to turn, the lines were heavily covered by obstacles, 
 and each side having reserves upon reserves, sapping and mining 
 was freely resorted to in order to gain ground. The opinion that 
 continuous defensive lines are to be avoided since they lead to a 
 dispersion of forces, resulting in general weakness, must be some- 
 what modified when enormous numbers of troops are available. 
 Instead of a series of defensive positions with intervals, we find 
 the opponents in two fortified continuous lines. 
 
 ACCESSORIES OF TRENCH WARFARE 
 
 The observation of the enemy is of first importance in trench 
 warfare. It should give complete knowledge of all the elements 
 of the hostile line and prompt information of any movement of 
 the enemy. It is effected by observation from the ground and 
 observation by aircraft. 
 
 Observation from the ground is divided into three echelons: 
 
 (1) Observation in front of the firing line from small posts 
 and listening posts. (2) Observation on the firing line by senti- 
 nels and lookouts. (3) Observation in rear of the firing line, 
 by artillery observers, sentinels, and lookouts of the shelters. 
 
 Observation in front of the firing line is effected by small 
 posts or listening posts of from 1 to 8 men placed in riflemen's 
 pits, shot holes, organized shell craters, or in short, semicircular 
 
TRENCH WARFARE 923 
 
 elements of trench, connected with the firing line by sap or 
 low-mine gallery. Their protection is assured by their invisi- 
 bility. The retreat of the observers is protected by a system of 
 branch galleries whose entrance into the main gallery can be 
 closed rapidly, or by a barbed-wire protection placed over the sap. 
 The lookouts in small posts are placed in very short trenches, 
 which are provided with loopholes. Protection at short range 
 against grenades is secured by a network of wire. 
 
 Observation on the firing line is effected by lookout posts 
 organized preferably at the salients where the view is more ex- 
 tended. These posts give a view over the enemy's firing line; they 
 are provided with periscopes, range finders, and large scale maps. 
 They should be concealed by all practicable means; observation 
 is carried out under good conditions only when it is done without 
 the knowledge of the enemy. The posts should preferably be con- 
 structed on the right of a traverse, and in an excavation in front 
 of the trench wall. 
 
 The observation posts, even of the infantry, are not neces- 
 sarily in the firing line or in the listening posts. Often in rear, 
 points will be found which will give an excellent view, and will 
 not attract the enemy's attention. The term " observatory " is 
 often employed for this kind of observation post. The observa- 
 tories generally have a more extended view than the lookout post; 
 they are protected and have means of communication such as tele- 
 phone, heliograph, messenger, carrier pigeon, wireless, etc. They 
 may belong to the infantry, the artillery, or higher commands. The 
 observatory may be occupied by the commander himself or by an 
 observer who represents him. In any case the observatory is near 
 the command post. It must have a low parapet, be defiladed from 
 view, and proof against large projectiles. 
 
 The location of the lookout posts and observatories must be 
 determined in accordance with a complete plan for each sup- 
 porting point or sector of defense. No part of the hostile front 
 should be free from observation and the parts of the front favor- 
 able for the attack of the enemy should be specially watched. An 
 observatory should be located near the command posts of the com- 
 manders of strong points, supporting points, and sectors. Those 
 of the last two must have extended views over the whole of the 
 terrain. 
 
 Lines of Information. — During any bombardment the main- 
 tenance of lines of information becomes very difficult, but it must 
 be accomplished by all possible methods, such as: (a) Installing 
 telephones under strong shelters, (b) Using lead-covered cable, 
 buried 6 feet deep, especially for the lines connecting the regi- 
 mental, brigade, division, and corps headquarters. (c) Placing 
 rockets in all shelters and observatories where officers or non- 
 
924 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 commissioned officers are posted, (d) Preparing posts for visual 
 signaling, safe from bombardment and defiladed from view of the 
 enemy. These posts are constructed in shelters similar to those 
 for searchlights and are provided with horizontal loopholes with 
 openings to the flank or rear. 
 
 The problem of the telephone is one of the most important 
 and has yet to be satisfactorily worked out. The allowance of ap- 
 paratus must be greatly increased and systematic organization of 
 men and material is urgently demanded. All persons along the 
 line, passers-by, guards and the like must have an interest in 
 maintaining the lines and keeping clear of the wire. Every non- 
 commissioned officer should have a few staples or long hooks 
 in his pockets so as to place a fallen wire temporarily out of reach 
 of passing troops. Artillery wires should be placed on one side 
 of the trench and infantry wires on the other; they must be high 
 enough to clear men passing at night, loaded and weary, and at 
 trench crossings they must be carefully protected. Constant super- 
 vision and repair of the lines is necessary. Lines with too many 
 phones in series should be avoided. Multiply the centrals and re- 
 duce the phones on the same lines to three or four. 
 
 Battle-field Illumination is a necessity wherever night at- 
 tacks may be expected. Portable searchlights, both animal and 
 motor drawn, in units up to 36 inches, have become an accepted 
 part of every army. In addition, though, to these powerful lights, 
 trenches must be supplied with storage battery or gas reflector 
 lights, star bombs, rockets, and flares, arranged so that they can be 
 put into action instantaneously when an enemy approaches. The 
 entire foreground and obstacles must be illuminated, leaving the 
 defenders in shadow. If a light is used too close to the de- 
 fenders' parapet, they themselves are illuminated and the light 
 becomes a source of danger. Flares, etc., are furnished in all 
 sizes. Some burn as much as 20 minutes and light up an area of 
 100 yards radius. Some are thrown out to the front, as is a hand 
 grenade; others are fired as rockets from shotguns or small mor- 
 tars, and others are fastened in a tree or hidden in a pit well to 
 the front. These latter are set off by trip wires stretched close to 
 the ground, so that an approaching enemy will catch his foot in 
 them. The best illuminant would seem to be one that could be 
 fired well to the front from a small mortar and would then hang 
 suspended from an open parachute above the enemy for a long 
 time. These should not be used in unfavorable winds. If no 
 other flares can be had, bonfires can be laid and held ready for 
 lighting by a quick match made of flash powder. 
 
 Searchlights are the most effective for battle-field illumina- 
 tion. The smaller ones, about 12 inches, are oxyacetylene or in- 
 candescent electric and have a range of 300 to 1,000 yards. The 
 
TRENCH WARFARE 925 
 
 larger ones 24 to 36 inches are of the electric-arc type and have 
 ranges of 2,000 to 5,000 yards. They can also be used for signal- 
 ing. They are placed in shelters similar to those for machine 
 guns, located so as to flank the line of fire. 
 
 Details of Trench Warfare. — The long-continued proximity 
 of opposing trenches has led to scientific development in: 1. The 
 use of trench bombs and hand grenades. 2. The use of asphyxi- 
 ating gases to conceal the advance and to destroy the enemy in his 
 trenches. 3. The use of fire, both offensively and defensively. 4. 
 The extensive use of mining and countermining. 
 
 GRENADES AND BOMBS 
 
 All grenades at the present time are provided with time 
 fuses which cause explosion a certain number of seconds after 
 they are lighted. Grenades for defensive action must be dis- 
 tinguished from grenades for offensive action. In combat at close 
 quarters in open terrain, and particularly during an assault, of- 
 fensive grenades may be used without exposing the grenadier to 
 danger from the fragments. The danger zone of these grenades 
 is limited, extending not more than 8 to 10 yards beyond the 
 bursting point. Defensive grenades burst in a shower of deadly 
 fragments and are effectual at a distance of more than 110 yards 
 from the point of explosion. They should never be thrown from 
 a position unprotected from fragments which might fly back. 
 
 Grenades are thrown either by hand or rifle, the latter being 
 thrown with the aid of a " discharger," a special device fitted to 
 the rifle. Finally, there are suffocating, smoke producing, and in- 
 cendiary grenades, for special uses. 
 
 Primers in use are the metal primer and automatic primer, 
 model 1916 B. The second is intended to supersede the first. 
 
 The metal primer is a percussion primer. After removing 
 the safety cap strike the grenade on the heel of the boot, rifle 
 stock, or other hard object. This brings the primer into contact 
 with the striker, thus igniting the slow match which in turn fires 
 the detonator and causes the explosion. The safety cap prevents 
 accidental puncture of the primer case before actual and intended 
 use of the grenade. 
 
 The automatic primer acts on a different principle. Two 
 fuses are simultaneously struck by a percussion spring, in form of 
 a small pincer, which is released by moving the bolt. This bolt is 
 automatically moved by raising the lever, which is held in safety 
 position by the pin (with ring) and, after the pin is withdrawn, by 
 the hand holding lever and grenade. 
 
926 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 PRECAUTIONS IN REGARD TO UNEXPLODED 
 GRENADES 
 
 Every unexploded grenade is a source of danger and should 
 be regarded as a shell which has been primed, but not exploded. 
 Therefore none should be left on the terrain. If proper precau- 
 tions are taken and the grenade fuse has ignited properly, there 
 can be no danger in picking up and throwing unexploded grenades. 
 If troops are required to take a position where there are any un- 
 exploded grenades, these should be removed as soon as possible. 
 One man, with the aid of a branch or stick, removes the grenades, 
 while the rest of the personnel remain under cover. As a rule, 
 failure to explode is due to nonignition of the fuse or the detona- 
 tor; sometimes to an error in assembling the primer; and more 
 rarely to failure of the percussion caps (or igniters) to operate. If 
 the percussion bolt groove is not obstructed by mud, one can easily 
 see if the fuses have operated, as the groove will be blackened. 
 Such grenades are no more dangerous to handle than the ordinary 
 grenade. 
 
 If, on the other hand, the sides and bottom of the groove 
 are white and shiny, the fuses have not operated, and the percus- 
 sion spring, being in contact with the fuses, might ignite at any 
 shock. In fact, by striking an unexploded dummy grenade vio- 
 lently, on any hard surface, the primer can be destroyed without 
 striking the pin. This is due to the small mass of the striker. In 
 any case, unless the operation of the fuses is quite evident, it is 
 best to remove the grenade singly and by hand, without taking the 
 eyes off them, so that they may, should they become ignited, be 
 thrown away without delay. Unexploded grenades are piled to- 
 gether and fired by a petard. They may be used to advantage to 
 charge a fougasse. 
 
 It is forbidden to unscrew the primer cap of a loaded gren- 
 ade unless it is done with a special tool designed to protect the op- 
 erator from the explosion. 
 
 TRENCH RAIDS 
 
 Grenades are freely used in trench raids which are executed 
 (a) by small groups of selected men, who have confidence in one 
 another and are specially trained in handling grenades, or (b) by 
 a selected unit, sometimes reinforced by additional officers or non- 
 commissioned officers, leaving the unreliable element behind. 
 
 The object of trench raids may be to throw grenades into an 
 occupied portion of a hostile trench, to attack the head of a sap, 
 
TRENCH WARFARE 92/ 
 
 to seize and hold an excavation, or to capture an outpost or small 
 trench in order to obtain prisoners. The success of operations of 
 this kind depends chiefly upon the preparations which have been 
 made beforehand in the way of careful reconnaisances and by re- 
 hearsing in rear all phases of the operation under conditions as 
 nearly like the real ones as possible. 
 
 Preparations for Trench Raids. — Meticulous care should be 
 exercised in preparing for trench raids. The special preparations 
 which an officer who is to conduct a trench raid should make are 
 as follows: 
 
 1. To make and have made all necessary reconnaissances 
 (of the ground, of the obstacles, hostile trenches, etc.). The ter- 
 rain should be studied with the object of selecting the routes of 
 approach and of finding cover for grenade throwers within reach 
 of the hostile position. The organization of the enemy's position 
 may be studied from photographs taken by aviators. 
 
 2. To select the best conditions for the operation (weather, 
 hours, etc.). 
 
 3. To assign to each group or squad of grenadiers a defi- 
 nite task. 
 
 4. To arrange the best possible system for keeping up the 
 supply of ammunition and grenades. 
 
 5. To acquaint the infantry and artillery units which are to 
 support the operation thoroughly with his plans for executing it. 
 
 The officer who commands the trench raid should personally 
 direct the units performing the main task. One of his subordinates 
 should be specially detailed to supervise the replenishment of gren- 
 ades. 
 
 Execution of Trench Raids. — The troops making the trench 
 raid approach the hostile trench silently; if preparation has been 
 made by artillery fire the approach should be rapid. When they 
 reach the points selected for crossing the obstacles (which are sup- 
 posed to have been destroyed) a volley of grenades is thrown into 
 the hostile trench; as soon as they burst the grenadiers rush the 
 trench. 
 
 Similar tasks are performed by two units, which, on reaching 
 the hostile trench, proceed to mop it up, one going to the right and 
 the other to the left. Every care should be taken to avoid being 
 caught under a discharge of hostile grenades; a position a few 
 yards in rear of the trench which has been attacked may have been 
 prepared for this purpose by the enemy. Sometimes it is better 
 to select a very dark night or very bad weather for the raid. An 
 understanding should exist between the groups of grenadier^ and 
 the garrison of the trenches from which they start. A few rifle 
 shots fired under conditions agreed on beforehand warn the raiders 
 that an illuminating shell is to be fired. The raiders lie down and 
 
928 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 take advantage of the light by examining the ground in their front. 
 As soon as the light dies out they make a rush and then halt, if 
 necessary, for another illuminating shell. During the mopping up 
 of the trench the throwers' assistants provide for security in ac- 
 cordance with instructions given them before the start. 
 
 Supply of Grenades. — Keeping up the supply of grenades 
 should be a constant source of care to all commanders. The most 
 careful provisions should be made to prevent the grenadiers being 
 short of ammunition, and these provisions should be established on 
 the basis that for every two grenades sent up from the rear only 
 one arrives at its destination. 
 
 RIFLE GRENADES 
 
 Rifle grenades when efficiently handled may demoralize the 
 enemy and inflict upon him greater losses than are caused by the 
 artillery bombardment. The hostile trenches should be minutely 
 studied and the points at which the enemy may be taken at a dis- 
 advantage should be reconnoitered (sentinels' posts, the entrances 
 of bombproof s, crossings of approach trenches, etc.). The rifles, 
 on their supports, should be directed continuously on these points, 
 in order to be able to fire a grenade at the least indication of move- 
 ment. The fire of rifle grenades upon selected localities is kept up 
 night and day. 
 
 In spite of the fact that the enemy is seldom seen, that his 
 first line is thin, and that he is sheltered in bombproofs, it is pos- 
 sible to cause him considerable losses by keeping up a continuous 
 hail of rifle grenades on well-chosen localities. 
 
 VIVEN BESSIERES GRENADES 
 
 The Viven Bessieres rifle grenade is a part of the infantry 
 equipment. All of the men should be trained in its use. The num- 
 ber of grenade tubes issued is limited by their weight and the limi- 
 tations of ammunition supply. This grenade has the advantage 
 that it is not very cumbersome and that it is fired by means of the 
 ordinary ball cartridge. 
 
 Employment on the Defensive. — Fire for effect on the de- 
 fensive by this grenade is employed to inflict constant losses upon 
 the enemy, to demoralize him, to hinder his trench work. The bar- 
 rage defensive fire is used to repulse attacks. The 16 grenade tubes 
 of a company can fire 150 grenades per minute, and can make, at 
 a distance of from 90 to 165 yards, an impassable barrier. It is 
 often a good plan to group the grenade firers of the company in 
 groups of from 2 to 4, commanded by a non-commissioned officer. 
 
TRENCH WARFARE 929 
 
 Fire for effect is based on knowledge of the routine in the 
 enemy's trenches. An especially well-organized observation serv- 
 ice is indispensable. By a combination of observation, study of 
 photographs taken by aviators, study of the map, and information 
 from all sources, the targets and the hours for firing which will 
 give the best results may be arrived at. 
 
 Employment on the Offensive. — The Viven Bessieres gre- 
 nade is used on the offensive to extend the radius of action of the 
 hand grenades, in reaching an enemy under cover at a greater 
 distance. In many local combats, where it is not practicable to 
 obtain artillery support, it takes the place of this support by ac- 
 curately bombarding the strong points of the hostile line. It 
 isolates hostile groups attacked with hand grenades, cutting off 
 their retreat, and preventing reinforcements from reaching them. 
 It is very effective in repulsing hostile counter attacks. In any 
 situation, but especially on the offensive, it is better to concen- 
 trate the fire of these grenades. 
 
 D. R. GRENADE 
 
 In comparison with the Viven Bessieres grenade, the D. R. 
 grenade or shell has twice the range and much greater power; but 
 it is a more cumbersome projectile, and its supply requires more 
 men for the same number of grenades. So it can not replace the 
 Viven Bessieres grenade in offensive action, but it is useful in con- 
 solidating the occupation of a position. 
 
 In defense the D. R. grenade can supplement the artillery 
 support; it is useful in harassing the enemy and for quick concen- 
 trations when an assembly is ordered. 
 
 In the attack it can strengthen a line which has been taken 
 and can replace artillery in the preparation of an attack against a 
 nucleus of resistance which has been isolated or left behind in the 
 progress of an attack. It supplements or creates alone the de- 
 structive effects of field artillery fire. It is well adapted to the 
 preparation and support of trench raids, to the isolation and cap- 
 ture of small objectives, to covering the retirement- of attacking 
 troops when they have accomplished their mission, etc. 
 
 POSITIONS FOR RIFLE GRENADE GROUPS 
 
 Barrage fire is made by combining the use of rifle grenades 
 and hand grenades for the purpose of repulsing hostile attacks. 
 This kind of fire is important when our communication with the 
 rear has been broken or when the proximity of hostile trenches 
 renders artillery barrage fire ineffective. 
 
930 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 LOW POWER WEAPONS (TRENCH MORTARS) 
 
 These weapons have a range from 55 to 330 yards. They are 
 effective especially against the personnel of the enemy on account 
 of their curved fire, which the rifle can not achieve. Their chief 
 use is in defense; however, the new weapons are light enough to ac- 
 company an offensive and can be brought into action quickly in a 
 newly taken position. The best effects are obtained from oblique 
 fire and when the effects can be observed easily. 
 
 Positions are prepared for them both in the vicinity of the 
 advanced trench and near the trenches of the supports, and the 
 same pieces are ranged from one or the other of these positions 
 according to the results which are desired. 
 
 Fighting in the Communicating Trenches. — Pneumatic mor- 
 tars and D. R. grenades are advantageously employed in impeding 
 at considerable distances the enemy's supply of grenades and in 
 blocking his lines of retreat. 
 
 Additional positions are prepared for them further in the 
 rear, so placed as to enable them to fire on our most important 
 communicating trenches and upon portions of our first line which 
 are most open to attack by the enemy. If the mortars are placed 
 in the rifle trenches they should be separated from the positions 
 of the riflemen by traverses. The utility of trench mortars con- 
 sists: 
 
 In Demolitions. — They are effective only in destroying small 
 advanced works, such as listening posts and small earthworks in 
 process of construction. For this purpose the fire should be de- 
 livered rapidly. One hundred and fifty to 200 small shells can de- 
 molish a listening post and about 16 yards of the trench leading to 
 it. 
 
 In Offensive Fire.Action. — They are used during the artillery 
 fire preparation for the attack against portions of the hostile line 
 which .appear to be neglected by our artillery and high-power mor- 
 tars. After the attack has been launched they a # re used against 
 parts of the enemy's line which our infantry cannot reach and 
 which must be prevented from taking in flank portions of our line 
 which have advanced. 
 
 In Defense. — When the enemy is evidently preparing to at- 
 tack, the trench mortars which can not assist in repulsing the at- 
 tack should not be left in exposed positions near the first line. 
 They should be taken to the positions which have been prepared 
 for them in rear, where they can bombard the trenches and ap- 
 proaches which the enemy may occupy. 
 
 In Causing Losses to the Enemy. — During lulls in the fight- 
 ing rapid fire should be opened unexpectedly in order to harass the 
 enemy during the heat of the day, during a rainstorm, on dark or 
 
TRENCH WARFARE 931 
 
 still nights, when the enemy is changing reliefs, at the hours for 
 meals, etc. Fire for this purpose may be combined with that of 
 rifle grenades, whose functions are very similar to those of trench 
 mortars. 
 
 37-CALIBER (1.5-INCH) GUNS 
 
 The tactical characteristics of the 37 gun are: Its mobility 
 and the lightness of its ammunition permit it to accompany infan- 
 try in all phases of the combat. It can be hidden easily, can be 
 dug into the ground with little labor, and can be used for masked 
 fire. It can be laid easily. It is very accurate. It can hit individual 
 targets up to 1,300 yards, and has an effective range up to 1,600 
 yards. It is a rapid firer, and, for short periods, can be fired as 
 t fast as 20 rounds per minute. Its percussion-explosive shell is used 
 iagainst personnel and materiel, and its steel shell is used against 
 screens and shields. Its effectiveness is similar to that of a gren- 
 ade, but its shell can pierce, before bursting, two or three thick- 
 nesses of sandbags, a wooden barrier, or a steel shield. Its fire has 
 very little effect upon earthworks. It can, by direct fire, destroy 
 Ihostile machine guns which show themselves. Its fire is very ef- 
 fective against troops upon which it can bring an enfilading fire. 
 
 In Offensive Action. — The 37 guns are generally under the 
 orders of the battalion commanders, but in some cases they are 
 'kept at the disposal of the regimental commander. They are used 
 for preparing and supporting attacks, for crushing hostile resist- 
 ance during an assault, and for assisting in consolidating the occu- 
 pation of a captured position. 1 
 
 For the purpose of preparing and suporting an attack the 
 37 gun must be placed, before the attack is started, in a position 
 from which it .can fire effectively to destroy the positions of ma- 
 chine guns which disclose themselves at the last moment, to fire 
 upon positions which menace the flank of the attacking line, or to 
 fire on the second or third lines of the enemy. In order to avoid 
 'having them destroyed prematurely by hostile artillery fire it is 
 better to keep them out of the action till the last moment. 
 
 Use During the Assault. — During the assault the 37 guns are 
 brought forward as soon as they can no longer fire effectively 
 From their first positions or when the infantry need their assist- 
 ance in crushing a hostile resistance. This change of position 
 should be provided for in the order for the attack. On account 
 of their vulnerability the 37 guns should never accompany the first 
 waves of the attack; they should follow the reserve of the battalion 
 Dr of the regiment. They are used in destroying machine gun po- 
 sitions and in sweeping hostile trenches and approaches which can 
 De fired on from enfilading positions. They should not be used at 
 
932 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 very short ranges when it can be avoided. They should use masked 
 fire as far as possible. 
 
 Occupation of the Captured Position. — In consolidating a 
 captured position the employment of the 37 guns is similar to that 
 of machine guns. They are placed so as to be able to fire on posi- 
 tions from which it is thought that the enemy will launch a counter 
 attack; positions for oblique fire are looked for. It is always advis- 
 able to provide a number of masked positions to avoid being 
 spotted by the hostile artillery. 
 
 In Defense. — Attempts are constantly made to shell hostile 
 firing positions and observation points reported by our informa- 
 tion service. A number of positions should be prepared along the 
 line assigned to the battalion and in rear of it. During the violent 
 bombardment preceding a hostile attack the 37 guns should not be 
 kept in the first line. By putting them in action near the line of 
 supports, or a little in rear of that line, they can assist in making 
 a barrage, especially by enfilading fire. They should fire on por- 
 tions of our front where our artillery barrage is uncertain (on ac- 
 count of natural obstacles, dead angles, etc.). 
 
 Finally, the 37 gun is well adapted to masked fire; it can reg- 
 ister on important approaches, trench crossings, etc. But the range 
 should be checked at each shot, for, although it is a very accurate 
 weapon, its range will change considerably during the course of 
 one continuous firing if the atmospheric conditions change. 
 
 TRENCH WEAPONS 
 
 Trench artillery includes low-power weapons served by in- 1 
 f antry detachments, known as sapper-bombardiers, and high-power 
 weapons served by the artillery. The principal low-power weap-j 
 ons in service are the pneumatic howitzers of 2.362 inches caliber 
 and the D. R. bombard. The pneumatic howitzers include the 
 Brandt howitzer, models 1915 and 1916 and the Dormoy-Chateau 
 howitzer. 
 
 It is especially necessary to bear in mind that the platform 
 is the vital part of a battery; badly installed, it quickly becomes un- 
 serviceable. Every chief of platoon should give his assistance to 
 the organization and solidifying of the emplacements constructed 
 in his neghborhood. There are never too many emplacements 
 prepared in advance with a view to securing to these batteries the 
 mobility necessary to escaping reprisals and frustrating the enemy. 
 
 Pneumatic (2.362 inches Caliber, Brandt) Howitzer, Model 
 1915. — This compressed-air howitzer is composed of a tube of 60 
 millimeters (2.362 inches) interior diameter, the annular reservoir; 
 and the movable breechblock. On the part carrying the breech- 
 block hinge are two threaded orifices for the coupling of air-sup- 
 
 
TRENCH WARFARE 
 
 933 
 
 ply tubes and also a safety plug. Feeding is accomplished by air 
 pumps or by tanks of compressed air. By using tanks, a rapidity 
 of fire of eighteen shots per minute can be attained. 
 
 The personnel consists of one chief of piece and observer, 
 one gunner and one loader. The action is simple: Give the eleva- 
 tion and connect the howitzer to the pumps or tanks; take the pro- 
 jectile, wipe it, set the fuse, load, close the breechblock; introduce 
 
 BRANDT HOWITZER, TYPE 1915. 
 
 the air until the pressure gauge on the feed tube indicates the de- 
 sired pressure; discharge the piece by working the sear with the 
 finger. 
 
 Variation in range is obtained by changing the elevation 
 (angle of fire) and the air pressure in conformity with a table that 
 is added to the equipment. The pressure varies from 4.4 to 33 
 pounds; the angles employed are 20°, 30°, 42°, and 60°; the angle 
 42° is most used. The accuracy is good. Bracketing is accom- 
 plished by changes of 2.2 to 4.4 pounds of air pressure. In enfil- 
 ade fire one can almost at once get on a trench 1 yard wide up to 
 range of 160 yards. Accuracy decreases normally with the range 
 and very rapidly from 219 to 1,094 yards. The safety valve func- 
 
 .tions at a pressure of 33 pounds. 
 
 c Light Brandt Howitzer, Model 1916. — Same discharge tube 
 
 iand same annular reservoir, as the preceding, but with fixed 
 
 {breechblock and loading at the muzzle. 
 
 The piece fires at a fixed angle (42°) from an aluminum sup- 
 port to which it is rigidly attached. The entire weight is 35.2 
 
 I pounds, and it is easily transportable in an attack. 
 
 ( Aside from loadng at the muzzle, the manipulation of the 
 
 ;piece is the same as for the model 1915 firing at a constant angle. 
 
 -Assure yourself that the projectile has fallen to the bottom of 
 the bore. Do not push it, if it has to be pushed, until you have 
 
934 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 put the pressure gauge at 0°. A graduated sector and a clamp 
 screw assure the horizontal direction of the piece. The breech- 
 block can be unscrewed for the purpose of extracting a projectile 
 of improper caliber that cannot be pushed to its proper seat. 
 
 Dormoy-Chateau Pneumatic Howitzer, Model 1916. — This 
 light howitzer weighing 33 pounds has about the same character- 
 istics as the preceding. It is a muzzle-loader and fires at a fixed 
 angle with variable pressure. It is fired by pump or tank. The 
 original feature of this engine is that the gas check is at the muz- 
 zle; the air compressed in the reservoir by the pumps is forced into 
 the discharge tube both in front and in rear of the projectile. When 
 the desired pressure is attained, the gas check is unbolted by means 
 of a lanyard; the pressure in front of the projectile at once falls, 
 and the latter is expelled by the mass of expanding air behind it. 
 The pneumatic howitzers of 60 millimeters (2.362 inches) caliber 
 fire the two following projectiles: 
 
 Projectile, Type A, Model 1915. — Cast-iron shell interiorly 
 prepared for fragmentation, weighing 2 pounds, 1 ounce, 221 grains, 
 of which 4 ounces, 102 grains is explosive; length, 8.26 inches; fish 
 shape, rear feathering of four sheet-iron guide wings. Percussion 
 fuse functioning by inertia; security assured by a pin traversing 
 the fuse, and that must be removed before firing. In addition, the 
 fuse is protected by a cap that can not be removed, but that can 
 be given a quarter turn after having removed the pin, in order to 
 mask the holes in the fuse through which this pin passed. 
 
 Projectile, Type B, Model 1916. — This projectile is shorter 
 and lighter than type A, but has a greater range. Its safety is in- 
 sured by the fact that the firing pin does not project far enough 
 to reach the primer. A wire is wound around the shank of the fir- 
 ing pin like a thread around the spindle, and when the ring is 
 jerked the firing pin turns and advances in a screw hole in the 
 cap of the fuse and thus acquires the projection necessary to be- 
 come active. 
 
 D. R. Bombard. — This engine is composed of a metallic base 
 on which are disposed 4 gun barrels, with a breech casing. These 
 barrels are truncated to 15^4 inches, or thereabouts, from the be- 
 ginning of the chamber and close hermetically. On each one are 
 brazed two mandrels for the projection of the D. R. grenade. Fir- 
 ing is accomplished by means of a lanyard that simultaneously pulls 
 the four triggers; eight D. R. grenades are thus projected at once. 
 
 PROTECTION AGAINST ASPHYXIATING GASES 
 
 In the zone fixed by the commanding officer, a zone which, 
 may extend to several miles from the trenches, every one should al- 
 ways carry the mask M..2 or TNH. Its use is taught by means of 
 
TRENCH WARFARE 935 
 
 frequent drills and the following principles should be remembered: 
 
 1. The individual apparatus is the only real preventative. 
 Its efficacy lasts several hours, after which it should be replaced. 
 2. No individual apparatus is efficacious if it has not been per- 
 fectly adjusted beforehand, if it is not hermetically sealed. 3. No 
 apparatus is efficacious if it is not ready to be put in place quickly 
 when the need arises. One should verify by alarms that there 
 has been no relaxation in precaution, and that the protections pre- 
 pared beforehand work quickly and properly. 4. All wetting of 
 masks is expressly forbidden. 5. During a gas attack never al- 
 low the masks to be removed prematurely. 6. Keep a careful 
 watch at all times for particular manifestations on the part of the 
 enemy indicating a gas attack (metallic noises, small ballons, etc.). 
 When the wind is favorable redouble the attention and be ready 
 for instant action. 
 
 The main body should be notified of any sign of unusual ac- 
 tivity on the part of the enemy. 
 
 Mask M. 2 or TNH. — This presents the advantage of having 
 only a single apparatus to put on to protect both the eyes and the 
 lungs. It is made in one regular size, adjustable to the majority 
 of heads, and two extra sizes for heads of abnormal conformation. 
 The translucent substance does not stand washing. In the model 
 with two separate eyepieces the translucent plate is protected by 
 a glass plate, the inner face of which sometimes becomes covered 
 with moisture; if it is known beforehand that the mask must be 
 worn for some time, the glass plates should be removed before us- 
 ing, after making sure that the seating of the plate that remains is 
 sufficient to properly seal it. Every mask with a cracked plate 
 should be replaced. The men should be warned against touching 
 the translucent plates, which are fragile, especially after having 
 been dampened by respiration. 
 
 Draeger Apparatus. — An apparatus composed of a bottle of 
 oxygen, a respiratory sac, a cartridge of potassium to absorb the 
 carbonic acid expelled from the lungs, and a flexible tube with a 
 rubber mouthpiece (two bottles and two cartridges for renewal). 
 Breathing is done through the mouth, the nose being closed by a 
 clip. It is serviceable for a half hour if the initial pressure of the 
 bottle of oxygen is 330 pounds. It is forbidden to exhaust it pre- 
 maturely under the pretext of testing it, or even to uncork prema- 
 turely the bottle. The Draeger apparatus is suitable for the equip- 
 ment of life savers having received a special training. 
 
 Eyepieces and Antimoisture Chalk. — Rubber spectacle?, hol- 
 lowed out and forming a mask or pneumatic spectacles, are the 
 habitual complement of the Draeger apparatus. Antimoisture 
 chalk is employed on ordinary glass plates; it is useless on those 
 of antimoisture glass (recognizable by being mounted in alumi- 
 
936 'MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 num ring having serrated edges). To clean the translucent plates 
 rub lightly the part turned toward the eye with the chalk, spread 
 it with the finger, rub with a dry cloth, removing all signs of the 
 chalk, until the surface becomes bright again. 
 
 Tissot Apparatus. — The Tissot apparatus is a filtering appa- 
 ratus and not one producing oxygen; it is a more perfect mask 
 than the M. 2, and has no similarity to the Dfaeger, which it can 
 not take the place of, and which alone makes it possible to breathe 
 in an atmosphere devoid of oxygen. The Tissot mask is effica- 
 cious for some dozens of hours, if it has been properly taken 
 care of. It is an apparatus of the sector, to be used in command 
 posts, in support positions, in machine gun shelters, in observation 
 and signal posts; it is suitable for everyone required to remain for 
 a long time in a noxious atmosphere not deprived of oxygen. 
 
 Atomizers. — Apparatuses for collective protection. They 
 are delicate and do not work unless held properly and manipulated 
 by men who have been exercised in their use. They will not neu- 
 tralize a wave of gas, but serve during the attack and in a closed 
 shelter to keep the canvas of the shelter wet or to absorb the gas 
 which has filtered through the cracks; after the attack they serve 
 to purify the air in the shelter and even in the trenches. 
 
 It must be remembered that gas always has the tendency to 
 sink, and that it is there (in hollows and low ground) that it must 
 be fought. 
 
 Protection of Shelters. — To protect a shelter, prepare in ad- 
 vance a panel of canvas made waterproof (parrafin, linseed oil, 
 pint) or impregnated with hyposulfite, by -which the entrance may 
 quickly be hermetically closed. Put up as soon as possible a sec- 
 ond canvas from 20 inches to 1 yard from the first. Keep damp- 
 ened by the atomizer, worked from the interior. If nothing better 
 is at hand, use the men's blankets. 
 
 Special Methods. — The collective methods which follow give 
 only relative protection; Fire barrier: The burning of dry ma- 
 terial giving a line of high and hot flames and little smoke may, 
 under favorable circumstances, lift the wave of gas when it arrives 
 at the trench. If possible, two barriers close together should be 
 prepared, one on the parapet and the other on the reverse slope. 
 Volatile oil is more suitable than petroleum or other oily combus- 
 tibles. Isolated fires: These can protect fairly well particular 
 points, such as the entrance to a shelter. They are valuable for 
 purifying the air in the trench and shelter after the passage of 
 the wave of gas. Black-powder bombs or shells, explosive shells, 
 machine gun fire, throwing of incendiary grenades, etc., have no 
 effect on a wave of gas. 
 
 Protection Against Carbon Dioxide. — Gas from the enemy 
 is not the only danger; carbon dioxide, produced by our own car- 
 
TRENCH WARFARE 937 
 
 tridges, is another in closed casemates. A single cartridge pro- 
 duces almost a quart of carbon dioxide. The gas escaping from the 
 mechanism of a machine gun varies from one-sixth to one-tenth of 
 the gas produced; the air in a shelter, 20 square meters (215 square 
 feet), thus becomes poisoned after 250 to 300 shots, if the escape of 
 - gas takes place in the interior of the shelter. 
 
 The employment of a flash concealer also conserves gas in a 
 shelter. It is necessary therefore to arrange the machine gun in 
 such manner that the orifice for the escape of gas is outside the 
 shelter or to assure a good ventilation of the shelter. It must also 
 be remembered that the mask M. 2 jand Tissot mask furnish no 
 protection against carbon dioxide. They should never be employed 
 as means of rescue following shell explosions or in a mine cham- 
 ber; recourse must be had to the Draeger to penetrate into places 
 devoid of oxygen or saturated with carbon dioxide. 
 
 INFANTRY IN THE TRENCHES 
 
 Infantry in the trenches is usually in a position in readiness 
 
 , for combat, a situation which is sometimes prolonged for several 
 
 : m6nths and permits of thorough organization. 
 
 During very short crises, it is attacked in its trenches or it 
 
 . moves out to attack. 
 
 The Plan of Defense. — The commander of troops in a posi- 
 tion in readiness must study in advance the various missions that 
 may eventually be given him, to keep himself informed as to the sit- 
 uation, and to reconnoiter or cause to be reconnoitered the terrain 
 involved. In this way he will be ready, when the moment comes, 
 to enter into action with his troops without loss of time and under 
 the best of conditions. This regulation contains in brief form the 
 duties of the officers of a company detailed for the defense of a 
 strong point or sector. 
 
 Every commander of a unit, large or small, must establish a 
 plan of defense with a view to fighting superior forces on the 
 ground which has been intrusted to him. It is based upon knowl- 
 edge of the hostile line and of the terrain from which result: The 
 
 .determination of the probable points of attack; the choice of the 
 principal points of resistance (active elements or sectors) and the 
 strength of the force that will occupy them; the preparation of 
 counter attacks; and the organization of approaches, food supply, 
 evacuations, and communications. 
 
 A paragraph of the plan of defense is called plan of observa- 
 tion and prescribes the observation from the ground. The plan 
 of defense should embody the following principles; 
 
938 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 1. The defense in depth is made by stopping the enemy at 
 successive points skillfully selected in advance and prepared for 
 resistance. 
 
 2. Every element of trench, every isle of resistance (barri- 
 cades, organized trench crossings, small works, and the like) 
 must have a commander responsible for its defense and mainten- 
 ance. 
 
 3. Troops detailed to the defense of a portion of the terrain 
 must never abandon it, no matter what happens. It is necessary 
 to remove from the minds of the troops every ambiguity on this 
 subject; the existence of stronger lines of defense in rear of the 
 trench occupied, the echeloning of the company into advanced ele- 
 ments (squads, half platoons) and main body placed farther to the 
 rear, never implies for these advanced elements the authority for 
 falling back on the main body, even if they consider their situation 
 critical. All resistance must be prolonged on the ground, in the 
 position where the troops have been placed; resistance ceases only 
 when one is placed hors de combat or has received from his supe- 
 rior commander a formal and authentic order (preferably in writ- 
 ing) to go and occupy another position. Every order arriving ver- 
 bally by an uncertain route must be considered null and void (to 
 be particularly mistrusted are orders for a retreat passing anony- 
 mously along the firing line). The "conduct to be observed in case 
 of attack" is given to the smallest elements, and must always be 
 very clear on this subject. 
 
 4. All ground lost is recovered by an immediate counter at- 
 tack delivered by troops reserved for that purpose. In a strong 
 point (company), one or more support platoons may have the mis- 
 sion of local counter attacks in certain contingencies announced in 
 the plan of defense of the supporting point. The company occupy- 
 ing a part of the line has no reserve. The counter attacks are espe- 
 cially provided for and launched by the battalion commander, who 
 has at his disposal for this purpose the reserves of the strong 
 point (companies, half companies, or platoons). The plan of de- 
 fense of the strong points covers the principal contingencies of the 
 penetration of the hostile line in front of the battalion and provides 
 the proper counter attack for each case. Each company or platoon 
 receives copies of the part of the plan that concerns it. 
 
 Reconnaissance of the Strong Point. — When a company is to 
 go into trenches the reconnaissance must be made in daytime by 
 the captain and the commander or a non-commissioned officer of 
 each platoon. It is sufficient to leave in rear an officer or non- 
 commissioned officer to lead the company during the night to the 
 beginning of the trenches. In addition, the reconnoitering party 
 includes the communicating file of the captain and four guides (one 
 per platoon). The four guides return to the rear to meet the com- 
 
TRENCH WARFARE 939 
 
 pany at the place and hour agreed upon, while the rest of the re- 
 connoitering party remains in the trenches to familiarize them- 
 selves with the plan of defense and the terrain. This personnel 
 may be reduced when the company is to be the battalion reserve in 
 the strong point. 
 
 Plan of Defense of the Strong Point.— The four platoon 
 commanders assembled at the command post of the captain, take 
 note of the plan of defense of the strong point and the explanations 
 of the captain of the company relieved. The captain then distrib- 
 utes the four platoons among the different elements of the strong 
 point. He prescribes the groupings of the grenadiers and automa- 
 tic-rifle sections that it may be necessary to make up in addition 
 to the usual sections, in accordance with the provisions of the plan 
 of defense. Each platoon commander, accompanied by his com- 
 municating file and his guide, then takes post near the platoon 
 commander of the platoon that he relieves. The relieving captain 
 is not at all obliged to pattern his dispositions and instructions 
 after those of his predecessor, unless these dispositions have been 
 ordered by superior authority. However, to facilitate relief by 
 night, always a delicate operation, it is recommended the relief be 
 made platoon by platoon and even squad by squad, and those mod- 
 ifications which the captain may wish to make in the interior dis- 
 tribution of the forces in his strong point be postponed until day- 
 light. 
 
 Plan of Defense and Instructions for Each Platoon. — Each 
 platoon commander inspects quickly the elements of trenches and 
 the shelters which his platoon is to occupy, and also the command 
 post. He then sends back his communicating file to the captain 
 and his guide to the head of the company, after having indicated 
 to the latter the distribution of the squads. The guide returns by 
 the approach trench (a signpost indicates if movement in only one 
 direction is permitted), takes note en route of the necessary ref- 
 erence points, signposts, and the like. The platoon commander ob- 
 tains from the platoon commander whom he relieves the extract of 
 the plan of defense that concerns the trench or trenches occu- 
 pied by the platoon and has the terrain pointed out to him in detail. 
 This extract of the plan of defense shows: For the platoons in the 
 first line, the precise role of each of the elements of trench or isles 
 'of resistance of which the defense is intrusted to the platoon (for 
 example, to cover with fire such and such part of the terrain in 
 front, to flank such and such a neighboring element, and so on); 
 for the reinforcement platoons, the combat stations in case of 
 alarm, the role of reinforcing or counter attack to play in the con- 
 tingencies covered by the plan of defense of the strong point. 
 
 The task given to a platoon occupying a part of a line, 
 either in trenches or in combat, is very simple: The difficult part 
 
940 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 is to communicate it to subordinates with such precision and clear- 
 ness that at the critical moment no one will allow himself to be 
 turned aside from his role by the obstacles, foreseen or unforeseen, 
 that are sure to arise. To do exactly what has been ordered, to 
 carry out to the letter what has been recognized as necessary in 
 defense, as in all other operations of a platoon, is the whole secret 
 of success. 
 
 TACTICAL MEMORANDUM FOR THE CHIEF OF 
 PLATOON 
 
 When the platoon commander has thoroughly grasped the 
 particular role of his platoon in the whole plan of defense, he easily 
 deduces from it all the measures of tactical detail which will be his 
 constant occupation during his sojourn in the trenches. He re- 
 ceives from his predecessor all the information which may be 
 summed up in the following memorandum, which also applies to 
 every chief of a trench or small work: 
 
 1; Extract from the Plan of Defense. — Role of the trench 
 in the entire position; detailed sketch of its organization; role of 
 the adjacent platoons; communications with them and with the 
 captain. 
 
 2. Defense. — Organization of the defense of the trench 
 (firing positions, fields of fire, flanking arrangements, positions 
 for machine guns and automatic rifles, positions for grenadiers, po- 
 sitions for trench weapons, and points exposed to fire; positions, 
 strength, and capacity of shelters; arrangements for protection 
 against gas; nearest dressing stations). 
 
 Accessory defenses. Obstructed passages through the wire 
 entanglements. 
 
 Information concerning the enemy; sketches of the hostile 
 trench; summary of the results of observation, reference points. 
 
 Dangerous points; projectiles received; menaces of mining 
 operations; unexploded projectiles. 
 
 3. Guards. — Lookout posts; instructions of particular look- 
 outs; listening posts; patrols in front of the accessory defenses; 
 rounds. 
 
 4. Materiel. — Niches for cartridges and grenades; fuses; 
 condition of grenades and fuses; shields; periscopes; tools for earth 
 work or demolition; various materials that the captain has been 
 able to install permanently; appliances for defense against gas; 
 nearest water supply. 
 
 5. Works in Progress or Ordered. — Trenches to maintain 
 in rear. 
 
 6. Location of the Latrines. — Holes for garbage; state of 
 cleanliness or lack of cleanliness of the trench. 
 
TRENCH WARFARE 941 
 
 In order to facilitate the transmission of instructions, each 
 chief of a trench must make note of the preceding information and 
 pass it on in writing to his successor. 
 
 Distribution of the Platoon Between the Firing Trench and 
 the Support Trench. — As the occupancy of a strong point by the 
 same company may last several days, it is necessary to define 
 clearly for each fraction (and in each fraction for each man) the 
 alternations of rest and duty, rather than to let all the men stay 
 in the trenches in a situation that is neither rest nor combat. The 
 principle is to keep in the firing trench only the men strictly neces- 
 sary for watching, ordinary fighting, and work (strength varying 
 from one-third to one-sixth of the company). The other men are 
 in the cover trench or the support trench at rest or occupied in 
 other work. 
 
 According to circumstances, the captain causes the platoons 
 of the company to take the duty in the front line in rotation, or, 
 better, gives to two or three of them a definite frontage, disposing 
 them in depth, and keeping one or two platoons grouped in the 
 support trench as a reinforcement. The platoon commander then 
 organizes his service by causing squads or men to alternate on 
 the firing line (lookouts, grenadiers, riflemen, and so on). 
 
 The only absolute rule is that every trench of the firing line 
 must have at all times a responsible chief present in the trench 
 (sergeant of the guard) and that a strict discipline must reign 
 among the men who are there at their posts of combat. 
 
 They must be relieved often enough to enable their attention 
 to be continuous, and care must be taken that they are not kept 
 in the firing trench when their turn has come for relaxation or 
 sleep. 
 
 For the same purpose the captain details by roster an officer 
 of the guard (platoon commander) charged with watching the 
 whole front of the strong point. 
 
 Organization of the Guard and the Harassing Fire. — The 
 guard of the trenches is intended not only to prevent the enemy 
 from rushing them, but also to observe continually the details of 
 his defensive organization, and to take advantage of his slightest 
 movement to inflict losses. 
 
 Choice and Training of Lookouts. — All the men of the com- 
 pany can fill the role of sentinel alongside of a bombproof, but all 
 men are not capable of observing. Some men are more apt than 
 others; aptitude is developed by exercise. The training of good 
 observers is a most important task. It is necessary that the observ- 
 ers shall not only know how to see without being seen, but that 
 they shall also have tenacity and patience in observation. Each 
 platoon should have at least six observers, who should be good 
 shots and have good eyesight. In combat in open country two 
 
942 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 accompany and assist the platoon commander, one of whom ob- 
 serves constantly the signals of the communicating file of the pla- 
 toon, who marches at the side of the captain. The other four may 
 serve as scouts. In the trenches they alternate in serving as 
 lookouts. The communicating agents of the captain and of the 
 battalion commander serve them as observers. They divide up the 
 terrain to be watched, observing the movements of the enemy and 
 those of their own troops, and the signals. In every unit the chief 
 indicates without delay to his superiors (and to the artillery) the 
 points which afford a good view over the surrounding country. 
 
 Requirement of Harassing Fire. — The harassing fire must be. 
 the constant care of every platoon commander of all troops to keep 
 up the continual fear of retaliation. The war of the trenches is 
 neither a relaxation nor guard duty; it is a phase of the battle. It 
 is necessary that each hostile company shall go back from the 
 trenches with a loss of at least 20 men. It is necessary that the ad- 
 versary shall feel in front of him a vigilant hatred, and know that 
 we wish no rest before his defeat. 
 
 Lookouts. — The lookouts always keep their rifles in their 
 hands; they are forbidden to sit down. They must remain con- 
 tinually at their posts, even during violent bombardments. They 
 receive general instructions for the following cases: Attack by 
 surprise or preceded by a bombardment; attack preceded by a dis- 
 charge of gas; arrival of bombs. They receive, in addition, certain 
 special instructions for each post. 
 
 Sector Lookouts. — Some men, called sector lookouts, watch 
 a clearly defined part of the hostile defenses. It is advisable to 
 establish the sectors slightly oblique, so as to protect the lookout 
 from shots from the front when he has to fire. The sectors over- 
 lap slightly. The sector lookouts observe either through a loop- 
 hole placed obliquely in the parapet or with a periscope. Equally 
 good for a general view of the hostile trenches is a small mirror 
 fixed on the end of a stick. The officer of the guard is informed 
 by signal of the least change in the appearance of the hostile line 
 (accessory defenses, earth moved, and so on) and of every indica- 
 tion of preparation for an attack. The written instructions for 
 each lookout post are completed, if possible, by a panoramic sketch, 
 with reference points. 
 
 Lookouts for Observation Points. — Other lookouts keep 
 special watch on points to which attention has been drawn by pre- 
 ceding observations and upon which it may be hoped to place a 
 successful rifle shot. They endeavor to remain unseen and to ob- | 
 serve through a very narrow and concealed loophole. Patient, at- 
 tentive observation always ends in furnishing valuable information 
 as to the regime of the opposing troops (hours of relief, of food 
 supply, and the like). The dust raised by a shot, the smoke of a 
 
TRENCH WARFARE 943 
 
 cigarette, may reveal a loophole habitually occupied; it should then 
 be watched with a field glass and an attempt made to lay upon it a 
 rifle supported on a rest or an automatic rifle. Earth being thrown 
 up discloses a fatigue party at work, a shelter under construction. 
 A slight elevation or some smoke betrays the location of shelters. 
 The study of the general plan and of aerial photographs may make 
 it possible to locate on the ground the trench crossings and the im- 
 portant approaches upon which it will be well to fire with the 
 trench weapons during the hours when these elements are thought 
 to be occupied. When the enemy bombards our lines curiosity will 
 cause his men to look through their loopholes to see the effect 
 produced; it is the moment to get at them. All other methods are 
 good for drawing them out — cries, mannikins, pretended fires, pla- 
 cards, and the like. Effort should be made to discover his machine 
 guns, flanking pieces, mine throwers, observation points, and so on, 
 to interpret ingeniously the slightest abnormal object or indication 
 that appears in front. It is indispensable to have this information 
 in case of attack on our part and also to keep up the daily wear and 
 tear of the enemy. 
 
 Listening Posts or Advanced Posts. — These serve to watch 
 the accessory defenses when they are of great depth, or to flank 
 the front of the trenches. The trench connecting them with the 
 firing trench should be arranged so that it can be obstructed or 
 barricaded instantly by the sentinel, who retires after giving the 
 alarm. In addition, it should be placed without a dead angle under 
 the fire of a loophole in the trench, oriented especially for this pur- 
 pose. Listening posts should not be misused, as they are rather 
 easy objectives for surprise attacks and they rob the firing line 
 of places for several loopholes. When they are opposite to hostile 
 advanced posts, they may be organized for a triple group of grena- 
 diers. 
 
 Lookouts of the Support and Reserve Trenches. — Lookouts 
 are placed near the command posts of the support and reserve 
 trenches to observe the whole terrain and repeat the various sig- 
 nals from the firing trenches. 
 
 Patrols. — The guard is reinforced at night by patrols whose 
 field of action and strength depend on the proximity of the enemy. 
 They are armed with shotguns, pistols, and offensive grenades. 
 They are detailed by the captain or the battalion commander. 
 Their strength is sufficient to enable them to bring in wounded 
 men and prisoners, and, if necessary, to establish a line of commu- 
 nication back to the point of departure. They always have a defi- 
 nite mission: to go and reconnoiter such a point, to prepare an 
 ambuscade at such a place, to remain there and listen a certain 
 fixed time, and so on. The success of a patrol depends on the 
 choice of the commander — on his will and audacity. His men pro- 
 60 
 
944 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 tect and escort him, but it is he who must go and see. It is nec- 
 essary to fix the hour and the point where they shall pass out of 
 the lines (through a concealed passage prepared in the wire en- 
 tanglements or by way of a listening post), their itinerary, the 
 point and the probable hour of their return within the lines. All 
 this information should be given at the proper time to the ser- 
 geants of the guard and to the neighboring companies, in order to 
 avoid mistakes. The lookouts are notified that the patrol may be I 
 obliged to withdraw by an unexpected route. The chief of the 
 patrol must have a luminous compass. He distributes his men at 
 variable distances, depending on the darkness of the night, so as 
 not to lose them; he assures himself before starting that their equip- 
 ment will make no noise; he tells them the mission and how to con- 
 duct themselves; he arranges with them a few very simple signals. 
 
 Organization of Defensive Fire. — Although in the normal 
 case only the active segments of the line of fire will be occupied, 
 the platoon commander must arrange for the occupation of the 
 entire line and for firing either through the loopholes or over the 
 parapet. Some of the traverses should be loopholed for the interior 
 flanking of the trench. Means of obstruction should be prepared. 
 These at the ends of the trenches should be especially defended. 
 A loophole should always be examined to determine: That it is 
 not obstructed; that it is well oriented; that it sweeps the ground 
 thoroughly; that it is suited to the height of the man. After several 
 cleanings of a trench the loopholes are often found to be too 
 high above the bottom; they must be made over or benches must 
 be used. The loopholes should be assigned to the men in advance 
 and the men should be placed in the shelter in regular order so 
 that in case of alarm the man sleeping nearest to the exit of the 
 shelter will run to the farthest loophole. 
 
 Organization of Communications. — Communication between 
 the captain and the chief of platoon is maintained by messengers 
 (communication agents) or by square signal flags. The company 
 has two signal lanterns that serve to parallel the telephone lines 
 to the battalion commander or to a neighboring company. Every 
 telephone line should be paralleled by a system of visual signals, 
 provided for in the plan of defense, and should be operated at 
 least once a day as a test (for example, to send one of the regular 
 daily reports). Note should be made of information sent by adja- 
 cent stations. The fact that mechanical means of transmission 
 have failed under given circumstances will not be understood to 
 excuse a commander for remaining in ignorance of important 
 changes occurring in the situation of his command or for not hav- 
 ing exercised the necessary personal control over the progress of 
 events. 
 
TRENCH WARFARE 945 
 
 Organization of Work. — The platoons are charged with the 
 duty of maintenance of the trenches, parallels, and approaches that 
 they occupy, the constant improvement of their accessory defenses, 
 and the new works required in their terrain (principally shelters). 
 The captain also assigns to the platoons the maintenance of the 
 trenches in rear and the general fatigue work of the strong point, 
 utilizing especially the platoons in support. The role of a platoon 
 commander is to divide the whole task among working groups of 
 small strength, each under a chief. This chief is made responsible 
 for a well-defined task entirely possible of execution. The pla- 
 toon commander shows him by day what he will have to do at 
 night, has him place all the necessary marks so that he can find 
 his way in the darkness, and sees that the chief of the group has 
 the necessary wooden measuring rods for verifying at all times 
 the dimensions to be followed. The platoon commander suggests 
 to the captain new works which he considers useful for improving 
 the flanking arrangements or the communications. 
 
 Communication with the Adjacent Platoons. — Finally, with a 
 view to developing cohesion, it is made the duty of the platoon 
 commander to be in communication and to maintain frequent and 
 personal relations with the chiefs of the adjacent subdivisions, with 
 the trench artillery, the sappers and miners working in the strong 
 point, and so on; he should visit the observation points giving a 
 view over his terrain and over the terrain of the units alongside of 
 him. In order that he may be able to devote the greater part of 
 his time to these occupations of a tactical nature, he requires his 
 subordinates to familiarize themselves very promptly with all the 
 details of the service of the trench and makes them responsible 
 for it. 
 
 DETAILED SERVICE OF THE TRENCH 
 
 Upon the arrival of the platoon, each squad takes its place; 
 the lookouts, the listening posts, the non-commissioned officer of 
 the guard take up their duties as prescribed for the night. 
 
 The platoon commanders and the company commander who 
 are being relieved do not withdraw till they have completely trans- 
 ferred their duties and have received notice from their successors 
 that they are no longer needed. Their successors then become re- 
 sponsible, and make report to their immediate chiefs that the re- 
 lief is accomplished. In case of attack during the relief the com- 
 mand continues to be exercised by the chiefs of the units that are 
 being relieved. 
 
 Leaving the Trenches. — Have the men get ready before the 
 time of relief. See that the portable tools and the camp equipment 
 are carried away. Leave in the trenches the grenades and the car- 
 
946 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 tridges in excess of regular individual equipment. Inspect the 
 trench to make sure that nothing is overlooked. Leave the trench, 
 the shelters, and the latrines in the highest state of cleanliness. 
 
 Faults Noted During the Execution of Reliefs. — In their 
 haste to leave, the officers and non-commissioned officers of the 
 subdivisions relieved transmit only incomplete instructions. The 
 incoming officers and non-commissioned officers confine them- 
 selves to replacing the sentinels and housing the men in the 
 shelters; they do only what is indispensable. The information 
 transmitted is very vague, and frequently consists merely of a 
 statement of the signs of more or less extensive activity on the 
 part of the enemy. Consequently the new occupants, poorly in- 
 formed and oriented, are for some time at the mercy of an attack, 
 and it happens occasionally that they fire on other portions of our 
 line. 
 
 Service by Day and by Night. — The duties should be known 
 by all in advance. The forces to be placed on duty by day and by 
 night are fixed by the captain, who is responsible for the preser- 
 vation of the strong point. 
 
 By Day: The service requires a certain number of lookouts 
 per platoon; in addition there may be detailed by platoon or from 
 the company a picket subdivision, which remains in one place, 
 without taking part in distant fatigue or other work. 
 
 By Night: The necessary men are placed in line in the inter- 
 vals between the lookouts to assure the protection of each trench. 
 Frequently the listening posts are occupied only at night. Night 
 and day there is a sergeant of the guard in each trench and an offi- 
 cer of the guard (chief of platoon) for the company as a whole. 
 
 Employment of Time. — The chief of platoon regulates the 
 employment of the men who are not on duty. He requires them 
 to rest in the shelters or details them for the different pieces of 
 work that he orders or that are prescribed for him. He should 
 know at all times who is asleep, who is on guard, and who is at 
 work. 
 
 Rounds and Patrols. — Rounds have for their object the con- 
 trol of the service of the company as a whole. They are made by 
 officers and non-commissioned officers (especially those of the pla- 
 toons in support). The captain prescribes the number of rounds 
 which the patrols shall make and fixes the hours of departure. He 
 receives a report at the termination of each round. Patrols may 
 also be ordered by the captain. 
 
 Alarms. — Frequent calls to arms must be made to make sure 
 that every man goes quickly to his place and knows what to do 
 when he gets there. This is the best method of detecting faulty 
 arrangements. A daily call to arms is made before daybreak. It is 
 followed by a roll call. Gas alarms are also made. 
 
TRENCH WARFARE 947 
 
 Uniforms, etc. — The helmet is invariably worn; the gas mask 
 must always be kept within easy reach of the hand; the men must 
 be completely equipped; the intrenching tool is attached to the 
 waist belt at all times. Haversacks, pouches, canteens, blankets, 
 etc., are arranged in orderly fashion in the dugouts. 
 
 Rifles. — In the firing trenches the men always keep their 
 rifles in their hands, even during meals. In the other trenches 
 small-arm racks may be constructed at the doors or inside of the 
 dugouts. If a man leaves the immediate vicinity of his dugout he 
 takes his rifle with him. No one should ever be found in the com- 
 municating trenches without his rifle. At night every man sleeps 
 with his rifle at his side. With the exception of those fixed in 
 frames, rifles should never be left in the loopholes. The former 
 are withdrawn whenever a bombardment is anticipted. The rifles 
 are covered with a sleeve of cloth tied on with a string. Introducing 
 a plug of any kind — paper, cloth, wood, or grease — into the muzzle 
 of a rifle is prohibited. To avoid accidents and weakening the main- 
 springs, rifles are habitually kept unloaded. The magazines are 
 always kept charged, usually with only four cartridges,, so as to 
 avoid weakening the spring. 
 
 Cartridges. — The recesses for ammunition should be kept 
 dry, and their location should be known to everybody. Only a few 
 packages are opened beforehand. Sticking the points of the car- 
 tridges in the ground is absolutely prohibited. The empty car- 
 tridge boxes are collected by each platoon and sent to the com- 
 pany property depot. 
 
 Hand Grenades and Rockets. — Grenades and rockets are 
 kept, if possible, in zinc lined chests, well protected from the action 
 of the weather. Very small recesses, capable of holding a few gren- 
 ades, are constructed here and there along the trench, behind bar- 
 ricades, and in the dugouts. 
 
 It is well to put ammunition and grenades in sand bags con- 
 taining an invariable number. This division allows a man already 
 loaded to carry one of these sacks. The carriers, by tying two 
 or four together, can make a pack which they can carry on their 
 shoulders or back. This system is equally convenient for the re- 
 plenishment of munitions and the supplies to the firing line in com- 
 bat. At night, the lookout places the sack of grenades at his side, 
 rolling up its edges. In the morning he places it in a niche, the 
 danger of surprise having passed. 
 
 Property Depots. — As a rule there is only one depot of ma- 
 terial per company (near the company command post). But, to 
 prevent waste, the commanders of platoons, or trenches, may form 
 a small depot for the collection of intrenching tools and other 
 trench material furnished them, and which are not in actual use. 
 
948 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 A depot for a company should contain at least 500 grenades, placed 
 in sand bags. 
 
 Prevention of Waste. — All carelessness leading to waste must 
 be suppressed severely, and the men must be made to comprehend 
 that the sum of many individual negligences will attain a figure 
 for which no system of production at the bases can compensate. 
 Munitions left out in the rain deteriorate or are lost in the mud 
 or in unnoticed holes. Bayonets and unserviceable rifles have been 
 used by the supports, haversacks have been used as sand bags, 
 etc. All surplus material, all scrap metal, fragments of leather, 
 etc., should be collected by each section and sent to the company 
 depot. Fatigue parties are sent to all abandoned communicating 
 trenches to bring in any property that may have been left there. 
 Any man who, in the course of fatigue or special duty, finds tools, 
 munitions, or abandoned property of any description, should carry 
 the same to his officers. Reserve rations should never be eaten 
 without orders, or as a result of laziness. Waste in all of its forms 
 must be severely repressed. It is a proof of indolence and indisci- 
 pline. 
 
 Messing. — At the prescribed hour, after observing the ene- 
 my's artillery, the usual fatigue party from each company leaves 
 the trench under the command of the non-commissioned officer in 
 charge (supply sergeant) assisted by a corporal. The responsible 
 officer sends back by them such property as can not be used, the 
 empty ammunition boxes, the arms of the killed and wounded, 
 which they turn in to the supply officer. Food is distributed at the 
 station of the rolling kitchen which accompanies the supply ser- 
 geant, who is left by the company with the supply train to draw 
 rations and to attend to their careful preparation. After the food 
 has been served out, the fatigue party returns in a formed body, 
 headed by the corporal and followed by the sergeant in charge, 
 who is required to bring up the rear. The sergeant in charge re- 
 ports to the captain the return of the detail, and its dispersal to 
 the several platoons. The platoon commander makes every effort 
 to reheat the soup and coffee (using charcoal, faggots, etc.). He in- 
 spects the mess kits, and should bear in mind that if, in spite of all 
 difficulties, he succeeds in making the meals in the trenches agree- 
 able, he is exercising a most salutary moral influence upon his men. 
 
 INFANTRY ATTACKED IN ITS TRENCHES 
 
 The trenches may have to repel a surprise attack or an at- 
 tack preceded by a violent bombardment. Either may be prepared 
 by an emission of gas or by the fire of aspyxiating shells. 
 
 Surprise Attacks. — Surprise attacks, either by night or day,' 
 have no hope of success unless the duties of the lookouts have 
 
TRENCH WARFARE 949 
 
 been poorly performed, or the men have not been sufficiently exer- 
 cised in responding to alarms, or the accessory or flanking defenses 
 are insufficient. The enemy will then take advantage of the con- 
 fusion to which even good troops are liable when they are too con- 
 fident that nothing is going to happen. 
 
 The preventive is to keep the troops in the trenches always 
 in the atmosphere of combat by causing them to actively wage a 
 harassing warfare. If the enemy is constantly annoyed and de- 
 prived of his rest he gets a clear idea of what is to be expected 
 from intact trenches. 
 
 Attacks After Bombardments. — The attack most often mani- 
 fests itself in a bombardment of extraordinary violence, directed 
 on all of the fronts and communications of the first line and even of 
 the second. Before each assault a heavy concentration of fire is 
 directed on the first objectives assigned to the infantry and a bar- 
 rage fire in rear of the objectives. At the end of some hours, or 
 even of one, two, or three days, the enemy judges that the accessory 
 defenses have been destroyed, the trenches leveled, and that 
 the defenders left in the few dugouts that remain intact are com- 
 pletely demoralized. He then "lifts" his fire, at the same time main- 
 taining the barrage, his infantry suddenly emerges from his 
 trenches "following the projectiles at a run," and assaults our line. 
 To defend his battered trench, deprived of a portion of its 
 defenders, is an extremely hazardous task, the difficulties of which 
 one must not be afraid to point out beforehand. 
 
 But from numerous examples of defenses that have been 
 victoriously conducted, in spite of the concentration of the most 
 formidable resources, it can be proven that it is possible for brave 
 defenders, though few in number, to man their ruined trenches and 
 hurl back the enemy at the moment of assault. 
 
 All that the most powerful artillery has ever been able to ac- 
 complish is to diminish the material resources and the morale of 
 the defenders; it can not completely destroy them. The capacity 
 for resistance which lives in warrior souis remains superior to ma- 
 terial effects, no matter what they be. Every soldier should endure 
 the bombardment with stoicism, and repeat to himself that if he 
 escapes its perils, he is certain, with the assistance of his remaining 
 comrades and the machine guns that are still serviceable, to mow 
 down the hostile waves of assault provided he occupies, in time, 
 his post, or the shell craters which have replaced it. 
 
 The Importance of Lookouts. — Everything depends on the 
 vigilance of the sentinels. They must give the alarm the moment 
 the assaulting lines leave their trenches and see to it that the egress 
 of the men from the dugouts, rifles loaded and hand Grenades ready 
 for use, takes place before the enemy can reach our lines. It is a ques- 
 tion of seconds, not of minutes. Concerning this, the following rules : 
 
950 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 1. Each shelter should have a sentinel in its immediate vi- 
 cinity who can be seen and heard from the door. 
 
 2. The post of the sentinel, which is constructed at the 
 same time as the dugout, should be protected in the strongest pos- 
 sible manner. 
 
 3. The sentinel, who is kept constantly in view by a man of 
 his relief, posted in the doorway of the dugout should be relieved 
 as often as is necessary. (This post is dangerous, and all the men 
 in the dugout should take their turn at it.) 
 
 In addition to the sentinel, a large periscope should be in- 
 stalled, if possible, and manipulated from the interior of the dug- 
 out. The periscope alone, however, would be insufficient. No con- 
 fidence is to be placed on signals, bells, or any sort of wire device 
 to reach from a sentinel some distance away. 
 
 These rules apply to dugouts and machine gun emplacements, 
 and all the more imperatively since the safety of the trenches 
 rests mainly on its flanking defenses. 
 
 Maintenance of Communication, During Bombardment, Be- 
 tween the Platoons of the Firing Line, the Captain, and the Bat- 
 talion Commander. — The telephone can not be relied upon. Its 
 wires are almost certain to be cut. Signaling with lamp apparatus 
 is uncertain on account of the complete disorganization of the 
 firing line and the thick cloud of dust that hangs over it. It may 
 perhaps be established after the assault with lanterns which have 
 been carefully kept under cover until that moment; but this method 
 can not be depended upon to give warning of the attack. 
 
 The courier, or rather a pair of couriers, is the only means 
 of communication that is almost certain. But it is an expensive 
 method, and it is slow. It should be kept as a last resort in critical 
 moments. The courier is the only method by which the hasty 
 sketch can be sent, which clears up the situation, and the arrival 
 of which is awaited with so much impatience by the commander 
 of the echelon in rear. 
 
 Rockets constitute the best means of instantaneous commu- 
 nication. They should be placed beforehand in every dugout, but 
 it is always difficult to make them function in the firing line, the 
 imminence of the assault not allowing sufficient time for the pur- 
 pose. At all events each sentinel should be supplied with two or 
 three rockets calling for the barrage, a rocket firer should be in- 
 stalled alongside of his observation station, and he should be in- 
 structed to fire the rockets as soon as he sees the assaulting line 
 emerge from the hostile trenches. 
 
 The best solution is to have the command post of the cap- 
 tain on the line of supports and that of the battalion commander 
 on the line of the reserve trenches supplied with intrenched obser- 
 vation stations carefully located, and from which the sentinels can 
 
TRENCH WARFARE 951 
 
 see the launching of the assault as soon as the sentinels of the fir- 
 ing line do. 
 
 Reinforcement of the Firing Line. — At the moment of the 
 assault the captain can immediately throw in his supporting pla- 
 toon, or platoons, to the assistance of the firing line, a movement 
 that must be studied and prescribed beforehand to the minutest 
 detail, but which would have been very dangerous of execution 
 during the bombardment and before the enemy " lifted " his fire. 
 
 The commander of the supporting platoon does not alway3 
 wait for the captain's order before acting. If he learns from any 
 other source than the captain that the first line is in danger, he 
 reinforces as has been prescribed, it being assumed that communi- 
 cation with the captain is impossible at that critical moment. 
 
 The case also occurs sometimes that the captain's observation 
 station sees nothing and it is the battalion commander who first 
 detects the hostile wave. He sends one or two of his platoons, 
 which have been prepared to advance for such a contingency, to 
 reinforce the platoons that are sustaining the shock. These pla- 
 toons advance quickly to the firing line or replace the company 
 supports sent forward by the captain, if he has already thrown 
 them in. 
 
 Employment of Barrage Fire. — It is not sufficient for the 
 defenders of the first line to man the trenches and meet the first 
 waves of the assault with rifle fire. The artillery must also be no- 
 tified that the time has come to open a violent barrage fire behind 
 the leading assailants. The object of this barrage fire is to isolate 
 them, to prevent all reinforcement or replenishment of ammunition, 
 and even deprive them of the possibility of retreat. Thus isolated, 
 they are at our mercy, even though they have pierced the firing 
 line and have penetrated into the support trenches. Such a success 
 will involve them in one or more of the compartments of the posi- 
 tion where they will be subjected to frontal and flanking fire and 
 be open to counter attacks. 
 
 All officers should explain to their men, not only theoreti- 
 cally, but by practical demonstration on the ground which they 
 occupy, the principles of the barrage and of the division of the po- 
 sition into compartments. They must demonstrate to them that 
 they must never yield to the uncomfortable impression that is ex- 
 perienced when one feels that an enemy that has penetrated the 
 position to his right or left has gotten in rear of him, for he him- 
 self is also on the flank or in rear of the organizations that have 
 effected penetration. Their local success has only drawn them 
 into a "pocket of fire" which will certainly close upon them if our 
 people do not yield to discouragement. The tenacity of a few hand- 
 fuls of men, even if surrounded in their intrenchments, will insure 
 the victory. 
 
952 
 
 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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TRENCH WARFARE 95,1 
 
 Barrage fire is called for from any observation station hav- 
 ing knowledge that the enemy is making an assault, by telephone, 
 if it still exists; "r not, then by rockets. The successive linea 
 should repeat the rockets sent up in front of them, and continue 
 to do so until the barrage has been opened. 
 
 In default of other information the captain and the battalion 
 commander call for the barrage and throw in their reinforcements 
 the moment they see that the enemy has " lifted " his artillery 
 fire, and that rifle fire has been opened from the first line. 
 
 If the bombardment has been localized on one or two sup« 
 porting points, the adjacent ones, which are able to do so, ob- 
 serve the assault, and, as their telephones are probably working, 
 they notify the artillery concerned. Such observations and lateral 
 communications are invaluable should direct methods fail. 
 
 Carrier Pigeons, which have proved to be uninfluenced by 
 the severest bombardments, may also be employed. As the pigeon 
 will fly to the central loft, the message should state precisely what 
 group of artillery must be called upon to immediately furnish the 
 barrage, and on what portion of the front it is needed. 
 
 Counter Attacks. — Counter attacks are attended with great- 
 er success and less loss the sooner they are launched. They should 
 [ take the enemy by surprise, and before he has recovered his breath 
 s and regained formation. They should be made upon the initiative 
 - of the local commanders, as the transmission of orders and in- 
 telligence have become, by that time, most precarious. 
 
 This is why the plan for the defense of a given "area of re- 
 sistance " should foresee all rational possibilities of attack, and 
 -take precautions to designate under each hypothesis: The coun- 
 ter attack, or attacks, to be made; the fractions that will make 
 ;it (section, platoon); the rout each platoon will follow, and its 
 final objective; the prearranged signal for launching the counter 
 | attack. 
 
 Counter attacks should be like the two jaws of a trap, which 
 close automatically, the instant the trigger is touched. 
 
 Direction of Counter Attacks. — Counter attacks may be de- 
 livered toward the front. Such is the case of a platoon advancing 
 ] to reinforce a platoon of the firing line, and finding the enemy 
 I ilready in the trenches. 
 
 The most successful counter attacks are those delivered 
 umultaneously against both flanks of the hostile wave, and abreast 
 )f the first line of resistance. The advance is made with hand 
 rrenades along the trenches of the ftring line, and those of the 
 iupports and reserves; and in the. communicating trenches the 
 .nemy is attacked in rear, his retreat is cut off, and those tha^ 
 lave penetrated the line are surrounded. 
 
954 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Reconstruction of Destroyed Trenches. — After a hostile at- 
 tack has failed, it must be remembered that another attempt will 
 probably follow in a short time. Work upon the destroyed para- 
 pet must be begun immediately. Sand bags and trench shields 
 permit of hasty provisional reconstruction. 
 
 Menace of Mines. — Wherever the presence of a hostile mine 
 chamber is suspected (sounds heard for a considerable period, 
 and then suddenly ceasing) plans must be made to occupy the 
 crater before the enemy does. 
 
 Fatigue Details Surprised by an Attack. — Isolated soldiers 
 and working details, or fatigue details employed in the service of 
 supply, which are surprised by an attack at a distance from the units 
 to which they belong, automatically place themselves under the 
 command of the chief of the nearest unit. He either incorporates 
 them in his own unit or sends them to their own commands, with 
 a written order and under charge of a non-commissioned officer. 
 
 Fractions Surprised in Their Shelters. — Dugouts permit an 
 intense bombardment to be endured, but have the inconvenience 
 that they retard the egress of the garrison. It must be remem- 
 bered that the enemy may possibly be encountered at the door- 
 ways at the moment the men start to occupy the parapets. In each 
 dugout there should be a small stock of hand grenades, by the use 
 of which space may be opened about the entrances, and the gar- 
 rison can debouch in force. Every man should determine not to 
 permit himself to be killed or asphyxiated by the intruders, nor 
 to be frightened by those of the enemy that have already crossed 
 the trench, as there are others that will take care of them, but to 
 exterminate those that are in the trench and man the parapet and 
 open fire on the second and third hostile waves. To insure egress 
 from the cave shelters a traverse blockhouse should be constructed 
 of reinforced concrete. This forms a sort of caponier, communi- 
 cating with the dugouts, and which has their entrances under its 
 fire. The ground to the rear should be sloped, and the accessory 
 defenses should offer exits to the enemy who have entered the 
 trench, in using which they will inevitably be shot. 
 
 Tenacity of the Defenders.— The defenders should, above all 
 things, determine to fight to a finish, and not to give up the strug- 
 gle because it appears that their neighbors are getting the worst 
 of it, for besides these neighbors there are others who are hold- 
 ing on, and who will come to their rescue. A fight must never 
 be judged by what is seen in the immediate vicinity; one must 
 have confidence in one's battalion and regiment. 
 
 Not an inch of ground should be voluntarily yielded, no 
 matter what the circumstances. A body of troops, even though 
 surrounded, should resist to the last man, without falling back. 
 
CHAPTER XXXIV 
 
 LIAISON OR MAINTENANCE OF COMMUNICA- 
 TION BETWEEN UNITS AND SIGNALING 
 
 The mental activity of the commander should be constantly 
 concentrated on the search for information, for in order to com- 
 mand intelligently it is necessary to be informed. The commander, 
 therefore, should post himself where he can best observe the 
 entire extent of the front occupied by his troops. Moreover, when 
 an officer receives information it is his duty to transmit it without 
 delay to his immediate superior and, if possible to his neighbors. 
 
 The procuring of information often necessitates great sac- 
 rifice. Such sacrifices are a dead loss if the information is not 
 forwarded to the superior commander, arrives too late, is mutilated, 
 or illegible. 
 
 TRANSMISSION OF ORDERS AND MESSAGES 
 
 In issuing orders the regular channels should be used; no 
 intermediate authority being omitted except in urgent cases. I*n 
 such case the officer who gives the order informs the intermediate 
 authority, and he who receives the order reports the fact without 
 delay to his immediate superior. The authority who sends, in an 
 exceptional case, a verbal order or message requires the person 
 who is to carry it to repeat the order or message word for word. 
 On his arrival at destination the bearer of a message or order de- 
 livers the envelope to the addressee or his deputy. He waits for a 
 receipt or a reply, and never leaves without orders or permission. 
 On his return he reports to the person who sent him. If no reply 
 has been returned by him, he limits himself to the formula: "Order 
 delivered." 
 
 Any dispatch bearer who is wounded appeals to the nearest 
 organization, and it is the duty of the commanding officer of the 
 organization to. send forward the message without delay. Im- 
 portant orders are carried by officers who are conversant with the 
 situation and have been informed as to the subject matter of the 
 message. These orders may be sent in duplicate by different routes. 
 Officers charged with such a mission must be prepared to destroy 
 their messages if necessary. The commanding officer of any com- 
 
956 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 mand of cavalry or of any command having horses is required to 
 furnish a good horse if the condition of the messenger's mount does 
 not permit him to complete his mission in time for it to be of use. 
 While employed on such mission an officer should strive to obtain 
 personally all the information possible in order that he may be able 
 to report the same to his own superior and to the officer to whom 
 he is sent. If, while on his way to deliver the message, the situation 
 to which it refers has changed, the officer, nevertheless, delivers 
 the message with which he has been entrusted. He adds the neces- 
 sary explanations as to the result desired by the commander at" 
 the moment he left him. If the order is one requiring imme- 
 diate execution, he waits until after the execution has been begun 
 in order that he may report the action taken. 
 
 Every subordinate who receives an order in the absence of 
 his immediate commander forwards it to the latter as directed by 
 him. He notes the contents of the message, unless it is marked 
 " personal." On his own initiative he takes the steps necessary 
 under the circumstances and reports his action to his superior. 
 
 Officers commanding the organizations composing the out- 
 posts or the advance guard, or those occupying the first line 
 trenches, are authorized to examine all information passing them 
 from the front. Its further transmission must be delayed as little 
 as possible. 
 
 Intercommunication Between Organizations. — This, in order 
 to obtain unity of effort, and especially the close co-operation of 
 the infantry and artillery, has for its object the freest possible cir- 
 culation of information between the commanders of organizations 
 forming a part of the same command. 
 
 For the commanders of the smaller units intercommunication 
 (liaison) may be symbolized by a cross, its four branches signify- 
 ing connection with the fractions in front, connection with the 
 commanders in rear, and connection with the adjacent units on the 
 right and left. For these it comprises terrestrial (as opposed to 
 aerial) reconnaissance as a means of information, and, as mediums 
 of transmission, the telephone, visual signaling, connecting files, and 
 carrier pigeons. The manner in which these means are employed 
 must always be the subject of a general plan set forth in a special 
 paragraph in the plan of operation or the plan of defense, or added 
 thereto as an appendix. It does not obviate the necessity for fre- 
 quent and personal contact with neighboring troops. 
 
 The fact that mechanical means of transmission have failed 
 in a given instance does not relieve a commander from the respon- 
 sibility for ignorance of important changes in the situation of his 
 own command or of the adjacent commands, or for failure to 
 exercise the necessary personal influence on the course of events. 
 
 A small unit will establish and maintain communication by 
 
MAINTENANCE OF COMMUNICATION 957 
 
 different methods, according to whether it is in first line, in sup- 
 port, or in reserve. The officer in command must make each par- 
 ticular case the subject of special consideration and decision. In 
 first line: Lateral communication is the most important. In sup- 
 port: The mission is nearly always assigned beforehand and gen- 
 erally consists in reinforcing a unit placed in front. It is necessary, 
 therefore, to understand the situation of the latter, to know its 
 location, the routes leading to it, and all the other things that must 
 be known to enable the support to replace it without loss of time. 
 In reserve: The unit may be called upon to act in any direction. 
 The troops may be resting, but the mind of their commander should 
 be exceedingly alert. He must foresee every possible eventuality, 
 and determine beforehand the steps necessary to maintain com- 
 munication in each of them. It is especially important to carefully 
 reconnoiter the roads and communications in all directions. 
 
 METHODS OF OBTAINING INFORMATION 
 
 Terrestrial Reconnaissance. — For combat the commander of 
 every unit (company, platoon) selects an observation station which 
 will enable him to see as far as possible everything that occurs 
 within the limits of action of his command. If necessary, he in- 
 sures continuity of observation by employing observers among 
 whom he divides up the duty in such fashion that observation is 
 continuous, both as to time and ground covered. Six observers to 
 a platoon should be previously trained to this duty. 
 
 In general their duties consist in following the progress of 
 the fight (movement of friendly or enemy troops, activities of both 
 artilleries), watching for signals from the advance elements, and 
 in repeating or transmitting them according to instructions. 
 
 The command post should be established near the observa- 
 tion station. The selection of the observation station must precede 
 that of the command post. While in a position of readiness in the 
 trenches observation is conducted as in combat. 
 
 Aerial Reconnaissance. — The aeroplane and the balloon serve 
 as means of information (observation, photographs), also as 
 mediums of transmission. Among the missions they may be 
 charged with and which are of interest to the infantry are: 
 
 (a) Aeroplanes Attached to the Infantry. — One to each divi- 
 sion. Mission to keep informed as to the march of the advance 
 elements and the reserves. To observe the signals of the firing line 
 and the command posts, and to transmit them to the divisional 
 command post. To inform the divisional commander of everything 
 that occurs in the vicinity of the firing line and in rear of it. 
 
958 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 (b) Command Aeroplanes. — One to each army corps. It 
 observes the general progress of the combat and all that occurs on 
 the side of the enemy. 
 
 (c) Messenger Aeroplanes. — Mission. Transmission of all 
 Orders and useful information from the commanders of the larger 
 tactical units (by weighted messages with sketches prepared be- 
 forehand, or photographs, prearranged signals, etc.) to the gen- 
 erals and colonels. 
 
 (d) Divisional Balloons. — Observation of artillery fire, loca- 
 tion of the firing line, transmission of signals. During an attack 
 they operate distinctively as infantry balloons. 
 
 (e) Command Balloons. — The same as for command aero- 
 planes. 
 
 METHODS OF AERIAL COMMUNICATION (LIAISON) 
 
 The aeroplane attached to infantry, or the infantry balloon, 
 or both, are communicated with by the infantry by means of sig- 
 nals made (1) by the firing line, (2) by the command stations of 
 the battalion, regiment, brigade, or division. 
 
 1. By the Firing Line. — The firing line indicates its loca- 
 tion by: 
 
 (a) Bengal Lights. — This is the most certain method. The 
 lights are so placed as to be easily visible to the aeroplane or bal- 
 loon, but not to the enemy. 
 
 (b) By Position Marking Panels. — Upon call upon the aero- 
 plane the panels should be opened and closed several times to show 
 that they are not abandoned panels or accidental white spots on 
 the ground, and are then left exposed until the aeroplane has 
 answered " understood " (a flare of three lights shown simultane- 
 ously) ; in any case not longer than 15 minutes. 
 
 (c) In the absence of Bengal lights or panels, the firing line 
 must, in order to make its position known, resort to every possible 
 expedient, such as searchlight signaling ( — . — . — . — .), the wav- 
 ing of handkerchiefs, the showing of overcoat linings, flashes from 
 pocket mirrors, etc. 
 
 The position of the line is indicated either upon a line agreed 
 upon beforehand (one of the objectives assigned); or, upon demand 
 of the aeroplane (sound signal, followed by a flare of six simultane- 
 ous lights) ; or, upon the initiative of the company commanders 
 when the advance of their commands has been stopped; or when, 
 after a retirement, they have taken up — dug themselves in. In the 
 latter case it is preferable to use Bengal lights, either alone or in 
 connection with the panels, to more easily attract the attention of 
 the aeroplane. 
 
MAINTENANCE OF COMMUNICATION 959 
 
 Burning Bengal lights or displaying panels elsewhere than 
 on the firing line is prohibited. 
 
 2. The battalion, regimental, brigade, and division command 
 stations indicate their locations by identification panels. In addi- 
 tion each command station is indicated by a code symbol, a group 
 of several letters or figures. 
 
 The command posts communicate with the aeroplane by 
 conventional signals; by searchlights (6 or 9 inch diameter); by 
 shutter panels. 
 
 They communicate with balloons by means of portabfe 
 searchlights, the communication being always preceded by the 
 code symbol of the command station. 
 
 The balloon replies by means of portable searchlights, or 
 by Morse code signals made with the flexible cylinder, a device by 
 which a black surface of 3^4 f ee t high can be made to appear and 
 disappear instantaneously along its mooring cable. He first sig- 
 nals the code symbol of the command station with which he wishes 
 to communicate. As a rule his replies are limited to " understood " 
 or " repeat." 
 
 Identification panels are displayed at the sound signal of the 
 aeroplane or upon the initiative of the command post. They are 
 removed as soon as the aeroplane signals " understood " (three 
 stars). The panel of a battalion has an area of 4 square yards. 
 
 AEROPLANES ATTACHED TO INFANTRY 
 
 These fly at a lesser altitude than the other aeroplanes, and 
 do not rise above 1,500 yards. They are given distinctive perma- 
 nent marks (bands of color, luminous planes), and in addition may 
 be recognized by a distinctive flare. 
 
 " I am the aeroplane of the first infantry division," 1 flare of 
 1 light. 
 
 " I am the aeroplane of the second infantry division," 1 flare 
 of 2 simultaneous lights. 
 
 These signals are made two or three times, at several minutes 
 interval before any other signals are made. The appearance, char- 
 acteristics, and signals of any aeroplane should be known to all of 
 the men of the tactical unit to which it is attached. On the other 
 hand, the air service must be in constant readiness to assist the 
 infantry by noting precisely its positions and needs and trans- 
 mitting the information, immediately to the higher command or to 
 the artillery. 
 
 In certain cases it may be necessary to drop to a compara- 
 tively low altitude above the lines; but only in case of necessity 
 must the machine be risked at an altitude of less than 1,000 yards. 
 
960 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 The aeroplane, in communicating with the infantry, uses only 
 a limited number of signals, which are always preceded by a sound 
 signal, followed by the flare giving the identity of the aeroplane. 
 
 It must be remembered that every aeroplane that burns 
 white lights is an infantry aeroplane and that its rockets are fired 
 as signals to the advance infantry elements. To prevent their being 
 mistaken for those fired from the ground rockets should not be 
 fired from aeroplanes at an altitude of less than 300 yards. 
 
 The aviator notes the position of the firing line and of the 
 command stations which signal to him, as above described. In 
 addition, he can perceive conventional signals, signals by search- 
 light, or by shutter panels. 
 
 He transmits information received in this manner as follows: 
 
 Urgent information, especially that relating to artillery fire, 
 to the command stations of the division, brigade, or artillery group, 
 by wireless. 
 
 Other information to be transmitted to the command stations 
 of the division or army corps by weighted letter. Most complete 
 information is given in these weighted letters, the position of the 
 firing line being accurately marked on a sketch previously prepared. 
 
 INFANTRY DIVISIONAL BALLOON 
 
 It is identified by several streamers displayed at its rear, and 
 at night by an inclined plane, illuminated at regular intervals. Its 
 identity should be known to everybody. The aeronaut communi- 
 cates by telephone with a station on the ground, from which the 
 messages are transmitted to division headquarters. 
 
 INFORMATION COMPRISED IN OPERATION ORDERS 
 
 Infantry finds in its operation orders: The time when the 
 aeroplane or balloon will be in readiness to observe. The method 
 of tracing the position of the firing line agreed upon for the re- 
 quired operation. The conditions of time and place under which 
 signals are to be made. Supplementary conventional signals. The 
 conditions under which observation will terminate. 
 
 MEANS OF TRANSMISSION 
 
 The means ©f transmission are as follows: 1. Telephone; 
 2. Signal rockets; 3. Signal flares of 25 and 35; 4. Flash lanterns; 
 5. Searchlights of 6 and 9-inch diameter; 6. Signal flags; 7. Identi- 
 fication panels, shutter panels, position-marking panels; 8. Messen- 
 
MAINTENANCE OF COMMUNICATION 961 
 
 gers; 9. Carrier pigeons; and 10. Wireless telegraph, which func- 
 tions readily from the aeroplanes to the artillery observation sta- 
 tion, but not conversely. None of these methods are absolutely 
 certain. 
 
 In order to insure the successful operation of each of them 
 as if it were the only one available, preparation should be made for 
 the simultaneous use of all of the means of communication at 
 hand. As nothing can be improvised during combat, and as the 
 troops will then use only the methods that have become familiar 
 to them through actual practice, all the prescribed means of trans- 
 mission must be practiced daily, if only under the form of drill. 
 
 Thus an officer at whose station a telephone has been in- 
 stalled must expect to have his line cut, and must establish com- 
 munication with his battalion commander by visual signaling and 
 runners. 
 
 OFFICER CHARGED WITH THE DUTY OF INTER- 
 COMMUNICATION 
 
 The regimental telephone officer is the chief of communica- 
 tions of every description. In each battalion, the battalion com- 
 mander assigns a non-commissioned officer to this duty. 
 
 A telephone party is composed of one sergeant, five op- 
 erators, two telephones, one switchboard with four switches, and 
 \% miles of light cable. In a regiment of three battalions there is 
 a telephone officer, eight workmen, a reserve of four telephones, 
 two switchboards and 14 kilometers (87 miles) of cable. 
 
 PRECAUTIONS AGAINST SURPRISE OF COMMUNICA- 
 TIONS 
 
 All telephonic liaisons in zones less than 2,200 yards from the 
 enemy are of double wire; that is to say, with metallic return; this 
 rule is absolute. Furthermore, it is absolutely prohibited in the first 
 line to allude by telephone to any event or situation that might be 
 of use to the enemy, such as hours of attack, reliefs, number of 
 regiment, neighboring regiments, brigades, etc. In general people 
 telephone entirely too much during periods of inaction. It is 
 necessary to impose, and to impose on oneself, the use of messages 
 instead of conversations. The officer who sends a message is 
 more brief, weighs his words more carefully, and avoids imprudent 
 remarks. Furthermore, he keeps a copy of his message. Questions 
 of " priority " must be clearly regulated. 
 
962 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 PRECAUTIONS TO ASSURE THE MAINTENANCE OF 
 COMMUNICATIONS 
 
 Telephonic connections (liaisons) are of vital importance to 
 the units of the first line. Everyone, whatever his position, should 
 work diligently to maintain them. It is therefore strictly the duty 
 of anyone who observes a broken line to repair it, or at least to 
 inform immediately the nearest emergency telephone repair party. 
 Fatigue parties, reliefs, and patrols circulating at night should give 
 the lines the most careful attention; carry the weapon slung, 
 pointed down. Trench crossing should be made with great care. 
 The best method is to pass the line under the trench in a wooden 
 conduit, using leaded cable for this passage. If the crossing is 
 above the trench, see that the wire is well stretched. String it 
 alongside a pole. 
 
 To repair a line, it is sufficient to scrape the insulation from 
 the wire at both ends of the cable, knot them together, then isolate 
 the splice from the ground by means of a rag, a piece of paper or 
 wood, or bit of cardboard. As soon as possible this splice should 
 be covered with tarred tape, which will insulate it completely. 
 
 TAGGING AND ORDERLY ARRANGEMENT OF LINES 
 
 A means of identifying lines circulating in the same trench 
 is very important. Care should be taken never to string lines over 
 those already placed (duplication). Furthermore, every 50 yards 
 of each line should have a tag firmly attached to it indicating the 
 orjgin and end of the line. Every unused line should be recoiled 
 the very day it ceases to be of use. 
 
 FIELD GLASSES AND PERISCOPES 
 
 Field glasses of the highest power are not the most advan- 
 tageous, for unless considerable dimensions are given the object 
 glass, thus rendering the instrument cumbersome, this enlargement 
 is always obtained at the expense of field of view and clearness. If 
 two field glasses have object glasses of the same diameter and one 
 magnifies twice as much as the other, its clearness will be only 
 one-fourth that of the weaker glass. A magnifying power of 6 or 
 7 diameters, a field of 100 to 130 miles, with corresponding clear- 
 ness, gives, for the prismatic field glass, the best balance between 
 the conflicting qualities. 
 
 Periscopes are ordinarily composed of two mirrors, or two 
 reflecting prisms whose faces are parallel to each other and inclined 
 at an angle of 45° to the tubular mount. 
 
MAINTENANCE OF COMMUNICATION 963 
 
 PERSONNEL EMPLOYED IN INTERCOMMUNICATION 
 
 The designation liaison agent should be reserved for officers 
 (occasionally sergeants) who are competent to estimate a situation, 
 deliver instructions, and gather information. A custom has grown 
 up of referring to the agents of transmission as liaison agents. 
 Agents of transmission are non-commissioned officers or privates 
 who are charged solely with writing out the orders and carrying 
 them to their destination, and who are employed only on simple 
 tasks. In a company they are generally the cyclist, the drummers, 
 and trumpeters. 
 
 RUNNERS 
 
 In addition to the above mentioned, in every platoon several 
 men who are faithful and physically active should be trained merely 
 for carrying messages. Communication by runners, especially by 
 double runners, is the method giving the most certain results dur- 
 ing violent bombardment. 
 
 The distance between two relays of runners varies between 
 150 to 300 yards. Each chain of runners is commanded by an 
 officer, assisted, if necessary, by several non-commissioned officers 
 distributed among the relays. 
 
 In order that communication by signalers, agents of trans- 
 mission or runners, may function efficiently during an attack it is 
 necessary that they, under the supervision of officers, be made 
 acquainted with the ground before hand. If they are to avoid 
 getting lost when they quit their habitual routes they must know 
 not only the trench network, but the open ground as well. This 
 study of the terrain must be made from large scale maps and from 
 the ground itself. It is also necessary that the command posts, 
 down to include those of captains, be easily found by liaison agents 
 from other units (routes being clearly indicated by large and sub- 
 stantial sign boards or by an orderly in the main communication 
 trench if the command post is somewhat out of the way). Com- 
 mand posts should be marked on the map and given a number, a 
 name, or a distinctive letter that can not be easily mistaken. 
 
 VISUAL SIGNALING 
 
 Visual signaling should be the subject of a plan studied by all 
 organizations so that each station should be familiar with the 
 i probable locations of its correspondents and with their distin- 
 guishing marks. As a general principle communication should 
 be insured from front to rear. However, communication is never 
 
964 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 certain unless the receiving station can acknowledge receipt, and 
 signals made toward the front run the risk of attracting hostile 
 fire. It will be prudent to confine them to a few short messages 
 or replace them by signal flares signifying " understood " or 
 " repeat." 
 
 The darker the background, the more visible is the flame of 
 the apparatus. Establish your station in front of a hedge or a belt 
 of timber. Avoid such backgrounds as the sky, a white wall, or 
 cleared ground. Avoid the vicinity of rivers, as bodies of water 
 give reflections. Do not expose the mirror to the sun's rays, as 
 by reflection it gives the illusion of a fixed light and so prevents 
 the reading of signals. Look for shade; protect the apparatus with 
 a shield. In observing use a field glass having a wide field of 
 vision and only moderate magnifying power (6 or 8 power). 
 Whenever possible two signalers are assigned to each apparatus, 
 one to manipulate the instrument and the other to keep the ray 
 exactly on the receiving apparatus. 
 
 SIGNALS BY ROCKETS 
 
 The following precautions should be observed: Select com- 
 binations that are easily distinguished from one another; reserve 
 the most conspicuous for the most important signals. Limit the 
 code to several phrases; before using it, publish it sufficiently in 
 advance to permit everybody to become acquainted with it. In 
 accordance with the situation, let it be understood definitely who 
 will have the right to fire rockets (majors and captains and, ex- 
 ceptionally, chiefs of platoons); needless alarms and expenditure of 
 rockets will thus be avoided. Provide for the repetition of sig- 
 nals by relays and make certain that the artillery has registered 
 these relays and is causing their observation stations to watch them 
 closely. All officers and non-commissioned officers, and the great- 
 est number possible of the privates, should know the conventional 
 signals. If a failure in memory is feared, record them in your note- 
 book, making use of hieroglyphics that will be incomprehensible 
 to the enemy if the notebook should fall into his hands. Make fre- 
 quent checks to see that you have the latest code. 
 
 CARRIER PIGEONS 
 
 Pigeons have carried messages across sheets of poisonous 
 gas and during the most violent bombardments. Great confidence 
 may be placed in them, but they should be reserved for important 
 cases. Pigeons do not fly well at night unless they have been 
 specially trained to it. 
 
MAINTENANCE OF COMMUNICATION 965 
 
 A station consists of 2 assistant pigeon trainers; 1 basket of 
 4 pigeons, with the necessary supplies; 3 baskets, designated A, 
 B, and C, are assigned by the central loft to each station. The 
 basket containing the relief is sent to the station in the evening 
 or at night, every two or three days. The pigeons which are 
 relieved are released separately with practice dispatches. The 
 officer commanding the unit concerned may retain both baskets 
 if the circumstances require it. 
 
 Messages are written in triplicate in a message notebook. 
 One copy is kept as a stub, the other two are attached to pigeons 
 which are released at an interval of several minutes. If there is 
 danger of running out of pigeons, only one copy is sent and the 
 other is inclosed with the next message, for the purpose of con- 
 firmation. Each pigeon can carry on each leg an aluminum dispatch 
 tube, which makes it possible to send both a message and a sketch. 
 
 To release it, the pigeon is placed on the ground some little 
 distance from the post, with its head in the direction of the central 
 pigeon loft, and is then driven into the air. While at the post, 
 every attention should be paid to the hygiene of the pigeons, but 
 none at all to their comfort. They should be made to consider 
 their stay at the stations as a penance and to desire ardently to re- 
 turn to the loft, where abundance and dainties are awaiting them. 
 Their being fed by anyone other than the trainers must therefore be 
 strictly prohibited. 
 
 INTERNATIONAL MORSE CODE SIGNALS— RULES OF 
 
 SERVICE 
 
 Troops make use of two classes of signals: Signals in inter- 
 national Morse alphabet and conventional signals, generally com- 
 posed of letters of the international Morse alphabet. 
 
 Alphabetic signals may be sent by searchlights or flash 
 lanterns; semaphore signals, with or without flags, shutter panels. 
 
 Conventional signals may be made by flash lanterns; search- 
 lights; semaphore signals, with or without flags; fireworks or 
 targets. 
 
 By reason of the number of visual signals that can be sent 
 simultaneously, it is necessary to assign a signal to each station 
 which will identify the authority sending the communication. 
 
 Identification Signals Are Assigned from Division Head- 
 quarters. — Each consists of one letter and one numeral. Care must 
 be taken to eliminate letters which might be confused with con- 
 ventional abbreviations. 
 
 Preparation of Messages. — They should be as brief as possi- 
 ble. Each letter saved reduces the chance of error. 
 
966 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Transmission. — As a rule, two men are necessary at each 
 signal station. At the sending station one man reads the message, 
 letter by letter, and the other operates the apparatus or flags. At 
 the receiving station one man reads the message, letter by letter, 
 and dictates them to his assistant. 
 
 Signals for communicating with aeroplanes and balloons 
 are classified as signals made by the aeroplane, signals made by 
 the balloon, and signals made by the infantry to the aeroplane or 
 balloon. 
 
 SIGNALS MADE BY THE AEROPLANE 
 
 Signals made with white lights are always addressed to the 
 infantry. 
 
 The aeroplane burns a flare of one or two lights, which is 
 repeated two or three times at several minutes intervals. This is 
 his identification signal and signifies: "I am the aeroplane of the 
 first infantry division." " I am the aeroplane of the second in- 
 fantry division." 
 
 Immediately after he asks "Where are you?" by burning a 
 flare of six lights. When he has observed the identification panels 
 and the position-marking panels which have been displayed in 
 response to his call, he signals "understood" by a flare of three 
 lights. 
 
 Signals by wireless are addressed to the command stations 
 equipped with receiving antennae. The aeroplane sends its identi- 
 fication signal, followed by a message which has been reduced to 
 writing, making use either of the lists of abbreviations, or of the 
 signals contained in the table of conventional signals, or of addi- 
 tional conventional signals published in operation orders. 
 
 Dropping Weighted Messages. — The aeroplane which is 
 about to drop a message calls up the command station by a sound 
 signal agreed upon in advance; the command station shows its 
 identification panel at the most favorable point in the vicinity for 
 the fall of the message. The aeroplane then spirals down to 300 
 yards and drops the message. The command station acknowledges 
 the receipt by the signal, " message received." 
 
 SIGNALS MADE BY BALLOONS 
 
 The balloon sends the identification signal of the station 
 which it is calling and then signals: 
 
 Understood (SN) ••• — • . . . — . 
 or Repeat (?) ..——.. ••__•• 
 
 by means of the flexible cylinder. 
 
MAINTENANCE OF COMMUNICATION 967 
 
 SIGNALS MADE BY THE INFANTRY TO THE AERO- 
 PLANE OR BALLOON 
 
 By searchlight or shutter panel, trying the table of conven- 
 tional signals, to which should be added: 
 
 "lam here " (firing line) • — . — • — •_•_•«•_• 
 
 " Understood " or " Message received ":... — . ..... 
 
 By Bengal lights: The firing line burns 1 or 2 lights per 
 platoon. 
 
 By position marking panel: One or two per squad. Bengal 
 lights and panels may be combined. 
 
 By identification panels and rectangular panels, so combined 
 as to indicate: "I am here" (battalion, regiment, brigade, divi- 
 sion). 
 
 Requests for artillery fire: "We are about to advance; 
 increase your elevation." " Artillery is firing too short." " Send 
 ammunition forward." " Understood " or " Messages received." 
 
 It also gives the means of signaling the numerals from 1 to 9; 
 and consequently any prearranged message can be sent. 
 
 ARTILLERY LIAISON AGENTS ATTACHED TO THE 
 INFANTRY 
 
 Artillery can act efficiently only if it is in close communica- 
 tion with the infantry which it is supporting. 
 
 Such communication is established: (a) By a constant under- 
 standing between the officers of the infantry and artillery. Their 
 command stations should be established in close proximity to each 
 other whenever possible, (b) By artillery liaison agents attached 
 to the infantry. 
 
 The necessity for officers of field and heavy artillery (chiefs 
 of groups and commanders of concentrations) maintaining fre- 
 quent personal contact with the commanders of the infantry units 
 (corps, battalions) with which they are co-operating, can not be 
 insisted upon too strongly. 
 
 Liaison and Observation Detachments. — In the execution of 
 an attack, each group of artillery charged with the direct support 
 of an infantry unit (regiment or brigade) attaches to the head- 
 quarters of that unit an officer, liaison officer, who has under his 
 orders a liaison and observation detachment. 
 
 This detachment consists of: Non-comrnissioned observers;- 
 non-commissioned officers and privates as scouts and liaison 
 agents; telephonists and signalers with the necessary apparatus 
 (telephones, apparatus for light signaling, flags). 
 
968 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 His mission consists of keeping his commanding officer in- 
 formed as to the situation and needs of the infantry and trans- 
 mitting the requests of the infantry to the batteries in such form 
 that it can be made use of; and of keeping the infantry commander 
 to whom he is attached informed as to the amount of assistance he 
 can expect from the batteries. As far as practicable he attaches 
 a non-commissioned observer to each battalion commander of the 
 first line. 
 
 By utilizing his own means of communication, he maintains 
 connection with the commander of his own group, on the one 
 hand, and on the other with the. advanced observers attached to 
 the battalion commanders of the first line. 
 
 He should give special attention to the constant, efficient 
 operation of intercommunication among all of these several ele- 
 ments. 
 
 It must be thoroughly understood that the establishment 
 of communication by the artillery does not forbid the infantry 
 from also establishing, by its own means of communication, con- 
 nection with the artillery which supports it. The advantage of a 
 double channel of communication is thus insured. 
 
 In defensive combat and during stationary periods com- 
 munication between the artillery and the infantry are maintained 
 in the manner set forth above. The object sought is always the 
 same — to insure to the infantry the efficient support of the artillery 
 at the necessary moment. The relative importance of the different 
 methods of communication employed will vary with the situation, 
 and they may be reduced in number during a stationary period. 
 
 ARM AND WHISTLE SIGNALS 
 
 To the general subject of signaling may be added signals 
 with the arm, hand or whistle, which are made when necessary to 
 replace oral commands. 
 
 FLAGS, LANTERNS AND BRASSARDS 
 
 Army corps: Tricolor flags without tassels; white or tri- 
 colored lantern; tricolored brassard with the insignia of forked 
 lightning and number of the corps. 
 
 Infantry division: First division of each army corps, red 
 flag with one vertical white stripe ; # second division of each army 
 corp, red flag with two vertical white stripes; for an independent 
 division the white stripe is horizontal; red lantern; red brassard 
 with grenade and number. 
 
MAINTENANCE OF COMMUNICATION 969 
 
 Infantry brigade: No flag; blue lantern; blue brassard with 
 grenade and number. 
 
 Infantry ammunition column: Yellow flag and lantern. 
 
 Artillery ammunition column: Blue flag and lantern. 
 
 Ambulances: Two flags, one tricolor, and the other blue 
 with a red cross; two superposed lights, white and red. 
 
 Quarantine hospitals: Yellow flag. 
 
 The headquarter flags of generals of artillery are blue and 
 red. Of generals of cavalry, blue and white. 
 
 Distinctive brassards. Artillery, crossed cannon, cavalry, 
 a star; engineers, helmet and cuirass. 
 
 Distinctive Colors of Battalions and Companies. — First, blue; 
 second, red; third, yellow; fourth, green. Units not connected with 
 the battalions, khaki. Liaison agents, blue brassards with dark 
 blue L. 
 
 LIAISON DURING THE ADVANCE 
 
 An advance is destined to be halted and is at the mercy of 
 counter attacks if it is abandoned by its artillery. The artillery 
 never abandons the infantry if it knows where they are and on 
 what points they should fire to support or defend them. 
 
 Liaison with the Commanding Officer. — The problem of in- 
 forming the commanding officer of the points reached by the ad- 
 vance elements is one of the most difficult encountered. The 
 company and battalion commanders should take every means to 
 solve it. Their chances of safety and of victory depend on it. 
 Successive changes of position of the command posts must be 
 arranged for, they must be improved by the pioneers, telephone 
 lines leading to them must be laid, and marks or directions indi- 
 cating to any strange orderly where to find the command post 
 must be placed. A well-drilled personnel for transmission of mes- 
 sages (signalers, liaison agents, runners), especially conversant with 
 the operations about to take place, must be arranged for. Every 
 means of transmission must be carefully organized and arrange- 
 ments must be made for the replacement of carriers of special 
 materiel in case they should fall, etc. 
 
 The means of communication, which have been explained 
 are: The telephone, rockets and signal cartridges, sound signals, 
 searchlights and panels with shutters, pigeons, runners, and, finally, 
 signal by Bengal lights, panels, or searchlights to the aeroplanes 
 and balloons, and transmitted by them to the corps commander. 
 
 It must be remembered that, in the employment of the latter 
 neans, the aeroplane rockets always apply to the infantry. One 
 mould learn to recognize an aeroplane or balloon belonging to 
 lis division. 
 
970 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 It should be remembered that the commander is impatiently- 
 waiting for information, and that he can not take action until he 
 knows what is going on in front. Never neglect any opportunity 
 for communication; employ several different methods simultane- 
 ously. Before demanding artillery fire or making signals with the 
 object of tracing the contour of the advance line, a company should 
 always make sure that there is no friendly element in advance of 
 them. In the confusion of battle, reinforcements and troops mak- 
 ing a counter attack, being poorly supplied with information and 
 sustaining losses, often think they have arrived on the first line 
 before they have reached it. This will result in bitter mistakes, 
 as they will either open fire or will demand barrage fire in front 
 of them. 
 
 Liaison with Neighboring Units. — This liaison is regulated in 
 the last paragraph of the plan of the battalion commander. It is 
 particularly important when the neighboring unit is a different 
 regiment. There is always an instinctive tendency in each unit to 
 close in toward the center, and this takes place even when the ob- 
 jectives have been carefully pointed out in order to avoid it. Con- 
 sequently, it is a good plan to have a half platoon, a platoon, or 
 even more march on the flank of the battalion, abreast the com- 
 panies of the second line, and charged with keeping contact with 
 the adjacent battalion or regiment. The platoon commander keeps 
 his command in small columns, observes carefully how the action 
 is going, and extends or deploys abreast of the first line if an * 
 appreciable gap has occurred between the two battalions with 
 which he is charged to maintain contact. 
 
 Personnel Grouped Around the Battalion and Company Com- 
 manders. — The division of the company into combat sections and 
 soldiers not included in these sections, the extension given to cer- 
 tain specialties (signalers, pioneers, etc.) have resulted in bringing 
 together around the captain or the battalion commander a certain 
 number of men who get in the way at the post of the commander 
 and in the battle if they have not been assigned a place or duty 
 while waiting until they are needed. This personnel, which may 
 be called captain's group or battalion commander's group, should 
 under all circumstances stand, move, and maneuver as a small 
 supplementary section, under the command of the quartermaster 
 corporal for the company and the battalion sergeant major for the 
 battalion. They should always be arranged in the same order, in 
 order that their presence can be instantly verified, their replacement 
 assured, and they can be found when they are needed. In battle 
 they are not allowed to collect around the commander; they are 
 kept in formation similar to the other fractions of the company, 
 and are required to march in their assigned place and to leave it 
 only when called. 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS OF MILITARY 
 
 TERMS APPEARING IN THE TEXT 
 
 OF THIS WORK 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS OF MILITARY TERMS 
 APPEARING IN THE TEXT OF THIS WORK* 
 
 Accidental Objectives. — Objectives dependent upon the military 
 operations which have for their object the destruction or dis- 
 integration of the enemy's forces. The position of the enemy 
 determines their location. 
 
 Active Sectors. — Elements generally made up of a small collection 
 of trenches and barricades, and receive as a garrison a complete 
 unit, from a squad to a platoon, having special orders to fit 
 their location. 
 
 Advance Cavalry. — That part of the advance guard cavalry pre- 
 ceding the support. It reconnoiters far enough to the front 
 and flanks to guard the column against surprise by artillery 
 fire, and to enable timely information to be sent to the advance 
 guard commander. 
 
 Advance Section. — The area of the service of the line of communi- 
 cation within which are situated the advance depots of ammu- 
 nition, supplies, animals, and material from which issues are 
 made to divisional trains. 
 
 Aerial Mine. — A type of grenade, weighing as much as 200 pounds, 
 used to beat down the enemy's defenses, destroying his sand- 
 bags and revetments, and cutting away wire entanglements 
 and other obstacles. A smaller variety is known as the winged 
 torpedo. 
 
 Aerial Reconnaissance. — A reconnaissance from a height above 
 ground which is effected by captive balloons, free balloons, 
 man-lifting kites, aeroplanes and dirigible balloons. 
 
 Agents of Transmission. — Non-commissioned officers or privates 
 who are charged solely with writing out the orders and carry- 
 ing them to their destination, and who are employed only on 
 simple tasks. In a company they are generally the cyclist, the 
 drummers and trumpeters. Agents of transmission are fre- 
 quently referred to as liaison agents. 
 
 * Taken principally from FARROW'S DICTIONARY OF MILITARY 
 TERMS. 
 
APPENDIX 973 
 
 Alignment. — A straight line upon which several elements are 
 formed, or are to be formed; or the dressing of several ele- 
 ments on the same line. 
 
 Alumino-thermics. — A science largely applied to meet military re- 
 quirements based on the discovery that by producing in a 
 suitable manner the chemical combination of oxygen and 
 aluminium, a temperature may be created equal to that of the 
 electric arc light. 
 
 Ammunition Column. — A column attached to the advance section 
 of the line of communications, which includes such ammunition 
 as may be required depending upon the character of operations 
 reasonably probable. 
 
 Ammunition Train. — The train including all vehicles, animals and 
 personnel employed in transporting the divisional artillery and 
 infantry ammunition reserve, or in bringing up the same from 
 the refilling point to the combat trains of organizations. 
 
 Ardois Signals. — A system of signaling in which a set of electric 
 lanterns arranged vertically on a staff, is used to send alpha- 
 betical signals. The globes of the lanterns are half red and 
 half white and the letters are formed by the different combina- 
 tions of the two colors. 
 
 Armored Tractor. — An armored motor car, resembling an enor- 
 mous armadillo, capable of advancing over rough terrain. Its 
 chief work is to locate the machine gunners and blow them out 
 of their positions and thus save the advancing infantry. 
 
 Artificial Darkness. — A temporary expedient in dissimulation. It 
 may be produced by the discharge of black powder, or by 
 burning damp straw or setting fire to vegetation to form a 
 heavy cloud of smoke. The darkness of night may be inten- 
 sified by throwing the beam of a searchlight across and some 
 way in front of the object to be screened. 
 
 Assembly Places. — Places intended to allow the assembly under 
 cover, for a relatively short time, of all the supports and re- 
 serves. They may be established from existing parallels, or be 
 constructed entirely for that purpose by branches from the 
 approach trenches. 
 
 Assembly Positions. — When compelled to withdraw, troops that 
 have been actively engaged are usually obliged to faU back 
 for several miles in deployed formation before efficient re- 
 organization and assembly is possible. The assembly position 
 must be far enough to the rear to enable the deployed lines to 
 thoroughly free themselves from all contact with the enemy. 
 
 Azimuth Deviation. — In gunnery, the difference between the azi- 
 muths from the directing point of the battery to the center of 
 the target and to the point of splash at the instant the 
 projectile strikes. 
 
974 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Barrage. — A wall of shell fire thrown against an advancing enemy 
 with such regularity that troops cannot pierce it. It is em- 
 ployed to prevent an enemy's advance or retreat, or the bring- 
 ing up of reinforcements. It is also used for the protection 
 of troops advancing to the attack. 
 
 Base. — A place where the line of communication originates, where 
 magazines of stores for the forces in the field are situated and 
 maintained under direct military management and control, and 
 where the business of supplying these forces is located and 
 organized under the military authorities; in fortification, the 
 exterior side of the polygon; in ordnance, the protuberant 
 rear portion of a gun between the knob of the cascabel and the 
 base-ring; also the element on which the movement is regu- 
 lated. 
 
 Base-line Signal Troops.— Those troops which furnish the lines 
 of information to connect commercial systems with the ad- 
 vanced bases of armies in the field and which supplement or 
 supplant the latter service wherever and whenever necessary. 
 
 Bastioned Lines.— Lines laid out to make good flanking arrange- 
 ments by placing the salients 250 yards apart, and making the 
 perpendicular of the front equal to 1/6. Sometimes they have 
 double flanks, the salients being 400 and 500 yards apart. 
 
 Batardeau. — A strong wall of masonry, built across the outer 
 ditch of a fortress, to sustain the pressure of water when one 
 part of the ditch is dry and the rest wet. It is built up to an 
 angle at the top and is armed with spikes, to prevent the 
 enemy from crossing. 
 
 Battalion Intelligence Section.— A section for front line observa- 
 tion, variously organized, under the direct command of the 
 intelligence officer and attached to battalion headquarters for 
 • rations and accommodation. This section usually consists of 
 about 35 of all ranks. 
 
 Battalion Reserves.— Reserves, usually consisting of at least one 
 company, used to reinforce the firing when the whole of the 
 supports have been thrown into it, to reinforce the firing line 
 at the moment of the assault, to cover the advance of the firing 
 line, to protect the flanks from counter-attack and, if possible, 
 to bring an oblique or enfilading fire to bear on that portion of 
 the enemy's position which is being attacked by the firing line. 
 
 Battery Commander Telescope.— A telescope of the general form 
 of the panoramic sight, but more powerful. With its all-around 
 motion in azimuth and limited motion in elevation, it is a most 
 satisfactory angle-measuring instrument. 
 
 Battle Sight.— The position of the rear sight on the service rifle j 
 when the leaf is laid down. This corresponds to a range of 
 547 yards. 
 
APPENDIX 975 
 
 Bayonet Combat. — The last resort, either in attack or defense, is 
 the bayonet. The percentage of bayonet wounds, as compared 
 with bullet or shrapnel wounds is small, but a man wounded in 
 bayonet combat seldom recovers. Hand grenades are much 
 used in breaking up bayonet charges. 
 
 Bearing. — In map reading, the angle a line makes with the true 
 north line is a true bearing. The angle a line makes with the 
 magnetic north line, is a magnetic bearing. The angle in both 
 cases is measured from north by east and south. 
 
 Beaten Zone. — The intersection of the cone of dispersion with the 
 surface on which the objective of the fire stands, or the space 
 on the ground in which the bullets strike, in a series of shots; 
 fired by a body of soldiers with the same aiming point, and the 
 
 i same rear sight setting. 
 
 Belgian Pits. — In trench warfare, small shallow pits, constructed 
 in a number of rows, generally seven. The spaces between the 
 pits are made impassable by pointed stakes and tripwires,. 
 Wire nooses also are anchored here and there. 
 
 :Best Point of Entry. — In an approach against a fortification, the 
 
 ; blindest eye of the work, or the particular spot in its firing- 
 line where its own fire is least effective over its immediate 
 
 1 foreground, or is least well supported by cross fire from ad- 
 
 s jacent works, or from artillery in the distance. 
 
 iBleiazid. — A high explosive used for detonations. Its force of 
 
 t detonation is twice as great as that of fulminate of mercury 
 and it resists high temperatures. 
 
 •Blinded Batteries. — Batteries, usually in the position of the second 
 
 3 parallel, whose guns are protected by armored parapets and 
 
 i bomb-proof blinds. , 
 
 IBombing Planes. — The largest and most powerful of all flying ma- 
 chines, with great ciimbing power to enable them to escape 
 the fire of anti-aircraft artillery. They are escorted by squad- 
 rons carrying bombs, guns and ammunition, the squadrons 
 being composed of various units operating over known itin- 
 eraries and in a fixed number of hours. I 
 
 Bomb Screen. — For protection against bombs and grenades a grille 
 of wire netting is erected in front of the trenches and arranged 
 at such a slope that the majority of grenades passing over the 
 screen will also clear the trench. This screen, of course, does 
 
 jj) not permit the use of the bayonet, nor does it permit an easy 
 offensive advance; but, this objection does not apply to com- 
 munications, machine gun emplacements, etc. 
 
 ^racket. — In gunnery, a space in the direction of range, the limits 
 
 of which are determined by firing. A target is said to be 
 
 enclosed in a 100 yard bracket when, of two ranges differing 
 
 from each other by 100 yards, one is over and the other is 
 
 62 
 
976 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 short of the target; also, the cheek or side of an ordnances 
 carriage. 
 Brigade Reserves.— Reserves, usually consisting of at least one 
 battalion, used as the general reserve if the brigade is oper- 
 ating independently, and used as local reserves (when the 
 brigade is operating as part of a larger force), and to take 
 over the duties of the battalion reserves when these reserves 
 have been absorbed in the firing line. 
 Burst Interval.— In gunnery, the distance in the plane of site from 
 the point of burst to the target. It is given with a minus sign 
 when it is between the gun and target, and with a plus sign 
 when it is beyond the target. 
 Camouflage.— A blind or cover screening military movements and 
 operations from the enemy air scouts, and other reconnoitermg 
 parties. The most practicable and convenient cover is made 
 of small foliage-bearing trees and brush. Camouflage, in its 
 fullest sense, is the art of reducing the visibility of objects, 
 and of deceiving as to their nature. 
 Camoufleurs.— A body of ingenious men organized to devote their 
 wits and energies to plans and devices intended to deceive 
 the enemy observers, particularly aviators, wherever a machine 
 gun or battery is set up, a trench taken and reversed, a new 
 road or bridge built, movements to advanced posts to hear and, 
 observe, etc. 
 Center of Burst.— In gunnery, the point about which the points of 
 burst of several projectiles are evenly distributed. Also known 
 as burst center and mean point of burst. 
 Chief of Platoon.— The head of the platoon, the strongest unit that 
 can be controlled by the voice and kept in view when deployed. 
 The platoon is the elementary group in battle; it engages, fires; 
 and fights as a unit; it always acts as if its power was concen- 
 trated under a single head— that of the chief of platoon. 
 Clearance-angle.— The angle of elevation obtained when the bot- 
 tom of the notch of the rear sight and the top of the front 
 sight and the notch on the muzzle are in line. 
 Clock-face Method.— In gunnery, a method employed to indicate 
 the position of the target described in relation to a description-* 
 point. In employing it, the clock-face must be imagined a 
 hanging vertically, with its center directly over the descrip 
 tion-point. 
 Close Billets.— Billets adopted when a greater state of readiness 
 is required than is possible in ordinary billets. For this reason 
 tactical considerations invariably have precedence over con 
 siderations of comfort, and arms and units should never be 
 mixed. 
 
APPENDIX 977 
 
 IClose Reconnaissance. — In aviation, a type 01 reconnaissance which 
 is minute in detail and extends about 30 miles into the enemy's 
 territory. It is tactical and intended for the use of the local 
 staff. This is area reconnaissance and deals with the details 
 of the enemy's position and defenses. 
 
 ^oast Artillery Supports. — Small bodies of coast artillery or mobile 
 troops assigned to the defense of the fortifications against 
 attack by raiding parties; they are under the orders of the 
 coast defense commanders. 
 
 Coefficient of Wind-pressure. — In gunnery and aeronautics, the 
 numerical constant in the formula expressing the pressure of 
 the wind against a stationary object or of the air resistance 
 to a moving object. 
 
 Combat Practice. — In small arms firing, the prescribed firing at 
 targets which simulate the appearance of an enemy under con- 
 ditions approaching those found in war, and the application of 
 this class of fire to tactical exercises. 
 
 Command Post. — A shelter near the observation station of a com- 
 mander. It should be located near a main approach trench and 
 its location marked by sign posts, lanterns, orderlies, etc., so 
 that it can be found day or night by the liaison agents who are 
 strangers to the unit. 
 
 Communication Trenches. — Those connecting fire trenches with 
 the cover trenches and the cover trenches with any trenches 
 (reserve) in rear where natural covered communication is 
 impracticable. They are zigzagged to escape being enfiladed. 
 
 Conduct of Fire. — Another term for fire control, or the exercise of 
 a commander, over his unit or units, of that power which en- 
 ables him to regulate the fire in obedience to his will. 
 
 Cone of Dispersion. — In small arms firing, a term applied to the 
 figure formed in space by the trajectories considered together 
 of a series of shots fired by a body of soldiers at a common 
 objective and with the same rear sight setting; also the ellipti- 
 cal shaped cone made by the dispersion of shrapnel balls when 
 the shrapnel bursts in the air. 
 
 Contact Patrol Reconnaissance. — In aviation, a type of reconnais- 
 sance which aims (1) to keep headquarters of formations in- 
 formed as to the progress of their troops during an attack, (2) 
 to report on the positions of the enemy opposing the advance, 
 the movements of his immediate reserves, and the state of his 
 defenses, and (3) to transmit messages from the troops en- 
 gaged to the headquarters of their formation. 
 
 'Convergence Difference. — If the guns of a battery be accurately 
 laid for converging fire up on a target and the panoramic 
 sights be then turned upon a common aiming point, the sight 
 readings will be found to vary by differences which are for all 
 
978 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 practical purposes equal from gun to gun throughout the 
 battery. This common difference is called the convergence 
 difference. 
 
 Convoy Camps. — Camps in which, as a means of defense, wagons 
 and loads of pack animals are utilized. The best formation is 
 that of a square, the wagons being arranged axle to axle as 
 closely as possible. When the loads of pack animals are used 
 to form a defensive perimeter, they may be supplemented by 
 abattis, sangars or trenches. - 
 
 Counter-trenches. — Trenches made against the besiegers, which 
 consequently have their parapets turned against the enemy's 
 approaches, and are enfiladed from several parts of the place 
 on purpose to render them useless to the enemy if he should 
 chance to come into possession of them. 
 
 Covering Parties. — In trench raids, parties with auto rifles which 
 are moved out at zero to the positions selected for them. They 
 usually form lines half facing the flanks and get into shel| 
 holes with the guns in the center and bombers on each side 
 
 Covering Position. — In the transport service, a position to be oc 
 cupied by an advanced detachment of troops at such distance 
 from the selected landing that neither anchorage, beach, noj 
 forming-up place are exposed to shell fire from the enemy's' 
 land forces. 
 
 Critique. — In the solution of combat problems, a statement giver 
 by the officer in charge, explaining in detail what was correctl} 
 done and what mistakes were made. 
 
 Curtain Fire. — Another name for barrage or a zone of artillery! 
 machine gun, or trench-weapon fire established for the purposi] 
 of preventing the passage of troops. 
 
 Curved Fire. — When a projectile is fired so as to just clear ai 
 interposing cover, and then descend upon the object, the lin 
 of fire being perpendicular or nearly so to the front of troopff 
 or works to be destroyed; fire with low muzzle velocity, th 
 elevation not exceeding 540 mils, usually from howitzers. 
 
 Danger Angle. — The angle which the tangent to the trajector 
 at the point of splash makes with the plane containing th I 
 point of splash and parallel to the horizontal plane throug 
 the muzzle of the piece in the firing position. Also calle 
 Angle of Splash. 
 
 Danger Space. — The distance in the plane of the slope considerec 
 over which an object of a given height would be pierced by 
 given trajectory. 
 
 Deflection. — Generally the angle set off on the panoramic sigV 
 of the directing gun. It may or may not be the same for th^ 
 other guns. In direct laying, it is such as is necessary to coi 
 rect for wind, drift and the movement of the target; the devij. 
 
APPENDIX 979 
 
 tion of a shot or ball from its true course; sometimes written 
 deflexure. 
 
 Deflection Difference. — The common converging or diverging dif- 
 ference applied to guns other than the directing gun, necessary 
 to bring them to bear on their proper portion of the target. 
 The deflection difference for parallel fire is always equal to 
 the parallax of the aiming point. It is positive if the aiming 
 point is in front and negative if in rear. 
 
 Delaying Actions. — Actions in which the advance of the enemy is 
 delayed as long as possible without imperiling the safe with- 
 drawal of the delaying force; and, in which this force must 
 hold its position for a time that is dependent upon conditions 
 in other parts of the field or in the theater of war. 
 
 Deployment. — An evolution by which a command extends its front; 
 it may be partial, as when heads of columns form on the same 
 line; or complete, as when a firing line is formed, with supports 
 and reserves. 
 
 Depth Bomb. — A bomb designed for use against submarines and 
 other submerged objects. Submarines, once seen below the 
 surface, are pursued and destroyed by dropping depth bombs 
 from the observing aircraft. Depth bombs are also known as 
 diving torpedoes. 
 
 Diamond-hitch. — In animal transportation, the side packs are slung 
 across the aparejo by the sling ropes and lashed on with the 
 lash rope and cincha in the form of the diamond-hitch, the 
 formation of which is accomplished by two packers, termed 
 
 ! the " near " and " off " packers. 
 
 Didion's Formulas. — Certain equations relating to the trajectory 
 of a projectile in the air, obtained by integrating the differ- 
 
 i ential equations of the trajectory under certain assumptions as 
 to the law of the resistance, etc. 
 
 Diphosgene. — A highly poisonous gas first employed by the Ger- 
 
 ii mans for loading their green, yellow and blue cross shell. 
 Diphosgene is a very dangerous weapon, causing little or no 
 
 r lachrymation. It is commonly classed as phosgene. 
 Dissimulation. — The production of targets less attractive to the 
 enemy than those which would be offered by the undisguised 
 works of the defender, and which are less likely to arouse the 
 enemy's suspicions, while at the same time they conceal the 
 true nature of the defenders' powers of offence, 
 distance. — The space between elements in the direction of depth; 
 it is usually measured from the tail of one element to the head 
 of the element following it. 
 Distributing Point. — The place where the ration sections of the 
 field trains are replenished either from the supply train or the 
 line of communications. 
 
980 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Dressing Stations. — Stations established during combat by am- 
 bulance companies of the sanitary train in the immediate rear 
 of the line of regimental aid stations, which are the places 
 where all wounded unable to walk are collected from regi- 
 mental aid stations by bearers of ambulance companies. 
 Echelon.— A body of troops is " in echelon " with reference to an- 
 other body when it is more or less advanced and unmasks or 
 uncovers the same, wholly or in part. Units so placed are 
 called echelons. Sometimes used to designate the different 
 elements of a tactical command. 
 Effectiveness of Fire.— The effectiveness of fire under battle condi- 
 tions and in combat firing exercises is dependent upon the) 
 three factors; the percentage of hits made, the number of 
 targets hit, and the time of execution. The ultimate effect may| 
 be expresed synthetically by the number of enemies disabledi 
 or targets hit in a unit of time. 
 Elements.— The simplest of the distinct isles of resistance. They 
 are generally made up of a smaL collection of trenches and 
 barricades, and receive as a garrison a complete unit, from 
 a squad to a platoon, having special orders to fit their location. 
 Employment of Fire.— A general term meaning fire direction, 
 which embraces the steps which enable the commander of one 
 or more fire units to bring an effective fire to bear upon the 
 desired target at the proper time. 
 Energy of Recoil.— An expression for the work done in the recoil 
 of a gun when fired. It may be reduced by decreasing the 
 weight of the projectile, by decreasing the muzzle velocity, or 
 by increasing the weight of the gun and carriage. 
 Enfilading Battery.— A battery used for destroying the artillery 
 and traverses, and silencing the fire of the defenses. Positions 
 are chosen for the enfilading batteries from which the terre- 
 pleins of the faces can be swept throughout. 
 Enveloping Attack.— An attack whose advantages lie mainly in thd 
 longer concentric line employed, which gives a greater volume 
 of fire or a fire that is converging upon the enemy s position 
 and which may enfilade part of the enemy's line when he i 
 compelled to form a new front. - 
 
 Equation of Defense.— An equation expressing the relation be 
 tween the development of the interior crest, the remainder o 
 the garrison after taking out the reserve, the number of rank: 
 for the defense, and the length of the interior crest requirec n 
 for the cannon in barbette, and for the outlet. 
 Evacuation Points.— In the sanitary service, the places at whic 
 the sick and wounded are transferred from the division to tn 
 lines of communications elements. 
 
. 
 
 APPENDIX 981 
 
 xamining Post.-A small detachment, under the command of 
 an officer or a non-commissioned officer, stationed at some 
 convenient point to examine strangers and to receive bearers 
 ot nags of truce brought in by the outguards or patrols 
 Falling Ground.-When the ground beaten by bullets falls in re- 
 spect of the line of sight, the depth of the beaten zone is aug- 
 mented in proportion as the downward slope increases, until it 
 reaches its greatest magnitude when the angle of the fall of 
 r the bullets is the same as the slope of the ground 
 Field Battalion.— A technical and administrative unit The head- 
 quarters and supply detachment concerns itself principally with 
 matters of administration and supply. Its tactical function is 
 limited to the sum of the functions of the three separate com- 
 panies in the battalion, as the companies have, in general 
 separate spheres of action. 
 ?ield ^Ration.— The ration prescribed in orders by the commander 
 ot the field forces. It consists of the reserve ration in whole 
 I or in part supplemented by articles of food requisitioned or 
 , purchased locally, or shipped from the rear, provided such sup- 
 plements or substitutes correspond generally with the com- 
 ponent articles or substitutive equivalents of the garrison 
 ration. 
 
 j'Hdd Telephone.-A line of telephone set up and quickly trans- 
 ferred from place to place in the field of military operations 
 employed for transmitting information from various points to 
 the station of the general officer commanding and for the dis- 
 tribution of orders emanating from said station. 
 
 ■ield Wireless.— Temporary wireless stations set up in the field 
 
 , of military operations to facilitate the transmission of orders, 
 to gain knowledge of enemy movements and to communicate 
 with aircraft acting under orders of the ground officer. 
 
 He.— Two men, the front rank man and the corresponding man in 
 the rear rank. The front rank man is the file leader. A file 
 without a rear rank man is a blank file. The term file applies 
 also to individual men in single rank formation and to a single 
 mounted man in ranks. 
 
 'ire Control.— The exercise by a commander, over his unit or 
 units, of that power which enables him to regulate the fire in 
 
 ( obedience to his will. It pertains especially to the techni- 
 calities immediately involved in delivery of fire. 
 ire Direction.— A general term embracing the various steps, in- 
 cluding tactical disposition, which enable the commander of 
 , one or more fire units to bring an effective fire to bear upon 
 
 i the desired target at the proper time. It pertains especially to 
 preparation of fire. 
 
982 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Fire Discipline. — The training of men so that they instinctively 
 carry out all orders of fire-unit commanders and in the absence 
 of orders adjust their sights and fire with due regard to the 
 tactical situation. 
 
 Fire Superiority. — Superior moral or physical fire effect as com- 
 pared to that of the adversary. Fire superiority is implied i^ 
 the assailant can advance or force back the defender. 
 
 Firing for Effect. — The fire delivered for the purpose of producing 
 effect on the target. It usually follows immediately after afl| 
 justment and is delivered with the greatest rapidity consistent 
 with proper laying of the guns. 
 
 Fixed Batteries. — The batteries containing the siege-guns and 
 mortars of the heaviest caliber and longest range, placed when 
 possible in enfilading positions and delivering their fire within, 
 the interior slope of the face enfiladed. 
 
 Flight Commander. — In aeronautics, an officer who commands an^ 
 leads a squadron of aircraft, executing orders of the ground 
 officer as far as possible, being followed by the squadron. 
 
 Flying Corps in the Field. — In aviation an organization of varied 
 magnitude and functions. Numerous separate duties are al 
 lotted to it, and each separate squadron, according to its typ< 
 of machine, confines itself to special tasks. 
 
 Folding the Flag. — In lowering the flag care is taken that it does! 
 not touch the ground. It is carefully folded into the shape 01 
 a cocked hat. The flag is usually folded into 3 or 4 folds by 
 two members of the guard under the direction of a non-com- 
 missioned officer. It is then successively folded on the 
 hypothenuse of a right-angled triangle, the other two sides 
 being equal to the width of one of the 3 or 4 folds. 
 
 Fragmentation. — The bursting and scattering of the fragments o 
 a shell, bomb or grenade in consequence of the firing and ex 
 plosion of the contained explosive. Fragmentation is more «vJ 
 less perfect according to the uniformity in size and the numbe.v 
 of the fragments. 
 
 Gas Attacks. — Attacks in which chlorine and other gases ane 
 brought up to the trench compressed in steel cylinders. These 
 are dug into the bottom of the trench and connected with pipes 
 leading over the parapet. When the valves of the cylinde^v 
 are opened the gas escapes with a loud, hissing noise, mixe*? 
 with the air and is carried by the wind to the opposing 
 trenches, spreading out in a continuous cloud as it goes. 
 
 Gas Helmet. — A defensive mask, usually referred to as the P. H 
 helmet or tube helmet, consisting of a flannelette bag whicp 
 pulls over the entire head and which is chemically treated, '-fa. 
 is fitted with a mouthpiece with a valve which is rubber covered 
 and when in use is gripped by the teeth. Inserted in the front 
 
APPENDIX 983 
 
 are glass windows for the eyes. During the passage through 
 the material of the helmet, the poisonous gas is absorbed by 
 the chemicals. 
 
 jas Warfare. — The use of poisonous and asphyxiating gases in 
 attacking the enemy, either by emanation or by means of shells 
 and grenades. The first requires a favorable breeze of about 
 five miles per hour and there must be no rain. In the shells 
 and grenade method of dissemination, shells and bombs are 
 used containing liquid gas, or a substance which gives off 
 
 , irritant fumes. 
 
 raz-vesicant. — A gas invented by the Germans, which acts after a 
 few hours only. It is colorless and inodorous and destroys all 
 the tissues as thoroughly as if under the action of suphuric 
 
 I acid. 
 
 reneral Service Code. — The international Morse code for use by 
 the Army of the United States and between the Army and 
 Navy of the United States. It is employed in all visual sig- 
 naling apparatus using the wig-wag, radio telegraphy, and on 
 cables using siphon recorders. There is but one modification 
 in its use, that is, when the Ardois night system is used 
 numerals are spelled out and punctuation marks are elimi- 
 nated. 
 
 Jorge Trench. — A trench having a double parapet, the front one 
 serving as a parados to protect men in the trench from shots 
 coming from the main line and also as a firing line to com- 
 mand the interior of the lunette in case the enemy gets in 
 
 , over the front. 
 
 irenadier. — Originally, a soldier who carried and hurled grenades; 
 
 I afterwards, one of a company attached to each regiment or 
 battalion, taking post on the right of the line; in modern times, 
 a member of a special regiment or corps. 
 Ground Section. — In gunnery, the zone of dispersion. In connec- 
 tion with the effective ranges of shrapnel balls it will be found 
 Ithat many balls impacting near the outer limit of a ground 
 section are ineffective due to lack of man-killing energy. 
 iroups of Posts. — Sub-sections organized by the commander with- 
 in each section of an intrenched zone. The general duties of 
 the commander are the same as those for an outpost com- 
 . mander. 
 
 I tun Squads. — Soldiers grouped for the purpose of making units 
 for the operation and service of guns in battle and to facilitate 
 their control and movement. Their habitual formation is in 
 ; column. 
 
 i lair-brash Grenade. — A racket bomb used to demoralize the 
 
 enemy, the noise created by its explosion being very great. 
 
 i It consists of a board about 12 inches long and 6 inches wide. 
 
984 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 cut down to the shape of a brush. On the large end of this i< 
 wired or tied a slab of wet gun cotton. In the center of tk< 
 slab is placed the dry primer or cone of guncotton wit! 
 detonator and time fuse. 
 
 Head Cover.- — A vertical shield of any material which protects th< 
 heads of the troops from fire. In fortification, any horizonta 
 cover which may be provided above the plane of fire. It ii 
 advantageous only when the conditions of the foreground art 
 such that the enemy cannot get close up. 
 
 Height of Burst. — The angle in mils which a line joining gun anc 
 the point of burst makes with the plane of site. The heigh - j 
 of burst adopted for adjustment is 1 mil and for effect 3 mils 
 
 High Explosive Shrapnel. — A shrapnel differing from the commor 
 shrapnel only in the substitution of an active for an insert 
 matrix. The matrix surrounding the balls in a common shrap 
 nel is resin and mono-nitro-naphthalene; in the high explosrw 
 shrapnel the matrix is tri-nitro-toluol, a high explosive. Th( 
 fuse of the high explosive shrapnel, in so far as the time actior 
 is regulated, is the same as the field artillery 2Usecond combi 
 nation fuse. 
 
 High-power Artillery. — Artillery composed of motor-drawn piece 
 or of pieces which are moved on rails. Its task is the destruc 
 tion of objectives which the other classes of artillery, eithe 
 through lack of range or the inadequacy of their projectile^ 
 can not damage. It has for objectives strongly fortified sup 
 porting points, railway stations, centers of communication, etc 
 
 Holding Attack. — An attack for the purpose of holding the enemj 
 to his position by offensive action in one part of the field whil< 
 a decisive blow in the nature of an assault or of an enveloping 
 or a turning movement is struck in another quarter. 
 
 Honig Circles. — An ingenious arrangement of signals for nigh 
 flyers. The apparatus consists of two electric circles or ring; 
 of incandescent lamps standing on edge a few feet from thd ( 
 ground, with the smaller one placed at a distance of severa 
 yards behind the larger one, which stands back of the landing 
 stage. 
 
 Identification Signals. — By reason of the number of visual signal^! 
 that can be sent simultaneously, it is necessary to assigns- 
 signal to each station which will identify the authority sending 
 the communication. These signals are assigned from divisioi 
 headquarters and each consists of one letter and one numeral 
 
 Illuminating Grenade. — A contrivance, weighing about 14 ounces 
 attached to the muzzle of the ordinary service rifle. In, 
 projecting it into the air, the butt of the rifle is placed on tf?' 
 ground. A firing rod releases a parachute and ignites th< 
 illuminating substance — calcium carbide. 
 
APPENDIX 985 
 
 Incendiary Grenade. — A form of grenade designed to scatter 
 molten metal upon bursting. The most effective of the kind 
 contains the ingredients necessary for making the compound 
 known as thermit. 
 x Independent Cavalry. — Cavalry independent of the infantry divi- 
 sions advancing behind it and under the sole orders of their 
 own commander, who receives his instructions direct from the 
 commander-in-chief. It is the chief means of providing the 
 commander-in-chief with the information which he requires in 
 order to dispose the whole of his force to the best advantage 
 and with the greatest hope of success. 
 
 [ndirect Fire. — The practice of firing (usually with machine guns) 
 at a target while using a different sight setting and a different 
 aiming point than is offered by the objective itself. The target 
 may or may not be visible to the gunner. Over-head fire, 
 night firing and firing with the use of auxiliary aiming points 
 are various methods of employing indirect fire. 
 
 Cnfantry Divisional Balloon. — A signal balloon identified by several 
 streamers displayed at its rear, and at night by an inclined 
 plane, illuminated at regular intervals. The aeronaut com- 
 municates by telephone with a station on the ground, from 
 which the messages are transmitted to divisional headquarters. 
 
 [nformation Officer. — An officer sent by the commander of a unit 
 to the headquarters of the next higher command or of a neigh- 
 boring command for the purpose of keeping in touch with and 
 sending back prompt information of changes in the tactical 
 situation. 
 '[nterior Guards. — Police guards, guards of property, etc., who are 
 liable to come in contact with the enemy. 
 
 [nterval. — An open space between military units, companies, guns, 
 etc.; space between elements of the same line, measured from 
 flank to flank. 
 
 fournal of Attack. — In actual siege operations, a daily record.made 
 by each engineer officer on duty in the trenches, of the amount 
 of work done, the time required, the means of execution, etc., 
 with any observations that may seem of value. 
 
 . fournal of Defense. — A journal in which is kept by the commander 
 of a place and the chiefs of engineers and of artillery, during 
 war, in order of date, without blank or interlineation, all orders 
 given or received, the manner in which they are executed, their 
 results, and every event and circumstance of importance in the 
 progress of the defense. 
 
 fump of a Gun. — The increased angle of departure at which a 
 projectile leaves a gun, after the gun has been truly leveled at 
 the target or object to be struck. 
 
986 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Kiwi. — In the vernacular of the Royal Flying Corps, a member of 1 
 the Corps who does not fly in allusion to the flightless bird of 
 New Zealand called the Kiwi. Such members, officers and men," 
 attend to supply and repair work. 
 Knuckle Knife. — In raids and trench work, a knife about nine S 
 inches long, ending in a handle that has openings for the four 
 fingers to go through, thus serving as a " knuckle duster." 
 Lateral Communications. — Communications between the different 
 portions of an army when moving from one common base byjj 
 different roads towards an enemy, so that in case of a concen- 
 tration being required on any particular point, instructions and 
 orders can be readily carried out. 
 Lateral Deviation. — In gunnery, the distance between the plane of 
 direction and the plane of splash, measured (right or left) 
 from the center of the target and perpendicular to the plane of 
 direction. 
 Leapfrog. — A method of maintaining constant communication with 
 a moving command by using two or more instruments with a 
 single unit, keeping one in operation while another is moving 
 past it to a position in front. Commonly used with radio sets 
 and buzzer instruments. 
 Liaison. — A French term signifying the connection or communica- 
 tion to be established between various officers or between 
 various units and officers. 
 Liaison Agent. — The designation reserved for officers (occasionally 
 sergeants) who are competent to estimate a situation, deliver 
 instructions, and gather information. A custom has grown up 
 of referring to the agents of transmission as liaison agents. 
 Line. — A formation in which the different elements are abreast 
 of each other; the numbered organizations of an army in con- 
 tradistinction to the guard or guards; the infantry, cavalry, 
 artillery, etc., in contradistinction to the staff corps and de-, 
 partments; a picket line or side line; an imaginary limiting line 
 in fencing; a trench or rampart; a general term applied to all 
 combatant troops; a position occupied by troops, as a defensive 
 line. 
 
 Line of Circumvallation. — An exterior line of works forming an 
 unbroken line of intrenchments composed of the most simple 
 elementary parts, as tenailles, redans, etc., with a slight profile; 
 its chief object being to prevent succors of small detachments 
 from slipping into the place. 
 Line of Communication. — The communication by rail, road, and 
 navigable waters between the army and its base or bases in- 
 clusive, together with the district through which it passes? 
 within such limits as the commander-in-chief may determine. 
 
APPENDIX 987 
 
 Line of Countervallation. — The line of field works constructed in 
 front of the camps, and on the side next to the besieged posi- 
 tion, to defend the camps, parks, and trains against any attacks 
 which might be made by the besieged. 
 Listening Posts. — Sheltered positions in advance of a defensive 
 line for the purpose of early detection of the enemy's move- 
 ments. They are connected with the main line by a com- 
 municating trench or subterranean gallery. 
 Living Force. — That force of a body in motion which determines 
 the work of which it is capable. It is measured by the product 
 of the mass and the square of the velocity. 
 Local Reconnaissance. — In aviation, a type of reconnaissance which 
 is a minute examination of the trenches and defenses. It is 
 seldom more than 8 or 10 miles in e,xtent. Also known as 
 artillery reconnaissance. 
 Longitudinal Deviation. — In gunnery, the perpendicular distance 
 i (over or short) of the point of splash from the vertical plane 
 j passing through the center of the target and perpendicular to 
 
 the plane of direction. 
 Longitudinal Dihedral Angle. — In aeronautics, the main surface and 
 tail surface of an aeroplane are said to be at a longitudinal 
 dihedral angle when the projections of their neutral lift lines 
 meet and produce an angle above them. 
 , Longitudinal Resistance. — In gunnery, a strain or resistance pro- 
 duced by the longitudinal pull or elongation caused by the 
 direct thrust of the pressure in the bore on the head of the 
 block, and by the displacement in longitudinal direction caused 
 bjr the pressures which act normally upon the interior and ex- 
 I terior of the jacket. 
 
 Lookout Posts. — Protected positions, usually located in the first 
 line trenches, at points where good views may be obtained of 
 the enemy's line. They are usually constructed on the right 
 side of a traverse and in an excavation in the front wall of the 
 trench. 
 Looping. — An aerial military maneuver, frequently termed looping 
 the loop, which is seldom done because of the great danger of 
 throwing the pilot out, difficulty in feeding the motor and the 
 great strain on the machine. A loop is really only a combina- 
 tion of a very extreme stall, and then a dive, and at no time is 
 the aeroplane actually flying on its back. At the top of the 
 loop the engine is shut down. 
 i Map Reading. — The art of forming a clear mental picture of the 
 actual features of the ground by reading the characters repre- 
 senting the same on the map. To be able to do so, the scale 
 and map distances of the map must be known. 
 
988 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Maximum Angle of Incidence. — In aeronautics, the greatest angle 
 at which, for a given power, surface (including detrimental 
 surface), and weight, horizontal flight can be maintained. 
 
 Mean Radial Distance. — The mean radial distance of the shots 
 from the center of the group on the target. To determine it, 
 find the point of mean impact, and measure the absolute dis-, 
 tance of each shot from it. Divide the sum of these distances 
 by the number of shots on the target. 
 
 Meeting Engagements. — Meeting engagements are characterized 
 by the necessity for hasty reconnaissance, or the almost totaf 
 absence of reconnaissance; by the necessity for rapid deploy- 
 ment, frequently under fire; and usually by the absence of 
 trenches or other artificial cover. These conditions give 
 further advantages to the offensive. The whole situation will 
 usually indicate beforehand the proper general action to be 
 taken on meeting the enemy. 
 
 Meeting System of Convoys. — A system under which two sections* 
 of transport, one of which is loaded and the other unloaded, 
 meet at some point half way between two stages, exchange 
 their vehicles or transfer their loads, and then return to their 
 respective stages. 
 
 Mess Sergeant. — The sergeant in charge of the company mess 
 under the supervision of the company commander. He makes 
 the purchases of supplies and provides the cooks with the 
 materials necessary for the bill of fare for each meal. He sees 
 that the personnel connected with the men perform their duties 
 properly and that the food is properly prepared and promptly 
 served at the hour designated. 
 
 Mil. — The unit of angular measure, 1/6400 part of a circle. The 
 arc which subtends a mil, at the center of a circle is, for 
 practical purposes, equal to 1/1000 of the radius. The arc and 
 its tangent are nearly equal for angles not greater than 330 
 mils. 
 
 Military Administrator. — An officer whose function is to transform 
 . into military force so much of the resources of the State as 
 the Government thinks proper, The process is continuous, and 
 goes on during war as well as during peace, and renders the 
 resources of the country available for employment against an 
 enemy. 
 
 Military Order. — An authoritative direction, respecting the military 
 service, issued by a military commander with a view to regu- 
 late the conduct of military persons, or control the movements 
 or operations of individuals or organizations under his com- 
 mand. 
 
 Military Orthopedics. — A branch of the Medical Department, under 
 the direction of the Director of Military Orthopedics, dealing 
 
APPENDIX 989 
 
 with the wounded either lessening or curing their deformities 
 or restoring them to military usefulness. 
 
 Military Police. — Police whose duty is to enforce all police regula- 
 tions in the theater of operations and in mobilization and con- 
 centration camps. They protect the inhabitants of the country 
 from pillage and violence and prevent excesses of all kinds; 
 keep all roads clear; arrest all soldiers and civilian employes 
 absent without proper authority from their organizations; 
 arrest all marauders; and are charged with relieving organiza- 
 tions from the care of prisoners of war and with their safe 
 conduct. 
 
 Military Railroading. — That condition of railroading which in- 
 cludes the location, construction, operation, and maintenance 
 of railroads in the theater of war under military auspices and 
 for military purposes; that is, with a personnel consisting of 
 officers, enlisted men, and civilian employees, and for the main 
 purpose of facilitating the movements and supply of the army. 
 
 Military Reconnaissance. — A survey or examination of a country 
 made under the protection of an armed force. It is one of the 
 most essential operations connected with the tactics of the 
 field, and serves as the basis of every movement or combina- 
 tion which it may be proposed to make. 
 
 Military Surgery. — The surgical practice in armies. In its broad 
 and ordinary acceptation, it embraces branches of art compre- 
 hending the practice of medicine, sanitary precautions, hospital 
 administration, ambulances, etc. 
 
 Military Vocabulary. — The techincal terms applied to the organi- 
 zations, weapons, equipment, formations and duties of various 
 arms. It is important that the military vocabulary in each unit 
 of an army should be uniform as to its various terms, espe- 
 cially in regard to the indication and description of targets. 
 
 Motor Transport. — A constant and serviceable means of transport, 
 for troops and materiel. In conjunction with trailers it may be 
 employed for any and all special purposes, embracing motor 
 ambulances, ammunition-wagons, artillery and machine guns, 
 kitchens, searchlights, and telegraphs, and cause a close union 
 of the three arms of service. It greatly increases the efficiency 
 of engineer troops, making possible the more rapid trans- 
 portation of tools and materials, gasoline power plants, etc. 
 
 Motor Transport Corps. — A part of the Quartermaster Corps 
 under the direction of a chief who is an assistant to the Quar- 
 termaster General. The functions of the Motor Transport 
 Corps are the purchase and procurement of all motor pro- 
 pelled vehicles except tanks, caterpillars and artillery tractors; 
 the maintenance and repair of motor vehicles; the technical 
 
990 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 supervision organization and supply of motor driven vehicles; 
 the maintenance of reserve vehicles and motor repair shops. 
 The Motor Transport Corps has no responsibility after the 
 vehicles are assigned to and placed under the control of tacti- 
 cal commanders. 
 
 Motor Trucks. — For military service, motor trucks are stand- 
 ardized with interchangeability of parts. They are provided 
 with special platforms and armored bodies and designed for all 
 kinds of work, and used to carry anti-aircraft guns, traveling J 
 machine-shops, dentist's offices, wireless stations, airplane re- 
 pair depots, soup kitchens, blacksmith shops, etc. 
 
 Mounted Scouts. — Scouts used for communication with neighbor- 
 ing troops, for patrolling off the route of march, for march 
 outposts, outpost patrols, combat patrols, reconnaissance ahead 
 of columns, etc. Their further use is, in general, confined to 
 escort and messenger duty. 
 
 National Anthem. — The recognized musical expression of the patri- 
 otic sentiment of a nation. The composition consisting of the 
 words and music known as " The Star Spangled Banner " is 
 designated the national anthem of the United States of 
 America. When the national anthem is played, officers and 
 men in uniform, but out of ranks, come to attention, bringing 
 the right hand to the position of salute at the first bar of the 
 music and holding it there until the music ceases. Troops 
 under arms render the prescribed salute. Civilians uncover, 
 holding the hat with the right hand on the left shoulder. If 
 indoors and uncovered all stand at attention. 
 
 National Salute. — A salute of 21 guns. It is also the salute to a 
 national flag. The salute to the Union, commemorative of 
 the Declaration of Independence, and consisting of one gun 
 for each State, is fired at noon on July 4th, at every post pro- 
 vided with suitable artillery. 
 
 Natural Point-blank. — The point at which the line of sight inter- 
 sects the trajectory the second time; or, more practically 
 speaking, it is that point which, being aimed at, is struck by 
 the projectile. 
 
 Night Assault. — An assault undertaken in order to gain a point of 
 support for further operations in daylight, to drive in an 
 enemy's advanced troops, to secure an outpost position as a 
 preliminary to an attack at dawn, or to surprise an ill-trained, 
 ill-disciplined or semi-civilized enemy. 
 
 Night Operations. — Movements undertaken to out-maneuver an 
 enemy; to avoid observation, particularly when the enemy is 
 provided with aircraft; to pass over an area of ground which 
 it has been found difficult or impossible to traverse in day- 
 
APPENDIX 991 
 
 light; to continue or complete an attack begun before dark; 
 and to effect a tactical surprise. 
 
 Nobel Lighter. — A lighter for hand grenades having a five-second 
 fuse attached. It consists of two cardboard tubes, one fitting 
 over the other. Inside the top end of the outer tube there is a 
 layer of friction composition; fixed on the top end of the 
 inner tube is a forked brass friction head, which is held in 
 position by a safety pin fastened through both tubes. Inside 
 the other end of the inner tube is a small copper band, into 
 which the fuse is fitted. 
 
 Noizet System of Fortification. — A system embracing the teaching 
 of the school of Metz and having no sensible departure from 
 the views and methods of Cormontaigne, excepting to intro- 
 duce such modifications as would remedy some of the acknowl- 
 edged defects of his method. The front planned by Noizet 
 has been taken as an elementary exercise for instruction in 
 the art of fortification for the cadets at the United States 
 Military Academy at West Point. 
 
 Nose Spinning. — In aeronautics, a quick way of losing height with- 
 out gaining too much speed. A dangerous feature of spinning 
 comes in where there is too much side fin surface in front of 
 the center of gravity, as this stiffens the aeroplane, making it 
 harder to get out. This maneuver requires plently of height 
 for safe recovery. 
 
 N-Square Law. — In aeronautics, an expression meaning that if, for 
 example, only five machines were flying in sufficiently close 
 formation to act in attack or defense simultaneously — that is 
 to say, so that the enemy could not approach one without com- 
 ing under fire of all — they (in formation) would be more than 
 a match for any force of machines (of equal individual fighting 
 value) that might attack singly up to the number of twenty- 
 five. 
 
 Observation. — Watching the effect of fire on the target with a view 
 to correction or verification of sighting, either by watching for 
 the dust thrown up by bullets, or the behavior of the enemy. 
 
 Observatory. — A term often employed for observation posts which 
 are protected and have means of communication such as tele- 
 phone, heliograph, messenger, carrier pigeons and wireless. 
 The observatory may be occupied by the commander himself 
 or by an observer who represents him. In any case the ob- 
 servatory should be near the command post. 
 
 Offensive Patrols. — That class of patrols made exterior to the line 
 of out-posts, with a view of gaining intelligence of the enemy's 
 whereabouts. They are composed of larger bodies of men than 
 defensive patrols. In aviation, these patrols go far beyond the 
 lines and make invaluable reconnaissance. 
 
992 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Ooeration Orders. — Orders which deal with all strategical and 
 tactical operations and which include such information regard- 
 ing supply, transport, etc., as it is necessary to publish to the 
 troops. 
 
 Optimum Angle of Incidence. — In aeronautics, the angle at which 
 the lift-drift ratio is highest. In modern aeroplanes it is that 
 angle of incidence possessed by the surface when the axis 
 of the propeller is horizontal. 
 
 Ordinary Billets. — Billets in which troops are lodged in houses or 
 buildings at the rate of about one man to each three to four 
 square yards of floor space. In agricultural districts, ordinary 
 billets without subsistence can be provided at the rate of about 
 ten men per inhabitant. 
 
 Ordnance Depots.— The ordnance services on the lines of com- 
 munications consist of ordnance depots, the personnel for which 
 is found from one or more ordnance companies. These depots 
 are distributed at the base, advanced base, and at other locali- 
 ties on the lines of communications. Intermediate depots are 
 also established as may be necessary. Ordnance depots con- 
 tain all the necessary reserves of arms, ammunition, equipment, 
 etc., exclusive of medical and veterinary stores. 
 
 Orientation. — In artillery, the determination of the east point of 
 the compass, in taking bearings. The orientation of mortars is 
 frequent^ tested and the setting of the azimuth indices cor- 
 rected. A drawing is said to be oriented when so placed that 
 its true meridian is parallel to the true meridian of the ground. 
 
 Outguards. — The guards which constitute the line of small detach- 
 ments farthest to the front and nearest to the enemy. Their 
 duty is to maintain uninterrupted observation of the ground 
 in front and on the flanks; to report promptly hostile move- 
 ments and other information relating to the enemy; to prevent 
 unauthorized persons from crossing the line of observation; 
 to drive off small parties of the enemy, and to make temporary 
 resistance to larger bodies. 
 
 Outpost Company. — A company the general function of which is 
 to extend the lines of information in the direction forward of 
 the brigade. Specifically, its normal function is to furnish 
 telephone communication between the infantry brigade com- 
 mander and his regimental commanders in combat. 
 
 Outward Flank. — The extreme file on the right or left of a division, 
 subdivision, or section, according to the given front, when the 
 battalion is at close or open column, and which is the farthest 
 wheeling point from line into column, or from column into 
 line. 
 
 Overhead Fire. — Fire directed over the heads of troops. Its object' 
 is to cover the advance of troops, to increase the fire effect on 
 
APPENDIX 993 
 
 any particular portion of the enemy's lines and to cover the 
 enemy communication trenches and prevent supports com- 
 ing up. 
 
 Oversea Operations. — Operations undertaken with a view to (a) 
 the establishment of a base for military operations either 
 against the enemy's field armies or against a coast fortress, 
 (b) the establishment of a flying naval base, or (c) raids 
 against shipping, communications, etc. 
 
 Pack Transportation. — A division of animal transportation, in 
 which the animal is the unit, and each can carry, on a con- 
 servative estimate, 300 pounds gross or 225 pounds net load. 
 The great advantage of pack transportation is its mobility, and 
 ability to go over rough country where wagons are impassable. 
 
 Panels. — Contrivances of different types used in communicating 
 with avions. Their significance varies in order to preserve 
 the secret. They are displayed only in the first line and are 
 left spread only until the avion has signaled " understood," 
 and in no case for more than 15 minutes. 
 
 Panorama Sketch. — A sketch too extended to be viewed in its 
 entirety at once, but is exhibited part at a time by being un- 
 rolled and passing continuously before the spectator. Pano- 
 ramic sketches are made by means of panoramic cameras 
 transported by aircraft or otherwise. 
 
 Parachute Grenade. — A percussion grenade whose body consists of 
 a tin cylinder of explosive with a hemispherical head of larger 
 diameter containing shrapnel bullets. A buffer cylinder passes 
 through the body and projects, so as to produce the explosion 
 slightly above ground. A parachute safety arrangement is 
 attached to the head of the handle in order to prevent frag- 
 ments flying to the rear on explosion, and also to cause the 
 grenade to fall on its head. 
 
 Patrols. — Small detachments employed for a variety of purposes, 
 the name of the detachment indicating its duty, as visiting, con- 
 necting, combat, exploring, reconnoitering, flanking, harrass-* 
 ing, pursuing patrols, etc. 
 
 Permissible Explosives. — Explosives based variously upon ammo- 
 nium nitrate, nitroglycerin and nitrostarch. They are poorly 
 adapted for demolitions, but are peculiarly suitable for mining 
 operations. 
 
 Phosgene. — A very poisonous gas first used by the Germans in 
 their poison shell. The term was formerly used to designate 
 a gas now known as carbonyl chloride which is formed from 
 chlorine and carbon monoxide, under the influence of light. 
 It is commonly used under the form of diphosgene. 
 
 Photograph Officer. — In aviation, an officer in charge of the pho- 
 tographic lorry who is responsible for the photographic ap- 
 
 1 
 
994 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 paratus and the development of plates delivered by the observ- 
 ing aviators who have been aloft. 
 
 Picric Powders. — Powders consisting of pure picric acid, or that 
 acid combined with a non-metallic base. They are non-sensi- 
 tive to shock, unaffected by heat or cold, and in some forms by 
 water, can be produced in a granular form or fused into solid 
 shapes. Melinite, lyddite, ecrasite and shimose are of this 
 class. 
 
 Pill-box. — A slang term for a concrete and steel shelter and out- 
 post defense, armed with machine guns as used by the Germans 
 on the Western Front. It generally contains two main cham- 
 bers and mounts from 3 to 5 machine guns in a bastion beyond 
 these chambers. A stairway leads to the top which may be 
 used for observation purposes. 
 
 Plane of Site. — A plane containing the right line from the muzzle 
 of the gun to the target, and a horizontal line perpendicular 
 to the axis of the bore at the muzzle. It is sometimes called 
 the zero plane. 
 
 Plan of Combat. — The success of an attack depends upon the per- 
 fection of its execution. This perfection must be assured by 
 the plan of combat of the chief of the unit. This plan is based 
 upon the mission assigned to the unit, the obstacles to be over- 
 come in accomplishing this mission and the means at the 
 disposal of the unit. 
 
 Playfair Cipher. — A cipher in military usage, according to which 
 system the letters of the text are enciphered in pairs, and one 
 letter of a pair is represented in cipher by the same letter only 
 when the other letter of the pair remains the same. This fact 
 greatly increases the difficulty of solution. 
 
 Plunging Ricochet. — The description of ricochet fire, when the 
 angle of fall is comprised between 6° and 10°. In this fire, the 
 ball is given a small velocity, and the curve described is short 
 and high. 
 'Point Blank Range. — The distance from the muzzle of the piece to 
 that point in the projectile's trajectory where it cuts the pro- 
 longation of the natural line of sight, a second time, the 
 natural line of sight being horizontal. 
 
 Position in Readiness. — A position for action in which troops are 
 placed where it is intended to resist the advance of the enemy 
 in the immediate vicinity and the knowledge of his movements 
 is not sufficiently definite to decide upon a plan of action. 
 
 Position of Deployment. — A place (preferably a large open space) 
 near some landmark easily recognizable, where the whole of 
 the infantry detailed for the attack can halt for a few minutes 
 in order to make sure that all the units are present and can 
 easily deploy for the attack. 
 
APPENDIX 995 
 
 Potence. — Troops are ranged en potence by breaking a straight 
 line, and throwing a certain proportion of it either forward or 
 backward, from the right or left, according to the circum- 
 stances, for the purpose of securing that line. An army may 
 be posted en potence by means of a village, a river, or a wood. 
 
 Practice Marches. — A part of the field training of troops having in 
 view the hardening of the men and animals and the instruction 
 of officers and men in duties incident to a campaign, marching, 
 camping, cooking, etc., and the principles of tactics, including 
 the services of information and security. 
 
 Profiling. — An operation by the construction of field works which 
 consists in erecting at proper points along the sub-crests, 
 wooden profiles which give the form of the parapets at those 
 points, and which guide the workmen in the construction of 
 the works. 
 
 Progressive Powder. — A gunpowder made so that it burns slowly 
 until the projectile moves, and then with increasing, or pro- 
 gressive rapidly, to avoid the extreme pressure caused by the 
 explosion of powders in which the combustion is instantaneous. 
 
 Protective Cavalry. — The first line of security until the opposing 
 infantry columns get within striking distance of each other. It 
 covers the advance of the army or group of divisions to which 
 it is attached, to prevent the enemy obtaining information as 
 to the disposition of the force which it is covering, and to 
 allow the force tactical freedom of action. 
 
 Protective Patrols. — Patrols detailed for the immediate protection 
 of the force and to prevent the enemy's scouts and patrols from 
 attempting to penetrate the screen and gain the fullest informa- 
 tion as to the advancing infantry. 
 
 Provost Guards. — Guards used in the absence of military police, 
 generally in conjunction with the civil authorities at or near 
 large posts or encampments, to preserve order among the sol- 
 diers beyond the interior guard. 
 
 Quadrant. — In gunnery, an instrument, generally made of brass, 
 for ascertaining or adjusting the elevation of ordnance, par- 
 ticularly mortars, which have no tangent scale. It is graduated 
 into degrees and parts of a degree, having a movable index, 
 with a spirit level and vernier attached to it. 
 
 Quarter Guard. — A guard mounted in camp, immediately on the 
 arrival of each corps on its ground. It is placed in front of 
 the center of the camp, at about 80 paces from it, and is 
 charged with special duties. 
 
 Quarter-sights. — In gunnery, divisions marked on the upper quar- 
 ters of the base-ring, commencing where it would be inter- 
 sected by a plane parallel to the axis of the piece, and tangent 
 
996 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 to the upper surface of the trunnions. These sights are used 
 for giving elevation up to 3°. 
 
 Sadian. — A unit of angular measurement. The true mil is a thou- 
 sandth part of a radian, or practically 1/1570 part of a right 
 angle. 
 
 Radio Company. — A company used by the commander of a division 
 for maintaining communication with adjacent columns, with 
 the divisional cavalry, and in other instances where distance, 
 the character of service, and the nature of the terrain prevent 
 the laying of wire lines. It usually serves to connect division 
 headquarters with the divisional trains and, pending the con- 
 struction of semi-permanent lines, with the radio station at 
 Army Corps headquarters in rear. The radio company is or- 
 ganized into the necessary headquarters and company staff, 
 two platoons of two pack radio sections each, and one wagon 
 radio section. 
 
 Rafale. — A variety of artillery and infantry fire which has for its 
 object the production of a paralyzing, instantaneous effect pro- 
 duced by suddenly delivered, very violent gusts of fire of short 
 duration, separated by more or less prolonged intervals of calm. 
 Rafale in French literally means " squall." 
 
 Railhead. — A locality on the railway where ammunition and sup- 
 plies are transferred to ammunition parks and supply columns. 
 
 Rally. — The rapid grouping behind a leader of the various elements 
 of a command without reference to their previous situation or 
 formation. 
 
 Range-azimuth Table. — A table of ranges and; the corresponding 
 azimuths from a gun to points in the center of the main ship 
 channel or channels. It is kept at the gun and used for firing 
 without the use of range-finding apparatus. 
 
 Range Deviation. — In gunnery, the difference between the range to 
 the target (at the instant the projectile strikes) and the 
 range to the point of splash. The range deviation to the longi- 
 tudinal deviation when the lateral deviation is zero. 
 
 Range Officer. — In coast artillery, the officer in charge of the posi- 
 tion finding equipment and the range .section of the battery 
 command. His station is at the battery plotting room and he is 
 responsible to the battery commander for the condition of the M 
 material and for the efficiency of the personnel under his 
 charge; an officer charged with the police and care or a target 
 range and its accessories. 
 
 Range-takers. — Men protected by the screen of scouts in front, who 
 push forward and take ranges. As the firing line advances, the 
 range-takers go forward alone, to avoid attracting attention to ^ 
 themselves, well out to the flanks. When using their instru 
 
 
APPENDIX 997 
 
 merits they should do so from cover or lying down and en- 
 deavor to avoid being seen by the enemy. 
 
 Reconnoitering Patrols. — Patrols whose chief duty is to gather 
 information. They habitually seek safety in concealment or 
 flight, fighting only when their mission demands it. The most 
 skillful patrolling is where patrols accomplish their mission 
 and return without being discovered by the enemy. 
 
 Record Practice. — In small-arms firing, a practice to afford the 
 soldier an object lesson of his progress, and to obtain a record 
 by means of which the .soldier may be graded in awarding in- 
 signia and increased pay. 
 
 Re-entering Place of Arms. — In fortification, an enlargement of the 
 covered-way, at the re-entering angles of the counter-scarp; 
 this space is formed by setting off demi-gorges of 30 yards 
 (more or less) and making the spaces form angles of 100° with 
 the adjoining branches of the covered way. 
 
 Refilling Point. — The place where the empty vehicles of the supply 
 train are refilled by the line of communications. It may be a 
 rail, automobile, tractor, wagon, or water head, and it may be 
 at or in advance of the advance supply depot of the line of 
 communications. 
 
 Regimental Dressing Stations. — The stations to which the wounded 
 are evacuated and transported by the regimental stretcher 
 bearers, the musicians co-operating. These stations are estab- 
 lished behind the reserves of the regiments in dry and sheltered 
 places. 
 
 Relief. — The height of the interior crest of a parapet above the 
 bottom of the trench; or, the length of time that men have to 
 work before being relieved; or, a number of men who work or 
 are on duty for a given length of time. 
 
 Rendezvous. — A place to which the columns of the line of com- 
 munication are sent where they are met by agents of the 
 trains and conducted to refilling points. 
 
 Renversement. — An aeronautic stunt by which a change of direction 
 is effected without loss of height or reduction of speed. The 
 pilot, flying at level, points the machine very slightly down, to 
 bring his speed up to maximum, then pulls the control stick 
 back, at the same time reducing motor speed, in order not to 
 perform the evolution too quickly. 
 
 Representative Fraction. — In military map reading, a fraction whose 
 numerator bears to the denominator the same proportion that 
 a distance on the map bears to the distance on the ground it 
 represents. The numerator must always be 1, and the de- 
 nominator is expressed in similar units. 
 
 Retournment. — An aeronautic stunt similar to renversement, but 
 instead of coming out in an opposite direction, the movement 
 
998 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 is continued until the original course is resumed. It is ac- 
 complished by raising the elevating planes quickly and kicking 
 the rudder over sharply. 
 
 Ring-gauge. — A circular steel gauge used in inspecting shot and 
 shells. They are made of two .sizes for each caliber, the larger 
 being a trifle more and the smaller a trifle less in diameter than 
 the true caliber of the projecticle. All shot received must pass 
 through the larger gage, but are rejected if they pass through 
 the smaller. 
 
 Rolling Fire. — A discharge of musketry by soldiers in line, in quick 
 .succession, and in the order in which they stand; also a fire 
 where the axis of the piece is parallel or nearly so, with the 
 ground or water, and the projectile rebounds over the surface 
 in a succession of ricochets. 
 
 Route Marches. — Marches used in peace to conduct a body of 
 troops from one station or post to another. In time of war 
 they are used for the purpose of assembling the fractions of an 
 army on its base of operations of conducting troops through 
 a country where there is no enemy. 
 
 Russian Sap. — A gallery without sheathing, the top of which is cut 
 in* the form of an arch. The earth is carried to the rear as in 
 the case of the deep sap. Ventilation holes are arranged here 
 and there permitting the location of the arched roof in relation 
 to the surface of the earth as the work progresses. 
 
 Sabotage. — Wanton destruction of property to embarrass or injure 
 an enemy; such as the smashing of machinery, flooding of 
 mines, burning of wheat and grain, destroying fruit and provi- 
 sions, dynamiting reservoirs and aqueducts, tieing up rail- 
 roads, etc. 
 
 Salient. — In fortification, that which points outward from the in- 
 terior of any work. For example, the central angle of a 
 bastion, pointing toward the enemy, is a salient angle. Also, 
 in map reading, a projection from the side of a hill or mountain, 
 running out and down from the main feature. 
 
 Salvo. — Concentrated fire from a greater or less number of pieces 
 of artillery. Salvos, corresponding to volleys of musketry, 
 are frequently fired by way of salutes over the graves of officers 
 at the time of burial. 
 
 Sanitary Service. — The service embracing the institution of all 
 practicable sanitary measures to the end that the fighting 
 forces suffer no depletion in strength, the temporary care and 
 professional treatment of the sick and wounded and their 
 transportation and the supply of the necessary sanitary equip- 
 ment. 
 
 Sanitary Train. — A train including all vehicles, animals, personnel, 
 and reserve sanitary material, not attached to organizations, 
 
APPENDIX 999 
 
 employed in collecting and caring for the sick and wounded of 
 the division pending their evacuation by the line of com- 
 munication. 
 Scour the Trenches. — To make a vigorous sally upon the guard of 
 the trenches, force them to give way, break down the parapet, 
 fill up the trenches, and spike their cannon. 
 Searching Fire. — Searching is the term applied to collective fire 
 when the depth of its dispersion over a beaten zone is increased 
 by the use of combined sights. 
 Searchlights. — Important elements of the defense in a coast defense 
 command. The standard service searchlights are 60-inch. De- 
 pending upon their tactical use, they are classified as searching 
 or as illuminating lights, and, depending upon their assign- 
 ment, as fort, fire, or mine searchlights. 
 Secondary Bases. — Bases required, as an army advances to enable 
 it to have its supplies at hand. These bases, which should 
 present the same qualities'as does the original base, are usually 
 established by detached bodies of troops, or by the reinforce- 
 ments sent forward, so that the army will not be delayed in its 
 onward movement. 
 Second Line. — The line of fire trenches, with the covering fire 
 trenches, support trenches, support dug-outs (an exact duplica- 
 tion of the front line system) far enough behind the front line 
 that in the event of the first system being taken, the second 
 line is ready to be taken up by the troops driven out of the 
 front line, and receive the support of troops lying in brigade 
 or divisional reserve. 
 Sector. — The joining together of several supporting points under 
 the same commander is called a sector. It is generally held 
 by a division, and is divided into sub-sectors of brigades and 
 regiments. The force assigned to defend a sector has its own 
 separate reserve, distinct from the reserves of the supporting 
 points. 
 
 Sector of Explosion. — At the moment a gun is fired, a spherical 
 sector of fire is formed in front of the piece, whose extremity 
 presses against the bottom of the bore, while the external por- 
 tion of it terminates in the air, which this sector compresses 
 and drives in every direction. 
 Sector Without Fire. — That space exterior to a work which is not 
 defended by the direct fire of adjacent faces. The space is 
 included between lines drawn through a salient, perpendicular 
 to the faces. 
 
 Sentry Over Arms. — A sentry mounted at the picket post to watch 
 for any signals from the vedettes or cossack posts, or in the 
 case of infantry sentries or sentry groups, and to guard the 
 picket against surprise. 
 
1000 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Sentry Squad. — A squad posted in observation at an indicated point. 
 It posts a double sentinel in observation, the remaining men 
 resting near by and furnishing the reliefs of sentinels. In 
 some cases it may be required to furnish a patrol. 
 
 Service Colors and Standards. — National colors or standards made 
 of bunting or other suitable material, but in all other respects 
 similar to the silken national colors or standards. These colors 
 and standards are for use at drills and on marches, and on all 
 service other than battles, campaigns and occasions of cere- 
 mony. 
 
 Service of the Interior. — The function of the service of the interior, 
 in time of war, is to supply the commander of the field forces 
 with the means necessary for the accomplishment of his mis- 
 sion. This service is carried on by the bureau chiefs, depart- 
 ment commanders, and in certain instances by commanders of 
 concentration camps and of ports of embarkation. Their re- 
 spective operations are directed and co-ordinated by the Secre- 
 tary of War through the medium of the chief of staff. 
 
 Sheaf of Fire. — In practice the trajectories of a number of projec- 
 tiles fired under as nearly as possible the same conditions do 
 not coincide, but form a cone about the mean trajectory as an 
 axis. This cone is called the sheaf of fire, the ground section 
 of which is an ellipse, with the longer axis in the direction of 
 the range. 
 
 Sheaf Ranging.— In coast artillery, the firing of two or more guns 
 at the same instant with their range settings differing by equal 
 increments and increased or decreased from the right by the 
 specified increment in yards, observing the relative positions 
 of targets and splashes, and making corrections from these 
 observations. 
 
 Shelter Recess. — In fire-trenches made in favorable ground, a for- 
 ward burrow, made by the individual rifleman, into the interior 
 slope at the level of the firing step, in which he can lie in 
 safety and at full length when not on duty at the firing point. 
 
 Shot Group. — Owing to different well known causes, the variations 
 in the trajectory are such that in a series of shots fired at a 
 target, no two shots will strike in the same spot, the hits being 
 arranged in a certain diagram called the shot group, the size of 
 which varies with the skill of those firing. Good shots will 
 make a small group and poor shots a large one. 
 
 Sniperscope. — A device by the use of which a soldier can both aim 
 and fire his piece at an object in front without exposing him- 
 self above the parapet. 
 
 Source of Supply. — For troops in campaign there are two sources 
 of supply:, the theater of operations and the base. It is gen- 
 erally necessary to utilize to the fullest extent the food and 
 
APPENDIX 1001 
 
 forage available in the theater of operations. This becomes 
 imperative when the line of communications runs through a 
 country devoid of railroads and waterways. 
 
 Spade Warfare. — War or hostilities carried on from trenches and 
 underground constructions. The spade has become a main fea- 
 ture in land warfare, since it has become necessary to get down 
 into the earth to seek cover against the destructive effects of 
 machine guns, rapid-fire guns and other modern firearms. 
 
 Sperry Drift Indicator. — A prismatic monocular telescope mounted 
 in such a way that a clear vision of the ground below may be 
 obtained. A pointer secured to the telescope makes it possible 
 to read on a graduated scale the angle between the true course 
 taken by the aeroplane and that indicated by the compass. By 
 a device connecting this instrument with the compass, the pilot 
 is able to correct for drift and keep the machine in the desired 
 course. The weight of the combined instruments is only seven 
 pounds. 
 
 Sphero-hexagonal Powder. — A mobile powder, the grain differing 
 from the ordinary hexagonal powder by being formed of two 
 hemispheres, instead of two pyramidal frustums united by a 
 hexagonal zone or base. 
 
 Sprengle Explosives. — A class of explosives consisting of separate 
 constituents, each non-explosive, which are combined at the 
 moment of use. The most common is rack-a-rock, which con- 
 sists of chlorate of potash, a dry crystalline substance, and 
 nitrobenzol, a liquid. 
 
 Stable Guard. — A guard detailed to feed the horses and watch over 
 their safety during the night, and to attend to the general 
 police of the stables, being assisted by an additional detail at 
 the hours of stable call. In each squadron, the stable guard 
 generally consists of a corporal and one man for every 20 
 horses. 
 
 Standing Barrage. — A common designation of the Capping barrage 
 and so arranged that the guns will cease fire on targets as the 
 infantry comes close to them and will then change to anothef 
 target. 
 
 Star-Spangled Banner. — The National Anthem of the United States, 
 the words of which were written by Francis Scott Key, Sep- 
 tember 13, 1814. A familiar name for the United States flag. 
 Stokes Trench Mortar. — A light mortar, weighing 105 pounds, 
 made in three sections (the barrel, the mount and base plate) 
 to insure easy transportation to the front line trenches. It 
 projects a bomb 3 inches in diameter which weighs 11 pounds 
 and is loaded from the muzzle of the gun or mortar. The 
 bomb slides down the barrel and when it strikes the bottom it 
 is fired automatically. 
 
1002 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Strategical Lines of Information. — Lines extending from the seat 
 of government to the several divisional headquarters in the 
 field. Strategical lines of information are handled by base 
 line or telegraph signal troops, according to circumstances. 
 
 Strong Points.— A work formed by joining together several ele- 
 ments, grouped together in depth as well as from right to left, 
 the garrison of which is a company or a fraction of a company. 
 This work may be constructed as a redoubt. In rear of the 
 strong points of the firing line others are constructed, the 
 purpose of which is to limit the success of the enemy. 
 
 Supervision Trenches. — Trenches to facilitate the movement of the 
 troops, general supervision of same, and to afford more shelter, 
 freer movement, and for accommodation of any additional men 
 who are necessarily required when an assault is intended. 
 
 Supply Columns. — A part of the supply service for troops in 
 campaign. Line of communications supply columns (usually 
 auto trucks or tractors with wagons) are dispatched to a 
 rendezvous point, where they are met by an agent of the com- 
 mander of the field forces and conducted to distributing points. 
 When it is possible to do so, the supply columns go to the 
 actual distributing points. 
 
 Supply Train. — A train including all vehicles, animals, and per- 
 sonnel employed in transporting the divisional ration and grain 
 reserve, or in bringing up the same from the refilling points 
 to the distributing point. To it, may also be attached herds 
 of beef cattle, remounts, etc. 
 
 Support Commander. — The officer in command of supporting 
 troops. He ordinarily marches with the advanced party, but 
 goes where needed. He sees that the proper road is followed, 
 that guides are left in towns and at cross roads, that necessary 
 repairs are made to roads and bridges, that information affect- 
 ing the march is transmitted to the advance guard commander, 
 and endeavors to promptly verify information of the enemy. 
 
 Supporting Point. — The grouping together of several strong points, 
 both in length (side to side) and in depth is called a supporting 
 point and is limited in strength to a battalion or several com- 
 panies, under the orders of one commander, who furnishes the 
 garrisons for the strong points and also the reserves for exe- 
 cuting a counter attack. The supporting point may be a re- 
 doubt, and sometimes artillery is assigned to it. 
 
 Support Trenches. — Trenches constructed from 165 to 225 yards 
 behind the trenches of the first line, and so located as to bring 
 the latter under their own fire whenever it is possible to do so. 
 This distance is great enough to insure that the same demoli- 
 tion fire will not destroy both trench echelons at one time, and 
 also that in cases of surprise of the first line the garrison of 
 
APPENDIX 1003 
 
 the second line will have time to make the combat dispositions 
 called for in the plan of defense. 
 
 Swept Space. — In gunnery, the danger space as modified by the 
 slope of the ground. The greater the slope or the less the 
 range, the greater will be the relative reduction in the danger 
 space. 
 
 Switch Trench. — A communication trench well wired on the front. 
 It has machine gun emplacements and a fire step. It is used in 
 the event of the front line breaking down in the defense. The 
 troops can retire into the switch trenches and meet the ad- 
 vance with fire from the flanks. It is important to recognize 
 these trenches in the aeroplane photographs, and be prepared 
 to meet their defense. 
 
 Tables of Occasions. — Tables showing by whom and on what occa- 
 sions each article of uniform of the United States is worn; 
 they also show the various articles of uniform and equipment — 
 by whom, when and how worn. 
 
 Tables of Organization. — The details of organization, the amounts 
 and kinds of transportation, and the factors on which the al- 
 lowance of transportation is based, are fixed in the tables of 
 organization United States Army. 
 
 Tactical Decisive Points. — Points on a field of battle which, when 
 occupied by an army, will enable it to make an attack on the 
 enemy whose success would be decisive on the issue of the 
 engagement. 
 
 Tactical Pursuit. — Pursuit directed at a flying enemy with a view 
 to directly harassing him, causing him as much loss as possible, 
 and maintaining the loss of morale which may have such im* 
 portant consequences. 
 
 Tactical Walk or Ride. — A tactical exercise carried out on the ter- 
 rain, the troops being imaginary. 
 
 Tactics of Position. — That element of tactics or strategy of the 
 battle field which depends largely on the moral energy of the 
 commander-in-chief for accomplishment. 
 
 Target Designation. — It is sometimes necessary, where a target is 
 indistinct, to use what are called " auxiliary points " for target 
 designation; and in this case the method is resorted to of 
 giving the direction of the point to be fired upon from this 
 auxiliary point. In giving this direction the notations on the 
 clock face are used as in determining the direction of the wind 
 on a target range. 
 
 Teamwork. — The work and accomplishment of a number of per- 
 sons or soldiers associated together. The comparatively wide 
 fronts of deployed units increase the difficulties of control. 
 The success of the whole depends largely upon how well each 
 subordinate co-ordinates his work with the general plan. 
 
1004 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Telegraph Section. — The working unit whether telegraph or tele- 
 phone. All duties performed by platoons, companies or bat- 
 talions of telegraph signal troops consist of but the combined 
 work of a number of sections. Units larger than the section 
 are necessary only for efficient administration, supervision, and 
 control. The telegraph section consists of 22 men. 
 
 Telegraph Signal Troops. — Troops whose duties, although only 
 equipped to install and operate semi-permanent telegraph and 
 telephone lines, include the handling of every class of com- 
 munication within their prescribed zone. Telegraph signal 
 troops, although construction units, are designed to be mobile. 
 
 Telephone Section. — A section whose primary function is the erec- 
 tion of divisional telephone systems at points where the per- 
 manence of the camp makes this procedure necessary or desir- 
 able. It is designed to assist or substitute for telegraph sec- 
 tions in the construction of semi-permanent telegraph lines, if 
 conditions render the performance of such duty advisable. 
 
 Theater of Operations. — The whole area of land or sea in which 
 fighting may be expected, or in which the movements of troops, 
 etc., are liable to interruption or interference on the part of 
 the enemy. 
 
 Thermit. — A compound of powdered aluminum and oxide of iron 
 successfully used in incendiary projectiles. When ignited the 
 heat given. off is sufficient to melt the free iron. 
 
 Thirty-seven Field Gun. — A French quick-firing cannon of such 
 construction that it can be readily carried forward by attacking 
 infantry. Thus the skirmishers are able to put enemy machine 
 guns out of action by well directed shots from this 37-millimeter 
 cannon, which is a befitting companion to the " 75." It has a 
 quick-firing breech mechanism, accurate sights and automatic 
 recoil. Lying out on open ground, two men can fire up to 35 
 high explosive shells per minute. The piece can be taken apart 
 and carried by six or eight men, and is available for use in 
 advanced positions as well as in the open. 
 
 Tin Cups. — Cups used with heavy breech-loading guns, which 
 serve, in conjunction with the vent piece, to seal more effectu- 
 ally the powder-chamber, and to prevent the escape of gas, 
 which is very destructive to the angular face of the vent piece. 
 
 Tissot Apparatus.— An apparatus for protection against asphyxiat- 
 ing gases. It is a filtering apparatus, and not one producing 
 oxygen. This. mask is efficacious for 10 or 12 hours. It is an 
 apparatus of the sector, to be used in command posts, in sup- 
 port positions, in machine gun shelters, and in observation and 
 signal posts. It is .suitable for everyone required to remain 
 for a long time in a noxious atmosphere not deprived of 
 oxygen. 
 
 k. 
 
APPENDIX 1005 
 
 Torque of the Propeller. — In aeronautics, an air force due to the 
 pressure of the propeller blades on the air, which on single 
 propeller machines must be resisted or else the propeller might 
 ,stand still and the motor turn about it. When two propellers 
 are used, working in opposite directions, the torque is 
 neutralized. 
 
 Total Rectangle. — In gunnery, the enveloping or 100 per cent, 
 rectangle. For convenience, it is usual to express the elliptical 
 area or ground section of the sheaf of fire in terms of the 
 enveloping rectangle. 
 
 Tower Forts. — Towers employed either as isolated forts or com- 
 bined in a system of detached works for covering a space to 
 their rear for an intrenched camp. They have several tiers of 
 covered fire for artillery and musketry, and an open battery 
 on top. 
 
 Traveling Trunnion-beds. — Contrivances for the purpose of dis- 
 tributing the load more equally over the gun-carriage. On the 
 upper surface of the cheeks, near the rear ends, are placed two 
 projecting bolts which, with the curve of the cheeks, form rest- 
 ing places for the trunnions, when the piece is in position for 
 transportation. 
 
 Traversing. — Sketching by means of a continuous series of meas- 
 ured straight lines, the direction or bearing of which is taken 
 with a compass at each change of direction. These lines are 
 called traverse lines, and the sketcher must pace actually 
 along these lines. The detail is sketched by means of offsets 
 or cross-bearings. 
 
 Traversing-gear. — An automatic traversing apparatus, in machine 
 guns, by which a limited angular movement in a horizontal 
 plane may be given. Elevating or depressing the gun does not 
 interfere with the lateral traverse. 
 
 Trench-dump. — A convenient spot or place selected by whosoever 
 may be commanding that particular sector of trench to which 
 carrying parties bring up the trench stores during the night in 
 order to have them ready for distribution in the morning. 
 
 Trench Raids. — Raids executed by small groups of selected men, 
 who have confidence in one another and are specially trained 
 in handling grenades or by a selected unit, sometimes re- 
 inforced by additional officers or non-commissioned officers, 
 leaving the unreliable element behind. 
 
 Trench Shotgun. — A short automatic single-barrel shotgun of the 
 pump variety, which holds six paper shell cartridges in the 
 magazine. The gun has a long bayonet, the muzzle of the 
 barrel being provided with a second skin of steel which being 
 perforated and not quite touching the barrel proper, acts as a 
 brace for the bayonet and owing to the free passage of air 
 
1006 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 does not cause the barrel to get too hot. The shot gun and 
 bayonet complete weigh only 8^4 pounds. 
 
 Trip. — A useful trick in bayonet fighting. It is performed when 
 in close grips with an opponent, by leaning forward and push- 
 ing him backwards, so as to cause him to throw his weight 
 on one foot, at the same time deftly and quickly jerking his 
 other foot upwards. This will throw him on his back at once. 
 
 Tripping Piece. — A part of the firing mechanism in quick firing 
 ordnance, being a flat piece of steel, fitted over a -stud at the 
 rear end of the striker, and kept pressed downwards by a flat 
 spring. It has a shoulder for the smaller cam-lug on the inner 
 end of the firing lever to engage with in order to cock the 
 striker. 
 
 Triton. — An explosive made by the successive nitration of toluene, 
 a coal-tar derivative. It is a neutral compound, very stable, of 
 great strength, yet highly insensitive. It is pressed into blocks 
 under high pressure, the insensitiveness of the explosive in- 
 creasing with its density. Also written trinitrotoluine, tri- 
 nitrotoluol and trotol; frequently abbreviated as TNT. 
 
 Two-arm Semaphore. — A machine or stationary semaphore having 
 two arms or vanes for forming signals, and a third arm or 
 "indicator" displayed on the right side of the sender, the left 
 as reviewed by the receiver. At night a red light screened 
 to the rear indicates the direction of sending. Electric lights 
 are installed on the vanes for night signaling. 
 
 Underground Hangars. — Hangars constructed under ground and 
 provided with concrete runways which are conveniently used 
 for starting. These hangars are roofed over with a heavy 
 layer of sandbags and the original sod. The roofs are sup- 
 ported by pillars at frequent intervals, so arranged as to in- 
 terfere the least possible with the movement of the airplanes. 
 
 Union. — A device emblematic of union, used on a national flag or 
 ensign. The union of the United States ensign is a cluster of 
 white stars, denoting the Union of the States, and properly, 
 equal in number to that of the States, displayed on a blue field. 
 
 Unit. — A term used in technical combinations, for a given numeri- 
 cal force; any group or subdivision organized for administra- 
 tive or technical purposes. 
 
 Universal Shell. — In order to avoid the complications caused by 
 providing batteries with two sorts of shell, shrapnel and high 
 explosive, which do not range equally, universal shells are 
 used for both purposes. The Ehrhardt universal shell with a 
 high explosive charge is an example. 
 
 Varying Elasticity. — In built-up guns the principle under which the 
 elasticity of the different hoops is exactly proportioned to the 
 degree of elongation in same by internal pressure, all the hoops 
 
APPENDIX 1007 
 
 being equally strained by the powder, and none of their 
 strength wasted. 
 
 Vermorel Sprayers. — Sprayers or syringes used, after a gas attack, 
 for clearing the gas out of the trenches, dugouts, etc. They are 
 distributed at easily accessible points in or near the trenches 
 and protected from shell fire. 
 
 Very Lights. — Lights used to signal between aeroplanes or stations 
 or between the ground and aeroplanes, when a code is prear- 
 ranged; a flare for illuminating the enemy's position. 
 
 View of a Place. — A reconnaissance of a fortified town, its situa- 
 tion, the nature of the country about it, as hills, valleys, rivers, 
 marches, woods, hedges, etc., taken in order to judge of the 
 most convenient place for opening the trenches, and carrying 
 out the approaches. 
 
 Visibility. — One of the most important items of information to be 
 gained from a contoured map is the visibility of one point from 
 another. This is needed to determine from a map, the proper 
 location of a line of observation, the proper point where a 
 reconnoitering patrol should be sent for observation, or loca- 
 tion of a position where direct rifle fire may be used, upon a 
 visible enemy. 
 
 Visiting Patrols. — Patrols detailed to keep up communication with 
 the pickets, the supports on either flank and the reserve (if 
 any). They also patrol any ground lying between the pickets 
 . and supports, which can not be observed by either. 
 
 Visual Signaling. — Signaling carried out by heliograph, flag, disc 
 or lamp. The range of visual signaling depends upon the 
 nature of the country and the state of the atmosphere. 
 
 Vulnerability of Formations. — The vulnerability of a formation is 
 its likelihood of being struck by hostile fire. That formation 
 which by computation is shown to receive the greatest number 
 of hits from a given number of hostile shots is said to be the 
 most vulnerable. In the study of vulnerability the two con- 
 flicting interests, the avoidance of losses and a heavy firing 
 line must be considered. 
 
 Warning Calls. — The class of calls comprising first call, guard 
 mounting, full dress, overcoats, drill, stable, water, and boots 
 and saddles, all preceding the assembly by such interval as may 
 be prescribed by the commanding officer. 
 
 Wedge Formation. — A tactical formation whose main advantage is 
 that it can be formed into a defensive formation facing any 
 direction in the shortest possible time. The best defensive 
 formation for bombing of this nature is a line facing the 
 enemy; all the men are in action and it is the most difficult 
 target. 
 64 
 
1008 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Wheel Transportation. — A division of animal transportation, in 
 which the wagon is the unit, and each animal can haul, on a 
 conservative estimate, 1200 pounds gross or 700 pounds net 
 load. Wagon transportation should always be used unless the 
 country is impracticable or the rate of march too rapid for 
 wheels. 
 
 Wind Component Indicator. — In artillery and gunnery, a device 
 for determining the wind reference numbers to be used on the 
 range and deflection boards and to indicate the numbers to 
 the operators of these boards. 
 
 Wing Traverses. — In fortification, where the approach is exposed 
 to an enfilading and a slant reverse fire, and does not admit of 
 a change of direction to avoid these, wing traverses are erected 
 across the line of trench to cover from an enfilading view. 
 
 Wire Company. — The field signal organization used by the com- 
 mander of a division for establishing and maintaining those 
 tactical lines of information which radiate from division head- 
 quarters, and which serve, in general, to connect these head- 
 quarters with the major subordinate units. 
 
 Zero of a Rifle. — That reading of the wind gauge necessary to 
 overcome the drift of a rifle at a particular range. All allow- 
 ances for wind should be calculated from this reading. 
 
 Zone Energy. — A mode of expression in artillery, whereby the 
 relative power of different guns as armor-piercers is estimated, 
 viz., by the number of foot-tons per inch of the shot's circum- 
 ference. At the muzzle of each gun, this power is a maximum. 
 
 Zone of Departure. — A zone formed by lines of trenches called 
 parallels of departure. They should be close enough together 
 so that the one which is most distant from the enemy shall 
 satisfy the conditions that it will not be in the hostile barrage 
 fire, delivered to prevent supports and reserves being brought 
 
 "P. 
 Zone of Operations. — The strip of territory which contains the 
 lines of operations, or lines on which an army advances, be- 
 tween the base and the ulterior object. 
 
 L 
 
 
APPENDIX 2 
 GAS TACTICS AND ITS USE IN ATTACK. 
 
 In gas warfare gas is used for four purposes: (1) When it is 
 desired to produce deaths or minor casualties in front line and 
 supporting trenches prior to an advance. (2) When it is desired to 
 produce casualties in front line trenches, among supports, reserves 
 and other personnel at places where an attack is expected to be 
 made within a few hours. (3) When it is desired to produce cas- 
 ualties in front line trenches among supports and reserves and 
 along lines of communications, in concentration camps, rest areas, 
 etc., to the limit of range of artillery, when no attack is planned 
 or when it will not take place for several days. (4) When it is 
 desired to reach training areas, cantonments, junctions and places 
 beyond the range of guns and which can be reached only by air- 
 planes or balloons. 
 
 For technical uses gases are generally divided into three 
 groups: 
 
 Persistent. Mustard gas (dichlorethyl sulphide) is the leader 
 of this group and is in a class by itself, due to its excessive persis- 
 tency, its effectiveness in low concentrations and the fact that it 
 affects the skin, eyes, throat and lungs, as well as the digestive 
 tract if food exposed to it has been eaten. 
 
 Non-Persistent. These gases are highly lethal and deadly 
 with low persistency. The group includes phosgene, cyanogen 
 chloride, diphosgene, chlorine and others of a similar nature. 
 Chloropicrin is in this class, although it is much more persistent 
 than any of the others. 
 
 Lachrymatory and Irritating Gases. These include bromace- 
 tone, ethyl iodoacetate, brombenzylcyanide, and some other 
 lachrymators, and diphenyl chlorarsine, or sneezing gas. All these 
 gases are highly irritating or lachrymatory, but are not lethal, 
 except in very high concentrations not often attained in the field. 
 Lachrymators are economical in forcing the use of the mask and 
 are employed for that purpose. 
 
 Phosgene is principally used in Livens projectors. Chloro- 
 picrin is also often used, but is less effective, although it has a 
 much greater persistency. As a rule persistent gases are fired for 
 both harassing and destruction; non-persistent gases usually for 
 destruction and irritant gases for harassing purposes only. All 
 
1010 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 poisonous gases used in war are employed in artillery projectiles 
 with the important exception of chlorine, which is not used because 
 it is very much less effective than other gases and because it gen- 
 erates too high a pressure in the shell during warm weather. 
 These gases are sometimes classified with respect to the effects 
 produced on man, as lethal (deadly), vesicant (burning the skin), 
 lachrymatory (affecting the eyes) and irritating (affecting the 
 nose, throat and lungs). More than 80 per cent, of all casualties 
 among the English and Americans in the European War was 
 caused by mustard gas, generally known as yperite by the French. 
 
 Mustard gas was discovered by Victor Mayor, a German 
 chemist, in 1886. It is a yellowish oily fluid, freezing at about 50 
 degrees F., and boiling at about 422 degrees F. Its color varies 
 with the solvents and impurities in it. It combines to a certain 
 extent with the steel or iron in shells. It is highly persistent, that 
 sprayed on the ground being very dangerous for a week or 
 longer in damp, cold weather. It vaporizes very slowly. It has 
 the quality of cumulative effect to a marked degree, being at least 
 50 per cent, for very low concentrations. If one part in 2,000,000 
 is breathed for 20 hours it will produce a casualty as serious as one 
 part in 100,000 will produce in two hours. It produces casualties 
 almost entirely by burning, the theory being that the gas in the 
 presence of moisture is broken up so as to liberate hydrochloric 
 acid which produces the burn, and destroys any soft moist tissue 
 it reaches, whether within or without the body. It readily pene- 
 trates clothing. The odor of mustard gas is not unpleasant, that 
 of the Germans being somewhat like mustard while that of the 
 Allies was more like garlic. It has a pronounced delayed action, 
 its effects not being felt for 4 to 12 hours after exposure, during 
 which time the victim breathing it experiences little or no dis- 
 comfort. After breathing the gas for a period extending from 
 y 2 to 2 hours, depending upon the person, the latter loses his sense 
 of smell and can no longer detect the gas. This gas, highly 
 valuable but dangerous, not only changed gas warfare, but to a 
 considerable extent modified all warfare. 
 
 Mustard gas may be used in all artillery shells, from the 
 three-inch to the largest guns constructed. Its persistent nature 
 finds its greatest use on defensive or stabilized fronts. It is most 
 powerful as an harassing agent, comparatively small quantities of 
 it forcing the constant wearing of the mask, and the hastening of 
 separate reliefs to such positions as must be held. It is effectively 
 used against strong points, such as woods, villages and small forti- 
 fications in the zone of advance. In an attack it is used on the 
 flanks to prevent counter-attack from those places or to make 
 attempts to counter-attack exceedingly difficult. Mustard gas, be- 
 cause of its persistency and effectiveness in low concentrations, 
 
 ^ 
 
APPENDIX 2 1011 
 
 finds its surest application in gassing large areas. For this purpose 
 accuracy in hitting a certain target is not necessary, and hence the 
 increased dispersion of shots at long ranges need not be taken 
 into accurate account. Likewise the number of guns required to 
 cover a given area is small, in as much as it is not necessary to 
 fire in the same locality more than once in 24 hours. The high 
 explosive shell changes this method of firing, since it is deadly 
 both as a high explosive and as a gas. It is used with telling effect 
 against small targets, being used exactly as high explosive is used, 
 with the exception that care must be taken to allow sufficient 
 time for the gas to disperse. It has been suggested as advisable 
 to have two kinds of mustard gas shell — high explosive to be used 
 when immediate casualties without great persistency is desired, 
 and the ordinary mustard gas shell to forbid certain territory to 
 the enemy in which case great persistency is desired or necessary. 
 Phosgene is the leader of all non-persistent gases, and for 
 an offensive is the most desirable of all gases. It has low per- 
 sistency, is highly lethal, quick-acting, readily manufactured, and 
 easily placed in any kind of a shell. It is most advantageously 
 used in large caliber guns that are available in large numbers, such 
 as the 155-millimeter gun and howitzer. A concentration of one 
 part in 2,000 is deadly in three minutes. It is effective but with 
 a rapidly decreasing ratio down to one part in 200,000, after which 
 it may be breathed indefinitely. In an ordinary attack one part 
 in 50,000 may be considered as not dangerous, as it will be dis- 
 persed before causing any serious injury. Phosgene quickly vola- 
 tilizes, thus making it valuable and suitable for cylinders, pro- 
 jectors, Stokes mortars and artillery. On the other hand, the 
 pressure generated by it in warm weather is not very great and 
 permits its use in shells in any climate or in any weather. The 
 gas is about 2> l / 2 times as heavy as air, has some delayed action in 
 the lower concentrations, and is very quickly fatal in high concen- 
 trations. It acts both as a direct poison and as a strong lung 
 irritant, causing rapid filling of the lungs with liquid. All rules 
 for the treatment of patients gassed with phosgene require that 
 they immediately lie down and remain in that position, not even 
 being allowed to walk to a dressing station. Since phosgene is 
 non-persistent and comparatively high concentrations are neces- 
 sary, it is important for artillery to fire it as rapidly as possible, 
 at least in two to three-minute bursts of rapid fire directly upon 
 the target. Phosgene is used most effectively at night at cross- 
 roads and other points where it is thought the enemy may congre- 
 gate or pass. By dropping sudden bursts of phosgene on these 
 points great confusion is caused, with resulting casualties. 
 
 Brombenzyl cyanide is one of the best and most effective of 
 the lachrymatory gases. It is very persistent (nearly equal to 
 
1012 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 mustard gas) and is effective in extremely low concentrations, one 
 part in 10,000,000 being sufficient to destroy vision without a mask. 
 When used with mustard gas, this quick action of lachrymatory 
 gases is one of their important features. If a number of lachryma- 
 tory shells are discharged the enemy will be forced to put on his 
 mask and continue wearing it indefinitely. It would be impossible 
 to bring this about by the use of more deadly gases, owing to the 
 number of the latter that would be required. One good lachryma- 
 tory shell will force the wearing of the mask over an area that 
 would require 1,000 phosgene shells to produce a similar effect. 
 The important value of these gases arises from the fact that their 
 irritating effect on the eyes or respiratory organs is instantaneous, 
 and one shell is as effective in forcing the wearing of the mask as 
 500 or even 1,000 lethal gas shells. While mustard gas is effective 
 in low concentrations, being almost equal in that regard to the 
 lachrymatory gases, still it has a delayed action and hence is not 
 available if it is desired to at once force the enemy to wear the 
 mask. 
 
 
APPENDIX 3 
 RAILWAY ARTILLERY. 
 
 Mounting heavy artillery on railway cars was not an idea 
 born of the war with Germany. The idea was originally American, 
 the first authenticated record of such employment being by the 
 Union forces at the Siege of Richmond in 1863, when a 13-inch 
 cast-iron mortar was mounted on a reinforced flat car. In 1913 
 the commanding officer of the defenses of the Potomac recom- 
 mended that artillery of various caliber be mounted on railroad 
 platforms, with ammunition, range-finding and repair cars, making 
 up complete units, so that this armament could be quickly trans- 
 ported at any time to the place where most needed. It was then 
 apparent that guns in fixed positions, of whatever caliber, violate 
 the cardinal military principle of mobility. Of late railway artil- 
 lery has come to be as varied in its .design as field artillery, each 
 type of railway mount having certain tactical uses, the three types 
 of cannon used being mortars, howitzers and guns. The general 
 types of railway mount adopted are those which give the gun all- 
 around fire (360-degree traverse), provide limited traverse for the 
 gun, and allow no lateral movement for the gun on the carriage, 
 but are used on curved track, or epis, to give the weapons traverse 
 aim. 
 
 When war was declared against Germany the guns in the 
 United States available for mounting on railway cars ranged in 
 size from the 7-inch guns of the Navy to the single enormous 
 16-inch howitzer under construction experimentally by the Ord- 
 nance Department. These guns, according to number, size and 
 length were as follows: 
 
 Size. Length. 
 Number of Guns Inches. Calibers. 
 
 12 7 45 
 
 96 8 35 
 
 129 10 34 
 
 49 12 35 
 
 6 12 50 
 
 150 (mortars) 12 10 
 
 21 14 50 
 
1014 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 The smaller weapons, such as the 7-inch and the 8-inch guns 
 and the 12-inch mortars, were placed on mounts affording 360- 
 degree traverse. The limited traverse mounts are used for the 
 moderately long-range guns and howitzers. The fixed type of 
 mount is used for long-range guns only, including the sliding 
 railway mounts, such as the American 12-inch and 14-inch sliding 
 mounts and the French Schneider a glissement mounts. Railway 
 artillery is practically confined to the barbette, Schneider and 
 Batignolles types of gun mounts. 
 
 The barbette carriage revolves about a central pintle, or 
 axis, and turns the gun around with it. When it was decided to 
 put coast-defense guns on railway cars, the guns were taken from 
 their emplacements, barbette carriages manufactured for them, 
 and the whole mounted upon special cars. The barbette mount 
 revolves on a support of rollers traveling upon a circular base ring. 
 In the railway mount the base ring is attached to' the dropped 
 central portion of the railway car. The barbette railway mount is 
 provided with struts and plates by which the car is braced against 
 the ground. 
 
 In the Schneider railway mount the gun and its carriage are 
 fastened rigidly parallel to the long axis of the railway car. Thus 
 the gun itself, independently' of any movement of the car, can be 
 pointed only up and down in a vertical plane, having no traverse 
 or swing from left to right, and vice versa. In order to give the 
 weapon traverse for its aim, special railway curved tracks, called 
 epis, are prepared at the position where it is to be fired. The car 
 is then run along the curve until its traverse aim is correct, and 
 the vertical aim is achieved by the movement of the gun itself. In 
 this mount there is no recoil mechanism, but the recoil is absorbed 
 by the retrograde movement of the car itself along the rails after 
 the gun is fired. This movement, of course, puts the gun out of 
 aim, and the entire unit must then be pushed by hand power back 
 to the proper point. 
 
 In the Batignolles type, gun and cradle are mounted on a 
 so-called top carriage that permits of small changes in horizontal 
 pointing right and left. Thus with the railway artillery of the 
 Batignolles type also, track curves, or epis, are necessary for the 
 accurate aiming. The Batignolles mount partially cushions the 
 recoil by the movement of the gun itself in the cradle. But, in 
 addition, a special track is provided at the firing point and the 
 entire gun car is run on this track and bolted to it with spades 
 driven into the ground to resist what recoil is not taken up in the 
 cradle. The unit is thus stationary in action, and the gun can be 
 more readily returned to aim than can a gun on a Schneider mount. 
 
 
APPENDIX 4 
 SOUND AND FLASH RANGING. 
 
 Camouflage has succeeded in baffling the camera to a great 
 extent and has made necessary the development of instruments 
 that can detect the location of the enemy by sound. Since the 
 unaided ear is not keen enough to supply the desired information, 
 applied science comes to the rescue with the various devices em- 
 braced in the general classification of sound ranging equipment, 
 the production of which is under the direction of the Engineer 
 Department of the Army. 
 
 The geophone is one of the most important of these long- 
 distance ear drums invented by man as an aid to his military opera- 
 tions. In this simple mechanism, the device or drum which receives 
 the sound waves and magnifies them consists of a small closed box 
 with a confined air space. This box is weighted with a leaden 
 disk to give it the required inertia. It is placed upon the ground 
 and the vibrations of the earth are communicated through the 
 medium of the confined air space. The sounds then reach the 
 listener's ears via a rubber tube and an ordinary stethoscope horn. 
 This instrument is principally used to detect enemy mining opera- 
 tions. In order to enable the listener to know in what direction 
 the sounds come, two geophone boxes are provided, one connected 
 with each ear. By placing the boxes a small distance apart from 
 each other and then moving them until the vibrations in both 
 ear horns are equalized, the listener can tell approximately in 
 what direction the enemy mining operation is located. American 
 ingenuity has greatly increased the range of the instrument and 
 has developed an electro-mechanical geophone that can be con- 
 nected up by wire to a central listening station some distance back 
 from an exposed location. The boxes can pick up and send to the 
 central listening stations conversations carried on by the enemy 
 parties even in low tones, the apparatus thus acting as the dicta- 
 graph of war. 
 
 By far the most important work done by listening instru- 
 ments is in locating the positions of enemy gun batteries. 
 
 The study of gunfire shows that when a cannon fires an 
 explosive shell of high velocity there are three distinct concus- 
 sions. One of these is the sharp crack produced in the air when 
 
1016 MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 the shell, dragging a short vacuum trail behind it, passes over the 
 head of the observer. The second concussion to be heard is that 
 produced at the muzzle of the gun by the expanding gases that 
 propel the shell. The third is the break or explosion. In order 
 to locate a battery or gun exactly only one of these concussions — 
 the explosion at the muzzle of the gun — must be picked up by the 
 recording instrument or microphone. The first and third shocks, 
 and all other sounds not useful to the work, are damped out and 
 excluded. A number of these microphones are placed in scattered 
 positions, usually in a trench, and then connected with the central 
 recording mechanism. When a microphone picks up a hostile gun 
 explosion the disturbance is instantly transmitted through several 
 miles of wire. An ingenious and complicated mechanism actuates 
 an electro-magnetic needle, which instantly records this disturb- 
 ance on a tape of photographic paper, calibrated to show fifths of 
 seconds in time. Each microphone on outpost duty is represented 
 on this tape by a parallel line; and, as six microphones are usually 
 used, the tape is striped with six parallel lines. 
 
 Sound ranging for the detection of airplanes at night requires 
 an equipment which consists fundamentally of a sound-gathering 
 device and a listening mechanism, the combination enabling the 
 observer to tell the direction from which the sound is coming. 
 When a bombing plane approaches at night the hum of the motor 
 can be heard at a distance from 1 to 3 miles, or even more, depend- 
 ing upon conditions. Before the invention of aerial sound ranging 
 the searchlights hunting for the hostile airplane were obliged to 
 sweep the sky aimlessly in an endeavor to locate it; and the pilot 
 of the plane could often maneuver to keep out of the light. But 
 by use of the sound detectors not only can the approach of the 
 airplane be detected at a distance beyond the hearing range of 
 the unaided ear, but, what is more important, its direction can be 
 determined within an angle of 3 degrees. The use of these sound 
 detectors greatly increased the chances of locating airplanes at 
 night by searchlight. 
 
 The Engineer Department has conducted extensive experi- 
 ments in the development of aerial sound detectors. One form 
 developed consisted of a set of long horns with listening tubes 
 attached to the small ends and leading to receivers on the ob- * 
 server's head set. These horns were mounted on a turntable 
 which the observer could revolve, so that the horns could be turned 
 in the general direction of the sound. Four horns were used in 
 this mechanism — two to indicate the direction of the airplane on 
 a horizontal circle (in azimuth), and the other pair to indicate the 
 direction on the vertical arc (in elevation). Under favorable con- A 
 ditions the sensitiveness of this device was three times that of the 
 unaided ear, and the airplane could be located within an angle of 
 
APPENDIX 4 1017 
 
 1 degree. The horn detector, however, was large and cumbersome 
 and not satisfactory for a mobile unit. 
 
 For field sound ranging, when the listener may wish to move 
 from place to place, the parabloid sound reflector was developed. 
 This hemispherical object, like a huge fountain basin in shape, was 
 made of material similar to building board and shaped in parabolic 
 lines. Such a sound collector echoed or reflected the sound from 
 every point of its surface to a focal point where' the listening 
 instrument was located. The observer turned the parabloid on its 
 universal mount until the sound was equalized in his ears, and 
 then the exact direction of the airplane would be indicated by the 
 azimuth and elevation pointers on the machine. The parabloids 
 developed by the Engineering Department had a sensitiveness 
 three times that of the unaided ear and could locate sound within 
 3 degrees of arc. 
 
L 
 
INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Abatis 680 
 
 Abnormal Deflection 461 
 
 Accessories of Trench Warfare.... 922 
 
 Accompanying Batteries . . . . . 413 
 
 Accountability for Public Animals. 616 
 
 Accuracy of Fire 431,441,443 
 
 Adjacent Platoons , . . . : 945 
 
 Adjustment for Direction 398 
 
 Adjustment for Height of Burst... 398 
 
 Adjustment for Range 399 
 
 Adjustment of Fire 353 
 
 Adjustment of Sight 334 
 
 Administration and Control.. 223 
 
 Administration of Medicine 597 
 
 Administrative Staff . .. 222 
 
 Advance 75 
 
 Advance by Rushes 82 
 
 Advance by Thin Lines 41 
 
 Advance Cavalry 499, 509 
 
 Advanced Posts 943 
 
 Advance Guard. .156, 157, 167, 168, 183, 
 
 508, 511 
 
 Advance Guard Commander 509 
 
 Advance Party 157 
 
 Advance Section 579, 972 
 
 Advance to the Position 417 
 
 Advancing the Attack 267 
 
 Aerial Communication 958 
 
 Aerial Mine 972 
 
 Aerial Reconnaissance 957,972 
 
 Aerial Ropeways 645 
 
 Aerial Target 409 
 
 Aeroplane . .410, 503, 504, 957, 958, 959. 
 
 960, 966 
 
 Aero Squadron 31, 498 
 
 Agents of Transmission 963,967,972 
 
 Aiming Drill 327,331,332 
 
 Aiming Exercises 329 
 
 Aircraft 410, 503 
 
 Alarms 187, 188,946 
 
 Alarm Wires 662 
 
 Alidade 693 
 
 Alignment 54, 86, 973 
 
 Alternate Positions 429 
 
 Alternator 532 
 
 Alumino-Thermics 973 
 
 Ambulance Company 31 
 
 American Morse Code 546, 549 
 
 American Rule 771 , 790 
 
 Ammunition 248, 261, 296, 302, 318, 
 
 319.371,390,429,438,659, 681 
 
 Ammunition Column 577, 973 
 
 Ammunition Supply 26, 228, 908 
 
 Ammunition Train 577, 578, 973 
 
 Anchorages " 643 
 
 Anchored Mines 802 
 
 Angle of Departure 434 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Angle of Elevation 434 
 
 Angle of Fall 434 
 
 Angle of Opening 444 
 
 Angle of Site 434 
 
 Animal Power 602 
 
 Antenna 534, 535 
 
 Anti-Moisture Chalk 935 
 
 Aparejo 606, 607, 608 
 
 Appointing Authority 711, 712, 731 
 
 Approach Trenches 648,651,661 
 
 Ardois Signals 553,973 
 
 Area Sketch 699 
 
 Are You Ready? 42 
 
 Arm Combinations 819 
 
 Armed Forces 749,751 
 
 Armed Prowlers 795 
 
 Armistice' . 778, 779 
 
 Arm Locker '. 302 
 
 Armored Tractor 973 
 
 Arms 190,387 
 
 Arm Signals 40, 968 
 
 Army 285 
 
 Army Corps 22 
 
 Army of the United States 21 
 
 Army Ration 858 
 
 Army Regulations 187 
 
 Army Signaling 519, 545 
 
 Arraignment 726 
 
 Arrest 715,716 
 
 Artificer Sergeant 27 
 
 Artificial Antenna 535 
 
 Artificial Butts 366 
 
 Artificial Darkness 973 
 
 Artificial Respiration. 892.893 
 
 Artillery . . .21, 22, 23, 28, 244. 245, 262. 
 278, 283,406,412 
 
 Asphyxiating Gas 662,934,935,936, 
 
 937 
 
 Assault 293, 294, 771 , 848 
 
 Assemble 40, 41 
 
 Assembly 59, 75, 90 
 
 Assembly Places 973 
 
 Assembly Positions 973 
 
 Assistant Judge Advocate 723 
 
 As Skirmishers in One Wave 43 
 
 As Skirmishers in Two Waves 43 
 
 As You Were........ 35 
 
 At Ease 72, 90 
 
 Athletics 805, 825, 826 
 
 Attack . .93, 265, 266, 267, 270, 419, 849, 
 850, 948, 949 
 
 Attack Card 426 
 
 Attack of Convoy 589 
 
 Attack of Fortifications 270 
 
 Attendance of Witnesses 727 
 
 Attention 43, 520, 811, 812 
 
 Attention to Orders 40 
 
1020 
 
 INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Australian Manlicher Bullet 898 
 
 Automatic Machine Rifle 387 
 
 Automatic Pistol 387 
 
 Automatic Primer 925 
 
 Automatic Submarine Contact Mine 801 
 
 Auxiliary Aiming Point 355, 425 
 
 Auxiliary Observing Station. . . .396, 397 
 
 Aviator 960 
 
 Azimuth 457 
 
 Azimuth Card 465 
 
 Azimuth Deviation 973 
 
 Back Azimuth 458 
 
 Back Step 47 
 
 Bacteriology 902 
 
 Balloons 503, 771, 958, 959, 966, 967 
 
 Band 83, 116, 128, 184 
 
 Barges 636 
 
 Barometric Leveling 464 
 
 Barrage 951, 952, 953, 974 
 
 Barrel Piers 629 
 
 Bars 628 
 
 Base , 974 
 
 Base Line Signal Troops. .527, 528, 974 
 
 Base Section 579 
 
 Base Squad 73 
 
 Bastioned Lines 974 
 
 Batardeau 974 
 
 Battalion 84, 85, 86, 91, 92, 93 
 
 Battalion Commander 189, 322 
 
 Battalion Inspection 121 
 
 Battalion Intelligence Section 974 
 
 Battalion Muster 123 
 
 Battalion Parade 113 
 
 Battalion Reserve* '. . 974 
 
 Battalion Review 110 
 
 Battery 28, 172,413 
 
 Battery Commander Telescope.... 974 
 
 Battery of the Counter Attack 413 
 
 Battlefield Illumination 924 
 
 Battle Sight 974 
 
 Bayonet 52, 174, 387, 840, 842 
 
 Bayonet Combat 840,846,975 
 
 Bearing 975 
 
 Beaten Zone 975 
 
 Belgian Bullet 898 
 
 Belgian Pits 975 
 
 Belligerents 749, 751, 758, 759, 773 
 
 Bengal Lights 958, 959, 967 
 
 Best Point of Entry 975 
 
 Bickford Fuse .674, 683 
 
 Billeting 181 
 
 Bit Injuries 160 
 
 Bivouac 152, 167, 181 
 
 Blank Cartridges 61, 79, 304. 305 
 
 Blanket 606 
 
 Bleeding 901 
 
 Bleiazid 975 
 
 Blinded Batteries 975 
 
 Blind Staggers 160 
 
 Blocking a Tunnel 686 
 
 Boat Bridges 629 
 
 Boat Guards 184 
 
 Boats 629 
 
 Bolo 387 
 
 Bolt Mechanism 300, 301 
 
 Bombing Planes 975 
 
 Bombs 542, 662, 899, 900, 925 
 
 Bomb Screen 975 
 
 Bone Fractures 904 
 
 Borax 383 
 
 Bore 377, 37s 
 
 Box Compass 465 
 
 Boxing 806 
 
 Brace Ropes 1 76 
 
 Bracket 399, 402, 975 
 
 Bracketing 399, 424 
 
 Brandt Howitzer 915,932,933 
 
 Brassard 764, 968 
 
 Breaching Batteries 413 
 
 Bread 8 70 
 
 Bridges 150, 621, 623, 625, 627, 631 
 
 637,638,642,644,681,685 
 
 Brigade 22, 101, 167, 184 
 
 Brigade Commander 185 
 
 Brigade Reserves 976 
 
 Broad Fire 424 
 
 Broken Knees 160 
 
 Brown Enamel 334 
 
 Bruises 160, 600 
 
 Bugle Signals 39,40 
 
 Bullet 317, 897, 898, 900, 905 
 
 Bullet Wounds 160 
 
 Bulletin Board 186 
 
 Bureau of Chiefs 218 
 
 Bureau of Information 755 
 
 Bursting of Shrapnel 443 
 
 Burst Interval 976 
 
 Bursts in Air 393 
 
 Bursts on Impact 394 
 
 Butt Stroke 845,848 
 
 Calling the Roll 193 
 
 Call Relief 197 
 
 Call the Guard 197 
 
 Camouflage 976 
 
 Camoufleurs 976 
 
 Camp . . 152, 164, 167, 172, 173, 178, 180, 
 181, 182,183, 184,482,588 
 
 Camping Ground 180 
 
 Camp Kettles 165 
 
 Camp Sanitation 164,179,182 
 
 Camp Telephone 529 
 
 Cantilevers 636 
 
 Cantonments 164,178,182 , 
 
 Capitulation 776, 777, 778 
 
 Caps 683 
 
 Captains 185 
 
 Captive Balloons 410 
 
 Carbide Cartridge 541 
 
 Carbonate of Soda 384 
 
 Carbon Dioxide 936 
 
 Care of the Feet 888, 889 
 
 Care of Troops 152 « 
 
 Cargo Covers 609 
 
 Carrel-Dakin Method 902 
 
 Cars 582,612 
 
 Carrier Pigeons 953, 964, 965 
 
 Cartels 780, 782 
 
 Cartridge 304, 305, 947 
 
 Cartridge Case 316 
 
 Cases 672 
 
 Cavalry 28,193,244,278,284,291, « 
 
 406, 498, 499 
 
 Cavalry Saber 387 
 
 Cease Firing ..,,,,.,,, 40, 43, 63 
 
INDEX 
 
 1021 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Censorship 231, 233 
 
 Ceremonies 37, 108 
 
 Center of Burst 976 
 
 Challenges 724 
 
 Change of Direction 41, 88, 521 
 
 Change of Elevation 41 
 
 Changes of Position 418,419 
 
 Change Step 47 
 
 Charcoal Powders 452 
 
 Charge . .40, 268, 684, 716, 717, 736, 742 
 
 Charge Bayonet 52 
 
 Chief Mechanic 619 
 
 Chief of Communications 961 
 
 Chief of Platoon.. 15, 940, 941,946, 976 
 
 Chief of Section 619 
 
 Chief of Staff 222 
 
 Choice of Lookouts 941 
 
 Choice of Position 414 
 
 Chop Chop Signal 557 
 
 Cincha 606, 607 
 
 Ciphers 564, 566 
 
 Circle Exercises 856 
 
 Circumstantial Evidence 727 
 
 Civil Authorities '. . . . 181 
 
 Classification of Trains 576 
 
 Classification Rifle Firing 359 
 
 Cleaning Kit 316 
 
 Cleaning Materials 373,383,604 
 
 Clearance Angle 976 
 
 Climbing Exercises 805 
 
 Clinometer 463 
 
 Clip Fire 80 
 
 Clock-face Method 976 
 
 Clock Oil 383 
 
 Close Billets 976 
 
 Closed Sessions 721 
 
 Close Intervals 521 
 
 Close Order ....36,83,98 
 
 Close Reconnaissance 977 
 
 Cloth Equipment 371 
 
 Club Exercises 805, 820, 821" 
 
 Club Rifle Swing 845 
 
 Coast Artillery .21, 22, 28, 561 
 
 Coast Artillery Supports 977 
 
 Code 546,548, 550 
 
 Code Books 564 
 
 Coefficient of Wind Pressure 977 
 
 Cohesion 945 
 
 Colic 160 
 
 Color 126, 127, 969 
 
 Color Bearer 192, 199 
 
 Color Guard 126, 192 
 
 Color Sentinels 198,199 
 
 Colt Double Action Revolver 387 
 
 Column of Companies 88 
 
 Column of Squads 72, 88 
 
 Columns 577 
 
 Combat . . . .252, 277, 280, 287, 289, 291, 
 292,419,500, 501. S57 
 
 Combat Exercises 33,34 
 
 Combat Orders 38, 284, 285 
 
 Combat Practice 320 
 
 Combat Principles 90,100,277 
 
 Combat Reconnaissance 257 
 
 Combat Tactics 252 
 
 Combat Train 26,27,31,576 
 
 Combat Within the Hostile Position 295 
 Combatants 798 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Combined Movements 846,851 
 
 Combined Sights 355,424 
 
 Combined Sketches 701,702 
 
 Come In 562 
 
 Combustion 450 
 
 Command 10, 12, 16, 37, 39, 223 
 
 Command Aeroplanes 958 
 
 Command Balloons 958 
 
 Commander 181, 201 
 
 Commander-in-Chief 22 
 
 Commander of the Guard. 187, 188, 189, 
 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 
 198, 199, 200, 202, 204, 205 
 Commander of the Line of Com- 
 munications 223, 574, 578, 581 
 
 Commander of the Port of Em- 
 barkation 220, 221, 583 
 
 Commander of Trains 578 
 
 Commander of Train Troops $75 
 
 Commanding Officer. . . 10, 184, 185, 186 
 
 Command Posts 660, 957, 977 
 
 Commence Firing 40, 42 
 
 Commence Towing 562 
 
 Common Tent 175,176,177 
 
 Communication .256, 774, 944, 945, 950, 
 955, 956, 957, 959, 960, 961, 962, 969 
 
 Communication Trenches 648,651 
 
 661, 930,977 
 
 Commutation of Rations 864,865 
 
 Company 14, 40, 41, 67, 68, 75 
 
 Company Acting Alone 78 
 
 Company Combat Train 26 
 
 Company Commander 189 
 
 Company Inspection 119 
 
 Company in Support 78 
 
 Company Muster 123 
 
 Company Packs 616 
 
 Company Tool Wagon 605 
 
 Compass . . .458, 459, 460, 461, 465, 474, 
 
 475, 691 
 
 Competitions 368 
 
 Compilation of Sketches 489,490 
 
 Compliments (Complaints, 793) 188 
 
 189, 203 
 
 Concealment 429, 657 
 
 Concentrated Charges 684 
 
 Concentration 153, 219, 220 
 
 Concentration Camp 178,219,220 
 
 Conducting Prisoners 589 
 
 Conduct of Fire 392,424,977 
 
 Conduct of Hostilities 766 
 
 Conduct of Marches 146 
 
 Conduct of Tactical Exercises 245 
 
 Conduct of the Troops 572 
 
 Cone of Dispersion 348, 977 
 
 Confinement 715 
 
 Conical Wall Tent 175,176 
 
 Constipation 161 
 
 Construction of Fire Problem. 907, 918, 
 
 919,920 
 
 Contact 248 
 
 Contact Mines 801 
 
 Contact Patrol Reconnaissance.... 977 
 
 Continental Code 548 
 
 Contouring 484, 486 
 
 Contours 688 
 
 Contributions 791, 792 
 
 Control 223 
 
1022 
 
 INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Control of Fire 423 
 
 Contused Wounds 901 
 
 Conventional Signalts. .541, 551, 959, 960 
 
 Conventional Signs. . .492, 495, 496, 702, 
 
 703, 704, 688 
 
 Convergence Difference 977 
 
 Conquest 784 
 
 Convoy Camps 978 
 
 Convoys 569, 586, 587, 589, 590, 591, 
 
 592, 798 
 
 Convoys of Evacuation 763 
 
 Corona 606, 608 
 
 Corporal 15, 185, 192, 194, 195, 196, 
 
 197, 198 
 
 Corporal of the Guard 194, 195, 196, 
 
 197,198,201,202 
 
 Corporals of Relief 191 
 
 Corps Cavalry 23 
 
 Corps Troops 31 
 
 Corrector .404, 445 
 
 Correspondence ■. .581, 884 
 
 Correspondents 232 
 
 Cosmic 383 
 
 Cossack Squad 169 
 
 Cost of Transportation 570 
 
 Coughs 161 
 
 Council 723, 724 
 
 Counter Attack 273, 290, 953 
 
 Counter Batteries 413 
 
 Countersign. 187, 190, 197, 201, 202, 203 
 
 Counter Trenches 978 
 
 Count Off 54,65 
 
 Couriers 950 
 
 Courtesies .108, 139 
 
 Courts Martial. . .705, 706, 707, 708, 709, 
 712, 714,718,732,741 
 
 Courts of Inquiry 706 
 
 Cover .63, 607, 609, 652, 653 
 
 Covering Parties ; : ; 978 
 
 Covering Position 978 
 
 Cover Trenches 648, 651, 653 
 
 Cracked Heels 161 
 
 Crib Construction 626 
 
 Critique 357, 978 
 
 Critique of Fire Problem 907 
 
 Crossing Bridges, Ferries and Fords 150 
 
 Crossing Rivers 621 
 
 Crupper 607 
 
 Curtain Fire .; 978 
 
 Curved Fire 978 
 
 Cut Over ..;;.;. 848 
 
 Danger Angle 978 
 
 Danger Signals . . . . ; 367 
 
 Danger Space 978 
 
 Datum Level '491 
 
 Dead 757 
 
 Debarkation 569 
 
 Decoy Batteries 413 
 
 Decrease the Gait 521 
 
 Deep Fire 424 
 
 Defense .... .96, 271, 289, 420, 930, 932 
 
 Defense Card .427 
 
 Defense of a Convoy. . . '. 588 
 
 Defense of a Trench 104 
 
 Defensive Combat 277,289,291 
 
 Defensive Fire 944 
 
 Defensive Grenades 925 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Deflection 333, 440, 978 
 
 Deflection Difference 979 
 
 Delaying Action 274, 979 
 
 Demolition Equipment 687 
 
 Demolitions 646, 679, 680, 681, 930 
 
 Denunciation of Armistice 780 
 
 Denunciation of Capitulation 778 
 
 Department Commander 218,323 
 
 Deploy as Skirmishers 59 
 
 Deployed Lines 73 
 
 Deployments . .74, 91, 263, 266, 271, 979 
 
 Depots 179, 659 
 
 Depot Signal Troops 528 
 
 Depth Bomb 979 
 
 Deserters 183 
 
 Designation of Targets 909 
 
 Detached Posts 429 
 
 Detachments 194, 713,967 
 
 Details 184 
 
 Detectors 535 
 
 Determination of Ranges. 907 
 
 Detonation .451, 683, 684 
 
 Detraining and Unloading 573 
 
 Devastation 789 
 
 Diamond Hitch 609,616,617 
 
 Diamond Shaped Corral 588 
 
 Diarrhoea 161, 597 
 
 Didion's Formulas 979 
 
 Dip 459 
 
 Diplomatic Agents 772 
 
 Direction of Counter Attacks 953 
 
 Direction of the Range 365 
 
 Direction of Railways 231,581 
 
 Dirigible Balloon. 410, 503 
 
 Disciplinary Punishment 755 
 
 Discipline .9, 19, 20, 188, 234, 261 
 
 Discussions 240 
 
 Disease 885, 886, 887 
 
 Disembarkation 221 
 
 Disengage 848 
 
 Dismiss the Battalion 86 
 
 Dismiss the Company 68 
 
 Dismiss the Regiment 99 
 
 Disposal of Excreta 166, 167 
 
 Disposition of Rations 866,867 
 
 Dissimulation 979 
 
 Distances 55, 694, 979 
 
 Distinctive Badges 769 
 
 Distinctive Colors 969 
 
 Distinguished Marksmen 370 
 
 Distress Signal 544 
 
 Distributed Charges 684 
 
 Distributing Points 226, 979 
 
 Distribution for Effect 404 
 
 Distribution of Fire 80, 261 
 
 Distribution of Troops 147, 168, 512. 
 
 587,876 
 
 Division 22, 224, 281, 283, 285 
 
 Divisional Balloons . 958 
 
 Divisional Cavalry 499 
 
 Divisional Train 31 
 
 Division Commander 185 
 
 Dormoy Chateau Howitzer: ... .932, 934 
 
 Double Hitch 618 
 
 Double Interval 557 
 
 Double Shelter Tents 174 
 
 Double Sleeping Tents 174 
 
 Double Time #..35,40,826 
 
 is 
 
INDEX 
 
 1023 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Draeger Apparatus 935 
 
 Dragmen 413 
 
 Drainage 656, 673 
 
 Drawing 492 
 
 Drawing Board 475 
 
 Draw Spans 633 
 
 D. R. Bombard 932,934 
 
 Dressing Stations 896,980 
 
 D. R. Grenade 929 
 
 Drift 435 
 
 Drill 17, 18, 33, 34, 328, 808, 818 
 
 Drivers 620 
 
 Drum Major 128 
 
 Dumb Bell Exercises 804,820 
 
 Dummy Cartridges 61 , 305 
 
 Dummy Trenches 657 
 
 Duties 188, 192, 194 
 
 Earth Works 406 
 
 Echelon 27, 980 
 
 Effective Beaten Zone 424 
 
 Effectiveness of Fire 980 
 
 Effect of Confinement 451 
 
 Effect of Fire 241, 348, 350 
 
 Effect of Wind 334 
 
 Egg Bomb 899 
 
 Elements 980 
 
 Elements of Fire 439 
 
 Elements of the Trajectory 440 
 
 Elevation 330, 463, 693 
 
 Elevation Correction Drill 333 
 
 Embarkation . 584, 585 
 
 Emergency Ration 858, 861 
 
 Emergency Signals 543 
 
 Employment of Barrage Fire 951 
 
 Employment of Fire 412, 980 
 
 Employment of Time 946 
 
 Employment on the Defensive. .928, 929 
 
 Encampments 183 
 
 Enemy Property 746, 789 
 
 Energy of Recoil 980 
 
 Enfilade Fire 428 
 
 Enfilading Battery 980 
 
 Engineer Columns 577 
 
 Engineer Combat Trains 29 
 
 Engineer Company 29 
 
 Engineer Mounted Battalion 29 
 
 Engineers 28 
 
 Engineer Trains 229,577,578 
 
 Engineer Troops 279 
 
 English Bullet 898 
 
 Enlargement 493 , 494 
 
 Enlisted Men 199 
 
 Enveloping Attack 980 
 
 Epizootic Lymphangitis 161 
 
 Equation of Defense 980 
 
 Equipment. 120, 173, 179, 190, 571, 372, 
 385,478,567,620 
 
 Escort of Honor 117 
 
 Escort of the Color 115 
 
 Espionage 769, 771 
 
 Establishing the Outposts 170, 516 
 
 Estimate of the Situation 907 
 
 Estimating Distance Tests 335,338 
 
 Estimation of Distance. . .336, 337, 468, 
 694, 698 
 
 Evacuation Points 980 
 
 Evidence 727, 728 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Examining Posts 518,981 
 
 Exchange of Prisoners 756,757 
 
 Execution of Reliefs 946 
 
 Exercises 804, 805, 806, 807, 808, 
 
 809,810,821 
 
 Expenditure of Ammunition 261 
 
 Explosion 451 
 
 Explosives 371, 390, 431, 450, 455, 
 
 582,673,674,681,697 
 
 Extended Order 73 
 
 Extended Order Drill 33 
 
 Extend Intervals 521 
 
 Extend the Mass 89 
 
 Exterior Guards 183 
 
 Extra Compensation 359 
 
 Eye Pieces 935 
 
 Eyes Right or Left 44 
 
 Facine 656 
 
 Facings 44 
 
 Facing to the Rear 70 
 
 Fainting 891 
 
 Falling Ground 351,981 
 
 Falling Target 364 
 
 Farcy 161, 598 
 
 Fatigue Details 954 
 
 Fatigue " Duty 184, 185, 186 
 
 Fear of Responsibility 12 
 
 Federal War Department 22 
 
 Feeding 595, 614 
 
 Feints 850 
 
 Fencing at Will 854 
 
 Ferries 150, 644 
 
 Fever 161 
 
 Field Army 21, 22, 281, 183, 285, 286 
 
 Field Artillery. . .296, 319, 392, 412, 560 
 
 Field Artillery Ammunition 390 
 
 Field Artillery Army Signals 42 
 
 Field Battalion 524, 981 
 
 Field Bread 870 
 
 Field Exercises 33,34 
 
 Field Fortification 646, 664 
 
 Field Glasses 340, 962 
 
 Field Guns 318,438,454,686 
 
 Field Hospitals 31 
 
 Field Maneuvers 236 
 
 Field Maps 690 
 
 Field Messages 549, 566 
 
 Field Music 193 
 
 Field Officer of the Day 185 
 
 Field Operations 179 
 
 Field Orders 871, 873, 874, 875, 875, 
 
 877 
 
 Field Post Office 235 
 
 Field Ration 858, 860, 866, 981 
 
 Field Signal Battalion 30 
 
 Field Targets 264 
 
 Field Signal Troops 522 
 
 Field Telephone 981 
 
 Field Train 27, 31 , 576 
 
 Field Training 19 
 
 Field Transport 569 
 
 Field Wireless 981 
 
 Field Work 19, 472 
 
 File 981 
 
 File Closers 192 
 
 Findings 730 
 
 Finger 43 
 
1024 
 
 INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Fink Truss 639 
 
 Filipino Ration 858, 860, 863 
 
 Fire 43, 78, 80, 92, 241, 258, 261, 348, 
 
 350,353,402,412,944 
 
 Fire Action 648 
 
 Fire Attack 77,267 
 
 Fire at Will 40,63,405 
 
 Fire by Clip 63 
 
 Fire by Volley 62 
 
 Fire Control 81,92,259,981 
 
 Fire Direction 92,259,981 
 
 Fire Discipline 81, 982 
 
 Fire Effect ..352,392,403,405,928,929 
 
 Fire for Adjustment 392,397,401 
 
 Fire for Demolition 401,408 
 
 Fire from a Forward Position 428 
 
 Fire from the Flanks 427 
 
 Fire of Position 262 
 
 Fire Order 909 
 
 Fire Position 909, 918 
 
 Fire Problems ...907,908,909,910,913 
 
 Fire Signals 429 
 
 Fire Superiority 258,280,982 
 
 Firing at Moving Targets 347, 356 
 
 Firing Devices 674, 683 
 
 Firing Mounds 367 
 
 Firing Platform 26 
 
 Firing Trenches ..648,649,650,653,941 
 
 Firing with Rests 347 
 
 Firings 60, 342, 357, 415, 908 
 
 First Aid 885,888,889,890 
 
 First Aid Packet 895, 896 
 
 First Aid Stations 660, 896 
 
 First in Trench Zone 648 
 
 First Sergeant 66, 185, 186, 193 
 
 First Sergeant's Call 186, 192 
 
 Fix Bayonets 40,43,52 
 
 Fixed Bridges 625 
 
 Fixed Establishments 760 
 
 Fixed Pivot 57, 69 
 
 Fixed Targets 402 
 
 Flags.. 190, 208. 765, 766. 769, 772, 968 
 
 Flags of Truce 769, 774, 776 
 
 Flank Guards 156, 159, 183,511 
 
 Flares 391,924 
 
 Flashless Powders 453 
 
 Flatulent Colic 597 
 
 Flexible Cylinders 959 
 
 Flight Commander 982 
 
 Floating Bridges. 627, 628, 631, 632, 633, 
 634,635 
 
 Flying Corps in the Field 982 
 
 Folding the Flag 982 
 
 Follow Me 58 
 
 Follow the Corporal 58 
 
 Food 166 
 
 Forced Marches 154 
 
 Fords 150,644 
 
 Formal Field Orders 873 
 
 Formal Guard Mounting 209 
 
 Formations 34, 37, 812, 908 
 
 Forests 482 
 
 Fortification 646, 664 
 
 Forward 40, 520 
 
 Founder 599 
 
 Fractions Surprised in Shelters.... 954 
 
 Fragmentation 982 
 
 Freezing 891 
 
 French Bullet 897, 898 
 
 Fresh Beef , 869 
 
 Fresh Bread 870 
 
 Frontage of Units in Combat 280 
 
 Front into Line 71,87 
 
 Front Rank Man 173 
 
 Front Sight Movable Stud 389 
 
 Frost Bite 891 
 
 Fulminate 456, 683 
 
 Funeral Escort 117,144,145 
 
 Funeral Honors 143 
 
 Fuse 674, 683 
 
 Gabions 656 
 
 Gait 467, 521 
 
 Gallery 668, 670, 671, 672, 679 
 
 Galley Frame 669 
 
 Galley Practice 335, 380 
 
 Garb 234 
 
 Garrison 183 
 
 Garrison Prisoners 187 
 
 Garrison Ration 858, 859, 862, 866 
 
 Garrison Training 18" 
 
 Gas 662 
 
 Gas Attacks 982,1009 
 
 Gas Helmet 982 
 
 Gas Reflection Lights 924 
 
 Gas Shells 899 
 
 Gas Warfare 983 
 
 Gas-Vesicant 983 
 
 General Armistice 779 
 
 General Courts Martial 707, 709, 723, 
 
 732, 734 
 
 General Headquarters 22, 1 79 
 
 General Orders 200, 872 
 
 General Organization 21 
 
 General Preparatory Signal 521 
 
 General Service Code 550,983 
 
 General Staff 222 
 
 General Train 31 
 
 Generator 541 
 
 Geneva Flag 772 
 
 German Mauser Bullet, S 898 
 
 Germs 885 
 
 Gibson's Soap 384 
 
 Girth Galls 161 
 
 Glanders 162 
 
 Good Faith 768 
 
 Gorge Trench 983 
 
 Grades 14, 16 
 
 Gradient 457, 462, 463, 667, 689 
 
 Graticule Method 425 
 
 Grease Heel 162 
 
 Grenade . . . .102, 103, 390, 391, 662, 899, 
 
 925, 926, 928. 929 ^ 
 
 Grenade Assault 106 " 
 
 Grenade Squads 104 
 
 Grenadier 103, 983 
 
 Grenadier's Equipment 103 
 
 Grooming 612 
 
 Ground 178, 260, 351 
 
 Ground Line 610,611 
 
 Ground Section 444,983 
 
 Group 40, 43 A 
 
 Groups of Posts 983 
 
 Guard Cartridge 305 
 
 Guard Cells 191, 193, 194 
 
 Guard Details 185 
 
INDEX 
 
 1025 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Guard Duty ....183,184,186,188,189, 
 
 194, 204 
 
 Guard House . . . 187, 188, 190, 192, 193, 
 
 194, 196 
 
 Guard Mounting 184, 186, 187, i89, 
 
 191, 192, 198, 201,209,213 
 
 Guard Patrols 202 
 
 Guard Report 186, 190, 192 
 
 Guard Rooms 191, 193, 194 
 
 Guards .181, 183, 184, 185, 186, 188, 189, 
 
 190, 203, 204, 511, 512. 848, 852, 
 
 940,941,943 
 
 Guard Tent 190, 192, 196 
 
 Gun Cotton 456, 683 
 
 Gunnery 431, 433 
 
 Gunpowder 683 
 
 Guns 68 1 
 
 Gunshot Wounds 900 
 
 Guns in Infantry Line 428 
 
 Gun Sling 339 
 
 Gun Squads 983 
 
 Gutter Wounds 901 
 
 . Guy Ropes 176, 177, 178 
 
 Gymnastic Contests ..805,823,824,825 
 
 Hachures 688, 689 
 
 Hair-brush Grenade 983 
 
 Half Platoon 15 
 
 Half Step 46 
 
 Halt ..40, 47, 149, 170, 179, 180, 194, 521 
 
 Hand Flags 554, 555, 557 
 
 Hand Grenades. .103, 104, 390, 899, 925, 
 
 947 
 
 Hand Level 463 
 
 f Hand Parries 856 
 
 Hand Signals 40 
 
 Harassing Fire 941 , 942 
 
 Harness 603 , 605 
 
 Harness Galls 162 
 
 Head Cover 652, 984 
 
 Head Guards 184 
 
 Headquarters 22, 184, 221 
 
 Headquarters Company 24 
 
 Heat Stroke 163 
 
 Heat Exhaustion t 891 
 
 Heavy Artillery 23, 319 
 
 .Heavy Bridges 623 
 
 Heavy Equipage 628 
 
 Heavy Field Artillery 279 
 
 Height of Burst 404,448,449,984 
 
 Heliograph 540, 553 
 
 High Explosives 454,455,674 
 
 High Explosive Shells 438, 899 
 
 High Explosive Shrapnel ..438,439,984 
 
 High Line 610 
 
 High Parry 844 
 
 Hiph Porte 853 
 
 j High-Power Artillery 984 
 
 Highway Robbers 794 
 
 i Hoisting the Flag 190 
 
 Holding Attack 270, 984 
 
 Honig Circles 984 
 
 Honors and Salutes. .108, 123, 125, 131. 
 
 143 
 
 flopping Exercises . ._ 815 
 
 Horizontal Bar Exercises 822 
 
 Horizontal Deviation 306 
 
 Horizontal Equivalent 689 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Horizontal Sweeping 424 
 
 Hospitals 178, 179, 7/2 
 
 Hospital Ships 765 
 
 Hospital Tents 177 
 
 Hospital Trains 574 
 
 Hostages 797 
 
 Hostile Position 295 
 
 Hostilities 746, 748, 766 
 
 Howe Truss 639, 640 
 
 Howitzer 318, 686 
 
 Hurdles 655 
 
 Hydrography 489 
 
 Hydroline Oil 384 
 
 Ice 686 
 
 Identification Panels 959,967 
 
 Identification Signals 984 
 
 Identifying Lines 966 
 
 Ignitions 675 
 
 Illumination of Battle Field 658 
 
 Illuminating Grenade 984 
 
 Inaction 12 
 
 Incendiary Grenade 985 
 
 Incline Gallery 671 
 
 Increase the Gait 521 
 
 Independent Cavalry 498, 985 
 
 Indications of the Enemy 502 
 
 Indirect Fire 357,985 
 
 Indorsements 881 
 
 Infantry 193, 278, 408, 409, 499 
 
 Infantry Battalion 25, 958 
 
 Infantry Batteries 413 
 
 Infantry Brigade 24 
 
 Infantry Combat 292 
 
 Infantry Company 25 
 
 Infantry Division 23 
 
 Infantry Divisional Balloons. . .960, 985 
 
 Infantry in the Trenches 937,948 
 
 Infantry Organization 27 
 
 Infantry Regiment 24 
 
 Infirmaries 182 
 
 Influence 10 
 
 Influence of Ground 351 
 
 Influenza 162 
 
 Informal Guard Mounting 213 
 
 Information 505, 770, 957, 960 
 
 Information Officer 985 
 
 Initial Combat Orders 38 
 
 Initial Velocity 434 
 
 Initiative 9,12 
 
 Insignia 360, 769 
 
 Inspecting Officer 190, 193 
 
 Inspection Arms 48. 52 
 
 Inspections 108, 1 87 
 
 Instantaneous Fuse 683 
 
 Instruction of the Guard 183 
 
 Instruction Practice 340 
 
 Interchange of Compliments. . . .140, 141 
 
 Intercommunications 956, 961, 963 
 
 Interior Camp Guards 181 
 
 Interior Guard Duty 183, 184 
 
 Interior Guards 985 
 
 Intermediate Trenches 648 
 
 Tnternationl Morse Code. . .550, 551, 965 
 
 Internment 799 
 
 Interpreter ; 724 
 
 Interstate Commerce Commission.. 532 
 Intervals 55, 59, 557, 985 
 
1026 
 
 INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Intrenched Observation Stations... 950 
 
 Intrenching Tools 174 
 
 Intrenchments 271, 281, 405 
 
 Invasion 7S4 
 
 Inviolability of Territory 797 
 
 Jab .848, 856 
 
 Journal of Attack 985 
 
 Journal of Defense 985 
 
 Judge Advocate . 722 
 
 Judicial Notice 729 
 
 Jump 434, 805, 985 
 
 Jurisdiction 714 
 
 Keys 193 
 
 Kitchens 165, 178, 661 
 
 Kiwi 986 
 
 Kneeling 59 
 
 Known Distance Targets 339,362 
 
 Knuckle Knife 986 
 
 Lacerated Wounds 901 
 
 Lachamatory Gases 1010 
 
 Laminitis 599 
 
 Land Forces 21, 793 
 
 Landing 583 
 
 Landing Piers 626 
 
 Land Mines 677 
 
 Landscape Sketching : 489 
 
 Land-taught Swimming 803,. 829, 830 
 
 Land Warfare 746 
 
 Lash Rope 606, 609 
 
 Lateral Communications 957,986 
 
 Lateral Deviation 986 
 
 Latrines 178, 661, 940 
 
 Lattice Truss 642 
 
 Lavaline 383 
 
 Lavatories 661 
 
 Laws in Force, Suspended and Pro- 
 mulgated 785, 786 
 
 Laws of War 705, 7^3 
 
 Leader 282 
 
 Leadership 253 
 
 Leading File 195 
 
 Lead Nitride 456 
 
 Leapfrog 986 
 
 Leaping 815 
 
 Leather Equipment 372,375,376 
 
 Leaving the Trench 945 
 
 Left-handed Use of Rifle 854 
 
 Left Oblique 40, 56 
 
 Length of Marches 148 
 
 Letter Codes 559 
 
 Letters and Indorsements 881,882, 
 
 883, 884 
 
 Letters of Instruction 871 
 
 Liaison 955, 956, 958, 962, 969, 986 
 
 Liaison Agent , 963,967,986 
 
 Liaison Detachments 967 
 
 Liaison Officer 968 
 
 License to Trade 781 
 
 Light 346 
 
 Light Artillarv 23 
 
 Light Brandt Howitzer 933 
 
 Light Bridges 624 
 
 Light Equipage 623,624 
 
 Line m .43, 962, 986 
 
 Line of Circumvallation 986 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Line of Communications. . .32, 183, 233, 
 225,230, 518,579, 699,986 
 
 Line of Countervallation 987 
 
 Line of Departure 434 
 
 Line of Sight 324,434 
 
 Lines of Information 181,659,923 
 
 Linseed Oil 384 
 
 Liquid Coffee 861 
 
 Listening Posts 658,943,987 
 
 Litter Bearer 27 
 
 Living Force 987 
 
 Load 609 
 
 Loading and Entraining ..571,615,572, 
 582, 676 
 
 Loadings 60, 61 
 
 Local Armistice 779 
 
 Local Reconnaissance 987 I 
 
 Lockjaw 599 
 
 Locomotives 6S0 I 
 
 Long Horse Exercises 822 l 
 
 Longitudinal Deviation 987 
 
 Longitudinal Dihedral Angle 987 I 
 
 Longitudinal Resistance 987 | 
 
 Long Range Covering Fire 42/ 
 
 Long Range Practice 345 
 
 Long Range Searching Fire. .. .428, 952 
 
 Long Range Target 363 
 
 Long Thrust 848, 853 
 
 Lookout Posts 923, 987 
 
 Lookouts ...... . .941, 942, 943, 949, 950 
 
 Loopholes 652, 944 
 
 Looping 987 
 
 Losses to the Enemy 930 
 
 Lowering the Flag , 190 
 
 Low Parry 844, 
 
 Lubricating Oil 384 
 
 Lying Down 59 
 
 Machine Gun Companies ....25,26,423 
 
 Machine Gun Groups 409 
 
 Machine Guns ..243,281,392,421,427, 
 
 428, 430, 659 
 
 Magazine Mechanism 301 
 
 Mail 178 
 
 Main Guard 184,185 
 
 Maintenance 662 
 
 Maintenance of Communication... 95 5 v 
 
 962 
 
 Mange 162 
 
 Manta 609 
 
 Manual of Arms 48 
 
 Manual of the Bayonet 840 
 
 Manual of the Color 127 
 
 Manual of the Sabre 130 
 
 Map Distance 689 
 
 Map Enlargement 704 
 
 Map Reading 492, 688, 987^* 
 
 Map Reproduction 703 
 
 Maps . .457, 470, 471, 498, 504, 689, 690, 
 
 691,692,703 
 
 Marauders 795 
 
 March by the Flank 47 
 
 March Discipline 146 
 
 Marches .... 146, 148, 149, 152, 153, 154, 
 
 156,160,6094 
 
 Marches in Campaign 153 
 
 Marchings 45, 804, 815, 816 
 
 March Order 507 
 
INDEX 
 
 1027 
 
 PAGE 
 
 March Table 877, 878 
 
 March to the Rear 47,70 
 
 Marine Officers 708 
 
 Marking 343, 344 
 
 Mark Time 46 
 
 Martial Law 705,746,747 
 
 Mask, M. 2 934, 935, 937 
 
 Mass Formations 89 
 
 Material 764,940 
 
 Maximum Angle of Incidence 988 
 
 Mean Radial Distance 988 
 
 Measuring the Range 367 
 
 Mechanics 619 
 
 Medical Corps 31 
 
 Medical Department 31,765 
 
 Medical Materiel 762 
 
 Medical Personnel 762 
 
 Medical Service 896 
 
 Meeting Engagements 274,988 
 
 Meeting System of Convoys 988 
 
 Member of the Guard 190 
 
 Menace of Mines 954 
 
 Meridian 493 
 
 Messages 504, 506,955,965 
 
 Messenger Aeroplane 958 
 
 Messengers 234 
 
 Mess Sergeant 988 
 
 Metal Fouling Solution 383 
 
 Metal Parte 381 
 
 Metal Primer 925 
 
 Mid-Range Target 363 
 
 Mil 988 
 
 Military Administration 225 
 
 Military Administrator 988 
 
 Military Aeronautics 31 
 
 Military Attacks 251 
 
 Military Authority 783 
 
 Military Bridges 151 
 
 Military Ceremony 37 
 
 Military Commission 706 
 
 Military Demolition 679, 680 
 
 Military Dispositions 699 
 
 Military Explosives 455 
 
 Military Government 705 
 
 Military Gymnastics 803 
 
 Military Hospital Ships 765 
 
 .Military Information 497,519 
 
 Military Jurisdiction 705, 747 
 
 Military Law 705, 706 
 
 Military Necessity 746 
 
 Military Occupation 783 
 
 Military Operations 236 
 
 Military Order 988 
 
 Military Orthopedics 988 
 
 Military Police 183,186,216,989 
 
 .Military Post 183,184,190 
 
 Military Railroading 989 
 
 Military Railways 231,580 
 
 Military Reconnaissance 989 
 
 Military Signs 695, 696, 697 
 
 Military Sketches 688,692,693,699 
 
 Military Surgery 885,897,901,989 
 
 Military Trains 1 54 
 
 Military Vocabulary 989 
 
 Mills Bomb 899 
 
 Mil Scale Method 425 
 
 Mines 677, 801, 802, 900, 954 
 
 Mine Tactics 678 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Miniature Targets 365 
 
 Mining 646, 665, 666 
 
 Mirage 346 
 
 Misfires 676 
 
 Missing 948 
 
 Mobile Army 21,922 
 
 Mobilization 219 
 
 Mobilization Camps 178,219 
 
 Mopping Up Trenches 106 
 
 Morse Code 546, 550, 959 
 
 Motor Company 32 
 
 Motorized Organizations 521 
 
 Motor Transports 593, 619, 989 
 
 Motor Transport Corps 989 
 
 Motor Trucks 990 
 
 Mounted Orderly 27 
 
 Mounted Scouts 990 
 
 Mounted Sentinels 195 
 
 Movements 34, 37, 521 
 
 Moving Pivot 57, 69 
 
 Moving Targets 347, 356, 402 
 
 Mud Fever : 161 
 
 Mules 594, 595, 596 
 
 Munitions 582 
 
 Musicians 79, 185 
 
 Musicians of the Guard 192, 198 
 
 Mustard Gats 1009 
 
 Muster 123, 187 
 
 Naphthalene 383 
 
 Nasal Catarrh 161 
 
 National Anthem 134, 990 
 
 National Army 22 
 
 National Colors 192,198 
 
 National Flag 769 
 
 National Guard 22,732,733 
 
 National Red Cross 761 
 
 National Salute 1 37, 990 
 
 Natural Point Blank 990 
 
 Neat's Foot Oil 384 
 
 Nerve Shock 903 
 
 Neutrality 772, 797 
 
 Neutral Rights 797 
 
 Neutral Territory 799 
 
 New Guard 191,198,201,215 
 
 Night Assault 990 
 
 Night Combat 291 
 
 Night Firing 357, 411 
 
 Night Marches 155 
 
 Night Operations 990 
 
 Nitro Cellulose 456 
 
 Nobel Lighter 991 
 
 Noizet System of Fortification 991 
 
 Non-Commissioned Officer in 
 
 Charge of Pit 342 
 
 Non-Commissioned Officers. .. 13, 14,66, 
 
 184, 187, 188, 189, 190, 193, 194, 196, 
 
 203 
 Non-Commissioned Officer of the 
 
 Guard 190, 192, 194, 199 
 
 Non-perforating Wounds 901 
 
 Normal Sight 325 
 
 Nose Spinning 991 
 
 Notches 652 
 
 Notification of Armistice 779 
 
 N-Square Law 991 
 
 Numbering of Targets 366 
 
1028 
 
 INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Oath 725 
 
 Oath of Interpreter 726 
 
 Oath of Judge Advocate 725 
 
 Oath of Reporter . . 726 
 
 Oath of Witness.. 726 
 
 Oath to Test Competency 726 
 
 Oblique Fire 428 
 
 Oblique March 56 
 
 Observation 64, 261, 657, 922, 923, 
 
 937,991 
 
 Observation Detachments 967 
 
 Observation Mines 801 
 
 Observation Points 942 
 
 Observation Post ....658,923 
 
 Observation Station 957 
 
 Observatory 658, 923, 991 
 
 Observer 27 
 
 Obstacles 405, 656 
 
 Occupation 785, 787 
 
 Occupation of Position 353,417,932 
 
 Odometer 467 
 
 Offensive Combat 277,287 
 
 Offensive Fire Action 930,931 
 
 Offensive Grenades 925 
 
 Offensive Patrols 991 
 
 Officer 14, 185, 187, 188, 189,198, 
 
 199, 203 
 
 Official Calls 140 
 
 Official Correspondence. . .871, 878, 879, 
 
 880, 884 
 
 Officer in Charge of Firing 342 
 
 Officer of the Day 184, 185, 186, 187, 
 
 188, 190, 191, 194 
 Officer of the Guard. .184, 185, 187, 188, 
 
 189, 194 
 
 Old Guard 190, 191, 214 
 
 Old Officer of the Day 191 
 
 On Right (Left) Into Line. .71, 87, 521 
 
 Open Fighting 428 
 
 Operating Chests 536 
 
 Operations of the Supply Service.. 867, 
 
 868 
 
 Operation Orders 960, 992 • 
 
 Optimum Angle of Incidence 992 
 
 Order Arms 49 
 
 Order in Line 524 
 
 Order in Section Column 524 
 
 Orderlies 198, 199 
 
 Orders.. 12, 13, 18, 37, 38, 39, 188, 192, 
 194, 871, 872, 955 
 
 Orders for Sentinels 200 
 
 Ordinary Billets 992 
 
 Ordnance Depots 992 
 
 Ordnance Equipment 371 
 
 Organization 10, 21, 944, 945 
 
 Organization for Attack 428 
 
 Orientation 688, 691, 992 
 
 Oriented Drawing Board 477 
 
 Outguards.,169, 170, 171, 515, 517, 992 
 
 Outpost Commander 170 
 
 Outpost Company 523,992 
 
 Outposts... 167, 168, 170, 180. 181, 182, 
 193, 203, 513, 516, 518 
 
 Outpost Sketch 699,700 
 
 Outpost Troops 514 
 
 Outward Flank 992 
 
 Overhead Cover 653 
 
 Overhead Fire 992 
 
 Oversea 184, 191, 193, 203, 221 j 
 
 Oversea Operations 30, 993 
 
 Oyster Grenades 899 j 
 
 Pacing 466 j! 
 
 Pack Guards 184, 185 |j 
 
 Packing 317, 538 I 
 
 Packs , 120, 121. 174 
 
 Pack Saddles 606 
 
 Pack Trains 610 
 
 Pack Transportation 593, 993 
 
 Painting ; 382 
 
 Palisades 680 
 
 Panels 958, 959, 967, 993 
 
 Panorama Sketch 993 
 
 Parachute Grenade 993 
 
 Parades 113 
 
 Parallel Bars 823 
 
 Park 521 
 
 Parlementaires 774, 775, 776 
 
 Parole 187, 190,201,202 
 
 Parry 844, 848, 855, 856 
 
 Passes 234- 
 
 Passports 786, 781, 782 
 
 Patrol Leader 502 
 
 Patrolling the Frontier 797 
 
 Patrols. 169, 170, 501, 516, 943, 946, 993 
 
 Pay 756 
 
 Peep Sight 325 
 
 Penalties 370 
 
 Penetrating Wounds 901 
 
 Perfidy 768 
 
 Perforating Wounds 901 
 
 Periscope 950, 962 
 
 Permanent Camps p 167 
 
 Permissible Explosives 993 
 
 Personal Combat 857 
 
 Personal Hygiene 885,886,887 
 
 Personal Salutes 138 
 
 Personnel 760, 963, 970 
 
 Petrolatum 384 
 
 Phosgene 993, 1009, 1010 
 
 Photograph Officer 993 
 
 Physical Training 803 
 
 Picket 169, 171, 172. 515 
 
 Picket Line 610,611 
 
 Picric Acid 455' 
 
 Picric Powders 994 
 
 Piers 626, 629, 631 
 
 Pile Bridges 625 
 
 Pillage 773 
 
 Pill-box 994 
 
 Pirates of War 794 
 
 Pistol 306, 310, 316, 364 
 
 Pit Shed 367 
 
 Place Sketch 699, 701*^ 
 
 Plane of Fire 393,434 
 
 Plane of Site 994 
 
 Plan of Action 284 
 
 Plan of Combat 994 
 
 Plan of Defense of Strong Point.. 939 
 
 Plan of Defense of Trench 937,940 
 
 Platoon.. 15, 40, 41, 43, 66, 77, 173, 193, 
 521, 939, 941, 945 
 
 Platoon Columns 41 
 
 Platoon Leader 77,81 
 
 Playfair Cipher 994 
 
 Pleas ..727,742 
 
INDEX 
 
 1029 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Plotting 475 
 
 Plumb Line 463 
 
 Plunging Ricochet 994 
 
 Pneumatic Guns 930, 932 
 
 Pocket of Fire 951 
 
 Point Blank Range 994 
 
 Point Fire 424 
 
 Pointing the Gun 432 
 
 Point of Aim 324 
 
 Point of Fall 434 
 
 Poison 766 
 
 Poison Gas Shells 899 
 
 Polish 384 
 
 Poll Evil 598 
 
 Poncho 174 
 
 Pontoons 621 
 
 Portable Field Sets 535 
 
 Portable Ovens 166 
 
 Portable Searchlights 924, 959 
 
 Port Arms 50,195 
 
 Position Drills 327,328,331,332 
 
 Position in Readiness 994 
 
 Position of Attention 811,812 
 
 Position of Deployment 994 
 
 Position of the Soldier 43, 909 
 
 Positions... 271, 414, 415, 417, 430, 483, 
 484. 647 
 
 Position Sketch 484,699,700 
 
 Post 191, 192, 194, 195, 196, 200 
 
 Post of the Leader 282 
 
 Post Sentinels 194,196 
 
 Posts of Non-Commissioned Officers 36 
 
 Posts of Officers 36 
 
 Potence 995 
 
 ♦Powder 317, 452, 543 
 
 Powdered Lye 383 
 
 Powder Fouling 377 
 
 Power of the Weapon 431 
 
 Practical Instruction 17, 18 
 
 Practice Marches 153,995 
 
 Pratt Truss . . , 641 
 
 Preconcerted Signals 541 
 
 Preliminary Exercises 913, 914. 915, 
 
 916,917 
 
 Premises 187 
 
 Preparatory Dispositions 413 
 
 'Preparatory Signals 520 
 
 Present Arms 49, 50 
 
 Preserving Materials 383 
 
 Press Matter 233,235 
 
 Presumptions 728, 729 
 
 Prevention of Waste 948 
 
 Primary Hemorrhages 901 
 
 Primer 316,925 
 
 Priming 676, 684 
 
 Trinciples of War 9 
 
 Principal Subordinate Headquar- 
 ters 179 
 
 Prismatic Compass 460 
 
 Prisoner Guards 184,191,193 
 
 Prisoners.. 187, 190, 191, 193, 194, 205 
 
 384 
 Prisoners of War. .. .751, 752 753, 754 
 
 Prisoner's Relief Societies 756 
 
 Private Property 250 
 
 Privates of the Guard. .. .185, 188, 192, 
 
 200 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Probability of Fire 443 
 
 Probability of Hitting 348 
 
 Probable Error in Range 424 
 
 Proficiency Test 358 
 
 Profiles 650, 995 
 
 Progressive Powder 453,995 
 
 Projectiles 897, 898, 899, 934 
 
 Property Depots 947 
 
 Prosecutor 712 
 
 Protection .••;•• 429 
 
 Protection Against Asphyxiating 
 
 Gases 934,936 
 
 Protection of Shelters 936 
 
 Protection of the Bivouac 167 
 
 Protection of the Camp 167 
 
 Protection of the March 156 
 
 Protective Cavalry 995 
 
 Protective Patrols 995 
 
 Protractor 470 
 
 Provost Courts 706 
 
 Provost Guards 183,995 
 
 Punishments 795 
 
 Pursuit 269 
 
 Pyramidal Tent 176,177 
 
 Quadrant 995 
 
 Quadrant Angle of Departure 434 
 
 Quarter 767 
 
 Quarter Guard 995 
 
 Quartermaster Corps \ .31, 583 
 
 Quartermaster Trains 31 
 
 Quarter-Sights 995 
 
 Quenched Spark Gap 537 
 
 Quick Time 40,45 
 
 Radian 996 
 
 Radio Company 523,996 
 
 Radio Distress Signal 543 
 
 Radio Pack Set 539 
 
 Radio Telegraphy 530 
 
 Rafale 996 
 
 Rafts 151,631,632 
 
 Railhead 996 
 
 Railroads... 178, 231, 481, 644, 680. 686 
 
 Rally 996 
 
 Ramps 585,5*6, 613 
 
 Range... 41, 79, 260, 365, 394, 399, 403, 
 
 434 
 
 Range-Azimuth Table 996 
 
 Range Cards 426 
 
 Range Deviation 996 
 
 Range Finders 339,387,388 
 
 Range House 367 
 
 Range Officer 342,996 
 
 Range Regulations 358 
 
 Range Table 436,437 
 
 Range-tskers 996 
 
 Ranging 446, 447, 448 
 
 Rapid Fire Exercise 330 
 
 Rapid Fire Target 363 
 
 Rapid Firing 347 
 
 Rapidity of Fire 432 
 
 Rate of Fire 908,909 
 
 Rate of Marches 148 
 
 Ration 228 
 
 Reactance Control 532 
 
 Real Property of a State 792 
 
1030 
 
 INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Rear Guard. 156, 159, 168, 183, 421, 512 
 
 Rear Guard Actions 429 
 
 Rear Rank Man 173 
 
 Rear Sight Corrections 354 
 
 Recall 249 
 
 Receive the Color 127 
 
 Receiving Set 537 
 
 Reconnaissance.. 416, 457, 479, 480, 481, 
 
 482, 497, 498, 499, 500, 501, 510, 938, 
 
 957 
 
 Reconnoitering Patrols 501, 997 
 
 Record Practice 340, 997 
 
 Rectangular Panels 967 
 
 Rectify Alignment and Column. . .86, 87 
 
 Red Cross 761 
 
 Reduction 493, 494 
 
 Re-entering Place of Arms 997 
 
 Refilling Point 226,997 
 
 Refusal of Quarter 767 
 
 Regiment 96, 97, 99, 101, 184 
 
 Regimental Colors 192,198 
 
 Regimental Commander 189, 322 
 
 Regimental Dressing Stations. .896, 997 
 
 Regimental Inspection 122 
 
 Regimental Medical Service 896 
 
 Regimental Muster 123 
 
 Regimental Parade 115 
 
 Regimental Review ;.... 112 
 
 Regimental Staff 24 
 
 Regiment of Engineers 28 
 
 Regular Army 22 
 
 Reinforcements of Firing Line.... 951 
 
 Relief. 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 
 
 214, 946, 997 
 
 Relieving the Outposts 518 
 
 Religious Privileges 756 
 
 Remaining Velocity 434 
 
 Remount Depot 23 
 
 Rendezvous 997 
 
 Rendezvous Point 226 
 
 Rencontre 287 
 
 Renversement 997 
 
 Report of Sick and Wounded..... 906 
 
 Reports 188, 189,504 
 
 Representative Fraction 997 
 
 Reprisals 796 
 
 Requisitions 227, 787, 791 
 
 Resection 469 
 
 Reserve... 15 7, 168, 171, 181, 182, 282, 
 429, 510 
 
 Reserve Ration 860 
 
 Reserve Trenches 648,653,943 
 
 Resident Enemy Subjects 748 
 
 Respect and Protection 760 
 
 Restoration of the Apparently 
 
 Drowned 838, 839, 892, 893, 894 
 
 Rests 44,339,347 
 
 Retaliation 796 
 
 Retournment 997 
 
 Retreat 187, 188, 189 
 
 Retreat Gun 190,209 
 
 Reveille 188, 189 
 
 Reveille Gun 190,209 
 
 Revestment 655 
 
 Review 108, 112, 113 
 
 Reviewing Officer 109,110 
 
 Rheostat 532 
 
 Ricochet Shots 352 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Rifle .174, 317, 376, 947 
 
 Rifle Barrels 388 
 
 Rifle Exercises 805,819 
 
 Rifle Firing 359 
 
 Rifle Grenades.. 103, 104, 390, 391, 899, 
 925 928 
 
 Rifle Guard Troops .' 929 
 
 Rifleman's Insignia 360 
 
 Rifle Salute 51 
 
 Right (Left) About 520 
 
 Right (Left) by Section 521 
 
 Right (Left) Front Into Line 521 
 
 Right (Left) Into Line 521 
 
 Right (Left) Oblique 40,56,520 
 
 Right of Command... 16 
 
 Right Shoulder Arms 50, 51 
 
 Rigidity of the Trajectory 436 
 
 Ring-gauge 998 
 
 Rings 823 
 
 Ring Worm 162 
 
 Rising Ground 351 
 
 River Reconnaissance 480 
 
 Road Reconnaissance 479' 
 
 Roads 178, 180 
 
 Road Sketch ..472, 473, 700 
 
 Rockets .391, 542, 924, 947, 950, 953, 964 
 
 Roll Call by Night 193 
 
 Rolling Fire 998 
 
 Rolling Kitchens 868 
 
 Rope Burns 599 
 
 Rope Galls 162 
 
 Rosters 184, 185 
 
 Rounds 946 
 
 Route Cipher 566 
 
 Route Marches 998 ' 
 
 Route Step 72, 90 
 
 Rubberine Paint 384 
 
 Runners 963 
 
 Running 804, 826 
 
 Ruses 768 
 
 Russian Bullet 898 
 
 Russian Sap 998 
 
 Saber 130, 188, 195, 387 
 
 Sabotage 998 
 
 Saddle Galls 162, 163 
 
 Safe Conducts and Safe Guards.. 780, T 
 
 781, 783 
 
 Safety Devices 313 
 
 Safety Fuse 674,683 
 
 Sales Stores 870 
 
 Salient 998 
 
 Sal Soda 384 
 
 Salt 595 
 
 Salutes.... 123, 125, 133, 135, 137, 138, 
 
 188, 189 
 
 Salute the Colors 199 
 
 Salutes with Cannon 135 
 
 Salutes with the Hand 45 
 
 Salutes with the Rifle 188, 189, 198 
 
 Salvo 137, 998 
 
 Sand Colic 162 
 
 Sanitary Columns 577 
 
 Sanitary Formations 759, 766, 
 
 Sanitary Inspection 182 
 
 Sanitary Service 229,578,998 
 
 Sanitary Train 23, 577, 578, 998 
 
 Sanitation 229 
 
INDEX 
 
 1031 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Sapper-Bombardiers 932 
 
 Scale of a Map 470 
 
 Scales 688, 693, 694 
 
 Schaefer Method 892, 893, 894 
 
 Schools 33, 43. 53, 65, 82, 102 
 
 Scoring 341 
 
 Scour the Trenches 999 
 
 Scratches 162, 599 
 
 Searchlight. 553, 924, 959, 960, 967, 999 
 
 Seating of Court 719 
 
 Secondary Bases 999 
 
 Secondary Hemorrhages 901 
 
 Second Line 999 
 
 Secretary of War 22 
 
 Section 15, 28, 193, 521 
 
 Sector 392, 648, 999 
 
 Sector Lookouts 942 
 
 Sector of Explosion 999 
 
 Sector Without Fire 999 
 
 Security 587 
 
 Selection of Camp Sites 179,180 
 
 Seniority 9, 16, 198 
 
 Senior Line Officer 187 
 
 Senior Officer 184 
 
 Sentence 731, 733, 743, 744, 745 
 
 Sentinel 169, 171, 181, 184, 186, 188, 
 
 190, 191, 194, 195, 196, 199, 200, 201, 
 203, 207, 515, 950 
 
 Sentinel Posts 169, 188, 191 
 
 Sentry Box 190 
 
 Sentry Over Arms 999 
 
 Sentry Squad 169, 515, 1000 
 
 Sergeant 15, 185, 191, 193, 194 
 
 Sergeant Major 25. 184, 185 
 
 r Sergeant of the Guard 191,192,193, 
 
 195, 196 
 
 Service Buzzer 530 
 
 Service Colors and Standards 1 000 
 
 Service of Military Railways 231 
 
 Service of the Interior 218, 1000 
 
 Service of Supply 868 
 
 Service of Security 497,506 
 
 Service of the Theater of Opera- 
 tions 221 
 
 Service of the Trenches. . .921, 945, 946 
 Service Rifle 376 
 
 /Seton Wounds 901 
 
 Setting Up Exercises 804,810 
 
 Sheaf of Fire 1000 
 
 Sheaf Ranging 1000 
 
 Shell Fillers 455 
 
 Shell Wounds 160, 895, 896 
 
 Shelter 654, 936 
 
 Shelter During Battle and Sieges. 181, 
 
 182 
 
 •Sheltering Troops 164, 178. 179 
 
 Shelter Recess 1000 
 
 Shelter Tents 174. 175, 181 
 
 Shipping Mules 612,613 
 
 Shock 891 
 
 Shoeing 600, 601 
 
 Shore Tug Signaling 561 
 
 Short Guard 848, 853 
 
 Short Range Practice 345 
 
 Short Thrust 848,855 
 
 Shot Group 1000 
 
 Shower Baths 661 
 
 Shrapnel 438, 443, 899 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Shutter Panels. 959, 960, 967 
 
 Sick and Wounded.. 757, 906 
 
 Side Boys 142 
 
 Side Horse Exercises 822 
 
 Side Step 46 
 
 Sieges 771 
 
 Sight 387 
 
 Sight Correction 333 
 
 Sighting Drills . . 323 
 
 Sighting Rest for Rifle 324 
 
 Sighting Shots , 341 
 
 Sight Leaf 43 
 
 Signal Corps 30 
 
 Signal Corps Reserve Battalions.. 31 
 
 Signal Flags 566 
 
 Signaler 27 
 
 Signaling 519, 553, 556, 561, 955 
 
 Signals.. 37, 38, 202, 503, 520, 521, 541, 
 
 543. 847, 965, 966, 967, 968 
 
 Signals by Rockets 964 
 
 Signals of the Drum Major 128 
 
 Signal Station 545 
 
 Signal Troops... 519, 522, 525, 527, 528 
 
 Sign Posting 661 
 
 Simple Attacks 849 
 
 Simultaneous Detonation 684 
 
 Simultaneous Ignitions 675 
 
 Single Sleeping Bag 174 
 
 Sketches 489, 690, 700, 701 
 
 Sketching Case 478 
 
 Skirmishers 35, 59, 74, 76 
 
 Slash 848 
 
 Sled Target 364 
 
 Sling 615, 643 
 
 Sling Rope 609 
 
 Slope 671, 688, 689 
 
 Slope Equivalent 487 
 
 Slushing Oil 384 
 
 Small Arm-s 242, 296, 371 
 
 Small Arms Ammunition 318 
 
 Small Arms Firing 320 
 
 Smokeless Powder 317, 452, 453 
 
 Sniperscope 1000 
 
 Soaps 385 
 
 Soda Solution 379 
 
 Sore Backs 163 
 
 Sorties 182 
 
 Soundings 491, 492 
 
 Sound Signal 543 
 
 Source of Supply 227, 1000 
 
 Spade Warfare 1001 
 
 Spar Bridges 625 
 
 Spark Gaps 533 
 
 Spasmodic Colic 597 
 
 Special Courts-Martial 708, 712, 741 
 
 Special Duty 185 
 
 Special Guards 184, 185 
 
 Special Instructions 187 
 
 Specialist Officers 28 
 
 Special Orders 190, 196, 200. 872 
 
 Special Train 31 
 
 Special Training 813 
 
 Special Units 36 
 
 Specifications 736, 742 
 
 Sperm Oil 384 
 
 Sperry Drift Indicator 1001 
 
 Sphero-Hexagonal Powder 1001 
 
 Spies 770, 771 
 
1032 
 
 INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Spirit of Precision 12 
 
 Spotting for Range 394 
 
 Sprain Tendons 163 
 
 Sprengle Explosives 1001 
 
 Spring Tonic 600 
 
 Spring Tool Wagon 604 
 
 Squad 40, 43, 72, 102 
 
 Squad Columns 41 
 
 Squadron 28, 172 
 
 Squads Right About . .. 41 
 
 Stable Duties 611 
 
 Stable Guard 184, 185, 205, 1001 
 
 Stable Police 611 
 
 Stack Arms 55 
 
 Staff Officer 180, 181 
 
 Staffs 221 
 
 Stanchions 613 
 
 Standard Bridge 623, 624 
 
 Standard Compass 459 
 
 Standard Solution . .378, 380 
 
 Standing Barrage 1001 
 
 Star Bomb 924 
 
 Star-Spangled Banner 1001 
 
 Starting Positions 813,814 
 
 Steel Bridges 685 
 
 Steps 45, 656, 816, 817, 818 
 
 Stockades 680 
 
 Stokes Trench Mortar 1001 
 
 Storage Battery 924 
 
 Storage Tents 177 
 
 Storehouses 179 
 
 Stratagems 768 
 
 Strategical Lines of Information. .1002 
 
 Stragglers 152, 183 
 
 Strangles 163, 598 
 
 Strength of Firing Line 908 
 
 Strong Points.. 647, 648, 938, 941, 1002 
 
 Study 17, 18 
 
 Subjugation 784 
 
 Substitution in Ration. 858, 859, 860, 861 
 Summary Courts Martial. .708, 713, 743 
 
 Sunstroke 163, 891 
 
 Supervision Trenches 1002 
 
 Supplementary Practice Season.... 321 
 
 Supplies 478, 479 
 
 Supply Columns 577, 868, 1002 
 
 Supply of Grenades 928 
 
 Supply Service 226, 578 
 
 Supply Train 577, 578, 1002 
 
 Support.... 157, 168, 171, 413, 510, 517 
 
 Support Commander 171, 1002 
 
 Supporting Artillery 262 
 
 Supporting Point 1002 
 
 Support Trenches 648, 653, 941, 943, 
 
 1002 
 
 Supreme Commander 180 
 
 Surgery 902 
 
 Surprise 286 
 
 Surprise Attacks 948, 954 
 
 Surra 598 
 
 Suspend Firing 40, 43, 63 
 
 Suspension Bridge 642 
 
 Swabbing Solution 378, 379, 385 
 
 Swept Space 1003 
 
 Swimming.. 648, 803, 806, 828, 829, 830, 
 831, 832, 833, 834, 835, 836, 837, 838 
 Swing Cone of Fire 41 J 
 
 o • • ™ PAGE I 
 
 Swinging Traverse 424 ] 
 
 Switch Trench 1003 ] 
 
 Sylvester Method 892 i 
 
 Systems of Units 531 I 
 
 Tables of Occasions 1003 j 
 
 Tables of Organization 1003 !j 
 
 Tactical Decisive Points 1003 
 
 Tactical Exercises 245 
 
 Tactical Memoranda for Chief of 
 
 Platoon 940 f 
 
 Tactical Organization 21 I 
 
 Tactical Pursuit 1003 1 
 
 Tactical Walk or Ride 1003 
 
 Tactics of Position 1003 '. 
 
 Tagging Arrangement of Lines 962 f 
 
 Take Arms 55, 56 
 
 Tamping 677 
 
 Target.. 80, 260, 261. 343, 362, 392, 402, 
 410, 411, 907, 909, 918 \ 
 
 Target Designation 355,1003 j 
 
 Target Nomenclature 363 ji 
 
 Target Year and Practice Season.. 339, j 
 
 Teamwork 255, 841, 1003 
 
 Tear Shells 899 I 
 
 Technical Staff 222 | 
 
 Telegraph 178, 578 
 
 Telegraph Battalion 527 
 
 Telegraph Company 526 
 
 Telegraph Lines 681 
 
 Telegraph Section 1004 
 
 Telegraph Signal Troops 525, 1004 
 
 Telephone 178, 529, 924, 950, 962 
 
 Telephone Section 1004 
 
 Telescopic Sights 361, 387, 388, 
 
 Temperature 345 
 
 Temporary Camps 166 
 
 Tenacity of Defenders 954 
 
 Tents 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 
 
 179. 197 
 Territorial Reconnaissance ....956, 957 
 
 Testimonial Evidence 728 
 
 Tetanus 904 
 
 Theater of Operations 179, 218, 221, 
 
 1004 
 
 Thermit 1004 
 
 Thirty-Seven Field Gun 1004^ 
 
 Thirty-Seven M M Gun Platoon.. 26 
 
 Throwing of Grenades 102, 105 
 
 Thrush 163 
 
 Ticks 163 
 
 Time Bursts 447 
 
 Time of Opening Fire 908, 909 
 
 Timing 467 
 
 Tin Cups 1004 
 
 Tissot Apparatus 936, 937, 1004- 
 
 Tonnage Tables 586 
 
 Tool Wagon 29 
 
 Topographical Reconnaissance 457 
 
 Topographic Field Note Book. .475, 476 
 
 Topography 469 
 
 Torpedoes 802 
 
 Torque of the Propeller 1005 
 
 Total Rectangle 1005 
 
 To the Color and Standard. 134, 135, 198' 
 
 To the Rear 41 
 
 Tourniquet 890 
 
INDEX 
 
 1033 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Tower Forts 1005 
 
 Towers 643 
 
 Track 681 
 
 Train 23, 154, 179, 576, 577, 578 
 
 Train Guards 184 
 
 Training 17, 18 
 
 Training of Lookouts 941 
 
 Training with the Rifle 320 
 
 Train Wrecking 767 
 
 Trajectory 393, 435, 440 
 
 Transformers 531, 538 
 
 Transient Targets 402 
 
 Transmission of Information 505 
 
 Transmission of Orders and Mes- 
 sages 955, 960 
 
 Transmitting Condensers 533 
 
 Transport 422, 583 
 
 Transportation of Annuals 585 
 
 Transport Embarkation 569 
 
 Transport Equipment 593 
 
 Traumatic Neurosis 906 
 
 Traveling Trunnion-beds 1005 
 
 Travel on Commercial Railways. . . 570, 
 
 571 
 
 Travel on Military Railways 574 
 
 Travel Ration 858, 860, 862, 863 
 
 Traverse 477, 651 
 
 Traversing 424, 474, 475, 477, 478, 
 
 1005 
 
 Traversing-gear 1005 
 
 Treason 769, 770, 795 
 
 Treatment 596 
 
 Trench 648, 649, 656, 657, 945, 954 
 
 ^Trench Artillery 23 
 
 l Trench Combat 857 
 
 Trench-dump 1005 
 
 Trench Mortars 930 
 
 Trench Raids... 921, 926, 927, 928, 1005 
 
 Trench Shotgun 1005 
 
 Trench Warfare 921, 922, 925, 937 
 
 Trench Weapons 660, 932 
 
 Trestle Bridges 625 
 
 Triangular Scale 471 
 
 Trigger Squeeze Exercise 330 
 
 Trip 1006 
 
 Triple Interval 557 
 
 Tripod 1 76 
 
 Tripping Piece 1006 
 
 Trip Wires 662 
 
 Triton 682, 1006 
 
 Troop 28 
 
 Troop Leader 907, 909 
 
 Troop Movements by Rail 575 
 
 Troops in the Theater of Opera- 
 
 V tions 575 
 
 Troop Stable Guards 206, 207 
 
 Trot 694 
 
 Truss Bridges .". 637, 638, 639 
 
 Tunnel 686 
 
 Turkish Bullet 898 
 
 Turpentine 385 
 
 Two-arm Semaphore 1006 
 
 Two-arm Semaphore Code. 554, 555, 556 
 
 Umpire.... 238, 241, 242, 246, 910, 911, 
 912, 913 
 
 Umpire's Reference Tables 920 
 
 Underground Hangars 1006 
 
 Unexploded Grenades 
 
 Unfix Bayonet 
 
 Uniform 719, 769 
 
 Union 
 
 Unit 531, 
 
 United States Army Bullet 
 
 United States Magazine Rifle 
 
 United States Rule. 
 
 Units of Measure 
 
 Universal Shell 
 
 Unload 
 
 Unloading Armies 
 
 Upper Band 
 
 Use of Combined Armies 
 
 Use of Cover 
 
 Use of Ground 
 
 PAGE 
 
 926 
 
 52 
 
 947 
 
 1006 
 
 1006 
 
 898 
 
 296 
 
 787 
 
 440 
 
 1006 
 
 62 
 
 615 
 
 389 
 
 278 
 
 63 
 
 260 
 
 Varying Elasticity 1006 
 
 Vehicles .686,764 
 
 Ventilation 673 
 
 Verbal Orders 955 
 
 Vermorel Sprayers 1007 
 
 Vertical Searching 424 
 
 Very Lights 1007 
 
 Very Pistol 542 
 
 Veterinary Corps 32 
 
 Veterinary Service 160 
 
 Vicious Mules 602 
 
 View of a Place 1007 
 
 Villages 181, 662, 663 
 
 Visibility 1 007 
 
 Visiting Patrols 1007 
 
 Visits and Courtesies 139,140,141 
 
 Visits of Inspection 186, 190 
 
 Visual Signaling 552, 567, 963, 1007 
 
 Visual Signal Stations 562 
 
 Viven Bessieres Grenades. . 104, 928, 929 
 
 Voice 79 
 
 Volley Firing 62, 80, 405 
 
 Voluntary Aid Societies 761 
 
 Voluntary Societies of Neutrals.... 762 
 Vulnerability of Formations 1007 
 
 Wagon Convoys 587 
 
 Wagons 605 
 
 Walk 467,694 
 
 Wall Pins 175 
 
 Wall Tents 175, 176, 177 
 
 War 294 
 
 War Department Orders 18 
 
 War Diaries 504 
 
 Warning Calls 1007 
 
 Warning Signal 521 
 
 War Rebels 794 
 
 War Surgery 897 
 
 War Traitor 770 
 
 War Treason 795 
 
 Watchman 184, 203 
 
 Water 596 
 
 Watering 614 
 
 Water Instruction 830, 831, 832, 833 
 
 Water Supply 165, 178, 182, 661 
 
 Water Transport 583 
 
 Wedge Formation 1007 
 
 Weighted Messages 966 
 
 What is the Range 41 
 
 Wheel Transportation 593, 1008 
 
 Whistle Signals 40,968 
 
1034 
 
 INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 White Flag 774 
 
 Wills 756 
 
 Wind 334, 340, 345 
 
 Wind Component Indicator 1008 
 
 Wing Traverses 1008 
 
 Winter Quarters 482 
 
 Wire Company 523, 1008 
 
 Wire Entanglements 680 
 
 Wireless Signals 966 
 
 Wireless Telegraphy 799 
 
 Withdrawal from Action 275 
 
 Wooden Bridges 681 
 
 Wooden Rifles 857 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Woods 406, 482 
 
 Wounded . . 757 
 
 Wounds... 600, 897, 898, 899, 900, 901, 
 
 902, 903, 904, 905 
 
 Wrestling 806 
 
 Zero of a Rifle.. 334, 1008 
 
 Zone Energy 1008 
 
 Zone of Departure 293, 1008 
 
 Zone of Operations 1 008 
 
 Zone of the Advance 224 
 
 Zone of the Line of Communica- 
 tions 223 
 
 
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 828 
 
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