LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 
 
 (Jhap.__?^- Copyrig-ht No. 
 Shelf /__v4_^ 
 
 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 
 
A SMALLER 
 
 HISTORY OF ROME 
 
 Sir WILLIAM SMITH, D.C.L., LL.D. 
 
 NEW AND THOROUGHLY REVISED EDITION 
 BY 
 
 A. H. J. GREENIDGE, MA. 
 
 Lecturer and Late Fellow of Hertford College 
 Lecturer in Ancient History at Brasenose College, Oxford 
 
 BROUGHT DOWN TO 476 A.D. 
 BY 
 
 G. MIDDLETON, MA. 
 
 Late Lecturer in Latin in the University of Aberdeen 
 AND 
 
 F. M. COLBY, M.A. 
 
 Formerly Professor of Economics, New York University 
 
 NEW YORK . : • CINCrNNATI • : • CHICAGO 
 
 AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 
 
51059 
 
 SEP 24 1900 
 
 S£COND COfy. 
 
 0(iOi<t OtViSION, 
 OCT 1 1900 
 
 Copyright, 1900, by 
 American Book Company 
 
 w. p. I 
 
 t> 0!o o. 
 
 ^^'i^" 
 
PEEFACE. 
 
 In this new edition of the " Smaller History of Rome " care 
 has been taken not to alter any of the essential characteristics 
 which have long made this book such a valuable instrument 
 of education. Its original proportions have been, as far as 
 possible, preserved, and no special department of history has 
 been allowed to curtail the space which was due to others. 
 Such alterations as those which deal with the original populations 
 of Italy and the constitutional arrangements of Rome, are merely 
 the inevitable result of the progress of recent historical research 
 in these directions. 
 
 Throughout the work the language has been simphfied as 
 much as possible, and the quantities of names, where necessary, 
 have been added in the index. 
 
 All the maps and a large proportion of the illustrations have 
 been specially prepared for this edition. Some of the latter 
 were suggested by the editor ; but whatever merit this feature 
 of the work may possess is due far more to the publishers than 
 to him. 
 
Julius Caesar. 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 The Peoples of Italy. 
 
 Page 
 
 Position of Italy 1 
 
 Its boundaries 1 
 
 Its two Divisions 2 
 
 The name " Italia " 2 
 
 1. The Gauls 2 
 
 2. The Ligurians 3 
 
 The Veneti 3 
 
 3. The Etruscans 3 
 
 4. The Italian races 4 
 
 The Unibrians 5 
 
 The Volscians 5 
 
 The Aequians 5 
 
 The Hernicans 5 
 
 The Sabines 5 
 
 The Picentines 5 
 
 The Paeligni and neighbouring 
 
 tribes 5 
 
 The Sabellian races 5 
 
 The Samnites 5 
 
 The Lucanians 6 
 
 The Bruttii 6 
 
 The Latins 6 
 
 The Latium 6 
 
 5. The lapygians 7 
 
 6. The Greeks 7 
 
 CHAPTEE n. 
 
 The Early Kings and the Okiginal Constitution of Rome, 753-617 b.o. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 Position of Rome 8 
 
 Its inhabitants 8 
 
 1. Latins 8 
 
 2. Sabines 8 
 
 3. Etruscans 9 
 
 Remarks on early Roman his- 
 tory 9 
 
 Legend of jEneas 9 
 
 Legend of Ascanius 10 
 
 Foundation of Alba Longa 10 
 
 Legend of Rhea Silvia . . . . 10 
 
 Birth of Romulus and Remus 10 
 
 Their recognition by Numitor 10 
 
 7r3 Foundation of Rome .. .. 11 
 
 RomaQuadrata ., .. .. 11 
 
 Pomerium 11 
 
 Death of Remus 11 
 
 B.C. 
 
 753-716. Reign of Romulus .. 
 
 Asylum 
 
 Rape of Sabines . . 
 War with Latins . . 
 War with Sabines 
 
 Tarpeia 
 
 Sabine women 
 Joint reign of Romulus 
 and Titus Tatius 
 Death of Titus Tatius 
 Sole reign of Romulus 
 Translation of Romulus 
 715-673. Raignof NumaPompilius 
 Institutions ascribed to 
 NumaPompilius .. 
 
 Flamens 14 
 
 Vestal Virgins.. .. 14 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
Vlll 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 B.C. Page 
 
 Salii 14 
 
 Temple of Janus . . 14 
 673-642. Reign of Tullus Hostilius 14 
 
 War with Alba Longa 14 
 
 Battle of the Horatii 
 and Curiatii . . . . 14 
 
 War with the Etrus- 
 cans 15 
 
 Punishment of Mettius 
 Fuffeiius, Dictator of 
 Alba Longa . . . . 15 
 
 Destruction of Alba 
 Longa ; .. 15 
 
 Semoval of its inhabit- 
 ants to Rome . . . . 15 
 
 Death of Tullus Hos- 
 tiliuB 15 
 
 B.C. Page 
 
 642-617. Reign of A ncuB Marcius 15 
 
 War with the Latins.. 15 
 
 Institution of Fetiales.. 16 
 
 Osiia 16 
 
 Janiculum 16 
 
 Pons Sublicius .. .. i6 
 
 Death (if Ancus Murcius 16 
 The original constitution of 
 
 Rome 16 
 
 The Patricians .. .. 16 
 
 The Plebeians .. .. 16 
 
 The king 17 
 
 The Patrician tribes . . 17 
 
 The Curiae 18 
 
 The Comitia Curiuta . . 18 
 
 The Senate 18 
 
 The priestly colleges . . 18 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 The Last Three Kings op Rome, and the Establishment of the Republic, 
 DOWN to the Battle of the Lake Reoili us, 616-498 b c. 
 
 616-579. Reign of Tarquinius 
 
 Priscus 20 
 
 His early history. . . . 20 
 His removal to Rome. . 21 
 Becomes king . . . . 21 
 
 His wars 21 
 
 TheCloacK 21 
 
 Circus Maximus . . . . 21 
 Increase of the Seuate. . 21 
 Increase of the Vestal 
 
 Virgins 21 
 
 Early history of Servius 
 
 TuUius . . .,21 
 Death of Tarquinius 
 
 Priscus 22 
 
 678-535. Reign of Servius TuUius 22 
 I. Reform of the Roman 
 
 Constitution.. .. 23 
 
 1. Division of the Ro- 
 
 man teriitory into 
 Four Tribes . . . . 23 
 
 2. Census 23 
 
 Five Classes ,. .. 24 
 The Equities . . . . 24 
 Number of the Cen- 
 turies 24 
 
 Comitia centuriata, . 25 
 
 Two assemblies — 
 
 Comitia CentUTiata, 
 
 Comitia Curiata 25 
 
 II. Increase of the city 
 
 walls of Servius Tul- 
 
 lius 25 
 
 III. Alliance with the Latins 26 
 Death of Servius TuUius 26 
 
 535-510. Keijin of Tarquinius Su- 
 
 perbus 27 
 
 His tyranny 27 
 
 His alli£.nce with tlie 
 
 Latins 27 
 
 His war with the Vol- 
 
 scians 27 
 
 Foundation of the temple 
 
 on the Oftpitoline Hill 28 
 The Sibylline books . . 28 
 Legend of the Sibyl . . 28 
 Capture of Gabii .. .. 28 
 King's sons and Brutus 
 sent to consult the 
 oracle at Delphi . . 28 
 
 Lucretia 29 
 
 Expulsion of the T.ir- 
 
 quins 30 
 
 509. Establishment of the Rf public 30 
 
 The Consuls 3U 
 
 first attempt to restore the 
 
 Tarquins 31 
 
 Execution of the sons of 
 
 Brutus 31 
 
 War of the Etruscans with 
 
 Rome 31 
 
 Death of i rutus . . . . 31 
 
 Defeat of the Etruscans . . 31 
 
 Valerius Pulilicola 32 
 
 Dedication of the Capitoline 
 Temple by M. Horatius .. 32 
 508. Second attempt to restore the 
 
 Tarquins 32 
 
 Lars Porsena 32 
 
 Horatius Cucles 32 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 IX 
 
 B.C. Page 
 
 Mucius Scaevola 33 
 
 Cloelia 33 
 
 498. Third attempt to restore the 
 
 Tarquins 33 
 
 B.C. Page 
 
 War with the Latins . . . , 33 
 
 496. Battle of the Lake Eegillus . . 34 
 
 Death of Tarquinius Superbus 34 
 
 CHAPTEK IV. 
 
 Fbom the Battle of the Lake Regillus to the Decemvikate, 
 498-451 B.C. 
 
 Struggles between the Patri- 
 cians and Plebeians . . 
 Ascendency t)f the Patricians 
 Sufferings ot the t'lebeians . . 
 Law of debtor and crt ditor . . 
 
 Ager Publicus 36 
 
 Object of the Plebeians to ob- 
 tain a share in the political 
 power and in the public 
 
 land 37 
 
 494. Secession to the Sacred Mount 37 
 Fable of Menenius Agrippa 37 
 
 36 
 
 Instituiions of the Tribunes 
 
 of the i'lebs 37 
 
 486. Agrarian Law of Sp. Cassius 38 
 League between the Romans, 
 Latins, and Hernicans . . 38 
 
 Foreign wars 38 
 
 488. I. Coriolanus andtlie Vol- 
 
 scians 39 
 
 477. n. The Fabia Gens and 
 
 Veientines .. .. 40 
 458. III. Cincinnatus and the 
 
 Aequians 40 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 The Decemvikate, 451-449 b.c. 
 
 471. Publilian Law, transferring 
 election of the Tribunes from 
 the Comitia of Curite to the 
 Concilium ol the Tribes . . 44 
 
 462. Proposal ol the Tribune Teren- 
 tilius Arsa lor the appoint- 
 ment orDecemviri . . . . 44 
 
 454. Appointment of three Com- 
 missi 'U-^rs to visit Greece. . 44 
 
 452. Their return to Rome . . . . 44 
 
 451. Appointment of the Decemviri 44 
 The Ten Tables 45 
 
 450. New Decemviri appointed . . 45 
 Their tyranny 45 
 
 Two new Tables added, 
 
 making twelve in all . . 45 
 449. The Decemviri continue in 
 
 office 45 
 
 Death of Sicinius Dentatus 46 
 
 Death of Verginia . . . . 46 
 Second secession to the Sacred 
 
 llount 47 
 
 Resignation of the Decem- 
 virs 47 
 
 Election of ten Tribunes . . 47 
 
 Valerian and Iloratian Laws 48 
 
 Death of Appius Claudius . . 48 
 
 The Twelve Tables 48 
 
 CHAPTEE VI. 
 
 From the Decemvieate to the Capture of Rome by the Gauls, 
 
 448-390 B.C. 
 
 445. Third secession to the Janic- 
 
 ulum 50 
 
 Lex Canulela for inte-'- 
 marriage between the 
 two orders 50 
 
 Institution of Military 
 Tribunes with consular 
 powers 51 
 
 443. Institution of the Censorship 51 
 421. Quaestorship thrown open to 
 
 the Plebeians 51 
 
 440. Famine at Rome 51 
 
 439. Death of Sp. Maelius . . . . 52 
 
 Foreign wars 52 
 
 Roman colonies 52 
 
 War with the Etruscans . . 52 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 B.C. I 'age 
 
 437. Spolia Opima wod by A. Cor- 
 nelius Cossus 53 
 
 426. Capture and destruction of 
 
 Fldenae 53 
 
 406. Commencement of siege of 
 
 Veil 53 
 
 Tale of Alban Lake . , . . 63 
 
 B.C. Page 
 
 396. Appointment of Camillus as 
 
 Dictator . . 53 
 
 Capture of Veil 53 
 
 394. Surrender of Falerii . , . . 53 
 
 Unpopularity of Camillus .. 54 
 
 391. He goes into exile 54 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 From the Capture of Rome by the Gauls to the Final Union of the 
 Two Orders, 390-367 B.C. 
 
 The Gauls 55 
 
 391. Attack of Clusium by the 
 
 Senones 56 
 
 Roman ambassadors sent to 
 
 Clusium 56 
 
 They take part in the fight 
 
 against the Senones ... 56 
 The Senones march upon 
 
 Rome 56 
 
 390. Battle of the Allia 56 
 
 Destruction of Rome . . . . 57 
 Siege of the Capitol .. .. 57 
 Legpnd of M. Manlius . . 57 
 Appointment of Camillus as 
 
 Dictator 57 
 
 Legend of his delivering 
 
 Rome from the Gauls . . 58 
 Rebuilding of the city .. .. 58 
 Further Gallic wars . . . . 58 
 361. Legend of T. Manlius Tor- 
 
 quatus 59 
 
 349. Legend of M. Valerius 
 
 Corvus 59 
 
 385. Distress at Rome 59 
 
 384. M. Manlius comes forward as 
 
 a patron of the poor . . . . 59 
 
 His fate 60 
 
 376. Licinian Rogations proposed 60 
 Violent opposition of the Pa- 
 tricians 61 
 
 367. Licinian Rogations passed .. 61 
 366. L. Sextius first Plebeian 
 
 Consul . . . . 61 
 
 Institution of the Praetorship 61 
 356. First Plebeian Dictator . . . . 62 
 351. First Plebeian Censor . . . . 62 
 337. First Plebeian Praetor .. .. 62 
 300. Lex Ogulnia, increasing the 
 number of the Pontiffs and 
 Augurs, and enacting that 
 a certain number ol them 
 should be taken from the 
 
 Plebeians 62 
 
 339. Publilian Laws 62 
 
 287. Lex Hortensia . . ._ 63 
 
 Equalisation of the orders . . 63 
 
 CHAPTER VIIL 
 
 From the Licinian Rogations to the End of the Samkite Wars, 
 367-290 B.C. 
 
 362. Pestilence at Rome 64 
 
 Death of Camillus 64 
 
 Tale of M. Curtius 64 
 
 Extension of Koinan dominion 
 over Southern Etruria, Vol- 
 
 sci, and Latins 65 
 
 The Samnites 65 
 
 Their history 65 
 
 Conquer Campania and Lu- 
 
 cania 65 
 
 Samnites of the Apennines 
 
 attack the Sidicini . . . . 65 
 Campanians assist the Sidicini 65 
 They are defeated by the Sam- 
 nites 65 
 
 They solicit the assistance of 
 
 Rome 
 
 343-341. First Samnite War 
 
 Battle of Mount Gaurus 
 
 Peace concluded . . 
 
 Reasons for the conclu 
 
 sion of peace 
 
 340-338. The Latin War . . 
 
 The armies meet near 
 
 Mount Vesuvius 
 Tale of Torquatus 
 Decisive battle 
 Self-sacrifice of De 
 
 cius 
 
 Battle at Trifanum 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 B.C. Page 
 
 Capture of Latin towns 68 
 Conclusion of the war 68 
 Dissoluiion of the Latin 
 
 league 68 
 
 330. Conquest of tbe Volscian town 
 
 of Privernum 69 
 
 Origin of the Second Samnite 
 
 War 69 
 
 327. The Romans attack Palaeo- 
 
 polis and Neapolis . . . . 69 
 326-304. Second Samnite War . . 69 
 First Period. 
 
 Roman arms successful 69 
 326. Quarrel between L. Pa- 
 
 pirins Dictator and Q. 
 Fabius, his master of 
 
 the horse 69 
 
 321-315. Second Period. 
 
 Success of the Samnites 70 
 321. Defeat of the Romans at 
 the Caudine Forks by 
 C.Pontius 70 
 
 B.C. Page 
 
 Ignominious treaty re- 
 jected by the Romans 71 
 314-304. Third Period. 
 
 Success of the Romans 71 
 
 311. War with the Etruscans 71 
 
 Defeat of the Etruscans 71 
 
 Defeat of the Samnites 71 
 
 304. Peace with Rome. . .. 71 
 
 300. Conquests of Rome in Central 
 
 Italy T2 
 
 Coalition of Etruscans, Umbri- 
 ans, and Samnites, against 
 
 Rome 12 
 
 298-290. Third Samnite War . . 72 
 295. Decisive battle of Sen- 
 
 tinum 72 
 
 Self-sacrifice of the 
 younger Decius.. .. 72 
 292. C. Pontius taken pri- 
 
 soner and put to 
 
 death 72 
 
 Results of the wars 73 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 From the Conclusion of the Samnite War to the Subjugation of Italy, 
 290 265 B.C. 
 
 283. War with the Etruscans and 
 
 Gauls 74 
 
 Battle of the Lake Vadimo . . 74 
 
 282. State of Magna Graecia . . . . 74 
 
 The Romans assist Thurii . . 74 
 Their fleet is attacked by the 
 
 Tarentines 75 
 
 Roman embassy to Tarentum 75 
 281.AVar declared against the Ta- 
 rentines 75 
 
 They apply for aid to Pyrrhus 75 
 
 Pyrrhus arrives in Italy . . 75 
 280. Plis first campaign against the 
 
 Romans 76 
 
 Battle near Heraclea . . . . 76 
 Remarks of Pyrrhus on the 
 
 victory 77 
 
 He attempts to make peace 
 
 with Rome 77 
 
 Failure of his minister Cineas 77 
 
 He marches upon Rome . . 77 
 Retires into winter-quarters at 
 
 Tarentum 78 
 
 Embassy of Fabricius . . . . 78 
 
 279. Second campaign of Pyrrhus 78 
 
 Battle near Asculum . . . . 78 
 278. Treachery of the servant of 
 
 Pyrrhus . . . . 79 
 
 Truce with Rome 79 
 
 Pj'rrhus crosses over into Sicily 79 
 
 276. He returns to Italy 79 
 
 275. Defeat of Pyrrhus 80 
 
 He returns to Greece . . . . 80 
 272 Subjugation of Tarentum .. 80 
 Supremacy of Rome in Italy 80 
 273. Embassy of Ptolemy Philadel- 
 
 phus to Rome 81 
 
 Organisation of Italy .. .. 81 
 Three classes of Italian popu- 
 lation : — 
 
 I. Cives Romani, or Ro- 
 
 man Citizens . . 81 
 
 1. Of the Thirty-three 
 
 Tribes 81 
 
 2. Of the Roman Co- 
 
 lonies 81 
 
 3. Of the Municipal 
 
 Towns .. .. 81 
 
 II. Municipia 81 
 
 ni. Socii, or Allies . . . . 81 
 
 (i.) Latini 81 
 
 (ii.) VivlatesUberaeand 
 
 foederatae . . .. 81 
 312. Censorship of A ppius Claudius 82 
 His dangerous innovation as to 
 
 the Freedmen 82 
 
 304. Repeiiled in the C nsorship of 
 Q. Fabius Maximus and P. 
 
 Decius Mns 82 
 
 312. The Appian Way 8:i 
 
 The Appian Aqueduct .. .. 82 
 Publication of the forms of 
 law by Cn. Flavins .. .. 83 
 
CONTENTS, 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 The First Punic War, 264-241 B.C. 
 
 825. Foundation of Carthage. . .. 84 
 
 Its empire SH 
 
 Its government 85 
 
 its army 85 
 
 3ts fort-ign conquests . . . . 85 
 Conquest of Messana by the 
 
 Mamertini 85 
 
 Hiero attacks the Mamer- 
 tini 86 
 
 They apply for assistance to 
 
 Rome 86 
 
 264. The Consul Ap. Claudius 
 crosses over to Sicily to aid 
 
 them 
 
 He defeats the forces of Syra- 
 cuse and Carthage 
 263. Hiero makes peace with the 
 
 Romans 
 
 262. Capture of Agrigfntum by the 
 
 Romans 
 
 260. The Romans build a fleet . . 
 Naval victory of the Consul 
 
 Duilius 88 
 
 256. The Romans invade Africa . . 89 
 Naval victory at Ecnomus . . 89 
 lirilliant success of Regulus in 
 
 Africa 89 
 
 The Carthaginians sue in vain 
 
 for peace . . 90 
 
 255. Arrival of the Lacedaemonian 
 
 Xanthippus 90 
 
 B.C. Page 
 
 He restores confidence to the 
 
 Carthaginians 90 
 
 Defeat and captui e of Regulus 90 
 Destruction of the Roman fleet 
 
 by a storm 90 
 
 The Romans build another 
 
 fleet 90 
 
 253. Again desiroyed by a storm . . 90 
 The war confined lo Sicily . . 91 
 250. Victory of Metellus at Panor- 
 
 mus 91 
 
 Embassy of the Carthaginians 
 
 to Rome 91 
 
 Heroic conduct of Regulus . . 91 
 
 250. Siege of Lilybaeum 92 
 
 249. Defeat of the Consul Claudius 
 
 at sea 92 
 
 Destruction of the Roman fleet 
 
 a third time 92 
 
 247. Appointment of Hamilcar Bar- 
 ca to the Carthaginian com- 
 mand 93 
 
 He entrenches himself on 
 Mount Hercte, near Panor- 
 
 mus 93 
 
 He removes to Mount Eryx . . 93 
 241. Roman victory off the Aegatian 
 
 islands 93 
 
 Peace with Carthage .. .. 94 
 
 End of the War 94 
 
 Sicily a province 94 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 The CoNQtTBST of Northern Italy. The Carthaginians in Spain. 
 
 240-219 B.C. 
 
 240-238. War of the Mercenaries 
 
 with Carthage . . . . 95 
 She owes her safety to Hamil- 
 car 95 
 
 238. The Romans seize Sardinia 
 
 and Corsica 96 
 
 Hamilcar goes to Spain . . 96 
 235. Temple of Janus closed . , 96 
 Completion of the Thirty-five 
 
 Roman Tribes 96 
 
 229.IlltrianWar 96 
 
 Conquest of Teuta, queen 
 of the lUyrians . . . . 96 
 228. Honours paid to the Romans 
 
 in the Greek cities . . . . 97 
 232. Agrarian law of the Tribune 
 
 Klaminius 97 
 
 225. Gallic War 97 
 
 Defeat of the Gauls at Tela- 
 
 mon in Etruria . . . . 97 
 
 224. Conquest of the Boii . . 97 
 
 223. The Romans cross the Po 97 
 
 222. Conquest of the Insubres 98 
 
 Marcellus wins the Spolia 
 
 Opiraa 98 
 
 220. The Via Flaminia from Rome 
 
 to Ariminum 98 
 
 218. Foundation of Colonies at 
 
 Placentia and Cremona . . 98 
 
 236. Hamilcar in Spain . . . . 98 
 
 Oath of Hannibal 98 
 
 228. Death of Hamilcar . . . . 98 
 Hasdrubal succeeds him in 
 
 the command 98 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 B.C. I 
 
 228. Treaty with Rome . . . . 
 
 221. Deatli of Hasdrubal , . . . 
 
 Hannibal t-uccecds liini in ttie 
 
 command 
 
 B.C. Page 
 
 219. Siege of Saguntum . . . . 99 
 
 its capture 99 
 
 War declared against Carthage 100 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 ■The Second Punic War : First Period down to the Battle of Cannae, 
 218-216 B.C. 
 
 218. Preparations of Hannibal .. 101 
 His march to the Rhone . . 102 
 Arrival of the Consul Scipio 
 
 at Massilia 102 
 
 Hannibal crosses the Rhone 102 
 Scipio sends his brother to 
 
 Spain, and returns himself 
 
 to Italy 
 
 Hannibal crosses the Alps . . 
 Skirmish on the 'licinus 
 Battle of the Trebia 
 Defeat of the Romans . . 
 217. Hannibiil's march through 
 
 Etruria 
 
 Battle of the Lake Trasi- 
 
 menus 105 
 
 102 
 103 
 103 
 104 
 104 
 
 104 
 
 Great defeat of the Ro- 
 mans 105 
 
 Q. Fabius Maximus appointed 
 
 Dictator 106 
 
 His policy 106 
 
 Rashness of Minucius the 
 Master of the Horse . . . . 106 
 216. Great preparations of the 
 
 Romans 107 
 
 Battle of Cannae Iu7 
 
 Great defeat of the Ro- 
 mans 107 
 
 Revolt of Southern Italy . . 108 
 Hannibal winters at Capua 108 
 Note on Hannibal's passage 
 across the Alps 108 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 Second Punic War: Second Period, from the Revolt of Capua to 
 THE Battle of the AIetaueus, 215-207 b.c. 
 
 215 Plan of the war Ill 
 
 Hannibal's repulse before 
 
 Nola la 
 
 Macedon and Syracuse nego- 
 tiate with Hannibal . . .. Ill 
 214. He attempts in vain to sur- 
 prise Tarentum 112 
 
 213. He obtains possession of Ta- 
 
 rentum .. 112 
 
 War in Sicilv — 
 
 216. Death of Hiero 112 
 
 Succession of Hipronymus 112 
 
 His assassination .. .. 112 
 
 214. Arrival of Marcellus in 
 
 Sicily 1:2 
 
 He takes Leontini . . . . 113 
 
 He lays siege to Syracuse il.'l 
 
 Defence by Archimedes .. 113 
 
 212. Capture of Syracuse .. 1x3 
 
 War in Spain— 
 212. Surprise and death of the 
 
 two Scipios 116 
 
 Siege of Capua 116 
 
 211. Hannibal marches upon Rome 116 
 Is compelled to retreat .. Ii7 
 Tiie Romans recover Capua 117 
 Punishment of its inhabitants 117 
 209. The Romans recover Ta- 
 rentum 117 
 
 208. Defeat and death of Marcellus 118 
 
 207. Hasdrubal marches into Italy 118 
 
 He besieges Plao ntia . . . . 118 
 
 March of the Cons 1 Nero to 
 
 join his lolleagie Livius 
 
 in Umbria 118 
 
 Battle of the Metaurus .. lin 
 
 Defeat and death of Hasdrubal 119 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 Second Punic Wak : Third Period, from the Battle of the Metaurus 
 TO the Conclusion of the War, 206-201 b.c. 
 
 B.C. Page 
 
 Character and early life of 
 
 Scipio 120 
 
 210. He is elected Proconsul for 
 
 Spain 121 
 
 He takes New Carthage .. 121 
 
 206. He subdues Spain 121 
 
 He crosses over into Africa 
 
 and visits Syphax . . . . 123 
 
 Surrender of liades . . . . 123 
 
 Scipio returns to Rome . . 123 
 
 205. His Consulship 123 
 
 He prepares to invade Africa 123 
 
 B.C. Page 
 
 His project is opposed by the 
 
 Senate 123 
 
 Preparations in Sicily . , . . 124 
 
 204. He arrives in Africa . . . . 124 
 203. He defeats the Carthaginians 
 
 and Syphax 126 
 
 Masiuissa and Sophonisba .. 125 
 The Carthaginians recall Han- 
 nibal 126 
 
 202. Battle of Zama, and defeat of 
 
 Hannibal 126 
 
 201, Peace with Carthage .. .. 12V 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 Wars in the East: the Macedonian, Syrian, and (xAlatian Wars, 
 214-188 B.C. 
 
 Results of the Punic Wars 128 
 
 State of the East 128 
 
 Syria 128 
 
 Pontus 128 
 
 Galatia 128 
 
 Pergamus 128 
 
 Egypt 129 
 
 State of Greece 129 
 
 Macedonia 129 
 
 Achaean League .. ., 129 
 
 Aetolian League .. .. 129 
 
 Rhodes 129 
 
 Athens 129 
 
 Sparta 129 
 
 214-205. First Macedonian War — 
 
 1 ts indecisive character 130 
 211. Treaty of the Romans 
 with the Aetolian 
 
 League 130 
 
 205. Conclusion of the war 130 
 
 Philip renews hos 
 
 tilities 130 
 
 He assists the Cartha- 
 ginians at the battle 
 
 of Zama 130 
 
 His conduct in Greece 
 
 and Asia 130 
 
 200-196. Second Macedonian War — 
 300. First campaign : the 
 
 Consul Galba . . . . 131 
 199. Second Compaign : the 
 
 Consul Villius . . 131 
 198. Third compaign t the 
 
 Consul Flamininus 131 
 
 197. Battle of Cynosce- 
 
 phalae 131 
 
 196. Peace with Philip . . 131 
 
 Declaration of Greek 
 independence at the 
 Isthmian Games . . 130 
 191-190. Syrian War— 
 
 Antiochus the Third 132 
 Intrigues of the Ae- 
 
 tolians in Greece . . 133 
 They invite Antiochus 
 
 to Greece 133 
 
 Hannibal expelled from 
 
 Carthage 133 
 
 He arrives in Syria . . 133 
 His advice to Antio- 
 chus 133 
 
 192. Antiochus crosses over 
 
 to Greece 133 
 
 191. The Romans defeat 
 
 him at Thermopylae 133 
 He returns to Asia . . 133 
 190. The Romans invade 
 
 Asia 134 
 
 Battle of Magnesia . . 134 
 Defeat of Antiochus by 
 
 Scipio A siaticus .. 134 
 Terms of peace . . . . 134 
 Hannibal flies to Pru- 
 sias, king of Bithy- 
 
 nia 134 
 
 189. Aetouan War — 
 
 Fulvius takes Ambracia 134 
 Terms of peace 134 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 B.C. I 
 
 189. Galatian Wae — 
 
 Manlius attacks the Gala- 
 tians without the autho- 
 rity of the Senate or the 
 People . ^ 
 
 B.C. rage 
 
 188. Organisation of Asia .. .. 135 
 187. Manlius returns to Rome .. 135 
 Effects of the Eastern con- 
 quests upon the Boman 
 character 136 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 AVaes in the West: the Gallic, Ligurian, and Spanish Wars, 
 200-175 B.C. 
 
 197. Two Provinces formed in 
 
 Spain 139 
 
 195. The Spanish War— 
 
 The Consul M. Porcius Cato 
 sent into Spain .. .. 139 
 
 His success 139 
 
 The Spaniards again take 
 
 up arms 140 
 
 179. The war brought to a con- 
 clusion by Ti. Sempro- 
 nius Gracchus . . . . 140 
 178. The Istkian War .. .. 140 
 177-175. The Sardinian and 
 
 CoKsrcAN War . , . . 140 
 
 200. 
 
 The Gallic War — 
 The Gauls take Placentia 
 and lay siege to Cre- 
 
 
 
 mona 
 
 188 
 
 196. 
 
 Conquest of the Insubres 
 
 
 
 and Cenomani .. .. 
 
 i:w 
 
 191. 
 
 Conquest of the Boii 
 
 138 
 
 189. 
 
 Colony founded at Bono- 
 
 
 
 
 138 
 
 180. 
 
 Via Aemilia 
 
 1.38 
 
 200. 
 
 The Ligueian War — 
 Continued with intermis- 
 
 
 
 sions for nearly 80 years 
 
 138 
 
 
 Character of the war 
 
 138 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 The Roman Constitution and Aemt. 
 
 Review of the history of the 
 
 Roman Constitution 
 Political equality of the Patri- 
 cians and Plebians . . . . 
 I. The Magistrates — 
 The Lex Annalis 
 Curule and non-curule . . 
 Ordinary and extraordi- 
 nary 
 
 1. The Quaestors .. .. 
 
 2. The Aediles .. .. 
 
 3. The Praetors . . . . 
 
 4. The Consuls .. ., 
 
 5. The Dictator . . . . 
 
 6. The Censors . . . . 
 
 (a) The Census 
 (6) Control over the 
 morals of the 
 citizens . . . , 
 (c) Administration 
 of the finances 
 of the state , , 
 II. Tpe Senate— 
 
 Its number 145 
 
 Its mode of election . . , . 145 
 Its power and duties . , 146 
 III. The Popular Assemblies — 
 
 1. The Comitia Curiata . . 146 
 
 141 
 
 141 
 
 142 
 142 
 
 142 
 142 
 142 
 143 
 143 
 144 
 144 
 144 
 
 144 
 
 145 
 
 2. The Comitia Centuriata : 
 
 change in its constitu- 
 tion 146 
 
 3. The Comitia Tributa and 
 
 the Concilium Plebis 147 
 
 The Tribunes 147 
 
 IV. Finance — 
 
 Tributum 147 
 
 Vectigalia 148 
 
 V. The Provinces 148 
 
 VI. The Army— 
 
 Number of the Legion . . 149 
 
 1. First Period — Servius 
 
 Tullius 149 
 
 2. Second Period — The 
 
 Great Latin War, B.C. 
 
 340 149 
 
 Hastati 149 
 
 Principes . . . . 149 
 Triarii 149 
 
 3. Third Period — During 
 
 the wars of the young- 
 er Scipio 149 
 
 Two legions as- 
 signed to each 
 Consul . . . . 149 
 Division of the le- 
 gion 150 
 
Annour and mode 
 
 of fighting , 
 The Horse-soldiers 
 Infantry and caval- 
 ry of the Socii . . 
 4. Fourth Feriod — ITrom 
 
 CONT 
 Page 
 
 ENTS. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 the times of the Grac- 
 
 Pag6 
 
 150 
 
 
 chi to the downfall of 
 
 
 150 
 
 
 the Kepublic . . . . 
 Changes introduced 
 
 151 
 
 150 
 
 
 by Marius . . , . 
 
 161 
 
 
 
 A Roman triumph . . . . 
 
 152 
 
 CHAPTEE XVIII. 
 
 Internal History of Rome during the Macedonian and Syrian Wars. 
 Cato and Scipio. 
 
 Effectof the Roman conquests 
 
 in the East 153 
 
 Debasement of the Roman 
 
 character 154 
 
 1 S6. Worship of Bacchus .. .. 154 
 Gladiatorial exhibitions .. 154 
 Rise of the new nobility .. 154 
 181. Law against bribery .. .. 155 
 Decay of the peasant proprie- 
 tors 155 
 
 M. Porcius Cato 156 
 
 234. His birth 156 
 
 His early life 156 
 
 204. His Quaestorship 156 
 
 198. His Praetorship 156 
 
 195. His Consulship 157 
 
 Repeal of the Oppian Law 167 
 
 191. Cato serves in the battle of 
 
 Thermopylae 157 
 
 Prosecution of the two Scipios 158 
 
 Haughty conduct of Scipio 
 
 Africanus 158 
 
 Condemnation of Scipio Asia- 
 
 ticus 158 
 
 Prosecution of Scipio Afri- 
 canus 158 
 
 He leaves Rome 159 
 
 183. His death 159 
 
 Death of Hannibal .. .. 160 
 
 184. Censorship of Cato .. .. 160 
 He studies Greek in bis old 
 
 age .. .. 160 
 
 His character 160 
 
 CHAPTEE XIX. 
 The Third Macedonian, Achaean, and Third Punic Wars, 179-146 B.C. 
 
 179. Death of Philip and accession 
 
 of Perseus 162 
 
 172. Attempted murder of Eu- 
 
 menes king of Pergamus. . 163 
 171-168. Third Macedonian War — 
 168. Battle of Pydna.. .. 163 
 
 Defeat of Perseus by L. 
 Aemilius Paullus .. 163 
 167.Aemilius PauUus punishes 
 
 the Epirotes 164 
 
 His triumph 164 
 
 His domestic misfortunes . . 1 64 
 Relations of Rome with 
 
 Eastern powers 16 4 
 
 Embassy to Antiochus Epi- 
 
 phanes 164 
 
 Treatment of Eumenes king 
 
 of Pergamus 164 
 
 Mean conduct of Prusias king 
 
 ofBithynia 165 
 
 Treatment of the Rhodians. . 165 
 
 166. One thousand Achaeans sent 
 
 to Italy 165 
 
 150. The survivors allowed to re- 
 
 turn to Greece 165 
 
 149. A pretender lays claim to the 
 
 throne of Macedonia . . 166 
 He is defeated and taken pri- 
 soner 166 
 
 147-146. Thr Achaean War — 
 146. Corinth taken by L. 
 
 JVIummius .. .. 167 
 Final conquest of 
 
 Greece 167 
 
 Creation of the pro- 
 vince of Mace loiiia 
 and Achaea .. .. 167 
 Rome jealous of Garbage .. 167 
 Advice of Cato 167 
 
 151. War between Masinissa and 
 
 Carthage 168 
 
 Conduct of the Romans .. 168 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 xvn 
 
 B.C. Page 
 
 149-146. Thikd Punic Wae— 
 147. Scipio Africanus the 
 
 younger. Consul . . 169 
 His parentage and 
 
 adoption 169 
 
 B.C. Page 
 
 His character . . . . 170 
 146. He takes Carthage .. 170 
 
 Formation of the Soman pro- 
 vince of Africa .. .. ., 171 
 Later history of Carthage .. 171 
 
 CHAPTEE XX. 
 
 Spanish Waes, 153-133 b.c First Servile War, 134-132 B.C. 
 
 1 fiS. War with the Celtiberians . . 173 
 152. Peace with the Celtiberians. . 173 
 151. War with the Lusitanians . . 173 
 150. Treacherous murder of the 
 
 Lusitanians by Galba . . 174 
 Success of Viriathus against 
 
 the Romans 1 74 
 
 The Celtiberians again take 
 up ani.s — the Numantine 
 
 War 174 
 
 140. Murder of Viriathus . . . . 1 75 
 138. Brutus conquers the Gallaeci 175 
 137. The Consul Ho^tilius Manci- 
 nus defeated by the Mu- 
 
 mantines 175 
 
 He signs a peace with the 
 
 Numantines 175 
 
 The Senate refuse to ratify it 175 
 142. Censorship of Scipio Afri- 
 canus 175 
 
 134. Consul a second time . . . . 176 
 He carries on the war against 
 Numantia 176 
 
 133. He takes Numantia . . . . 176 
 
 Increase of slaves 176 
 
 I'hey rise in Sicily . . . . 177 
 They elect Eunus as their 
 
 leader 177 
 
 Eunus assumes the title of 
 king 177 
 
 134. He defeats the Eoman gene- 
 
 rals 177 
 
 132. Is himself defeated and taken 
 
 prisoner 177 
 
 133. Deatli of Attains, last king of 
 
 Pergamus . . 177 
 
 He bequeaths his kingdom 
 to the Romans 177 
 
 131. Aristonicus lays claim to the 
 
 kingdom of Pergamus . . 177 
 
 130. Is defeated and taken pri- 
 soner 178 
 
 129. Formation of the province of 
 
 Asia 178 
 
 Extent of the Roman domi- 
 nions 178 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 The Geacchi and the Attack on the Government, 133-121 B.C. 
 
 Necessity for reform .. .. 179 
 Economic condition of Italy 179 
 Early life of Tiberius Grac- 
 chus 180 
 
 137. Quaestor in Spain 181 
 
 133. Tribune 181 
 
 Brings forward an Agrarian 
 
 Law 181 
 
 Op])osition of the landowners 182 
 The Tribune Octavius puts 
 
 his veto upon it 182 
 
 Deposition of Octavius.. .. 182 
 
 The Agrarian Law enacted. . 183 
 
 Three Commissioners elected 183 
 Proposed distribution of the 
 treasnreB of Pergamus 
 
 amongst the Eoman people 183 
 
 R newed opposition to Tibe- 
 rius 183 
 
 He becomes a candidate for 
 the Tribunate a second time 183 
 
 Riots 184 
 
 Death of Tiberius 184 
 
 132. Return of Scipio to Rome . . 184 
 He opposes the popular party 
 and champions the Italians 185 
 
 129. Death of Scipio 185 
 
 126. Expulsion of the AUii s from 
 
 Rome 186 
 
 125. M. Fulvius Flaccus proposes 
 to give the franchise to the 
 
 Italians 186 
 
 Revolt and destruction of 
 Fregellae 186 
 
 b 
 
xvni 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 B.C. Page 
 
 126. C. Gracchus goes to Sardinia 
 
 as Quaestor 187 
 
 124. He reiurns to Rome . . . . 187 
 123. Enters on the Tribunate . . 187 
 
 His legislation 187 
 
 1. Laws for improving the 
 
 condition of the people 187 
 
 1. Extension of the 
 
 Agrarian Law .. 187 
 
 2. State provision for 
 
 the poor . . . . 187 
 
 3. Soldiers equipped at 
 
 the expense of the 
 Republic .. .. 188 
 II. Laws to diminish the 
 
 power of the Senate . . 188 
 1. Transference of the 
 judicial power 
 from the Senators 
 to the Equites . . 188 
 
 B.C. rage 
 
 2. Distribution of the 
 
 Provinces before 
 
 the election of the 
 
 Consuls .. .. 188 
 
 122. C. Gracchus Tribune a second 
 
 time 189 
 
 Proposes to confer the citizen- 
 ship upon the Latins, and 
 Latin rights on the Italians 189 
 Unpopularity of this proposal 189 
 The Tribune M. Livius Dru- 
 
 sus outbids Gracchus . . 189 
 Foundation of a colony at 
 
 Carthage 190 
 
 Decline of the popularity of 
 
 Gracchus 190 
 
 121. His murder 190 
 
 Fate of the Gracchan legisla- 
 tion 191 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 The Juguethine War and the Defeat of the Government, 118-104. 
 
 C. Marius 193 
 
 134. Serves at the siege of Nu- 
 
 mantia 193 
 
 Attracts the notice of 
 
 Scipio Africanus . . . . 193 
 
 119. Tribune of the Plebs .. 193 
 
 115. Praetor 193 
 
 149. Death of Masinissa .. .. 193 
 
 Accession of Micipsa . . . . 193 
 134. Jugurtha serves at the siege 
 
 of Numantia 193 
 
 118. Death of Micipsa 194 
 
 Jugurtha assassinates Hi- 
 
 empsal 1 94 
 
 War between Jugurtha and 
 
 Adherbal 194 
 
 116. Roman commissioners divide 
 
 Numidia between Jugurtha 
 
 and Adherbal 194 
 
 Fresh war between Jugurtha 
 
 and Adherbal .. .. .. 194 
 
 Siege of Cirta 194 
 
 112. Death of Adherbal and mas- 
 sacre of Italian merchants 195 
 111. The Romans declare war 
 
 against Jugurtha . . . . 195 
 Jugurtha bribes the Consul 
 
 Calpurnius Bestia .. .. 195 
 
 Indignation at Rome . . . . 1 95 
 
 Jugurtha comes to Rome ., 195 
 
 He murders Massiva .. .. 195 
 
 Renewal of the war . . . . 195 
 
 110. Incapacity of the Consul Sp. 
 
 Postumius Albinus . . . . 195 
 Defeat of his brother Aulus 196 
 Bill of the Tribune C. Mami- 
 
 lius 196 
 
 Many Romans condemned . . 196 
 109. The Consul Q. Caecilius Me- 
 
 tellus lands in Africa . . 196 
 Accompanied by Marius as 
 
 his lieutenant 196 
 
 Metellus defeats Jugurtha . . 196 
 Ambitious views of Marius 197 
 108. He quits Africa and arrives 
 
 in Rome 198 
 
 Is elected Consul .. .. .. 198 
 
 Attacks the nobility .. .. 198 
 
 Campaign of Metellus as Pro- 
 consul 198 
 
 Thr- people give Marius the 
 command of the Numidian 
 
 War 198 
 
 107. First Consulship of Marius . . 198 
 He arrives in Africa . . . . 198 
 He defeats Jugurtha and Boc- 
 chus king of Mauritania . . 199 
 106. Bocchus surrenders Jugurtha 
 to Sulla, the Quaestor of 
 
 Marius 199 
 
 Early history of Sulla . . .. 199 
 
 His character 199 
 
 104. Triumph of Marius .. .. 200 
 His second Consulship . . . . 200 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 The Cimbri and Teutones, 113-101 b.c. Second Servile War in Sicilt, 
 103-101 B.C. 
 
 B.C. Page 
 
 Invasion of the Cimbri and 
 
 Teutones 201 
 
 Their probable origin . . .. 2Jl 
 113. Defeat of the Consul Cn. Pa- 
 
 pirius Carbo 202 
 
 109. Defeat of the Consul M. Ju- 
 nius Silanus 202 
 
 107. Defeat of the Consul L. Cas- 
 
 sius Longinus 202 
 
 105. Defeat of the Consul Cn. Mal- 
 lius Maximus and the Pro- 
 consul Cn. Servilius Caepio 202 
 104. Second Consulship of Marius 202 
 The Cimbri invade Spain . . 202 
 103 Third Consulship of Marius 203 
 102. Fourth Consulship of Marius 203 
 The Cimbri return from 
 Spain 203 
 
 102. Marius takes up his position 
 
 near Aries 203 
 
 The Cimbri enter Italy by the 
 Pass of Tridentum . . . . 
 Great defeat of the Teutones 
 by Marius at Aquae Sextiae 
 101. Fifth Consulship of Marius 
 Great defeat of the Cimbri at 
 Vercellae by Marius and 
 the Proconsul Catulus 
 Triumph of Marius and Ca- 
 tulus 204 
 
 103-101. Second tervile War in 
 
 Sicily 
 
 Tryphon king of the Slaves 
 
 Succeeded by Athenio as king 
 
 101. The Consul Aquillius puts 
 
 an end to the war • . . , 205 
 
 203 
 
 203 
 
 204 
 
 204 
 
 204 
 205 
 205 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 The Downfall of the Opposition, and the Attempt of Drdshs at Reform, 
 100-91 B.C. 
 
 100. Sixth Consulship of Marius 20S 
 His league with the dema- 
 gogues Saturninus and 
 
 Glaucia 206 
 
 Agrarian Law of Saturninus 207 
 Banishment of Metellus . . 207 
 Assassination of Memmius 207 
 Saturninus and Glaucia de- 
 clared public enemies . . 208 
 They are put to death . . . . 208 
 
 Marius visits the East . . . . 208 
 92. Condemnation of Eutilius 
 
 Rufus 209 
 
 91. Tribunate of M. Livius Dru- 
 
 BUS 209 
 
 His measures 209 
 
 Proposes to give the franchise 
 
 to the Italian allies . . . . 209 
 
 His assassination 21 n 
 
 The Varian commission .. 210 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 The Social or Marsic War, and the Incorporation of Italy, 90-89 B.C. 
 
 90. The Allies take up arms . . 211 
 
 The war breaks out at Ascu- 
 lum in Picenum .. .. 211 
 
 Corfinium the new capital of 
 the Italian confederation 212 
 
 Q. Pompaedius Silo, a Mar- 
 sian, and C. Papius Mu- 
 tilus, a Samnite, the Italian 
 Consuls 212 
 
 Defeat and death of the Roman 
 Consul P. Rutilius Lupus 212 
 
 Exploits of Marius .. .. 213 
 
 The Lex Julia 213 
 
 89. Success of the Romans . . 213 
 
 The Lex Plautia Papiria . . 213 
 The franchise given to the 
 
 Allies 214 
 
 All the Allies lay down their 
 arms except the Samnites 
 
 and Lucanians 214 
 
 The incorporation of Italy .. 214 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI. 
 
 FiBST Civir. War, 88-86 B.C. 
 
 B.C. Page 
 
 88. Consulship of Sulla . . . . 215 
 
 Receives the command of the 
 
 Mithridatic War . . . . 216 
 The Tribune P. Sulpicius 
 
 Rufus 216 
 
 He proposes to distribute the 
 Italians among the tliirty- 
 
 jive tribes 216 
 
 Sulla flies from Rome to Nola 2 6 
 The people give Marius the 
 command of the Mithridatic 
 
 War 217 
 
 Sulla marches upon Rome . . 217 
 Sulpicius put to death. . . . 217 
 Marius flies from Rome . . 217 
 
 B.C. Page 
 
 His adventures 217 
 
 Is seized at Minturnae.. ., 218 
 
 Escapes to Africa 219 
 
 Repeal of the Sulpician laws 219 
 
 Sulla sails to the East . . . . 219 
 
 87. Riots at Rome 219 
 
 The Consul Cinna invites the 
 
 assistance of Marius . . .. 220 
 Marius and Ciima march 
 
 upon Rome 220 
 
 They enter the city . . . . 220 
 
 Massacre of their enemies . . 220 
 
 86. Seventh Consulship of Marius 220 
 
 His death 220 
 
 CHAPTER XXVII. 
 
 First Mithridatic War, 88-84 B.C. 
 
 Kingdom of Pontus .. .. 221 
 
 Its history 221 
 
 120. Accession of Mithridates 
 
 VI 222 
 
 His early life 222 
 
 His attainments 222 
 
 His conquests 222 
 
 His disputes with the Ro- 
 mans 222 
 
 88. He invades Cappadocia and 
 
 Bithynia 223 
 
 He invades the Roman pro- 
 vince of Asia 223 
 
 Massacre of Romans and 
 
 Italians 223 
 
 87. The Greek states declare in 
 
 favour of Mithridates . . 224 
 Sulla lands iu Epirus . . . . 224 
 He lays siege to Athens and 
 
 the Piraeus 224 
 
 86. Takes these cities 224 
 
 Defeats Archelaus, the gene- 
 ral of Mithridates, at Chae- 
 
 ronea 224 
 
 85. Again defeats Archelaus at 
 
 Orchomenus 224 
 
 84. Peace wilh Mithridates . . 225 
 Sulla attacks Fimbria, the 
 Marian general, in Asia . . 225 
 83. He returns to Italy . . . . 225 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIII. 
 
 Second Civil War. Sulla's Dictatorship, Legislation, and Death, 
 83-78 B.C. 
 
 84. Consulship of Cinna and 
 
 Carbo 227 
 
 Death of Cinna 227 
 
 83. Consulship of Scipio and Nor- 
 
 banus 226 
 
 Preparations for war . . . . 226 
 
 The Italians support the Ma- 
 rian purty 228 
 
 Sulla marches from Brundu- 
 sium to Campania . . . 228 
 
 Defeats the Consul Norbanus 228 
 
 Pompey, Metellus Pius, Cras- 
 
 8U8, and others, join Sulla 
 
 82. Consulship of Papirius Carbo 
 
 and the j'ounger Marius . . 
 
 Defeat of Marius, who takes 
 refuge in Praeneste . . . . 
 
 Murder of Senators in Rome 
 by order of Marius . . 
 
 Great battle before the Colliue 
 gate at Rome between Sulla 
 and the Samnites . . . . 
 
CONTENTS, 
 
 xzi 
 
 B.C. Page 
 
 Defeat of the Samnites . . 229 
 
 Surrender ol Praeneste . . 2: 
 
 Death of Marius 230 
 
 End of the war 23 j 
 
 Sulla master of Rome . . . . 2 
 
 Prescription 230 
 
 Dreadful scenes .... . . 23 . 
 
 81. Sulla Dictator '.sSl 
 
 He celebiatPS bis triumph 
 
 over Mithiidates .. .. 131 
 
 His treatment ol Italy. . . . 232 
 
 His military colonies . . . . 232 
 
 79. He resigns the Dictat' rship 232 
 
 He retires to Puteoli . . . . 233 
 
 78. Hisaeath 233 
 
 His funeral 233 
 
 Leges Cornellae — 
 1. (a) Changes in the magis- 
 tracy 234 
 
 (V) Right of initiative 
 taken from the Tri- 
 bunes, and their power 
 
 of veto shackled.. .. 234 
 
 Page 
 Tribunate made a 
 bar to all higl er 
 
 offices 234 
 
 (c) Lex Annalis and 
 sepai ation oi home 
 irom loreign com- 
 mands 234 
 
 IJ. In the priestly colleges 234 
 Repeal i.l the Lex Do- 
 
 mitia .. 234 
 
 HI. In the Senate . .. 235 
 Increase in numbers, cor- 
 responding increase of 
 quaestors and abolition 
 of censors' choice . . 235 
 IV. In Jurisdiction .. .. 235 
 Quaestiones Perpetuae.. 235 
 Transference of the Ju- 
 dicia from the Equites 
 to the Senators .. .. 235 
 General view of the Sullaii 
 constitution 236 
 
 CHAPTEE XXIX. 
 
 From the Death of Sulla to thf. Consulship of Pompet and Ceassus, 
 78-70 B.C. 
 
 78. Consulship of Lepidus and 
 
 Catuliis 237 
 
 Lepidus attempts to repeal 
 
 the laws of SiiUa .. .. 237 
 
 Is opposed by Catulus . . . . 237 
 Is defeated at the Mulvian 
 
 Bridge 238 
 
 Retires to Sardinia . . . . 238 
 
 His death 238 
 
 82 Sertorius in Spain 238 
 
 79. Carries on war against Me- 
 
 tellus 238 
 
 Cn. Pompeius Magnus .. 238 
 
 His birth 238 
 
 89. Fights against the Italians 
 
 under his father . . . . 238 
 
 83. Joins Sulla 239 
 
 81. Is sent into Sicily and Africa 239 
 
 80. Enters Home in triumph. . 239 
 78. Supports the aristocracy 
 
 agiinst Lepidus . . . . 239 
 76. Is sent into Spain to assist 
 
 Metellus 240 
 
 72. Assassination of Sertorius by 
 
 Perperna 240 
 
 72. Pompey finishes the war in 
 
 Spain 240 
 
 73. War of the Gladiators : Spar- 
 
 tacus 241 
 
 72 Spartacus defeats both Con- 
 suls 241 
 
 71. Crassus appointed to the com- 
 mand of the war against 
 
 the Gladiators 241 
 
 Defeats and slays Spartacus 241 
 Pompey cuts to pieces a body 
 
 of Gladiators 242 
 
 70. Consulship of Pompey and 
 
 Crassus.. 242 
 
 Pompey restores the Tribuni- 
 
 tian power 242 
 
 Law of L. Aurelius Cotta 
 transferring the Judicia to 
 the Senators, Equites, and 
 Tribuni Aerarii 242 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XXX. 
 
 Thied or Great JIithuidatic War, 74-61 B.C. 
 
 B.C. I'tige 
 
 83. Second MrTHRiDATrc War — 
 
 Murena invades Pontus . . 244 
 82. Mithridates defeats Murena 244 
 End of the Second Mithridatic 
 
 War 245 
 
 Preparations of Mitbridatss 245 
 74 Third Mithridatic War — 
 Mitiiridates defeats the Consul 
 
 Cotta 246 
 
 He lays siege to Cyzicus . . 246 
 73. The siege is raised by Lucull us 246 
 Lucullus defeats Mithridates 246 
 72. Mithridates talces refuge in 
 
 Armenia 246 
 
 Lucullus settles the affairs of 
 
 Asia 246 
 
 69. He invades Armenia and de- 
 feats Tigranes 2 47 
 
 68. Lucullus defeats Tigranes 
 and Mithridates, and lays 
 
 siege to Nisibis 2 17 
 
 67. Mithriiiates returns to Pon- 
 tus, and defeats the gene- 
 rals of Lucullus 248 
 
 Mutiny in the army of Lu- 
 cullus 248 
 
 The command of the Mithri- 
 datic War given to Glabrio 248 
 - War with the Pirates.— 
 
 Account of the Pirates .. 219 
 Command of the war given 
 by the Gabinian Law to 
 Pompey 249 
 
 B.C. Page 
 
 Success of Pompey . . . . 250 
 He finishes the war . . . . 250 
 66. Third Mithridatic War, 
 
 continued 250 
 
 Command of the Mithridatic 
 War given by the Manilian 
 
 Law to Pompey 250 
 
 It is opposed by the aris- 
 tocracy 251 
 
 It is supported by Cicero . . 251 
 Pomppy defeats Mithridates 251 
 Mithridates retires into the 
 
 Cimmerian Bosporus . . 252 
 
 Pompey invades Armenia .. 252 
 
 Submission of Tigranes . . 252 
 
 65. Pompey pursues Mithridates 232 
 
 He advances as far as the 
 
 river Pliasis 252 
 
 He returns to Pontus, which 
 he reduces to the form of a 
 Roman province . . . . 252 
 64. He marches into Syria, which 
 he makes a Roman pro- 
 vince 252 
 
 63. He subdues Phoenicia and 
 
 Palestine 253 
 
 He takes Jerusalem . . . . 253 
 Preparations of Mithridates 253 
 Conspiracy against him . . 253 
 
 His death 254 
 
 Pompey settles the affairs of 
 Asia 254 
 
 CHAPTER XXXI. 
 
 Internal History, trom the Cons^dlship of Pompey and Crassus to the 
 
 Return of Pompey from the East : the Conspiracy of Catiline. 
 
 69-61 B.C. 
 
 State of parties at this time 255 
 
 C. Jdlius Caesar 256 
 
 100. His birth 256 
 
 His early history . . . . 256 
 His life endangered by 
 
 Sulla 216 
 
 81. He serves in Asia . . . , 256 
 
 77. Accuses Dolabella . . . . 256 
 
 Taken by the Pirates . . 256 
 
 75. Studies in Rhodes . . . . 256 
 
 68. Quaestor 257 
 
 66. Curule Aodile 257 
 
 Restores the statues of Ma- 
 
 rius 257 
 
 M. Tdllius Cicero — 
 
 His birth 257 
 
 Serves in the Social War. . 257 
 His speech for Sfx. Ri scius 
 
 of Ameria 258 
 
 He studies in Athens .. 258 
 
 He studies in Rhodes . . 258 
 
 He returns to Rome. . .. 258 
 
 Quaestor in Sicily . . . . 258 
 
 He accuses Verrcs . . . . 258 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 B.C. i'age 
 
 69. Aedile 259 
 
 66. Praetor 259 
 
 He speaks on behalf of the 
 
 Manilian Law . . . , 259 
 
 First conspiracy of Catiline 259 
 
 History of Catiline . . . . 260 
 
 63. Consulship of Cicero .. .. 261 
 
 Agrarian law of RuUus .. 261 
 
 Second conspiracy of Catiline 262 
 
 B.C. Page 
 
 Cataline quits Rome . . . . 262 
 
 Cicero seizes the conspirators 263 
 
 They are put to death . . . . 263 
 
 (;2. Defeat and death of Cataline 264 
 
 Popularity of Cicero . . . . 264 
 Illegality of the execution of 
 
 the conspirators 264 
 
 Rumoured complicity of the 
 
 democratic leaders . , , , 265 
 
 CHAPTEK XXXII. 
 
 From Pompet's Return from the East to Cicero's Banishment and 
 Recall, 62-57 B.C. 
 
 62. Pompey arrives in Italy 
 61. Triumph of Pompey .. .. 
 State of parties in Rome 
 
 60. The Senate refuses to sanction 
 
 Ponipey's measures in Asia 
 
 61. Caesar as Propraetor in Spain 
 His vittories in Spain . . 
 
 60. He returns to Rome 
 
 First Triumvirate . , . . 
 59. Consulship of Caesar 
 
 Agrarian Law for the division 
 
 of the Campanian land 
 Ratification of Pompey's acts 
 
 in Asia 
 
 Marriage of Julia, Caesar's 
 
 daughter, with Pompey . . 
 Caesar gains over the Equites 
 
 266 
 266 
 267 
 
 267 
 
 268 
 268 
 268 
 268 
 268 
 
 269 
 269 
 
 Vatinian Law, granting to Cae- 
 sar the provinces of Cisalpine 
 Gaul and lUyricum for five 
 
 years 269 
 
 Transalpine Gaul added.. .. 269 
 62 Clodius profanes the rites of 
 
 the Bona Dea 270 
 
 61. His trial and acquittal . . . . 270 
 
 His enmity against Cicero . . 270 
 
 58. Tribune of the Plebs . . . . 270 
 
 He accuses Cicero 270 
 
 Banishment of Cicero .. .. 271 
 57. Riots at Home between Clo- 
 dius and Milo 271 
 
 Return of Cicero from banish- 
 ment 272 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIII. 
 
 Caesar's Campaigns in Gaul, 58-51 B.C. 
 
 6S. First Campaign 274 
 
 He defeais the Helvetii . . 274 
 Hedefeats Ariovistus and the 
 
 Germans 274 
 
 57. Second Campaign 274 
 
 The Belgic War 274 
 
 Great victory over the Nervii 275 
 
 56. Third Campaign 275 
 
 He defeats the Veneti. . . . 275 
 He deff-ats the Morini and 
 
 Menapii 275 
 
 55. Fourth Campaign 275 
 
 Caesar crosses the Rhine . . 276 
 
 His first invasion of Britain 276 
 
 51. Fifth Campaign 277 
 
 His second invasion of Britain 277 
 Revolt of the Eburones and 
 
 Kervii 277 
 
 They destroy the detachment 
 of T. Tituriiis Sabinus and 
 L. Aurunculeius Cotta . . 277 
 
 They attack the camp of Q. 
 
 Cicero 277 
 
 53. Sixth Campaign 278 
 
 Caesar puts down the revolt 
 in Gaul 278 
 
 He crosses the Rhine a f econd 
 
 time 278 
 
 52. Seventh Campaign 278 
 
 Revolt of all Gaul .. .. 278 
 
 Headed by Vercingetorix . . 278 
 
 Caesar takes Alesia and Ver- 
 
 cingetorix 279 
 
 51. Eighth Campaign 280 
 
 Pacification of Gaul . . . . 280 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIV. 
 
 Internal History from the Return of Cicero from Banishment to the 
 
 Commencement of the Civil War: Expedition and Death of Crasbds. 
 
 57-50 n.c. 
 
 B.C. Page 
 57. Cicero supports the Triumvirs 281 
 Cicero's revult from the Trium- 
 virs 281 
 
 56. Pompey and Crassus meet Cae- 
 sar at Luca 231 
 
 Fresh arrangements for the 
 continuance of their power 281 
 55. Second Consulship of Pompey 
 
 and Crassus 282 
 
 The Trebonian Law, giving 
 the two Spains to Pompey 
 and Syria to Crassus, and 
 the Pompeio-Licinian Law, 
 prolonging Caesar's govern- 
 ment for five years more . . 282 
 Dedication of Pompey's theatre 282 
 54. Crassus crosses the Euphrates 283 
 He winters in Syria . . . . 283 
 53. He again crosses the Euphrates 283 
 
 B.C. Page 
 
 Is defeated and slain near 
 
 Carrhae 233 
 
 54. Death of Julia 284 
 
 53. Riots in Rome 284 
 
 52. Murder of Clodius by Milo . . 284 
 Pompey sole Consul . . . . 285 
 Trial and condemnation of Milo 285 
 51. Rupture between Caesar and 
 
 Pompey 285 
 
 Pompey joins the aiistocratical 
 
 paity .. ., 286 
 
 49. Proposition that Caesar should 
 
 lay down his command . . 287 
 The Senate invest the Consuls 
 
 with dictatorial power . . 287 
 The Tribunes Antony and 
 
 Cassius fly to Caesar's camp 287 
 Commencement of the Civil 
 War 287 
 
 CHAPTER XXXV. 
 
 The Beginning of the Civil War to Caesar's Death, 49-44 B.C. 
 
 49. Caesar at Ravenna 288 
 
 He crosses the Rubicon. . . . 288 
 His triumphal progress through 
 
 Italy 289 
 
 Pompey and his party fly from 
 
 Rome to Brundusium. . ., 289 
 They are pursued by Caesar. . 289 
 They embarlt for Greece . . 289 
 Caesar goes to Rome . . . . 289 
 He sets out for Spain . . . . 290 
 He conquers L. Afrainius and 
 M. Petreius, Pompey's lieu- 
 tenants in Spain 290 
 
 He takes Massilia 290 
 
 Is appointed Dictator, which 
 office he holds only eleven 
 
 days 291 
 
 48. He sails from Brundusium to 
 
 Greece 291 
 
 He besieges Pompey at Dyrr- 
 
 achium 292 
 
 Is compelled to retire . . . . 292 
 Battle of Pharsalus and defeat 
 
 of Pompey 292 
 
 Pompey flies to Egypt . . . . 293 
 
 His death 293 
 
 Caesar is appointed Dictator a 
 
 second time 294 
 
 The Alexandrine War . . . . 294 
 
 47. Conclusion of the Alexandrine 
 
 War 294 
 
 Caesar marches into Pontus 
 
 and defeats Pharnaces . . 294 
 
 He sails to Africa 295 
 
 46. Battle of Thapsus and defeat 
 
 of the Pompeians 295 
 
 Siege of Utica 295 
 
 Death of Cato 295 
 
 Caesar returns to Rome . . , . 295 
 
 Honours voted to Caesar . . 295 
 
 His triumph 296 
 
 His reformation of the Calendar 296 
 
 Insurrection in Spain . . . . 296 
 
 Caesar sets out for Spain . . 296 
 
 45. Battle of Munda and defeat of 
 
 the Pompeians 296 
 
 Caesar returns to Rome . . . . 297 
 
 New honours voted to Caesar 297 
 He is undisputed master of the 
 
 Roman world 297 
 
 Use he made of his power . . 297 
 
 His vast projects 298 
 
 44. Conspiracy against Caesar's life 298 
 
 Brutus and Cassius 298 
 
 Assassination of Caesar on the 
 
 Ides of March 299 
 
 Reflections on his death . . . , 299 
 
 His character and genius . . 299 
 
CONTENTS. 
 CHAPTER XXXVI. 
 
 From the Death of Caesar to the Battls of PniLippi, 44-^2 B.C. 
 
 B.C. Page 
 
 44. Proceedings of tbe conspirators 301 
 
 Antony and Lepidus . . . . 301 
 
 Pretended reconciliation . . 3^2 
 
 Caesar's will .. .... .. 3l2 
 
 His funeral 302 
 
 Popular indignation against 
 
 the conspirators 302 
 
 They fly from Rome and talce 
 
 possession of their provinces 302 
 OcTAVins, Caesar's nephew, at 
 
 lUyricum 303 
 
 Is made Caesar's heir . . . . 303 
 
 He proceeds to Rome . . . . 303 
 
 His opposition to Antony . . 3o3 
 
 He courts the Senate . . . . 303 
 
 Cicero's opposition to Antony 304 
 43. Antony proceeds to Cisalpine 
 
 Gaul, and lays siege to 
 
 Mutina 304 
 
 Octavian and the Consuls Hir- 
 
 tiuB and Pansa march against 
 
 Antony 304 
 
 They fight with Antony . . 304 
 
 Death of Hirtius and Pansa . . 305 
 Antony is defeated, and crosses 
 
 the Alps 305 
 
 B c. Page 
 
 Octavian marches to Rome . . 305 
 
 Is declared Consul 305 
 
 Breaks with the Senate, and 
 outlaws the murderers of 
 
 Caesar 305 
 
 Marches against Antony and 
 
 Lepidus 305 
 
 Is reconciled with them .. 305 
 
 Second Triumvirate . . . . 306 
 
 The Triumvirs enter Rome 306 
 
 Dreadful scenes 30fi 
 
 Death of Cicero 307 
 
 Sextus Pompeius master of 
 
 Sicily and the Mediterranean 301 
 He defeats the fleet of the Tri- 
 umvirs 308 
 
 Brutus obtains possession of 
 
 Macedonia 308 
 
 Cassius, of Syria 308 
 
 Their proceedings in the East 308 
 
 They plunder Asia Minor . . 308 
 42. They return to Europe to meet 
 
 the Triumvirs 309 
 
 Battles at Philippi 309 
 
 Death of Brutus and Cassius . . 309 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVn. 
 
 From the Battle of Philippi to the Battle of Actium, 41-30 b.c. 
 
 41. Antony remains in the East . . 311 
 He meets Cleopatra at Tarsus 311 
 He accompanies her to Alex- 
 andria 312 
 
 Octavian returns to Rome . . 311 
 
 Confusion in Italy 312 
 
 Confiscation of lands .. .. 312 
 Fulvia the wife of Antonj', 
 andL. Antonius, his brother, 
 rise against Octavian . . .. 312 
 They take refuge in Perusia.. 312 
 40. Capture of Perusi«, and end of 
 
 the war . . 312 
 
 The Parthians invade Syria . . 313 
 Antony joins Sextus Pompeius 
 and lays siege to Brun- 
 
 dusium 313 
 
 Reconciliation between Antony 
 
 and Octavian 313 
 
 Fresh division of the Roman 
 
 world 313 
 
 Antony marries Octavia.. .. 313 
 
 39. Peace with Sextus Pompeius 
 
 at Misenum 314 
 
 Ventidius, the Legate of An- 
 tony, defeats the Parthians 314 
 38. He again defeats the Parthians 314 
 
 Death of Pacorus 314 
 
 War with Sextus Pompeius . . 315 
 He destroys the fleet of Oc- 
 tavian 315 
 
 37. Antony comes to Tarentum. . 315 
 Triumvirate renewed for an- 
 other period of five years .. 315 
 36. Renewal of the war with Sex- 
 tus Pompeius 315 
 
 His defeat 316 
 
 He flies to Asia 316 
 
 Lepidus deprived of his Tri- 
 umvirate 316 
 
 35. Death of PompeiU'^ 316 
 
 30. Antony joins Cleopatra . . . . 316 
 
 His infatuation 317 
 
 He invades Partbia 317 
 
XXVI 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 B.C. Page 
 
 His disastrous retreat .. .. 317 
 
 34. He invades Armenia . . . . 317 
 
 Octavian subdues the Dalma- 
 tians 317 
 
 His prudent corn I uct .. .. 317 
 33. Rupture between Octavian 
 
 and Antony 318 
 
 32. War against Cleopatra . . . . 318 
 
 31. Battle of Actlum 318 
 
 Defeat of Antony 318 
 
 B.C. Page 
 
 He flies to Alexandria .. .. 318 
 
 30. Death of Antony and Cleopatra 319 
 Egypt made a Roman posses- 
 sion 320 
 
 End of the Republic . . . . 320 
 
 29. Triumph of Octavian . . . . 320 
 
 27. He receives the title of Au- 
 gustus 320 
 
 His policy 320 
 
 The Principate 32ii 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVIII. 
 
 Skktch of tee History op Roman Literature from the Earliest Times 
 TO the Death of Augustus. 
 
 POETRT — 
 
 Folk-songs in the Satumian 
 
 Metre 322 
 
 Commencement of Roman 
 
 Literature 322 
 
 The Drama — 
 
 240. M. Livius Andronicus.. 323 
 
 235. Cn. Naevius 323 
 
 239-169. Q. Ennius 323 
 
 254-184. T. Maccius Plautus . . 324 
 
 195-159. P. TerentiusAfer.. .. 325 
 
 168 {died). Statius Caecilius . . 325 
 
 \m {flourished), h. Xiramas .. 325 
 
 220-131. M. Pacuvius 325 
 
 140 {born). L. Accius 325 
 
 Comoediae Togatae . . . . 325 
 
 Comoediae Palliatae .-, ., 325 
 
 Fabulae Praetextatae .. . . 325 
 
 Atellanae Fabulae 326 
 
 Mimes 326 
 
 45 {acted). D. Laberius . . . . 326 
 
 P. Byrus 326 
 
 Fescennine Songs 326 
 
 Satire 326 
 
 180-103. C. Lucilius 327 
 
 96-55. T. Lucretius Carus . , 327 
 
 87-54. Valerius Catullus . . . . 328 
 
 70-19. P. VergiliusMaro.. .. 328 
 
 65-8. Q. Horatius Flaccus . . 330 
 
 30 {flourished). Albius Ti 
 
 buUus 332 
 
 51 (&(»•«). Sextus Propertius 332 
 B.C. a.d. 
 
 43 - 18. P. Ovidius Naso .. ,. 333 
 
 B.C. 
 
 Prose Writers— 
 
 The Annalists 334 
 
 210 {flourished). Q. Fabius 
 
 Pictor 334 
 
 L. Cincius Alimentus . . 33 1 
 
 234-149. M. Porcius Cato .. .. 331 
 
 106-43. M. TuUlus Cicero.. .. 334 
 
 117-28. M. Terentius Varro .. 335 
 
 100-44. C. Julius Caesar .. .. 336 
 
 86-34. C. Sallustius Crispus . . 336 
 
 Cornelius Nepos . . . . 33ij 
 
 B.C. A.D. 
 
 59-17. Titus Livius 336 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIX. 
 
 The Empire from Augustus to Trajan, b.c. 29 to a.d. 117. 
 
 Prepared by Mr. G. Middleton, M.A., late lecturer in Latin in the University oj 
 Aberdeen, under the direction of Professor W. if. Ramsay, M.A., D.C.L. 
 
 Augustus retains command of 
 
 the soldiers 339 
 
 The Senate control the peace- 
 ful provinces 339 
 
 26. Augustus goes to Spain .. 3i0 
 
 22. Maecenas' position 342 
 
 21. Augustus goes to regulate the 
 
 East anew 342 
 
 The Parthians submit . . . . 342 
 18. Leges Juliae passed reforming 
 
 society ,. .. 342 
 
 29. Octavian consolidates the ad- 
 ministration of tlie pro- 
 vinces and enters Rome in 
 
 triumph.. .. ' 338 
 
 He effects a transformation of 
 
 the government 338 
 
 He retires into private life . . 338 
 The Senate refuse to accept his 
 
 resignation 338 
 
 29. Title of Augustus conferred 
 
 upon Octavian 339 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 B.C. Page 
 
 10-13. Augustus visits Gaul . . 342 
 
 Agrippa has charge of Eastern 
 
 frontier countries. Northern 
 
 wars entrusted to Tiberius 
 
 and Drusus 343 
 
 15. Tribes of Tyrol, Rhaeti, Vin- 
 
 delici, conquered 343 
 
 Death of Agrippa and Drusus 343 
 
 A.D. 
 
 9. Revolt of Arminius in north- 
 west Germany 34"? 
 
 Annihilation of Varus' legions 343 
 
 13. Germanicus succeeds Tiberius 
 
 in command 343 
 
 Elbe frontier abandoned and 
 Rhine-Danube frontier sub- 
 stituted 343 
 
 Augustus' later life unevent- 
 ful ; succeeds Lepidus as 
 Pontifex Maximus, 12 b.c. 
 In 2 B.C. receives title of 
 pater patriae 343 
 
 14. Death of Augustus 344 
 
 Accession of Tiberius . . . . 344 
 Discontent in the army.. .. 345 
 Comitia discontinued . . . . 345 
 Germanicus defeats the Marsi 345 
 
 17. Germanicus sent to the East, 
 
 makes terms with Parthia 345 
 
 19. Germanicus dies at Antioch. . 345 
 17-24. Junius Blaesus defeats 
 
 Tacfarinas 346 
 
 C. Silius crushes insurrection 
 
 in Gaul 346 
 
 28. Revolt of the Frisii suppressed 316 
 Increase of the influence of the 
 
 delatores 346 
 
 23. Rise and influence of Aelius 
 
 Sejanus 346 
 
 26. Tiberius leaves Rome for 
 
 Capreae 346 
 
 31. Fall and execution of Sejanus 347 
 
 Character of Tiberius . . . . 347 
 
 37. His death 347 
 
 37. Accession of Caligula . . .. 347 
 
 His good intentions not realized 347 
 
 His inordinate vanity and folly 348 
 
 41. Assassinated by conspirators 348 
 
 Accession of Claudius . . . . 348 
 Passes useful reforms and 
 
 completes public works . . 348 
 Makes changes in the Eastern 
 
 administration 349 
 
 43. Claudius invades Britain and 
 
 conquers the southern part 349 
 
 Intrigue and fall of Messalina 349 
 Claudius marries Agrippina 
 
 the younger 349 
 
 54. Death of Claudius 349 
 
 Accession of Nero 349 
 
 His dissipation 349 
 
 A.D. Page 
 
 The State administered by 
 
 Seneca and Burrus . . . . 349 
 59. Nero puts his mother to death 349 
 61. Iceni under Boadicea defeated 
 
 in Britain 350 
 
 64. Great fire in Rome 350 
 
 Accusation and persecution of 
 
 the Christians 350 
 
 66. Nero visits Greece 350 
 
 68. Revolt of Gaul under Vindex 
 
 and Spain under Galba . . 350 
 
 Suicide of Nero 350 
 
 Accession of Galea .. .. 350 
 His unpopularity and revolt 
 of the Praetorian guards 
 under Otho 350 
 
 69. Galba put to death in the 
 
 Forum 351 
 
 Accession of Otho in Rome . . 351 
 Otho's army defeated by Vi- 
 
 tellius 351 
 
 Death of Otho and accession of 
 
 ViTELLins 351 
 
 Vespasian proclaimed emperor 
 
 by the Eastern legions . . 351 
 Vitellius defeated by Primus 351 
 Disturbances among the Batavi 351 
 
 70. Arrival of Vespasian in Rome 352 
 Campaign of Titus against the 
 
 Jews 352 
 
 Sack of Jerusalem, Judaea 
 
 made a province 352 
 
 Good government of Vespasian 352 
 Provincial administration vi- 
 gorously managed . . . . 352 
 77. Vespasian continues the con- 
 quest of Britain 352 
 
 79. Death of Vespasian .. .. 352 
 
 Accession of Titus 352 
 
 His popularity and munifi- 
 cence 352 
 
 The great eruption of Vesuvius 
 and destruction of Pompeii 352 
 81. Early death of Titus . . . . 353 
 Accession of Domitian . . . . 353 
 
 83. Leads campaign against the 
 
 Chatti, and assumes title of 
 Germanicus 353 
 
 84. Caledonian chief Calgacus de- 
 
 feated 353 
 
 Continued wars against the 
 
 Suevi 353 
 
 96. Assassination of Domitian . . 353 
 His character, and persecution 
 
 of the Christians 353 
 
 Spread of Christianity . . . . 354 
 Accession of Nerv a .. .. 354 
 Adopts Trajan as his consort 
 
 and dies 354 
 
 98. Accession of Trajan .. .. 354 
 His vigour and greatness . . 354 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 101-104. His conquest of Dece- 
 
 balus in Dacia . . . . 354 
 106-114. Trajan's good work at 
 
 Rome 354 
 
 His attention to roads 
 and public buildings. . 355 
 His excellent control of 
 the provinces . . . . 355 
 
 A.D. Page 
 
 112. Trajan forbids hetaeriae of 
 
 Christians in Bithynia . . 355 
 
 113. Trajan goes to the East and 
 
 subdues Parthia with great 
 
 success 355 
 
 117. Trajan dies on his homeward 
 
 journey in Cilicia , , . . 355 
 
 CHAPTERS XL, XLI. 
 
 The Empire from Hadrian to Constantine. The Barbarian Invasions. The 
 Decline and Pall of the Empire. 
 
 Prepared hy F. M. Colby, Formerly Professor of Economics, New York University. 
 
 117. Accession of Hadrian . . 356 
 Hadrian gives up Parthia 356 
 119-138. His visits to the pro- 
 vinces ; his public 
 
 works 356 
 
 131-135. Revolt of the Jews . . 356 
 138. Accession of Antoninus 
 
 Pius ; his peaceful reign 356, 357 
 161. Accession of Marcus Aure- 
 
 Lius ; his character . . . . 357 
 162-166. War with the Parthians 357 
 167-175. War with the Marco- 
 
 maniii, Quadi, etc. . . 357 
 178-180. Further defeats of the 
 
 Marcomanni . . . . 357 
 180-193. Reign of Commodus 357, 358 
 193. Sway of the Praetorians . . 358 
 193. Accession of Septimius Se- 
 
 verus 358 
 
 211-217. Despotism of Cara- 
 
 CALLA 359 
 
 251. Invasion of the Goths . . 359 
 260-273. The "Thirty Tyrants" 359 
 284. Accession of Diocletian . . 360 
 The new system of admin- 
 istration ; two Augusti and 
 
 two Caesars 360 
 
 303. Persecution oi the Chris- 
 tians 360 
 
 323. Constantine becomes sole 
 
 emperor, after several wars 
 with rivals 361 
 
 324. Christianity the state re- 
 
 ligion 361 
 
 Capital of the empire re- 
 moved to Constantinople 361 
 
 325. Council of Nice 361 
 
 337. Death of Constantine ; mas- 
 sacre of his relatives ; di- 
 
 vision of the empire and 
 civil war 362 
 
 361. Accession of Julian . . . . 363 
 Brief restoration of pa- 
 ganism 363 
 
 364. First division of the empire 
 
 into East and West . . . . 363 
 
 376. The Goths admitted into 
 
 Moesia 363 
 
 378. Battle of Adrianople . . . . 364 
 
 379. Theodosius becomes em- 
 
 peror of the East . . . . 364 
 He restores order, and 
 becomes supreme also in 
 the West 364 
 
 395. Death of Theodosius, and 
 
 final division of the empire 364 
 The real power passes into 
 the hands of barbarian 
 ministers 365 
 
 396-412. Invasions of Alaric and 
 
 the Visigoths . . . . 365 
 
 403. Defeat of Alaric at Pollentia, 
 by Stilicho, minister of 
 the Western Empire . . 365 
 
 406. Stilicho defeats the Vandals 
 
 and Goths 365 
 
 410. Alaric sacks Rome . . . . 366 
 
 419. Visigothic monarchy found- 
 ed in Gaul 366 
 
 429-439. Vandal kingdom found- 
 ed in Africa . . . . 367 
 
 451. Defeat of the Huns, under 
 
 Attila, at Chalons . . . . 367 
 
 452. Attila invades Italy . . . . 367 
 455. The Vandals sack Rome . . 367 
 476. The last emperor of the West 
 
 is deposed, and Italy be- 
 comesa barbarian kingdom 368 
 
 Genealogical Tables of the House of Augustus 369, 370 
 
 Index 371 
 
Vergil. 
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTEATIONS. 
 
 The Roman Forum 
 
 Pnteal on a coin of the Scribonia Gens 
 
 Frontispiece 
 Title Page 
 
 Julius Caesar vii 
 
 Vergil . . . . xxix 
 
 Urn showing forms of cottages of 
 
 the ancient Latins 1 
 
 Prehistoric gate at Arpinum . . 1 
 
 The wolf of the Capitol ... 8 
 
 Salii carrying the ancilia . . . . 13 
 
 Augur's victims 19 
 
 Remains of the Servian wall . . 20 
 
 The Cloaca Maxima ... . 22 
 Coin representing the children 
 
 of Brutus led to death by 
 
 lictors 34 
 
 The Campagna 35 
 
 Tarpeian Rock . . 43 
 
 View from the neighbourhood of 
 
 Veil 50 
 
 Fragment of sculpture from the 
 
 pediment of the Temple of 
 
 Jupiter Capitolinus 55 
 
 Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus 
 
 (from a coin) 63 
 
 Samnite warriors (from a mural 
 
 painting at Paestum) . . . . 64 
 
 Coin of Pyrrhus 74 
 
 Coin representing Temple of Vesta 83 
 Roman galley (from Trajan's 
 
 Column) 84 
 
 Columna Rostrata 88 
 
 Fighting elephant making a pri- 
 soner (gem in "Cabinet de 
 France," No.l911 (Chabouillet)) 94 
 
 Coin of Carthage 95 
 
 Coin of Hiero 100 
 
 Lake Trasimenus 101 
 
 Capua 110 
 
 Hannibal 120 
 
 Soldiers blowing Tubae and Cornua 
 
 (from Column of Trajan). . . . 
 
 Coin of Antiochus the Great 
 
 '■ Dying Galatian" (so-called dying 
 
 gladiator). From the original 
 
 in the Museum of the Capitol. . 
 
 Roman soldiers (from Column of 
 
 Trajan) 
 
 A Roman general addressing his 
 
 soldiers 
 
 Lictors 
 
 Scipio Africanus 153 
 
 Head of Perseus. From a gem in 
 
 the British Museum 162 
 
 The Roman Forum, looking west 179 
 
 A Roman trophy ]92 
 
 German priestess in chariot drawn 
 by oxen (from Antonine Column ) 201 
 Fasces (from the original in the 
 
 Capitol of Rome) 205 
 
 Caius Marius 206 
 
 127 
 128 
 
 136 
 
 137 
 
 140 
 141 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Coin of the eight Italian nations 
 
 taking the Oath of Federation 211 
 
 Roman in toga . . . . . , . . 214 
 
 Terracina 215 
 
 Mount Argaeus in Cappadocia . . 221 
 Coin of Nicomedes III., king of 
 
 Bithynia 225 
 
 Brundusium 226 
 
 Coin of Sulla . .• 236 
 
 Cn. Pompeius Magnus 237 
 
 Coin of Mithridates 244 
 
 Coin of Tigranes 254 
 
 Cicero 255 
 
 Coin of Pompey 265 
 
 C. Julius Caesar 266 
 
 Temple of Nomausus {Nimes), 
 
 now called the Maison Carrie 273 
 
 Outline view of the Maison Carree 
 
 at Nimes 280 
 
 Coin of Caesar 281 
 
 Brutus 288 
 
 Statue of a Roman, representing 
 
 the toga (from the Louvre) . . 300 
 
 M. Antonius 301 
 
 Coin of Antony and Cleopatra . . 310 
 Coin of Augustus, with head of 
 
 M. Agrippa on the reverse . . 311 
 Coin of Augustus commemor.iting 
 
 the conquest of Egypt . . . . 321 
 
 Medal of Horace 322 
 
 Maecenas (from the Carlisle gem) 338 
 
 Coin of Augustus 349 
 
LIST OF MAPS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Coloured Map of Italy and the adjoining coasts, with plan of 
 
 Rome . . . . . . . . . . To face 1 
 
 Map of Rome and surrounding country . . . . . . „ 40 
 
 Map of Italy, Spain, and Africa, after the First Punic War, show- 
 ing Hannibal's route .. To face 100 
 
 Plan of Syracuse .. .. .. .... .. .. 115 
 
 Plan of Carthage 171 
 
 Map of the Roman Empii'e at fhe death of Caesar To face 300 
 
 PlanofActium .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 318 
 
 Map of the Roman Empire during the later years of Augustus 
 
 To face 344 
 
ABBREVIATED FORMS OF ROMAN PERSONAL NAMES (praenomina) 
 
 A. represents 
 
 Aulus. 
 
 Ap. 
 
 Appius. 
 
 c. 
 
 Caius, or GaiuE 
 
 Cn. 
 
 Cnaeus, or Gnaeus. 
 
 D. 
 
 Decimus. 
 
 L. 
 
 Lucius. 
 
 M. 
 
 Marcus. 
 
 M'. 
 
 Manius. 
 
 P. 
 
 Publius. 
 
 Q. 
 
 Quintus. 
 
 Ser. 
 
 Servius. 
 
 Sp. 
 
 Spurius. 
 
 T. 
 
 Titus. 
 
 Ti. 
 
 Tiberius. 
 
Ura showing forms of cottage' of the ancient Latins. 
 
 HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE PEOPLES OF ITALY. 
 
 Italy is the central one of the three great peninsulas ■which 
 
 project from the south of Europe into the Mediterranean Sea. 
 
 It is bounded on the north by*the chain of the „, 
 AT 1 • u r J. 1 1 • • 4. • The peninsula 
 
 Alps, which form a natural barrier against in- ^f j^^jy 
 
 vasion ; on the west its shores are washed by the 
 TjTrhenian Sea, called by the Romans the Lower Sea (Mare 
 Inferum), on the east by the Adriatic or Upper Sea (Mare 
 Superum). All its best harbours lie on the west, and con- 
 sequently it is in this direction that Rome's earliest trade-routes 
 lay, and her earliest imperial acquisitions were made. 
 
 The peninsula itself may be divided into two parts, the northern 
 consisting of the great plain drained by the river Padus or Po 
 and its numerous tributaries, and the southern being a long 
 
2 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. I. 
 
 tong;ue of land, with the Apennines as a back-hone running down 
 its whole extent from north to south. The extreme length of 
 the peninsula from the Alps to the Straits of Messina is 700 
 miles. The breadth of Northern Italy is 350 miles, while that 
 of the southern portion is on an average not more than 100 
 miles. But till the time of the Empire the Romans never 
 included the plain of the Po in Italy. To this country they 
 gave the name of Gallia Cisalpina, or Gaul on this (the 
 Roman) side of the Alps, in consequence of its being inhabited 
 by Gauls. The westernmost portion of the plain was peopled 
 by Ligurian tribes, and was therefore called Ligukia, while its 
 eastern extremity was inhabited by the Veneti. 
 
 The name Italia was originally apphed to a very small 
 tract of country. It was confined to the extreme south of the 
 
 peninsula, which at a still earlier period had been 
 It^ U°*°^* called Oenotria ; by the fifth century B.C. it had 
 
 come to include the territory, subsequently known 
 as Lucania and Bruttium, stretching along the shores of the 
 Tarentine gulf south of a line drawn from Metapontum to 
 Paestum, and by the time of the Punic wars, in the third 
 century B.C., it had spread over the whole peninsula south of 
 the rivers Rubicon and Macra, which parted Umbria and Etruria 
 from the northern districts of the valley of the Po. Italy, 
 properly so called, is a very mountainous country, being filled 
 up more or less by the broad mass of the Apennines, the ofi"- 
 shoots or lateral branches of which, in some parts, descend quite 
 to the sea, but in others leave a considerable space of level or 
 low country. There are fewer land-locked valleys than in 
 Greece, and the open plains are eminently suitable for the 
 growth of leagues or federations between towns. 
 
 The population of the peninsula south of the 
 Italy ^^ ® Alps was of a very varied character. It may be 
 
 divided into no less than six great branches. 
 1. The Gauls represent at once the most northerly and the 
 youngest of the races of Italy. They belong to the great family 
 . of the Celts, whose presence in the peninsula was 
 
 due to two separate migrations, both of which 
 took place long after the other races of Italy had been settled 
 in their separate localities. Tradition says that the first swarm 
 of Celts passed the Alps in the reign of the elder Tarquin 
 
Chap. I.] THE PEOPLES OF ITALY. 3 
 
 (616-578 B.C.) ; a second migration, which planted the Senones, 
 the most southerly of these tribes, on the shores of the Adriatic 
 east of Umbria, is connected with the great Gallic invasion 
 which ended in the capture of Kome (390 B.C.). Previously to 
 these movements the northern regions of Cisalpine Gaul had 
 been in the hands of the Ligurians, the southern in those of the 
 Umbrians, while the Etruscans possessed scattered settlements 
 north of the Apennines. The result of the migrations was to 
 spread the Gallic name from the Alps to the Apennines and 
 the Adriatic. The most important of the Gallic tribes were the 
 Insubres and Cenomani to the north of the Po, and the Boii and 
 Lingones to the south of that river, 
 
 2. West and south of Gaul lay Liguria, the country of the 
 Ligures (or Ligues, as they were called by the Greeks). The 
 origin of this race is quite unknown ; it had once »,. y . 
 occupied much of the territory subsequently over- ° 
 
 run by the Gauls, and in historical times it extended at least 
 from the upper reaches of the Po, but possibly even from the 
 Poenine Alps (the Great St. Bernard) to the river Macra on 
 the south. The chief northern tribe was that of the Taurini, but 
 the tribes with which we find Kome most frequently brought 
 into hostile contact were those of the south, the Intemilii, 
 Ingauni, and Apuani, lying between the Apennines and the sea, 
 and the Friniates to the east of this range. 
 
 The north-eastern portion of Italy, from the river Athesia 
 (Adige) to the Julian Alps was occupied by the Veneti. They 
 were doubtless of the same race as the Istrians and Liburnians 
 on the other side of the Adriatic, and are said to have belonged 
 to the great Ligurian stock. 
 
 3. The Etruscans were known as Etrusci or Tusci to the 
 
 Romans, as Tyrrheni to the Greeks ; but their own native name 
 
 for themselves was Rasena. They formed a 
 
 • The 
 
 striking contrast to the nations of Central and x-tmsoaiiB 
 
 Southern Italy ; for their language is wholly 
 
 different from that of the other Italian tribes, and shows no 
 
 resemblance to the languages of the Indo-European group, while 
 
 their manners and customs clearly prove them to be a people 
 
 originally quite distinct from the Greek and Italian races, 
 
 although they showed themselves very susceptible to Greek 
 
 culture. Their influence on the early customs of Rome was 
 
4 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. I. 
 
 necessarily great, for the Etruscans possessed a fully developed 
 civilization when Kome was but an infant state ; but it was an 
 influence that, so far as we can see, affected little beyond the 
 ceremonies and religious institutions of Kome. It was from them 
 that she derived the science of augury, and perhaps the very 
 idea of priestly colleges or guilds ; while tradition adds that the 
 symbols of Roman royalty, the purple robe, the ivory sceptre, and 
 the curule chair, came from Etruria. The origin of this strange 
 race is wholly uncertain. Most ancient writers relate that the 
 Etruscans were Lydians who had migrated by sea from Asia to 
 Italy ; it is now more generally believed that they descended 
 into Italy from the Ehaetian Alps. Yet Etruscan civilization 
 shows the deepest traces of Oriental influence, and, if the hypo- 
 thesis that connects the Etruscans with the Rhaeti is correct, it is 
 probable that they were an Alpine people, whose art and customs 
 were profoundly modified by intermixture with immigrants from 
 the East. In early times they had maintained settlements in the 
 great plain of the Po, until they were expelled or subdued by the 
 invading Gauls. The country known as Etruria in historic 
 times extended along the coast of the Lower Sea from the 
 river Macra on the north to the Tiber on the south. Inland, the 
 Tiber also formed its eastern boundary, dividing it first from 
 Umbria, afterwards from the Sabines, and, lastly, from Latium. 
 4. We next come to the Italian races proper, which inhabited 
 the centre and most of the south of the peninsula. The evidence 
 
 of language proves that the common stock from 
 Tne tauan ^rjiich these races sprang falls into two great 
 
 branches : (1) the Umbrian and Sabelhan ; (2) the 
 Latin. The differences between- these groups of languages are 
 little more than the differences between dialects of the same 
 tongue, and show the clearest traces of a common origin. They 
 are closely related to the Greek, but still more closely to the Celtic; 
 and this connection, combined with the great resemblance between 
 the fundamental social and political institutions of the Greeks and 
 Romans, make it probable that the Italian, Celtic, and Greek 
 races dwelt together for a long period during their journey from 
 the East, and that when the Greeks parted from their kinsmen 
 at the head of the Adriatic, Italians and Celts still continued for 
 a time in close contact with one another. The Gauls, in fact, 
 were not only near neighbours, but near kinsmen of the Romans. 
 
Chap. I.] THE PEOPLES OF ITALY. 5 
 
 The Umbrians dwelf, in historic times, in Eastern Italy between 
 Etruria and the Adriatic. The district of Umbria had once 
 been far more extensive, but its possessions west rpt, tt i, • 
 of the Apennines had fallen to Etruria, and the 
 Gallic tribe of Senones finally annexed the territory on the 
 Adriatic coast. The language of the Umbrians is the most 
 ancient tongue of the family to which it belongs, and verifies the 
 tradition that the Umbrians were one of the oldest nations of Italy. 
 
 The VoLScrANS, a race afterwards merged in Latiura, show 
 the nearest resemblance in language to the Umbrians. They were 
 at first a nation distinct from the Latins, and, my^ tt i • 
 though they lost their independence as a separate 
 state, inscriptions show that they long preserved their language 
 unimpaired. Other tribes bordering on Latium are the Aequians 
 and Hernicans. We know little of them beyond their close 
 international relations with the Volscians. 
 
 It is doubtful to which division of the family of the Umbrians 
 and Sabellians the Sabtnes belonged ; for their language early 
 fell into disuse, and only a few words have been 
 preserved. But they probably belonged to the 
 Sabellian branch. They are said to have been originally a 
 mountain race dwelling near the sources of the Arnus on the 
 ridge of the Apennines which lies between Umbria and Etruria. 
 Thence they descended into the valleys between Umbria and 
 Latium, which they occupied in historic times. They preserved 
 their simple mountaineering habits, and are described as brave, 
 hardy, and frugal. Tradition has much to tell of their early in- 
 fluence on Rome, and this is natural, for the Sabine city of Cures 
 was but twenty-four miles from Rome. Amongst Sabine tribes 
 we may, perhaps, reckon the Picentines, occupying a fertile strip 
 of territory on the coast of the Adriatic ; and the Paeligni, 
 Marsi, Marrtjcini, and Vestini, lying south of this district. 
 
 The Sabellian races are those which are known to have 
 spoken a common tongue, sometimes called Oscan. They spread 
 over the greater part of Central and Southern Italy, q v iv 
 
 and are represented by the Samnites, with their j^^^gg a e an 
 offshoots the Campanians and Lucanians. 
 
 The Samnites, the most powerful of these races, occupied 
 an inland district in the region of the central Apennines. On 
 the west they commanded the valley of the Vulturnus bordering 
 
« HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. 1. 
 
 on Campania. On the east they early extended beyond the 
 limits of Saranium proper to the sea ; for the Frentani on the 
 north-east were a Samnite people, and it is probable that at 
 least the northern part of Apulia was conquered and occupied 
 by Samnite tribes. But their greatest conquests were on the 
 west and south. In the fifth century B.C. they conquered the 
 whole of the rich province of Campania, the garden of Italy. 
 This district, stretcliing from the Liris to the Silarus, forms, for 
 the most part, an unbroken plain, celebrated in ancient as well 
 as in modern times for its extraordinary beauty and fertility. 
 The Greek cities of this coast alone retained their independence 
 and their territories. Shortly alterwards the Samnites spread 
 through the whole of Lucania. But, although the Lucanians 
 appear in history as a Samnite people, they have broken away 
 from the control of the main body of their countrymen. They 
 have formed a state of their own, and they rule not only over 
 Lucania, but oyer the native peoples to the south as far as the 
 strait which separates Italy from Sicily. 
 
 These native peoples at last threw off the Lucanian yoke, and 
 appear in history as the Brutii. 
 
 The Latins, like the Samnites, are represented as having 
 been originally a mountaineering race dwelling in the central 
 _, _ . Apennines, from which they descended into the 
 
 regions between the mountains and the sea. Even 
 here the Latins were for a time but an insignificant people over- 
 shadowed by the gi'eat Etruscan power in the north and sur- 
 rounded on all other sides ' by hostile tribes. The original 
 Latium was a narrow territory extending from the Tiber to the 
 Volscian mountains, and from the Apennines about Praeneste 
 to the sea. But Latin conquest subsequently absorbed the 
 Volscians and Aurunci, and the name Latium was spread to 
 the Liris on the borders of Campania. The original abode of 
 the Latins is of volcanic origin. The Alban mountains are a 
 great volcanic mass, and several of the craters have been filled 
 with water, forming lakes, of which the Alban lake is one of the 
 most remarkable. The plain in which Rome stands, now called 
 the Campagna, is not an unbroken level, but a broad undulating 
 tract, intersected by numerous streams, which have cut them- 
 selves deep channels through the soft volcanic tufa of which the 
 soil is composed. The climate of Latium was not healthy even 
 
Chap. I.] THE PEOPLES OF ITALY. 7 
 
 in ancient times. The malaria of the Campagna renders Rome 
 itself unhealthy in the summer and autumn ; and the Pontine 
 marshes, which extend along the coast in the south of Latium 
 for a distance of thirty miles, are still more pestilential. 
 
 5. A primitive people, whose language, as known from 
 inscriptions, differs widely from those of the Umbrians and 
 Sabellians, were represented by the lapygians and 
 
 The 
 lapygians. 
 
 Messapians of Calabria. Yet the language shows 
 resemblances to both Greek and Latin, and bears 
 out the tradition that the lapygians were Pelasgi, or pre-historic 
 inhabitants of Italy. They were probably the earliest Aryan 
 settlers who were driven towards the extremity of the peninsula 
 as the Latins and Sabellians pressed further to the south. 
 
 6. The Greeks planted so many colonies upon the coasts 
 of Southern Italy that they gave to that diptrict the name of 
 Magna Graecia. The most ancient, and at the mi, p i^ 
 same time the most northerly', Greek city in Italy 
 was Cumae in Campania. Most of the other Greek colonies 
 were situated farther to the south, where many of them 
 attained to great power and wealth. Of these some of the 
 most distinguished were Tarentum, Croton, Metapontum, and 
 Sybaris, which was destroyed in 510 B.C., and was replaced in 
 443 B.C. by the town of ihurii. 
 
 Prehistoric gate at Arpinum. 
 
The wolf of the Capitol. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE EARLY KINGS AND THE ORIGINAL CONSTITUTION OF 
 ROME. 
 
 The history of Rome is that of a city which originallj^ had only 
 a few miles of territory, and gradually extended its dominion 
 
 at first over Italy and then over the civilized 
 Eom?*^ °' "^oM. The city lay in the central part of the 
 
 peninsula, on the left bank of the Tiber, and 
 about fifteen miles from its month. It appears from the first 
 as the most important town of Latium, and this importance 
 must have been due to its site. Its commercial greatness was 
 due to its situation on a navigable river, which provided a safe 
 refuge for ships at a time when the Lower Sea was swept by 
 Etruscan fleets ; its military strength was due to its position 
 upon the borders of two of the most powerful races in Italjf^, the 
 Sabines and the Etruscans. 
 
 Though originally a Latin town, it received at an early period 
 a considerable Sabine population, while it appears nearly certain 
 that a part of its population was of Etruscan origin, and that the 
 two Tarquins represent the establishment of an Etruscan djmasty 
 at Rome.* But Roman civilization is in all essential points 
 different from the Etruscan, and that the Latin element pre- 
 dominated over the Sabine is evident from the fact that the 
 
 * See ch. iii. p. 20. 
 
Chap. II.] EARLY TRADITIONS. 9 
 
 language of the Komans was a Latin and not a Sabellian 
 dialect. 
 
 The early history of Rome as given by the Roman writers 
 is a mass of popular tradition worked up by poets, annahsts, 
 and antiquarians into a professed record of fact. 
 Not only is it full of marvellous tales and poetical . dit^ons 
 embellishments, of contradictions and impossi- 
 bilities, but it wants the very foundation upon which all history 
 must be based. Many of tiie legends are simply attempts to 
 explain the origin of certain political and religious customs 
 existing in the Republic ; and, although the political civilization 
 of early Rome can be discovered with some degree of certainty, 
 it is not until we come to the war with Pyrrhus that we can 
 place fuU reliance upon the narrative as a trustworthy statement 
 of events. With this caution we now proceed to relate the 
 celebrated legends of the foundation and early history of Rome. 
 
 Rome is thought to have arisen with the fall of Troy, for, 
 on the capture of that town, Aeneas, son of Anchises and 
 Venus, fled to seek a new home in a foreign land. 
 He carried with him his son Ascanius, the Penates Aeneas 
 or household gods, and the Palladium of Troy.* 
 Upon reaching the coast of Latium he was kindly received by 
 Latinus, the king of the country, who gave him his daughter 
 Lavinia in marriage. Aeneas now built a city, which he 
 named Lavinium, in honour of his wife. But Lavinia had been 
 previously promised to Turnus, the leader of the Rutulians. 
 This youthful chief, enraged at the insult, attacked the strangers. 
 He was slain, however, by the hands of Aeneas; but in a new 
 war which broke out three years afterwards, the Trojan hero 
 disappeared amid the waters of the river Numicius, and was 
 henceforward worshipped under the name of Jupiter Indiges, 
 or " god of the country." 
 
 Ascanius, who was also called lulus, removed from Lavinium, 
 thirty years after its foundation, and built Alba 
 Longa, or the "Long White City," on a ridge ^iba Lofga 
 of the Alban Mount about fifteen miles south-east 
 of Rome. It became the most powerful city in Latium, and the 
 
 * The Palladium was a statue of Pallas, or Minerva, which was said to have 
 fallen from heaven, and was preserved at Kome with the most sacred ewe. 
 
10 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. II. 
 
 head of a confederacy of Latin cities. Twelve kings of the 
 family of Aeneas succeeded Ascanius. The last of these, 
 named Procas, left two sons, Numitor and Amulius. Amulius, 
 the younger, seized the kingdom ; and Numitor, who was ot a 
 peaceful disposition, made no resistance to his brother. 
 
 Amulius, fearing lest the children of Numitor might not 
 submit so quietly to his usurpation, caused his only son to be 
 murdered, and made his daughter, Ehea Silvia, one of the 
 vestal virgins, who were compelled to live and die unmarried. 
 But the maiden became, by the god Mars, the mother of twins. 
 She was in consequence put to death, because she had broken 
 her vow, and her babes were doomed to be drowned in the 
 river. The Tiber had overflowed its banks far and wide ; and 
 the cradle in which the babes were placed was stranded at the 
 foot of the Palatine, and overturned on the root of a wild 
 fig tree. A she-wolf, which had come to drink of the stream, 
 carried them into her den hard by, and suckled them ; and 
 when they wanted other food, the woodpecker, a bird sacred 
 to Mars, brought it to them. At length this marvellous spectacle 
 was seen by Faustulus, the king's shepherd, who 
 Kemus ^'^'^^ ^^^ children home to his wife, Acca Larentia. 
 
 They were called Romulus and Remus, and grew 
 up along with the sons of their foster-parents on the Pala- 
 tine hill. 
 
 A quarrel arose between them and the herdsmen of Numitor, 
 who stalled their cattle on the neighbouring hill of the Aventine. 
 Remus was taken by a stratagem, and carried off to Numitor. 
 His age and noble bearing made Numitor think of his grand- 
 sons; and his suspicions were confirmed by the tale of the 
 marvellous nurture of the twin brothers. Soon afterwards 
 Romulus hastened with his foster-father to Numitor ; suspicion 
 was changed into certainty, and the old man recoenized them 
 as his kindred. They now resolved to avenge the wrongs which 
 their family had suffered. With the help of faithful comrades 
 they slew Amulius. and placed Numitor on the throne. 
 
 Romulus and Remus loved their old abode, and therefore left 
 Alba to found a city on the banks of the Tiber. But a dispute 
 arose between the brothers where the city should be built, and 
 after whose name it should be called. Romulus wished to build 
 it on the Palatine, Remus on the Aventine. It was agreed that 
 
Chap. IL] FOUNDATION OF ROME. 11 
 
 the question should be decided by the gods ; and each took his 
 station on the top of his chosen hill, awaiting the pleasure of 
 the gods by some striking sign. The night passed away, and 
 as the day was dawning Kemus saw six vultures ; but at sun- 
 rise, when these tidings were brought to Romulus, twelve 
 vultures flew by him. Each claimed the augury in his own 
 favour ; but the shepherds decided for Romulus, and Remus 
 was therefore obliged to yield. Such was the legendary ex- 
 planation of the later Roman custom of the taking of auspices 
 by a magistrate. 
 
 1. Reign of Romulus, 753-717 b.c. — Romulus, on gaining 
 this divine sanction, proceeded to mark out the boundaries of 
 his city. He yoked a bullock and a heifer to a 
 plough, and drew a deep furrow round the Palatine, -^qj^^q 
 This formed the sacred limits of the city, and was 
 called the Pomerium. To the original city on the Palatine 
 was given the name of Roma Quadrata, or Square Rome, to 
 distinguish it from the one which subsequently extended over 
 the seven hills. 
 
 The traditional date for the founding of Rome was the 21st 
 of April, 753 vears before the Christian era- 
 
 On the line of the Pomerium Romulus began to raise a wall. 
 One day Remus leapt over it in scorn ; whereupon Romulus slew 
 him, exclaiming, " So die whosoever hereafter 
 shall leap over my walls." Romulus now found his gatines. 
 people too few in numbers. Accordingly, he set 
 apart on the Capitoline hill an asylum, or a sanctuary, in which 
 homicides and runaway slaves might take refuge. The city thus 
 became filled with men, but they wanted women, and the inhabit- 
 ants of the neighbouring cities refused to give their daughters 
 to such an outcast race. Romulus accordingly resolved to 
 obtain by force what he could not gain by entreaty. He pro- 
 claimed that games were to be celebrated in honour of the god 
 Consus, and invited his neighbours, the Latins and Sabines, 
 to the festival. Suspecting no treachery, they came in numbers 
 with their wives and children ; when suddenly the Roman 
 youths rushed upon their guests and carried off the virgins. The 
 bereaved parents hastened home and prepared for vengeance. 
 
 The inhabitants of three of the Latin towns, Caenina, Antemnae, 
 and Crustumerium, took up arms one after the other, but were 
 
12 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. II. 
 
 defeated by the Romans. Eomulus slew with his own hand 
 
 Acron king of Caenina, and dedicated his arnas 
 
 Wars with ^nd armour, as spoUa opima, to Jupiter. These 
 
 rt S^V^^es "were offered when the commander of one army 
 slew with his own hand the commander of 
 another, and were only gained twice afterwards in Roman 
 history. 
 
 At last Titus Tatius, the king of Cures, the most powerful of the 
 Sabine states, marched against Rome. His forces were so great 
 that Romulus, unable to resist him in the field, was obliged to 
 retire into the city. Besides the city on the Palatine, Romulus 
 had also fortified the top of the Capitoline hill, which he in- 
 trusted to the care of Tarpeius. But his daughter Tarpeia, 
 dazzled by the golden bracelets of the Sabines, promised to 
 betray the hill to them " if they would give her what they 
 wore on their left arras." Her offer was accepted. In the 
 night-time she opened a gate and let in the enemy, but when 
 she claimed her reward they threw upon her the shields 
 "which they wore on their left arms," and thus crushed her 
 to death. Thus was explained the later custom of hurling 
 traitors from the Tarpeian rock. 
 
 On the next day the Romans endeavoured to recover the 
 
 hill. A long and desperate battle was fought in the valley 
 
 between the Palatine and the Capitoline. At one time the 
 
 Romans were driven before the enemy, when Romulus vowed 
 
 a temple to Jupiter Stator, the Stayer of Flight, whereupon 
 
 his men took courage and returned again to the combat. 
 
 At length the Sabine women, who were the cause of the 
 
 war, rushed in between them, and prayed their husbands and 
 
 fathers to be reconciled. Their prayers were heard : the two 
 
 people not only made peace, but agreed to form only one nation. 
 
 _ . . The Romans dwelt on the Palatine under their 
 
 the Sabines '^'"^ Romulus, the Sabines on the Capitoline 
 
 under their king Titus Tatius.* The two kings 
 
 and their senates met for deliberation in the valley between the 
 
 two hills, which was hence called Comitium, or the place of 
 
 meeting, and which afterwards became the Roman Forum. 
 
 But the double monarchy did not last long. Titus Tatius 
 
 * The Sabines were called Quirites, and this name was afterwards applied 
 to the Roman people in their civil capacity. 
 
Chap. II.] ROMULUS AND NUMA. 13 
 
 was slain at Laviniiim by some Latins to whom he had refused 
 satisfaction for outrages committed by his kinsmen. Hence- 
 forward Romulus ruled alone over both Romans and Sabines. 
 He reigned in all thirty-six years. 
 
 One day, as he was reviewing his people in the Campus 
 Martins, near the Goat's Pool, the sun was suddenly eclipsed, 
 and a dreadful storm dispersed the people. When 
 
 daylight returned Romulus had disappeared, for 5t?^ ^ ]°^ 
 1 • r^i TV r 11 ■ 1 , • , ' . ot Komulos. 
 
 ms lather Mars had carried him up to heaven m 
 
 a fiery chariot. Shortly afterwards he appeared in more than 
 
 mortal beauty to the senator Proculus Sabinus, and bade him tell 
 
 the Romans to worship him under the name of the god Quirinus. 
 
 2. Reign of Numa Pompilius, 715-673 b.c— The choice of 
 
 the people next fell upon the wise and pious Numa Pompilius, a 
 
 Salii carrying the ancilla. 
 
 native of the Sabine Cures who had married the daughter of 
 Tatius. The forty-three years of Numa's reign glided away in 
 quiet happiness without any war or any calamity. 
 
 Numa was regarded as the author of the chief religious in- 
 stitutions of the state. Instructed by the nymph 
 Egeria, whom he met in the sacred grove of Aricia, . ^. ^^^^''^^ ^^' 
 he instituted three priests called Flamens, each of Numa. 
 whom attended to the worship of separate deities 
 — Jupiter,* Mars, and Quirinus ; four Vestal Virgins, who kept 
 alive the sacred fire of Vesta brought from Alba Longa ; and 
 
 • The Flamen of Jupiter was called Flamen Dialis. 
 
14 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. II. 
 
 twelve Salii, or priests of Mars, who had the care of the sacred 
 shields.* Numa reformed the calendar, encouraged agriculture, 
 and marked out the boundaries of property, which he placed 
 under the care of the god Terminus. He also built the temple 
 of Janus, a god represented with two heads looking different 
 ways. The gates of this temple were to be open during war 
 and closed in time of peace. 
 
 3. Reign of Tullus Hostilius, 673-642 b.c. — Upon the 
 death of Numa, Tullus Hostihus, a Roman, was elected king. His 
 
 reign was as warlike as that of Numa had been 
 An!^ T peaceful. The most memorable event in it is the 
 
 destruction of Alba Longa. A quarrel having arisen 
 between the two cities, and their armies having been drawn up 
 in array against each other, the princes determined to avert the 
 battle by a combat of champions chosen from each army. 
 There were in the Roman army three brothers, i)orn at the same 
 birth, named Horatii ; and in the Alban army, in like manner, 
 three brothers, born at the same birth, and called Curiatii. The 
 two aets of brothers were chosen as champions, and it was 
 agreed that the people to whom the conquerors belonged should 
 rule the other. Two of the Horatii were slain, but the three 
 Curiatii were wounded, and the surviving Horatius, who was 
 unhurt, had recourse to stratagem. He was unable to contend 
 with the Curiatii united, but was more than a match for each of 
 them separately. Taking to flight, he was followed by his three 
 opponents at unequal distances. Suddenly turning round, he 
 slew, first one, then the second, and finally the third. The 
 Romans were declared the conquerors, and the Albans their 
 subjects. But a tragical event followed. As Horatius was 
 entering Rome, bearing his threefold spoils, his sister met him 
 and recognized on his shoulders the cloak of one of the Curiatii, 
 her betrothed lover. She burst into such passionate grief that 
 the anger of her brother was kindled, and stabbing her with 
 his sword he exclaimed, " So perish every Roman woman who 
 bewails a foe." For this murder he was condemned by the 
 two judges of blood to be hanged upon the fatal tree, but he 
 appealed to the people, and they gave him his hfe. 
 
 * TheBe shields were caUed Ancilia. One of these shields is said to have 
 fallen from beaven ; and Numa ordered eleven others to be made exactly like it, 
 that it might not be known and stolen. 
 
Chap. 11.] TULLUS HoSTlLI US— ANGUS MARClUS. 15 
 
 Shortly afterwards Tullus Hostilius made war against Fidenae 
 and the Etruscans of Veii. The Albans, under their dictator 
 Mettius Fuffetius, followed him to tlie war as the 
 subjects of Rome. In the battle against the o/lib^*' °^ 
 Etruscans the Alban dictator, faithless and in- 
 solent, withdrew to the hills; but when tlie Etruscans were 
 defeated he descended to the plain, and congratulated the 
 Roman king. Tullus pretended to be deceived. On the follow- 
 ing day he summoned the two armies to receive their praises 
 and rewards. The Albans came without arms, and were 
 surrounded by the Roman troops. They then heard their 
 sentence. Their dictator was to be torn in pieces by horses 
 driven opposite ways ; their city was to be razed to the ground ; 
 and they themselves, with their wives and children, transported 
 to Rome, Tullus assigned to them the Caelian hill for their 
 habitation. Some of the noble families of Alba were enrolled 
 among the Roman patricians, but the gi'eat mass of the Alban 
 people were not admitted to the privileges of the ruling 
 class. 
 
 After carrying on several other wars Tullus fell sick, and 
 sought to win the favour of the gods, as Numa had done, by 
 prayers and divination. But Jupiter was angry with him, and 
 smote him and his whole house with fire from heaven. Thus 
 perished Tullus after a reign of thirty-one years. 
 
 4. Reign of Angus Maecius, 642-617 b.c. — Ancus Marcius, 
 the successor of Tullus Hostilius, was a Sabine, being the son 
 of Numa's daughter. He sought to tread in the 
 footsteps of his grandfather by reviving the re- t*'?-'^'**^*-° 
 ligious ceremonies which had fallen into neglect ; 
 but a war with the Latins called him from the pursuits of 
 peace. He conquered several of the Latin cities, and removed 
 many of the inhabitants to Rome, where he assigned them the 
 Aventine for their habitation. Ancus instituted the Fetiales, 
 whose duty it was to demand satisfaction from a foreign state 
 when any dispute arose, to determine the circumstances under 
 which hostilities might be commenced, and to perform the 
 proper religious rites on the declaration of war. He also 
 founded a colony at Ostia at the mouth of the Tiber, built a 
 fortress on the Janiculum as a protection against the Etruscans, 
 and united it with the city by a bridge across the Tiber, called 
 
l« HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. It. 
 
 the Pons Sublicius because it was made of wooden piles, and 
 he erected a prison to restrain offenders. He died after a reign 
 of twenty-five years. 
 
 The Oeigwal Constitution of Rome. 
 
 From the earliest times the population of Eome was divided 
 
 into two distinct classes, the patricians and plebeians. The 
 
 patricians were the members of a certain limited 
 
 pai 1- number of noble clans (qentes). Those clans may 
 
 have represented the chief families in the tribes 
 
 •which amalgamated to form Rome, or may have been composed 
 
 of all the original settlers in the territory, but there is no clear 
 
 evidence to show how they attained their pre-eminence. The 
 
 patricians, who may originally have formed quite the larger 
 
 portion of the population, alone possessed full political and 
 
 religious privileges. They had the exclusive right of voting in 
 
 the assembly of the people, of serving in the army, and of filling 
 
 the priesthoods of the state. 
 
 All outside this select circle were known as the plehs, or 
 plebeians. They did not, however, form a simple, uniform 
 _. ... class ; for their condition depended on their origin. 
 Some of the plebeians were sprung from emanci- 
 pated slaves, and, where this servile taint could be proved to 
 exist, they were clients {clientele) * of the patrician who had 
 emancipated them, remained dependent members of his clan, 
 and owed personal duties to him as their patron (patronus) and 
 to his descendants after him. A large number had also sprung 
 from the inhabitants of conquered cities who had been deported 
 to Rome. These, too, seem to have been attached as clients to 
 patrician gentes. But one class, at least, of the plebeians, which 
 was composed of individuals who had voluntarily migrated to 
 Rome from allied cities, seems to have been personally free. 
 These plebeians formed clans of their own, did not attach them- 
 selves to the gens of a patrician, were under no obligation to a 
 patron, and bequeathed this freedom from clientship to their 
 descendants. Yet they, too, were, like the other members of 
 this order, devoid of political privileges. 
 
 The earliest constitution of Rome was a limited monarchy. 
 
 * The word cUentes is connected with clvere ("to bear"). They were de- 
 pendants who listened to their masters' bidding. 
 
Chap. II.] THE KING, 17 
 
 The king was in theory only a magistrate, to whom the people 
 had given the management of the chief business of the state ; 
 but he was a sole magistrate holding office for . 
 
 life, and his powers were so enormous that they °' 
 
 required very little straining to make his rule degenerate into a 
 tyranny. The authority of the king was expressed in the word 
 Imperium, and included supreme command in war, with the 
 power of life and death over the citizens, supreme civil and 
 criminal jurisdiction, and the sole right of summoning the people 
 and laying measures before them for their approval. 
 
 Although the actual mode of appointment of the king is 
 somewhat uncertain, it seems best to consider that it was both 
 the right and the duty of the reigning monarch to nominate his 
 successor. But this nomination was not final. The new king 
 had no right to reign until he had challenged the allegiance of 
 the people and his appointment had been ratified by them. 
 This ratification was expressed in a law of the comitia of the 
 curiae {lex curiata).* In the case of a king's dying without 
 nominating a successor, this duty fell to the senate. That body 
 appointed a series of interim-kings (inter-reges) (never less than 
 two), who held office for five days in turn, and the last of whom 
 nominated a candidate for the throne. This nomination had 
 then to be ratified by the curiae. Although tradition represents 
 the Sabine Numa, the foreigner Tarquin, and the slave's son 
 Servius as having been elected kings of Rome, it is almost certain 
 that the king had to be both a Roman citizen and a patrician — 
 qualifications that we know were required for the inter-rex. 
 
 As the king was sole magistrate, all the other officials of the 
 state were merely delegates appointed by him. Chief of these 
 was the prefect of the city, an official left behind for the control 
 of the capital when the king was absent in the field. 
 
 The whole of the patrician population of Rome is said to 
 have been divided by Romulus into three tribes (trihus), each 
 of which was held to represent one of the three . . 
 
 nationalities present in the Roman state. The *„; w* rician 
 Ramnes were the original Romans of Romulus, 
 the Titles (or Titienses) the Sabines of Titus Tatius, while the 
 Luceres were regarded as Etruscan. Closely connected with 
 this division was the corps of 300 knights {equites), each tribe 
 
 * See next page. 
 
18 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. II. 
 
 supplying a " century " of 100 men. The number is said to have 
 been doubled by Tiillus HostiHus, and 600 probably remained 
 the maximum for this corps until the time of Servius Tulhus. 
 
 Each of the tribes was further subdivided into ten parishes 
 called "curiae." Each of these thirty curies had its peculiar 
 _ . worship and chapel ; but their importance was 
 
 chiefly political. In the popular assembly the 
 votes of each curia were first taken, and all questions were 
 decided by a majority of these groups. Hence this assembly, 
 . . composed at this time exclusively of patricians, 
 coriata ^^^ known as the " comitia curiata." This was 
 
 nominally the sovereign body of Rome, which the 
 king was morally bound to consult on all questions of legislation 
 and all changes in the constitution. It also listened to appeals 
 from the king's criminal jurisdiction, but only on his permission, 
 for there was as yet no law giving every one the right of 
 appealing against his judgments.* The comitia had no power 
 of debate, and could only answer " Yes " or " No " to the 
 question put before it by the king. 
 
 The assembly, fettered as it was by its dependence on the 
 king, could be no real check on his authority. The greatest 
 _, limitation on his power was supplied by the ever- 
 
 present council of elders, the senate, composed, 
 we are told, originally of 100, afterwards of 200 members. This 
 council was chosen by the king from the heads of the patrician 
 families (hence its members were called patres), and, though 
 in theory only an advising body, the age and experience of its 
 members led it to gain certain definite prerogatives. One of the 
 fundamental principles of the Roman commonwealth, that a 
 magistrate should never undertake an important matter without 
 consulting a body of advisers, was the reason both of the 
 existence and of the power of the senate. 
 
 Most of the foregoing institutions were naturally attributed 
 to the founder Romulus. Another series of creations, all of a 
 religious character, were attached to the name of the priest-king 
 Numa. Besides the priesthoods and the worships 
 
 The priestly 
 colleges. 
 
 which we have already mentioned, he was held to 
 have instituted the two gi'eat religious colleges of 
 Pontiffs and Augurs. The four Pontiffs were the interpreters of 
 * Compare ch. iii. p. 32. 
 
Chap. II.] 
 
 THE PRIESTLY COLLEGES. 
 
 19 
 
 the sacred law {jus divinum), which, besides directing the ritual 
 of the priesthoods, inchided in these early times most of the 
 criminal and civil law. The four Augurs were the interpreters 
 of omens and portents. The Romans believed that relicrious 
 guidance could be obtained for almost every act of their daily 
 life. When starting on an enterprise they looked for the will 
 of the gods in the changing expressions of the sky, in the flight 
 of birds or the manner in which they fed, and in the marks on 
 the vitals of slain animals. The meaning of these signs was 
 interpreted by the Augurs, and thus they largely guided the 
 actions of the state. The king himself was Chief Pontiff 
 {Pontifex Maximns), and thus the head of the religious as 
 he was of the civil life of the community. 
 
 ^^==^^iP^ 
 
 Augur's victims. 
 
Bemains of the Servian walli 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THK LAST THREE KINGS OF ROME, AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OP 
 THE REPUBLIC DOWN TO THE BATTLE OF THE LAKE KE61LLUS. 
 616-498 B.C. 
 
 The Etruscan 
 dynasty. 
 
 5. Reign of Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, or the Elder Tar- 
 QoiN, 616-579 B.C. — The fifth king of Rome was an Etruscan 
 by birth, but .a Greek by descent. His father 
 Demaratus was a wealthy citizen of Corinth, 
 who settled in the Etruscan city of Tarquinii, 
 where he married an Etruscan wife. Their son wedded 
 Tanaquil, who belonged to one of the noblest families in Tar- 
 quinii, and himself became a Lucumo* or a noble in the state. 
 But he aspired to still higher honours; and, urged on by his 
 wife, who was an ambitious woman, he resolved to try his 
 
 * This was an Etruscan word originally meaning an " insane " or " frenzied " 
 person. It was thus applied to any one supposed to be inspired. 
 
Chap. III.] TARQUINIUS PRISCUS. 21 
 
 fortune at Eome. Accordingly he set out for this city, accom- 
 panied by a large train of followers. When he had reached 
 the Janicuhim an eagle seized his cap, and, after carrying it 
 away to a great height, placed it again upon his head. Tanaquil, 
 who was skilled in the Etruscan science of augury, bade her 
 husband hope for the highest honours. Her predictions were 
 soon verified. He took the name of Lucius Tarquinius, and 
 gained the favour both of Ancus Marcius and the people. 
 Ancus appointed the stranger guardian of his children ; and, 
 when he died, the senate and the people unanimously elected 
 Tarquin to the vacant throne. 
 
 The reign of Tarquin was distinguished by great exploits in 
 war and by great works in peace. He defeated the Sabines, and 
 took their town Collatia, which he placed under 
 his nephew Egerius, who was thence called Colla- .^^^^ Tarauin 
 tinns. He also captured many of the Latin towns, 
 and became the ruler of all Latium ; but the important works 
 which he executed in peace have rendered his name still more 
 famous. The great cloacae, or sewers, by which he drained 
 the lower parts of the city, still remain, after so many ages, 
 with not a stone displaced. He laid out the Circus Maximus, 
 and instituted the Great or Roman games performed in the 
 circus. He also made some changes in the constitution of 
 the state. He added to the senate 100 new members, taken 
 from the Luceres, the third tribe, and called patres minornm 
 gentium to distinguish them from the old senators, who were 
 now termed patres majorwa gentium ; the numbers of this 
 council were thus raised to 300. The number of vestal virgins 
 was also increased from four to six, the two new vestals being 
 probably taken from the Luceres. 
 
 Tarquin had a favourite, Servius Tullius, said to have been 
 the son of a female slave taken at the capture of the Latin 
 town Corniculum. His infancy was marked by prodigies which 
 foreshadowed his future greatness. On one occasion a flame 
 played around his head, as he was asleep, without hurting him. 
 Tanaquil foresaw the greatness of the boy, and from this time 
 he was brought up as the king's child. Tarquin afterwards 
 gave him his daughter in marriage, and left the government in 
 his hands. But the sons of Ancus Marcius, fearing lest Tarquin - 
 should transmit the crown to his son-in-law, hired two country* 
 
22 
 
 HISTORY OP ROME. 
 
 [Chap. III. 
 
 men to assassinate the king. These men, feigning to have a 
 quarrel, came before the king to have their dispute decided; 
 and while he was listening to the complaint of one, the 
 other gave him a deadly wound with his axe. But the sons of 
 Ancus did not reap the fruit of their crime ; for Tanaquil, pre- 
 tending that the king's wound was not mortal, told them that 
 he would soon return, and that he had, meantime, appointed 
 
 The Cloaca Maxima. 
 
 Servius to act in his stead. Servius forthwith proceeded to 
 discharge the duties of king, greatly to the satisfaction of the 
 people ; and when the death of Tarquin could no longer be 
 concealed, he was already in firm possession of the regal power. 
 Tarquin had reigned thirty-seven years. 
 
 6. Servius Tullius, 578-535 b.c. — Servius thus succeeded 
 to the throne by the strictly recognized method of nomination. 
 
Chap. III.] THE SERVIAN CONSTITUTION. 23 
 
 The reign of this king is almost as barren of military ex- 
 ploits as that of Numa. His great deeds were those of peace; 
 and he was regarded by posterity as the author 
 of the later Roman constitution, jnst as Romulus 1,^^,7?™^ 
 was of the earlier. Three important acts are 
 assigned to Servius by universal tradition. Of these the greatest 
 was — 
 
 (1) The reform of the Roman constitution. In this reform his 
 main object was to distribute the burdens of taxation and military 
 service as evenly as possible amongst all the 
 members of the state. The effect of his scheme ^Qs^ution^* 
 was to give to the wealthy classes as a whole the 
 influence which had formerly depended on patrician birth, and 
 thus to grant privileges to the well-to-do plebeians. To carry 
 his purpose into effect he made a twofold division of the Roman 
 people, one according to their residence, the other according to 
 their property. 
 
 (a) It must be recollected that the only existing political 
 organization was the division into three tribes, and of these 
 tribes into thirty curiie, composed exclusively of patrician 
 gentes ; but Servius now divided the whole Roman territory 
 into Four Tribes, and, as this division was simply local, these 
 tribes contained plebeians as well as patricians. But though 
 the institution of these local tribes made the plebeians members 
 of the state, it conferred upon them no right to take part in 
 the elections, or in the management of public affairs, for the 
 powers of electing the king and of ratifying the laws were 
 possessed exclusively by the purely patrician " comitia curiata." 
 
 (b) The means by which Servius indirectly gave the plebeians 
 a share in the government was by dividing the whole body of 
 citizens into classes according to their wealth for 
 
 the purposes of taxation and the military levy. Servian 
 
 But this new arrangement was soon made the 
 basis of a new Popular Assembly, in which patricians and ple- 
 beians alike voted. The result of the arrangement was that the 
 wealthiest persons, whether patricians or plebeians, possessed the 
 chief power. In order to ascertain the property of each citizen, 
 Servius instituted the Census, which was a register of Roman 
 citizens and their property. All Roman citizens possessing a 
 certain amount of landed property afterwards valued at 12,500 
 
24 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. III. 
 
 asses and upwards * were divided into five great Classes. The 
 First Class contained tlie richest citizens, the Second Class the 
 next in point of wealth, and so on. The whole arrangement was 
 of a military character. Each of the five Classes was divided 
 into a certain number of Centuries or Companies, half of which 
 consisted of Elders (Seniores) from the age of 46 to 60, and half 
 of younger members {Juniores) from the age of 18 to 46. All 
 the Classes had to provide their own arms and armour, but the 
 expense of the equipment was in proportion to the wealth of 
 each Class. The Five Classes formed the infantry {fedites). 
 To these five classes were added two centuries of smiths and 
 carpenters, and two of trumpeters and horn-blowers. These four 
 centuries voted with the Classes. Those persons whose property 
 did not amount to 12,500 asses were not included in the Classes, 
 and formed a single century. 
 
 At the head of the Classes were the Equites or cavalry. These 
 consisted of eighteen centuries, six being the old patrician 
 Equites, as founded by Romulus and augmented by Tarquinius 
 Prisons, and the other twelve being chosen from the chief 
 plebeian families.f 
 
 * The as was originally a pound weight of copper of twelve ounces. Although 
 the census is always given in terms nf cupper money, there is little doubt that 
 originally it was an assessmeut on hides of land (^jugera), and perhaps on sheep 
 and cattle. 
 
 t The following table will show the census of each class, and the number of 
 centuries which each contained : — 
 
 Equites. — Centuriae 18 
 
 First Class. -^Ceusvis, 100,000 asses and upwards. 
 
 Centuriae Seiiiorum 40^ 
 
 Centuriae Juniorum 4ol82 
 
 Centuriae Fabrum (smiths and carpenters) ... 2/ 
 Second Class. — Census, 75,000 asses aLd upwards. 
 
 Centuriae Seniorum '*'l.>n 
 
 Centuriae Juniorum 10/ 
 
 Third Cktsi. — Census, 50,000 asses and upwards. 
 
 Centuriae Seniorum '"IsD 
 
 Centuriae Juniorum 10 i 
 
 20 
 
 Fourth Class. — Census, 25,000 asses and upwards. 
 
 Centuriae Seniorum 101 
 
 Centuriae Juniorum 
 
 Fifth Class.— Census, 12,500 asses and upwards. 
 
 Centuriae Seniorum 15 \ 
 
 Centuriae Juniorum 15 >32 
 
 Centuriae cornicinum, tubicinum 2 I 
 
 Centuria capite censorum 1 
 
 ^um total of the centiiriae ... ... ... ,. ... 193 
 
Chap. III.] THE COMITIA CENTURIATA. 25 
 
 The Centuries formed the new National Assembly, They 
 mustered as an army in the Campus Martins, or the Field of 
 Mars, on the banks of the Tiber outside the city. 
 They voted by Centuries, and were hence called „eIf^.^ri°t 
 the Comitia Centuriata. Each Century counted 
 as one vote, but did not consist of the same number of men. 
 On the contrary, in order to give the preponderance to wealth, 
 the first or richest class contained a far greater number of 
 centuries than any of the other classes (as will be seen from 
 the table on p. 24), althougli they must at the same time have 
 included a much smaller number of men. The Equites and 
 First Class alone amounted to 100 centuries, or more than half 
 of the total number; so that, if they agreed to vote the same 
 way, they possessed at once an absolute majority. An advantage 
 was also given to age ; for the Seniores, though possessing an 
 equal number of votes, must of course have been very inferior 
 in number to the Juniores. 
 
 This system, therefore, only admitted to power the classes 
 who possessed a certain amount of wealth, but it was far more 
 a government by the people than the rule of the patrician nobles 
 which it replaced. The Comitia Centuriata became the sovereign 
 assembly of the nation ; it finally usurped from the Comitia 
 Curiata the right of ratifying the election of kings and magistrates, 
 of enacting and repealing laws, and of deciding in cases of appeal 
 from the sentence of a judge. Eventually the Coinitia Curiata 
 came itself to include plebeians. This old assembly was not 
 abolished, and a trace of its ancient ascendency remained in the 
 formality of the lex curiata* which even in the Republic was 
 required to ratify the election of a magistrate with imperium. 
 
 (2) The second great work of Servius was the extension of 
 the Pomerium, or hallowed boundary of the city, and the 
 completion of the city by incorporating with it . 
 
 the Quirinal, Viminal, and Esquiline hills.f He t^e^crty"^ 
 surrounded the whole with a stone wall, called 
 after him the wall of Servius Tullius ; and from the Porta 
 Collina to the Esquiline Gate, where the hills sloped gently to 
 
 • .See p. 17. 
 
 + The celebrated seven hills upon which Rome stood were the Palatine, A ventine, 
 Capitoline, Caelian, Quirinal, Viminal, and Esquiline. The Mons Pincius was 
 not included within the Servian Wall, 
 
26 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. III. 
 
 the plain, he constructed a gigantic mound nearly a mile in 
 length and a moat 100 feet in breadth and thirty in depth, from 
 which the earth of the mound was dug. Rome thus acquired 
 a circumference of five miles, and this continued to be the legal 
 extent of the city till the time of the emperors, although suburbs 
 were added to it. 
 
 (3) An important alliance with the Latins, by which Rome 
 and the cities of Latium became the members of 
 the L^^lfii^ one great league, was one of the great events 
 which distinguished the reign of Servius. 
 
 Servius gave his two daughters in marriage to the two sons ' 
 of Tarquinius Priscus. Lucius, the elder, was married to a 
 quiet and gentle wife ; Aruns, the younger, to an aspiring and 
 ambitious woman. The character of the two brothers was the 
 very opposite of the wives who had fallen to their lot ; for 
 Lucius was restless and haughty, but Aruns retiring and un- 
 ambitious. The wife of Aruns, enraged at the long life of her 
 father, and fearing that at his death her husband would tamely 
 resign the sovereignty to his elder brother, resolved to murder 
 both her father and husband." Her fiendish spirit put into the 
 heart of Lucius thoughts of crime which he had never enter- 
 tained before. Lucius made away with his wife, and the 
 younger Tullia with her husband ; and the survivors, without 
 even the show of mourning, were straightway joined in un- 
 hallowed wedlock. Tullia now incessantly urged her husband 
 to murder her father, and thus obtain the kingdom which he 
 so ardently coveted. Tarquin formed a conspiracy with the 
 patricians, who were enraged at the reforms of Servius ; and 
 when the plot was ripe he entered the forum arrayed in the 
 kingly robes, seated himself in the royal chair in the senate- 
 house, and ordered the senators to be summoned to him as 
 their king. 
 
 At the first news of the commotion Servius hastened to the 
 senate-house, and, standing at the doorway, bade Tarquin to 
 come down from the throne ; but Tarquin sprang 
 g ^* . forward, seized the old man, and flung him down 
 
 the stone steps. Covered with blood, the king 
 staggered home ; but, before he reached it, he was overtaken 
 by the servants of Tarquin, and murdered. Tullia drove to 
 the senate-house and greeted her husband as king; but her 
 
Chap. III.] DEATH OF SERVIUS TULLIUS. 27 
 
 transports of joy struck even him with horror. He bade 
 her go home ; and, as she was returning, her charioteer 
 pulled up and pointed out the corpse of her father lying in 
 his blood across the road. She commanded him to drive 
 on : the blood of her father spurted over the carriage and 
 on her dress ; and from that day forward the place bore the 
 name of the Wicked Street. The body lay unburied; for 
 Tarquin said scofSngly, " Romulus too went without burial ; " 
 and this impious mockery is said to have given rise to his 
 surname of Superbus, or the Proud. Servius had reigned forty- 
 three years. 
 
 7. Reign of Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, or The Proud, 
 535-510 B.C. — Tarquin commenced his reign without any of 
 the forms of election. One of his first acts was 
 to abolish all the privileges which had been con- ^'^l^^^^'^s 
 ferred upon the plebeians by Servius. He also 
 compelled the poor to work at miserable wages upon his 
 magnificent buildings, and the hardships which they suffered 
 were so great that many put an end to their lives. But he did 
 not confine his oppressions to the poor. All the senators and 
 patricians whom he mistrusted, or whose wealth he coveted, 
 were put to death or driven into exile. He surrounded himself 
 with a body-guard, by whose means he was enabled to carry 
 out his designs. 
 
 But, although a tyrant at home, he raised the state to great 
 influence and power among the surrounding nations, partly by 
 his alliances and partly by his conquests. He 
 gave his daughter in marriage to Octavius Supremacy or 
 Mamilius of Tusculum, the most powerful of the Latium. 
 Latins, by whose means he acquired great influ- 
 ence in Latium. Any Latin chiefs like Turnus Herdonius, 
 who attempted to resist him, were treated as traitors, and 
 punished with death. At the solemn meeting of the Latins 
 at the Alban Mount, Tarquin sacrificed the bull on behalf 
 of all the allies, and distributed the flesh to the people of the 
 league. 
 
 Strengthened by this Latin alliance, Tarquin turned his arms 
 against the Volscians. He took the wealthy town of Suessa 
 Pometia, wiih the spoils of which he commenced the erection of 
 a magnificent temple on the Capitoline hill, which his father 
 
28 HISTORY" OF ROME. [Chap. III. 
 
 had vowed. This temple was dedicated to the three gods of 
 the Latin and Etruscan rehgions, Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. 
 A human head {caput), fresh bleeding and undecayed, is said 
 to have been found by the workmen as they were digging 
 the foundations, and being accepted as a sign that the place 
 was destined to become the head of the world, the name of 
 Capitoltum was given to the temple, and thence to the 
 hill. In a stone vault beneath were deposited the Sibylline 
 books, containing obscure and prophetic sayings. One day 
 a sibyl, a prophetess from Cumse, appeared before the king 
 and offered to sell him nine books. Upon his refusing to 
 buy them she went away and burned three, and then de- 
 manded the same sum for the remaining six as she had 
 asked for the nine. But the king laughed, whereupon she 
 again burnt three, and then demanded the same sum as before 
 for the remaining three. Wondering at this strange conduct, 
 the king piirchased the books. They were placed under the 
 care of two patricians, and were consulted when the state was 
 in danger. 
 
 Tarquin next attacked Gabii, one of the Latin cities which 
 refused to enter into the league. Unable to take the city by 
 force, he had recourse to stratagem. His son, Sextus, pretending 
 to be illtreated by his father, and covered with the bloody marks 
 of stripes, fled to Gabii. The infatuated inhabitants intrusted 
 him with the command of their troops; and when he had 
 obtained the unlimited confidence of the citizens, he sent a 
 messenger to his father to inquire how he should deliver the 
 city into his hands. The king, who was walking in his garden 
 when the messenger arrived, made no reply, but kept striking 
 off the heads of the tallest poppies with his stick. Sextus took 
 the hint. He put to death or banished, on false charges, all 
 the leading men of the place, and then had no difficulty in com- 
 pelling it to submit to his father. 
 
 In the midst of his prosperity Tarquin was troubled by a 
 strange portent. A serpent crawled out from the altar in the 
 Brutus rojdl palace, and seized on the entrails of the 
 
 victim. The king, in fear, sent his two sons, 
 Titus and Aruns, to consult the famous oracle of the Greeks at 
 Delphi. They were accompanied by their cousin, L. Junius 
 Brutus. One of the sisters of Tarquin had been married to 
 
Chap. III.] 
 
 TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS. 
 
 29 
 
 M. Brutus, a man of great wealth, who died, leaving two sons 
 under age.* Of these the elder was killed by Tarquin, who 
 coveted their possessions ; the younger escaped his brother's 
 fate only by feigning idiotcy. On arriving at Delphi, Brutus 
 propitiated the priestess with the gift of a golden stick enclosed 
 in a hollow staff. After executing the king's commission, Titus 
 and Aruns asked the priestess who was to reign at Rome after 
 their father. The priestess replied, whichsoever should first kiss 
 his mother. The princes agreed to keep the matter secret from 
 Sextus, who was at Rome, and to cast lots between themselves. 
 Brutus, who better understood the meanmg of the oracle, fell, 
 as if by chance, when they quitted the temple, and kissed the 
 earth, the mother of them all. 
 
 Soon afterwards Tarquin laid siege to Ardea, a city of the 
 Rutulians. The place could not be taken by force, and the 
 Roman army lay encamped beneath the walls. 
 Here, as the king's sons, and their cousin Tar- g ™® °£ 
 quinius Collatinus, were feasting together, a dis- quinius. 
 pute arose about the virtue of their wives. As 
 nothing was doing in the field, they mounted their horses to 
 visit their homes by surprise. They first went to Rome, where 
 they surprised the princes' wives at a splendid banquet. 
 They then hastened to Collatia, and there, though it was late 
 in the night, they found Lucretia, the wife of Collatinus, 
 spinning amid her handmaids. The beauty and virtue of 
 Lucretia excited the evil passions of Sextus. A few days after 
 he returned to Collatia, where he was hospitably received by 
 Lucretia as her husband's kinsman. In the dead of night he 
 
 * The following genealogical table exhibits the relationship of the family :— 
 Demaratus of Corinth. 
 
 Taequinius PRiscns. 
 
 I 
 
 Tarquinia, 
 
 married 
 
 Servius Tullius. 
 
 M. Brutus, 
 
 put to 
 
 death by 
 
 Tarquinius. 
 
 I 
 Tarquinia, 
 
 married 
 
 M. Brutus. 
 
 I 
 
 L. Brutus, 
 
 the 
 
 Consul. 
 
 L. Tarquinius 
 
 SUPEBBUS. 
 
 Aruns. 
 
 Egerius, 
 commander of 
 Collatia. 
 
 Titus. Sextus. Aruns. 
 
 Tarquinius 
 
 Collatinus, 
 
 married 
 
 Lucretia; 
 
30 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. III. 
 
 entered her chamber with a drawn sword, threatening that, if 
 she did not yield to his desires he would kill her and lay by her 
 side a slave with his throat cut, and would declare that he had 
 killed them both taken in adultery. Fear of such a shame 
 forced Lucretia to consent ; but, as soon as Sextus had departed, 
 she sent for her husband and father. Collatinus came, accom- 
 panied by L. Brutus ; her father, Lucretius, brought with him 
 P. Valerius. They found her in an agony of sorrow. She told 
 them what had happened, enjoined them to avenge her dis- 
 honour, and then stabbed herself to the heart. They all swore 
 to avenge her. Brutus threw off his assumed stupidity, and 
 placed himself at their head. They carried the corpse into the 
 market-place of Collatia. There the people took up arms, and 
 renounced the Tarquins. A number of young men attended 
 the funeral procession to Rome. Brutus summoned the people, 
 and related the deed of shame. All classes were inflamed with 
 the same indignation. 
 
 A decree was passed deposing the king, and banishing him 
 
 and his family from the city. Brutus now set out for the army 
 
 at Ardea. Tarquinius meantime had hastened 
 
 jjown * to Rome, but found the gates closed against him. 
 
 the monarcliy. ^ . ' ■ a -^-u ■ ^ a j j 
 
 Brutus was received with joy at Ardea ; and 
 
 the army renounced their allegiance to the tyrant. Tarquin, 
 with his two sons, Titus and Aruns, took refuge at Caer^, 
 in Etruria. Sextus fled to Gabii, where he was shortly after 
 murdered by the friends of those whom he had put to death. 
 
 Tarquin had reigned twenty-five years when he was driven 
 out of Rome. In memory of this event an annual festival was 
 celebrated on the 24th of February, called the Regifugium or 
 Fugalia. 
 
 The Republic. — Thus ended monarchy at Rome. Here, 
 however, the revolution stopped. The form of the constitution 
 remained unaltered; but the power of the chief 
 consuls magistrate was limited in three ways. The office 
 
 was no longer entrusted to a single individual, the 
 time for which it might be held was shortened, and direct election 
 by the people was substituted for the older principle of nomina- 
 tion. Two men of equal authority, who held office only for a 
 year, were entrusted with the regal imferium. Each was given 
 the power of commanding, judging, and proposing laws, and each 
 
Chap. III.] THE REPUBLIC. 31 
 
 with the power of overriding his colleague's actions. In later 
 times they were called Consuls, but at their first institution they 
 were named Praetors.* They were elected by the Comitia Cen- 
 turiata, and possessed the honoui's and most of the emblems of 
 authority {insignia) of the king. The first consuls were L. 
 Brutus and Tarquinius Collatinus (509 B.C.). But the people 
 so hated the very name and race of Tarquin, that Collatinus 
 was obliged to resign his office and retire from Kome. P. Valerius 
 was elected consul in his place. 
 
 Meantime ambassadors came to Rome from Tarquin, asking 
 that his private property should be given up to him. The 
 demand seemed just to the senate and the people ; but while 
 the ambassadors were making preparation for carrying away 
 the property, they formed a conspiracy among the young 
 Roman nobles for the restoration of the royal family. The plot 
 was discovered by means of a slave, and among the con- 
 spirators were found the two sons of Brutus himself. But the 
 consul would not pardon his guilty children, and ordered the 
 lictors t to put them to death with the other traitors. The 
 agreement to surrender the property was made void by this 
 attempt at treason, and the royal goods were given up to the 
 people to plunder. 
 
 As the plot had failed, Tarquin now endeavoured to recover 
 
 the throne by arms. The people of Tarquinii and Veil espoused 
 
 the cause of their Etruscan kinsmen, and marched 
 
 VTar with th6 
 agamst Rome. The two consuls advanced to xjtniscans 
 
 meet them. When Aruns, the king's son, saw 
 
 Brutus at the head of the Roman cavalry he spurred his horse 
 
 to the charge. Brutus did not shrink from the combat ; and 
 
 both fell from their horses mortally wounded by each other's 
 
 spears. A desperate battle between the two armies now 
 
 followed. Both parties claimed the victory, till a voice was 
 
 heard in the dead of night, proclaiming that the Romans had 
 
 conquered, as the Etruscans had lost one man more. Alarmed 
 
 at this, the Etruscans fled ; and Valerius, the surviving consul, 
 
 returned to Rome, carrying with him the dead body of Brutus. 
 
 » Cf. p. 62. 
 
 ■{• The lictores were public officers who attended upon the Roman magistrate. 
 Each consul had twelve lictors. They cnrried upon their shoulders fasces, 
 which were rods bound in the form of a bundle, and containing an axe in the 
 middle. 
 
32 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. III. 
 
 The matrons mourned for Brutus a whole year, because he had 
 revenged the death of Lucre tia, 
 
 Valerius was now left without a colleague ; and as he began 
 to build a house on the top of the hill Velia, which looked 
 down upon the forum, the people feared that he was aiming at 
 kingly power. Thereupon Valerius not only pulled down the 
 house, but, calling an assembly of the people, he ordered the 
 lictors to lower the fasces before them, as an acknowledgment 
 that their power was superior to his. He likewise brought 
 forward a law enacting that every citizen who was condemned 
 by a magisti'ate to be executed, should have a right of appeal to 
 the people. Valerius became in consequence so popular that he 
 received the surname of Publicola, or " The People's Friend." 
 
 Valerius then summoned an assembly for the election of a 
 successor to Brutus ; and Sp. Lucretius was chosen. Lucretius, 
 however, lived only a few days, and M. Horatius was elected 
 consul in his place. It was Horatius who had the honour of 
 consecrating the temple on the Capitol, which Tarquin had left 
 unfinished when he was driven from the throne. 
 
 The second year of the republic (508 B.C.) witnessed the 
 second attempt of Tarquin to recover the crown. He now 
 applied for help to Lars Porsena, the powerful 
 besiece Borne '""^^'" ^^ ^^^ Etruscan town of Clusium, who 
 marched against Rome at the head of a vast army. 
 The Romans could not meet him in the field; and Porsena 
 seized without opposition the Janiculum, a hill immediately 
 opposite the city, and separated from it only by the Tiber. 
 
 Rome was now in the greatest danger, and the Etruscans 
 would have entered the city by the Sublician bridge had not 
 Horatius Codes, with two comrades, kept the 
 whole Etruscan army at bay while the Romans 
 broke down the bridge behind him. When it was giving way 
 he sent back his two companions, and withstood alone the 
 attacks of the foe till tbe cracks of the falling timbers and the 
 shouts of his countrymen told him that the bridge had fallen. 
 Then praying, " Father Tiber, take me into thy charge and 
 bear me up ! " he plunged into the stream and swam across in 
 safety amid the arrows of the enemy. The state raised a 
 statue in his honour, and allowed him as much land as he could 
 plough round in one day. Few legends are more celebrated ia 
 
Chap. III.] ATTEMPTS TO RESTORE THE TARQUINS. 33 
 
 Roman story than this gallant deed of Horatius, and Roman 
 writers loved to tell 
 
 •♦ How well Horatius kept the bridge 
 In the brave days of old." 
 
 The Etruscans now proceeded to lay siege to the city, which 
 soon hegan to suifer from famine. Thereupon a young Roman, 
 named C. Mncius, resolved to deliver his CQuntry hy murdering 
 the invading king. He accordingly went over to the Etruscan 
 camp ; but, ignorant of the person of Porsena, killed the royal 
 secretary instead. Seized and threatened with torture, he thrust 
 his right hand into the lire on the altar, and there let it burn, 
 to show how little he heeded pain. Astonished at his courage, 
 the king bade him depart in safetj'^ ; and Mucins, out of gratitude, 
 advised him to make peace with Rome, since three hundred 
 noble youths, he said, had sworn to take the life of the king, 
 and he was the first upon whom the lot had fallen. Mucins 
 was henceforward called Scaevola, or the Left-handed, because 
 his right hand had been burnt off. Porsena, alarmed for his 
 life, which he could not secure against so many desperate men, 
 forthwith offered peace to the Romans on condition of their 
 restoring to the Veientines the land which they had taken from 
 them. These terms were accepted, and Porsena withdrew hia 
 troops from the Janiculum, after receiving ten youths and ten 
 maidens as hostages from the Romans. Cloelia, one of the 
 maidens, escaped from the Etruscan camp, and swam across 
 the Tiber to Rome. She was sent back by the Romans to 
 Porsena, who was so amazed at her courage that he not only 
 set her at liberty, but allowed her to take with her those of the 
 hostages whom she pleased. 
 
 Thus ended the second attempt to restore the Tarquins by 
 force.* 
 
 After Porsena quitted Rome, Tarquin took refuge with his 
 son-in-law, Octavius Mamilius of Tusculum. The 
 thirty Latin cities now espoused the cause of the ratinleaB'ne* 
 exiled king, and declared war against Rome. 
 
 The Romans in their peril had recourse to a dictatorship. 
 
 * There is, however, reason to believe that these brilliant stories conceal one 
 of the earliest and greatest disasters of the city. It is probable that Rome was 
 really conquered by Porsena, and lost all the territory which the kings had 
 gained on the right side of the Tiber. 
 
 D 
 
34 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. III. 
 
 This was a temporary revival of the monarchy for the purpose 
 of meeting some emergency, whether within or without the 
 
 city, which seemed beyond the powers of the 
 of ft d'ctfttor ordinary magistrates with their divided authority. 
 
 The dictator was nominated by one of the consuls, 
 and held office only for six months. His absolute power was 
 shown by the fact that the lictors attending him bore the axes 
 in the fasces even within the city, to signify that from him, as 
 from the kings, there was no appeal. From the time of his ap- 
 pointment the independent powers of all other magistrates ceased, 
 and the only other authority was exercised by his lieutenant, 
 the Master of the Horse, who commanded the cavalry. A. 
 Postumius was appointed Dictator, and he named T. Aebutius 
 Master of the Horse ; at the head of the Latins were Tarquin 
 and Octavius Marailius. The armies met near the lake Regillus, 
 and the struggle was fierce and bloody, but the Latins at length 
 fled. Almost all the chiefs on either side fell in the conflict, 
 or were grievously wounded. Titus, the son of Tarquin, was 
 killed ; and the aged king was wounded, but escaped with his 
 life. It was related in the old tradition, that the Romans gained 
 this battle by the assistance of the " Great Twin Brethren," 
 Castor and Pollux, who were seen charging the Latins at the 
 head of the Roman cavalry, and who afterwards carried to Rome 
 the tidings of the victory. A temple was built in the forum 
 on the spot where they appeared, and their festival was cele- 
 brated yearly. 
 
 This was the third and last attempt to restore the Tarquins. 
 The Latins were completely humbled by this victory. Tar- 
 quinius Superbus had no other state to which he could apply 
 for assistance. He had already survived all his family ; and he 
 now fled to Cumae, where he died a wretched and childless old 
 man (496 B.C.). 
 
 Coin representing the children of Brutus led to death by lictors. 
 
The Oampagiia. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 FROM THE BATTLE OF THE LAKE REGILLU8 TO THE 
 DECEMVIRATE. 498-451 B.a 
 
 The infant Republic was now saved from its immediate danger, 
 
 a forcible restoration of the monarchy ; but the state was for 
 
 a long time in the most grievous peril : it needed consolidation 
 
 from within, and was at the same time mercilessly attacked by 
 
 enemies from without. 
 
 The internal history of Rome during this period is marked 
 
 by the strng2:le between the patricians and plebeians, who 
 
 formed two distinct orders in the state. After the 
 
 „ , 1 . ,, , • • i • J Grievances of 
 
 bamshment of the kmgs, the patricians retained ^^^ plebeians. 
 
 exclusive possession of political power. The 
 
 plebeians, it is true, could vote in the Comitia Centnriata ; but, 
 
 as they were mostly poor, they were outvoted by the patricians 
 
 and their clients. The consulship and all other magistracies 
 
36 > HISTORr OF ROME. [Chap. IV. 
 
 were legally confined to the patricians, so that the executive 
 power was entirely in their hands, while the pontiffs, who were 
 the authorized interpreters of the law, were drawn entirely from 
 that order. The state was still practically governed by a 
 handful of nobles, and there was no possibility of bridging 
 the gulf between the classes; for intermarriage between the 
 orders was forbidden, and in the sacred rites of the patrician 
 clans the plebeians had no share. 
 
 The plebeians had to complain, not only of disadvantages in 
 social and public life, but also of private wrongs. The law of 
 debtor and creditor was very severe at Rome. An agreement 
 called nexum was often concluded, by which the debtor pledged 
 his body and his future services for the repayment of the loan, 
 and if the borrower did not refund the money by the time 
 agreed upon, his person was seized by the creditor, and he was 
 obliged to work as a slave.* Slavery was also the penalty for 
 ordinary debts ; and if there were more creditors than one, the 
 debtor's body might be cut in pieces and divided among them. 
 The whole weight of this oppressive law fell upon the plebeians ; 
 and what rendered the case still harder was that they were 
 frequently compelled, through no fault of their own, to become 
 borrowers. They were small landholders, living by cultivating 
 the soil with their own hands ; but as they had to serve in the 
 army without pay, they had no means of engaging labourers in 
 their absence. Hence on their return home they were left 
 without the means of subsistence or of purchasing seed for the 
 next crop, and borrowing was their only resource. 
 
 Another circumstance still further aggravated the hardships 
 of the plebeians. The state possessed a large quantity of land 
 called Ager Publicus, or the " PubHc Land." This land origin- 
 ally belonged to the kings, partly for their own use, partly in 
 trust for the people ; and it was constantly increased by con- 
 quest, as it was the practice, on the subjugation of a people, to 
 deprive them of a certain portion of their land. This public 
 land was either divided amongst the poorer citizens or left by 
 the state to any occupier subject to a rent ; but as the patricians 
 possessed the political power, they occupied the pubHc land 
 themselves, and paid for it only a nominal rent. Thus the 
 plebeians, by whose blood and unpaid toil much of this land 
 
 * Debtors thus given over to their creditors were called next. 
 
Chap. IV.] FIRST SECESSION OF THE PLEBS. 37 
 
 had been won, were excluded from all share in the fruits of 
 
 their conquest. 
 
 The struggle that ensued was, therefore, partly social, partly 
 
 political. But protection was what the plebeians desired even 
 
 more than power; the cruelty of the patrician 
 
 creditors was the most pressing evil, and led to ^}^^^ V'^^^' 
 •r An , ,1 11- fi sion 01 tne 
 
 the first reform. In 494 b.c. the plebeians, after plebeians. 
 
 a campaign against the Volscians, instead of 
 returning to Eome, suddenly turned aside to the Sacred Mount, 
 a hill about three miles from the city, near the junction of the 
 Anio and the Tiber. Here they determined to settle and found 
 a new town, leaving Rome to the patricians and their clients'. 
 This event is known as the Secession to the Sacred Mount. 
 The patricians, alarmed, sent several of their number to per- 
 suade the plebeians to return. Among the deputies was the 
 aged Menenius Agrippa, who had great influence with the 
 plebeians. He related to them the celebrated fable of the Belly 
 and the Members — 
 
 " Once upon a time," he said, " the Members refused to work 
 any longer for the Belly, which led a lazy life and grew fat upon 
 their toils. But receiving no longer any nourishment from the 
 Belly, they soon began to pine away, and found that it was to 
 the Belly they owed their life and strength." 
 
 The fable was understood, and the plebeians agreed to treat 
 with the patricians. It was decided that existing debts should 
 be cancelled, and that all debtors in bondage 
 should be restored to freedom. Slavery for debt Appointment 
 
 ^ . <• 1 • 1 1 1 -i of tribunes. 
 
 was not, however, lorbidden, and as it was neces- 
 sary to provide security for the future, the plebeians insisted that 
 two of their own number should be elected annually, to whom 
 the plebeians might appeal for assistance against the decisions 
 of the patrician magistrates. These officers were called Tribunes 
 of the Plebs. They were not magistrates, and had no iiwperium. ; 
 their sole duty was that of protection ; the}' could forbid the 
 fulfillment of any decree aimed against a citizen — a right which 
 gradually became a power of declaring any proposal made by a 
 magistrate to be null and void.* Their persons were declared 
 sacred and inviolable ; they were never to quit the city during 
 
 * This was called the right of intercessio, from intercedo, "to come 
 between." 
 
38 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. IV. 
 
 their year of office ; and their houses were to remain open day 
 and night, that all who were in need of help might apply to them. 
 Their number was soon afterwards increased to four, and at a 
 later time to ten.* At the Sacred Mount the plebeians also ob- 
 tained the privilege of having two aediles of their order appointed. 
 These officers had at a later time the care of the public build- 
 ings and roads, and the superintendence of the police of the city. 
 
 Emboldened by this success, the plebeians now demanded a 
 share in the public land. And in this they found an unexpected 
 supporter among the patricians themselves. Sp. 
 of^Snurlus *^ Cassius, one of the most distinguished men in the 
 Cassius. state, brought forward in his third consulship a 
 
 law by which a portion of the public land was 
 to be divided among the plebeians (486 B.C.). This was the 
 first Agrarian Lam mentioned in Koman history. It must be 
 recollected that all Agrarian laws dealt only with the pubhc 
 land, and, though often infiinging private rights, never touched 
 what was actually private property. Notwithstanding the 
 violent opposition of the patricians, the law was passed ; but 
 it was never carried into execution, and the patricians soon 
 revenged themselves upon its author. In the following year 
 he was accused of aiming at the kingly power, and condemned 
 to death. He was scourged and beheaded, and his house razed 
 to the ground. 
 
 We now turn to the external history of Rome. Under the 
 kings Rome had risen to a superiority over her neighbours ; she 
 . had extended her dominion over the southern 
 
 tiorfsof Rome P*^* °^ Etruria, and she had acquired the head- 
 ship of the Latin league : this headship taking 
 the form of an alliance between Rome on the one hand and 
 all the cities of the league on the other. The early history of the 
 Republic presents a very different spectacle. She is now isolated, 
 and for the next 100 years engaged in a constant defensive 
 war with her neighbours, the Etruscans on the one hand and the 
 Volscians and Aequians on the other. 
 
 An attempt to break this isolation was made by Sp. Cassius 
 in the days of his power by the alliance which he effected 
 
 * The tribu^ies were orig'nally elected by the assembly of the Plebs which 
 met by curiae (rovciHum p'ebis curiat'nn) ; but by tho Puislilian l,aw, pn posed 
 by the tribune Publilius VoUm, and passed 471 B.f., the election was transfened 
 to the assembly of the Plebs meeting by tribes {concilium plebis tributirn). 
 
Chap. IV.] WAR WITH THE VOLSCIANS. 39 
 
 between Rome and the Latin and Hernican leagues (486 B.C.). 
 
 It was this union which kept the Volscians and Aequians at 
 
 bay in the defensive contest now carried on by 
 
 Rome. It would be unprofitable to relate the l^^f^^^^^ 
 
 details of these petty campaigns ; but there are igaeue. 
 
 tliree celebrated legends connected with them 
 
 which must not be passed over. 
 
 1. CoRioLANUs AND THE VoLSCiANS, 488. B.C. — C. Marcius, 
 siirnamed Coriolanus, from his valour at the capture of the Latin 
 town of Corioli, wasa brave but haughty patrician • v, i, 
 
 youth. He was hated by the plebeians, who re- VQi'sciaiis * 
 fused him the consulship. This inflamed him with 
 anger; and accordingly, when the city was suffering from 
 famine, and a present of corn came from Sicily, Coriolanus 
 advised the senate not to distribute it among the plebeians, 
 unless they gave up their tribunes. Such insolence enraged 
 the plebeians, who would have torn him to pieces on the 
 spot, had not the tribunes summoned him before the Assembly 
 of the Plebs. Coriolanus himself breathed nothing but 
 defiance ; and his kinsmen and friends interceded for him in 
 vain. He was condemned to exile. He now turned his steps 
 to Antium, the capital of the Volscians, and offered to lead them 
 against Rome. Attius Tullius, king of the Volscians, persuaded 
 his countrymen to appoint Coriolanus their general. Nothing 
 could check his victorious progress : town after town fell before 
 him ; and he advanced within five miles of the city, ravaging 
 the lands of the plebeians, but sparing those of the patricians. 
 The city was filled with despair. The ten first men in the 
 senate were sent in hopes of moving his compassion. But they 
 were received with the utmost sternness, and told that the city 
 must submit to his absolute will. Next day the pontiff's, augurs, 
 flamens, and all the priests, came in their robes of office, and in 
 vain prayed him to spare the city. All seemed lost, but Rome 
 was saved by her women. Next morning the noblest matrons, 
 headed by Veturia, the aged mother of Coriolanus, and by his 
 wife Volumnia, holding her little children by the hand, came to 
 his tent. Their lamentations turned him from his purpose. 
 " Mother," he said, bursting into tears, " thou hast saved Rome, 
 but lost thy son ! " He then led the Volscians home. Some 
 say that they put him to death because he had spared Rome. 
 
40 HISTORY OF KOME. [Chap. IV. 
 
 But others tell that he lived among the Volscians to a great 
 age, and was often heard to say that "none but an old man can 
 feel the misery of living in a foreign land." 
 
 2. The Fabia Gens and the Veientines, 477 b.c. — The 
 Fabii were one of the most powerful of the patrician houses. 
 
 For seven successive years one of the consuls was 
 Y^ji always a Fabius. This clan had furnished the 
 
 leading opponents of the Agrarian Law; and 
 Kaeso Fabius had taken an active part in obtaining the con- 
 demnation of Sp. Cassins. But shortly afterwards we find this 
 same Kaeso the advocate of the popular rights, and proposing 
 that the Agrarian Law of Cassius should be carried into effect. 
 He was supported in his new views by his powerful house ; 
 though the reasons for their change of opinion we do not knov/„ 
 But the Fabii made no impression upon the great body of the 
 patricians, and only earned for themselves the hearty hatred 
 of their order. Finding that they could no longer live in peace 
 at Eome, they determined to leave the city, and found a separate 
 settlement, where they might still be useful to their native land. 
 One of the most formidable enemies of the Republic was the 
 Etruscan city of Veil, situate about twelve miles from Rome. 
 Accordingly the Fabian house, consisting of 306 males of full 
 age, accompanied by their wives and children, chents and 
 dependents, marched out of Rome by the right-hand arch of 
 the Carmental Gate, and proceeded straight to the Cremera, a 
 river which flows into the Tiber below Veil. On the Cremera 
 they established a fortified camp, and sallying thence, they laid 
 waste the Veientine territory. For two years they sustained 
 the whole weight of the Veientine war ; and all attempts to 
 dislodge them proved in vain. But at length they were enticed 
 into an ambuscade, and were all slain. The settlement was 
 destroyed, and no one of the house survived except a boy, who 
 had been left behind at Rome, and who became the ancestor 
 of the Fabii, afterwards so celebrated in Roman history. The 
 Fabii were sacrificed to the hatred of the patricians ; for the 
 consul T. Menenius was encamped a short way off at the time, 
 and he did nothing to save them. 
 
 3. CiNciNNATus AND THE Aequians, 458 B.C. — The Aequians 
 in their numerous attacks upon the Roman territory generally 
 occupied Mount Algidus, which formed a part of the group of 
 
PoitusAx 
 TJberJi 
 
Harper & Brothers, New York & London 
 
Chap. IV.] WAR WITH THE AEQUIANS. 41 
 
 the Alban hills in Latiura. It was accordingly upon this mount 
 that the battles between the Romans and Aequians most fre- 
 quently took place. In the year 458 b.c. the -th fh 
 Roman consul L. Minucius was defeated on the Aequians. 
 Algidus, and surrounded in his camp. Five 
 horsemen, who made their escape before the Romans were 
 completely encompassed, brought the tidings to Rome. The 
 senate forthwith appointed L. Cincinnatus dictator. 
 
 L. Cincinnatus was one of the heroes of old Roman story. 
 When the deputies of the senate came to him to announce his 
 elevation to the dictatorship, they found him driving a plough, 
 and clad only in his tunic or shirt. They bade him clothe 
 himself, that he might hear the commands of the senate. He 
 put on his toga, which his wife Racilia brought him. The 
 deputies then told him of the peril of the Roman array, and 
 that he had been made dictator. The next morning, before 
 daybreak, he appeared in the forum, and oidered all the men 
 of military age to meet him in the evening in the Field of Mars, 
 with food for five days, and each with twelve stakes. His orders 
 were obeyed ; and with such speed did he march, that by mid- 
 night he reached Mount Algidus. Placing his men around the 
 Aequian camp, he told them to raise the war-cry, and at the 
 same time to begin digging a trench and raising a mound, on 
 the top of which the stakes were to be driven in. The other 
 Roman army, which was shut in, hearing the war-cry, bui'st 
 forth from their camp, and fought with iho Aequians all night. 
 The dictator's troops thus worked without interruption, and com- 
 pleted the entrenchment by the morning. The Aequians found 
 themselves hemmed in between the two armies, and were forced 
 to surrender. The dictator made them pass under the yoke, 
 which was formed by two spears fixed upright in the ground, 
 while a third was fastened across them. Cincinnatus entered 
 Rome in triumph, only twenty-four hours after he had qUiited 
 it, having thus saved a whole Roman army from destruction. 
 
 It is impossible from the scattered legendary notices to gauge 
 accurately the result of these struggles. We can 
 only say that Rome issued from the contest ^^cline of the 
 with unimpaired strength — a result partly due to -oI|Iil*'*'^ 
 the renewed consolidation of the Latin league, 
 partly to the weakening of her great rival Etruria. The 
 
42 HISTORY OF EOME. [Chap. IV. 
 
 Etruscans had been defeated in a p'eat naval battle off Cumae 
 by Hiero, king of Syracuse, in 474 B.C., and from this event 
 dates the decline of their power. Henceforth Etruria v^as the 
 object of attack, and not the aggressor, and Rome was left free 
 to cope with the Aequians and Volscians, her warlike neighbours 
 on the east and south. 
 
Tarpeian Kook. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE DECEM^^RATE. 451-449 B.C. 
 
 From the Agrarian Law of Sp. Cassius to the appointment of 
 the decemvirs was a period of more than thirty years. At the 
 close of this period the contest between the Renewed 
 patricians and the plebeians had reached an struggle be- 
 acute stage. The latter had constantly demanded, tween the 
 and the former as firmly refused, the execution orders, 
 of the Agrarian Law of Cassius. But though the plebeians 
 
44 HISTORY OP ROME. [Chap. V. 
 
 failed in obtaining this object, they nevertheless made steady 
 progress in gaining for themselves a more important position 
 in the city. In 471 B.C. the Publilian Law, passed by the 
 Tribune Publihus Volero,* had enacted that the election of the 
 tribunes and plebeian aediles should take place in an Assembly 
 of the PJebs which met by tribes.f From this time the Con- 
 cilium of the Plebs, presided over by the tribunes, may be 
 regarded as one of the political assemblies of the state, ranking 
 with those of the centuries and the curies. But the patricians 
 still retained exclusive possession of the powers of carrying out 
 the laws and of giving judgments, and there were no written 
 rules to limit their authority and to regulate their decisions. 
 
 Under these circumstances, the Tribune C. Terentilius Arsa 
 
 proposed, in 462 B.C., that a Commission of Ten Men (Decemviri) 
 
 should be appointed to draw up a code of laws, by 
 
 Proposal to -^i;,ich a check might be put to the arbitrary power 
 
 codify the law. „ ^, ... ^ . / , m ■ •+• 
 
 of the patrician magistrates, ihis proposition, 
 
 as might have been expected, met with the most vehement 
 opposition from the patricians. But the plebeians were firm 
 and for five successive years the same tribunes were re-elected. 
 At length, after a struggle of eight years, a compromise was 
 effected, and it was arranged that Three Commissioners 
 (Triumviri) were to be sent into Greece to collect information 
 respecting the laws of Solon at Athens, as well as of the other 
 Greek states. 
 
 After an absence of two years the three commissionera 
 
 returned to Rome (452 B.C.), and it was now resolved that a 
 
 Council of Ten, or Decemvirs, should be appointed 
 
 Appointment ^^ ^^.^^ ^ ^^^g ^f Ig^^g a,nd at the same time 
 
 to carry on the government and administer justice 
 without appeal. All the other magistrates were obliged to 
 abdicate, and no exception was made even in favour of the 
 tribunes. The decemvirs were thus entrusted with supreme 
 power in the state. They entered upon their office at the 
 beginning of 451 B.C. They were all patricians. At their 
 head stood Appius Claudius and T. Genucius, who had been 
 
 * This Publilian law must be carefully distinguished from the leges Puhliliae 
 of the dictator Q. Publilius Philo, passed in 339 B.C. See p. 62. 
 
 t See note on p. 38, and cf. p. 63. This assembly was the concilium plehis 
 tributim (sometimes loosely called the comitia tributa). Strictly the word con- 
 cilium denotes an assembly of part of the people ; the word comitia, au assembly 
 of the whole people. 
 
Chap. V.] TYRANJSY OF 'IHE DECEMVIRS. 45 
 
 already appointed consuls for the year. They discharged the 
 duties of their office with dihgence, and dispensed justice with 
 impartiality. Each administered the government day by day 
 in succession, and the fasces were carried only before the one 
 who presided for the day. They drew up a Code of Ten Tables, 
 in which equal justice was dealt out to both orders. The Ten 
 Tables received the sanction of the Comitia of the Centuries, 
 and thus became law. 
 
 On the expiration of their year of office all parties were so 
 well satisfied with the manner in which the decemvirs had 
 discharged their duties, that it was resolved to 
 continue the same form of government for .^^^ reap- 
 another year; more especially as some of them 
 said that their work was not finished. A new Council of Ten 
 was accordingly elected, of whom Appius Claudius alone be- 
 longed to the former body. He had so carefully concealed his 
 pride and ambition during the previous year that he had been 
 the most popular member of the council, and the patricians, to 
 prevent his appointment for another year, had ordered him to 
 preside at the Comitia for the elections, thinking that he would 
 not receive votes for himself. But Appius set such scruples at 
 defiance, and not only returned himself as elected, but took care 
 that his nine colleagues should be subservient to his views. 
 
 He now threw off' the mask he had hitherto worn, and acted 
 as the tyrant of Eome. Each decemvir was attended by twelve 
 lictors, who carried the fasces with the axes in 
 them, so that 120 lictors were seen in the city ^' 
 
 instead of twelve. The senate was rarely summoned. No 
 one was now safe, and many of the leading men quitted Rome. 
 Two new Tables were added to the Code, making twelve in all ; 
 but these new laws contained clauses which confirmed the 
 patricians in their most odious privileges. 
 
 When the year came to a close, the decemvirs neither re- 
 signed nor held Comitia for the election of. successors, but 
 continued to hold their power in defiance of the senate and of 
 the people. Next year (449 B.C.) the Sabines and Aequians 
 invaded the Roman territory, and two armies were despatched 
 against them, commanded by some of the decemvirs. Appius 
 remained at Rome to administer justice. But the soldiers 
 fought with no spirit under the command of men whom they 
 
46 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap V. 
 
 detested, and two acts of outrageous tyranny caused them to 
 turn their arms against their hated masters. 
 
 In the army iighting against the Sabines was a centurion 
 named L. Sicinius Dentatus, the bravest of the brave. He had 
 
 fought in 120 battles ; he had slain eight of the 
 Dentalus. enemy in single combat ; he had received forty 
 
 wounds, all in front; he had accompanied the 
 triumphs of nine generals; and had war-crowns and other 
 rewards innumerable. As Tribune of the Plebs four years 
 before, he had taken an active part in opposing the patricians, 
 and was now suspected of /plotting against the decemvirs. His 
 death was accordingly resolved on, and he was sent with a 
 company of soldiers as if to reconnoitre the enemy's position. 
 But in a lonely spot they fell upon him and slew him, though 
 not until he had destroyed most of the traitors. His comrades, 
 who were told that he had fallen in an ambush of the enemy, 
 discovered the foul treachery that had been practised when 
 they saw him surrounded by Roman soldiers who had evidently 
 been slain by him. The decemvirs prevented an immediate out- 
 break only by burying Dentatus with great pomp, but the troops 
 were ready to rise in open mutiny upon the first provocation. 
 
 In the other army sent against the Aequians there was a 
 well-known centurion named Verginius. He had a beautiful 
 . . daughter, betrothed to L. Icilius, an eminent 
 
 ° ' leader of the plebeian order. The maiden had 
 
 attracted the notice of the Decemvir Appius Claudius. He at 
 first tried bribes and allurements, but when these failed he had 
 recourse to an outrageous act of tyranny. One morning, as 
 Verginia, attended by her nurse, v/as on the way to her school, 
 which was in one of the booths surrounding the forum, M. 
 Claudius, a client of Appius, laid hold of the damsel and claimed 
 her as his slave. The cry of the nurse for help brought a crowd 
 around them, and all parties went before the decemvir. In his 
 presence Marcus repeated the tale he had learnt, asserting that 
 Verginia was the child of one of his female slaves, and had been 
 imposed upon Verginius by his wife, who was childless. He 
 further stated that he would prove- this to her father as soon 
 as he returned to Rome, and he demanded that the girl should 
 meantime be handed over to his custody. Appius, fearing a 
 riot, said that he would let the cause stand over till the next 
 
Chap. V.] SECOND SECESSION OF THE PLEBS. 47 
 
 day, but that then, whether her father appeared or not, he 
 should know how to maintain the laws. Straightway two 
 friends of the family made all haste to the camp, which they 
 reached the same evening. Verginius immediately obtained 
 leave of absence, and was already on his way to Rome when 
 the messenger of Appius arrived, insti'ucting his colleagues to 
 detain him. Early next morning Verginius and his daughter 
 came into the forum with their garments rent. The father 
 appealed to the people for aid, and the women in their company 
 sobbed aloud. But, intent upon the gratification of his passions, 
 Appius cared nought for the misery of the father and the girl, 
 and hastened to give sentence, by which he consigned the 
 maiden to his client. Appius, who had brought with him a 
 large body of armed patricians and their clients, ordered his 
 lictors to disperse the mob. The people drew back, leaving 
 Verginius and his daughter alone before the judgment-seat. 
 All help was gone. The unhappy father then prayed the 
 decemvir to be allowed to speak one word to the nurse in his 
 daughter's hearing, in order to ascertain whether she was really 
 his daughter. The request was granted. Verginius drew them 
 both aside, and, snatching up a butcher's knife from one of the 
 stalls, plunged it in his daughter's breast, exclaiming, " There 
 is no way but this to keep thee free." In vain did Appius call 
 out to stop him. The crowd made way for him, and, holding 
 his bloody knife on high, he rushed to the gate of the city and 
 hastened to the army. His comrades espoused his cause, ex- 
 pelled their commanders, and marched towards Rome. They were 
 soon joined by the other army, to whom Numitorius and Icilius 
 had carried the tidings. The plebeians in the city flocked to them, 
 and they all resolved to retire once more to the Sacred Mount. 
 
 This second secession extorted from the patricians the second 
 great charter of the plebeian rights. The patricians compelled 
 the decemvirs to resign, and sent L. Valerius and 
 M. Horatius, two of the most eminent men of Second seces- 
 , . 1 . • 1 I 1 1 • T sion of the 
 
 their order, to negotiate with tlie plebeians. It plebeians. 
 
 was finally agreed that the tribunes should be 
 restored, that the authority of the Concilium Plebis should be 
 recognized, and that the right of appeal to the people against 
 the power of the supreme magistrates should be confirmed. 
 The plebeians now returned to the city, and elected ten tribunes 
 
48 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. V. 
 
 — a number which remained unchanged down to the latest 
 times. Verginius, Icilius, and Numitorius were among the new 
 tribunes. 
 
 Two consuls were elected in place of the decemvirs, and the 
 choice of the Comitia Centuriata naturally fell upon Valerius 
 
 and Horatius. The new consuls now redeemed 
 tian Laws°^ " *^^^^ promises to the plebeians by bringing forward 
 
 the laws which are called after them, the Valerian 
 and Horatian Laivs. These celebrated laws enacted — 
 
 1. That every Koman citizen should have a right of appeal 
 against the sentence of the supreme magistrate within the hmits 
 of the city. This was, in fact, a solemn confirmation of the 
 old law of Valerius Publicola, passed in the first year of the 
 Republic. The reason for its re-enactment on this occasion was 
 the recent existence of the decemvirate, from the members of 
 which there had been no appeal. But, as great difficulty was 
 found in controlling the executive officials, it was enacted again 
 a third time in 300 B.C., on the proposal of M. Valerius, the 
 consul. The Roman soldier in the field {militiae) had no right 
 of appeal, and was still subject to martial law. 
 
 2. That the Plehiscifa, or resolutions passed by the plebeians 
 in the Concilium Plebis, should have the force of laws, and 
 should be binding alike upon patricians and plebeians. 
 
 3. That the persons of the tribunes, aediles, and other plebeian 
 magistrates, should be sacred, and whoever injured them should 
 be outlawed. 
 
 Verginius now accused Appius Claudius, who was thrown into 
 prison to await his trial. But the proud -patrician, seeing that 
 his condemnation was certain, put an end to his own fife. 
 Oppius, another of the decemvirs, and the personal friend of 
 Appius, was condemned and executed. The other decemvirs 
 were allowed to go into exile, but they were all declared guilty, 
 and their property confiscated to the state. 
 
 The Twelve Tables were always regarded as the foundation 
 of the Roman law, and long continued to be held in the highest 
 
 estimation. They probably did little more than 
 Tables''^ ^® fix in a written form a large body of customary 
 
 law ; but this was plebeian law, and in most of 
 the relations of private life the two orders were now on an 
 equality. The patricians still, however, retained their exclusive 
 
Chap. V.] THE TWELVE TABLES. 49 
 
 political privileges; and the eleventh table even gave the 
 sanction of law to the old custom which prohibited all inter- 
 marriage {conuhium) between the two orders, since this pro- 
 hibition was thought to be connected with the maintenance of 
 the state religion. 
 
tg-_~ijj^ ■- 
 
 ^-^mm: 
 
 View from me ueigiibourboou oi Veil. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 FROM THE DECEMVIRATE TO THE CAPTUEE OF KOME BY THE 
 
 GAULS. 448-390 B.C. 
 
 The efforts of the leaders of the plebeians were now directed to 
 removing disadvantages, based in the main on religious prejudice, 
 _ „ , . under which their order laboured ; they aimed at 
 securing the permission of intermarriage between 
 patricians and plebeians, and at opening the consulship to their 
 own order. The first object was attained four years after the 
 decemvirate by the Lex Canuleia, proposed by Canulcius, one 
 of the tribunes (445 B.C.). But the Plebs did not carry this law 
 without a third secession, in which they occupied the Janiculum. 
 At the same time, a compromise was effected with respect to 
 the consulship. 
 
 The patricians agreed that the supreme power in the state 
 should be entrusted to new officers bearing the title of Military 
 
Chap. VL] APPOINTMENT OF MILITARY TRIBUNES. 51 
 
 Tribunes with Consular Power, who might be chosen equally 
 from patricians and plebeians. Their number varied in different 
 years from three to six. In 444 b.c. three Mill- Appointment 
 tary Tribunes were nominated for the lirst time, of Military 
 In the following year (443) two new magistrates, Tribunes and 
 called Censores, were appointed. They were always Censors, 
 to be chosen from the patricians ; and the eflect of their institu- 
 tion was to deprive the Military Tiibunes of some of the 
 most important functions which had been formerly discharged 
 by the consuls. The original duty of the censors was that 
 of registering the names of Roman citizens in their various 
 tribes and centuries. This was done once every five years, 
 the interval being called a lustrum, from the sacrifice of purifi- 
 cation which closed the ceremony ; but the censors' tenure of 
 office was fixed at eighteen months, as early as ten years after 
 their institution, by a law of the Dictator Mamercus Aemilius, 
 though they continued to be appointed only once in five years. 
 As the taxation of citizens depended on their place in the 
 census, the duty of registration gave the censors important 
 financial functions. 
 
 Though the Military Tribunes could from their first institution 
 be chosen from either order, yet such was the influence of the 
 patricians in the Comitia of the Centuries that it was not till 
 400 B.C., or nearly forty years afterwards, that any plebeians 
 were actually elected. In 421 B.C. the quaestorship was also 
 thrown open to them. The Quaestores were the paymasters of 
 the state ; and as the custom was now growing up of filling up 
 the senate from ex-magistrates, the plebeians thus became 
 eligible for a seat at the great council of the Republic. 
 
 In spite of these concessions, there was soon ground for fear 
 that plebeian discontent might give rise to tyranny. In the year 
 440 B.C. there was a great famine at Rome. Sp. 
 Maelius, one of the richest of the plebeian knights, ^^^^^^ "*®" 
 expended his fortune in buying up corn, which 
 he sold to the poor at a small price, or distributed among 
 them gratuitously. The patricians thought, or pretended 
 to think, that he was aiming at kingly power ; and in the 
 following year (439) the aged Quinctius Cincinnatus, who 
 had saved the Roman army on Mount Algidus, was appointed 
 dictator to save the state from this supposed internal danger. 
 
52 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. VI. 
 
 He nominated C. Servilius Ahala- his Master of the Horse. 
 During the night the Capitol and all the strong posts were 
 garrisoned by the patricians, and in the morning Cincinnatus 
 appeared in the forum with a strong force, and summoned 
 Maelius to appear before his tribunal. But seeing the fate 
 which awaited him, he refused to go, whereupon Ahala rushed 
 into the crowd and struck him dead upon the spot. His property 
 was confiscated, and his house levelled to the ground. The 
 deed of Ahala is frequently mentioned by Cicero and other 
 writers in terms of the highest admiration, but it was regarded 
 by the plebeians at the time as an act of murder. Ahala was 
 brought to trial, and only escaped condemnation by a voluntary 
 exile. 
 
 In their foreign wars the Romans continued to be successful, 
 and, aided by their allies the Latins and Hernicans, they made 
 . steady progress in driving back their old enemies 
 
 colonie^ ^°° ^ the Volscians and Aequians. About this time 
 they planted several coloniae in the districts which 
 they conquered, to consolidate their dominion. These Roman 
 colonies differed widely from those of ancient Greece and of 
 modern Europe. They were of the nature of garrisons estab- 
 lished in conquered towns, and served both to strengthen and 
 extend the power of Rome. The colonists, who remained 
 citizens of Rome, received a portion of the conquered territory, 
 and lived as a ruling class among the old inhabitants, who 
 retained the use of the rest of the land, and probably possessed 
 a partial citizenship. 
 
 The league now turned its attention to Etruria, its great 
 enemy in the north, and a war ensued, in the course of which 
 Rome made her first acquisition in the territory of an alien 
 nationality. 
 
 Northern Etruria was at this time hard pressed by the Gauls, 
 and Veil, which was the chief object of the Roman attack, was 
 almost isolated. It was, however, closely allied 
 Siege a^ cap- ^-jj^ Fidenae, a town of Latium, not more than 
 five or six miles from Rome. The two cities 
 frequently united their arms against Rome, and in one of 
 these wars Lars Tolumnius, the king of Veii, was slain in 
 single combat by A. Cornelius Cussub, one of the Military 
 Tribunes, and his arms dedicated to Jupiter — the second of the 
 
Chap. VI.] CAPTURE OF VEIL 53 
 
 three instances in which the Spdlia Opima were won (437 B.C.). 
 A few years afterwards Fidenae was taken and destroj'ed 
 (426 B.C.), and at the same time a truce was granted to the 
 Veientines for twenty years. At the expiration of this truce 
 the war was renewed, and the Romans resolved to subdue Veii, 
 as they had done Fidenae. The siege of Veii, Hke that of Troy, 
 lasted ten years, and the means of its capture was almost as 
 marvellous as the wooden horse by which Troy was taken. The 
 waters of the Alban Lake, close to the ancient town of Alba 
 Longa, rose to such a height as to deluge the neighbouring 
 country. An oracle declared that Veii could not be taken until 
 the waters of the lake found a passage to the sea. This reached 
 the ears of the Romans, who thereupon constructed a tunnel to 
 carry off its superfluous volume.* The formation of this tunnel 
 is said to have suggested to the Romans the means of taking Veii. 
 M. Furius Camillus, who was appointed dictator, commenced 
 digging a mine beneath the city, which was to have its outlet in 
 the citadel, in the temple of Juno, the guardian deity of Veii. 
 When the mine was finished, the attention of the inhabitants 
 was diverted by feigned assaults against the walls. Camillus led 
 the way into the mine at the head of a picked body of troops, 
 and emerged on the Veientine Capitol in time to complete an 
 unfinished sacrifice which the priest was offering to Juno. The 
 soldiers who guarded the walls were now taken in the rear, the 
 gates were thrown open, and the city soon filled with Romans. 
 The booty was immense, and the few citizens who escaped the 
 sworcl were sold as slaves. The city was abandoned, and its 
 territory divided amongst the plebeians. Falerii was almost 
 the only one of the Etruscan cities which had assisted Veii, 
 and she was now exposed single-handed to the vengeance of the 
 Romans ; but she avoided the fate of her sister city by a timely 
 surrender, and the Etruscan war was over (394 B.C.) 
 
 Two circumstances, of great importance for later history, 
 originated from the long campaign against Veii. As the soldiers 
 Were obliged to pass the whole year under arms, in order to 
 invest the city during the winter as well as the summer, they 
 now for the first time received pay, and to this circumstance 
 
 * This remarkaWe work, which, after the lapse of more than two thousand 
 years, still continues to serve the purpose for which it was originally designed, 
 is cut through the soft volcanic tufa of which the Alban hill is composed. 
 Tbe length of the tuunel is about 6000 feet, and it is 4 feet 6 inches wide. 
 
54 HISTORY OF HOME. [Chap. VI. 
 
 we may trace the beginnings of a standing army at Rome. At 
 the same time, the cavalry was increased by allowing any one 
 possessed of a certain income to serve on horseback at his own 
 expense {eques equo privato), and thus the term equites, ori- 
 ginally applied to the horsemen of the eighteen centuries, was 
 extended to the wealtliy members of the middle-class. 
 
 Camillus celebrated a splendid triumph for his conquest of 
 Veii. He entered the city in a chariot drawn by white horses, 
 and he brought with him from the conquered 
 town the statue of Juno, for whom a splendid 
 temple was now erected on the Aventine. But the victories of 
 Camillus did not win him popularity. His extravagant triumph 
 was taken as a sign of more than human pride, and he now 
 incurred the hatred of the plebeians by calling upon every man 
 to refund a tenth of the booty taken at Veii, because he had 
 made a vow to consecrate to Apollo a tithe of the spoil. He 
 was himself accused of having appropriated the great bronze 
 gates at Veii, and was impeached by one of the tribunes. Seeing 
 that his condemnation was certain, he went into exile, with the 
 disloyal prayer that the Eepublic might soon have cause to 
 regret him (391 B.C.). His prayer was heard, for the Gauls 
 had already crossed the Apennines, and next year Rome was iu 
 ashes. 
 
Fragment of sculpture from the pediment of the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 FROM THE CAPTURE OF ROME BY THE GAULS TO THE FINAL 
 UNION OF THE TWO ORDERS. 390-367 B.C. 
 
 The Gauls were a branch of the Celtic race which in ancient 
 
 times spread over the greater part of Western Europe. It 
 
 inhabited Gaul and the British Isles, and it bad, . 
 
 as we saw, in the time of the Tarquins crossed iJ^Jiy^^^y j^g 
 
 the Alps and taken possession of Northern Italy. Qa^^^g^ 
 
 These Gallic invaders now spread further south, 
 
 crossed the Apennines, and laid waste with fire and sword the 
 
 provinces of Central Italy. Rome fell before them, and was 
 
 reduced to ashes; but the details of its capture are clearly 
 
 legendary. The common story runs as follows : — 
 
 The Senones, a tribe of the Gauls, under the leadership of 
 
 " the Brennus," * laid siege to Clusium, the powerful Etruscan 
 
 city over which Lars Porsena once reigned. Such reputation 
 
 * Brennus, given by our authorities as a proper name, is probably a titde, tUo 
 
 Cymric brenhin, or king. 
 
56 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. VII. 
 
 had Rome gained through her conquests in Etruria, that Clusium 
 apphed to her for aid (391 b.c). The senate sent three ambas- 
 sadors of the Fabian house to warn the barbarians not to touch 
 an ally of Rome. But the Gauls treated their message with 
 Bcorn ; and the ambassadors, forgetting their sacred character, 
 fought in the Clusine ranks. One of the Fabii slew with his own 
 hands a Gallic chieftain, and was recognized while stripping off 
 his armour. " The Brennus " therefore sent to Rome to demand 
 satisfaction. It might have been granted by the senate, but 
 the current of popular feeling was too strong ; the Roman people 
 not only refused to give it, but elected the guilty ambassadors 
 Military Tribunes for the following year. On hearing of this 
 insult, the Gauls broke up the siege of Clusium, and hastened 
 southwards towards Rome. All the inhabitants fled before them 
 into the towns. They pursued their course without injuring any 
 one, crying to the guards upon the walls of the towns they 
 passed, " Our way lies for Rome." 
 
 On the news of their approach the Roman army hurried out 
 of the city, and on the 16th of July (390 b.c), a day ever after 
 marked with black letters on the calendar, they 
 AUia* ** ^ ™^* *^^ Gauls on the Allia, a small river which 
 flows into the Tiber, on its left bank, about eleven 
 miles from Rome. The Roman legions, unfamiliar with the 
 impetuous character of the Celtic attack, broke at the first 
 furious onset of the Gauls. Most of the soldiers were cut 
 down, others turned and fled ; even such as escaped by crossing 
 the Tiber found themselves on the wrong side of the river, and 
 the path to Rome lay open to the Gauls. 
 
 The loss at the Allia had been so great that enough men were 
 not left to guard the walls of the city. It was therefore resolved 
 that those in the vigour of their age should withdraw to the 
 Capitol, taking with them all the provisions in the city ; that the 
 priests and vestal virgins should convey the objects of religious 
 reverence to Caere ; and that the rest of the population should 
 disperse among the neighbouring towns. But the aged patricians 
 who had held high rank, seeing that their lives were no longer 
 of any service to the state, sat in the porches of their houses in 
 full official robes, awaiting death. When the Gauls entered the 
 city they found it desolate and deathlike. They marched on, 
 without seeing a human being, till they came to the forum. 
 
Chap, VII.] THE GALLIC INVASION. 67 
 
 Here they beheld the aged senators sitting immovable, like 
 beings of another world. For some time they gazed in awe at 
 this strange sight, till at length one of the Gauls ventured to go 
 up to M. Papirius and stroke his white beard. The old man 
 struck him on the head with his ivory sceptre ; whereupon the 
 barbarian slew him, and all the rest were massacred. The 
 Gauls now began plundering the city ; fires broke out in several 
 quarters ; and with the exception of a few houses on the Pala- 
 tine, which the chiefs kept for their own residence, the whole 
 city was burnt to the ground. 
 
 The Capitol was the next object of attack. There was only 
 one steep way leading up to it, and all the assaults of the 
 besiegers were easily repelled. They thereupon 
 turned the siege into a blockade, and for seven J'^^-^ ? 
 months were encamped amid the ruins of Rome. 
 But their numbers were soon thinned by disease, for they had 
 entered Rome in the most unhealthy time of the year, when 
 fevers have always prevailed. The ftiilure of provisions obliged 
 them to ravage the neighbouring countries, the people of which 
 began to combine for defence against the marauders. Meantime 
 the scattered Romans took courage. They collected at Veii, and 
 here resolved to recall Camillus from banishment, and appoint 
 him dictator. In order to obtain the consent of the senate, a 
 daring youth, named Pontius Cominius, offered to swim across 
 the Tiber and climb the Capitol. He reached the top unper- 
 ceived by the enemy, obtained the approval of the senate to the 
 appointment of Camillus, and returned safely to Veii. But next 
 day some Gauls observed the traces of his steps, and in the dead 
 of night they climbed up the same way. The foremost of them 
 had already reached the top, unnoticed by the sentinels and the 
 dogs, when the cries of some geese roused M. Manlius from 
 sleep. These geese were sacred to Juno, and had been spared 
 notwithstanding the gnawings of hunger ; and the Romans were 
 now rewarded for their piety. M. Manlius thrust down the Gaul 
 who had clambered up, and gave the alarm. The Capitol was 
 thus saved ; and down to latest times M. Manlius was honoured 
 as one of the greatest heroes of the early Republic. 
 
 Still no help came, and the Gauls remained before the Capitol. 
 The Romans suffered from famine, and at length agreed to pay 
 the barbarians 1000 pounds of gold, on condition of their 
 
58 HISTORY" OF ROME. [Chap. VII. 
 
 quitting the city and its territory. " The Brennus " brought false 
 weights, and, when the Romans exclaimed against this injustice, 
 
 the Gallic chief threw his sword also into the scale, 
 t R ^ crying, " Woe to the vanquished ! " ( Vae victis !). 
 
 The Gauls then retired, having bartered victory 
 for gold. Tradition, indeed, tells that at this very moment 
 Camillas marched into the forum, ordered the gold to be taken 
 away, and drove the Gauls out of the city, and that another 
 battle was fought on the road to Gabii, in which the Gauls were 
 completel^"^ destroyed, and their leader Brennus taken prisoner. 
 But this is an invention of Roman vanity. We learn from 
 other sources that the Gauls retreated because their settlements 
 in Northern Italy were attacked by the Venetians ; nor was 
 their withdrawal final : they frequently repeated their inroads, 
 and for many years to come were the constant dread of Rome. 
 
 When the Romans returned to the heap of ruins which was 
 once their city, their hearts sank within them. The people 
 
 shrank from the expense and toil of rebuilding 
 ^""o rr**' ^^^^^ houses, and loudly demanded that they 
 invasion should all remove to Veil, where the private 
 
 dwellings and public buildings were still stand- 
 ing. But Camillus strongly urged them not to abandon the 
 homes of their fathers ; and tliey were at length persuaded to 
 remain. Within a year the city rose from its ashes ; but the 
 streets were narrow and crooked ; tlie houses were frequently 
 built over the sewers ; and the city continued to show, down to 
 the great fire of Nero, evident traces of the haste and irregularity 
 with which it had been rebuilt. 
 
 Rome was now deprived of almost all her subjects, and her 
 territory was reduced to nearly its original limits. The Latins 
 and Hernicans dissolved the league with thu Romans, and wars 
 broke out on every side. In these difficulties and dangers Camillus 
 was the soul of the Republic. Again and again he led the Roman 
 legions against their enemies, and always with success. 
 
 The rapidity with which the Romans recovered their power 
 
 after so terrible a disaster would seem unaccount- 
 Eenewed in- gi^jg^ ^^^t f^j, t^g f^cts that the other nations had 
 Qj^j^g also suffered greatly from the inroads of the 
 
 Gauls, who still continued to ravage Central 
 Italy, and that these Gallic invasions forced the Italians to 
 
Chap. VlL] MANLIUS. 59 
 
 recognize in Rome their bulwark against the barbarians. Two 
 famous family legends grew out of these invasions, which may 
 be related here, though they belong to a later period. 
 
 In 361 B.C. the Gauls and Eomans were encamped on either 
 bank of the Arno. A gigantic Gaul stepped forth from the 
 ranks and insultingly challenged a Roman knight. T. Manlius, 
 a Roman youth, obtained permission from his general to accept 
 the challenge, slew the giant, and took from the dead body the 
 golden chain {torques) which the barbarian wore around his neck. 
 His comrades gave him the surname of Torquatus, which he 
 handed down to his descendants. 
 
 In 349 B.C. another distinguished Roman family earned its 
 surname from a single combat with a Gaul. Here again a 
 Gallic warrior of gigantic size challenged any one of the 
 Romans to single combat. His challenge was accepted by 
 M. Valerius, upon whose helmet a raven perched ; and as they 
 fought, the bird flew into the face of the Gaul, striking at him 
 with his beak and flapping his wings. Thus Valerius slew the 
 Gaul, and was called in consequence " Corvus," or the " Raven." 
 
 Meanwhile, Rome, though she had survived the stress of war, 
 was again on the verge of a social revolution. Great suffering 
 and discontent prevailed. Returning to ruined 
 homes and ravaged lands, the poor citizens had .^ resso 
 been obliged to borrow money to rebuild their 
 houses and cultivate their farms. The law of debtor and 
 creditor at Rome, as we have already seen, was very severe, 
 and many unfortunate debtors were carried away to bondage. 
 
 Under these circumstances, M. Manlius, the preserver of the 
 Capitol, came forward as the patron of the poor. This dis- 
 tinguished man had been bitterly disappointed in __ .. 
 his claims to honour and gratitude. While 
 Camillus, his personal enemy, who had shared in none of the 
 dangers of the siege, was repeatedly raised to the highest 
 honours of the state, he, who had saved the Capitol, was left 
 to languish in a private station. Neglected by his own order, 
 Manlius turned to the plebeians. One day he recognized in the 
 forum a soldier who had served with him in the field, and whom 
 a creditor was carrying away in fetters. Manlius paid his debt 
 upon the spot, and swore that, as long as he had a single 
 pound, he would not allow any Roman to be imprisoned for 
 
60 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. VII. 
 
 debt. He sold a large part of his property, and applied the 
 proceeds to the liberation of his fellow-citizens from bondage. 
 Supported now by the plebeians, he came forward as the accuser 
 of his own order, and charged them with appropriating to their 
 own use the gold which had been raised to ransom the city 
 from the G-auls. The patricians, in return, accused him, as they 
 had accused Sp. Cassius, of aspiring to the tyranny. When he 
 was brought to trial before the Comitia of the Centuries, in the 
 Campus Martius, he proudly showed the spoils of thirty warriors 
 whom he had slain, the forty military distinctions which be had 
 won in battle, and the innumerable scars upon his breast, and 
 then, turning towards the Capitol, he prayed the immortal gods 
 to remember the man who had saved their temples from 
 destruction. After such an appeal his condemnation was im- 
 possible ; and his enemies therefore contrived to break iip the 
 assembly. Shortly afterwards he was arraigned on the same 
 charges before the Comitia, at a place without the walls from 
 which the Capitol could be no longer seen. Here he was at 
 once condemned, and was hvu'led from the Tarpeian rock. His 
 house, which was on the Capitol, was razed to the ground 
 (384 B.C.). 
 
 The death of Manlius, however, was only a temporary check 
 to the cause of reform. The agitation was now taken up by 
 . . the rich plebeians, who aspired to public office; 
 
 Rofi-ations ^^^ ^^ ^^^ necessary to enlist the rank and file of 
 their order in the cause by proposing social 
 reforms. In 376 b.c. C. Licinius Stolo and his kinsman L. 
 Sextius, being Tribunes of the Plebs, brought forward three 
 laws, which are celebrated in history under the name of The 
 LiCTNiAN Rogations.* These were — 
 I. That in future consuls, and not Military Tribunes, should be 
 
 appointed, and that one of the two consuls must be a 
 
 plebeian. 
 n. That no citizen should possess more than 500 jugera f of 
 
 the public land, nor should feed upon the public pastures 
 
 more than 100 head of large and 500 of small cattle, under 
 
 penalty of a heavy fine. 
 
 • A Rogatio differed from a Lex, as a Bill from an Act of Parliament. 
 A rogatio was a law submitted to the assembly of the people, and only became 
 a lex when enacted by them. 
 
 t A jugerum was rather more than half an acre. 
 
Chap. VII.] THE LICINIAN ROGATIONS. 61 
 
 III. That the interest already paid for borrowed money should 
 be deducted from the principal, and that the remainder 
 should be repaid in three yearly instalments. 
 These great reforms naturally excited the most violent 
 opposition, and the patricians induced some of the tribunes 
 to put their veto upon the measures of their political 
 colleagues. But Liciniue and Sextius were not struggle be- 
 to be baffled in this way, and they exercised tween the 
 their veto by preventing the Comitia Centuriata o™ers. 
 from electing any magistrates for the next year. Hence no 
 consuls, military tribunes, censors, or quaestors, could be ap- 
 pointed; the tribunes and the aediles of the plebs, who were 
 elected by the Concilium PJebis, were the only magistrates in 
 the state, most of the public business was suspended, and all 
 the courts were closed. For five years did this anarchy con- 
 tinue. C. Licinius and L. Sextius were re-elected annually, and 
 prevented the Comitia of the Centuries from appointing any 
 magistrates. At the end of this time they allowed Military 
 Tribunes to be chosen in consequence of a war with the Latins; 
 but so far were they from yielding any of their demands, that 
 to their former Kogations they now added another: That the 
 care of the Sibylline books, instead of being entrusted to two 
 men {duumviri), both patricians, should be given to ten men 
 {decemviri), half of whom should be plebeians. 
 
 Five years more did the struggle last, but the firmness of the 
 tribunes at length prevailed. In 367 B.C. the Licinian Eoga- 
 tions were passed, and L. Sextius was elected 
 the first plebeian consul for the next year. But ConsiUsMp 
 the patricians made one last effort to evade the plebeians 
 law. By the Koman constitution the consuls, 
 after being elected by the Comitia Centuriata, required the 
 ratification of their imperium from the Comitia Curiata. The 
 patricians, who exercised great influence in this assembly, 
 persuaded it to nullify the election of L. Sextius ; and they 
 had already made Camillus, the great champion of their order, 
 dictator, to support them in their new struggle. But the old 
 hero saw that it was too late, and determined to bring about 
 a reconciliation between the opposing parties. A compromise 
 was effected. The imperium was conferred upon L. Sextius ; 
 but the judicial duties were taken away from the consuls, and 
 
62 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. VII. 
 
 given to a new magistrate, called praetor.* Camillus vowed 
 to the goddess Concord a temple for his success. 
 
 The long struggle between the patricians and plebeians 
 was thus brought to a virtual close. The patricians still clung 
 
 obstinately to the exclusive privileges which they 
 Further oon- gj.jjj poggggggfj . but when the plebeians had once 
 
 obtained a share in the consulship, it was evident 
 that their participation in the other offices of the state could 
 not be much longer delayed. We may therefore anticipate the 
 course of events by narrating in this place that the first plebeian 
 dictator was C. Marcius Rutilus, in 356 B.C., that the same man 
 was the first plebeian censor five years afterwards (351 b.c.) ; 
 that the praetorship was thrown open to the plebeians in 337 B.C. ; 
 and that the Lex Ogulnia in 300 B.C., which increased the 
 number of the pontiffs from four to eight, and that of the 
 augurs from four to nine, also enacted that four of the pontiffs . 
 and five of the augurs should be taken from the plebeians. 
 
 About thirty years after the Licinian Rogations, another 
 important reform, which abridged still further the privileges of 
 
 the patricians, was effected by the Publilian 
 Laws^*^ Laws, proposed by the Dictator Q. Publilius 
 
 Philo in 339 b.c. These were — 
 
 I. That the resolutions of the plebs (plebiscita) passed in the 
 
 Concilium Plebis should be binding on all the Quirites.f 
 
 II. That all laws passed at the Comitia Centuriata must 
 
 receive the sanction of the patrician members of the senate 
 (patrum auctoritas) before and not after their enactment ; 
 this sanction was soon reduced to a mere formality. 
 
 III. That one of the censors must be a plebeian. 
 
 The first of these laws seems to be little more than a re- 
 enactment of one of the ValerianoHoratian Laws, passed after 
 Close of the ^^^ expulsion of the decemvirs;:]: but it is 
 struggle be- possible that those measures, and even the Publi- 
 tween the Han Law of 339 B.C., merely provided facilities 
 
 orders. f^j. bringing plebiscita before the Comitia Centu- 
 
 riata, there to be passed into law. It was an enactment of 
 the Dictator Q. Hortensius in 287 e.g. that first gave plebiscita 
 the force of leges. In this year the last secession of the 
 plebeians took place, and the Lex Hoktensia is always 
 
 • Cf. p. 31. t Ut plebiscita omnes Quirites tenerent. t See p. 49. 
 
Chap. VII.] EQUALISATION OF THE ORDERS. 
 
 63 
 
 mentioned as the law which gave to plebiscita passed at the 
 Concilium of the Tribes the full power of laws binding upon 
 the whole nation. During this period we can also trace the 
 growth of a third assembly composed of patricians and plebeians, 
 and meeting by tribes (Coviitia Trihuta), which possessed legis- 
 lative and judicial power and elected the lower magistrates.* 
 
 The close of the long struggle between the orders had left 
 victory with the plebeians. Thej" formed the majority of two of 
 the sovereign assemblies (the Comitia Centuriata and Tributa), 
 and the whole of the third (the Concilium Flebis) ; one place 
 in the highest magistracies and half the vacancies in the priestly 
 colleges Avere assured them, the other places and vacancies 
 they might secure. Rome was now nearer a democracy than 
 at any other period of her history, for the great power of the 
 senate had not yet cast its shadow over the state. 
 
 * See note on p. 44. 
 
 Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus (froni a coiny 
 
*m:'''w*i^w*j ^imwm 
 
 ^i5iM15M5MiSTMEi^ |r , , ^^^^ffllg^E j^TaJOT 
 
 
 
 
 Samnite warriors ^frum a oiural paiuiiug at Paustum). 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 THE LATIN AND SAMNITE WARS. 367-290 B.C. 
 
 United at homo, the Romans were now prepared to cany on 
 their foreign wars with more vigour. But the years which 
 immediately followed the Licinian Laws were times of great 
 suffering. A pestilence raged in Rome, which carried off many 
 of the most distinguished men, and among others tlie aged 
 Camillus (362 B.C.). The Tiber overflowed its banks, the city 
 was shaken by earthquakes, and a yawning chasm opened in 
 the forum. Superstitious fears were excited, and the sooth- 
 sayers declared that the gulf could never be filled up except by 
 throwing into it that which Rome held most valuable. The 
 tale runs that, when every one was doubting what the gods 
 could mean, a noble youth named Mettus Curtius came forward, 
 and, declaring that Rome possessed nothing so valuable as 
 her brave citizens, mounted his steed and leaped into the 
 abyss in full armour, whereupon the earth closed over him 
 (362 B.C.). 
 During the next few years the Gauls renewed those inroads, in 
 
Chap. Vm.] PifiST SAMNITE WAtl. ^S 
 
 which Manlius Torquatus and Valerius Corvus gained such glory. 
 
 The Romans steadily extended their dominion over the southern 
 
 part of Etruria and the countr}^ of the Volscians ; 
 
 the alHance with the Latin league stood firm, Extension of 
 
 and the cities of this league were rapidl}'' be- dominion 
 
 coming mere dependencies of Eome, for she 
 
 remodelled their constitutions and treated defection from the 
 
 league as revolt from herself. Fifty years had elapsed since the 
 
 capture of the city by the Gauls, and Rome was now strong 
 
 enough to enter into a contest with the most formidable enemy 
 
 which her arms had yet encountered. 
 
 The Samnites were at the height of their power, and the 
 
 contest between them and the Romans was virtually for the 
 
 supremacy of Italy. The Samnites, as we have 
 
 already seen, were a people of Sabellian origin, ^°°^^®^ ^ ° 
 
 , , , . 1 , . , • 1 ? the Samnites. 
 
 and had emigrated to the countries which they 
 
 inhabited at a comparatively late period. Not contented with 
 
 their mountain-homes, they had, as we saw, overrun the rich 
 
 plains which Jay at their feet ; already they had become the 
 
 masters of Campania and Lucania, and had spread themselves 
 
 almost to the southern extremity of Italy. But the Samnites of 
 
 Campania and Lucania had in course of time broken ofl* all 
 
 connection with the parent nation, and were sometimes engaged 
 
 in hostilities with the lattei-. 
 
 It was a contest of this kind that led to the war between the 
 
 Eomans and the Samnites of the Apennines. On the borders 
 
 of Campania and Samnium dwelt a people called 
 
 the Sidicini, who had hitherto preserved their "^^^ Campa- 
 
 independence. Being attacked by the Samnites, Rome 
 
 this people implored the assistance of the Cam- 
 
 panians, which was readily granted. Thereupon the Samnites 
 
 turned their arms against the Campanians, and, after occupying 
 
 Mount Tifata, which overlooks the city of Capua, they descended 
 
 into the plain, and defeated the Campanians in a pitched battle 
 
 at the very gates of Capua. The Campanians, being shut up 
 
 within the city, now applied for assistance to Rome, and offered 
 
 to place Capua in their hands. The Romans had only a few 
 
 years previously concluded an alliance with the Samnites ; but 
 
 the bait of the richest city and the most fertile soil in Italy was 
 
 irresistible ; and they resolved to comply with the request. Thus 
 
6« HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. VIII. 
 
 began the Samnite Wars, which, with a few intervals of peace, 
 lasted fifty-three years. 
 
 FmsT Samnite Wak, 343-341 b.c. — The Eomans commenced 
 
 the war by sending two consular armies against the Samnites ; 
 
 . and the first battle between the rival nations was 
 
 IJrst Sammte ^^^^^^^ ^t the foot of Moimt Gaurus, which Hes 
 
 about three miles from Cumae. The Samnites 
 were defeated with great loss ; and it has been justly remarked 
 that this battle may be regarded as one of the most memorable 
 in history, since it was a kind of omen of the ultimate issue of 
 the great contest which had now begun between the Samnites 
 and Romans for the sovereignty of Italy. The Romans gained 
 two other decisive victories, and both consuls entered the city 
 in triumph. ^ But two causes prevented the Romans from prose- 
 cuting their success. In the first place, the Roman army, which 
 had been wintering in Capua, rose in open mutiny ; and the 
 poorer plebeians in the city, who were oppressed by debt, left 
 Rome and joined the mutineers. In .the second place, the 
 increasing disaffection of the Latins warned the Romans to 
 husband their resources for another and more terrible struggle. 
 The Romans, therefore, abandoning the Sidicini and Campanians, 
 concluded a treaty of peace and alliance with the Samnites in 
 341 B.C., so that in the great Latin war, which broke out in the 
 following year, the Samnites fought on the side of the Romans. 
 The LATm War, 340-338 b.c. — The increasing power of 
 Rome had excited the alarm of the Latin states ; and it became 
 
 evident to them that, though nominally on a 
 theTatins* footing of equality, they were in reality becoming 
 
 her subjects. This feeling was confirmed by the 
 treaty of alliance which the Romans had formed with the 
 Samnites. The Latins, therefore, determined to bring matters 
 to a crisis, and sent two praetors, who were their chief magis- 
 trates, to propose to the Romans that the two nations should 
 henceforth form one state, that half of the senate should consist 
 of Latins, and that one of the two consuls should be chosen 
 from Latiura. These requests excited the greatest indignation 
 at Rome, and were rejected with the utmost scorn. The senate 
 met in the temple of Jupiter, in the Capitol, to receive the Latin 
 deputation, and, after hearing their proposals, the consul T. 
 Maalius Torquatus, the same who had slain the Gaul in single 
 
Chap. VIII.] THE LATIN WAR; 67 
 
 combat, declared that, if the Republic should be so cowardly 
 as to yield to these demands, he would come into the senate- 
 house sword in hand, and cut down the first Latin he saw there. 
 The tale goes on to say that in the discussion which followed, 
 when both parties were excited by anger, the Latin praetor 
 defied the Roman Jupiter; that thereupon an awful peal of 
 thunder shook the building; and that, as the impious man 
 hurried down the steps from the temple, he fell from top to 
 bottom, and lay there a corpse. 
 
 War was now declared, and the most vigorous efforts were 
 made on both sides. The contest was to decide whether Rome 
 should become a simple member of the Latin 
 league, or the Latins be subject to Rome. The ., ^? Y^^ ® 
 Romans had elected to the consulship two of 
 their most distinguished men. The patrician consul was, as 
 already mentioned, T. Manlius Torquatus ; his plebeian colleague 
 was P. Decius Mus, who had gained great renown in the recent 
 war against the Samnites. Meantime Capua, freed from fears 
 of the Samnites, had thrown off its half-hearted allegiance to 
 Rome and joined the Latins in their revolt. The two consuls 
 now marched straight on Capua, and the contest was thus with- 
 drawn from the territory of Rome and transferred to Campania, 
 where the Romans could receive assistance from the neighbour- 
 ing country of their Samnite allies. 
 
 It was at the river Veseris near the foot of Mount Vesuvius 
 that the two armies met, and here the battle was fought which 
 decided the contest. It was like a civil war. 
 The soldiers of the two armies spoke the same ^***1^^ °^ 
 language, had fought by each other's sides, and Xrifanum. 
 were well known to one another. Under these 
 circumstances, the consuls pubhshed a proclamation that no 
 Roman should engage in single combat with a Latin on pain of 
 death. But the son of Torquatus, provoked by the insults of a 
 Tusculan oflScer, accepted his challenge, slew his adversary, and 
 carried the bloody spoils in triumph to his father. The consul 
 had within him the heart of Brutus; he would not pardon 
 this breach of discipline, and ordered the unhappy youth to 
 be beheaded by the lictor in the presence of the assembled 
 army. 
 
 In the night before the battle a vision appeared to each 
 
68 History of rome. [Chap. viii. 
 
 consul, announcing that the general of one side and the army 
 of the other were doomed to destruction. Both agreed that the 
 one whose wing first began to waver should devote himself and 
 the army of the enemy to the gods of the lower world. Decius 
 commanded the left wing ; and when it began to give way, he 
 resolved to fulfil his vow. Calling the Pontifex Maximus, he 
 repeated after him the form of words by which he devoted 
 himself and the army of the enemy to the gods of the dead and 
 the mother earth; then leaping upon his horse, he rushed into 
 the thickest of the fight, and was slain. The Romans gained a 
 signal victory. Scarcely a fourth part of the Latins escaped 
 (340 B.C.). 
 
 Yet this victory (decisive as> the legend makes it) did not 
 conclude the war. It required another battle fought at Trifanum 
 in the same year to make the Romans masters of 
 f th° T t '"^ Latium and Campania. The war continued two 
 league. years longer, each city confining itself to the 
 
 defence of its own walls, and hoping to receive 
 help from others in case of an attack. But in 338 B.C. all the 
 Latins had laid down their arms, and garrisons were placed in 
 their towns. The Romans were now absolute masters of Latium, 
 and their first act was to dissolve the league. For this purpose 
 not only were all assemblies for political purposes forbidden; 
 but separate treaties were made with the separate states, and in 
 order to keep the cities completely isolated, the citizens of one 
 town were forbidden to marry or make a legal contract of bargain 
 or sale with another.* Tibur and Praeneste, the two most 
 powerful cities of the league, which had taken the most active 
 part in the war, were deprived of a portion of their land, but 
 were allowed to retain a nominal independence, preserving 
 their own laws and renewing their treaties {foedera) with 
 Rome. The inhabitants of several other towns, such as Aricia, 
 Pedum, and Lanuvium, lost their independence and received 
 the full Roman franchise. In Campania the private rights 
 of citizenship were given to Fundi, Formiae, Cumae, and 
 Capua. 
 
 Twelve years elapsed between the subjugation of Latium and 
 the commencement of the Second Samnite War. During this 
 
 * According to the Boman expression, the Jus Conubii and Jus Commercii 
 were prohibited. 
 
Chap. VJII.] SECOND SAMNITE WAR. 69 
 
 time the Eoman arms continued to make steady progress. One 
 of their most important conquests was that of the Volscian 
 town of Privernum in 330 B.C., from which time 
 the Volscians, so long the formidable enemies of greek'^oities^ 
 Rome, disappear as an independent nation. The 
 extension of the Roman power naturally awakened the jealousy 
 of the Samnites ; and the assistance rendered by them to the 
 Greek cities of Palaeopolis and Neapolis was the immediate 
 occasion of the Second Samnite War, These two cities were 
 colonies of the neighbouring Cumae, and were situated only 
 five miles from each other. The position of Palaeopolis, or the 
 " Old City," is uncertain ; but Neapolis, or the " New City," 
 stands on the site of a part of the modern Naples. The 
 Romans declared war against the two cities in 327 B.C., and 
 sent the Consul Q. Publilius Philo to reduce them to subjection. 
 The Greek colonists had previously formed an alliance with 
 the Samnites, and now received powerful Samnite garrisons. 
 Publilius encamped between the cities ; and as he did not succeed 
 in taking them before his year of office expired, the important 
 step was for the first time taken of continuing the consul in his 
 command with the title of proconsul. At the beginning of the 
 following year Palaeopolis surrendered ; and with Neapohs was 
 admitted to alliance with Rome on favourable terms. Mean- 
 while the Romans had declared war against the Samnites. 
 
 Second or Great Samnite War, 326-304 e.g. — The Second 
 Samnite War lasted twenty-two years, and was by far the most 
 important of the three wars which this people 
 waged with Rome. During the first five years ■^^TyjJa.r'^' 
 (326-322 B.C.) the Roman arms were generally 
 successful. The Samnites became so disheartened that they 
 sued for peace, but obtained only a truce for a year. It was 
 during this period that the well-known quarrel took place 
 between L. Papirius Cursor and Q. Fabius Maximus, the two 
 most celebrated Roman generals of the time, who constantly 
 led the armies of the Republic to victory. In 326 B.C. L. Papirius 
 was dictator, and Q. Fabius his Master of the Horse. Recalled 
 to Rome by some defect in the auspices, the dictator left the 
 army in charge of Fabius, but with strict orders not to venture 
 upon an engagement. Compelled or provoked by the growing 
 boldness of the enemy, Fabius attacked and defeated them with 
 
70 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. VIII. 
 
 great loss. But this victory was no extenuation for his offence 
 in the eyes of the dictator. Papirius hastened back to the 
 camp, burning with indignation that his commands had been 
 disobeyed, and ordered his lictors to seize Fabius and put him 
 to death. The soldiers, whom Fabius had led to victory, rose 
 in his defence ; and in the night he escaped to Rome, to implore 
 the protection of the senate. He was stating the case to the 
 Fathers, when Papirius entered the senate-house followed by 
 his lictors, and demanded that the offender should be delivered 
 up for execution. But the senate, the people, and the aged 
 father of Maximus interceded so strongly for his life, that the 
 dictator was obliged to give way, and to grant an ungracious 
 pardon. 
 
 The year's truce had not expired when the Samnites again 
 took up arras, and for the next seven years (321-315 B.C.) the 
 balance of success inclined to their side. Thi^ appears to have 
 been mainly owing to the military abilities of their general C. 
 Pontius, who deserves to be ranked among the chief men of 
 antiquity. In the first year of his command he inflicted upon 
 the Romans one of the severest blows they ever sustained in the 
 whole course of their history. 
 
 In 321 B.C. the two consuls, T. Veturius and Sp. Postumius 
 marched into Samnium by the road from Capua to Beneventum. 
 
 Near the town of Caudium they entered the cele- 
 Disaster of brated pass called the Caudine Forks (Furculae 
 1 ^j^*^ ^ Caudinae). It consisted of two narrow defiles or 
 
 gorges, between which was a tolerably spacious 
 plain, but shut in on each side by mountains. The Romans, 
 thinking the Samnites to be far distant, had marched through 
 the first pass and the plain ; but when they came to the second 
 they found it blocked up by works and trunks of trees, so as to 
 be quite impassable. Retracing their steps to the pass by which 
 they had entered, they found that the enemy had meantime 
 taken possession of this also. They were thus blocked up at 
 either end, and, after making vain attempts to force their way 
 through, were obliged to surrender at discretion. Thus both 
 consuls and four legions fell into the hands of the Samnites. 
 C. Pontius made a merciful use of his victory. He agreed to 
 dismiss them in safety upon their promising to restore the 
 ancient alliance on equal terms between the two nations, and 
 
Chap. VIII.] SECOND SAMNITE WAR. 71 
 
 to give up all the places which they had conquered during the 
 war. The consuls and the other superior officers swore to these 
 terms in the name of the Repubhc, and 600 Roman knights 
 were given as hostages. The whole Eoman army was now 
 allowed to depart, and each Eoman soldier marched out singly 
 under the yoke. 
 
 When the news of this disaster reached Eome, the senate 
 refused to ratify the peace, on the ground that an imperator in 
 the field had no power to make a sworn treaty 
 on behalf of the state ; for, according to the "f^^^^^ ^\^^^ 
 convenient theory of the senate, this could only ^j^^ Samnites 
 be done by afetialis sent from Eome. The two 
 consuls and all the officers who had sworn to the peace were 
 delivered up as scape-goats to the Samnites; but Pontius 
 refused to accept the persons who were thus offered, and told 
 them, if they wished to nullify the treaty, to send back the army 
 to the Caudine Forks. Thus Postumius and his companions 
 returned to Eome, and the 600 knights were alone left in the 
 hands of the Samnites. 
 
 The disaster of Caudium shook the faith of many of the 
 Eoman alhes, and the fortune of war was for some years in 
 favour of the Samnites. But in 314 B.C. the 
 tide of success again turned, and the decisive Yictones over 
 1 . , T , Etruscans and 
 
 victory 01 the consuls m that year opened the ganmites. 
 
 way into the heart of Samnium. From this time 
 the Eomans were uniformly successful ; and it seemed probable 
 that the war was drawing to a close, when the Etruscans 
 created a powerful diversion by declaring war against Eome in 
 311 B.C. But the energy and ability of Q. Fabius Maximus 
 averted this new danger. He boldly carried the war into the 
 very heart of Etruria, and gained a decisive victory at Perusia 
 over the forces of the league. The Samnites also were 
 repeatedly defeated ; and, after the capture of Bovianum, their 
 chief stronghold, they were compelled to sue for peace. It was 
 granted them in 304 B.C., and they were admitted to terms of 
 alliance with Rome. 
 
 At the conclusion of the Second Samnite War the Hernicans, 
 who had joined the Samnites in 306 B.C., were reduced to sub- 
 jection after a brief struggle, and their league was dissolved. 
 The Sabellian tribes (the Marsi, Marrucini, Paeiigni, and other 
 
72 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. VIII. 
 
 nations of Central Italy) entered into a league with the Eomans 
 on equal terms. Thus, in 300 B.C., the power of Rome seemed 
 
 firmly established in Central Italy. But this very 
 Jnssmution or povsrer awakened the jealousy of the surrounding 
 leaeae nations, and the Samnites exerted themselves to 
 
 form a new and formidable coalition. The Etrus- 
 cans and Umbrians agreed to make war against Rome, and 
 called in the assistance of the Senonian Gauls. 
 
 Third Samnite War, 298-290 b.c. — As soon as the Etruscans 
 and Umbrians were engaged with Rome, the Samnites invaded 
 
 Lucania. The Lucanians invoked the assistance 
 War ^^^^ ^ of the Romans, who forthwith declared war against 
 
 the Samnites. The Republic had now to contend 
 at one and the same time against the Etruscans, Umbrians, 
 Gauls, and Samnites ; but she carried on the struggle with the 
 utmost energy, attacking the Etruscans, Umbrians, and Gauls 
 in the north, and the Samnites in the south. 
 
 At length, in 295 B.C., the Samnites joined their confederates 
 
 in Umbria. In this country, near the town of Sentinum, a 
 
 . desperate battle was fought, which decided the 
 
 of Rome" "^^ fortune of the war. The two Roman consuls were 
 
 the aged Q. Fabius Maximus and P. Decius Mus, 
 son of the consul who had sacrificed his life at the battle of Veseris 
 (p. 68). The victory was long doubtful. The wing commanded 
 by Decius was giving way before the terrible onset of the Gauls, 
 when be determined to imitate the example of his father, and 
 to devote himself and the enemy to destruction. His death 
 gave fresh courage to his men, and Fabius gained a complete 
 and decisive victory. Gellius Egnatius, the Samnite general, 
 who had taken the most active part in forming the coalition, was 
 slain. But, though the league was thus broken up, the Samnites 
 continued the struggle for five years longer. During this period 
 a C. Pontius, perhaps the very general who had defeated the 
 Romans at the Caudiiie Forks twenty-seven years before, or 
 possibly his son, appears as the leader of the Samnites, but he 
 was defeated by Q. Fabius Maximus with great loss and taken 
 prisoner. Being carried to Rome, he was put to death as the 
 triumphal car of the victor ascended the Capitol (292 B.C.).* 
 This shameful act has been justly branded as one of the greatest 
 • See p. 153. 
 
Chap. VIII.] RESULTS OF THE WARS. 73 
 
 stains on the Eoman annals. Two years afterwards the Sam- 
 nites were unable to continue any longer the hopeless struggle, 
 and were forced to renew their league with Rome (290 B.C.). 
 The complete incorporation of the conquered nation was not 
 desired. For the issue of the Latin and Samnite wars had 
 given Rome all that she wished. It had enabled her to effect 
 the dissolution of the two leagues, to control the Campanian . 
 coast, and to reduce to impotence the only rival who could 
 dispute her sway in the peninsula 
 
Coin of Pyrrhus. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 FROM THE CONCLUSION OF THE SAMNITE WAR TO THE SUBJUGA- 
 TION or iTALr. 290-265 b.c. 
 
 Ten years elapsed from the conclusion of the Third Samnite 
 War to the arrival of Pyrrhus in Italy. During this time the 
 Etruscans and Gauls renewed the war in the north, but were 
 defeated with great slaughter near tbe lake Vadimo ( Vadimonis 
 lacus), in Etruria. This decisive battle appears to have completely 
 crushed the Etruscan power ; and it inflicted so severe a blow 
 upon the Gauls that we hear no more of their ravages for the 
 next sixty years. 
 
 The extension of the Roman dominion in the south of the 
 peninsula had brought the state into connection with the Greek 
 
 cities, which at one period were so numerous aud 
 Greek cities powerful as to give to this part of Italy the name 
 
 of Magna Graecia.* Many of these cities had now 
 fallen into decay through internal dissensions and the conquests 
 of the Lucanians and other Sabellian tribes ; but Tarentum, 
 originally a Lacedaemonian colony, still maintained her former 
 power and splendour, and, jealous of the progress of the Roman 
 arms in the south of Italy, had secretly instigated the Etruscans 
 and Lucanians to form a new coalition against Rome. But it 
 was assistance rendered to the Greek city of Thurii which 
 brought Rome into immediate conflict with the Tarentines. 
 Attacked by the Lucanians, Thurii applied to Rome for aid, and 
 the Consul C. Fabricius not only relieved the city, but defeated 
 the Lucanians and their allies in several engagements (282 B.C.). 
 
 * See p. 7. 
 
Chap. IX.] WAR WITH TARENTUM. 75 
 
 Upon the departure of Fabricius, a Roman garrison was left in 
 Thurii. The easiest mode now of maintaining communication 
 between Rome and this garrison was by sea ; this, however, was 
 virtually forbidden by a treaty which the Romans had made 
 with Tarentum many years before, in which it was stipulated 
 that no Roman ships of war should pass the Lacinian promontory. 
 But circumstances were now changed, and the senate deter- 
 mined that their vessels should no longer be debarred from the 
 gulf of Tarentum. There was a small squadron of ten ships in 
 those seas under the command of L. Valerius; and one day 
 when the Tarentines were assembled in the theatre, which 
 looked over the sea, they saw the Roman squadron sailing 
 towards their harbour. This open violation of the treaty roused 
 the fury of the people, and, urged on by the vehement eloquence 
 of a demagogue, they rushed down to the harbour, quickly 
 manned some ships, and gained an easy victorx'' over the small 
 Roman squadron. Only half made their escape, four were sunk, 
 one taken, and Valerius himself killed. After this the Taren- 
 tines marched against Thurii, compelled the inhabitants to 
 dismiss the Roman garrison, and then plundered the town. 
 
 The senate sent an embassy to Tarentum to complain of these 
 outrages and to demand satisfaction. L. Postumius, who was at 
 the head of the embassy, was introduced wiih his 
 colleagues into the theatre, to state to the as- .^^ declared 
 sembled people the demands of the Roman senate. ^^^^ 
 He began to address them in Greek, but his mis- 
 takes in the language were received with peals of laughter 
 from the thoughtless mob. Unable to obtain a hearing, much 
 less an answer, Postumius was leaving the theatre when a 
 drunken buffoon rushed up to him and sullied his white robe. 
 The whole theatre rang with shouts of laughter and clapping of 
 hands, which became louder and louder, when Postumius held 
 up his sullied robe and showed it to lhe people. "Laugh on 
 now," he cried, " but this robe shall be washed in torrents of 
 your blood." 
 
 War was now inevitable. The luxurious Tarentines sent an 
 
 embassy to Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, begging him, 
 
 in the name of all the Italian Greeks, to cross ^^"7*^ or 
 
 . Pyrrhus. 
 over into Italy in order to conduct the war against 
 
 the Romans. They told him that they only wanted a general, 
 
76 HISTORY OP ROME. [Chap. IX. 
 
 and that all the nations of Southern Italy would flock to his 
 standard. Pyrrhus, whose ambition soared beyond the limits of 
 his poverty-stricken kingdom of Epirus, readily listened to the 
 offer. The conquest of Italy might lead to the sovereignty of 
 Sicily and perhaps of Africa, and to the founding of a great 
 Hellenic kingdom in the West. But as he would not trust the 
 success of his enterprise to the valour and fidelity of Italian 
 troops, he began to make preparations to carry over a powerful 
 army. Meantime he sent Milo, one of his generals, with a 
 detachment of 3000 men to garrison the citadel of Tarentum. 
 Pyrrhus himself crossed over from Epirus towards the end of 
 281 B.C., taking with him 20,000 foot, 3000 horse, and twenty 
 elephants. 
 
 Upon reaching Tarentum, he began to make preparations to 
 carry on the war with activity. The Tarentines soon found 
 they had obtained a master rather than an ally. He shut up 
 the theatre and all other public places, and compelled their 
 young men to serve in his ranks. Notwithstanding all his 
 activity, the Romans were first in the field. The Consul M. 
 Valerius Laevinus marched into Lucania; but as the army of 
 Pyrrhus was inferior to that of the Romans, he attempted to 
 gain time by negotiation, in order that he might be joined by his 
 Italian allies. He accordingly wrote to the consul, offering to 
 arbitrate between Rome and the Italian states; but Laevinus 
 bluntly told him to mind his own business and retire to Epirus. 
 
 Fearing to remain inactive any longer, although he was not 
 yet joined by his allies, Pyrrhus marched out against the Romans 
 with his own troops and the Tarentines. He took 
 Heraclea "P ^^"^ position between the towns of Pandosia 
 
 and Heraclea, on the river Siris. The Romans, 
 who were encamped on the other side of the river, were the 
 first to begin the battle. They crossed the river, and were 
 immediately attacked by the cavalry of Pyrrhus, who led them 
 to the charge in person, and distinguished himself, as usual, 
 by the most daring acts of valour. The Romans, however, 
 bravely sustained the attack; and Pyrrhus, finding that his 
 cavalry could not decide the day, ordered his infantry to advance. 
 The battle was still contested most furiously : seven times did 
 the legions and the phalanx meet ; and it was not till Pyrrhus 
 brought forward his elephants, which bore down everything 
 
Chap. IX.] WAR WITH PYRRHUS. 77 
 
 before them, that the Romans took to flight, leaving their camp 
 to the conqueror (280 B.C.). 
 
 This battle taught Pyrrhus the difficulty of the enterprise he 
 had undertaken. Before the engagement, when he saw the 
 Romans forming their line as they crossed the river, he said to 
 his officers, " In war, at any rate, these barbarians are not 
 barbarous ; " and afterwards, as he saw the Roman dead lying 
 upon the field with all their wounds in front, he exclaimed, " If 
 these were my Midlers, or if I were their general, we should 
 conquer the world." And, though his loss had been inferior to 
 that of the Romans, still so large a number of his officers and 
 best troops had fallen, that he said, " Another such victory, 
 and I must return to Epirus alone." He therefore resolved to 
 avail himself of this victory to conclude, if possible, an advan- 
 tageous peace. He sent his minister Cineas to Rome, with the 
 proposal that the Romans should recognize the independence of 
 the Greeks in Italy, restore to the Samnites, Lucanians, Apulians, 
 and Bruttians all the possessions which they had lost in war, and 
 make peace with himself and the Tarentines. He promised, if 
 peace was concluded on these terms, to retm'n all the Roman 
 prisoners without ransom. 
 
 Cineas, whose persuasive eloquence was said to have won 
 more towns for Pyrrhus than his arms, neglected no means to 
 induce the Romans to accept these terms. The 
 prospects of the Republic seemed so dark and ^„°i^g ^^ ^^^* 
 threatening, that many members of the senate 
 thought it would be more prudent to comply with the demands 
 of the king ; and this party would probably have carried the day 
 had it not been for the patriotic speech of the aged Ap. 
 Claudius Caecus. He denounced the idea of a peace with a 
 victorious foe, and stimulated the senate to make the proud 
 reply (now heard for the first time) that Rome never negotiated 
 with an enemy on Italian soil. 
 
 Cineas returned to Pyrrhus, and told him he must hope for 
 nothing from negotiation, that the city was like a temple of 
 the gods, and the senate an assembly of kings. 
 Pyrrhus now advanced by rapid marches towards ^y^rhus 
 •D -XT- J. 1. J. ^ marches on 
 
 Rome, ravagmg the country as he went along, vnme 
 
 and without encountering any serious opposition. 
 
 He at length arrived at Anagnia, in the country of the Hernicans. 
 
78 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. IX. 
 
 Another march would have brought him within sight of the 
 walls of Rome ; but at this moment he learnt that peace was 
 concluded with the Etruscans, and that the other consul had 
 returned with his army to Rome. All hope of compelling the 
 Romans to accept the peace was now gone, and he therefore 
 resolved to retreat. He retired slowly into Campania, and from 
 thence withdrew into winter quarters at Tarentum. 
 
 As soon as the armies were quartered for the winter, the 
 
 Romans sent an embassy to Pyrrhus to negotiate the ransom 
 
 . or exchange of prisoners. The ambassadors were 
 
 received by P^Trhus in the most distinguished 
 manner; and his interviews with G. Fabricius, who was at the 
 head of the embassy, form one of the most famous stories in 
 Roman history. Fabricius was a fine specimen of the sturdy 
 Roman character. He cultivated his farm with his own hands, 
 and, like his contemporary Curius, was celebrated for his incor- 
 ruptible integrity. The king attempted in vain to work upon 
 his cupidity and his fears. He steadily refused the large sums 
 of money offered by Pyrrhus ; and when an elephant, concealed 
 behind him by a curtain, waved his trunk over his head, Fabricius 
 remained unmoved. Such respect did his conduct inspire, that 
 Pyrrhus attempted to persuade him to enter into his service and 
 accompany him to Greece. The object of the embassy failed. 
 The king refused to exchange the prisoners ; but to show them 
 his trust in their honour, he allowed them to go to Rome in 
 order to celebrate the Saturnalia, stipulating that they were to 
 return to Tarentum if the senate would not accept the terms 
 which he had previously offered through Gineas. The senate 
 remained firm in their resolve, and all the prisoners returned 
 to Pyrrhus, the punishment of death having been denounced 
 against those who should remain in the city. 
 
 In the following year (279 B.C.) the war was renewed, and 
 a battle was fought near Asculum. The Romans fled to their 
 
 camp, which was so near to the field of battle 
 Asculum *^ that not more than 6000 fell, while Pyrrhus lost 
 
 more than half this number. The victory yielded 
 Pyrrhus little or no advantage, and he was obliged to retire to 
 Tarentum for the winter without effecting anything more during 
 the campaign. In the last battle, as well as in the former, the 
 brunt of the action had fallen almost exclusively upon his Greek 
 
Chap. IX.] WAR WITH PYRRHUS. 79 
 
 troops ; and the state of Greece, which this year was overrun 
 by the Gauls, made it hopeless for him to expect any reinforce- 
 ments from Epirus. He was therefore unwilling to hazard his 
 surviving Greeks in another campaign with the Romans, and 
 accordingly lent a ready ear to the invitations of the Greeks in 
 Sicily, who begged him to come to their assistance against the 
 Carthaginians. It was necessary, however, first to suspend 
 hostilities with the Romans, and to find a fair pretext for bring- 
 ing the war to a conclusion. This was afforded at the beginning 
 of the following year (278 B.C.) by one of the servants of Pyrrhus 
 deserting to the Romans, and proposing to the consuls to poison 
 his master. They sent back the deserter to the king, saying 
 that they abhorred a victory gained by treason. Thereupon 
 Pyrrhus, to show his gratitude, sent Cineas to Rome with all 
 the Roman prisoners without ransom and without conditions ; 
 he made fresh proposals for peace, hut Rome was now in 
 alliance with Carthage, and could not make terms with the 
 king. 
 
 But the safety of Syracuse was at stake, and, in spite of the 
 protection which he owed to his Italian allies, Pyrrhus left Milo 
 with part of his troops in possession of Tarentum, 
 and crossed over into Sicily. He remained there ^y^'""!!^ 
 upwards of two years. At first he met with giciiy. 
 brilHant success, and deprived the Carthaginians 
 of a great part of the island, although he failed to dislodge them 
 from the impregnable fortress of Lilybaeum. He had built a 
 fleet, communications were kept up between Syracuse and 
 Tarentum, and evervthing seemed to favour his designs. But 
 Pyrrhus ruled the Sicilians as though they were his own Epirote 
 peasants, and the Greeks, unaccustomed to strong government, 
 now began to form cabals and plots against him. 
 
 This led to retaliation on his part, and he soon became as 
 anxious to abandon the island as he had been before to leave 
 Italy. Accordingly, when his Italian allies again 
 begged him to come to their assistance, he readily t^p^g ^q Italy. 
 complied with their request, and arrived in Italy 
 in the autumn of 276 bc. His troops were now almost the same 
 in number as when he first landed in Italy, but very different in 
 quality. The faithful Epirots had for the most part fallen, and 
 his present soldiers consisted chiefly of mercenaries whom he 
 
80 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. IX. 
 
 had levied in Italy. One of his first operations was the recovery 
 of Locri, which had revolted to the Romans; and, as he here 
 found himself in great difficulties for want of money to pay his 
 troops, he was induced to take possession of the treasures of the 
 temple of Persephone in that town ; but the ships conveying 
 the money were wrecked. This circumstance deeply affected the 
 mind of Pyrrhus ; he ordered the treasures which were saved 
 to be restored to the temple, and from this time became haunted 
 by the idea that the wrath of Persephone was pursuing him and 
 dragging him down to ruin. 
 
 The following year (275 B.C.) closed the career of Pyrrhus in 
 Italy. The Consul M'. Curius marched into Samnium, and his 
 
 colleague into Lucania. Pyrrhus advanced against 
 a e Curius, who was encamped in the neighbourhood 
 
 of Beneventum, and resolved to fight with him 
 before he was joined by his colleague. As Curius, not wishing 
 to risk a battle with his own army alone, declined to leave his 
 camp, Pyrrhus planned a night-attack. But he miscalculated 
 the time and the distance ; the torches burnt out, the men missed 
 their way, and it was alreadj^ broad daylight when he reached 
 the heights above the Roman camp. Still, their arrival was 
 quite unexpected ; but as a battle was now inevitable, Curius led 
 out his men. The troops of Pyi-rhus, exhausted by fatigue, were 
 easily put to the rout ; two elephants were killed and eight more 
 taken. Encouraged by this success, Curius no longer hesitated 
 to meet the king in the open plain, and gained a decisive 
 victory. Pyrrhus arrived at Tarentum with only a few horse- 
 men. Shortly afterwards he crossed over to Greece, leaving 
 Milo with a garrison at Tarentum. Two years afterwards he 
 perished in an attack upon Argos, ingloriously slain by a tile 
 hurled by a woman from the roof of a house. 
 
 The departure of Pyrrhus left the Lucanians and other Italian 
 tribes exposed to the full power of Rome. They nevertheless 
 
 continued the hopeless struggle a little longer ; 
 
 l'il^!?.*?7.f; but in 272 B.C. Tarentum fell, and in a few 
 Rome in Italy. . • x i ^ ^i 
 
 years afterwards every nation in Italy, to the 
 
 south of the Macra and the Rubicon, owned the supremacy of 
 Rome. She had now becmie the first power of the Western, 
 and one of the first powers in the ancient, world. The 
 defeat of Pyrrhus attracted the attention of the nations of 
 
Chap. IX.] ORGANIZATION OP ITALY. 81 
 
 the East ; and in 273 B.C. Ptolemy Philadelphus, king of Egypt, 
 sent an embassy to Rome, and concluded a treaty with the 
 Republic. 
 
 But Rome did not mean to rule as a mistress over the subject 
 cities of Italy. Empire was still far from her thoughts, and, 
 though she continued the policy adopted on the 
 dissolution of the Latin league, destroyed the „* ftniv^ 
 existing confederations and isolated the cities from 
 one another, yet she granted them the rights of self-government, 
 and, where possible, incorporated them more or less completely 
 with herself. The population of Italy was divided into three 
 broad classes — Cives ii'oma/n', inhabitants of m^wtcj/'m, and Socii. 
 
 I. Gives Romani, or Roman Citizens. — These consisted : (1) 
 Of the citizens of the thirty-three tribes into which the Roman 
 territory was now divided, and which extended north of the 
 Tilier a little beyond Veil, and southwards as far as the Liris; 
 though even in this district there were some towns, such as 
 Tibur and Praeneste, which did not possess the Roman franchise. 
 (2) Of the citizens of Roman colonies planted in different parts 
 of Italy. (3) Of the citizens of municipal towns upon whom 
 the Roman franchise was conferred. 
 
 II. The municipia were towns to which the Roman citizen- 
 ship without the right of voting {civitas sine mffragio) or of 
 holding office had been given. They possessed, therefore, the 
 rights of trade and intermarriage with Rome {jus conuhii et 
 commercii). 
 
 III. The Socii were divided into the two classes of (1) the 
 Latins, or cities of the Latin name ; and (2) the free and allied 
 communities. 
 
 (1) The term Latini was appHed to the colonies founded by 
 Rome which did not enjoy the rights of Roman citizenship, and 
 which stood almost in the same position with regard to the 
 Roman state as had been formerly occupied by the cities of the 
 Latin league. The name originated at a period when colonies 
 were actually sent out in common by the Romans and Latins, 
 but similar colonies continued to be founded by the Romans 
 alone long after the extinction of the Latin league. These 
 colonists possessed privileges in private and public law. In 
 private law they had the right of trade {jus commercii), and 
 could sue and be sued in Roman courts. Their distinctive 
 
 o 
 
82 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. IX. 
 
 public right was capacity for acquiring Roman citizenship. The 
 citizen of any Latin colony might emigrate to Rome, and 
 be enrolled and give his vote in one of the Roman tribes. 
 But after 267 B.C. this right of exile {jus exsulandi) was 
 abolished and replaced by the later Latin right which gave full 
 citizenship to any one who had held a magistracy in his native 
 town. 
 
 (2) The free and allied cities {civitates Itberae or foederatae) 
 included the rest of Italy. Rome had either formed a treaty 
 {foedus) with, or given a charter (lex data) to, each of these 
 cities; and this treaty or charter determined its rights and 
 duties. The relation of all the Italian cities to Rome was that 
 of a very close military alliance. Contingents of men were 
 drawn from most of the states, and requisitions for ships of war 
 were made from the Greek cities in the south. 
 
 The political changes in Rome itself, from the time of the 
 Latin wars, have been already in great part anticipated. Appius 
 Claudius, afterwards named Caecus, or the Blind, 
 votes of the introduced a dangerous innovation in the con- 
 artisans, stitution during the Second Samnite War. Slavery 
 existed at Rome, as among the other nations of 
 antiquity ; and as many slaves, from various causes, acquired their 
 liberty, there gradually sprung up at Rome a large and, in many 
 cases, indigent population of servile origin. These freedmen, 
 whose interests became merged in those of the class of landless 
 citizens and artisans, were enrolled only in the four city-tribes, so 
 that, however numerous they might become, they could influence 
 only the votes of four tribes. Appius Claudius, in his censorship 
 (312 B.C.), when making out the lists of citizens, allowed the 
 freedmen and landless citizens to enrol themselves in any tribe 
 they pleased; but this dangerous innovation was abolished by 
 the Censors Q. Fabius Maximus and P. Decius Mus (304 B.C.), 
 who restored these classes to the four city-tribes. The censor- 
 ship of Appius is, however, memorable for the gr(;at public works 
 which he executed. He made the great military road called 
 the Appian Way (Via Appia), leading from Rome to Capua, a 
 distance of 120 miles, which long afterwards was continued 
 across the Apennines to Brundusiura. He also executed the 
 first of the great aqueducts (Aqua Appia) which supplied Rome 
 with such an abundance of water. 
 
Chap. IX.] PUBLICATION OF LEGAL FORMS. 
 
 83 
 
 This period is also remarkable for the growth of a class of 
 lawyers who were no longer members of the sacred guilds. 
 Cn. Flavins, the son of a freedman, and secre- 
 tary to Appius Claudius, divulged the forms and PwDlication 
 times to be observed in legal proceedings. These ^^ jg^_. 
 had formerly been the monopoly of the priestly 
 colleges; but Flavins, having become acquainted with these 
 secrets by means of his patron, published in a book a list of the 
 formularies to be observed in the several kinds of actions, and 
 also set up in the forum a whited tablet containing a list of all 
 the days on which the courts could be held. His action was 
 a prelude to the final divorce of Roman law from the trammels 
 of the Jus j^ontificium. 
 
 Coin represeutiag Temple of YeaU. 
 
Koman galley (from Trajan's Column). 
 
 CHAPTER X. ^ 
 
 THE FIRST PUNIC WAE. 264-241 B.C. 
 
 Carthage. 
 
 Rome, now the mistress, was also the protectress of Italy, and- 
 
 the defence of her Italian dependencies necessarily entailed on 
 
 her a long and arduous struggle with Carthage, 
 
 the undisputed mistress of the western waters of 
 
 the Mediterranean. This great and powerful city was founded 
 
 by the Phoenicians * of Tyre in 825 B.C., according to the 
 
 common chronology. Its inhabitants were consequently a 
 
 * The Phoenicians were called by the Latins Poeni, whence the adjective 
 punicus, like munire from moenia, and punire frova poena. 
 
Chap. XJ THE FIRST PUNIC WAR. 85 
 
 branch of tlie Semitic race, to which the Hebrews also belonged. 
 Carthage rose to greatness by her commerce, and gradually 
 extended her empire over the whole of the north of Africa, from 
 the Straits of Hercules to the borders of Cyrene. Her Libyan 
 subjects she treated with extreme harshness, and hence they 
 were always ready to revolt against her so soon as a foreign 
 enemy appeared upon her soil. 
 
 The two chief magistrates at Carthage were elected annually 
 out of a few of the wealthiest families, and were called Suffetes* 
 There was a senate of large numbers ; but its power was inferior 
 to that of a smaller council of 104, which was created to control 
 the authority of the generals, and which, by the exercise of its 
 judicial power, held an almost sovereign position. The assembly 
 of the people was sometimes consulted, but the government was 
 practically an oligarchy ; and a few old, rich, and powerful 
 families divided among themselves the great offices of state. 
 All power was acquired by commercial wealth, as all policy was 
 subservient to commercial motives. 
 
 The mercantile had also crushed the military spirit, and in 
 her foreign wars Carthage depended upon mercenary troops, 
 which her great wealth enabled her to procure in 
 abundance from Spain, Italy, and Greece, as well J^elations of 
 as from Libya. Sardinia and Corsica were among c^iiy^^^ 
 her earliest conquests, and her most cherished 
 object was the possession of Sicily. The Phoenician colonies 
 in this island came under her dominion as the power of Tyre 
 declined ; and having thus obtained a firm footing in Sicily, 
 she carried on a long struggle for supremacy with the Greek 
 cities. It was here that she came into contact with the Eoman 
 arms. The relations of Rome and Carthage had hitherto been 
 peaceful, and a treaty, concluded between the two states in the 
 first years of the Roman Republic, had been renewed more than 
 once. But the extension of Roman dominion had excited the 
 jealousy of Carthage ; it was evident that a struggle was not far 
 distant, and Pyrrhus could not help exclaiming, as he quitted 
 Sicily, " How fine a battle-field are we leaving to the Romans 
 and Carthaginians ! " 
 
 The city of Messana, situated on the straits which divide 
 Sicily from Italy, was occupied at this time by the Mamertini. 
 • Probably the same as the Hebrew shofetim, i.e. judges. 
 
86 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. X. 
 
 They were a body of Campanian mercenaries, chiefly of Sabellian 
 origin, who had served under Agathocles, and after the death 
 
 of that tyrant (289 B.C.) were marched to Mes- 
 Tne Mamer- gana, in order to be transported to Italy. Being 
 from Rome. hospitably received within the city, they suddenly 
 
 rose against the inhabitants, massacred the 
 male population, and made themselves masters of their wives 
 and property. They now took the name of Mamertini, or 
 " Children of Mars," from Mamers, a Sabellian name for that 
 deity. They rapidly extended their power over a considerable 
 portion of the north of Sicily, and were formidable enemies to 
 Syracuse. Hiero, having become king of Syracuse, determined 
 to destroy this nest of robbers, advanced against them with a 
 large army, defeated them in battle, and shut them up within 
 Messana. The Mamertines were obliged to look out for help ; 
 one party wished to appeal to the Carthaginians, and the other 
 to invoke the assistance of Eome. The latter ultimately pre- 
 vailed, and an embassy was sent to implore immediate aid. 
 The temptation was strong, for the occupation of Messana by a 
 Carthaginian garrison might prove dangerous to the tranquillity 
 of Italy, Still the senate hesitated ; for only six years before 
 Hiero had assisted the Eomans in punishing the Campanian 
 mercenaries, who had seized Ehegium in the same way as the 
 Mamertines had made themselves masters of Messana. But, 
 though the senate hesitated, the popular assembly, to whom the 
 question was referred, showed no such scruples ; it eagerly voted 
 that the Mamertines should be assisted : in other words, that the 
 Carthaginians should not be allowed to obtain possession of 
 Messana ; and the decisive step was taken which launched Rome 
 on her career of conquest beyond the limits of Italy. 
 
 The Consul App. Claudius, the son of the blind censor, 
 was to lead an army into Sicily. But during this delay the 
 Occupation Carthaginian partj' in Messana had obtained the 
 of Messana. ascendency, and Hanno, with a Carthaginian garri- 
 War with son, had been admitted into the citadel. Hiero 
 
 Carthage. jj^d concluded peace with the Mamertines through 
 
 the mediation of the Carthaginians, so that there was no longer 
 even a pretext for the interference of the Romans. But a legate 
 of the Consul App. Claudius, having crossed to Sicily, persuaded 
 the Mamertines to expel the Carthaginian garrison. Hiero and 
 
Chap. X.] THE FIRST PUNIC WAR. 87 
 
 the Carthagiuians now proceeded to lay siege to Messana by sea 
 and land, and the Eomans no longer hesitated to declare war 
 against Carthage. Such was the corDmencement of the First 
 Punic War (264 B.C.). 
 
 The Carthaginians commanded the sea with a powerful fleet, 
 while the Romans had no ships of war worthy of the name. 
 But the Consul App. Claudius, having contrived to elude the 
 Carthaginian squadron, landed near the town of Messana, and 
 defeated in succession the forces of Syracuse and Carthage. In 
 the following year (263) the Romans followed up their success 
 against Hiero. The two consuls advanced to the walls of 
 Syracuse, ravaging the territory of the city and capturing many 
 of its dependent towns. The king became alarmed at the 
 success of the Romans ; and thinking that they would prove 
 more powerful than the Carthaginians, he concluded a peace 
 with Rome. From this time till his death, a period of nearly fifty 
 years, Hiero remained the firm and steadfast ally of the Romans. 
 
 The Romans, now freed from the hostility of S}^^racuse, laid 
 siege to Agrigentum, the second ot the Greek cities in Sicily, 
 which was now held by the flower of the Car- 
 thaginian troops. They blockaded the town, but ~^P^.^^^ ®* 
 their supplies were in turn cut off by the Phoe- 
 nician fleet, and the distress on both sides was great. At length 
 a battle was fought, and the Romans, gaining a decisive victory 
 over the Carthaginian army which had been sent to raise the 
 siege, obtained possession of the town (262 B.C.). 
 
 The first three years of the war had already made the Romans 
 masters of the greater part of Sicily. But the coasts of Italy 
 were exposed to the ravages of the Carthaginian 
 fleet, and the Romans saw that they could not ^\ ^ ^ 
 hope to bring the war to a successful termination 
 so long as Carthage was mistress of the sea. To form a fleet in 
 the ancient world was not the undertaking it is for a modern 
 nation. It required a command of men, money, and materials — 
 all of which Rome now possessed in abundance ; for seaman- 
 ship, which is a thing of gradual growth, was, in the coasting 
 voyages of the time, a secondary consideration. The first 
 necessity was to build ships of a heavier kind tlian the few 
 triremes of which the Roman navy was composed ; a Cartha- 
 ginian quinquereme, which had been wrecked upon the coast of 
 
88 
 
 HISTOKY OF ROME. 
 
 [Chap. X. 
 
 Italy, served as a model. In the short space of sixty days from 
 the time the trees were felled, 130 ships were launched, and 
 while the ships were building, the rowers were trained on 
 scaffolds placed upon the land like benches of ships at sea. As 
 we may imagine, the sea-going power of these Roman ships was 
 contemptible ; all that they could boast was weight and size. 
 
 In the fifth year of the war (260 B.C.) one of the consuls, 
 Cn. Cornelius, first put to sea with only seventeen vessels, but 
 was surprised near Lipara, and taken prisoner, with the whole of 
 his squadron. His colleague, C. Duilius, now took the command 
 
 of the rest of the fleet. He saw 
 that the only means of conquer- 
 ing the Carthaginians by sea 
 was to deprive them of all the 
 advantages of manoeuvring, and 
 to take their ships by boarding. 
 For this purpose every ship was 
 provided with a boarding- 
 bridge, thirty-six feet in length, 
 which was pulled up by a rope 
 and fastened to a mast in the 
 fore part of the ship. As soon 
 as an enemy's ship came near 
 enough, the rope was loosened, 
 the bridge fell down, and became 
 fastened by means of an iron 
 spike in its under side. The 
 boarders then poured down the 
 bridge into the enemy's ship. 
 
 Thus prepared, Duilius boldly 
 sailed out to meet the fleet of 
 the enemy. He found them off 
 the Sicilian coast, near Mylae. 
 The Carthaginians hastened to 
 the fight as if to a triumph, 
 but their ships were rapidly seized by the boarding-bridges, 
 and when it came to a close fight their crews 
 Victory at ^^^.^ ^^ match for the veteran soldiers of Rome. 
 My ae. rpj^g victory of Duilius was complete. Thirty-one 
 
 of the enemy's ships were taken, and fourteen destroyed; the 
 
 Columna Rostrata. 
 
Chap. X.] THE FIRST PUNIC WAR. 89 
 
 rest only saved themselves by an ignominious flight. On his 
 return to Rome, Duilius celebrated a magnificent triumph. 
 Public honours were conferred upon him ; he was to be escorted 
 home in the evening from banquets by the light of torches and 
 the sound of the flute, and a column adorned with the beaks of 
 the conquered ships, and thence called the Columna Rostrata, 
 was set up in the forum.* 
 
 For the next few years the war languished, and nothing of 
 importance was eff'ected on either side ; but in the ninth year 
 of the struggle (256 b.c.) the Romans resolved by . 
 
 strenuous exertions to bring it to an end. They __ Ag Africa 
 therefore made preparations for invading Africa 
 with a great force. The two consuls, M. Atilius Regulus and 
 L. Manlius, set sail with 330 ships, took the legions on board in 
 Sicily, and then put out to sea in order to cross over to Africa. 
 The Carthaginian fleet, consisting of 350 ships, met them near 
 Ecnomus, on the southern coast of Sicily. Never, perhaps, had 
 the ancient world seen a battle in which such numbers were 
 engaged. The boarding-bridges of the Romans again annihilated 
 all the advantages of maritime skill. Their victory was decisive. 
 They lost only twenty-four ships, while they destroyed twenty- 
 four of the enemy's vessels, and took sixty-four with all their 
 crews. The passage to Africa was now clear ; and the remainder 
 of the Carthaginian fleet hastened home to defend the capital. 
 The Romans landed near the town of Clupea or Aspis, which 
 they took, and there established their head- quarters. From 
 thence they laid waste the Carthaginian territory with fire 
 and sword, and collected an immense booty from the defence- 
 less country. On the approach of winter, Manlius, one of the 
 consuls, by order of the senate, returned to Rome with half of 
 the army ; while Regulus remained with the other half to prose- 
 cute the war. He carried on his operations with the utmost 
 vigour, and was greatlj'' assisted by the incompetency of the 
 Carthaginian generals. The enemy had collected a considerable 
 force ; but the Carthaginian generals avoided the plains, where 
 their cavalry and elephants would have given them an advantage 
 over the Roman army, and withdrew into the mountains. There 
 they were attacked by Regulus, and utterly defeated with great 
 
 * The inscription upon this column, or at any rate a very ancient copy of H, 
 is still pre8erve4 in the CapltoUn« Museujn at Poni§. 
 
90 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. X. 
 
 loss: 15,000 men were killed in battle, and 5000 men, with 
 eighteen elephants, were taken. The vanquished troops re- 
 tired within the walls of Carthage ; Eegulus now overran the 
 country without opposition, and began to plan the siege of the 
 capital. Amongst other towns that fell into his power was 
 Tunis, which was at the distance of only twenty miles from 
 Carthage. The Numidians took the opportunity of recovering 
 their independence, and their roving bands completed the devas- 
 tation of the country. The Carthaginians in despair sent a 
 herald to Eegulus to solicit peace. But the Eoman general, 
 intoxicated with success, would only grant it on such intolerable 
 terms that the Carthaginians resolved to continue the war, and 
 hold out to the last. 
 
 In the midst of their distress and alarm, succour came to 
 them from an unexpected quarter. Among the Greek mer- 
 Defeat of Re- cenaries who had lately arrived at Carthage was 
 gulus. Loss a Lacedaemonian of the name of Xanthippus. 
 of Roman He emphasized the folly of lurking in the hills 
 
 fleets. j^jj(j forests ; and he inspired such confidence in 
 
 the government, that he was placed at the head of their troops. 
 Eelying on his 4000 cavalry and 100 elephants, Xanthippus 
 boldly marched into the open country to meet the enemy.. 
 Keguhis, without even attempting to secure his retreat, readily 
 accepted battle ; but it ended in his total overthrow ; 30,000 
 Eomans were slain : scarcely 2000 escaped to Clupea, and 
 Eegulus himself with 500 more was taken prisoner (255 B.C.). 
 
 Another disaster awaited the Eomans in this year. Their 
 fleet, which had been sent to Africa to carry off the remains of 
 the army of Eegulus, had not only succeeded in their object, 
 but had gained a victorj'^ over the Carthaginian fleet. They 
 were returning home when they were overtaken off Caraarina, 
 in Sicily, by a fearful storm. Nearly the entire fleet was 
 destroyed, and the coast was strewn for miles with wrecks and 
 corpses. 
 
 The Eomans, with undiminished energy, immediately set to 
 work to build a new fleet, and in less than three months 220 
 ships were ready for sea. But the same fate awaited them. In 
 253 B.C. the consuls had ravaged the coasts of Africa, but on 
 their return were again surprised by a fearful storm of!' Cape 
 Palinurus. A hundred and fifty ships were wrecked. This 
 
Chap. X.] THE FIRST PUNIC WAR. 91 
 
 blow, coming so soon after the other, damped the courage even 
 of the Roman senate ; it determined not to rebuild the fleet, 
 and to keep only sixty ships for the defence of the coast of Italy 
 and the protection of the transports. 
 
 The war was now confined to Sicily, but since the defeat of 
 Regulus the Roman soldiers had been so greatly alarmed by the 
 elephants, that their generals did not venture on 
 attack. At length, in 250 B.C., the Roman pro- p^Jimus 
 consul, L Metellus, accepted battle under the 
 walls of Panormus, and gained a decisive victory. The Car- 
 thaginians lost 20,000 men ; thirteen of their generals adorned 
 the triumph of Metellus ; and 104 elephants were also led in the 
 triumphal procession. This was the most important battle that 
 had been yet fought in Sicily, and had a decisive influence upon 
 the issue of the contest. It so raised the spirits of the Romans 
 that they determined once more to build a fleet of 200 sail. 
 The Carthaginians, on the other hand, were anxious to bring 
 the war to an end, and accordingly sent an embassy to Rome 
 to propose an exchange of prisoners, and to offer terms of 
 peace. 
 
 Regulus, who had been now five years in captivity, was allowed 
 to accompany the ambassadors, with the promise that he would 
 return to Carthage if their proposals were declined, .p . 
 This embassy is the subject of one of the most 
 celebrated stories in the Roman annals. The orators and poets 
 relate how Regulus at first refused to enter the city as a slave 
 of the Carthaginians ; how afterwards he would not give his 
 opinion in the senate, as he had ceased by his captivity to he 
 a member of that illustrious body ; how, at length, when induced 
 by his coimtrymen to speak, he endeavoured to dissuade the 
 senate- from assenting to a peace, or even to an exchange of 
 prisoners ; and when he saw them wavering, from their desire 
 to redeem him from captivity, how he told them that the Cartha- 
 ginians had given him a slow poison, which would soon terminate 
 his life ; and how, finally, when the senate, through his influence, 
 refused the offers of the Carthaginians, he firmly resisted all the 
 persuasions of his friends to remain in Rome, and returned to 
 Carthage, where a martyr's death awaited him. It is related 
 that he was placed in a barrel covered over with iron nails, and 
 thus perished; other writers state in addition, that, after his 
 
92 ■ HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. X. 
 
 eyelids had been cut off, he was first thrown into a dark dungeon, 
 and then suddenly exposed to the full rays of a burning sun. 
 When the news of the barbarous death of Regulns reached 
 Rome, the senate is said to have given two of the noblest 
 Carthaginian prisoners to the family of Regulus, who re- 
 venged themselves by putting them to death with cruel 
 torments. 
 
 The Carthaginian dominion in Sicily was now confined to the 
 north-western corner of the island; and Lilybaeum and Dre- 
 _. . panura were the only two towns remaining in 
 
 Lilybaeum. ^^^^^^ hands. Lilybaeum, situated upon a pro- 
 montory at the western extremity of the island, 
 was the stronghold of the Carthaginian power ; and accordingly 
 the Romans determined to concentrate all their efforts, and to 
 employ the armies of both consuls in attacking this city. This 
 siege, which is one of the most memorable in ancient history, 
 commenced in 250 b.c, and lasted till the termination of the war. 
 In the second year of the siege (249 B.C.) the Consul P. 
 Claudius, tired of the delay before Lilybaeum, formed the design 
 of attacking the Carthaginian fleet in the neigh- 
 DreDanum bouring harbour of Drepanum. In vain did the 
 auguries warn him ; the keeper of the sacred 
 chickens told him that they would not eat. " At any rate," 
 said he, "let them drink," and he ordered them to be thrown 
 overboard. His impiety met with a meet reward. He was 
 defeated with great loss ; ninety-three of his ships were taken 
 or destroyed, and only thirty escaped. Great was the indigna- 
 tion at Rome. He was recalled by the senate, ordered to appoint 
 a dictator, and then to lay down his office. Claudius, in scorn, 
 named M. Claudius Glycias, a son of one of his freedmen. But 
 the senate would not brook this insult ; thev deprived the 
 unworthy man of the honour, and caused A. Atilius Calatinus 
 to be appointed in his place. 
 
 The other consul, C. Junius, was equally unfortunate. He 
 was sailing along the coasts of Sicily with a convoy of 800 
 vessels, intended to relieve the wants of the army 
 f th'^'^^*^°'^ at Lilybaeum, when he was overtaken by one of 
 g^^ those terrible storms which had twice before 
 
 proved so fatal to the Roman fleets. The trans- 
 ports were all dashed to pieces, and of his 105 ships of war 
 
Chap. X.] THE FIRST PUNIC WAR. 93 
 
 only two escaped. Thus the Roman fleet was a third time 
 destroyed. Tliese repeated misfortunes compelled the Romans 
 to abandon any fm'ther attempts to contest the supremacy of 
 the sea. 
 
 About this time a really great man was placed at the head of 
 the Carthaginian army — a man who, at an earlier period of the 
 war, might have brought the struggle to a verj' 
 different termination. This was the celebrated Hamilcar at 
 Hamilcar Barca,* the father of the still more x-py^ 
 celebrated Hannibal. He was still a young man 
 at the time of his appointment to the command in Sicily 
 (247 B.C.). His very first operations were equally daring and 
 successful. Instead of confining himself to the defence of Lily- 
 baeura and Drepanum, with which the Carthaginian commanders 
 had been hitherto contented, he made descents upon the coast 
 of Italy, and then suddenly landed on the north of Sicily, and 
 established himself with his whole army on a mountain called 
 Hercte (the modern Monte Fellegrino), which overhung the 
 town of Panormus (the modern Palermo), one of the most 
 important of the Roman possessions. Here he maintained him- 
 self for nearly three years, to the astonishment alike of friends 
 and foes ; and from hence he made continual descents into the 
 enemies' country, and completely prevented them from making 
 any vigorous attacks either upon Lilybaeum or Drepanum. All 
 the efforts of the Romans to dislodge him were unsuccessful ; 
 and he only quitted Hercte in order to seize Eryx, a town 
 situated upon the mountain of this name, and only six miles 
 from Drepanum. This position he held for two years longer, 
 until the Romans realized that the only means of driving the 
 Carthaginians out of Sicily was to recover their supremacy 
 by sea. 
 
 In 242 B.C. the Consul Lutatius Catulus put out with a fleet 
 of 200 ships, and in the following year he gained 
 a decisive victory over the Carthaginian fleet, y^otory at the 
 commanded by Hanno, off the group of islands jifg^aef 
 called the Aegates. 
 
 This victory gave the Romans the desired control over the Car- 
 thaginian strongholds. Lilybaeum, Drepanum, and Eryx might 
 
 • Barca is the same as the Hebrew word Barak, " lightning." 
 
94 HISTORY OF ROME, [Chap. X. 
 
 now be reduced by famine. The Carthaginians, weary of the 
 war, and indisposed to make any further sacrifices, sent orders 
 to Hamilcar to make peace on the best terms he 
 C rthaffe could, and it was at length concluded on the con- 
 
 ditions : that Carthage should evacuate Sicily and 
 the adjoining islands ; that she should restore the Roman 
 prisoners without ransom, and should pay the sum of 3200 
 talents within the space often years (241 B.C.). 
 
 The evacuation of Sicily brought Rome face to face with a 
 new problem. She could not leave the Sicilian states, like those 
 of Magna Graecia, bound to her by the loose ties 
 Sioily a pro- ^^ ^ military alliance ; this was rendered impos- 
 sible by the insular position of the new conquest 
 and the danger from Carthage. So the whole of Sicily, with the 
 exception of the territory of Hiero, was organized as a separate 
 " department of administration " {provincia), and placed under 
 the command of an annual praetor ; and the first stone was laid 
 in the foundation of an empire. 
 
 Fiehtine elephant making a prisoner (gem in " Cabinet de France," 
 No. l911tCliabouUlei)> 
 
Coin of Carthage. 
 
 CHAPTEK XI. 
 
 THE CONQUEST OF NORTHERN ITALY. THE CARTHAGINIANS IK 
 SP.UN. 240-219 B.C. 
 
 Twenty-three years elapsed between the First and Second 
 Punic Wars. The power of Carthage, though crippled, was not 
 destroyed; and Hamilcar returned home, burning 
 with hatred against Rome, and determined to Mercenary 
 renew the war upon a favourable opportunity, tj^^-g 
 But a new and terrible danger threatened Carthage 
 upon her own soil. The mercenary troops, who had been trans- 
 ported from Sicily to Africa at the conclusion of the war, being 
 unable to obtain their arrears of pay, rose in open mutiny. 
 Their leaders were Spendius, a runaway Campanian slave, and 
 Matho, a Libyan. They were quickly joined by the native 
 Libyans, and brought Carthage almost to the brink of destruc- 
 tion. They laid waste the whole country with fire and sword, 
 made themselves masters of all the towns except the capital, 
 and committed the most frightful atrocities. Carthage owed her 
 safety to the genius and abilities of Hamilcar. The struggle was 
 fierce and sanguinary, but was at length brought to a successful 
 issue, after it had lasted more than three years, by the destruction 
 of all the mercenaries. It was called the War without Peace, 
 or the Inexpiable War (238 B.C.). 
 
 The Romans availed themselves of the exhausted condition 
 of Carthage to demand from her the islands of Sardinia and 
 Corsica, and the payment of a further sum of 1200 talents. 
 
96 HISTORY OP ROME. [Chap. XL 
 
 The mercenary troops in Sardinia, who had also revolted, had 
 applied to Rome for assistance ; and the senate menaced her 
 rival with war unless she complied with these 
 Kome seizes unjust demands. Resistance was impossible, and 
 Sardinia and o t • j nt ■ r -, ■ \ 
 
 Corsica oardmia and Corsica were soon formed into a 
 
 Roman province, governed, like Sicily, by a 
 praetor, sent annually from Rome. This is almost the only act of 
 unjustifiable acquisition which we shall meet with in Roman 
 annals. But the senate had made up its mind that the Tyrrhenian 
 sea must belong to Rome, and did not shrink from robbery 
 in pursuit of its narrow defensive policy (238 bo.). Hamilcar, 
 with his resentment against the grasping Republic deepened by 
 this outrage, now departed for Spain, where, for many years, he 
 steadily worked to lay the foundation of a new empire, which 
 might not only compensate for the loss of Sicily and Sardinia, 
 but enable him at some time to renew hostilities against Rome. 
 
 Rome was now at peace, and in 235 B.C. the temple of Janus, 
 which had remained open since the days of Numa, was closed 
 for a second time. Two new tribes were added to the Roman 
 territory, making their total number thirty-five. 
 
 The temple of Janus did not long remain closed. The 
 
 Ill^'rians, who dwelt near the head of the Adriatic upon its 
 
 eastern side, were a nation of pirates, who ravaged 
 
 ^ * the coasts of this sea. The senate having sent 
 
 ambassadors to the Illyrian king Agron to complain of these 
 outrages, he declined to attend to their complaints, and the 
 ambassadors were murdered on their way home. War was 
 straightway declared, and a Roman army for the first time 
 crossed the Adriatic (229 B.C.). Demetrius of Pharos, an 
 unprincipled Greek, who was the chief counsellor of Teuta, 
 widow and successor of Agron, deserted his mistress, and sur- 
 rendered to the Romans the important island of Corcyra. Teuta 
 was obliged to yield to the Romans everything they demanded, 
 and promised that the Tllyrians should not appear south of Lissus 
 with more than two vessels. The suppression of piracy in the 
 Adriatic was hailed with gratitude by the Greek states, and 
 deserves notice as the first occasion upon which the Romans 
 were brought into immediate contact with Greece. The Consul 
 Postumius, who had wintered in Illyria, sent envoys to Athens, 
 Corinth, and other Greek cities, to explain what had been done. 
 
Chap. XL] CONQUEST OF NORTHERN ITALY.' 97 
 
 The envoys were received with honour, and thanks were returned 
 to Rome (228 b.c). 
 
 The Romans had scarcely brought this trifling war to an end 
 when they became involved in a formidable struggle with their 
 old enemies the Gauls. Since the conquest of the . . 
 Senones in 283 B.C., and of the Boii in 282 B.C., 
 the Gauls had remained quiet. The Romans had founded the 
 colony of Sena after the subjugation of the Senones ; and in 
 268 B.C. they had still further strengthened their dominion in 
 those parts by founding the colonj- of Ariminum. But the 
 greater part of the soil from which the Senones were ejected 
 became public land. In 232 b.c. the Tribune C. Flaminius 
 carried an Agrarian Law to the effect that this portion of the 
 public land, known by the name of the " Gallic Land," * should 
 be distributed among the poorer citizens. This alarmed the Boii, 
 who dwelt upon the borders of this district. They invoked the 
 assistance of the powerful tribe of the Insubres, and being joined 
 by them, as well as by large bodies of Gauls from beyond the 
 Alps, they set out for Rome. 
 
 All Italy was in alarm. The Romans dreaded a repetition of 
 the disaster of the Allia. The Sibylline books, when consulted, 
 declared that Rome must be occupied twice by a 
 foreign foe ; whereupon the senate, to allay the xelamon 
 superstitious fears of the people, ordered that two 
 Gauls should be buried alive in the forum. The allies eagerly 
 offered men and supplies to meet a danger which was common 
 to the whole peninsula. An army of 150.000 foot and 6000 
 horse was speedily raised. A decisive battle was fought near 
 Telamon, in Etruria. The Gauls were hemmed in between the 
 armies of the two consuls. As many as 40,000 of their men 
 were slain, and 10,000 taken prisoners (225 b.c). The Romans 
 followed up their success by invading the country of the Boii, 
 who submitted in the following year (224 B.C.), and the plain as 
 far as the Po was in the hands of Rome. 
 
 In 223 B.C. the Romans crossed the river, and the Consul C. 
 Flaminius gained a brilliant victory over the Insubres. The 
 consuls of the next year. On. Cornelius Scipio and M. Claudius 
 Marcellus, continued the war against the Insubres, who called 
 in to their aid a fresh body of Transalpine Gauls. Marcellus 
 • Gallicusager. 
 
 S 
 
98 HISTORY OF ROME, [Chap. XI. 
 
 slew with his own hand Viridomaras, the chief of the Insubrian 
 Gauls, and thus gained the third Spolia Opima. At the same 
 time, Scipio took Mediolanium (Milan), the chief 
 Extension of ^.^^^ ^^ ^.j^g Insubres. This people now submitted 
 beyond theFo. "without conditions, and the war was brought to an 
 end. To secure their recent conquests, the Romans 
 determined to plant two powerful Latin colonies at Placentia and 
 Cremona, on opposite banks of the Po. These were founded in 
 218 B.C., and consisted each of 6000 men. The Via Flaminia, 
 a road constructed by C. Flaminius from Rome to Ariminum 
 (220 B.C.), secured the communication with the north of 
 Italy. 
 
 The results of this war were of vast importance, for Italy had 
 now reached her natural boundaries. Rome's dominion now 
 extended to the Po, and, through the dependent Gallic tribes 
 who dwelt beyond that river, her sphere of influence reached 
 the Alps. 
 
 Meanwhile Hamilcar, as commander-in-chief of the Cartha- 
 ginian army in Spain, with powers that rendered him almost 
 entirely independent of the home government, had 
 Hamilcar and \^qq^ steadily pursuing a career of conquest. The 
 Hasdrnbal in u- i- T ^i • 4. ^ 
 
 Spain subjugation oi this country was only a means to 
 
 an end. His great object, as already stated, was 
 to obtain the means of attacking, and, if possible, crushing, that 
 hated rival who had robbed his country of Sicily, Sardinia, and 
 Corsica. His implacable animosity against Rome is shown by 
 the well-known tale, that when he crossed over to Spain in 
 236 B.C., taking with him his son Hannibal, then only nine years 
 old, he made him swear at the altar eternal hostility to Rome. 
 During the eight years that Hamilcar continued in Spain he 
 carried the Carthaginian arms into the heart of the country. 
 While he conquered several states in war, he gained over others 
 by negotiation, and availed himself of their services as allies or 
 mercenaries. He fell in battle in 228 B.C., and was succeeded 
 in the command by his son-in-law Hasdrubal. His plans were 
 ably carried out by his successor. The conciliatory manners of 
 Hasdrubal gained him the affections of the Spaniards ; and he 
 consolidated the Carthaginian empire in Spain by the foundation 
 of New Carthage, now Cartagena, in a situation admirably chosen 
 on account of its excellent harbour and easy communication with 
 
Chap. XL] HANNIBAL IN SPAIN. 99 
 
 Africa, as well as from its proximity to the silver-mines, which 
 supplied him with the means of paying his troops. His trusted 
 lieutenant was the youthful Hannibal, who had been trained in 
 arms under the eye of his father, and who already displayed that 
 ability for war which Rome was so soon to feel. The successes 
 of Hamilcar and Hasdrubal could not fail to attract the notice 
 of the Romans ; they did not understand the objects of the 
 Phoenician generals, but, as it dawned on them that Spain might 
 possibly be a battle-ground in the future, they concluded a treaty, 
 by which the river Iberus (Ebro) was fixed as the northern 
 boundary of the Carthaginian empire in Spain (228 B.C.). 
 
 Hasdrubal was assassinated in 221 B.C. by a slave whose 
 master he had put to death. Hannibal had now acquired such 
 a remarkable ascendency over the army, that the soldiers unani- 
 mously proclaimed him commander-in-chief, and the government 
 at Carthage hastened to ratify an appointment which they had 
 not, in fact, the power to prevent. There can be no doubt that 
 he already looked forward to the invasion and conquest of Italy 
 as the goal of his ambition ; but it was necessary for him first to 
 complete the work which had been so ably begun by his two 
 predecessors, and to establish the Carthaginian power as firmly 
 as possible in Spain. This he accomplished in two campaigns, 
 in the course of which he brought all the nations south of the 
 Iberus into subjection to Carthage. His army was now in the 
 highest degree of efficiency, and he felt that the time had come 
 for the final move. All that was lacking was a pretext for war, 
 and this he soon created. 
 
 Early in the spring of 219 B.C. he proceeded to lay siege to 
 Saguntum, a city of Greek origin founded by the Zacynthians. 
 Though situated to the south of the Iberus, and 
 therefore not included under the Roman protec- ^*^^^°*1 
 torate established by the treaty with Hasdrubal, Saeuntnm. 
 Saguntum had concluded an alliance with Rome. 
 The excuse for this aggression was the same of which the 
 Romans so often availed themselves — some injury inflicted by 
 the Saguntines upon one of the neighbouring tribes under the 
 protection of Carthage. The resistance of the city was long and 
 desperate, and it was not till after a siege of nearly eight months 
 that he made himself master of the place. 
 
 During all this period the Romans sent no assistance to their 
 
 ire 
 
100 
 
 HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 [Chap. XI. 
 
 allies. They had, indeed, as soon as they heard of the siege, 
 despatched ambassadors to Hannibal, but he referred them 
 
 for an answer to the government at home, and 
 War declared ^^^y. co^jfj obtain no satisfaction from the Cartha- 
 thase. ginians, in whose councils the war party had now 
 
 a decided predominance. A second embassy was 
 sent, after the fall of Sa.i^untum, to demand the surrender of 
 Hannibal, in atonement for the breach of the treaty. After 
 much discussion, Q. Fabius, one of the Eoman ambassadors, 
 holding up a fold of his toga, said, " I carry here peace and 
 war ; choose ye which ye will." " Give us which you will," 
 was the reply. " Then take war," said Fabius, letting fall his 
 toga. And the senators of Carthage cried, " We accept the gift." 
 
 Coin of Hiero. 
 
.rJ 
 
 > 
 
 ,\ 
 
 4 
 
 JG A 
 
 I A\ 
 
 
 rfW/^ 
 
 m 
 
 p":-' 
 
 
 
 Mis SI a^ 
 
 iiesH? 
 
 
 MAP or ^i 
 
 ITALY SPAIN & AFRICA 
 
 AFTER 1^ PUBIC WAR 
 
 ALSO 
 
 SHDWmG HAimiBAiS MARCH 
 
 B^EUnoan. Possessions 
 Cartha^miaiL ,y 
 -IBiannibals march. 
 
 lA 'IE 
 
 Harper & Brotheri 
 
t'ork & Londo 
 
 Jolni.£ani.olomew& Co.,XaiaT 
 
Lake Trasimenus. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 THE SECOND PTJJTTC WAR : FIRST PERIOD, DOWN TO THE BATTLE 
 OF CANNAE. 218-216 B.C. 
 
 In the Second Punic War we have no longer a distant contest 
 between Carthaginians and Romans fought out on neutral 
 ground ; it is the struggle of Italy against the Hannibal's 
 individual genius of a foreign invader. The posi- preparations 
 tion of Hannibal was indeed very peculiar. His for invading 
 command in Spain, and the powerful army there, ^^^^7- 
 which was entirely at his own disposal, rendered him in great 
 measure independent of the government at Carthage, and the 
 latter seemed disposed to devolve all responsibility upon him. 
 Even now they did little themselves to prepare for the impend- 
 ing contest. All was left to Hannibal, who, after the conquest 
 
102 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. Xll. 
 
 of Saguntum, had returned once more to New Carthage for the 
 winter, and was there actively engaged in preparations for 
 carrying the war into the enemy's country. At the same time, 
 he did not neglect to provide for the defence of Spain and Africa 
 during his absence. In the former country he placed his brother 
 Hasdrubal, with a considerable army, great part of which was 
 composed of Africans, while he sent over a large body of Spanish 
 troops to contribute to the defence of Africa, and even of Car- 
 thage itself. 
 
 All his preparations being now completed, Hannibal quitted 
 his winter quarters at New Carthage in the spring of 218 B.C., 
 and crossed the Iberus with an army of 90,000 foot and 12,000 
 horse. The tribes between that river and the Pyrenees offered 
 at first a vigorous resistance, and, though they were quickly 
 subdued, Hannibal thought it necessary to leave behind him 
 a force of 11,000 men under Hanno to maintain this newly 
 acquired province. His forces were further thinned by desertion 
 during the passage of the Pyrenees, which obliged him to send 
 home a large body of his Spanish troops. With a greatly 
 diminished army, but one on which he could securely rely, he 
 now continued bis march from the foot of the Pj'^renees to the 
 Ehone without meeting with any opposition ; for the Gallic 
 tribes through which he passed were favourably disposed to him, 
 or had been previously gained over by his emissaries. 
 
 The Consul P. Cornelius Scipio had been ordered to proceed 
 to Spain, but various causes had detained him in Italy, and 
 upon landing at Massilia (Marseilles) he found 
 Hannibal ^}^^(. Hannibal was already advancing towards 
 
 Rhone^ ® the Rhone. Meantime the Carthaginian general 
 effected his passage across the river, notwith- 
 standing the opposition of the Gauls ; and when Scipio marched 
 up the left bank of the river, he found that Hannibal had ad- 
 vanced into the interior of Gaul, and was already three days in 
 advance of him. Despairing, therefore, of overtaking Hannibal, 
 he determined to sail back to Italy and await him in Cisalpine 
 Gaul. But as the Republic had already an army in that pro- 
 vince, he sent the greater part of his own forces into Spain 
 under the command of his brother Cn. Scipio. This prudent 
 step probably saved Rome ; for if the Carthaginians had main- 
 tained the undisputed mastery of Spain, they might have 
 
Chap. XII.] HANNIBAL'S PASSAGE OF THE ALPS. 103 
 
 concentrated all their efforts to support Hannibal in Italj'^, and 
 have sent him such strong reinforcements after the battle of 
 Cannae as would have compelled Rome to submit. 
 
 Hannibal, after crossing the Ehone, continued his march up 
 the left bank of the river as far as its confluence with the Isere. 
 Here he interposed in a dispute between two rival 
 chiefs of the Allobroges, and, by lending his aid . the^AiM^ 
 to establish one of them firmly on the throne, 
 secured the co-operation of an efficient ally, who greatly facili- 
 tated his farther progress. But in his passage across the Alps 
 he was attacked by the barbarians, and as he struggled through 
 the narrow and dangerous defiles the enemy destro\'ed numbers 
 of his men. It was some days before he reached the summit of 
 the pass. Thenceforth he suffered but little from hostile attacks, 
 but the descent was difficult and dangerous. The natural diflB- 
 culties of the road, enhanced by the lateness of the season (the 
 beginning of September, at which time the snows had already 
 commenced in the high Alps), caused him almost as much loss 
 as the opposition of the barbarians on the other side of the 
 mountains. So heavy were his losses from these combined 
 causes that, when he at length emerged from the valley of Aosta 
 into the plains of the Po, and encamped in the friendly country 
 of the Insubres, he had with him no more than 20,000 foot and 
 6000 horse.* There were no Roman legions near to attack his 
 thinned and exhausted troops ; the blunder which had permitted 
 the passage of the Alps left the frontier of Italy undefended. 
 
 Hannibal's first care was now to recruit the strength of his 
 army, worn out as it was by the hardships and fatigues it had 
 undergone. After a short interval of repose, he 
 turned his arms against the Taurini (a tribe battles of the 
 bordering on, and hostile to, the Insubres), whom XreMa^ *^ 
 he quickly reduced, and took their principal city 
 (Turin). The news of the approach of P. Scipio next obliged 
 him to turn his attention towards a more formidable enemy. 
 In the first action, which took place in the plains westward of 
 the Ticinus, the cavalry and light-armed troops of the two 
 armies were alone engaged ; and the superiority of Hannibal's 
 
 * The pass of the Alps which HaDnibal crossed was probably the Graian Alps, 
 or Little St. Bernard. See note " On the Passage of Hannibal across the Alps," 
 »t the end of this chapter. 
 
104 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XII. 
 
 Numidian horse at once decided the combat in his favour. The 
 Komans were completely routed, and Scipio himself severely 
 wounded; in consequence of which he hastened to retreat 
 beyond the Ticinus and the Po, under the walb of Placentia. 
 Hannibal crossed the Po higher np, and, advancinc' *^o Placentia, 
 offered battle to Scipio ; but the latter declined the combat, and 
 withdrew to the hills on the left bank of the Treliia. Here he 
 was soon after joined by the other consul, Ti. Sempronius 
 Longiis, who had hastened from Ariminum to his support : their 
 combined armies were greatly superior to that of the Cartha- 
 ginians, and Sempronius, whose year of office was expiring, was 
 eager to bring on a general battle, of which Hannibal, on his 
 side, was not less desirous, notwithstanding the great inferiority 
 of his force. The result was decisive : the Eoraans were com- 
 pletely defeated, with heavy loss; and the remains of their 
 shattered army, together with the two consuls, took refuge 
 within the walls of Placentia. The battles of the Ticinus and 
 Trebia had been fought in December, and the winter had already 
 begun with unusual severity, so that Hannibal's troops suffered 
 severely from cold, and all his elephants perished except one. 
 But his victory had caused all the wavering tribes of the Gauls 
 to declare in his favour, and he was now able to take up his 
 winter quarters in security, and to levy fresh troops among the 
 Gauls, while he awaited the approach of spring. 
 
 As soon as the season permitted the renewal of military opera- 
 tions (217 B.C.), Hannibal entered the country of the Ligurian 
 tribes, who had lately declared in his favour, and 
 Hannibal descended by the valley of the Macra into the 
 
 A^?nnines marshes on the banks of the Arno. He had 
 apparently chosen this route in order to avoid 
 the Roman armies, which guarded the more obvious passes of 
 the Apennines; but the hardships and difficulties which he 
 encountered in struggling through the marshes were immense ; 
 great numbers of his horses and beasts of burthen perished, and 
 he himself lost the sight of one eye by a violent attack of 
 ophthalmia. At length, however, he reached Faesulae in safety, 
 and was able to allow his troops a short interval of repose. 
 
 The consuls for this year were On. Servihus and C. Flarainius. 
 The latter was the author of the celebrated Agrarian Law which 
 Qcpasioned the Galhc War, and in his first consulship he had 
 
Chap. XII.] BATTLE OF LAKE TKASIMEAE. 105 
 
 gained a great victory over the Insubrian Gauls (see p. 97). 
 He had been raised to his second consulship by popular favour, 
 in spite of the opposition of the senate ; and he hurried from 
 Rome before the Ides of March,* lest the senate might throw 
 any obstacle in the way of his entering upon his consulship. 
 He was a man of great energy, but headstrong and reckless. 
 When Hannibal arrived at Faesulao, Flaminius was with his 
 army at Arretium. 
 
 It was always the object of Hannibal to bring the Roman 
 commanders to a battle after himseli' choosing the ground, and 
 therefore, in moving from Faesulae, he passed 
 by the Roman general, and advanced towards ^^ttle of the 
 Perusia, laying waste the fertile country on his i^ 
 line of march. Flaminius immediately broke up 
 bis camp, and, following the traces of Hannibal, fell into the 
 snare whicb was prepared for him. He found himself in a 
 narrow defile, both sides of which had been occupied by 
 Hannibal's light troops ; the outlet was barred by Hannibal's 
 infantry, and the entrance was closed by the Trasimene lake. 
 The destruction of the imprisoned army was almost complete. 
 Thousands fell by the sword, among whom was the consul him- 
 self; thousands more perished in the lake, and no less than 
 15,000 prisoners fell into the hands of Hannibal, who on his side 
 is said to have lost only 1500 men. Hannibal's treatment of 
 the captives on this occasion, as well as after the battle of the 
 Trebia, was marked by the same policy on which he afterwards 
 uniformly acted: the Roman citizens alone were retained as 
 prisoners, while their Italian allies were dismissed without 
 ransom to their respective homes. By this means he hoped to 
 excite the nations of Italy against their Roman masters, and to 
 place himself in the position of the leader of a national move- 
 ment rather than that of a foreign invader. It was in order to 
 give time for this feeling to display itself that he did not, after 
 the conquest of Etruria, push on towards Rome itself; but, after 
 an unsuccessful attempt upon the Roman colony of Spoletium, 
 he turned aside through the Apennines into Picenum, and thence 
 into the northern part of Apulia. Here he spent a great part of 
 the summer, and was able effectually to refresh his troops, who 
 
 * At this time the consuls entered upon their office on the Ides of March. It 
 was not till 153 B.C. that the consulship comnjenced on the lialends of January. 
 
106 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XII. 
 
 had suffered much from the hardships of their previous marches. 
 But no symptoms appeared of the insurrections he had looked 
 for; the Italians, who might have joined a Western leader, could 
 not be brought to look on a Phoenician chief as their deliverer. 
 
 Meantime the Eomans had collected a fresh army, which they 
 
 placed under the command of Q. Fabius Maximus, who had, in 
 
 consequence of the absence of the consuls from 
 
 icy Eome, been elected dictator by the Comitia of the 
 
 Centuries. Fabius formed a different plan for the 
 
 campaign. He determined to keep the heights, and not to risk 
 
 a battle, but at the same time to watch the Carthaginian army, 
 
 cut off its supplies, and harass and annoy it in every possible 
 
 way. From pursuing this policy he received the surname of 
 
 Cu7ictator, or the Lingerer. 
 
 Hannibal now recrossed the Apennines, descended into the 
 rich plains of Campania, and laid waste, without opposition, that 
 fertile territory. But he was unable either to make himself 
 master of any of the towns, or to draw the wary Fabius to a 
 battle. The Koman general contented himself with occupying 
 the mountain-passes leading from Samnium into Campania, by 
 which Hannibal must of necessity retreat, and believed that he 
 had caught him as it were in a trap ; but Hannibal eluded his 
 vigilance by an ingenious stratagem. He had faggots tied to 
 the horns of 2000 oxen, which were amongst the booty: and 
 when night was closing in, he had the faggots lit, and made his 
 light-armed troops drive the cattle straight up the mountain 
 slopes in the direction of the Roman ambush. The garrison, 
 astonished at what they believed to be a night attack by torch- 
 light from an unexpected quarter, hastily retreated, and Hannibal 
 rapidty mounted the pass with his whole forces, passed the defiles 
 of the Apennines without loss, and established himself in the 
 plains of Apulia, where he collected supplies from all sides, in 
 order to prepare for the winter. 
 
 Meantime the popular party at Rome, impatient at the in- 
 activity of Fabius, had raised Minucius, the Master of the Horse, 
 to an equality in command. The rashness with 
 Discontent of -^hich he sought to justify the popular choice 
 partjSome. ^^^^ ^^^^^^ S^'^® Hannibal the opportunity, for 
 which he was ever on the watch, to crush the 
 Boman army by a decisive blow. One of his ambushes had 
 
Chap. Xll.] BATTLE OP CAKNAE. iOl 
 
 taken the troops of Minucius by surprise, and the Roman army 
 was being shut in on every side, when Fabius suddenly appeared 
 upon the scene. Tho Pliocnician forces retired before the com- 
 bined armies, and took up their winter quarters at Geronium. 
 Minucius acknowledged his error, and resumed his post of Master 
 of the Horse. 
 
 During the winter the Romans made preparations for bringing 
 an unusually large force into the field. The people thought that 
 it needed only a man of energy and decision at the head of an 
 overwhelming force to bring the war to a close. They therefore 
 raised to the consulship C. Terentius Varro, said to have been 
 the son of a butcher, who had been for some time regarded as 
 the champion of the popular party. The senate regarded this 
 election with dismay, as Varro possessed no military experience; 
 and thej' therefore persuaded the people to appoint as his 
 colleague L. Aemilius Paullus, who had distinguished himself 
 by the way in which he had conducted the Illyrian War during 
 his consulship. 
 
 Hannibal remained at Geronium until late in the spring (216 
 B.C.), when, compelled to move by the want of provisions, he 
 surprised the Roman magazines at Cannae, a small 
 town of Apulia, and established his head-quarters „^ ^ ° 
 there until the harvest could be got in. Mean- 
 while the two Roman consuls arrived at the head of an army of 
 80,000 infantry and 6000 cavalry. Hannibal's infantry was but 
 half the number of the Roman, but his cavalry numbered 10,000. 
 He offered battle on the left, and, when this was declined, on the 
 right bank of the Aufidus, in a wide plain eminently suited to 
 the evolutions of cavalry. It was the cavalry that decided the 
 day ; the immense army of the Romans was not only defeated, 
 but annihilated ; and between 40,000 and 50,000 men are said 
 to have fallen in the field, among whom was the Consul Aemilius 
 Paullus, both the consuls of the preceding years, the late Master 
 of the Horse, Minucius, above eighty senators, and a multitude 
 of the knights who composed the Roman cavalry and mounted 
 oflicers. The other consul, Varro, escaped with a few horsemen 
 to Venusia, and a small band of resolute men forced their way 
 from the Roman camp through the enemy's army to Canusium ; 
 all the rest were killed, dispersed, or taken prisoners. Hannibal 
 has been generally blamed for not following up his advantage at 
 
108 
 
 HlSTOJ^y OP ROME. 
 
 [Chap. XII. 
 
 once, after so decisive a victory, by an immediate advance upon 
 Rome itself — a measure which was strongly urged upon him by 
 Maharbal. " Only send me on with the cavalry," said this 
 officer, " and within five days thou shalt sup in the Capitol." 
 But his army was not skilled in siege operations, he had no 
 means of investing the city, and an immediate attack on Rome 
 might have involved a repulse which would have dimmed the 
 glory of his recent victory. 
 
 He waited in Apulia to see the effect on Italy ; and now the 
 allies began to waver. The Hirpinians, all the Samnites (except 
 
 the Peiitrian tribe), and almost all the Apulians, 
 Derection of Lucanians, and Bruttians, declared in favour of 
 allies Carthage. The whole of the south of Italy seemed 
 
 lost to the Romans, but the effect of these defec- 
 tions was not so decisive as might at first appear ; for the Latin 
 colonies, which still, without exception, lemained faithful, gave 
 the Romans a powerful hold upon the revolted districts ; and 
 the Greek cities on the coast, though mostly disposed to join 
 the Carthaginians, were restrained by the presence of Roman 
 garrisons. Hence it became necessary to support the insurrec- 
 tion in the different parts of Italy with a Carthaginian force. 
 
 Hannibal marched first into Samnium, and from thence into 
 Campania, where he obtained possession of the important city 
 
 of Capua, the gates of which were opened to him 
 
 by the popular party. Here he established his 
 army in winter quarters. Thus ends the first period of the war, 
 in which Hannibal had met with uninterrupted success. Three 
 great victories in three years, followed by the revolt of a city 
 scarcely inferior to Rome itself in importance, seemed to promise 
 a speedy termination of the war. 
 
 Loss of Capua. 
 
 NOTE ON HANNIBAL'S PASSAGE ACROSS THE ALPS. 
 
 (See p. 103.) 
 
 The narrative in the text is taken 
 from that of the Greek historian Poly- 
 blus, which is certainly by far the most 
 trustworthy that has descended to us : 
 but that author has nowhere clearly 
 stated by which of the passes across 
 the Alps Hannibal effected his mnrch ; 
 and this question has given rise to 
 
 much controversy both in ancient and 
 modern times. Into this discussion our 
 limits will not allow us to enter, but 
 the following mav be briefly stated as 
 the general results: — 1. That after a 
 careful examination of the text of Poly- 
 bius, and comparison of the different 
 localities, his narrative will be foimd 
 
Chap. XII] HANNIBAL'S EOUTE OVER THE ALPS. 
 
 109 
 
 on the whole to agree best with the sup- 
 position that Hannibal crossed the Uraian 
 Alps ( Little St. Bei nird) by a pass which 
 led into the territory of the Salassi and 
 Insubres. 2. That Caelius Antipater 
 certainly represented him as taking this 
 route (Liv. xxi. 38) ; and as he is known 
 to have followed the Greek history of 
 Silenus, who is said to have accompanied 
 Hannibil in many of his campaigns, his 
 authority is of the greatest weight. 3. 
 That Livy and Strabo, on the contrary, 
 both suppose him to have crossed the 
 Cottian Alps {Mont Genevre) by a pass 
 which led into the territory of the 
 Taurini. But the main argument that 
 appears to have weighed with Livy, as it 
 has done with several modern writers on 
 the subject, is the assumption that Han- 
 nibal descended in the first inst-ance into 
 the country of the Taurini, which is 
 opposed to the direct testimony of Poly- 
 bius, who says expressly that he de- 
 scended among the Insubres, and 
 subsequently mentions his attack on 
 the Taurini. 4. That, as according to 
 Livy himself (xxi. 29) the Gallic emis- 
 saries who acted as Hannibal's guides 
 were Boii, it was natural that these 
 should conduct him by the passage 
 
 I that led directly into the territory ol 
 their allies and brothers-in-arms the 
 Insubres, rather than into that of the 
 Taurini, a Ligurian tribe, who were at 
 this very time in a state of hostility 
 with the Insubres. And this remark 
 will serve to explain why Hannibal 
 chose apparently a longer route, instead 
 of the more direct one of Mont Genevre. 
 Lastly, it is remarkable that Polybius, 
 though he censures the exaggerations 
 and absurdities with which earlier 
 writers had encumbered their narrative, 
 does not intimate that any doubt was 
 entertained as to the line of march ; 
 and Pompey, in a letter to the senate, 
 written in b.c. 73, alludes to the route 
 of Hannibal across the Alps as some- 
 thing well known. Hence it appears 
 clear that the passage by which he 
 crossed them must have been one of 
 those frequented in subsequent times 
 by the Romans. This argument seems 
 decisive against the claims of a third 
 possible route, that by the Mont Cenis, 
 which have been advocated by some 
 modern writers, that pass having appa- 
 rently never been used till the Middle 
 Ages. — See Diet, of Greek and Kmiian 
 Biography, vol. ii. pp. 334, 535. 
 
Capua. 
 
 CHAPTEK XIII. 
 
 SECOND PUNIC WAR : SECOND PERIOD, FROM THE REVOLT OF CAPUA 
 TO THE BATTLE OF THE METAURUS. 215-207 B.C. 
 
 Capua was celebrated for its wealth and luxury; and the ener- 
 vating effect which these produced upon the army of Hannibal 
 became a favourite theme of rhetorical exaggera- 
 Caoua ^^'^^ ^^ ^^^^'^ ages. The futility of such declama- 
 
 tions is sufficiently shown by the simple fact that 
 the superiority of that army in the field remained as decided as 
 ever. Still it may be truly said that the winter spent at Capua 
 (216-215 B.C.) was in great measure the turning-point of 
 Hannibal's fortune, and from this time the war assumed an 
 altered character. The experiment of what he could effect with 
 bis single army had now been fully tried, and, notwithstanding 
 all his victories, it had decidedly failed ; for Rome was still 
 unsubdued, and still provided with the means of maintaining a 
 
Chap. Xin.] SECOND PUNIC WAR; SECOND PERIOD. Ill 
 
 protracted contest. But Hannibal had not relied on his own 
 forces alone, and he now found himself, apparently at least, in 
 a condition to commence the execution of his long-cherished 
 plan — that of arming Italy itself against the Romans, and crush- 
 ing the ruling power by means of her own subjects. It was to 
 this object that his attention was henceforth mainly directed. 
 
 From this time, also, the Romans changed their plan of 
 operations; and, instead of opposing to Hannibal one gi"eat army 
 in the field, thej" hemmed in his movements on 
 all sides, guarded all the most important towns j>°^J 
 with strong garrisons, and kept up armies all over 
 Italy to thwart the operations of his lieutenants and check the 
 rising disposition to revolt. It is impossible here to follow in 
 detail the complicated operations of the subsequent campaigns, 
 during which Hannibal himself frequently traversed Italy in all 
 directions, appearing suddenly wherever his presence was called 
 for, and astonishing and often baffling the enemy by the rapidity 
 of his marches. All that we can do is to notice very briefly the- 
 leading events which distinguished each successive campaign. 
 
 The campaign of 215 B.C. was not marked by any decisive 
 events. The consuls were Q. P^abius Maximus (whose plan of 
 conducting the war had been fully vindicated by the terrible 
 defeat of Cannae) and Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus. With 
 the advance of spring Hannibal took up his camp on Mount 
 Tifata, where, while awaiting the arrival of reinforcements from 
 Carthage, he was at hand to support his partisans in Campania 
 and oppose the Roman generals in that province. But his 
 attempts on Cumae and Neapolis were foiled ; and even after 
 he had been joined by a force from Carthage (very inferior, 
 however, to what he had expected) he sustained a repulse before 
 Nola, which was magnified by the Romans into a defeat. As 
 the winter approached he withdrew into Apulia, and took up 
 his quarters in the plains around Arpi. 
 
 But other prospects were already opening before him. In his 
 camp on Tifata he had received embassies from Philip king of 
 Macedon and Hieronymus of Syracuse, both of Macedon and 
 which he had eagerly welcomed, and thus sowed Syracuse ne- 
 the seeds of two fresh wars, and raised up two gotiate with 
 formidable enemies against the Iloman power. Hannibal. 
 
 These two collateral wars in some degree drew off the 
 
112 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XIIL 
 
 attention of both parties from that in Italy itself; yet the Romans 
 still opposed to the Carthaginian general a chain of armies which 
 fettered all his operations ; and though Hannibal was ever on 
 the watch for the opportunity of striking a blow, the campaign 
 of 214 B.C. was still less decisive than that of the preceding 
 year. Fabius was again elected consul, and Marcellus was 
 appointed his colleague. Early in the summer Hannibal 
 advanced from Apulia to his former station on Mount Tifata 
 to watch over the safety of Capua; from thence he had descended 
 to the Lake Avernus, in hopes of making himself master of 
 Puteoli, when a prospect was held out to him of surprising the 
 important city of Tarentum. Thither he hastened by forced 
 marches, but arrived too late ; Tarentum had been secured by 
 a Roman force. After this his operations were of little impor- 
 tance, until he again took up his winter quarters in Apulia. 
 
 During the following summer (213 B.C.), while all eyes were 
 turned towards the war in Sicily, Hannibal remained almost 
 wholly inactive in the neighbourhood of Taren- 
 Tarentum ^-y,^^ g^jn cherishing hopes of making himself 
 
 H ^^ibal ^ master of that important city. Before the close 
 of the ensuing winter he was rewarded with the 
 long-looked -for prize, and Tarentum was betrayed into his hands 
 by two of its citizens. The advantage, however, was incomplete, 
 for a Roman garrison still held possession of the citadel, from 
 which he was unable to dislodge them. The next year (212 B.C.) 
 was marked by important events in Sicily and Spain, to which 
 we must now direct our attention. 
 
 Hiero, so long the faithful ally of Rome, died shortly after the 
 battle of Cannae (216 B.C.), and was succeeded by his grandson 
 Hieronymus, a vain youth, who abandoned the 
 ^* alliance of Rome for that of Carthage. But he 
 
 was assassinated after a reign of fifteen months, and a republican 
 form of government was established in Syracuse. A contest 
 ensued between the Roman and Carthaginian parties in the city, 
 but the former ultimately prevailed, and Epicydes and Hippo- 
 crates, two brothers, whom Hannibal had sent as his agents to 
 Syracuse, had to quit the town, and took refuge at Leontini. 
 Such was the state of affairs when the Consul Marcellus arrived 
 in Sicily (214 B.C.). He forthwith marched against Leontini, 
 which Epicydes and Hippocrates defended with a considerable 
 
Chap. XIII.] SIEGE OF SYRACUSE. 113 
 
 force. He took the city by storm ; and, though he spared 
 the inhabitants, executed in cold blood 2000 Eoraan deserters 
 whom he found among the troops that had formed the garri- 
 son. This sanguinary act at once alienated the minds of tlie 
 Sicilians, and alarmed the mercenary troops in the service 
 of Syracuse. 
 
 The latter immediately joined Hippocrates and Epicydes, who 
 had made their escape ; the gates of Syracuse were opened to 
 them by their partisans within the walls, and the 
 party hostile to Rome was thus established in the Defection of 
 undisputed command of that city. Marcellus now jjomg 
 appeared before Syracuse at the head of his army, 
 and, after a fruitless summons to the inhabitants, proceeded to 
 lay siege to the city both by sea and land. His attacks were 
 vigorous and unremitting, and were directed especially against 
 the quarter of Achradina from the side of the sea ; but, though 
 he brought many powerful military engines against the walls, 
 these were rendered wholly unavailing by the superior skill and 
 science of Archimedes, which were employed on the side of the 
 besieged. 
 
 All the efforts of the assailants were baffled ; and the Roman 
 soldiers were inspired with so great a dread of Archimedes and 
 his engines,* that Marcellus was compelled to give 
 up all hopes of carrying the city by open force, ^^^S^ ^^^ 
 and to turn the siege into a blockade. The siege Syracuse 
 was prolonged far on into the summer of 212 B.C., 
 nor did there appear any prospect of its termination, as the 
 communications of the besieged by sea were almost entirely 
 open. In this state of things Marcellus fortunately discovered 
 a part of the walls more accessible than the rest ; and, having 
 prepared scaling-ladders, effected an entrance at this point 
 during the night which followed a great festival, and thus made 
 himself master of Epipolai. The two quarters called Tycha ai\d 
 Neapolis were now at his mercy, and were given up to plunder ; 
 but Epicydes still held the main city, composed of the island- citadel 
 and Achradina, which formed two separate and strong fortresses, 
 Marcellus, however, made himself master of the fort of Euryehis, 
 
 * The Btory that Archimedes set the Roman ships on Are by the reflected rays 
 of the sun is probably a fiction ; though later writers give an account of this 
 burning mirror. 
 
 I 
 
114 HlbTOR^ OP ROME. [Chap. XIII. 
 
 and had closely invested Achradina, when the Carthaginian army 
 under Himilco and Hippocrates advanced to the relief of the 
 city. Their efforts were, however, in vain ; all their attacks on 
 the camp of Marcellus were repulsed, and they were unable to 
 effect a junction with Epicydes and the Syracusan garrison. 
 The swamps that had so often saved Syracuse gave rise to a 
 pestilence which carried off" both the generals of the Carthaginian 
 army, and led to the entire break-up of their forces. Shortly 
 afterwards the treachery of a leader of Spanish mercenaries in 
 the Syracusan service gave Marcellus the possession of the 
 island, and the citizens immediately threw open the gates of 
 Achradina. The city was given up to plunder, and Archimedes 
 was slain by a Roman soldier, being so intent upon a mathe- 
 matical problem at the time that he did not answer a question 
 that was asked him. He was deeply regretted by Marcellus, 
 who gave orders for his burial, and befriended his surviving 
 relatives.* 
 
 The booty found in the captured city was immense : besides 
 the money in the royal treasury, which was set apart for the 
 coffers of the state, Marcellus carried off" many of the works of 
 art with which the city had been adorned, to grace his own 
 triumph and the temples at Eome. This was the first instance 
 of that practice of violent art-collecting which afterwards became 
 so general ; and it gave great offence not only to the Greeks of 
 Sicily, but to a large party at Rome itself. 
 
 The fall of Syracuse was followed, though not immediately, 
 by the subjugation of the whole island by the Romans; but 
 . . these successes were counterbalanced by the 
 
 in Snain defeat and death of the two Scipios in Spain. 
 
 We have already seen that P. Scipio, when he 
 landed at Massilia and found himself unable to overtake Hannibal 
 in Gaul, sent his brother Cneius with the army into Spain, while 
 he himself returned to Italy. In the following year (217 B.C.) 
 Publius himself crossed over into Spain, where he found that 
 his brother had already obtained a firm footing. They continued 
 in Spain for several years, during which they gained many 
 victories and prevented Hasdrubal from marching into Italy to 
 
 * TJpon his tomb was placed the figure of a sphere inscribed in a cylinder. 
 When Cicero was quaestor in Sicily (75 B.C.), he found his tomb near one of the 
 gates of the city, almost hid among briars, and forgotten by the Syracusans. 
 
Chap, XIII.] THE WAR IN SPAIN AND ITALY. 
 
 115 
 
 support his victorious brother. When Hasdrubal was recalled 
 to Africa to oppose Syphax, one of the Numidian kings, whom 
 Rome had stirred up to war against Carthage, the Scipios availed 
 themselves of his absence to extend their power. They gained 
 
 Earlier Walls 
 
 Wall of Dionyslus 
 
 English Miles § ^i 
 
 Wan ot Syracuse. 
 
 over new tribes to the Eoman cause, took 20,000 Celtiberians 
 into their pay, and felt themselves so strong in 212 B.C. that 
 they resolved to cross the Iberus and to make a vigorous effort 
 to drive the Carthaginians out of Spain. 
 
116 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XIII. 
 
 They accordingly divided theii' forces ; but the result was 
 
 fatal. Publius was destroyed, with the greater part of his troops ; 
 
 . and Cneius was also defeated, and fell in battle, 
 
 and death twenty-nine days after the death of his brother. 
 
 These victories seemed to establish the superiority 
 of Carthage in Spain, and open the way for Hasdrubal to join 
 his brother in Italy. 
 
 Here the two consuls Appius Claudius and Q. Fulvius began 
 to draw together their forces for the purpose of besieging Capua 
 
 (212 B.C.). Hannibal advanced to reheve it, and 
 beslea-e'c^^^ compelled the consuls to withdraw ; but he was 
 
 unable to force either of them to fight. Shortly 
 afterwards he returned again to the south to urge on the siege 
 of the citadel of Tarentum, which still held out ; and he spent 
 the winter and the whole of the ensuing spring (211 B.C.) in its 
 immediate neighbourhood. But during his absence the consuls 
 had renewed the siege of Capua, and prosecuted it with such 
 activity, that the}' had succeeded in surrounding the city with 
 a double line of entrenchments. The pressing danger once more 
 summoned Hannibal to its relief. He accordingly presented 
 himself before the Roman camp, and attacked their lines from 
 without, while the garrison co-operated with him by a vigorous 
 sally from the walls. 
 
 Both attacks were, however, repulsed, and Hannibal, foiled in 
 his attempt to raise the siege by direct means, determined on 
 
 the manoeuvre of marching directly upon Rome 
 Hanmbal itself, in hopes of thus compelling the consuls t6 
 
 T> abandon their designs upon Capua, in order to 
 
 provide for the defence of the city. But this 
 scheme failed in its effect ; the appearance of Hannibal before 
 the gates of Rome for a moment struck terror through the city ; 
 but a considerable body of troops was at the time within the 
 walls ; and the Consul Fulvius, as soon as he heard of Hannibal's 
 march, hastened, with a portion of the besieging army, from 
 Capua, while he still left with the other consul a force amply 
 sufficient to carry on the siege. Hannibal was thus disappointed 
 in the main object of his advance, and he had no means of 
 effecting anything against Rome itself, where Fulvius and Fabius 
 confined themselves strictly to the defensive, allowing him to 
 ravage the whole country without opposition, up to the very walls. 
 
Chap. XIII.] RECOVERY OF CAPUA AND TARENTUM. 117 
 
 Nothing therefore remained for him but to retreat, and he 
 accordingly recrossed the Anio, and marched slowly and sullenly 
 through the land of the Sabines and Samnites. 
 From thence he retired to the Bruttii, leaving Capua 
 Capua to its fate. The city soon after surrendered jj^ Rome 
 to the Romans. Its punishment was terrible. All 
 the leaders of the insurrection w^ere beheaded ; the chief men 
 were imprisoned; and the rest of the people were sold. The 
 city became a village, its territory part of the Roman domain. 
 
 The commencement of the next season (210 B.C.) was marked 
 by the fall of Salapia, which was betrayed by the inhabitants to 
 Marcellus ; but this loss was soon avenged by the total defeat 
 and destruction of the army of the Proconsul Cn. Fulvius at 
 Herdoniae. The Consul Marcellus, on his part, carefully avoided 
 an action for the rest of the campaign, while he harassed his 
 opponent by every possible means. Thus the rest of that 
 summer too wore away without any important results. But this 
 state of comparative inactivity was necessarily injurious to the 
 cause of Hannibal ; the nations of Italy that had espoused that 
 cause when triumphant now began to waver in their attachment; 
 and in the course of the following summer (209 B.C.) the 
 Samnites and Lucanians submitted to Rome, and were admitted 
 to favourable terms. 
 
 A still more disastrous blow to the Carthaginian cause was the 
 loss of Tarentum, which was betrayed into the hands of Fabius, 
 as it had been into those of Hannibal. In vain 
 did the latter seek to draw the Roman general Tarentum 
 into a snare: the wary Fabius eluded his toils. 
 The recovery of Tarentum was the last exploit in the military 
 life of the aged general. From the time of the battle of Cannae 
 he had directed almost exclusively the councils of his country, 
 and his policy had been pre-eminently successful ; but the times 
 now demanded bolder measures, and something else was neces- 
 sary than the caution of the Lingerer to bring the war to a close. 
 
 After the fall of Tarentum, Hannibal still traversed the open 
 country unopposed, and laid waste the territories of his enemies. 
 Yet we cannot suppose that he any longer looked for ultimate 
 success from any efforts of his own : his object was doubtless 
 now only to maintain his ground in the south until his brother 
 Hasdrubal should appear in the north of Italy, an event to 
 
US HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XIII. 
 
 which he had long anxiously looked forward. Yet the following 
 summer (208 B.C.) was marked by some brilliant achievements. 
 The two consuls, Crispinus and Marcellus, who were opposed to 
 Hannibal in Lucania, allowed themselves to be led into an 
 ambush, in which Marcellus was killed, and Crispinus mortally 
 wounded. Marcellus was one of the ablest of the Koman 
 generals. Hannibal displayed a generous sympathy for his fate, 
 and caused due honours to be paid to his remains. 
 
 The following year (207 B.C.) decided the issue of the war in 
 Italy. The war in Spain during the last few years had been 
 carried on with brilliant success by the young P. 
 Hasdru1}al Scipio, of whose exploits we shall speak presently. 
 Italy -^"^ ^^ ^^^ ^•^■' Hasdrubal, leaving his colleagues 
 
 to make head against Scipio, resolved to join his 
 brother in Italy. As Scipio was in undisputed possession of the 
 provmce north of the Iberus, and had secured the passes of the 
 Pyrenees on that side, Hasdrubal crossed these mountains near 
 their western extremity, and plunged into the heart of Gaul. 
 After spending a winter in that country, he prepared to cross 
 the Alps in the spring of 207 B.C., and to descend into Italy. 
 The two consuls for this year were C. Claudius Nero and M. 
 Livins. Nero was in Southern Italy, keeping a watch upon 
 Hannibal ; Livius took up his quarters at Ariminum to oppose 
 Hasdrubal. The latter experienced little loss or difficulty in 
 crossing the Alps. The season of the year was favourable, and 
 the Gauls were friendly to his cause. But instead of pushing 
 on at once into the heart of Italy, he allowed himself to be 
 engaged in the siege of Placentia, and lost much precious time 
 in fruitless efforts to reduce that colony. When at length he 
 abandoned the enterprise, he sent messengers to Hannibal to 
 apprise him of his movements, and concert measures for their 
 meeting in Umbria. But his despatches fell into the hands of 
 the Consul Nero, who formed the bold design of instantly march- 
 ing with a picked body of 7000 men to join his colleague, and 
 fall upon Hasdrubal with their united forces before Hannibal 
 could receive any tidings of his brother's movements. 
 
 The consul's march was rapid and silent. Hannibal knew 
 nothing of his departure, and in a week Nero covered the 250 
 miles to Sena, where his colleague was encamped in presence of 
 Hasdrubal. He entered the camp of Livius in the night, that 
 
Chap. XIII.] BATTLE OF THE METAURUS. 119 
 
 his arrival might not be known to the Carthaginians. After 
 a day's rest the two consuls proceeded to offer battle; but 
 Hasdrubal, perceiving the augmented numbers of 
 the Eomans, and hearing the trumpet sound J^^ction of 
 twice, felt convinced that the consuls had united ,,__,;„_ 
 their forces, and that his brother had been 
 defeated. He therefore declined the combat, and in the follow- 
 ing night commenced his retreat towards Ariminum. 
 
 The Romans pursued him, and he found himself compelled to 
 give them battle on the right bank of the Metaurus. On this 
 occasion Hasdrubal displayed all the qualities of a 
 consummate general ; but his forces were gi'eatly Turetaurus * 
 inferior to those of the enemy, and his Gallic 
 auxiliaries were of little service. The gallant resistance of the 
 Spanish and Ligurian troops is attested by the heavy loss of the 
 Romans ; but all was of no avail, and seeing the battle irre- 
 trievably lost, he rushed into the midst of the enemy, and fell, 
 sword in hand, in a manner worthy of the son of Hamilcar and 
 the brother of Hannibal. The Consul Nero hastened back to 
 Apulia almost as speedily as he had come, and announced to 
 Hannibal the defeat and death of his brother, by throwing into 
 his camp the severed head of Hasdrubal. " I recognize," said 
 Hannibal, sadly, " the doom of Carthage." 
 
 The victory of the Metaurus was, as we have already said, deci- 
 sive of the fate of the war in Italy ; and the conduct of Hannibal 
 shows that he felt it to be such. From this time he abandoned 
 all thoughts of offensive operations, and, withdrawing his garrisons 
 from Metapontura and other towns that he still held in Lucania, 
 collected together his forces within the peninsula of the Bruttii. 
 In the fastnesses of that wild and mountainous region he main- 
 tained his ground for nearly four years, while the towns that he 
 still possessed on the coast gave him the command of the sea. 
 
Hannibal. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 SECOND PUNIC WAR : THIRD PERIOD : FROM THE BATTLE OF THE 
 METAURUS TO THE CONCLUSION OF THE WAR. 206-201 B.C. 
 
 After the battle of the Metaurus, Italy was no longer the chief 
 battle-ground, and the main interest of the war was transferred 
 to Spain and Africa. Its conduct is associated 
 Scipio. ^j^j^ ^^g name of P. Scipio, one of those excep- 
 
 tionally gifted men of whom Rome has so few to show, but 
 whom fate seemed to reserve for her graver crises. The son of 
 that P. Scipio who had fallen in Spain in 212 B.C., he had, even 
 in his early years, acquired the confidence and admiration of his 
 usually unenthusiastic countrymen. His devout Roman mind 
 led him to believe that he was under the special protection of 
 heaven ; for all he proposed or executed he alleged the divine 
 approval ; and the extraordinary success which attended all his 
 enterprises deepened in him this belief in his own destiny, and 
 even imposed it on others. 
 
 P. Scipio is first mentioned in 218 B.C. at the battle of the 
 Ticlnus, where he is reported to have saved the life of his father, 
 though he was then only seventeen years of age. He fought at 
 Cannae two years afterwards (216 B.C.). when he was already a 
 tribune of the soldiers, and was one of the few Roman officers 
 
Chap. XIV.J CAPTURE OF NEW CARTHAGE. 121 
 
 who survived that fatal day. He was chosen, with Appius 
 Claudius, to command the remains of the army, which had taken 
 refuge at Canusium ; and it was owing to his youthful heroism 
 and presence of mind that the Eoman nobles, who had thought 
 of leaving Italy in despair, were prevented from carrying their 
 rash project into effect. After the death of Scipio's father and 
 uncle, C. Nero was sent out as propraetor to supply their place ; 
 but shortly afterwards, the senate resolved to increase the army 
 in Spain, and to place it under the command of a proconsul. 
 
 The dangerous post was not eagerly sought ; and when Scipio, 
 who was then barely twenty-four, presented himself as a candi- 
 date, his boldness and merit were held sufficient 
 to counterbalance the illegality of his claim. As ""^P^" *^ . 
 he was not invested with any magistracy which gpj^jjj 
 conferred the imperium, the new device was 
 adopted of creating him Proconsul at the Comitia of the 
 Centuries.* 
 
 Scipio arrived in Spain in the summer of 210 B.C. He found 
 that the three Carthaginian generals, Hasdrubal son of Barca, 
 Hasdrubal son of Gisgo, and Mago, were not on 
 
 good terms, and were at the time engaged in „*P ^ ^^i. 
 
 , I ■ • J- 4. ^. , A\ NewCarthage. 
 
 separate enterprises m distant parts or the pen- 
 insula. Instead of attacking any of them singly, he formed the 
 project of striking a deadly blow at the Carthaginian power by 
 a sudden and unexpected attack upon New Carthage. He gave 
 the command of the fleet to his intimate friend Laelius, to whom 
 alone he entrusted the secret of the expedition, while he led the 
 land-forces by extremely rapid marches against the city. The 
 project was crowned with complete success. The Carthaginian 
 garrison did not amount to more than a thousand men, and 
 before any succour could arrive New Carthage was taken by 
 assault. The hostages who had been given by the various 
 Spanish tribes to the Carthaginians, had been placed for security 
 in the city. These now fell into the hands of Scipio, who treated 
 them with kindness ; and the hostages of those people who 
 declared themselves in favour of the Romans were restored 
 without ransom. Scipio also found in New Carthage magazines 
 of arms, corn, and other necessaries ; for the Carthaginians had 
 there deposited their principal stores. 
 
 * A consul was usually, at this time, created proconsul by the senate. 
 
122 HISTORy OF ROME. [Chap. XIV. 
 
 The immediate effects of this brilliant success were immense. 
 Many of the Spanish tribes deserted the Carthaginian cause ; and 
 Victories at when Scipio took the field in the following year 
 Baecula, and (209 B.C.) Mandonius and Indibilis, two of the 
 conquest of most powerful and hitherto the most faithful sup- 
 Spaia. porters of Carthage, quitted the camp of Has- 
 
 drubal Barca, and awaited the arrival of the Roman commander. 
 Hasdrubal was encamped in a strong position near the town of 
 Baecula, in the upper valley of the Baetis (Guadalquiver), where 
 he was attacked and defeated by Scipio. But he succeeded in 
 making good his retreat, and retired into Northern Spain. He 
 subsequent^ crossed the P^Tenees, and, as we have already told, 
 niarched into Italy to the assistance of his brother Hannibal. 
 Scipio, in spite of his brilliant successes, had not fulfilled his 
 direct mission ; he had initiated wonderful enterprises, but failed 
 in defending Italy. His only plan now was to complete the 
 conquest of Spain. This was practically effected in 206 B.C. by 
 a second great battle at Baecula, in which a decisive victory was 
 won over Hasdrubal son of Gisgo, and Mago. 
 
 The Carthaginian generals took refuge within the walls of 
 Gades, an old Phoenician settlement, which was almost the only 
 place that now belonged to the Carthaginians ; and all the 
 native chiefs hastened to acknowledge the supremacy of Rome. 
 But Spain had not been won by arms alone. The Spanish 
 tribes, always strangely susceptible to personal influence, had 
 felt the magnetic attraction of Scipio's character. His courage 
 and energy, his humanity and his courtesy, had won him their 
 admiration, their obedience, and even their love. 
 
 The subjugation of Spain was regarded by Scipio as only a 
 means to an end. He had formed the project of correcting his 
 great blunder by transferring the war to Africa, 
 ^^^***Af*-^°°^ and thus compelling the Carthaginians to recall 
 chiefs Hannibal from Italy. He therefore resolved, 
 
 before returning to Rome, to cross over into 
 Africa, and secure, if possible, the friendship and co-operation of 
 some of the native princes. His personal influence had already 
 secured the attachment of Masinissa, the son of the king of the 
 Massylians, or Western Numidians, who was serving in the 
 Carthaginian army in Spain; and he trusted that the same 
 personal ascendency might gain the more powerful support of 
 
Chap. XIV.] CONQUEST OF SPAIN. 123 
 
 Syphax, the king of the Massaeylians, or Eastern Numidians. 
 With only two quinqueremes he ventured to leave his province 
 and repair to the court of Syphax. There he met his old 
 adversary, Hasdrubal son of Gisgo, who had crossed over from 
 Gades for the same purpose ; and the two generals spent several 
 days together in friendly intercourse. Scipio made a great 
 impression upon Syphax; but the charms of Sophonisba, the 
 daughter of Hasdrubal, whom the latter offered in marriage to 
 Syphax, prevailed over the influence of Scipio. Syphax married 
 her, and from that time became the zealous supporter and ally 
 of the Carthaginians, 
 
 During Scipio's absence in Africa a formidable insurrection 
 had broken out in Spain ; but on his return it was speedily put 
 down, and terrible vengeance was inflicted upon the town of 
 Ilhturgis, which had taken the principal share in the revolt. 
 Scarcely had this danger passed away when Scipio was seized 
 with a dangerous illness. Eight thousand of the Roman soldiers, 
 discontented with not having received their usual pay, availed 
 themselves of this opportunity to break out into open mutiny ; 
 but Scipio quelled it with his usual promptitude and energy. 
 
 He crushed the last remains of the insun-ection ; and to crown 
 his other successes, Gades at last surrendered to the Romans. 
 Mago had crossed over into Liguria, to effect a 
 diversion in favour of his brother Hannibal, and ^'^^^^^'^^'^ of 
 there was therefore now no longer any enemy left 
 in Spain. 
 
 Scipio returned to Rome in 206 B.C., and immediately offered 
 himself as a candidate for the consulship. He was elected for 
 the foflowing year (205 B.C.) by the votes of the centuries, 
 although he had not yet filled the office of praetor, and was only 
 thirty years of age. His colleague was P. Licinius Crassus, the 
 Pontifex Maximus, who could not, by the rules of his order, 
 leave Italy. Consequently, if the war was to be carried on 
 abroad, the conduct of it must of necessity devolve upon Scipio. 
 The latter was anxious to land at once in Africa, and bring the 
 contest to an end at the gates of Carthage ; but the older 
 members of the senate opposed the project, partly through 
 timidity and partly through jealousy of the youthful conqueror. 
 
 Afl that Scipio could obtain was the province of Sicily, with 
 permission to invade Africa if he should think it for the advantage 
 
124 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XIV. 
 
 of the Kepublic ; but the senate resolutely refused him an army, 
 thus making the permission of no practical use. The allies had 
 . . a truer view of the interests of Italy than the 
 
 ipi m Roman senate ; from all the Italian towns volun- 
 
 teers flocked to join the standard of the youthful 
 hero. The senate could not refuse to allow him to enlist these 
 volunteers ; and such was the enthusiasm in his favour that 
 he was able to cross over to Sicily with an array and a fleet, 
 contrary to the expectations and even the wishes of the senate. 
 While busy with preparations in Sicily, he sent over Laelius 
 to Africa with a small fleet to concert a plan of co-operation 
 with Masinissa. But meantime his enemies at Rome had nearly 
 succeeded in depriving him of his command. Although he had 
 no authority in Lower Italy, he had assisted in the reduction of 
 Locri, and after the conquest of the town had left Q. Pleminius 
 in command. The latter had been guilty of such excesses 
 against the inhabitants, that they sent an embassy to Rome to 
 complain of his conduct. Q. Fabius Maximus eagerly availed 
 himself of the opportunity to inveigh in general against the 
 conduct of Scipio, and to urge his immediate recall. Scipio's 
 magnificent style of living, and his love for Greek literature and 
 art, were denounced by his enemies as dangerous innovations 
 upon old Roman manners and frugality. It was asserted that 
 the time which ought to be given to the exercise and the train- 
 ing of his troops was wasted in the Greek gymnasia or in literary 
 pursuits. Though the senate lent a willing ear to these attacks, 
 they did not venture upon his immediate recall, but sent a com- 
 mission into Sicily to inquire into the state of the army. During 
 the winter Scipio had been busy in completing his preparations ; 
 and by this time he had collected all his stores, and brought his 
 army and navy into the most efficient state. The commissioners 
 were astonished at what they saw. Instead of ordering him to 
 return to Rome, they bade him cross over to Africa as soon as 
 possible. 
 
 Accordingly, in 204 B.C., Scipio, who was now proconsul, sailed 
 
 from Lilybaeum and landed in Africa, not far 
 
 Scipio's cam- f^^^ Utica. He was immediately joined by Masi- 
 
 Dftiffu in. 
 
 AMca. nissa, who rendered him the most important 
 
 services in the war. He commenced the cam- 
 paign by laying siege to Utica, and took up his quarters on a 
 
Chap. XIV.] SCIPIO IN AFRICA. 125 
 
 projecting headland to the east of the town, on a spot which long 
 bore the name of the Cornelian Camp. Meantime the Cartha- 
 ginians had collected a powerful army, which they placed under 
 the command of Hasdrubal son of Gisgo, Scipio's old opponent 
 in Spain ; and Syphax came to their assistance with a great 
 force. 
 
 In the beginning of 203 B.C. Scipio planned a night attack 
 upon the two camps occupied by Hasdrubal and Syphax. With 
 the assistance of Masinissa, his enterprise was crowned with 
 success ; the two camps were burnt to the ground, and only a 
 few of the enemy escaped the fire and the sword. Among these, 
 however, were both Hasdrubal and Syphax ; the former fled to 
 Carthage, where he persuaded the senate to raise another army, 
 and the latter retreated to his native dominions, where he like- 
 wise collected fresh troops. But their united forces were again 
 defeated by Scipio. Hasdrubal did not venture to make his 
 appearance again in Carthage ; and Syphax once more fled into 
 Numidia. Scipio did not give the Numidian prince any repose ; 
 he was pursued by Laelius and Masinissa, and finally taken 
 prisoner. Among the captives who fell into their hands was 
 Sophonisba, the wife of Syphax, whom Masinissa had long loved, 
 and had expected to marry when she was given to his rival. 
 Masinissa now not only promised to preserve her from captivity, 
 but, to prevent her falling into the hands of the Eomans, deter- 
 mined to marry her himself. Their nuptials were accordingly 
 celebrated without delay, but Scipio, fearful of the influence 
 which she might exercise over his ally, sternly upbraided him 
 ■with his weakness, and insisted on the immediate surrender of 
 the princess. Unable to resist this command, Masinissa spared 
 her the humiliation of captivity by sending her a bowl of poison, 
 which she drank without hesitation, and thus put an end to her 
 own life. 
 
 These repeated disasters so alarmed the Carthaginians that 
 
 they resolved to recall Hannibal and Mago. . Hannibal quitted 
 
 Italy in 203 b.c, to the great joy of the Romans. 
 
 For more than fifteen years had he carried on „® ., , 
 . , , . . Hannibal, 
 
 the war m that country, laymg it waste from 
 
 one extremity to another ; and during all this period his 
 
 superiority in the field had been uncontested. The Romans 
 
 calculated that in these fifteen years their losses in the field 
 
128 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XIV. 
 
 alone had amounted to not less than 300,000 men — a statement 
 which will hardly appear exaggerated when we consider the 
 continual combats in which they were engaged by their ever- 
 watchful foe. 
 
 As soon as Hannibal landed in Africa the hopes of the Cartha- 
 ginians revived, and they looked forward to a favourable termi- 
 nation of the war. Hannibal, however, formed a truer estimate 
 of the real state of affairs ; he saw that the loss of a battle would 
 be the min of Carthage, and he was therefore anxious to con- 
 clude a peace before it was too late. Scipio, who was eager to 
 have the glory of bringing the war to a close, and who feared 
 lest his enemies in the senate might appoint him a successor, 
 was equall}' desirous of a peace. But the war-party had now 
 the ascendency at Carthage ; the terras proposed by Scipio, 
 though moderate in themselves, were rejected ; and as Hannibal, 
 at a personal interview with the Eoman general, could not obtain 
 any abatement of the conditions, he was forced, against his will, 
 to continue the war. Into the details of the campaign, which 
 are related very differently, our hmits will not permit us to 
 enter. 
 
 The decisive battle was at length fought on the 19th of 
 October, 202 B.C., on the Bagradas, not far from the city of 
 Zama ; and Hannibal, according to the express 
 Battle or testimony of his antagonist, displayed on this occa- 
 
 sion all the qualities of a consummate general. 
 But he was now particularly deficient in that formidable 
 cavalry which had so often decided the victorj^ in his favour ; 
 his elephants, of which he had a great number, were ren- 
 dered unavailing by the skilful management of Scipio ; and 
 the battle ended in his complete defeat, notwithstanding the 
 heroic exertions of his veteran infantry. Twenty thousand of 
 his men fell on the field of battle, as many were made prisoners, 
 and Hannibal himself with difficulty escaped the pursuit of 
 Masinissa. Upon his arrival at Carthage he was the first to 
 admit the magnitude of the disaster, and to point out the impos- 
 sibility of the further prosecution of the war. The terms, how- 
 ever, now imposed by Scipio were much more severe than 
 before. Carthage had no alternative but submission; but the 
 negotiations were protracted for some time, and a final treaty 
 was not concluded till the following year (201 B.C.). By this 
 
Chap. XlV.] 
 
 PEACE WITH CARTilAGE. 
 
 127 
 
 treaty it was agreed that the Carthaginians were to preserve 
 
 their independence and territory in Afrnja,, but to give up all 
 
 claims to any foreign possessions ; that they 
 
 were to surrender all prisoners and deserters, all ®""S °* 
 
 ,, p6ac6i 
 their ships of war except ten triremes, and all 
 
 their elephants ; that they were not to make war in Africa or 
 
 out of Africa without the consent of Home • that they were 
 
 to acknowledge Masinissa as king of Numidia; and that they 
 
 were to pay 10,000 talents in silver in the course of fifty years. 
 
 Soldiers blowing Tubeaand Cornua (from Column of TKy"aa). 
 
Coin of Antiochus the Great. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 WARS m THE EAST. THE MACEDONIAK, SYRIAN", AND GALATIAN 
 WARS. 214-188 B.C. 
 
 The Second Pnnic War made the Romans undisputed masters 
 of the western shores of the Mediterranean. Sicily, Sardinia, 
 and Corsica were Roman provinces ; Spain owned 
 p ? Wars *^^ Roman supremacy, and Carthage was com- 
 pletely humbled. Rome's immediate object was 
 secured, and here, had her own wishes been consulted, she might 
 have paused ; but it is the fate of a conquering nation not to be 
 able to assign any precise limits to its power. The Roman 
 Republic was now the most powerful state in the ancient world, 
 and, as such, was necessarily drawn into the vortex of Eastern 
 politics. 
 
 The Greek kingdoms in Asia, founded by the successors of 
 Alexander the Great, bore within them the seeds of decay. The 
 mighty kingdom of Syria, which had once ex- 
 of Asia^^ ^"^^ tended from the Indus to the Aegean Sea, had 
 now lost some of its fairest provinces. The 
 greater part of Asia Minor no longer owned the authority of the 
 Syrian kings. Pontus was governed by its own rulers. A 
 large body of Gauls, a portion of the migratory hordes which 
 had burst on Greece and Asia in 280 B.C., had settled in the 
 northern part of Phrygia, which district was now called Galatia 
 after them. A new kingdom was founded in Mysia, to which 
 the name of Pergamus was given from its chief city ; and Attains, 
 
Chap. tV.] THE EASTERN POWERS. l2d 
 
 who was king of Pergamus during the Second Punic War, 
 formed an alliance with Rome as a protection against Syria and 
 Macedonia. The king of Syria at this time was Antiochus III., 
 who, from his victory over the Parthians, had received the sur- 
 name of the Great. 
 
 Egypt was governed by the Greek monarchs, who bore the 
 name of Ptolemy. They had, even as early as the time of 
 Pyrrhus, formed an alhance with Rome (see p. 81). ^ 
 The kingdom had since declined in power, and * 
 
 upon the death of Ptolemy IV., surnamed Philopator, in 205 B.C., 
 the ministers of his infant son Ptolemy Epiphanes, dreading the 
 ambitious designs of the Macedonian and Syrian kings, placed 
 him under the protection of the Roman senate, who consented 
 to become his guardians. 
 
 The Republic of Rhodes was the chief maritime power in 
 the Aegean Sea. It extended its dominion over a portion of the 
 opposite coasts of Caria and Lycia, and over , 
 several of the neighbouring islands. Like the 
 king of Pergamus, the Rhodians had formed an alliance with 
 Rome as a protection against Macedonia. 
 
 Macedonia was still a powerful kingdom, governed at this time 
 by Philip V., a monarch of considerable ability, who ascended 
 the throne in 220 B.C., at the early age of seven- 
 teen. His dominion extended over the greater ond'oree^ 
 part of Greece, but two new powers had sprung 
 up since the death of Alexandei-, which served as some counter- 
 poise to the Macedonian supremacy. Of these the most important 
 was the Achaean League, which embraced the greater part 
 of the Peloponnesus. The Aetolian League included at this 
 time a considerable portion of Central Greece. Athens and 
 Sparta still retained their independence, but with scarcely a 
 shadow of their former greatness and power. 
 
 Such was the state of the Eastern world when it came into con- 
 tact with the arms of Rome. The challenge came from Macedon. 
 
 We have already seen that during the Second Punic War 
 
 Philip had been engaged in hostilities with the Roman Republic. 
 
 Demetrius of Pharos, twice a traitor to his masters, —. t«. ;, 
 
 after he had been driven by the Romans from the „/„„ ,„ 
 
 . *' man War. 
 
 Illyrian dominions which he had usurped, had 
 
 taken refuge at the court of Philip, and soon acquired unbounded 
 
 K 
 
130 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XV. 
 
 influence over the mind of the young king. This wily Greek 
 urged him to take up arms against the grasping Repubhc ; and 
 the ambition of Philip was still further excited by the victoriea 
 of Hannibal. After the battle of Cannae (216 B.C.) he concluded 
 a treaty with Hannibal ; but, instead of supporting the Cartha- 
 ginian army and ileet, his proceedings were marked by an un- 
 accountable degree of hesitation and delay. It was not til! 
 214 B.C. that he appeared in the Adriatic with a fleet, and laid 
 siege to Oricum and Apollonia, which the Romans had retained 
 possession of at the close of the Illyrian War.* He succeeded 
 in taking Oricum ; but the arrival of a small Roman force, under 
 the command of M. Valerius Laevinus, compelled him to raise 
 the siege of Apollonia, and to burn his own ships to prevent 
 their falling into the hands of the enemy. For the next three 
 years the war was carried on with unaccountable slackness on 
 both sides; but in 211 B.C. it assumed a new character after the 
 Romans had formed with the Aetolian league an alliance which 
 gave them their first footing in Greece. Into the details of the 
 campaigns which followed it is unnecessary to enter; but the 
 attention of the Romans was soon afterwards directed to aSairs 
 in Spain, and the Aetolians were left almost alone to cope with 
 Philip. The Achaeans also joined Philip against the Aetolians, 
 and the latter people were so hard pressed that they were glad 
 to make peace with the Macedonian king. Shortly afterwards 
 the Romans, who were desirous of turning their undivided 
 attention to the invasion of Africa, also concluded peace with 
 him (205 B.C.). 
 
 The peace, which thus terminated the First Macedonian War, 
 
 was probably regarded by both parties as little more than a 
 
 suspension of hostihties. Philip even went so far 
 
 hostiUtie^^^^ ^^ **^ ^^^^ **^ *^® Carthaginians in Africa a body 
 of 4000 men, who fought at Zama under the 
 command of Hannibal. At the same time, he proceeded to carry 
 out his plans for his own aggrandizement in Greece, without any 
 regard to the Roman alliances in that country. In order to 
 establish his naval supremacy in the Aegean Sea, he attacked 
 the Rhodians and Attalus king of Pergamus, both of whom were 
 allies of Rome. He had also previously made a treaty with 
 Antiochus, king of Syria, for the dismemberment of the Egyptian 
 * See p. 96. 
 
Chap. XV.] SECOiND MACEDONIAN WAR. 131 
 
 monarchy, whicli was placed under the guardianship of the 
 Roman people. 
 
 It was impossible for the senate to pass over these acts of 
 hostility, and accordingly, in the year after the conclusion of 
 the Second Punic War, the Consul P. Sulpicius 
 Galba proposed to the Comitia of the Centuries j^^^^ w^°^" 
 that war should be declared against Philip. But 
 the people longed for repose, and rejected the proposition by 
 the almost unanimous vote of every century. It was only by the 
 most earnest remonstrance, and by alarming them with the 
 picture of Philip, like another Hannibal, invading Italy, that 
 they were induced to reverse their decision and declare war 
 (200 B.C.). 
 
 Philip was at this time engaged in the siege of Athens, which 
 had joined Attains and the Rhodians. The Consul G-alba crossed 
 over to Epirus, and Athens was relieved by a Roman fleet ; but 
 before he withdrew, Philip, prompted by anger and revenge, dis- 
 played his barbarism by destroying the gardens and buildings 
 in the suburbs, including the Lyceum and the tombs of the Attic 
 heroes ; and in a second incursion which he made with large 
 reinforcements he committed still greater excesses. For some 
 time, however, the war lingered on without any decided success 
 on either side. The Consul Villius, who succeeded Galba in 
 199 B.C., effected nothing of importance ; and it was not till 
 the appointment of the Consul T. Quinctius Flamininus to 
 the command that the war was carried on with energy and 
 vigour (198 B.C.). He forced his way through the narrow 
 pass of the Aous, which was occupied by the enemy, invaded 
 Thessaly, and took up his winter quarters in Phocis and 
 Locris. 
 
 In the following year (197 B.C.) the struggle was brought to 
 a termination by the battle of Cynoscephalae (Dogs' Heads), a 
 range of hills near Scotussa, in Thessaly. The 
 Romans were at first in a dangerous position from nosceDhalae 
 which they were only saved by the excellent 
 Aetolian cavalry ; but, when once the rigid lines of the Mace- 
 donian phalanx had been broken, the slaughter was terrific : 
 8000 Macedonians were killed and 5000 taken prisoners, while 
 Flamininus lost only 700 men. Philip was obliged to sue for 
 peace, and in the following year (196 B.C.) a treaty was ratified 
 
132 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XV. 
 
 by which the Macedonians were compelled to withdraw their 
 garrisons from the Greek towns, to surrender their fleet, to 
 promise to conclude no foreign alliances without Rome's con- 
 Bent, and to pay 1000 talents for the expenses of the war, half 
 at once, and half by annual instalments in the course of ten 
 years. 
 
 The war left the cities of Greece at the mercy of Rome ; but 
 the senate shrank from undertaking permanent responsibilities 
 even in Eastern Europe, and when at the ensuing 
 clared free Isthmian games Flamininus solemnly proclaimed 
 the independence and freedom of Greece, this 
 declaration was an outcome of policy as well as of the phil-Hel- 
 lenic spirit of the Roman general, whom the throngs of Greeks 
 that gathered round him hailed as their liberator. 
 
 Flamininus, who remained two years longer in the country, 
 seems to have been actuated by a sincere desire to restore the 
 internal peace and welfare of Greece ; and whenever his actions 
 appear at variance with this object, he was under the influence 
 of the policy of the Republic. Thus, though he made war upon 
 Nabis, the tyrant of Sparta, and deprived him of the southern 
 portion of Laconia, he did not depose him, but retained him as 
 a useful check upon the Achaeans. When Flamininus returned 
 to Italy in 194 B.C., he withdrew the Roman garrisons from aU 
 the Greek towns, even from Corinth, Chalcis, and Demetrias, 
 the three strongest fortresses in the country, which were called 
 the Fetters of Greece. On his departure he convoked an 
 assembly of the Greeks at Corinth, in which he exhorted them 
 to use their freedom wisely, and to remain faithful to Rome. 
 He then returned, after an absence of five years, with a reputa- 
 tion second only to that of Scipio Africanus, and celebrated a 
 splendid triumph. 
 
 It has been already mentioned that Philip had formed an 
 alliance with Antiochus III., king of Syria, surnamed the Great, 
 for the dismemberment of the Egyptian monarchy. 
 Svria During the war between Philip and the Romans, 
 
 Antiochus had occupied Asia Minor, and was pre- 
 paring to cross into Greece. Upon the conclusion of this war 
 Flamininus sternly forbade him to set foot in Europe, and for 
 a time he shrank from a contest with the victorious arms of 
 Rome. But the Aetolians, who had fought on the Roman side, 
 
Chap. XV.] WAR WITH ANTIOCHUS. 133 
 
 were discontented with tlie arrangements of Flamininns. Their 
 arrogance led them to claim the chief merit of the victory of 
 Cynoscephalae, and their cupidity desired a larger share in the 
 spoils of the war. Flamininus had scarcely quitted Greece before 
 the Aetolians endeavoured to persuade Philip, Nabis, and Antio- 
 chus to enter into a league against the Romans. Philip at once 
 refused, but Nabis took up arms, and Antiochus willingly entered 
 into the designs of the Aetolians. At this time Hannibal appeared 
 as an exile at the Syrian court. After the Second Punic War 
 he had set himself to work, hke his father Hamilcar at the end 
 of the previous war, to prepare means for renewing the contest 
 at no distant period. One of these means was a reform in the 
 constitution of Carthage ; to establish his power, he limited the 
 term of office of the 104 to a year, and thus made the govern- 
 ment more democratic ; but the oligarchs avenged themselves 
 by denouncing him to the Romans as engaged in negotiations 
 with Antiochus to induce him to take up arms against Rome. 
 The senate sent envoys to Carthage to inquire into these charges; 
 and Hannibal, seeing that his enemies were too strong for 
 him, secretly took flight, and reached the Syrian court in 
 safety. 
 
 He was received with the highest honours, and urged the king 
 to place an army at his disposal with which he might invade 
 Italy. But Antiochus was persuaded by the 
 Aetolians to cross over into Greece, and landed Antiochus 
 at Demetrias in Thessaly in 192 b.c. The Romans q°^^^q *° 
 now declared war, and in the following year 
 (191 B.C.) the Consul Acilius Glabrio marched into Thessaly, 
 The king had entrenched himself in the passes of Thermopylae, 
 that he might prevent the Romans from penetrating into Central 
 Greece. But there was, as is well known, a difficult passage 
 across Mount Oeta, by which the Persians had descended to fight 
 with Leonidas. 
 
 This passage was now forced by M. Cato, who was serving as 
 one of the consul's lieutenants, and, as soon as he appeared in 
 the rear of the Syrian army, they fled in confusion, -a- * f 
 and the battle was won. Antiochus now hastened 
 back to Asia, abandoning all further hopes of conquest in Greece. 
 As soon as he had placed the sea between himself and the 
 Romans, he thought that he was safe ; but Hannibal warned him 
 
134 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XV, 
 
 of his error, and said that he wondered that the Eomans had 
 not already followed him. 
 
 Next year (190 b.c.) L. Cornelius Scipio, the brother of the 
 great Africanus, and C Laolius, the intimate friend of the latter, 
 
 were consuls. L. Scipio was anxious to have the 
 Eoman inya- command of the war against Antiochus ; but the 
 
 senate had not much confidence in his abihty, and 
 it was only in consequence of his brother Africanus offering 
 to serve under him as Ms lieutenant that he obtained the com- 
 mand which he desired. 
 
 Meantime Antiochus had collected a vast army from all 
 parts of his dominions, and, advancing northwards from Ephesus, 
 
 laid waste the kingdom of Pergamus. But upon 
 Battle of .jj^g approach of the Roman army, which entered 
 
 Asia by crossing the Hellespont, Antiochus re- 
 treated southvi/ards ; and the decisive battle was fought near 
 Magnesia at the foot of Mount Sipylus. The Romans obtained 
 an easy and bloodless victory over the vast but disorderly 
 rabble of the Syrian monarch. Only 400 Romans fell, while 
 Antiochus lost 53,000 men. He at once gave up the contest 
 in despair, and humbly sued for peace. Rome left him his 
 kingdom of Syria, but forced him to abandon all claim to the 
 territories west of Mount Taurus with the exception of Cihcia 
 (that is, nearly the whole of Asia Minor) ; he had besides to 
 pay 15,000 Euboic talents within twelve years, to give up his 
 elephants and ships of war, and to surrender to the Romans 
 Hannibal and some others who had taken refuge at his court. 
 Hannibal foresaw his danger, and made his escape to Crete, 
 from whence he afterwards repaired to the court of Prusias, 
 king of Bithynia. 
 
 L. Scipio returned to Rome in the following year, bringing 
 with him enormous treasures. In imitation of his brother, he 
 assumed the surname of Asiaticds. 
 
 The Romans were now at leisure to punish the Aetolians, 
 who had to make head against the Romans by themselves. The 
 
 consul M. Fulvius Nobilior (189 B.C.) took their 
 
 -.u ^a''^''°v most important town, Ambracia, after an obstinate 
 
 the Aetohans. ' u a 4.u \. e 
 
 resistance, and compelled them to sue lor peace. 
 
 This was granted, but on the most humiliating conditions. 
 
 They were required to acknowledge the supremacy of Rome, 
 
Chap. XV,] ORGANIZATION OF ASIA. 135 
 
 to renounce all the conquests they had recently made, to pay 
 an indemnity of 500 talents, and to engage in future to aid the 
 Romans in their wars. The power of the Aetolian league was 
 thus for ever crushed, though it seems to have existed, in name 
 at least, till a much later period. 
 
 The colleague of M. Fulvius Nobilior was Cn. Manlius Volso, 
 who had received command in Asia that he might conclude the 
 peace which had been made with Antiochus, and 
 arrange the affairs of the surrendered territories. Jt'i^o^^s over 
 But Manlius was not content with the subordinate 
 part allotted to him ; and being anxious for booty as much as 
 for glory, he attacked the Galatians in Asia Minor, without 
 waiting for any instructions from the senate, and in direct 
 opposition to the ten commissioners who had been sent to assist 
 him in the work of organization. This was the first instance in 
 which a Roman general had made war without the autliority 
 of the senate or the people — a dangerous precedent, which was 
 afterwards only too faithfully followed. The Galatians or 
 Gallograeci were a body of Gauls, who, after laying waste a 
 great part of Asia Minor, had, as we saw, settled in the north of 
 Phrygia, and had there acquired a semi-Greek culture. The assist- 
 ance which they had given, as mercenary troops, to Antiochus 
 at Magnesia supplied Manlius with a pretext for marching 
 against them. He defeated them in two battles, and compelled 
 them to sue for peace. The campaign greatly enriched Manlius 
 and his legions, as the Gauls had accumulated enormous wealth 
 by their many conquests. 
 
 Manlius remained another year (188 B.C.) in the East as pro- 
 consul, and, in conjunction with the ten commissioners, foimally 
 concluded the peace with Antiochus, and settled 
 the affairs of Asia. Here, as in Greece, Eome Q^YSa^^^^^ 
 steadily refused to acquire territory for herself; 
 the principle adopted was that which we now call the " balance 
 of power," two existing governments being strengthened to 
 check the ambition of the Syrian king. Eumenes, the king 
 of Pergamus, received the Chersonnese, Mysia, Lydia, and part 
 of Caria, and the Rhodians obtained the remaining portion of 
 Caria, together with Lycia and Pisidia. Manlius returned to 
 'Rome in 187 B.C., and celebrated a magnificent triumph. But 
 his soldiers, like those of Scipio, had been touched by the 
 
136 
 
 HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 [Chap. XV. 
 
 corrupting influence of the East, These campaigns, as we shall 
 presently see, exercised a most injurious influence upon the 
 character of the Koman nobles and people, teaching them to 
 love war for the sake of acquiring wealth, and prompting them 
 to acts of robbery and rapine. 
 
 'Dying Galatian" (so-callpd dying gladiator). From the Original 
 in the Museum of tlie Capitol. 
 
Roman Soldiers (from Column of Trajan). 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 WAKS IN THE WEST. THE GALLIC, LIGURIAN, AND SPANISH 
 
 WARS. 200-175 B.C. 
 
 While the Roman legions in the East were acquiring wealth 
 and winning easy conquests, their less fortunate comrades in the 
 West were carrying on a severe struggle with the warlike Gauls, 
 Ligurians, and Spaniards. The Romans had hardly concluded 
 the Second Punic War when they received intelligence that 
 Harailcar, a Carthaginian officer, had excited several tribes in 
 Northern Italy to take up arms against Rome. These were the 
 Gauls on both sides of the Po, and the Ligurians, a race of hardj'' 
 mountaineers, inhabiting the upper Apennines and the Maritime 
 Alps.* The Gauls commenced the war in 200 B.C. by the 
 
 ♦ See p. 3. 
 
138 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XVI. 
 
 capture and destruction of the Roman colony of Placentia, and 
 by laying siege to that of Cremona, the two strongholds of the 
 Roman dominion in Northern Italy. 
 
 The Romans now set themselves to work, with the charac- 
 teristic stubbornness of their nation, to reduce these tribes to a 
 thorough subjection. The Insubres and the Ceno- 
 of tlT^Gauls D^^'^ij to the north of the Po, were the first to 
 yield ; but the Boii resisted for some years all the 
 efforts of the Romans, and it was not till 191 B.C. that the Consul 
 P. Cornelius Scipio Nasica received their final submission. His 
 progress through their territory was a pitiless slaughter, and he 
 made it one of the claims of his triumph that he had left only 
 children and old men alive. 
 
 This warlike people was now thoroughly subdued, and from 
 henceforth Cisalpine Gaul became a Roman province, and 
 gradually adopted the language and customs of 
 Organization Rome. The submission of the people was secured 
 Gaul ^y *^® foundation of new colonies and the forma- 
 
 tion of military roads. In 189 B.C. a colony was 
 established at Bononia, now Bologna, in the country of the Boii, 
 and six years afterwards others were also founded at Mutina 
 (Modena) and Parma. A military road made by M. Aemilius 
 Lepidus, consul for 180 B.C., and called the Via Aemilia, was a 
 continuation of t^jio Via Flaminia, and ran from Ariminum past 
 Bononia, Mutma, and Parma to Placentia. 
 
 The subjugation of the Ligurians was a longer and more 
 difficult task. These hardy mountaineers continued the war, 
 . with intermissiuus, for a period of eighty years. 
 
 °^ ' The Romans, after penetrating into the heart of 
 
 Liguria, were seldom able to effect more than the temporary 
 dispersal of the tribes, which took refuge in their villages and 
 castles — the latter being mountain-fastnesses, in which they 
 were generally able to defy their pursuers. Into the details 
 of these long-protracted and inglorious hostilities it is unneces- 
 sary to enter : but the result of these northern wars was of great 
 importance. Roman influence and Italian civilization were 
 firmly established up to the Po, which now practically replaced 
 the Apennines as the boundary of Italy, while the subjection of 
 the Transpadane Gauls closed the gates of the Alps to further 
 Celtic immigrants. 
 
Chap. XVl] THE SPANISH PEOVlNCES. 139 
 
 The conquests of Scipio Africanus had driven the Cartha- 
 ginians out of Spain, and established the Roman supremacy in 
 that country. Accordingly, soon after the end m, « 
 
 of the Second Punic War (about 197 B.C.), the . „„ 
 
 Eomans proceeded to consolidate their dominion 
 in Spain by dividing it into two provinces, each governed by a 
 praetor, which were called Hispania Citerior, or Hither Spain, 
 and Hispania Ulterior, or Further Spain, and divided from each 
 other by the Iberus, or Ebro. But it was little more than the 
 eastern part of the peninsula that was really subject to Rome. 
 The powerful tribes of the Celtiberians in Central Spain, the 
 Lusitanians in Portugal, and the Cantabrians and Gallaecians in 
 the north-west, still maintained their independence. Rome had 
 now for the first time to establish a permanent garrison in a 
 dependency across the sea ; for, in order to secure a semblance 
 of tranquillity in Spain, four legions had to be kept in the country. 
 Thus originated the principle of taxing a nation to defray the 
 expenses of its military occupation. A direct tax was imposed 
 on Spain, paid partly in money and partly in kind. The division 
 of the country into two provinces, and the army of occupation, 
 showed that the Romans intended to hold Spain permanently, 
 and this conviction occasioned a general insurrection in both the 
 provinces. 
 
 The Consul M. Porcius Cato, of whom we shall speak more 
 fully presently, was sent to put down this rebellion (195 B.C.). 
 The whole country was in arms ; but his military 
 
 genius and indefatigable industrv soon re-estab- ^, Jr ■ r. 
 f . , , , • • i. T-. TT • 1 1 t^® Spanish 
 
 iisned the superiority ox Rome. He gained several insurrection 
 decisive victories, contrived to set tribe against 
 tribe, and took native mei'cenaries into his pay. The details of 
 his campaign are full of horrors. We read of the wholesale 
 slaughter of men who had laid down their arms, of multitudes 
 sold as slaves, and of many more who put themselves to death 
 to escape this fate. Cato was not the man to feel any compunc- 
 tions of conscience in the performance of what he considered a 
 rigorous public task. He boasted of having destroyed more 
 towns in Spain than he had spent days in that country. When 
 he had reduced the whole of Hither Spain to a hollow, sullen, 
 and temporary submission, he returned to Rome, and was re- 
 warded with a triumph. 
 
140 
 
 HISTORY OF HOME. 
 
 [Chap. XVI. 
 
 The severe measures of Cato only exasperated the Spaniards. 
 They again took up arms, and continued to resist the Eoman 
 praetors for the next sixteen years, till Tib. Sem- 
 Pacification pronius Gracchus, the father of the celebrated 
 Gracchus tribunes, after gaining several brilliant victories 
 
 over the Celtiberians, granted them an honourable 
 peace. He gave equitable charters to the conquered tribes, 
 while he tried to secure the interest of the Spanish chiefs by 
 attaching them to the Roman military service, and to check the 
 roving habits of the people by the founding of towns. By his 
 wise measures and conciliatory conduct he won the affections of 
 the natives, and induced them to regard the Eoman supremacy 
 with greater patience (179 B.C.). 
 
 Two petty wars in the West then engaged for a time the 
 attention of Rome. The Sardinians and Corsicans revolted, and 
 . . held out for two years against the conqueror of 
 
 I^trS Wars ^P^^" (177-175 B.C.). But Gracchus effected their 
 complete subjugation, and brought to Rome so 
 large a number of captives for sale as to give rise to the proverb 
 " Sardi venales" for anything that was cheap and worthless. 
 
 The Istrians, near the head of the Adriatic Gulf, had been 
 conquered by the Romans just before the Second Punic War. 
 But their complete subjugation was now necessary, on account 
 of their proximity to the newly-formed province of Cisalpine 
 Ganl. Accordingly the consuls invaded Istria in 178 B.C., and 
 in the following year the whole people was reduced to sub- 
 mission. 
 
 A Roman genpral addressing his soldiers. 
 
Lictors. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 THE ROMAN CONSTITUTION AND ARMT. 
 
 The career of foreign conquest upon which the Rey)ubh'c had 
 now entered continued with httle or no interruption till the 
 establishment of the Empire. We may here pause to take a 
 brief survey of the form of government, as well as of the 
 military organization by which these conquests were effected. 
 
 The earlier history of the Eoman constitution has been already 
 related. We have seen how, after a long struggle, the plebeians 
 acquired more than political equality with the 
 patricians. In the Second Punic War the .^ orders 
 antagonism between the two orders had almost 
 disappeared, and the only mark of separation between them in 
 political matters which was of material importance was the 
 regulation, that, of the two consuls and two censors one must 
 be a plebeian. The other patrician privileges were merely formal. 
 The fictitious ratification of laws passed by the Comitia — the 
 so-called patrum auctoritas — was in the hands of the patrician 
 members of the senate ; it was they, too, who appointed the 
 
142 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XVII. 
 
 interrex, who must himself be a patrician ; while certain priestly 
 offices of no political importance — those of the Eex Sacrorum 
 and the three great Flamines — were closed to the plebeians. 
 
 I. The Magistrates. — Every Roman citizen who aspired to 
 the consulship had to pass through a regular gi'adation of public 
 . offices, and the earliest age at which he could 
 
 trates " become a candidate for them was fixed by a law 
 passed in 179 b.c, and' known by the name of the 
 Lex Annalis. The earliest age for the quaestorship, which was 
 the first of these magistracies, was 28 years ; for the aedileship, 
 37 ; for the praetorship, 40 ; and for the consulship, 43. 
 
 All magistrates at Rome were divided into curules and those 
 who were not curules. The Curule Magistrates were so called 
 because they had the right of sitting upon the Sella Ourulis, 
 originally an emblem of kingly power, imported, along with other 
 insignia of royalty, from Etruria. They were either (i.) ordinary 
 magistrates, e.g. consuls, praetors, and curule aediles; or (ii.) 
 extraordinary, e.g. the dictator, the magister equitum, and the 
 interrex. 
 
 1. The quaestors were the paymasters of the state. It was 
 their duty to receive the revenues, and to make all the necessary 
 
 payments for the military and civil services. 
 ' There were originally only two quaestors, but 
 their number was constantly increased with the conquests of the 
 Republic. Besides two quaestors who always remained at Rome 
 in charge of the treasury, every consul, praetor, or pro-magistrate 
 who conducted a war or governed a province was attended by 
 one of these officials. 
 
 2. The aedileship was originally a plebeian office, instituted 
 at the same time as the tribunate of the plebs.* To the two 
 . ,., plebeian aediles two curule aediles were added in 
 
 365 B.C. The four aediles in common had the 
 charge of the public buildings,t the care of the cleansing and 
 draining of the city, and the superintendence of the police. 
 They had also the regulation of the public festivals ; and the 
 celebration of the Lndi Magni, or Great Games, was their especial 
 function. Originally they received a sum of money from the 
 state to defray the expenses of these games, but this grant was 
 withdrawn about the time of the First Punic War — a measure 
 • See p. 38. t Hence their name, from aedes, a temple. 
 
Chap. XVII.] THE ROMAN CONSTITUTION. 143 
 
 attended with important consequences, since the higher magis- 
 tracies were thus confined to the wealthy, who alone could defray 
 the charges of these costly entertainments. After the Mace- 
 donian and Syrian wars the curule aediles often incurred a 
 prodigious expense with the view of pleasing the people, and 
 securing their votes in future elections. 
 
 Next come the magistrates with imperium — the praetors and 
 consuls. 
 
 3. The institution of the praeforship in 366 B.C. has been 
 already narrated. It was an office modelled closely on the 
 consulship ; the praetor had the imperium, with _ 
 
 the attendant powers of summoning the senate and 
 people, jurisdiction and military command ; and he was attended 
 by six lictors. There was originally only one praetor, subse- 
 quently called Praetor Urbanus, whose chief duty was the 
 administration of civil justice. In 246 b.c. a second praetor was 
 added, who had to decide cases in which foreigners were con- 
 cerned, and who was hence called Praetor Peregrinus. When 
 the territories of the state extended beyond Italy, new praetors 
 were created to govern the provinces. Two praetors were 
 appointed to take the administration of Sicilj' and Sardinia 
 (227 B.C.), and two more were added when the two Spanish 
 provinces were formed (197 B.C.). There were thus six praetors, 
 two of whom stayed in the city while the other four went abroad. 
 
 4. The consuls were the highest ordinary magistrates at Rome, 
 and were at the head both of the state and the army. They 
 convoked the senate and the assemblies of the 
 
 centuries and of the tribes ; they presided in each, 
 and had to see that the resolutions of the senate and the people 
 were carried into effect. They had the supreme command of 
 the armies in virtue of the imperium conferred upon them by 
 a special vote of the people. At the head of the army, they 
 had full power of life and death over their soldiers. They were 
 preceded by twelve lictors, but this outward sign of power was 
 enjoyed by them month by month in turn. 
 
 The magistrates above mentioned were elected annually, but 
 it was usual to prolong the command of the consuls or praetors 
 in the provinces under the titles of proconsuls or propraetors. 
 In the later times of the Republic it was customary for both 
 consuls and several praetors to remain at Rome during their 
 
144 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. ^Vlt. 
 
 year of office, and at its close to take the command of provinces, 
 with the titles of proconsuls or propraetors. 
 
 5. The dictatorship, which occurs so often in the early history 
 of the Republic, disappears altogether after the Second Punic 
 
 War. As the Ilepublic became powerful, and had 
 Dictator. ^^ longer to dread any enemies in Italy, there 
 
 was no necessity for such an extraordinary magistracy as the 
 dictatorship, but whenever internal dangers seemed to require a 
 stronger executive, the senate, with doubtful legality, invested the 
 consuls with dictatorial power.* 
 
 6. The censors were two in number, elected every five years, 
 but holding their office for only eighteen months. The censorship 
 
 was the crown of a political career, as the office 
 
 ensors. ^^^ usually held by an ex-consul. The duties of 
 
 the censors, which were very extensive and very important, may 
 
 be divided into three classes, all of which, however, were closely 
 
 connected. 
 
 (a) Their first and most important duty was to take the census. 
 This was not simply a list of the population, according to the 
 modern use of the word, but a valuation of the property of every 
 Eoman citizen. This valuation was necessary, not only for the 
 assessment of the property-tax, but also for determining the 
 position of every citizen in the state, which was regulated, in 
 accordance with the constitution of Servius Tullins, by the 
 amount of his property. Accordingly, the censors had to draw 
 up lists of the classes and centuries. They also made out the 
 lists of the senators and equites, striking out the names of all 
 whom they deemed unworthy, and filling up all vacancies in both 
 orders. 
 
 (&) The censors possessed a general control over the conduct 
 and morals of the citizens. In the exercise of this important 
 power they were not guided hj any rules of law, but simply by 
 their own sense of duty. They punished acts of private as well 
 as public immorality, and visited with their censure, not ovAy 
 offences against the laws, but everything opposed to the old 
 Roman character and habits, such as living in celibacy, extrava- 
 gance, luxury, etc. They had the power of degrading every 
 citizen to a lower rank, of expelling senators from the senate, 
 
 * This was done by the well-known formula, " Videant," or " Dent operam 
 Consules, ne quid res publica detrimenti capiat." 
 
Chap. XVI].] THE ROMAN CONSTITUTION. 145 
 
 of depriving the equites of their horses, and of removing 
 ordinary citizens from their tribes, and thus excluding them from 
 all political rights. 
 
 (c) The censors also had the administration of the finances of 
 the state, under the direction of the senate. They let out the 
 taxes to the highest bidders for the space of a lustrum, or five 
 years.* They likewise received from the senate certain sums 
 of money to keep the public buildings, roads, and aqueducts in 
 repair,! ^^^ to construct nev? public works in Eome and other 
 parts of Italy. Hence we find that many of the great public 
 roads, such as the Via Appia and Via Flaminia, were made by 
 censors. 
 
 - II. The Senate. — The senate, originally a mere advising body, 
 had by this time become the real executive government of Rome, 
 and the magistrates, of whom we have been speak- 
 ing, were only its ministers. This was the result 
 of the inherent weakness of the Roman constitution — the com- 
 plete dependence of the comitia on a number of magistrates 
 with clashing authority, which rendered popular government 
 impossible. The growth of the senate's power was assisted by 
 the long wars, in which it proved itself the' most capable 
 administrative authority, and its influence was strengthened by 
 the mode in which its members were appointed. The senate 
 consisted of 300 members, who held the dignity for life unless 
 expelled by the censors for reasons already mentioned, but who 
 could not transmit the honour to their sons. All vacancies in 
 the body were filled up by the censors every five years, as a rule 
 from those who had held the qiiaestorship or any higher magis- 
 tracy, only in exceptional cases from nominees of their own ; 
 and, as the censors were thus practically confined in their selec- 
 tion to those who had already received the confidence of the 
 people, the great majority of those who entered the senate 
 already possessed considerable knowledge of political affairs. 
 
 The power of the senate was very great. It exercised a 
 control over legislation, since custom dictated that no law should 
 be proposed to the assemblies of the people unless it had first 
 
 * These farmers of the public revenues were called publicani. 
 
 t It is not easy to defioe with accuracy the respective duties of the censors and 
 aedlles in relation to tlie public buildings ; but it may be stated in general that 
 the superintendence of the aediles was more in the way of police, while that of 
 the censors had reference to all financial matters. 
 
146 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XV11. 
 
 received the approval of the senate. In many cases " Senatus 
 Consulta " * came to usurp the place of laws, and there vs^ere some 
 spheres of administration in which the senate's right to decide 
 without reference to the people was unquestioned. This was 
 especially the case in matters affecting finance, the provinces, 
 and all foreign relations. It had usurped the direction of finance 
 at an early period, and the quaestors were entirely under its 
 control. The senate assigned the provinces into which the 
 consuls and praetors were to be sent, it prolonged the command 
 of a general or superseded him at its pleasure, and on his return 
 it granted or refused him a triumph. It determined the manner 
 in which a war was to be conducted, and the number of troops 
 to be levied ; it alone carried on negotiations with foreign states, 
 and all ambassadors were appointed from its own body. 
 
 III. The Popular Assemblies. — 1. The Comitia Ouriatd 
 
 had become a mere form as early as the First Punic War. The 
 
 gradual decline of its power has been already 
 
 Comuia traced. It continued to meet for the transaction 
 
 of certain matters, such as the ratification of the 
 
 imperium, but was represented simply by thirty Hctors. 
 
 2, The constitution of the Comitia Oenturiata, as estabhshed 
 by Servius Tullius,t had undergone a great change between the 
 . . time of the Licinian Rogations and the Punic 
 
 Oenturiata Wars, the object of which appears to have been 
 to give more power and influence to the popular 
 element in the state. For this purpose the thirty-five tribes 
 were taken as the basis of the new constitution of the centuries. 
 Each tribe was divided into five property classes, and each classis 
 was subdivided into two centuries, one of seniores and the other 
 of jnniores. Each tribe would thus contain ten centuries, and 
 consequently the thirty-five tribes would have 350 centuries, so 
 that, with the eighteen centuries of the knights, and five centuries 
 of smiths, horn-blowers, and capite censi,X the total number of 
 the centuries would be 373. 
 
 The Comitia of the Centuries still retained the election of the 
 magistrates with imperium, the power of declaring war and 
 making peace, and also the highest judicial functions. Accusations 
 
 * A Senatus consultum was so called because the consul or other presiding 
 magistrate who brought a matter before the senate was said Senatum consulere. 
 t See p. 25. J See p. 24. 
 
Chap. XVll.] THE ROBIAN CONSTITUTION. 147, 
 
 for treason were brought before the centuries, and appeals against 
 capital sentences could be heard only by this body.* 
 
 3. The assembly of the plebs {concilium plehis tributim) 
 obtained its superior influence and power mainly through its 
 tribunes. The assembly of the whole people by 
 tribes {comitia trihuta populi), being summoned ™*^6 two as- 
 and presided over by consuls or praetors, was, like ^^j^g tribes 
 that of the centuries, to a great extent an instru- 
 ment in the hands of the senate. But the plebeian assembly, 
 being guided by its own magistrates, and representing the popular 
 element, was frequently opposed to the senate, and took an 
 active part in. the internal administration of the state. The 
 plebiscita of this assembly had the same force as the leges of the 
 two assemblies of the populus. There were thus two legal 
 sovereigns at Rome, the populus and the plebs, each independent 
 of the other ; but this dual control only strengthened the power 
 of the actual sovereign, the senate. 
 
 The tribunate had changed its character since its original 
 institution, and, though it could still be held only by plebeians, it 
 had practically become a magistracy of the state. „, . 
 The right of intercession possessed by the tribunes 
 was extended to all matters ; thus they could prevent the consuls 
 fi-om summoning the senate, and from proposing laws to the 
 Comitia of the People. As their persons were sacred, the senate 
 could exercise no control over them, while they, on the contrary, 
 could seize even a consul or a censor and throw him into prison. 
 But this vast power really worked in the interest of the senate ; 
 for out of the large college of ten tribunes it was certain that 
 one at least could be found to put his veto upon the acts of his 
 colleagues or other magistrates. It was, in fact, through the 
 tribunate that the senate was able to keep all the magistrates in 
 check. 
 
 IV. Finance. — The ordinary expenditure of the Eoman state 
 was not large. All the magistrates discharged their duties with- 
 out pay ; and the allied troops, which formed so . 
 large a portion of a Eoman army, were maintained 
 by the allies themselves. The expenses of war were defrayed 
 by a property-tax called tributum, which was usually one in a 
 
 * The technical word for this appeal was provocatio. The word appellatio 
 signified an appeal from one magistrate to another. 
 
148 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XVII. 
 
 thousand, or one-tenth per cent., but after the last war with 
 Macedonia the treasury received such large sums from the 
 provinces that the tributum was abolished. From this time 
 the expenses of the state were almost entirely defrayed by the 
 taxes levied in the provinces. The other revenues of the state, 
 which bore the general name of vectigalia, were common to 
 Italy and the provinces. They consisted of the rents arising 
 from public lands, forests, mines, salt-works, etc., and of harbour 
 dues ; but no direct taxation, and no indirect tax on private 
 lands, was imposed on the Italian towns. 
 
 V. The PROvrscES. — The provinces were territorial dis- 
 tricts placed under the command of magistrates with iin- 
 
 perium ; those where large military forces were 
 provinces, j-gq^j^-g^ ^gj.g generally under proconsuls, the rest 
 under propraetors. But it was the cities within the provinces 
 rather than the provinces themselves which were the units of 
 government. Some of these cities were free and paid no 
 tribute, and these were entirely exempt from the governor's 
 control. Far the greater part, however, paid tribute, either a 
 direct tax (stipendium) paid generally in money, or a proportion 
 of their produce {vectigal), such as the tithes collected in Sicily, 
 Sardinia, and afterwards in Asia. Over these tributary states 
 the governor possessed full criminal and civil jurisdiction, and 
 in the winter months went on circuit, holding courts in the lead- 
 ing cities of his province. The summer months were, in the 
 case of mihtary provinces, usually spent in the camp. When 
 it is remembered that none of the restraints on the imperium 
 which existed at Eome — such as the veto of a colleague, the 
 provocatio to the people, or the control of the senate — were to 
 be found in the provinces, it is easy to understand the almost 
 regal position held by the governor, and the evil effects of such 
 uncontrolled power on the character of most of its possessors. 
 
 VI. The Army. — The Roman army was originally called 
 legio; and this name, which is coeval with the foundation of 
 _, Rome, continued down to the latest times. The 
 
 '■ legion was, therefore, not equivalent to what we 
 call a regiment, inasmuch as it contained troops of all arms, 
 infantry, cavalry, and, when military engines were eistensively 
 employed, artillery also. The number of soldiers who, at 
 different periods, were contained in a legion does not appear to 
 
Chap. XVII.] THE ROMAN ARMY. 149 
 
 have been absolutely fixed, but to have varied within moderate 
 limits. Originally the legion contained 3000 foot-soldiers, and 
 from the beginning of the Republic until the second year of the 
 Second Punic War the i-egular number may be fixed at 400O 
 or 4200 infantry. From the latter period until the consulship 
 of Marius the ordinary number was from 5000 to 5200. For 
 some centuries after Marius the numbers varied from 5000 to 
 6200, generally approaching to the higher limit. Amid all the 
 variations with regard to the infantry, 300 horsemen formed 
 the regular complement of the legion. The organisation of the 
 legion differed at different periods. 
 
 1. First Period. Seruius Tullius. — The legion of Servius is 
 so closely connected with the Comitia Centuriata that it has 
 already been discussed,* and it is only necessary to state here 
 that it was a phalanx equipped in- the Greek fashion, the front 
 ranks being furnished with a complete suit of armour, their 
 weapons being long spears, and their chief defence the round 
 Argolic shield {dipens). 
 
 2. Second Period. The Great Latin War, 340 B.C.— The 
 legion in 340 B.C. had almost entirely discarded the tactics of 
 the phalanx. It was now drawn up in three lines. The 
 soldiers of the first line, called Hastati, consisted of youths in 
 the first bloom of manhood, distributed into fifteen companies 
 or maniples {manipuli), a moderate space being left between 
 each. The maniple contained sixty privates, two centurions 
 (centuriones), and a standard-bearer {vexillariua). The second 
 line, the Principes, was composed of men in the full vigour of 
 life, divided, in like manner, into fifteen maniples, all heavily 
 armed. The two lines of the Hastati and Principes taken 
 together amounted to thirty maniple, and formed the Antepilani. 
 The third line, the Triarii, composed of tried veterans, was also 
 in fifteen divisions, but each of these was triple, containing 
 three maniples. 
 
 3. Third Period. During the Wars of the younger Scipio. — 
 Under ordinary cii'cunistances four legions were levied yearly, 
 two being assigned to each consul. But a regular consular 
 army no longer consisted of Roman legions only, for, as Italy 
 became gradually subjugated, the various states under the 
 dominion of Rome were bound to furnish a contingent, and the 
 
 * See p. 24. 
 
150 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XVII. 
 
 number of allies usually exceeded that of the citizens. They 
 were, however, kept perfectly distinct, both in the camp and in 
 the battle-field. 
 
 The men belonging to each legion were separated into four 
 divisions. 1. 1000 of the youngest and poorest were set apart 
 to form the Velites, the light-armed troops or skirmishers of 
 the legion. 2. 1200 who came next in age (or who were of the 
 same age with the preceding, but more wealthy) formed the 
 Hastati. 3. 1200, consisting of those in the full vigour of 
 manhood, formed the Principes. 4. 600 of the oldest and most 
 experienced formed the Triarii. When the number of soldiers 
 in the legion exceeded 4000, the first three divisions were in- 
 creased proportionally, but the number of the Triarii remained 
 always the same. 
 
 All three classes wore a metal helmet, a leathern shield and 
 breastplate, and all bore the shoit two-edged Spanish sword. 
 But the Hastati and Principes carried the light 
 Armour, and pjlum, which was hurled against the enemy, while 
 fiffhtinfi' ^^^ Triarii bore the long hasta, or thrusting-spear. 
 
 The division into maniples was still continued, 
 the advantage of this small tactical unit being that it encouraged 
 an individual mode of fighting suited to any emergencj^, and 
 that, unlike the unwieldy phalanx, it could manoeu\Te on 
 uneven ground. The battle opened with the advance of the 
 Hastati, who hurled their pila at a distance of ten or twenty 
 paces from the enemy, and then charged with the sword. If 
 this charge was not decisive, the Principes advanced, the 
 Hastati retiring through the divisions between the maniples. 
 The Triarii acted as a reserve, to be called out only in the last 
 resort. 
 
 Three hundred horse-soldiers were apportioned to each legion, 
 divided into ten troops {turmae), out of which three ofScers 
 were chosen named decuriones. 
 
 The infantry furnished by the Socii was for the most part 
 equal in number to the Roman legions, the cavalry twice or 
 thrice as numerous, and botli were divided equally between 
 the two consular armies. Eacli consul named twelve superior 
 officers, Avho were termed Praefecti Sociorum, and corresponded 
 to the Legionary Tribunes. 
 
 4. Fourth Period. From, the times of the Qracchi until the 
 
Chat. XVII.] THE ROMAN ARMY. 151 
 
 downfall of the Republic* — After the times of the Gracchi 
 the following changes in military affairs may be noticed : — In 
 the first consulship of Marius the legions were thrown open to 
 citizens of all grades, without distinction of fortune. The 
 legionaries, when in battle-order, were no longer necessarily 
 arranged in three lines, each consisting of ten maniples with 
 an open space between each maniple, but sometimes in two, 
 sometimes in three lines, each consisting of cohorts, with a 
 space between each division. The number of the cohorts, 
 which now became the tactical units, was always ten, and, as 
 the cohorts were always equal to one another, their strength 
 varied with tlie strength of the legion. The younger soldiers 
 were no longer placed in the front, but in reserve, the van 
 being composed of veterans. As a necessary result of the 
 above arrangements, the distinction between Hastati, Principes, 
 and Triarii, ceased to exist, and the pilum was now made the 
 common weapon of the whole army, the hasta being abolished. 
 The skirmishers, included under the general term Levis Armatura, 
 consisted for the most part of foreign mercenaries possessing 
 peculiar skill in the use of some national weapon, such as the 
 Balearic slingers, the Cretan archers (sagittarii), and the 
 Moorish dartmen. When operations requiring great activity 
 were undertaken, such as could not be performed by mere 
 skirmishers, detachments of legionaries were lightly equipped, 
 and marched without baggage, for these special services.! The 
 cavalry of the legion underwent a change in every respect 
 analogous to that which took place with regard to the light- 
 armed troops. The Roman eqnites attached to the army were 
 very few in number, and were chiefly employed as aides-de- 
 camp, and on confidential missions. The bulk of the cavalry 
 consisted of foreigners, and hence we find the legions and the 
 cavalry spoken of as completely distinct from each other. 
 After the termination of the Social "War, when most of th'! 
 inhabitants of Italy became Eoman citizens, the ancient 
 distinction between the Legionarii and the Socii disappeared, 
 and all who had served as Socii became incorporated with the 
 legions. 
 
 * We anticipate the course of events in order to give under one view the 
 history of the Roman legion. 
 
 t Hence the frequent occurrence of such phrases as expediti, expediti milites, 
 expeditae cohortes, and even expeditae legiones. 
 
152 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XVII. 
 
 In the course of the history the triumphs granted to victorious 
 generals have been frequently mentioned, and therefore a brief 
 
 description of them may appropriately close this 
 A Koman sketch of the Homan army. A triumph was a 
 
 solemn procession, in which a victorious general 
 entered the city in a chariot drawn by four horses. He was 
 preceded by the captives and spoils taken in war, was followed 
 by his troops, and, after passing in state along the Via Sacra, 
 ascended the Capitol to offer sacrifice in the Temple of Jupiter. 
 From the beginning of the Republic down to the extinction of 
 liberty, a triumph was recognized as the summit of military 
 glory, and was the cherished object of ambition to every Roman 
 general. After any decisive battle had been won, or a province 
 subdued by a series of successful operations, the general for- 
 warded to the senate a laui el-wreathed despatch containing an 
 account of his exploits. If the intelligence proved satisfactory, 
 the senate decreed a public thanksgiving.* After the war was 
 concluded, the general with his army repaired to Rome, or 
 ordered his army to meet him there on a given day, but did 
 not enter the city. A meeting of the senate was held without 
 the walls, that he might have an opportunity of urging his 
 pretensions in person, and these were then scrutinized and 
 discussed with the most jealous care. If the senate gave their 
 consent, they voted a sum of money towards defraying the 
 necessary expenses, and at the same time, if the general was a 
 city magistrate such as a consul, recognized the full military 
 imperium, which ceased at the gates of Rome, as vested in 
 him for the single day. If, on the other hand, the triumphing 
 general was only a pro-magistrate, one of the tribunes applied 
 for a plebiscitum to enable him to hold the imperium for the 
 single day; for such a commander possessed no imperium at 
 all within the walls, and a special enactment was in this case 
 necessary to render the military pageant possible. 
 • Called supplicatio. 
 
Sclpio Africanus. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 INTERNAL HISTOKY OF ROME DrRING THE MACEDONIAN AND 
 SYRIAN WARS. CATO AND SCIPIO. 
 
 The conquests of the Romans in the East had exercised a most 
 pernicious influence upon the national character. Tliey were 
 originally a hardy, industrious, and religious race. Effects of 
 distinguished by unbending integrity and love of Eastern con- 
 order. They lived with great frugality upon their quests on 
 small farms, which they cultivated with their ^o™^' 
 own hands. But they were stern and somewhat cruel", and 
 cared little or nothing for literature and the arts. Upon such 
 a people the sudden acquisition of wealth produced its natural 
 effects. They employed it in the gratification of their appetites, 
 
154 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XVIH. 
 
 and in coarse sensual pleasures. Some of the Roman nobles, 
 such as Scipio Africainis, Flamininus (the conqueror of Phili])), 
 and others, acquired a love for Greek literature and art. But 
 the great mass of the nation imitated only the. vices of the 
 Greeks. Cooks, who had formerly been the cheapest kind of 
 slaves at Rome, now became the most valuable. A love of 
 luxury and a general depravity gradually spread through all 
 classes of society. 
 
 A striking instance of the growing licentiousness of the times 
 was brought to light in 186 B.C. It was discovered that the 
 ■o y, y worship of Bacchus had been introduced from 
 co^nspJacyr^ Southern Italy into Rome and other towns, and 
 that secret societies were formed, which, under 
 the cloak of this worship, indulged in the most abominable vices. 
 A stringent inquiry was made into these practices ; the most 
 guilty were put to death ; and a decree of the senate was 
 passed, forbidding the worship of Bacchus in Rome and through- 
 out Italy. 
 
 The increasing love of gladiatorial combats, the gratification 
 of which was now rendered possible by the new wealth of the 
 state, was an indication of the gloomier side of 
 CHadiatonal Roman character. These cruel sports are said 
 to have taken their origin from the Etruscans, 
 who were accustomed to kill slaves and captives at the funerals 
 of their relatives. They were first exhibited at Rome in the 
 beginning of the First Punic War (264 B.C.). At first confined 
 to funerals, they were afterwards exhibited by the aediles at 
 the public games, with the view of pleasing the people. The 
 passion for this brutalizing amusement rose to a great height 
 towards the end of the Republic and under the Empire. Great 
 pains were taken with the training of gladiators, who were 
 divided into different classes according to their arms and modes 
 of fighting. 
 
 Among many other important consequences of these foreign 
 wars two which exercised an especial influence upon the future 
 fate of the Republic, were the rise of a new 
 Eise of a new jiQijiij^y and the disappearance of the peasant 
 ^'^ ^ ^' proprietors. The nobles became enormously 
 
 rich, and the peasant proprietors almost entirely disappeared. 
 This new nobility rested largely on wealth, and was composed 
 
Chap. XVIII.] EFJj'ECTS OF THE LOJS^G WARS. 155 
 
 alike of plebeian and patrician families; but it soon became 
 hereditary. Every one whose ancestry had not held any of the 
 curule magistracies * was called a New Man, and was branded 
 as an upstart.f It became more and more difficult for a New 
 Man to rise to office ; and thus an aristocracy (hereditary but with- 
 out primogeniture) was found in the exclusive possession of the 
 government. The wealth its members had acquired in foreign 
 commands enabled them not only to incur a prodigious expense 
 in the celebration of the public games in their aedileship, with 
 the view of gaining the votes of the people at future elections, 
 but also to spend large suras of money in the actual purchase of 
 votes. The first law against bribery J was passed in 181 B.C., a 
 sure proof of the growth of the practice. 
 
 The decay of the peasant proprietors was an inevitable conse- 
 quence of these frequent and long-protracted wars. In the 
 earlier times the citizen - soldier, after a few 
 weeks' campaign, returned home to cultivate his ^^•'^.y of 
 land ; but this became impossible when wars nrietors 
 were carried on out of Italy. Moreover, the 
 soldier, easily obtaining abundance of booty, found life in the 
 camp more pleasant than the cultivation of the ground. He 
 was thus as ready to sell his land as the nobles were anxious to 
 buy it. But money acquired by plunder is soon squandered. 
 The soldier, returning to Rome, swelled the ranks of the poor, 
 and thus, while the nobles became richer and richer, the lower 
 classes became poorer and poorer. In consequence of the 
 institution of slavery there was little or no demand for free 
 labour ; and, as prisoners taken in war were sold as slaves, the 
 slave-market was always well suppHed. The estates of the 
 wealthy were cultivated by large gangs of slaves ; and even 
 the mechanical arts which give employment to such large 
 numbers in the modern towns of Europe, were practised in the 
 
 * See p. 142. 
 
 t Thp Nohiles were distinguislied from the Igndbiles. The outward distinction 
 of the former was the Jus Imaginuni These imagines were painted maslcs of 
 wax, representing the ancestors who had held any of the curule magistracies. 
 They were placed on busts in cases in the atrium or reception-hall of the house, 
 and were carried in the funeral procession of a member of the family. Any one 
 who first obtained a curule magistracy became the founder of the nobility of his 
 family. Such a person was himself neither a nobilis nor an ignohilis. He was 
 termed a JVovus Homo, or a Nen' Man. 
 
 I The Latin word for bribery is ambitus, literally canvassing. It must not be 
 confounded with repet.undae, the offence of extortion or pecuniary corruption 
 committed by magisiratts in the provinces or at Rome. 
 
156 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XVIII. 
 
 main by slaves or freedmen. The poor at Rome were thus 
 left almost without resources; their votes in the popular 
 assembly were nearly the only thing they could turn into 
 money ; and it is therefore not surprising that they were ready 
 to sell them to the highest bidder. 
 
 Many distinguished men saw with deep regret the old Roman 
 virtues disappearing, and strove vigorously against these corrup- 
 _ tions of the national character. Of this party the 
 
 most conspicuous member was M. Porcius Cato, 
 who set himself up as a type of the old Roman character. He 
 was born at Tusculum in 234 B.C. When a young man the 
 death of his father put him in possession of a small hereditary 
 estate in the Sabine territory, at a distance from his native town. 
 It was here that he had passed the greater part of his early 
 youth, hardening his body by healthful exercise, and super- 
 intending and sharing the operations of the farm. Near his 
 estate was a humble cottage, which had been tenanted, after 
 three triumphs, by its owner, M. Curius Dentatus, whose war- 
 like exploits and simple character were often talked of with 
 admiration in the neighbourhood. The ardour of the youthful 
 Cato was kindled. He resolved to imitate the character, and 
 hoped to rival the glory, of Dentatus. Opportunity was not 
 wanting. He took his first nsiitary lessons in the campaigns 
 against Hannibal, and gained the favour and friendship of 
 Fabius Maximus. He was also patronized by L. Valerius 
 Flaccus, a Roman noble in his neighbourhood, and a warm 
 supporter of the old Roman manners, who had observed Cato's 
 eloquence, as well as his martial spirit. Encouraged by Fabius 
 and Flaccus, Cato became a candidate for office, and was 
 elected quaestor in 204 B.C. He followed P. Scipio Africanus 
 to Sicily, but there was not that cordiality of co-operation 
 between Cato and Scipio which was supposed to subsist between 
 a quaestor and his proconsul. Fabius had opf)Osed the per- 
 mission given to Scipio to carry the attack into the enemy's 
 home, and Cato, whose appointment was intended to operate as 
 a check upon Scipio, adopted the views of h's friend. Cato 
 was praetor in Sardinia in 198 B.C., where he took the earliest 
 opportunity of illustrating his principles by his practice. He 
 diminished official expenses, walked his circuits with a single 
 attendant, administered justice with strict impartiality, and 
 
Chap. XVIII.J CATO'S CONSULSHIP. 157 
 
 restrained usury with unsparing severity. He had now established 
 a reputation for pure morality and strict old-fashioned virtue, 
 and was looked upon as the living type and representative of 
 the ideal ancient Roman. To the advancement of such a man 
 opposition was vain. In 195 b.c. he was elected consul with 
 his old friend and patron L. Valerius Flaccus. 
 
 During his consulship a strange scene took place peculiarly 
 illustrative of Roman manners. In 215 B.C., at the height of 
 the Punic War, a law had been passed, proposed 
 by the Tribune Oppius, that no woman should J^^^q^ ^a^^^ 
 possess more than half an ounce of gold, nor 
 wear a garment of divers colours, nor drive a carriage with 
 horses within a mile of the city, except for the purpose of 
 attending the public celebration of religious rites. Now that 
 Hannibal was conquered, and Rome abounded with Carthaginian 
 wealth, there appeared to be no longer any necessity for women 
 to contribute towards the exigencies of an impoverished treasury 
 the savings spared from their ornaments and pleasures, and two 
 tribunes thought it time to propose the abolition of the Oppian 
 law; but they were opposed by two of their colleagues. The 
 most important afifaii's of state excited far less interest and 
 zeal than this singular contest. The matrons blockaded every 
 avenue to the forum, and intercepted their husbands as they 
 approached, beseeching them to restore the ancient ornaments of 
 the Roman matrons. Even Flaccus wavered, but his colleague 
 Cato was inexorable. Finallj'^, the women carried the day. 
 Worn out by their importunity, the two tribunes withdrew 
 their opposition, and the hated law was abolished by the suffrage 
 of the tribes. 
 
 Cato's campaign in Spain during his consulship, which added 
 greatly to his military reputation, has been already related. He 
 afterwards served in Greece under M'. Glabrio, where he distin- 
 guished himself at the battle of Thermopylae fought against 
 Antiochus (191 B.C.). 
 
 The victory of Zama had made P. Scipio Africanus the first 
 man in the Republic, and for a time silenced all his enemies. 
 They might have remained silenced, had Scipio _ . . 
 known how to endure prosperity ; but his obvious 
 consciousness of his superiority invited attack from his old 
 enemies, headed by Fabius, and supported by Cato. After the 
 
158 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XVIII. 
 
 return of P. Scipio and liis brother Lucius from the war against 
 Antiochus, they were charged with having been bribed to give 
 favourable terms to the king, and of having appropriated to 
 their own use a portion of the money which had been paid by 
 Antiochus to the Roman state. 
 
 The first blow was directed against Lucius. At the instiga- 
 tion of Cato, the two Petillii, " Tribunes of the people," required 
 him to render an account of all sums of money 
 Attack on tlie ^y^j^ j^g j^^d received from Antiochus. Lucius 
 prepared his accounts, but, as he was in the act 
 of delivering them up, his brother indignantly snatched them 
 from his hands, and tore them in pieces, saying "it was un- 
 worthy to call to account for a few thousands a man who had 
 paid millions into the treasury." But this act of insolence 
 appears to have produced an unfavourable impression, and his 
 brother, when brought to trial in the course of the same year, 
 was declared guilty, and sentenced to pay a heavy fine. The 
 tribune ordered him to be dragged to prison, and there detained 
 till security was furnished for the payment of the fine; where- 
 upon Africanus, still more enraged at this fresh insult to his 
 family, rescued his brother from the hands of the tribune's 
 officer, and thus committed an act of treason. The contest 
 would probably have been attended with fatal results had not 
 the tribune, Tib. Gracchus, the father of the celebrated 
 reformer, had the prudence, although he disapproved of the 
 violent conduct of Africanus, to release his brother Lucius from 
 the sentence of imprisonment. 
 
 The successful issue of the prosecution of Lucius emboldened 
 his enemies to bring the great Africanus himself before the people. 
 His accuser was the Tribune M. Naevius. When the trial came 
 on, Scipio did not condescend to say a single word in refutation 
 of the charges that had been brought against him, but descanted 
 long and eloquently upon the signal services he had rendered to 
 the commonwealth. Having spoken till nightfall, the trial was 
 adjourned till the following day. Early next morning, when the 
 tribunes had taken their seats on the rostra, and Africanus was 
 summoned, he contented himself with reminding the people that 
 this was the anniversary of the day on which he had defeated 
 Hannibal at Zama, and called upon them to neglect all disputes 
 and lawsuits, and follow him to the Capitol, there to return 
 
Chap. XVllI.] DEATH OF SCIPIO AND HANNIBAL. 159 
 
 thanks to the immortal gods, and pray that they would grant the 
 Roman state other citizens like himself. Scipio struck a chord 
 which vibrated in every heart ; their veneration for the hero 
 returned ; and he was followed by such crowds to the Capitol, 
 that the tribunes were left alone in the rostra. 
 
 Satisfied with this triumph over the laws of his countrj^ Scipio 
 quitted Rome, and retired to his country-seat at Liternum. The 
 tribunes wished to renew the prosecution, but 
 Gracchus wisely persuaded them to let it drop. , ' t> me 
 There was no room in Rome for a man like Scipio 
 Africanus ; he would neither submit to the laws nor aspire to the 
 sovereignty of the state : and he therefore resolved to expatriate 
 himself for ever. He passed his remaining days in the cultiva- 
 tion of his estate at Liternum ; and at his death is said to have 
 requested that his body might be buried there, and not in his 
 ungrateful country (183 B.C.). 
 
 Hannibal perished in the same year as his great opponent. 
 Scipio was the only member of the senate who opposed the 
 unworth)^ persecution which the Romans employed 
 against their once dreaded foe. Each of these ^^ -^ , 
 great men, possessing true nobility of soul, could 
 appreciate the other's merits. A story is told that Scipio was 
 one of the ambassadors sent to Antiochus at Ephesus, at whose 
 court Hannibal was then residing, and that he there had an 
 interview with the great Carthaginian, who half seriously 
 declared him the greatest general that ever lived. Scipio had 
 asked, " Who was the greatest general ? " " Alexander the 
 Great," was Hannibal's reply. "Who was the second?" 
 "Pyrrhus." "Who the third?" "Myself," replied the Car- 
 thaginian. "What would you have said then, if you had 
 conquered me ? " asked Scipio in astonishment. " I should 
 then have placed myself above Alexander, Pyrrhus, and all 
 other generals." 
 
 After the defeat of Antiochus, Hannibal, as we have already 
 seen, took up his abode with Prusias, king of Bithynia, and there 
 found for some years a secure asylum. But the Romans could 
 not rest so long as their old enemy remained alive ; and T. 
 Flamininus was at length despatched to the court of Prusias 
 to demand the surrender of the fugitive. The Bithynian king 
 was unable to resist; but Hannibal, who had long been in 
 
160 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XVIII. 
 
 expectation of such an event, took poison to avoid falling into 
 the hands of his implacable foes. 
 
 The censorship had always been the organ for the expression 
 of conservative opinion at Eome, and Cato's tenure of this oifice 
 
 (184 B.C.) marked an epoch in his life. Eeckless 
 Cato's censor- ^^ ^j^^ enemies he was making, he applied himself 
 
 strenuous.y to reform. He repaired the water- 
 courses, paved the reservoirs, cleansed the drains, raised the 
 rents paid by the publican! for farming the taxes, and beat down 
 the prices for the public contracts which they undertook. He 
 attacked at once the capitalist class, which, represented by the 
 equites, had now become a power, and the vicious members of 
 the new nobility. His position as censor enabled him to check 
 luxury by levying a heavy tax on costly and useless articles ; 
 and he cleansed the senate by the expulsion of worthless 
 members, without regard to rank or name. 
 
 The strong national prejudices of Cato appear to have diminished 
 in force as he grew older and wiser. He applied himself in old age 
 
 to the study of Greek literature, with which in 
 His attitude youth he had no acquaintance, although he was 
 cult re^^^ not ignorant of the Greek language. Himself an 
 
 historian and orator, the excellences of Demos- 
 thenes and Thucydides made a deep impression upon his kindred 
 mind. But throughout life his conduct was guided by prejudices 
 against classes and nations whose influence he deemed to be 
 hostile to the simplicity of the old Eoman character. When 
 Eumenes, king of Pergamus, visited Rome after the war with 
 Antiochus, and was received with honour by the senate, and 
 splendidly entertained by the nobles, Cato was indignant at the 
 respect paid to the monarch, refused to go near him, and 
 declared that " kings were naturally carnivorous animals." He 
 had an antipathjr to physicians, because they were mostly Greeks, 
 and therefore unfit to be trusted with Roman lives. He loudly 
 cautioned his eldest son against them, and dispensed with their 
 attendance. When Athens sent three celebrated philosophers, 
 Carneades, Diogenes, and Critolaus, to Rome, in order to negotiate 
 a remission of the 500 talents which the Athenians had been 
 awarded to pay to the Oropians, Carneades excited great atten- 
 tion by his philosophical conversation and lectures, in which he 
 preached the pernicious doctrine of an expediency distinct from 
 
Chap. XVIII.] CATO. 161 
 
 justice, which he illustrated by the example of Rome herself: 
 " If Rome were stripped of all that she did not justly gain, the 
 Romans might go back to their huts." Cato, offended with his 
 principles, and jealous of the attention paid to the Greek, gave 
 advice which the senate followed : " Let these deputies have 
 an answer, and a polite dismissal as soon as possible." 
 
 But the spirit which rejected Greek cultm-e also scorned Greek 
 humanism, and Cato the " old Roman " was an unfeeling and 
 cruel master. His conduct towards his slaves was detestable. 
 The law held them to be mere chattels, and he treated them as 
 such, without any regard to the rights of humanity. After supper 
 he often severely chastised them, thong in hand, for trifling acts 
 of negligence, and sometimes condemned them to death. When 
 they were worn out, or useless, he sold them, or turned them 
 out of doors. He treated the lower animals no better. His war- 
 horse, which bore him through his campaign in Spain, he sold 
 before he left the country, that the state might not be charged 
 with the expenses of its transport. As years advanced he sought 
 gain with increasing eagerness, but never attempted to profit by 
 tlie misuse of his public functions. He accepted no bribes ; he 
 reserved no booty to his own use ; but he became a speculator, 
 not only in slaves, but in buildings, artificial waters, and pleasure- 
 grounds. In this, as in other points, he was a representative of 
 the old Komans, who were a money-getting and money-loving 
 people. 
 
Head of Perseus. From a gem in the British Museum, 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 THE THIRD MACEDONIAN, ACHAEAN, AND THIKD PUNIC WARS. 
 179-146 B.C. 
 
 The Roman senate may have thought that, with an empire in 
 the West and a protectorate over the East, the power of Rome 
 _ was for a time consolidated. But a movement 
 
 now began, the final issue of which was to extend 
 far more widely the hmits of imperial rule. Rome had really 
 no hold over the irresponsible despots whom she still permitted 
 to exist in the Eastern world, and the actions of the Macedonian 
 kmg soon attracted her suspicions. The latter years of the 
 reign of Philip had been spent in preparations for a renewal 
 of war ; and when, in 179 b.c, his son Perseus ascended the 
 throne, he found himself amply provided with men and money 
 for the impending contest. But, whether from a sincere desire 
 of peace, or from irresolution of character, he sought to avert 
 an open rupture as long as possible, and one of the first acts 
 of his reign was to obtain from the Romans a renewal of the 
 treaty which they had concluded with his father. It is probable 
 that neither party was sincere in the conclusion of this peace, 
 at least neither could entertain any hope of its duration; yet 
 a period of seven years elapsed before the mutual enmity of 
 the two powers broke out into open hostilities. Meanwhile, 
 Perseus was not idle ; he secured the attachment of his subjects 
 by equitable and popular measures, and formed alliances not 
 
Chap. XIX.] THIRD MACEDONIAN WAR. 163 
 
 only with the Greeks and the Asiatic princes, but also with 
 the Thracian, Illyrian, and Celtic tribes which surrounded his 
 dominions. The Romans naturally viewed these proceedings 
 with jealousy and suspicion ; and at length, in 172, Perseus 
 was formally accused before the Roman senate, by Eumenes, 
 king of Pergamus, in person, of entertaining hostile designs 
 against the Roman power. The attempt to murder Eumenes 
 near Delphi, on his return homewards, of which Perseus was 
 suspected, aggravated the feeling against him at Rome, and in 
 the following year war was declared. 
 
 Perseus was at the head of a numerous and well-appointed 
 army, but of all his allies, only Cotys, king of the Odrysians, 
 ventured to support him against so formidable a^ mi^- j -lyr 
 foe. Yet the war was protracted three years j_j,:„j, w-j. 
 without any decisive result ; nay, the balance 
 of success seemed on the whole to incline in favour of Perseus, 
 and many states, which before were wavering, now showed 
 a disposition to join his cause. But his ill-timed parsimony 
 restrained him from taking advantage of their offers, and in 
 168 B.C. the arrival of the Consul L. Aemilius Paullus com- 
 pletely changed the aspect of affairs. 
 
 Perseus was driven from a strong position which he had taken 
 up on the banks of the Enipeus, forced to retreat to Pydna, and, 
 finally, to accept an engagement near that town. 
 At first the serried ranks of the phalanx seemed p •, ^ ** 
 to promise superiority ; but its order having been 
 broken by the inequalities of the ground, the Roman legionaries 
 penetrated the disordered mass, and committed fearful carnage, 
 to the extent, it is said, of 20,000 men. Perseus fled first to 
 Pella, then to Amphipolis, and finally to the sanctuary of the 
 sacred island of Samothrace, but was at length obliged to 
 surrender himself to a Roman squadron. He was treated with 
 courtesy,but was reserved to adorn the triumph of his conqueror. 
 
 Such was the ending of tfie Macedonian empire ; but the 
 Romans did not annex the territory, although they imposed, as 
 a tribute, one-half of the land-tax that had been 
 formerly paid to the Macedonian kings. The Downfall of 
 senate decreed that Macedonia should be divided Macedonian 
 into four independent districts, each under the °^°'^*^'' y* 
 jurisdiction of an oligarchical council. 
 
164 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XIX. 
 
 Before leaving Greece, Paullus was commanded by the senate 
 to inflict a terrible punishtiient upon the Epirotes, because they 
 had favoured Perseus. Having placed garrisons 
 ipirus ^ ^j^g seventy towns of Epirus, he razed them 
 
 all to the ground in one day, and carried away 
 150,000 inhabitants as slaves. Epirus never recovered from 
 this blow. In the time of Augustus the country was still a 
 scene of desolation, and the inhabitants had only ruins and 
 villages to dwell in. 
 
 Paullus arrived in Italy towards the close of 167 B.C. The 
 booty which he brought with him from Macedonia, and which 
 he paid into the Roman treasury, was of enormous value ; and 
 his triumph, which lasted three days, was the most splendid 
 that Rome had yet seen. Before his triumphal car walked the 
 captive monarch of Macedonia, and behind it, on horseback, 
 were his two eldest sons, Q. Fabius Maximus and P. Scipio 
 Africanus the younger, both of whom had been adopted into 
 other families. But his glory was darkened by the death of his 
 two younger sons, one dying a few days before, and the other a 
 few days after, his triumph. 
 
 After the triumph Perseus was thrown into a dungeon, but, 
 in consequence of the intercession of Paullus, he was released 
 and permitted to end his days in an honourable caplivity at Alba. 
 His son Alexander learned the Latin language, uad earned a 
 living as a public clerk in Italy. 
 
 The fall of the Macedonian monarchy made Rome the real 
 
 mistress of the eastern shores of the Mediterra,uean. The most 
 
 haught^^ monarchs trembled before the Republic. 
 
 Relations Antioc'hus Epiphanes had invaded Egypt, and 
 
 with Eastern i- at a- \ v. * 
 
 was marchmg upon Alexandria, when he was met 
 
 by three Roman commissioners, who presented 
 him with a decree of the senate, commanding him to abbtain 
 from hostilities against Egypt. The king, having read the 
 decree, promised to take it into consideration with his friends, 
 whereupon Popillius, one of the Roman commissioners, stepping 
 forward, drew a circle round the king with his staff, and told 
 him that he should not stir out of it till he had given a decisive 
 answer. The Ising was so frightened by this boldness that he 
 immediately promised to withdraw his troops. Eumenes, b'ng 
 of Pergamus, whose conduct during the war with Perseus had 
 
Chap, XIX.] CONTROL OP ACHAEAN LEAGUE. 165 
 
 excited the suspicion of the senate, hastened to make his sub- 
 mission in person, but was not allowed to enter Rome. Prasias, 
 king of Bithynia, had the meanness to appear at Rome with 
 his head shaven, and in the dress of a liberated slave. The 
 Rhodians, who had offered their mediation during the war with 
 Perseus, were deprived of Lycia and Caria. 
 
 The immediate question was whether the cities of Greece 
 should be allowed to maintain their troublesome independence. 
 Annexation was not immediately resolved on, and 
 Rome contented herself with working through Control of 
 a party favourable to her interests in the cities, i„^„„g 
 especially through Callicrates, a man of great 
 influence among the Achaeans, who, for many years, had acted 
 as the tool of the Roman government. He now denounced 
 more than a thousand Achaeans as having favoured the cause 
 of Perseus. Among them were the historian Polybius, and the 
 most distinguished men in every city of the league. They were 
 all seized and sent to Italy ; but, without any judicial investiga- 
 tion, they were kept as hostages and distributed among the 
 cities of Etraria. Pol^'bius alone was allowed to reside at Rome 
 in the house of Aemilius Paullus, where he became the intimate 
 friend of his son Scipio Africanus the younger. The Achaean 
 League continued to exist, but it was really subject to Callicrates. 
 The Achaean exiles languished in confinement for seventeen 
 years. Their request to be allowed to return to their native 
 land had been more than once refused ; but the younger Scipio 
 Africanus at length interceded on their behalf, and prevailed 
 upon Cato to advocate their return. The conduct of the aged 
 senator was kinder than his words. He did not interpose till 
 the end of a long debate, and then simply asked, " Have we 
 nothing better to do than to sit here all day long debating 
 whether a parcel of worn-out Greeks shall be carried to their 
 graves here or in Achaia ? " A decree of the senate gave the 
 required permission ; but when Polybius was anxious to obtain 
 from the senate restoration to their former honours, Cato bade 
 him, with a smile, beware of returning to the Cyclops' den to 
 fetch away any trifles he had left behind him. 
 
 The Achaean exiles, whose numbers were now reduced from 
 1000 to 300, landed in Greece (150 b.c.) with feelings ex- 
 asperated by their long confinement, and ready to indulge in 
 
166 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XIX. 
 
 any rash enterprise against Eome. Pol^bius, who had returned 
 with the other exiles, in vain exhorted them to peace and 
 unanimit}^, and to avoid a hopeless struggle with 
 evoit ^YiQ Eoman power. Shortly afterwards an adven- 
 
 turer laid claim to the throne of Macedonia 
 (149 B.C.). He was a man of low origin called Andriscus, but 
 he pretended to be the son of Perseus, and assumed the name 
 of Philippus. At first he met with some success, and defeated 
 the Roman praetor Juventius ; but, after reigning scarcely a 
 year, he was conquered and taken pi'isoner by Q. Metellus. 
 
 The temporary success of Andriscus had encouraged the war- 
 party in the Achaean League. Polybius had quitted the country 
 to join his friend Scipio in Africa ; and Diaeus and Critolaiis, the 
 most violent enemies of Rome, had now undisputed sway in the 
 league. Diaeus incited the Achaeans to attack Sparta, on the 
 ground that, instead of appeahng to the league respecting a 
 boundary question, as they ought to have done, they had violated 
 its laws by sending a private* embassy to Rome. The Spartans, 
 feeling themselves incompetent to resist this attack, appealed to 
 the Romans for assistance; and in 147 B.C. two Roman com- 
 missioners were sent to Greece to settle these disputes. The 
 commissioners decided that not only Sparta, but Corinth, and all 
 the cities recently acquired, should be restored to independence. 
 Serious riots broke out at Corinth, where the Diet was assembled ; 
 all the Spartans in the town were seized, and even the Roman 
 commissioners narrowly escaped violence. On their return to 
 Rome a fresh embassy was despatched to demand satisfaction for 
 these outrages. 
 
 But the violent and impolitic conduct of Critolaus, then stra- 
 
 tegus of the league, rendered all attempts at accommodation 
 
 fruitless, and, after the return of the ambassadors, 
 
 e c aean ^^^^ senate declared war against the league. The 
 cowardice and in'^ompetence of Critolaus as a 
 general were only equalled by his previous insolence. On the 
 approach of the Romans from Macedonia under Metellus, he did 
 not even venture to make a stand at Thermopylae ; and, being 
 overtaken by them near Scarphea in Locris, he was totally 
 defeated, and never again heard of. Diaeus, who succeeded 
 him as strategus, displayed rather more energy and courage, and 
 made preparatioQS to defend Corinth. Metellus had hoped to 
 
Chap. XIX.] PROVINCE OF MACEDONIA AND ACHAEA. 167 
 
 have had the honour of bringing the war to a conclusion, and 
 had almost reached Corinth when the Consul L. Mummius landed 
 on the isthmus and assumed the command. The struggle was 
 soon brought to a close. Diaeus was defeated in battle ; and 
 Corinth was immediately evacuated, not only by the troops of 
 the league, but also by the greater part of the inhabitants. 
 
 On entering the city Mummius put to the sword the few males 
 who remained ; by orders from the government he sold the 
 women and children as slaves ; and, having carried 
 away all its treasures, consigned the city to the of Cor^nth" 
 flames (146 B.C.). Corinth was filled with master- 
 pieces of ancient art ; and Mummius, with an indistinct apprecia- 
 tion of their worth, stipulated with those who contracted to convey 
 them to Italy, that, if any were lost in the passage, they should 
 be replaced by others of equal value ! He then employed him- 
 self in regulating the whole of Greece ; and ten commissioners 
 were sent from Eome to settle its future condition. 
 
 The whole country, to the borders of Macedonia and Epirus, 
 was formed into one district, under the name of Achaea, derived 
 from that confederacy which had made the last 
 struggle for pohtical existence, but was united with fjo^^ce of 
 Macedonia as a single province, and the inde- ^^^^ Achaea 
 pendent history of Greece was at an end. 
 
 Carthage, so long the rival of Rome, had fallen in the same 
 year as Corinth. The reforms introduced by Hannibal after the 
 battle of Zama had restored some degi'ee of prosperity to the 
 state ; and, though the Roman party obtained the supremacy 
 after he had been compelled to fly to Antiochus, the commercial 
 activity of the Carthaginians restored to the city much of its 
 former influence. Rome looked with a jealous eye upon its 
 reviving power, and encouraged Masinissa to make repeated 
 aggressions upon its territory. 
 
 At length the popular party, having obtained more weight in 
 the government, made a stand against these repeated encroach- 
 ments of Numidia. Thereupon Cato recom- q^^^q urges 
 mended an instant declaration of war against the destruc- 
 Carthage ; but this met with considerable opposi- tion of Car- 
 tion in the senate, and it was at length aiTanged ^'^^S^- 
 that an embassy should be sent to Africa to gain information as 
 to the real state of affairs. The ten ambassadors, of whom Cato 
 
168 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XIX. 
 
 was the chief, offered then- arbitration, which was accepted by 
 Masinissa, but rejected by the Carthaginians, who had no con- 
 fidence in Roman justice. The deputies accurately observed the 
 warhke preparations and the defences of the frontier. They 
 then entered the city, and saw the strength and population it 
 had acquired since the Second Punic War. Upon their return 
 Cato was the foremost in asserting that Rome would never be 
 safe as long as Carthage was so powerful, so hostile, and so 
 near. One day he drew a bunch of early ripe figs from beneath 
 his robe, and, throwing it upon the floor of the senate-house, 
 said to the astonished fathers, " Those figs were gathered but 
 three days ago at Carthage ; so close is our enemy to onr walls." 
 From that time forth, whenever he was called upon for his vote 
 in the senate, whatever the subject of debate might be, his 
 closing words were, " Delenda est Carthago " — " Carthage must 
 be destroyed." * 
 
 Cato's opinion prevailed, and the senate only waited for a 
 favourable opportunity to destroy the city. This soon occurred. 
 
 The popular party having driven into exile the 
 pretexts powerful partisans of Masinissa, the old Numidian 
 
 king invaded the Carthaginian territory, and de- 
 feated the army which had been raised to oppose him (151 B.C.). 
 This led to a change in the government, and the aristocratical 
 party, once more restored to power, hastened to make their sub- 
 mission to Rome. But the Romans had resolved upon war ; and, 
 when the Carthaginian ambassadors arrived at Rome, the two 
 consuls were already levying troops. The ambassadors, knowing 
 that resistance was hopeless, sought to appease the anger of the 
 senate by unconditional obedience. They were ordered to send 
 300 youths of the noblest families to meet the consuls at Lily- 
 baeum, and were told that the consuls would acquaint them with 
 the further orders of the senate. At Lilybaeum the consuls 
 found the hostages awaiting them, and then promised the 
 Carthaginian envoys that the decision of the senate should 
 be announced to them in Africa. Upon reaching Utica, 
 which surrendered to them in despair, the consuls informed the 
 
 * This story appears a strange one until we remember that it was a custom 
 for Roman senators, when called upon for their votes, to express — no matter what 
 the question — any opinion which they deemed of creat importance to the welfare 
 of the state. It was, in fact, the only way iu which the inejividuftl senator could 
 gain the right of initiatiye. 
 
Chap. XIX.] THIRD PUNIC WAR. 169 
 
 Carthaginians that, as their state would henceforth be under the 
 protection of Rome, they had no longer any occasion for arms, 
 and must surrender all the munitions of war. Even this demand 
 was complied with; and the Roman commissioners who were 
 sent to Carthage brought to the Roman camp 200,000 stands of 
 arms, and 2000 catapults. The consuls, thinking that the state 
 was now defenceless, threw off the mask, and announced the 
 final resolution of the senate : " That Carthage must be destroyed, 
 and that its inhabitants must build another city ten miles distant 
 from the coast." 
 
 When this terrible news reached Carthage, despair and rage 
 seized all the citizens. They resolved to perish rather than 
 submit to so perfidious a foe. All the Italians _,, . , ^ . 
 within the walls were massacred ; the members ^ 
 of the former government took to flight, and the 
 popular party once more obtained the power. Almost super- 
 human efforts were made to obtain means of defence ; corn was 
 collected from every quarter ; arms were manufactured day and 
 night ; the women cut off their long hair to be made into strings 
 for the catapults, and the whole city became one vast workshop. 
 The consuls now saw that it would be necessary to have recourse 
 to force ; but they had no military ability, and their attacks were 
 repulsed with great loss. The j'oimger Scipio Africanus, who 
 was then serving in the army as military tribune, displayed great 
 bravery and military skill, and, on one occasion, saved the army 
 from destruction. Still no permanent success was gained, and 
 Scipio returned to Rome, accompanied by the prayers of the 
 soldiers that he would come back as their commander. In the 
 following year (148 B.C.) the new Consul L. Calpurnius Piso was 
 even less successful than his predecessors. The soldiers became 
 discontented ; the Roman senate and people, who had anticipated 
 an easy conquest, were indignant at their disappointment, and 
 all eyes were turned to Scipio. Accordingly, when he became 
 a candidate for the aedileship for the ensuing year (147 B.C.), 
 he was elected consul, tbough he was only thirty-seven years 
 old, and had not therefore altaiued the legal age for the 
 office. 
 
 This remarkable man was, as we have already said, the son 
 of L. Aemilius Paullus, the conqueror of Macedonia. He was 
 adopted by P. Scipio, the son of the great Africanus, and is 
 
170 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XIX. 
 
 therefore called Scipio Africanus Minor, to distinguish him from 
 
 his grandfather by adoption. To these names that of Aemilianus 
 
 is sometimes added to mark the family of his birth, 
 
 ^^\^^™„„ ^ so that his full designation was P. Cornelius Scipio 
 
 younger. -i- • • 
 
 Africanus Aemilianus. His intimacy with the 
 
 historian Polybius has been already mentioned. He appears 
 from his earhest years to have devoted himself with ardour to the 
 study of literature ; and he eagerly availed himself of the superior 
 knowledge of Polybius to direct him in his literary pursuits. He 
 was accompanied by the Greek historian in almost all his cam- 
 paigns, and, in the midst of his most active military duties, lost 
 no opportunity of enlarging his knowledge of Greek literature 
 and philosophy by constant intercourse with his friend. Nor did 
 he neglect the literature of his own country, for Terence was 
 admitted to his intimacy, and he is even said to have assisted hira 
 in the composition of his comedies. His friendship with Laelius, 
 whose tastes and pursuits were so congenial to his own, has 
 been immortalized by Cicero's celebrated treatise " On Friend- 
 ship." 
 
 Scipio landed in Africa in 147 B.C. His first step was to restore 
 discipline to the army. He next took by storm Megara, a suburb 
 of Carthage, and then proceeded to construct a 
 Si3ge or work across the entrance of the harbour to cut 
 
 ° ' off the city from all supplies by sea. But the Car- 
 
 thaginians defended themselves with a courage and an energy 
 rarely paralleled in history. While Scipio was engaged in this 
 laborious task, they built a fleet of fifty ships in their inner port, 
 and cut a new channel communicating with the sea. Hence, 
 when Scipio at length succeeded in blocking up the entrance of 
 the harbour, he found all his labour useless, as the Carthaginians 
 sailed out to sea by the new outlet. But this fleet was destroyed 
 after an obstinate engagement which lasted three days. At 
 length, in the following year (146 B.C.), Scipio had made all his 
 preparations for the final assault. The Carthaginians defended 
 themselves with the courage of despair. They fought from 
 street to street, and from house to house, and the work of 
 destruction and butchery went on for six days. The fate of 
 this once magnificent city moved Scipio to tears, and, antici- 
 pating that a similar catastrophe might one day befall Rome, he 
 lis said to have repeated the lines of the " Iliad " over the flames 
 
Chap. XIX.] DESTKUCTION OF CARTHAGE. 
 
 171 
 
 of Carthage : " The day shall come -when sacred Troy shall 
 perish, and Priana and his people shall be slain." 
 
 A. Inner Harbour. 
 
 B, Outer or Merchants H: 
 C^Scipio's Mole. 
 
 D. Outer Wall. 
 
 E. Inner fortifications 
 round Citadel. 
 
 F. Scipio's Cnjnp. 
 
 Pl an of Cartha ge 
 
 Roman Miles 
 
 Scipio returned to Rome in the same year, and celebrated a 
 splendid triumph on account of his victory. The surname of 
 Africanus, which he had inherited by adoption, had now been 
 acquired by his own exploits. 
 
 A portion of the Carthaginian dominions was assigned to Utica. 
 The remainder was formed into a Roman province under the 
 name of Africa. The city itself was levelled to 
 the ground, and a curse pronounced upon any ^egj-ro'^d 
 who should rebuild it.* Corinth and Carthage, 
 
 * C. Grncchus, however, only twenty-four years afterwards, attempted to found 
 a new city upon the ancient site, under the namp of Juuonia ; but evil prodifci'S 
 at its foundation, and the subsequent death of Gracchus, intfrrupt'd this desiprn. 
 The project was revivpd by .Julius Caesar, and was carried into effect by Augustus; 
 and Roman Carthage, b lilt at a short distance from the former cit.y, became the 
 capital of Africa, and one of tbe most flourishing cities in the ancient world. 
 
172 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XIX. 
 
 the two gi'eat commercial cities of East and West, had now 
 fallen ; and perhaps in their overthrow we may see not merely 
 the narrow jealousy of the Koman statesman, hut the selfish 
 interest of the capitalist class, which was already a power at 
 Eome and aimed at a monopoly of commerce in the conquered 
 world. 
 
 The year 146 bc. marks the close of the second period of 
 Koman imperial policy. The system of a protectorate had 
 broken down in Eastern Europe, and been succeeded by direct 
 imperial rule. It remained only to be seen how long the dis- 
 credited system could be maintained in Asia ; but dangers in the 
 West and internal troubles deferred this question for a con- 
 siderable period. 
 
Chap. XX.] SPANISH WARS. 173 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 SPANISH WARS, 153-133 B.C. FIRST SERVILE WAR, 134-132 B.C. 
 
 The next twenty years were occupied by serious disturbances in 
 the West. The first trouble came from the indomitable province 
 of Spain. Here the generous policy of Tib. Sem- . 
 pronius Gracchus in 179 B.C.* had secured a long g^!^^^ ™ 
 period of tranquillity; but in 153 B.C. the inhabi- 
 tants of Segeda having commenced rebuilding the walls of their 
 town, which was forbidden by one of the articles in the treaty 
 of Gracchus, a new war broke out, which lasted for many years. 
 The Celtiberians in general espoused the cause of Segeda, and 
 the Consul Q. Fulvius Nobilior made an unsuccessful campaign 
 against them. His successor, the Consul M. Claudius Marcellus, 
 grandson of the Marcellus who was celebrated in the Second 
 Punic War, carried on the war with vigour, and concluded a 
 peace with the enemy on very fair terms (152 B.C.). 
 
 The war now took an aggi'essive turn ; for the consul of the 
 following year, L. Lucinius Lucullus, finding the Celtiberians at 
 peace, turned his arms against the Vaccaei, Can- 
 tabri, and other nations as yet unknown to the i^Qgifania 
 Romans. At the same time, the Praetor Ser. 
 Sulpicius Galba invaded Lusitania ; but, though he met with some 
 advantage at first, he was subsequently defeated with great loss, 
 and escaped with only a few horsemen. 
 
 In the following year (1.50 B.C.) he again invaded the country 
 from the south, while Lucullus attacked it from the north. The 
 Lusitanians therefore sent ambassadors to Galba 
 to make their submission. He received them with fJ^^t^ ery or 
 kindness, lamented the poverty of their country, 
 and promised to assign them more fertile lands, if they would 
 
 * See p. 140. 
 
174 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XX. 
 
 meet him in three bodies, with their wives and children, in three 
 places which he fixed upon. The simple people believed him. 
 But he meditated one of the most atrocious acts of treachery and 
 cruelty recorded in history. He fell upon each body separately, 
 and butchered them, men, women, and children, without dis- 
 tinction. Among the very few who escaped was Viriathus, the 
 future avenger of his nation. Galba was brought to trial on his 
 return to Rome on account of his outrage ; and Cato, then in the 
 eighty-fifth year of his age, inveighed against his treachery and 
 baseness. But Galba was eloquent and wealthy, and the liberal 
 employment of his money, together with the compassion excited 
 by his weeping children and ward, obtained his acquittal. 
 
 Viriathus appears to have been one of those able guerilla chiefs 
 whom Spain has produced at every period of her history. He is 
 
 Viriathus ^^^'^ ^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ ^ shepherd and afterwards 
 
 a robber, but he soon acquired unbounded in- 
 fluence over the minds of his countrymen. After the massacre 
 of Galba, those Lusitanians who had not left their homes rose 
 as a man against the rule of such treacherous tyrants. Viriathus 
 at first avoided all battles in the plains, and waged an incessant 
 predatory warfare in the mountains ; and he met with such 
 continued good fortune, that numbers flocked to his standard. 
 The aspect of affairs seemed at length so threatening tint in 
 145 B.C. the Romans determined to send the Consul Q. Fabius 
 Maximus into the country. In the following year Fabius defeated 
 Viriathus with great loss ; but this success was more than counter- 
 balanced by the revolt of the Celtiberians, the bravest of the 
 Spaniards. The war is usually known by the name of the 
 Numantine, from Numantia, a town on the river Douro, and 
 the capital of the Arevaci, the most powerful of the Celtiberian 
 tribes. 
 
 Henceforward two Roman armies were employed in Spain, one 
 in the north against the Celtiberians, and the other in the south 
 . . against Viriathus and the Lusitanians. The war 
 
 ■oTa- against the Lusitanians was first brought to a con- 
 
 clusion. In 141 B.C. Viriathus surprised the Pro- 
 consul Fabius Servilianus in a narrow pass, where escape was 
 impossible. He used his victory with moderation, and suffered 
 the Romans to depart uninjured, on condition of their allowing 
 the Lusitanians to retain undisturbed possession of their own 
 
Chap. XX.] NUMANTINE WAR. 175 
 
 territory, and recognizing him as a friend and ally of Rome. 
 This treaty was ratified by the Roman people ; but the Consul 
 Q. Servilius Caepio, who succeeded Fabius in the command in 
 Southern Spain, found some pretext for violating the peace, and 
 renewed the war against Viriathus. The latter sent envoys to 
 Caepio to propose fresh terms of peace ; but the Roman consul 
 persuaded them, by promises of large rewards, to murder their 
 general. On their return they assassinated him in his own tent, 
 and made their escape to the Roman camp before the Lusi- 
 tanians were aware of the death of their chief. But, when the 
 murderers claimed their reward, the consul coolly told them that 
 the Romans did not approve of the murder of a general by his 
 own soldiers. The Lusitanians continued in arms a little longer, 
 but the war was virtually terminated by the death of Viriathus. 
 Their country was finally reduced to subjection by the Consul 
 D. Junius Brutus in 138 B.C., who also crossed the rivers Douro 
 and Minho, and received the surname of Callaicus in consequence 
 of his i-eceiving the submission o'f the Callaici, or Gallaeci, a 
 people in the north-west of Spain. 
 
 The war against the Celtiberians was at first conducted with 
 success by the Consul Q. Metellus Macedonicus, who during his 
 praetorship had defeated the pretender to the 
 Macedonian throne. But the successors of Me- ^^™^°^°-^ 
 tellus experienced repeated disasters, and at length ^^ Mancinus 
 in 137 B.C. the Consul C. Hostilius Mancinus was 
 entirel}' surrounded by the Celtiberians, and forced to sign a peace 
 in which he recognized their independence. He only obtained 
 these terms on condition that his quaestor, Tib. Sempronius 
 Gracchus, who was greatly respected by the Spaniards for his 
 father's sake, should become responsible for the execution of the 
 treaty. The senate refused to ratify it, and went through the 
 hypocritical ceremony of delivering over Mancinus bound and 
 naked to the enemJ^ But the Numantines, like the Samnites in 
 a similar case, declined to accept the offering. 
 
 The war continued to drag on ; and the people now called 
 upon Scipio Africanus to bring it to a conclusion. We have 
 already traced the career of this eminent man 
 till the fall of Carthage. In 142 B.C. he was f/lcfTo"^^"* 
 censor with L. Mummius. In the administration 
 of the duties of his office be followed iii the footsteps of Cato, 
 
176 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XX. 
 
 and attempted to repress the growing luxury and immorality of 
 his contemporaries; but his efforts were thwarted by his col- 
 league. He vainly wished to check in the people the appetite 
 for foreign conquests ; and in the solemn prayer which he offered 
 at the conclusion of the lustrum he changed the usual supplica- 
 tion for the enlargement of the Republic into one for its preserva- 
 tion. He was now elected consul a second time, and was sent 
 into Spain in 134 B.C. In his camp before Numantia were two 
 men who were soon destined to play a large part on the stage of 
 history — the Arpinate peasant Marius, and the Numidian prince 
 Jugurtha. Scipio's first efforts were directed, as in Africa, to 
 the restoration of discipline in the army, which had become dis- 
 organized and demoralized by every kind of indulgence. 
 
 Having brought his troops into an effective condition, he 
 proceeded, in the following year, to lay siege to the town. It 
 was defended by its inhabitants with the courage 
 S ° Msh \s ^^^ perseverance which has pre-eminently dis- 
 tinguished the Spaniards in all ages in the defence 
 of their walled towns. It was not till they had suffered the 
 most dreadful extremities of famine, eating even the bodies of 
 the dead, that they surrendered the place (133 B.C.). Fifty 
 of the principal inhabitants were selected to adorn Scipio's 
 triumph, the rest were sold as slaves, and the town was levelled 
 to the ground. As a result of the two wars, the whole of Spain, 
 with the exception of the northern coast, was now nominally 
 subject to Rome. 
 
 During the Numantine War Rome was menaced by a new 
 danger, which revealed one of the plague-spots in the Republic. 
 We have already had occasion to describe the 
 ' decay of the free population in Italy, and the 
 great increase in the number of slaves from the foreign con- 
 quests of the state.* A system of plantation slavery now grew 
 up, which presented all the worst features of that detestable 
 system. The old domestic servitude of the Romans, in which 
 the slave was a member of the family, had now given place to 
 the plantation system, which left the slave to the mercy of the 
 overseer. Sometimes, where under the changed economic con- 
 ditions land could not be profitably cultivated, vast territories in 
 Italy had been turned into sheep-walks, where the slave was 
 * See p. 155. 
 
Chap. XX.] FIRST SERVILE WAR. 177 
 
 left to shift for himself, getting his food as best he conld ; and it 
 required little to change these men, most of whom had known 
 the gift of freedom, into brigands. 
 
 It was in Sicily, where the proportion of slaves to free labourers 
 was greater even than in Italy, that the first Servile War broke 
 out. Damophilus, a wealthy landowner of Enna, . 
 had treated his slaves with excessive barbarity. ^^ ^ 
 They entered into a conspiracy against their 
 cruel master, and consulted a Syrian slave of the name 
 of Eunus, who belonged to another lord. This Eunus pre- 
 tended to the gift of prophecy, and appeared to breathe flames 
 of fire from his mouth. He not only promised them success, but 
 joined in the enterprise himself. Having assembled to the 
 number of about 400 men, they suddenly attacked Enna, and, 
 being joined by their fellow-sufl'erers within the town, quickly 
 made themselves masters of it. Great excesses were committed, 
 and almost all the freemen were put to death with horrid tortures. 
 Eunus had, while yet a slave, prophesied that he should become 
 king. He now assumed the royal diadem, and the title of king 
 Antiochus. Sicily was at this time swarming with slaves, a great 
 proportion of them Syrians, who flocked to the standard of their 
 countryman and fellow-bondsman. The revolt now became 
 general, and the island was delivered over to the murderous 
 fury of men maddened by oppression, cruelty, and insult. The 
 praetors, who first led armies against them, were totally defeated ; 
 and in 134 B.C. it was thought necessary to send the Consul C. 
 Fulvius Flaccus to subdue the insurrection. But neither he, nor 
 the consul of the following year, succeeded in this object; and 
 it was not till 132 B.C. that the Consul P. Rupilius brought the 
 war to an end by the capture of Tauromenium and Enna, the 
 two strongholds of the insurgents. The life of Eunus was spared, 
 probably with the intention of carrying him to Rome, but he died 
 in prison at Morgantia. 
 
 About the same time Rome obtained her first possession in 
 Asia. Attains Philometor, the last king of Pergamus, dying 
 childless, bequeathed his kingdom and treasures 
 to the Roman people (133 B.C.). A vigorous ^f^^^"® 
 attempt was made by Aristonicus, a natural son 
 of Eumenes, the father of Attains, to resist the bequest. He 
 even defeated the Consul P. Licinus Crassus, who was slain 
 
178 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XX. 
 
 (131 B.C.), but he was himself defeated and taken prisoner in the 
 following year, and the kingdom of Pergamus was formed into a 
 Eoman province under the name of Asia (129 B.C.). 
 
 Kome now exercised direct government in three continents 
 over foreign domains which were divided into ten provinces. 
 
 These provinces, with the date of their acquisi- 
 ;?l^°.Tf ^ tion, were : 1. Sicily, 241 b c. 2. Sardinia and 
 
 Corsica, 238 B.C. 3, 4. The two Spains, Citerior 
 and Ulterior, 205 B.C. 5. Gallia Cisalpina, 191 B.C. 6. Mace- 
 donia and Achaea, 146 B.C. 7. Illyricura, probably formed at 
 the same time as Macedonia.* 8. Africa, consisting of the 
 dominions of Carthage, 146 B.C. 9. Asia, including the king- 
 dom of Pergamus, 129 B.C. To these a tenth was added in 
 118 B.C. by the conquest of the southern portion of Transalpine 
 Gaul between the Alps and the Pyrenees. In contrast with 
 the other portions of Gaul, it was frequently called simply the 
 " Provincia," a name which has been retained in the modern 
 " Provence.' 
 
 * lUyricutn was, however, not yet treated as an independent province, but 
 appears to have been regarded as an appendage to Cisalpine (jauL 
 
Tabularium with Capito! above !t. 
 
 The Roman Forum, looking west. 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 THE GKACCHI, AND THE ATTACK ON THE GOVERNMENT. 
 133-121 B.C. 
 
 With the year 133 begins the internal revolution at Rome which, 
 was to find no issue but in the establishment of an Empire. 
 It took the form of an attempt by the people to regain the 
 sovereignty usurped, and in their view misused, by the senate. 
 The first point on which its authority was challenged was one 
 of internal reform, and the first evil which seemed to call for 
 reformation was the decay of the yeoman-farmer class. 
 
 The more thoughtful Romans had long foreseen the danger 
 with which Rome was menaced by the impoverish- 
 ment of her free population, and the alarming Economic 
 
 increase in the number of slaves; but neither ^^^^.liit?^ 
 
 1 /- n 1 01 Italy, 
 
 they nor the reformers of the present age seem 
 
 to have understood its cause. It is true that the evil would 
 
130 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXI. 
 
 never have reached its present height if the Licinian Law had 
 been ohserved ; but economic conditions were unfavourable to 
 the existence of a class of peasant-proprietors. Through the 
 importation of cheap grain from the provinces, corn could not be 
 grown productively in Italy : the average Roman preferred to 
 invest his capital in the provinces; and voluntary emigration, 
 which accompanied the investment, was responsible for a great 
 part of the depopulation of Italy which the would-be reformers 
 deplored. 
 
 Still, the disappearance of the yeoman class, the backbone of 
 the country, was an undoubted evil, and it was the desire for its 
 restoration that wholly animated the policy of Tiberius Gracchus 
 and partly that of his younger brother Gains. They perished in 
 their attempt at reform, and their violent death may be regarded 
 as the beginning of the Civil Wars which ended in the destruc- 
 tion of freedom, and the establishment of the despotism of the 
 Empire. 
 
 Tiberius and Gains Gracchus were the sons of Tib. Sempronius 
 Gracchus, whose prudent measures gave tranquillity to Spain for 
 _ „ ,. so many years.* They lost their father at an early 
 age, but they were educated with the utmost care 
 by their mother, Cornelia, the daughter of Scipio Africanus the 
 elder, who had inherited from her father a love of literature, and 
 united in her person the severe virtues of the ancient Roman 
 matron witli the superior knowledge and refinement which then 
 prevailed in the higher classes at Rome. She engaged for her 
 sons the most eminent Greek teachers ; and it was mainly owing 
 to the pains she took with their education that they surpassed 
 all the Roman youths of their age. 
 
 Tiberius was nine years older than his brother Caius. The 
 
 latter had more ability, but Tiberius was the more amiable, and 
 
 won all hearts by the simplicity of his demeanour 
 
 O ^c^h^s ^"^ ^^^ graceful and persuasive eloquence. So 
 
 highly was Tiberius esteemed, that as soon as he 
 
 reached the age of manhood he was elected augur, and at the 
 
 banquet given at his installation Appius Claudius, then chief of 
 
 the senate, offered him his daughter in marriage. When Appius 
 
 returned home and informed his wife that he had just betrothed 
 
 their daughter, she exclaimed, " Why in such a hurry, unless you 
 
 * See p. 140. 
 
Chap. XXI.] TRIBUNATE OF TIBERIUS GRACCHUS. 181 
 
 have got Tiberius Gracchus for her husband? " Serupronia, the 
 only sister of Tiberius, was married to the younger Scipio 
 Africauus. Tiberius was thus, by birth and marriage, connected 
 with the noblest famihes in the Republic — the grandson of the 
 conqueror of Hannibal, the son-in-law of the chief of the senate, 
 and the brother-in-law of the destroyer of Carthage. 
 
 Tiberius served under his brother-in-law in Africa, and was the 
 first who scaled the walls of Carthage. He was quaestor iu 137 
 B.C., and accompanied the Consul Mancinus to Spain, where he 
 saved the army by obtaining the treaty with the Numantines, which 
 the senate refused to ratify.* In passing through Etruria, on his 
 way to Spain, Tiberius had observed with grief and indignation 
 the deserted state of that fertile country. Thousands of foreign 
 slaves were tending the flocks and cultivating the soil of the 
 wealthy landowners, while Roman citizens had not a clod of 
 earth to call their own. He now conceived the design of applying 
 a remedy to this state of things, and with this view became a 
 candidate for the tribunate, and was elected for the year 133 b.c. 
 
 Tiberius, however, did not act with precipitation. The measure 
 which he brought forward had previously received the approba- 
 tion of some of the wisest and noblest men in the 
 state ; of his own father-in-law Appius Claudius; , is agranan 
 of P. Mucins Scaevola, the great jurist, who was 
 then consul ; and of Crassus, the Pontifex Maximus. It was 
 proposed to re-enact the Licinian Law of 367 B.C. — which had, 
 in fact, never been repealed — but with some modifications and 
 additions. As in the Licinian Law, no one was to be allowed 
 to possess more than 500 jugera of public land ; but to relax the 
 stringency of this rule, every possessor might hold in addition 
 250 jugera for each of two sons, and the land so retained was to 
 become private property. All the rest of the public land was 
 to be taken away from them and distributed, in lots of thirty 
 jugera, among the poor citizens, who were not to be permitted 
 to alienate these lots, in order that they might not be again 
 absorbed into the estates of the wealthJ^ An indemnity was to 
 be given from the public treasury for all buildings erected upon 
 lands thus taken away. Three commissioners (triumviri) were 
 to be elected annually by the people in order to carry this law 
 into execution and to adjudicate on all disputes arising from it. 
 
 * See p. 175. 
 
182 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXl. 
 
 The law affected ouly public lands, but it was none the less 
 regarded as a measure of confiscation. It is true that no pre- 
 scription can, as a general rule, be pleaded against the rights of 
 the state, but the possessors of the public lands had enjo^'ed 
 them without question for so long a period that they had come 
 to regard these lands as their private property. In many cases, 
 as we have already said, they had been acquired by bond fide 
 purchase, and the claim of the state, now advocated by Gracchus, 
 was regarded as downright robbery. Attacks upon property have 
 produced the greatest convulsions in all states, and the Roman 
 landowners were ready to have recourse to any measures to 
 defeat the law. But the thousands who would be benefited by 
 it were determined to support Tiberius at any risk. He told 
 them that " the wild beasts of Italy had their dens, and holes, 
 and hiding-places, while the men who fought and bled in defence 
 of Italy wandered about with their wives and cliildren without a 
 spot of ground to rest upon." It was evident that the law would 
 be carried, and the government therefore resorted to the only 
 means left to them. 
 
 The senate, partly in the interest of its landowning members, 
 partly because it objected to a measure of reform emanating 
 . . from the people, induced M. Octavius, one of the 
 
 Octavius tribunes, to put his veto upon the measure of his 
 
 colleague. The contest was felt to be a duel 
 between the senate and the people ; and the immediate result 
 was a political deadlock. Tiberius, after a vain attempt to 
 induce Octavius to withdraw his veto, retaliated by forbidding 
 the magistrates to exercise any of their functions, and by suspend- 
 ing, in fact, the entire administration of the government. But 
 Octavius remained firm, and Tiberius therefore determined to 
 depose him from his office. 
 
 He summoned an Assembly of the Plebs and put the question 
 to the vote. Seventeen out of the thirty-five tribes had already 
 . . . voted for the deposition of Octavius, and the addi- 
 Oetavius ^^^^ ^^ ^"^^ tribe would reduce him to a private 
 
 condition, when Tiberius stopped the voting, 
 anxious, at the last moment, to prevent the necessity of so 
 desperate a measure. Octavius, however, would not yield. 
 " Complete what you have begun," was his only answer to the 
 entreaties of his colleague. The eighteenth tribe voted, and 
 
Chap. XXI.] TRIBUNATE OF TIBERIUS GRACCHUS. 183 
 
 Tiberius ordered him to be dragged from the rostra. Octavius 
 had only exercised his undoubted rights, and his deposition was 
 clearly a violation of the spirit, if not of the letter, of the Roman 
 constitution. This gave the enemies of Gracchus the handle 
 which they needed. They could now justly charge him, not 
 only with revolutionary measures, but with employing revolu- 
 tionary means to carry tliem into effect. 
 
 The Agi-arian Law was passed without further opposition, and 
 the three commissioners elected to put it in force were, un- 
 fortunately for its credit, a family party com- 
 posed of Tiberius himself, his father-in-law Appius „„° ;„„:„„ 
 
 Claudius, and his brother Caius, then a youth of 
 twenty, serving under P. Scipio at Nuraantia. 
 
 Tiberius further proposed that the treasures acquired by the 
 recent bequest of Attains king of Pergamus should be dis- 
 tributed among the people who had received attacks on 
 assignments of lands, to enable them to stock the preroga- 
 their farms and to assist them in their cnltiva- tives of the . 
 tion. He thus attacked two of the most funda- senate. 
 mental prerogatives of the senate — its control of the provinces 
 and its control of finance. The exasperation of the nobility was 
 intense, and it was evident that his life would be no longer safe 
 when he ceased to be protected by the sanctity of the tribune's 
 office. Accordingly he became a candidate for the tribunate for 
 the following year. 
 
 The tribunes did not enter upon their office till December, 
 but the election took place in June, at which time the country- 
 people, on whom he chiefly relied, were engaged 
 in getting in the harvest. Still, two tribes had ^"^mpt at 
 1 1 , 1 • 1 • ^ , , , .,. re-election. 
 
 already voted m his favour, when the nobility 
 
 interrupted the election by maintaining that it was illegal for a 
 man to be chosen tribune for two consecutive years. After 
 a violent debate, the Assembly was adjourned till the following 
 day. Tiberius now became alarmed lest his enemies should get 
 the upper hand, and he went round the forum with his child, 
 appealing to the sympathy of the people and imploring their 
 aid. They readily responded to his appeal, escorted him home, 
 and a large crowd kept watch around his house all night. 
 
 Next day the adjourned Assembly met on the Capitol in the 
 open space in frorjt of the Temple of Jupiter. Tbe senate also 
 
184 • HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXI. 
 
 assembled in the Temple of Faith close by. Scipio Nasica, 
 the leader of the more violent party in the senate, called 
 upon the consul, Mucins Scaevola, to stop the 
 jmuraer oi re-election, but the consul declined to interfere. 
 
 Gracchus Fulvius Flaccus, a senator, and a friend of Tibe- 
 
 rius, hastened to inform him of the speech of 
 Nasica, and told him that his death was resolved upon. There- 
 upon the friends of Tiberius prepared to resist force by force ; 
 and as those at a distance could not hear him, on account of 
 the tumult and confusion, the tribune pointed v^rith his hand 
 to his head, to intimate that his life was in danger. His enemies 
 exclaimed that he was asking for the crown. The news reached 
 the seqate. Nasica appealed to the consul to save the Eepublic, 
 but as Scaevola still refused to have recourse to violence, Nasica 
 sprang up, and exclaimed, " The consul is betraying the Republic ! 
 let those who wish to save the state follow me." He then 
 rushed out of the senate-house, followed by many of the senators. 
 The terrified people made way for them ; and the fathers, break- 
 ing up the benches, armed themselves with sticks, and rushed 
 upon Tiberius and his friends. The tribune fled to the Temple 
 of Jupiter, but the door had been barred by the priests, and in 
 his flight he fell over a prostrate body. As he was rising he 
 received the first blow from one of his colleagues, and was 
 quickly despatched. Upwards of 300 of his partisans were sk'n 
 on the same day. Tiieir bodies were thrown into the Tiber. 
 This was the first blood shed at Rome in civil strife since the 
 expulsion of the kings, and it was the beginning of the Civil Wars. 
 Notwithstanding their victory, the nobles did not venture to 
 propose the repeal of the Agrarian Law, and a new commissioner 
 was chosen in the place of Tiberius. The popular indignation 
 was so strongly excited against Scipio Nasica that his friends 
 advised him to withdraw from Italy, though he was Pontifex 
 Maximus, and therefore ought not to have quitted the country. 
 He died shortly afterwards at Pergamus. 
 
 All eyes were now turned to Scipio Africanus, who returned 
 to Rome in 132 b.c. When Scipio received at Numantia the 
 news of -the death of Tiberius, he is reported to have exclaimed, 
 in the verse of Homer * — 
 
 " So perish all who do the like again ! " 
 * Od., i. 47. 
 
Chap. XXL] DEATH OF SCIPIO. 185 
 
 The people may have thought that the brother-in law of 
 Tiberius would show some sympathy with his reforms and 
 some sorrow for his fate. They were soon un- 
 deceived. Being asked in the Assembly of the °^P^° . 
 Plebs by C. Papirius Carbo, the tribune, who Haiians 
 was now the leader of the popular party, what he 
 thought of the death of Tiberius, he boldly replied that " he was 
 justly slain." The people, who had probably expected a different 
 answer, loudly expressed their disapprobation ; whereupon Scipio, 
 turning to the mob, bade them be silent, since Italy was only their 
 step-mother.* The people did not forget this insult ; but for a 
 time Scipio's unexpected adhesion to the nobility enabled them 
 to prevent the Agrarian Law of Tiberius from being carried into 
 effect. A chance was offered of checking the Agrarian Law on 
 grounds that did not appear to represent the selfish interests of 
 a class. The Italians settled on Roman public land were alarmed 
 at the prospect of being dispossessed, and Scipio skilfully availed 
 himself of the circumstance to propose in the senate (129 B.C.) 
 that the judicial powers should be taken out of the hands of the 
 commissioners and transferred to the consuls. This measure was 
 equivalent to an abrogation of the laws, and excited fierce hatred 
 against Scipio. In the forum he was attacked by Carbo, with 
 the bitterest invectives, as the enemy of the people ; and u[)on 
 his again expressing his approval of the death of Tiberius, 
 the people shouted out, " Down with the tyrant ! " In the 
 evening he went home accompanied by the senate and a great 
 number of the Italians. He retired to his chamber, with the 
 intention of composing a speech for the following day. 
 
 Next morning Rome was thrown into consternation by the 
 news that Scipio had been found dead in his room. The most 
 contradictory rumours were circulated, but it was 
 the general opinion that he had been murdered. g„j-,;_ 
 Suspicion fell upon various persons, but Carbo was 
 most generally believed to have been the murderer. There was 
 no inquiry into the cause of his death (129 B.C.). 
 
 But, though the opposition leader was thus treacherously 
 removed, the influence of Scipio's last action was permanent. 
 
 * It must be recollected that the mob at Eome consisted chiefly of the four 
 city-tribes, and that slaves when manumitted could be enrolled in these four 
 tribes alone. 
 
186 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXI. 
 
 The introduction of the question of the Italians disorganized the 
 democratic party by creating a difference of opinion between the 
 
 popular leaders and their following. The former, 
 Proposal to thinking they had made a tactical mistake in alien- 
 the Italians ^-ting the Italians from their cause, now attempted 
 
 to secure their adhesion by offering them the 
 Roman citizenship if they would .support the Agrarian Law. 
 As Roman citizens they would, of course, be entitled to the 
 benefits of the law, while they would, at the same time, obtain 
 what they had so long desired — an equal share in protection and 
 political power. -But the proposal was far from popular at Rome, 
 for the existing citizens saw that their own importance would 
 be diminished, and their benefits in the Empire lessened, by an 
 increase in their numbers. So strong was this feeling that, 
 when great numbers of the Italians had flocked to Rome in 
 126 B.C., the Tribune M. Junius Pennus carried a law that all 
 aliens should quit the city. Cains Gracchus spoke against this 
 law, and his friends still remained faithful to the cause of the 
 Italians. In the following year (125 B.C.) M. Fulvius Flaccns, 
 who was then consul, brought forward a Reform Bill, granting 
 the Roman citizenship to all the Italain allies. But it was 
 evident that the Assembly would reject this law, and the senate 
 got rid of the proposer by sending him into Transalpine Gaul. 
 
 In the previous year Caius Gracchus had gone to Sardinia as 
 quaestor, so that the senate had now removed irom Rome two 
 
 o'f their most troublesome opponents, and the 
 _ ,, Italians had lost their two most powerful patrons. 
 
 Bitter was the disappointment of the Italians, who 
 had been buoyed up by hopes and probably by injudicious 
 promises. Fregellae, a town of Latium, and one of the eighteen 
 Latin colonies which had remained faithful to Rome during the 
 Second Punic War, took up arms; but its example was not 
 followed, and it had to bear alone the brunt of the unequal 
 contest. It was quickly reduced by the praetor, L. Opimius ; 
 the city was utterly destroyed, and the insurrection, which a 
 slight success would have made universal, was thus nipped in 
 the bud (125 B.C.). 
 
 Caius Gracchus had taken very little part in public affairs 
 since his brother's death. He had spoken only twice on 
 political matters; once in favour of a law of Carbo for the 
 
Chap. XXI.] LAWS OF CAIUS GRACCHUS. 187 
 
 re-election of tribunes, and a second time in opposition to the 
 Alien Act of Junius Pennus, as already mentioned. But the 
 eyes of the people were naturally turned towards . 
 him. His abilities were known, and the senate Qracohna 
 dreaded his return to Rome. He had been already 
 two years in Sardinia, and they now attempted to retain him there 
 another year by sendino^ fresh troops to the province without 
 releasing his superior officer from his command. But Caius sud- 
 denly appeared at Rome, to the surprise of all parties (124 B.C.). 
 His enemies brought him before the censors to account for his 
 conduct, but he defended himself so ably that not only was no 
 stigma put upon him, but he was considered to have been very 
 badly used. He showed that he had served in the army twelve 
 years, though required to serve only ten ; that he had acted as 
 quaestor two years, though the law demanded only one year's 
 service ; and, he added, that he was the only soldier who took 
 out with him a full purse and brought it back empty. Caius 
 now became a candidate for the tribunate, and was elected for 
 the year 123 b.c. He was not, like his more single-minded 
 brother, merely a social reformer. His laws, so far as they were 
 not merely animated by revenge, were meant to weaken per- 
 manently the authority of the senate ; and the democratic 
 programme which he fixed became, without the change of a 
 single item, the heritage of the popular leaders to the close of 
 the Republic. To this main object even his social legislation 
 was subsidiary, and his measures for the amelioration of the 
 poor were but bribes given to the masses to secure their support 
 in his vigorous campaign against the government. 
 
 I. His principal laws for improving the condition of the people 
 were — 
 
 1. The renewal of his brother's Agrarian Law; ^^^.^ ®™' 
 and an extension of agrarian relief by planting 
 
 new citizen-colonies in Italy and the provinces. This was the 
 first attempt made at transmarine colonization and at the 
 extension of citizenship to the provinces. 
 
 2. A state provision for the poor, enacting that corn should be 
 sold to every citizen at a price much below its market value. 
 This was the first of the Leges Frumentariae, which, although 
 to some extent justified by the entire absence of any state pro- 
 vision for the poor, were attended with the most injurious effects. 
 
188 HISTORY OP ROME. [Chap. XXI. 
 
 They emptied the treasury, at the same time that they taught 
 the lower classes to become state paupers, instead of depending 
 upon their own exertions for a living. 
 
 3. Another law enacted that the soldiers should be equipped 
 at the expense of the Republic, without the cost being deducted 
 from their pay, as had hitherto been the case. 
 
 II. The most important laws designed to diminish the power 
 of the senate were — 
 
 1. The law by which the judices were to be taken only from 
 the equites, and not from the senators, as had been the custom 
 
 hitherto. This was a very important enactment, 
 ex Jutti- ^^^ needs a little explanation. All offences 
 
 against the state were originally tried in the 
 Popular Assembly; but when special enactments were passed 
 for the trial of particular offences, the practice was introduced of 
 entrusting the trial to a standing commission formed by a body 
 of judices. This was first done upon the passing of the Cal- 
 purnian Law (149 B.C.) for the punishment of provincial magis- 
 trates for extortion in their government {De Repetundis). Such 
 offences had to be tried before the praetor and a jury of senators, 
 but as these very senators either had been or hoped to be pro- 
 vincial magistrates, they were not disposed to visit with severity 
 offences of which they themselves either had been or were likely 
 to be guilty. The equites, to whom Gracchus now transferred 
 these criminal courts, were not the military order of that name. 
 The title had been extended to denote the upper middle class in 
 the state,* composed of capitalists, pubHcani, and rich merchants. 
 It was to this class, which was sharply contrasted with the sena- 
 torial nobility, that Gracchus gave political recognition ; and from 
 this time is dated the creation of a civil Ordo Equester, whose 
 interests were frequently opposed to those of the senate, and who 
 therefore served as a check upon the latter. 
 
 2. Another law was directed against the arbitrary proceedings 
 of the senate in the distribution of the provinces. Hitherto the 
 
 senate had assigned the provinces to the consuls 
 Lex de pro- a^gj. their election, and thus had had it in their 
 8ul°^^b *'°^" PO'^^'* to grant wealthy governments to their 
 
 partisans, or unprofitable ones to those opposed 
 to them. It was now enacted that, before the election of the 
 
 * See p. 64. 
 
Chap. XXl.J COUNTER-PROPOSALS OF DRUSUS. 189 
 
 consuls, the senate should determine the two provinces which 
 the consuls should have ; and that they should, immediately after 
 election, settle between themselves, by lot or otherwise, which 
 province each should take. 
 
 These laws raised the popularity of Caius still higher, and he 
 became for a time the absolute ruler of Rome. He was re- 
 elected tribune for the following year (122 B.C.), j • • 
 for, in the interval that had elapsed between the . . j^Qja"^" 
 death of his brother and his first tribunate, re- 
 election to the office had been made possible. M. Fulvius 
 Flaccus, who had been consul in 125 B.C., was also chosen as 
 one of his colleagues. Flaccus, it will be recollected, had pro- 
 posed in his consulship to give the Roman franchise to the 
 Italian allies, and it was now determined to bring forward a 
 similar measure. Caius therefore brought in a bill conferring 
 the citizenship upon all the Latin colonies, and making the 
 Italian allies occupy the position which the Latins had previously 
 held. This wise measure was equally disliked in the forum and 
 the senate. Neither the influence nor the eloquence of Gracchus 
 could mduce the people to view with satisfaction the admission 
 of the Italian allies to equal rights and privileges with themselves. 
 
 The senate, perceiving that the popularity of Gracchus had 
 been somewhat shaken by this measure, employed his colleague, 
 M. Livius Drusus — who was noble, well-educated, 
 wealthy, and eloquent — to undermine his influence Counter- 
 with the people. With the sanction of the senate, of^Drusus 
 Drusus now endeavoured to outbid Gracchus. He 
 played the part of a demagogue in order to supplant the true 
 friend of the people. He gave to the senate the credit of every 
 popular law which he proposed, and gradually impressed the 
 people with the belief that the nobles were their best friends. 
 Gracchus proposed to found two colonies at Tarentum and Capua, 
 and named among the first settlers some of the most respect- 
 able citizens. Drusus introduced a law for establishing no fewer 
 than twelve colonies, and for settling 3000 poor citizens in each. 
 Gracchus, in the distribution of the public land, reserved a rent 
 payable to the public treasury. Drusus abolished even this pay- 
 ment. He also gained the confidence of the people by asking 
 no favour for himself; he took no part in the foundation of 
 colonies, and left to others the management of business in which 
 
190 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXL 
 
 any money had to be expended. Gracchus, on the other hand, 
 superintended everything in person ; and the people, always 
 jealous in pecuniary matters, began to suspect his motives. 
 During his absence in Africa, whither he had gone as one of the 
 three commissioners for founding a colony upon the ruins of 
 Carthage, Drusus was able to weaken his popularity still further. 
 On his return he endeavoured in vain to reorganize his party 
 and recover his power. Both he and Flaccus failed in being 
 
 re-elected tribunes ; while L. Opimius and Q. 
 * ^® ° Fabius, two personal enemies of Gracchus, were 
 
 raised to the consulship. The two new consuls 
 had no sooner entered upon office (121 B.C.) than they resolved 
 to drive matters to extremities. One of the first measures of 
 Opimius was a proposal to repeal the law for colonizing Car- 
 thage, because it had been established upon the site which Scipio 
 had cursed. It was evident that a pretext was only sought for 
 taking the life of Gracchus, and Flaccus urged him to repel 
 violence by force. Caius shrank from this step, but an accident 
 gave his enemies the pretext which they longed for. The tribes 
 had assembled at the' Capitol to decide upon the colony at Car- 
 thage, when a servant of the Consul Opimius, pushing against 
 Gracchus, insolently cried out, " Make way for honest men, you 
 rascals !" Gracchus turned round to him with an angry look, 
 and the man was immediately stabbed by an unknown hand. 
 The Assembly immediately broke up, and Gracchus returned 
 home, foreseeing the advantage which this unfortunate occur- 
 rence would give to his enemies. 
 
 The senate now resorted to its last weapon ; it declared 
 Gracchus and Flaccus public enemies, and invested the consuls 
 
 with dictatorial powers. During the night Opimius 
 Death of Caius ^^^^ possession of the Temple of Castor and 
 Grace us. PoUux, which overlooked the forum, summoned 
 
 a meeting of the senate for the following morning, and ordered 
 all the partisans of the senate to be present, each with two armed 
 slaves. Flaccus seized the Temple of Diana on the Aventine, 
 and distributed arms to his followers : here he was joined by 
 Gracchus. Civil war was thus declared. After some fruitless 
 attempts at negotiation, the consul proceeded to attack the 
 Aventine. Little or no resistance was made, and Flaccus and 
 Gracchus took to flight, and crossed the Tiber by the Sublician 
 
Chap. XXL] FATE OF THE eRACCHAN LEGISLATION. 191 
 
 bridge. Gracchus escaped to the Grove of the Furies, accom- 
 panied only by a single slave. When the pursuers reached the 
 spot, they found both of them dead. The slave had first killed 
 his master and then himself The head of Gracchus was cut off, 
 and carried to Opimius, who gave to the person who brought it 
 its wdight iQ gold. F.accus was also put to death, together with 
 numbers of his part}^ Their corpses were thrown into the Tiber, 
 their houses demolished, and their property confiscated. Even 
 their widows were forbidden to wear mourning. After the bloody 
 work had been finished, the consul, by order of the senate, 
 dedicated a temple to Concord ! 
 
 The measures of social reform projected by the Gracchi did 
 not long survive their authors. In 121 b.c. the land-allotments 
 were made alienable, and a great deal of the 
 public land, which had been distributed, appears *^^*® °' *"^ 
 
 to have lapsed again into the hands of its original i„'^^?„f; 
 
 i- 1 J 111 J 1 legislation. 
 
 possessors; lor a law oi 111 b.c, passed under 
 
 the auspices of the senate, declared all such land private 
 
 property ; the slave population did not diminish, nor did the 
 
 yeoman class increase. But, if the final downfall of the Eoman 
 
 constitution was a worthy object of Komau ambition, G. Gracchus 
 
 at least had not lived in vain. 
 
A Roman trophy. 
 
 CHAPTEE XXn. 
 
 Marius. 
 
 THE JUGURTHINE WAK AND THE DEFEAT OF THE GOVERNMENT. 
 118-104 B.C. 
 
 The first attack on the senate's government had been foiled, 
 and the failure and death of the Gracchi proved that internal 
 reform could not be forced on the governing 
 corporation. It was now to be assailed on a 
 more vulnerable point — that of imperial administration ; their 
 conduct in the Jugurthine War raised against the nobility a more 
 terrible opponent than the Gracchi had ever been, and showed 
 that the leader of the popular party need not be a powerless 
 tribune relying on the fickle votes of the Assembly, but might 
 be au imperator at the head of an army. This military leader 
 
Chap. XXII.] MARIUS AND JUGURTHA. 193 
 
 was found in C. Marius. He was a native of Arpinum, first 
 saw service in Spain, and was present at the siege of Numantia 
 in 134 B.C. Here he attracted the notice of Scipio Africanus, 
 and received from him manj' marks of honour. Scipio, indeed, 
 admitted liim to his table ; and on a certain occasion, when one 
 of tlie guests asked where tlie Roman people would find such 
 another general after his death, he is said to have laid his hand 
 on the shoulder of Marius, and said, "Perhaps here." Througli 
 distinguished service in the army Marius reached the honours 
 generally reserved for birth, and was at length raised to the 
 Tribunate of the Plebs in 119 B.C., though not till he had 
 attained the mature age of thirt3'-six. Only two years had 
 elapsed since the death of C. Gracchus ; and the nobles, flushed 
 with victory, resolved to put down with a high hand the least 
 invasion of their privileges and power. But Marius had the 
 boldness to propose a law for the purpose of giving greater 
 freedom at elections ; and when the senate attempted to over- 
 awe him, he ordered one of his officers to carry the Consul 
 Metellus to prison. Marius now became a marked man. He 
 lost his election to the aedileship, and with difficult}' obtained 
 the praetorship (115 B.C.) ; but he added to his influence by his 
 mairiage with Julia, the sister of C. Julius Caesar, the father of 
 the future ruler of Rome. His military abilities recommended 
 him to the Consul Metellus (109 B.C.), who was anxious to re- 
 store discipline in the army and to retrieve the glory of the 
 Roman name, which had been tarnished by the incapacity and 
 corruption of the previous generals in the Jugurthine War. 
 
 The relations into which Rome had entered with the pro- 
 tected kings of Numidia had drawn her into a miserable 
 dynastic quarrel. The aged Masinissa had died ^ 
 in 149 B.C., leaving three sons, Micipsa, Mas- 
 tanabal, and Gulussa, among whom his kingdom was divided 
 by Scipio Africanus, according to the djang directions of the old 
 king. Mastanabal and Gulussa dying in their brother's hfetime, 
 Micipsa became sole king. Jugurtha was a bastard son of 
 Mastanabal ; but Micipsa brought him up with his own sons, 
 Hiempsal and Adherbal. Jugurtha's distinction and popularity 
 excited the fears of the king, and in order to remove him to a 
 distance, and not without a hope that he might perish in the 
 war, Micipsa sent him, in 134 b.c, with an auxiliary force, to 
 
194 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXII. 
 
 assist Scipio against Numantia ; but this only proved to the 
 young man a stepping-stone to success. By his zeal, courage, 
 and ability he gained the favour, not only of his commander, but 
 of all the leading nobles in the Eoman camp, by manj^ of whom 
 he was secretly stimulated to nourish ambitious schemes for 
 acquiring the sole sovereignty of Numidia ; and notwithstanding 
 the contrary advice of Scipio, the counsels seem to have sunk 
 deep into Jugurtha's mind. On his return he was received with 
 every demonstration of honour by Micipsa ; nor did he allow his 
 ambitious projects to break forth during the lifetime of the old 
 man. Micipsa, on his deathbed, though but too clearly foreseeing 
 what would happen, commended the two young princes to the 
 care of Jngurtha ; but fierce dissensions soon broke out. 
 
 Shortly afterwards Jugurtha found an opportunity to surprise 
 
 and assassinate Hiempsal ; whereupon Adherbal and his partisans 
 
 rushed to arms but were defeated in battle by 
 
 Jugurtha Jugurtha. Adherbal himself fled for refuge to 
 
 S61Z6S 
 
 Numidia ^^^^ Roman province, from whence he hastened 
 
 to Rome to lay his cause before the senate. 
 Jugurtha had now, for the first time, the opportunity of putting 
 to the test the lessons learnt in the camp before Numantia. He 
 sent ambassadors to Rome to counteract, by a lavish distribution 
 of bribes, the efl^ect of Adherbal's complaints; and by these 
 means succeeded in averting the indignation of the senate ; 
 although, even without this inducement, the government would 
 probably not have been unwilling to see the protected kingdom 
 under an able ruler who had won the confidence of the people. 
 Still, the forms of justice were preserved : a decree was passed 
 for the division of the kingdom of Numidia between the two com- 
 petitors, and a commission of senators sent out ; but the commis- 
 sioners were worked on by Jugurtha, who obtained, in the partition 
 of the kingdom, the western division adjacent to Mauretania, by 
 far the larger and richer portion of the two (116 B.C.). 
 
 This advantage, however, was far from contenting him, and 
 shortly afterwards he invaded the territories of his rival with a 
 Capture of large army. ' Adherbal was defeated in the first 
 Cirta, and engagement, his camp taken, and he himself with 
 massacre of difficulty made his escape to the strong fortress 
 Italians. ^f Qj^ta. Here he was closely blockaded by 
 
 Jugurtha. The garrison surrendered on a promise of their lives 
 
Chap. XXII.] WAR IN NUMIDIA. 195 
 
 being spared ; but these conditions were shamefully violated by 
 Jugurtha, who immediately put to death Adherbal and all his 
 followers (112 B.C.). 
 
 Unfortunately, a number of Italian merchants were amongst 
 the massacred, and a piercing cry went up from the all-powerful 
 capitalists of Rome. With the equites on its side, 
 the popular party had its chance, and one of the Memmius 
 tribunes, C. Memmius, by bringing the matter opposition 
 before the people, compelled the senate to declare 
 war. In 111 B.C. one of the consuls, L. Calpurnius Bestia, 
 landed in Africa with a large army, and immediately proceeded 
 to invade Numidia. But both Bestia and M. Scaurus, who acted 
 as his principal lieutenant, are said to have been bribed by 
 Jugurtha to grant him a favourable peace, on condition only of 
 a pretended submission, together with the surrender of thirty 
 elephants and a small sum of money. The scandal of this trans- 
 action was dwelt on by Memmius, and it was agreed to send the 
 Praetor L. Cassius, a man of the highest integritj', to Numidia, 
 in order to prevail on the king to repair in person to Eome, the 
 popular party hoping to be able to convict the leaders of the 
 nobility by means of his evidence. 
 
 The safe conduct granted him by the state was religiously 
 observed; but the scheme failed of its effect, for, as soon as 
 Jugurtha was brought forward in an assembly of 
 the People to make his statement, one of the ^^^ * 
 tribunes, who had been previous!}; gained over 
 by the friends of Scaurus and Bestia, forbade him to speak. 
 He, nevertheless, remained at Rome for some time longer, and 
 engaged in secret intrigues, which would probably have been 
 ultimately crowned with success, had he not in the mean time 
 ventured to assassinate Massiva, son of Gulussa, who was putting 
 in a claim to the Numidian throne. It was impossible to over- 
 look so daring a crime, perpetrated under the very eyes of the 
 senate. Jugurtha was ordered to quit Italy without delay. It 
 was on this occasion that he is said, when leaving Rome, to have 
 uttered the memorable words, " A city for sale, and destined to 
 perish quickly, if it can find a purchaser." 
 
 War was now inevitable ; but the incapacity of Sp. Postumius 
 Albinus, who arrived to conduct it (110 B.C.), and still more 
 that of his brother Aulus, whom he left to command in his 
 
196 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXII. 
 
 absence when called away to hold the elections at Rome, proved 
 as favourable to Jugurtha as the corruption of their prede- 
 War in Nu- cessors. Aulus, having penetrated into the heart 
 midia. Defeat of Numidia, suffered himself to be surprised in his 
 of Aulus camp : great part of his army was cut to pieces, 
 
 Albmus. j^jj(j |.j-,g j.gg|. Qjj]y escaped a similar fate by the 
 
 ignominy of passing under the yoke. The disgrace at once 
 roused all the spirit of the Roman people ; the treaty concluded 
 by Aulus was instantly annulled, immense exertions were made to 
 raise troops, and one of the consuls for the new year (109 B.C.), 
 Q. Caecilius Metellus, hastened to Numidia to retrieve the 
 honour of the Roman arms. 
 
 But this did not satisfy the people. The scandalous conduct 
 
 of so many of the nobles had given fresh life lo the popular 
 
 party ; and the Tribune C. Mamilius carried a bill 
 
 -?f.^^-««-«« for the appointment of three commissioners to 
 commission. ..^', , 
 
 mqun-e mto the conduct ot all oi those who had 
 
 received bribes from Jugurtha. Scaurus, though one of the 
 most guilty, managed to be put upon the commission. But he 
 dared not shield his confederates. Many men of the highest 
 rank were condemned, among whom were Bestia, Albinus, and 
 Opimius. The last-named was the Opimius who acted with such 
 ferocity towards Caius Gracchus and his party. He died in exile 
 at Dyrrhacium some years afterwards, in great poverty. 
 
 The Consul Metellus, who was an able general and a man of the 
 strictest integrity, landed in Africa, with Marius as his Heutenant, 
 in 109 B.C. As soon as Jugurtha discovered tiie 
 Metellus pro- character of the new commander, he began to 
 secutes the j-j- jj Ij-i, 
 
 despair ot success, and made overtures tor sub- 
 mission in earnest. These were apparently enter- 
 tained by Metellus, while he sought, in fact, to gain over the 
 adherents of the king, and induce them to betray him to the 
 Romans, at the same time that he continued to advance into 
 the enemy's territories. Jugurtha, in his turn, detected his 
 designs, attacked him suddenly on his march with a numerous 
 force, but was, after a severe struggle, repulsed, and his army 
 totally routed. Metellus ravaged the greater part of the country, 
 but failed in taking the important town of Zama before he with- 
 drew into winter quarters. But he had produced such an effect 
 upon the Numidian king, that Jugurtha was induced, in the 
 
Chap. XXII.] METELLUS IN NUMIDIA. 197 
 
 course of the winter, to make offers of unqualified submission, 
 and even surrendered all his elephants, with a number of arms 
 and horses, and a large sura of money, to the Eoman general ; 
 but when called upon to place himself personally in the power 
 of Metellus, his courage failed him, he broke off the negotiation, 
 and once more had recourse to arms. 
 
 Marius had greatly distinguished himself in the preceding 
 campaign. The readiness with which he shared the toils of 
 the common soldiers, eating of the same food, and working at 
 the same trenches with them, had endeared him to them, and 
 through their letters to their friends at Rome his praises were 
 in everybody's mouth. His increasing reputation and popularity 
 induced him to aspire to the consulship. His hopes were in- 
 creased bj^ a circumstance which happened to him at Utica. 
 While sacrificing at this place, the officiating priest told him that 
 the victims predicted some great and wonderful events, and bade 
 him execute whatever purpose he had in his mind. Marius 
 thereupon applied to Metellus for leave of absence, that he 
 might proceed to Rome and offer himself as a candidate. The 
 consul, who belonged to the family which " Fate destined for 
 the consulship," at first tried to dissuade Marius from his pre- 
 sumptuous attempt, by pointing out the certainty of failure ; and 
 when he could not prevail upon him to abandon his design, he 
 civilly evaded his request by pleading the exigencies of the 
 public service, which required his presence and assistance. 
 Marius's insistence at last drew from him the impatient remark, 
 " You need not hurrj' ; it will be quite time enough for you to 
 apply for the consulship along with my son." The latter, who 
 was then serving with the army, was a j'outh of only twenty 
 years of age, and could not, therefore, become a candidate for 
 the consulship for more than twenty years. This insult was 
 never forgotten by Marius. He now began to intrigue against 
 his general, and to spread the absurd report that the war was 
 purposely prolonged by Metellus to gratify his own vanity and 
 love of military power. He openly declared that with one-half 
 of the army he would soon have Jugurtha in chains ; and, as all 
 his remarks were carefully reported at Rome, the people began 
 to regard him as the only person competent to finish the war. 
 
 Metellus at last allowed him to leave Africa, but only twelve 
 days before the election. Meeting with a favourable wind, he 
 
198 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXII. 
 
 arrived at Rome in time, and was elected consul with an enthu- 
 siasm which bore down all opposition. He received from the 
 Marius elected people the province of Numidia, although tlie 
 consul. Ap- senate had previously decreed that Metellus 
 pointed to should continue in his command. The soldier- 
 
 Numidia. demagogue made the most of the situation. In 
 
 his speeches to the public, he gloried in his humble origin. He 
 upbraided the nobles with their effeminacy and licentiousness ; 
 he told them that he looked upon the consulship as a trophy 
 of his conquest over them ; and he proudly compared his own 
 wounds and military experience with their indolence and 
 ignorance of war. It was a great triumph for the people 
 and a great humiliation for the aristocracy, and Marius made 
 them drink to the dregs the bitter cup. While engaged in these 
 attacks upon the nobility, he at the same time carried on a levy 
 of troops with great activity, and formed the first mercenary 
 armj' of Rome by enrolling any persons who chose to offer for 
 the service, however poor and mean, instead of taking them 
 from the five classes according to ancient custom.* 
 
 Meantime Metellus had been carrying on the war in Africa as 
 proconsul (108 B.C.). But the campaign was not productive of 
 such decisive results as might have been expected. Jugurtha 
 avoided any general action, and eluded the pursuit of Metellus 
 by the rapidity of his movements. Even when driven from 
 Thala, a stronghold which he had deemed inaccessible from its 
 position in the midst of arid deserts, he only retired among the 
 Gaetulians, apd quickly succeeded in raising among those wild 
 tribes a fresh army, with which he once more penetrated into 
 the heart of Numidia. A still more important accession was that 
 of Bocchus, king of Mauretania, who had been prevailed upon 
 to raise an army and advance to the support of Jugurtha. 
 Metellus, however, having now relaxed his own efforts, from 
 disgust at hearing that C. Marius had been appointed to succeed 
 -him in the command, remained on the defensive, while he sought 
 to amuse the Moorish king by negotiation. 
 
 The arrival of Marius (107 B.C.) infused fresh vigour into the 
 
 Roman arms : he quickly reduced in succession ahnost all the 
 
 strongholds that still remained to Jugurtha, in some of which 
 
 the king had deposited his principal treasures ; and the latter. 
 
 * On this important change in the Roman army, see p. 151. 
 
Chap. XXII.] CLOSE OF THE JUGURTHINE WAR. 199 
 
 seeing himself thus deprived step by step of all his domiMions, 
 at length determined on a desperate attempt to retrieve his 
 fortunes by one grand effort. He with diffi- . . 
 culty prevailed on the wavering Bocchus, by w™^^:^ 
 the most extensive promises in case of success, to 
 co-operate with him in this enterprise ; and the two kings with 
 their united forces attacked Marius on his march, when he was 
 about to retire into winter quarters. Though the Koman general 
 was taken by surprise for a moment, his skill, the discipline of 
 his troops, and the energy of Sulla, Marius's quaestor, who 
 scattered the Mauri under Bocchus, proved triumphant ; the 
 Numidians were repulsed, and their army, as usual with them 
 in case of a defeat, dispersed in all directions. Jugurtha himself, 
 after displaying the greatest courage in the action, cut his way 
 almost alone through a body of Roman cavalry, and escaped 
 from the field of battle. He quickly again gathered round hira 
 a body of Numidian horse ; but his only hope of continuing the 
 war now rested on Bocchus. 
 
 The only hope of closing the war was to get possession of 
 Jugurtha, for Marius's victories had been as nugatory as those of 
 Metellus. Fortunately, Marius had in his camp 
 a man of great diplomatic ability ; it was his jTigTirtha 
 quaestor Sulla who enabled him to perform his 
 rash promises to the people. After protracted negotiations, 
 Bocchus was gained over to the Roman cause. Through his 
 treachery Jugurtha was surprised and handed over to Sulla, 
 who conveyed him to the Roman camp (early in 106 B.C.). 
 
 L. Cornelius Sulla, the quaestor of Marius, who afterwards plays 
 such a distinguished part in Roman history, was descended from 
 a patrician family which had been reduced to „ 
 great obscurity. But his means were sufficient 
 to secure him a good education. He studied the Greek and 
 Roman writers with diligence and success, and early imbibed 
 that love of literature and art by which he was distinguished 
 throughout his life. But he was also fond of pleasure, and was 
 conspicuous even among the Romans for licentiousness and 
 debauchery. He was in every respect a contrast, to Marius. 
 He possessed all the accomplishments and all the vices which 
 the old Cato had been most accustomed to denounce, and he 
 was one of those advocates of Greek literature and of Greek 
 
200 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXII. 
 
 profligacy who had since Cato's time become more and more 
 common among the Eoman nobles. But Sulla's love of pleasure 
 did not absorb all his time, nor enfeeble his mind ; for no Roman 
 during the latter days of the Republic, with the exception of 
 Julius Caesar, had a clearer judgment, a keener discrimination 
 of character, or a firmer will. Upon his arrival in Africa, Marios 
 was not well pleased that a quaestor had been assigned to him 
 who was known only for his profligacy, and who had had no 
 experience in war ; but the zeal and energy with which Sulla 
 attended to his new duties soon rendered him a useful and 
 skilful officer, and gained for him the unqualified approbation of 
 his commander, notwithstanding his previous prejudices against 
 him. He was equally successful in winning the affections of 
 the soldiers. He seized every opportunity of conferring favours 
 upon them, was ever ready to take part in all the jests of the 
 camp, and at the same time never shrank from sharing in all 
 their labours and dangers. The enemies of Marius claimed for 
 Sulla (apparently with reason) the glory of the betrayal of 
 Jugurtha, and Sulla himself took the credit of it by always 
 wearing a signet-ring representing the scene of the surrender. 
 
 But the people were not to be baulked of their champion. 
 Marius entered Rome on the first of January, 104 B.C., leading 
 
 Jugurtha in triumph. The Numidian king was 
 Marius Oi^n thrown into a dungeon, and there starved to 
 
 death. Marius, during his absence, had been 
 elected consul a second time, and he entered upon his office 
 on the day of his triumph. This signal honour was due to a 
 panic which had seized on Italy at a great danger threatening 
 from the north. 
 
German priestess in chariot drawn by oxen (from Antonine column^, 
 
 CHAPTER XXTII. 
 
 THE CIMBRI AND TEUTONES, B.C. 113-101.— SECOND SERVILE 
 WAR IN SICILY, B.C. 103-101. 
 
 A GREATER danger than Rome had experienced since the time of 
 Hannibal now threatened the state. Two nations of barbarians, 
 probably dislodged by some movement of peoples 
 
 The Cimbri 
 and Tentones. 
 
 on the Baltic or the Lower Rhine, had gathered 
 on the northern side of the Alps, and seemed 
 ready to pour down upon Italy. They are spoken of as Cimbri 
 and Teutones, and the traditions of their mode of fighting and 
 religious rites seem to show that both nations were of Germanic 
 origin, although they had probably gathered to themselves 
 during their wanderings large numbers of the Celtic ra«e. 
 They came with all their belongings, their wagon-homes, their 
 
202 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap, XXIII 
 
 wobien and children, to seek new settlements in the south ; and 
 the whole host is said to have numbered 300,000 fighting men. 
 
 The alarm was still further increased by the disaster which 
 had hitherto attended the attempts to repel these barbarians. 
 Army after army had fallen before them. The 
 Defeat of Cimbri were first heard of in 113 B.C., in Noricum, 
 
 armies whence they descended into Illyricum, and de- 
 
 feated a Roman army under the command of Cn. 
 Papirius Carbo. They then marched westward into Switzerland, 
 where they were joined by the Tigurini and the Ambrones. 
 They next poured over Gaul, which they plundered and ravaged 
 in every direction. The Romans sent army after army to defend 
 the south-western part of the country, which was now a Roman 
 province ; but all in vain. In 109 B.C. the Consul M. Junius 
 Silanus was defeated by the Cimbri ; in 107 B.C. the Tigurini cut 
 in pieces, near the Lake of Geneva, the army of the Consul L. 
 Cassius Longinus, the colleague of Marius, who lost his life in 
 the battle ; and shortly afterwards M. Aurelius Scaurus was also 
 defeated and taken prisoner. But the most dreadful loss was 
 still to come. In 105 B.C. two consular armies, commanded by 
 the Consul Cn. Mallius Maximus and the Proconsul Cn. Servilius 
 Caepio, consisting of 80,000 men, were completely annihilated 
 by the barbarians : only ten men are said to have escaped the 
 slaughter. 
 
 These repeated disasters hushed all party quarrels. Every one 
 at Rome felt that Marius was the only man capable of saving the 
 state, and he was accordingly elected consul by 
 Marius ap- ^j^g consent of all parties while he was still absent 
 command* ^^ Africa. He entered Rome in triumph, as we 
 
 have already said, on the 1st of Jiinuary, 104 B.C., 
 which was the first day of his second consulship. A breathing- 
 space was granted by the erratic movements of the barbarians. 
 Instead of crossing the Alps and pouring down upon Italy, as 
 hid been expected, the Cimbri marched into Spain, which they 
 ravaged for the next two or three years. The interval was 
 employed by Marius in training the new troops, and accustoming 
 them to hardships and toil. It was probably during this time 
 that he introduced the various changes into the organization of 
 the Roman array which are usually attributed to him. Notwith- 
 standing the sternness and severity with which he punished the 
 
Chap. XXIIJ.] DEFEAT OF THE TEUTONES. 203 
 
 least breach of discipline, he was a favourite -with his new 
 soldiers, who learned to pkce implicit confidence in their 
 genera], and were delighted with the strict impartiality which 
 recognized no distinctions of rank when punishments weie to be 
 inflicted. 
 
 As the enemy still continued in Spain, Marius was elected 
 consul a third time for the year 103 B.C., and also a fourth 
 time for the following year, with Q. Lutatius 
 Catulus as his colleague. It was in this year Movements 
 (102 B.C.) that the long-expected barbarians ar- horbarians 
 rived. The Cimbri, who had returned from Spain, 
 united their forces with the Teutones. Marius first took up his 
 position in a fortified camp upon the Ehone, probably in the 
 vicinity of the modern Aries ; and as the entrance of the river 
 was nearly blocked up by mud and sand, he employed his 
 soldiers in digging a canal from the Ehone to the Mediterranean, 
 that he might the more easily obtain his supplies from the sea.* 
 Meantime the barbarians had divided their forces. The Cimbri 
 marched round the northern foot of the Alps, in order to enter 
 Italy by the north-east, crossing the Tyrolese Alps by the defiles 
 of Tridentum {Trent). 
 
 The Teutones and Ambrones, on the other hand, marched 
 against Marius, intending, as it seems, to penetrate into Italy by 
 Nice and the Riviera of Genoa. Marius, anxious 
 to accustom his soldiers to the savage and strange ^^^ Teutones 
 appearance of the barbarians, would not give them t*qi„ 
 battle at first. The latter resolved to attack the 
 Roman camp ; but as they were repulsed in this attempt, they 
 pressed on at once for Italy. So great were their numbers, that 
 they are said to have been six days in marching by the Roman 
 camp. 
 
 As soon as they had advanced a httle way, Marius followed 
 them ; and thus the armies continued to march for a few days, 
 the barbarians in the front and Marius behind, till 
 they came to the neighbourhood of Aquae Sextiae .^ eSextiae 
 {Aix). Here the decisive battle was fought. An 
 ambush of 3000 soldiers, which Marius had stationed in the rear 
 of the barbarians, and which fell upon them when they were 
 
 ♦ This canal continued to exist long afterwards, and bore the name of Fossa 
 Mariana. 
 
204 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXIII. 
 
 already retreating, decided the fortune of the daj^ Attacked 
 both in front and rear, enervated by the unaccustomed heat, 
 they at length broke their ranks and fled. I'he carnage was 
 dreadful ; the whole nation was annihilated, for those who es- 
 caped put an end to their lives, and their wives followed their 
 example. Immediately after the battle, as Marius was in the 
 act of setting fire to the vast heap of broken arms which was 
 intended as an offering to the gods, horsemen rode up to him, 
 and greeted him with the news of his being elected consul for the 
 fifth time. 
 
 The Cimbri, in the mean time, had forced their way into Italy. 
 The colleague of Marius, Q. Lutatius Catulus, despairing of de- 
 fending the passes of the Tyrol, had taken up a 
 The Cimbri , •,. ,i axi • / ^ ?• n i x • 
 
 on the Fadus strong position on the Athesis [Adige) ; but m 
 
 consequence of the terror of his soldiers at the 
 approach of the barbarians, he was obliged to retreat even 
 beyond the Po, thus leaving the whole of the rich plain of Lom- 
 bardy exposed to their ravages. Marius was therefore recalled 
 from the battle-field of Aix to join the army of Catulus on the 
 
 Po (101 B.C.). 
 
 The united forces of the consul and proconsul crossed the 
 river, and hastened in search of the Cimbri, who had marched 
 
 slowly up the stream, in search of a convenient 
 "Vercellae crossing-place, and, perhaps, in hopes of being 
 
 joined by the Teutones, of whose destruction 
 they had not yet heard. They were now stationed to the west 
 of Milan near Vercellae. The Cimbri met with the same fate as 
 the Teutones ; the whole nation was annihilated ; and the women, 
 like those of the Teutones, put an end to their lives. The first 
 tide of Germanic invasion had been stemmed, and Marius was 
 hailed as the saviour of the state ; his name was coupled with the 
 gods in the libations and at banquets ; and he received the title of 
 third founder of Rome. He celebrated his victories by a brilliant 
 triumph, in which, however, Catulus was allowed to share. 
 
 During the brilliant campaigns of Marius, Sicily had been 
 exposed to the horrors of a second Servile War. The insurrection 
 
 again broke out at Enna in the east of the island, 
 War^in Sicilv^ where the slaves elected as their king one Salvius, 
 
 a soothsayer. He displayed considerable abilities, 
 and in a short time collected a force of 20,000 foot and 2000 
 
Chap. XXIII.] 
 
 SECOND SERVILE WAR. 
 
 205 
 
 horse. After defeating a Eoman army, he assumed all the pomp 
 of royalty, and took the surname of Tryphon, which had been 
 borne by a usurper to the Syrian throne. The success of Salvius 
 led to an insurrection in the western part of the island, where 
 the slaves chose as their leader a Cilician named Athenio, who 
 joined Tryphon, and acknowledged his sovereignty. Upon the 
 death of Tryphon, Athenio became king. The insurrection had 
 now assumed such a formidable aspect that, in 101 B.C., the 
 senate sent the Consul M'. Aquillius into Sicily. He succeeded 
 in subduing the insurgents, and killed Athenio with his own 
 hand. The survivors were sent to Rome, and condemned to 
 fight with wild beasts ; but they disdained to minister to the 
 pleasures of their oppressors, and slew each other with their 
 own hands in the amphitheatre. 
 
 Fasces (from the original in the Capitol of Rome). 
 
Caius Mariua. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 THE DOWISTFALL OF THE OPPOSITION, AND THE ATTEMPT OF 
 DEUSUS AT REFORM. 
 
 The five consulships of Marius had been a gross violation of the 
 constitution, only to be excused by the dangers of the times ; 
 
 but the democratic party had no hope except 
 Marius and jj^ ^.j^g ^.^jg ^f g^ single man ; and, as the time 
 democrats ^^^ *^® consular elections approached, Marius 
 
 became again a candidate for the consulship. 
 He wished to be first in peace as well as in war, and to rule the 
 state as well as the army. But he did not possess the qualities 
 requisite for a popular leader at Rome ; he had no programme 
 and no power of oratory, and he lost his presence of mind in 
 the noise and shouts of the popular assemblies. 
 
 To secure his election he entered into close connection with 
 two of the most violent demagogues that ever appeared at Rome, 
 
 Saturninus and Glaucia. The former was a can- 
 Saturnlims didate for the tribunate, and the latter for the 
 
 praetorship ; and by their means, as well as by 
 bribing the tribes, Marius secured his election to the consulship 
 for the sixth time. Glaucia also obtained the praetorship, but 
 Saturninus was not equally successful. He lost his election 
 
Chap. XXIV.J ATTEMPTS OF THE OPPOSITION. 207 
 
 chiefly through the exertions of A. Nonius, who was chosen in 
 his stead. But assassination as a political weapon was coming 
 into vogue ; on the evening of his election Nonius was murdered, 
 - and next morning, at an early hour, before the forum was full, 
 Saturninus was chosen to fill up the vacancy. 
 
 As soon as Saturninus had entered upon his office (100 B.C.) 
 he brought forward an Agrarian Law for dividing among the 
 soldiers of Marius the lands in Gaul which had 
 been lately occupied by the Cirabri, and to which s„^!.^- 
 the state had as little right as the Cimbri them- 
 selves. He added to the law a clause that, if it was enacted by 
 the people, every senator should swear obedience to it within 
 five days, and that whoever refused to do so should be expelled 
 from the senate, and pay a fine of twenty talents. This clause, 
 which completely reversed the established order of legislation, 
 was employed by Marius to effect the ruin of Metellus. Marius 
 rose in the senate, and declared that he would never take the 
 oath, and Metellus made the same declaration ; but when the 
 law had been passed, and Saturninus summoned the senators 
 to the rostra to comply with the demands of the law, Marius, to 
 the astonishment of all, immediately took the oath, and advised 
 the senate to follow his example. Metellus alone refused com- 
 pliance ; and on the following day Saturninus sent his beadle to 
 drag him out of the senate-house. 
 
 Not content with this victory, Saturninus brought forward a 
 bill to punish him with exile. The friends of Metellus were 
 ready to take up arms in his defence ; but he 
 declined their assistance, and withdrew privately w^^^ii 
 from the city. Saturninus brought forward other 
 popular measures, such as. had already figured in the Gracchan 
 programme. He proposed a Lex Frumentaria, by which the 
 state was to sell corn to the people at a very low price ; and 
 also a law for founding new colonies in Sicily, Achaia, and 
 Macedonia. In the election of the magistrates for the following 
 year Saturninus was again chosen tribune. Glaucia was at the 
 same time a candidate for the consulship, the two other can- 
 didates being M. Antonius and C. Memmius. The election of 
 Antonius was certain, and the struggle lay between Glaucia and 
 Memmius. But this stumbling-block was also removed, and 
 Memmius, murdered openly in the comitia, fell a victim to his 
 
208 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXIV. 
 
 own party. All sensible people had previously become alarmed 
 at the mad conduct of Saturninus and his partisans; and the 
 equites, who had hitherto supported Marius, swung over to the 
 side of the government. The senate felt themselves now suffi- 
 ciently strong to declare Glaucia and Saturninus public enemies, 
 and invested the consuls with dictatorial power. Marius was 
 unwilHng to act against his associates, but he had no alternative, 
 and his backwardness was compensated by the zeal of others. 
 
 Driven out of the forum, Saturninus, Glaucia, and the quaestor 
 Saufeius, took refuge in the Capitol ; but the partisans of the 
 
 senate cut off the pipes which supplied the citadel 
 It ^^*^^ water before Marius began to move against 
 
 them. Unable to hold out any longer, they sur- 
 rendered to Marius. The latter did all he could to save their 
 lives : as soon as they descended from the Capitol, he placed 
 them, for security, in the Curia Hostilia, but the mob pulled off 
 the tiles of the senate-house, and pelted them till they died. 
 The senate gave their sanction to the proceeding, by rewarding 
 with the citizenship a slave of the name of Scaeva, who claimed 
 the honour of having killed Saturninus. 
 
 Marius had lost all influence in the state by allying himself 
 with such unprincipled adventurers. In the following year 
 
 (99 B.C.) he left Eome, in order that he might 
 t^Th'^ lF°r ^^^ witness the return of Metellus from exile — a 
 
 measure which he had been unable to prevent. 
 He set sail for Cappadocia and Galatia, under the pretence of 
 offering services which he had vowed to the Great Mother. He 
 had, however, a deeper purpose in visiting these countries. He 
 longed for another military command that might restore him to 
 power, and accordingly repaired to the coui-t of Mithridates, 
 king of Pontus, to discover the lengths to which that monarch 
 was likely to go in his opposition to Eome, and to make 
 hostilities more certain by exciting the fears of the king. 
 
 The mad scheme of Saturninus, and the discredit into which 
 Marius had fallen, had given new strength to the senate. Un- 
 mindful of the fact that it was through the support of the equites 
 that their recent victory had been won, they judged the oppor- 
 tunity favourable for depriving this order of the judicial power 
 which they had enjoyed, with only a temporary cessation, since 
 the time of C. Gracchus. 
 
Chap. XXIV.] REFORMS OF LIVIUS DRUSUS. 209 
 
 The equites had abused their power, as the senate had done 
 before them. They were the capitalists who farmed the public 
 revenues in the provinces, where they committed 
 peculation and extortion with habitual impunity. Abuse of 
 Their possession of the courts gave them a com- gg^+es ^ ^ 
 plete control over provincial governors, and their 
 unjust condemnation of Rutilius Eufus had shown how unfit they 
 were to be entrusted with judicial duties. Kutilius was a man of 
 spotless integrity, and while acting as lieutenant to Q. Mucins 
 Scaevola, proconsul of Asia in 98 B.C., he displayed so much 
 honesty and firmness in repressing the extortions of the farmers 
 of the taxes, that he became an object of fear and hatred to the 
 whole body. Accordingly, on his return to Rome, a charge of 
 malversation was trumped up against him ; he was found guilty, 
 and compelled to withdraw into banishment (b.c. 92). 
 
 The senate had learnt the lesson of the past ten years ; that 
 section of the order which was genuinely desirous of reform was 
 strong, and its representative, M. Livius Drusus, 
 the son of the celebrated opponent of C. Gracchus, J^eforms of 
 
 J , .-. r en i-u n^ 1 i. f I-IVIUS DrUSUS 
 
 and tribune for 91 B.C., was the lory democrat ot ^.j^^ youneer 
 the day. Full of aristocratic prejudices, and a firm 
 believer in the rule of the nobility, he condescended to take some 
 items from the current democratic programme. Laws granting 
 the distribution of corn at a low price, and the establishment of 
 colonies in Italy and Sicily, were thrown as a sop to the people, 
 and he was thus enabled to carry his measures for the reform 
 of the judicia ; which were that the senate should be increased 
 from 300 to 600 by the addition of an equal number of equites, 
 and that the judices should be taken from the senate thus doubled 
 in numbers. Drusus aimed at a coalition government, which 
 should keep the Radicals in check ; but this measure of com- 
 promise was acceptable to neither party. The senators viewed 
 with dislike the elevation to their own rank of 300 equites ; 
 while the equites, who had no desire to transfer to a select few 
 of their own order the profitable share in the administration of 
 justice which they all enjoyed, were hopelessly alienated. 
 
 Another measure of Drusus rendered him equally unpopular 
 with the people. He had held out to the Latins and the Italian 
 allies the promise of the Roman franchise. It may be doubtful 
 what the intention of the similar proposal of C. Gracchus had 
 
 p 
 
210 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXIV. 
 
 been ; but there can be no doubt that Drusus was firmly con- 
 vinced that the enfranchisement of Italy, by widening the basis 
 of government, would ensure the safety of the state. The 
 Eomau people, however, still looked askance at such a measure, 
 and Drusus foundered on the rock which had proved fatal to 
 C. Gracchus. But promises had been made to the allies ; it was 
 too late to retreat ; and in order to oppose the formidable coalition 
 against him, Drusus had recourse to a device which might easily 
 be interpreted as treasonable. A secret society was formed, in 
 which the members bound themselves by a solemn oath to have 
 the same friends and foes with Drusus, and to obey all his com- 
 mands. The ferment soon became so great that the public peace 
 was more than once threatened. The allies were ready to take 
 up arms at the first movement. 
 
 The consuls, looking upon Drusus as a conspirator, resolved 
 to meet his plots by counter-plots. But he knew his danger, 
 
 and whenever he went into the city kept a strong 
 Assassma ion i;)ody-guard of attendants close to his person. The 
 
 end could not much longer be postponed ; and 
 the civil war was on the point of breaking out, when one 
 evening Drusus was assassinated in his own house, while dis- 
 missing the crowds who were attending him. A leather-cutter's 
 knife was found sticking in his loins. Turning round to those 
 who surrounded him, he asked them, as he was dying, '• Friends 
 and neighbours, when will the Commonwealth have a citizen 
 like me again?" 
 
 Even in the lifetime of Drusus the senate had, by the discovery 
 of a technical flaw, repealed all his laws. The reaction after 
 
 his death was terrible. The Tribune Q. Varius 
 Tne varian brought forward a law declaring all persons guilty 
 
 of high treason who had assisted the cause of the 
 allies. Many leading men fell victims to the criminal commis- 
 sion established by this law, and the measure, following the 
 assassination of Drusus, roused the indignation of the allies to 
 the highest pitch. They saw clearly that the Roman people 
 would yield nothing except upon compulsion. 
 
Coin of the eight Italian nations taking the Oath of Federation. 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 THE SOCIAL OR MARSIC WAR, AND THE INCORPORATION OF ITALY. 
 90-89 B.C. 
 
 The issue of the impending war was to decide whether Eome 
 
 was to remain a dominant city in Italy, or to become merged as 
 
 a subordinate state in an Italian confederation. 
 
 Alone she could hardly have resisted the whole of ^^^T!^*;^- 
 
 Til , . -^ . f. 1 1 communities. 
 
 Italy ; but the insurrection was connned almost 
 
 exclusively to the Sabellians and their kindred races. The 
 Etruscans and Umbrians, where the capitalist class pre- 
 ponderated, stood aloof; while the tribes or cities which had 
 received the Roman franchise in whole or in part, such as the 
 Sabines and Volscians, with the Latin colonies and the Greek 
 towns such as Neapolis and Rhegium, were in the main faitliful 
 to the Republic, and furnished the materials of her arm'es. 
 The nations which composed the formidable conspiracy ; gainst 
 Rome were originallj^ eight in number, — the Marsians, Paelignians, 
 Marrucinians, Vestinians, Picentines, Samiiites, Apulians, and 
 Lucanians. Of these the Marsians were particularly dis- 
 tinguished for their courage and skill in war ; and from the 
 prominent part which they took in the struggle, it was frequently 
 termed the Marsic as well as the Social War. 
 
 The war broke out at Asculum in Picenum. The Proconsul 
 Q. Servilius, w ho had the charge of this part of Italy, hearing 
 that the inhabitants of Asculum were organizing a 
 
 revolt, entered the town, and endeavoured to per- „„A^j* ^^? „ 
 , , 1 .',..., .' confeaeration, 
 
 suade them to lay aside their hostiJe intentions. 
 
 But he was murdered, together with his legate, by the exasperated 
 
212 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap, XXV. 
 
 citizens, and all the Eomans in the place were likewise put 
 to death. This was the signal for a general insurrection. Cor- 
 finiura, a strong city of the Paeligni, to which the name of 
 Italica was given, was fixed upon as the new capital of the 
 Italian Confederation. The government of the new Italian 
 Republic was modelled on that of Rome ; it was to have two 
 consuls, twelve praetors, and a senate of 500 members. But 
 if, as is probable, magistrates and senate were elected from all 
 the confederate tribes and cities, Italica was not like Rome a 
 city state, but the head of a federal government. Q. Pompaedius 
 Silo, a Marsian, one of the chief instigators of the war, and 
 C. Papiiis Mutilus, a Samnite, who cherished the hereditary 
 hatred of his countrymen against the Romans, were chosen 
 consuls. Under them were many able lieutenants, who had 
 learnt the art of war under the best Roman generals. Their 
 soldiers had served in the Roman armies, the weapons and 
 discipline of the contending parties were the same, and the 
 stiuggle presented many of the features of a civil war. But the 
 Eomans had the advantage of unity of council, which a single 
 state always possesses over a confederation. 
 
 Our information of the details of the war is very meagre. 
 But in the military operations we clearly see that the allies 
 formed two principal groups ; the one composed of 
 Srwar*'^ *^^ Mar^^ians, with their neighbours the Marru- 
 cinians, Paelignians, Vestinians, and Picentines, — 
 the other of the Samnites, with the Lucanians and Apulians. 
 The two Roman consuls, L, Julius Caesar and P. Rutilius Lupus, 
 took the field with powerful armies, and under them served 
 Marius, Sulla, and the most experienced generals of the time. 
 The Romans were fully aware of the formidable nature of the 
 struggle, which was one for existence, and not for victory. In 
 the first campaign the advantage was on the side of the allies. 
 The Samnites, under their consul Papius, overran Campania, 
 took most of the towns, and laid siege to Acerrae, into which 
 Caesar threw himself. The Italian army in Central Italy was 
 still more successful. There the Marsians under Cato defeated 
 the Roman Consul P. Rutilius Lupus with gi"eat slaughter at the 
 Tolenus, between Tibur and Alba, and Rutilius himself was slain 
 in the battle. This disaster was to some extent repaired by 
 Marius, who commanded a separate army in the neighbourhood. 
 
Chap. XXV.] THE SOCIAL WAR. 213 
 
 and compelled the victorious allies to retire. The old general 
 then intrenched himself in a fortified camp, and neither the 
 stratagems nor the taunts of the Samnites could entice him from 
 his advantageous position. " If you are a great general," said 
 the Italian consul Pompaedius, " come down and fight ; " to 
 which the veteran replied, " Na^^, do you, if j^ou are a great 
 general, compel me to fight against n\y will." The Romans 
 considered that Marius was over-cautious and too slow ; and 
 Plutarch says that his age and corpulence rendered him incapable 
 of enduring the fatigue of very active service. But it is more 
 probable that he was not very willing to destroy the allies, who 
 had been among his most active partisans, and to whom he still 
 looked for support in his future struggles with the nobility. 
 
 The Romans now saw the necessity of making some con- 
 cessions. The Lex Julia, proposed by the consul Julius Caesar 
 (90 B.C.), granted the franchise to those of the ^ .. 
 
 allies who had up to that time rema'ned faithful 
 to Rome. The effects of this concession were immediately seen. 
 Several of the allied cities hastened to avail themselves of it, and 
 disunion and distrust were produced among the rest. 
 
 The next campaign (89 b.c.) \\ as decidedly favourable to the 
 Romans. The consuls were Cn. Pompeius Strabo, the father of 
 the great Pompey, and L. Porcius Cato. The 
 latter, it is true, was slain at the commencement ^ ^^ ^ 
 of the can)paign ; but his loss was more than 
 compensated by his lieutenant Sulla obtaining, in consequence, 
 the supreme command in the south. He carried on the war 
 with the utmost vigour, and completely eclipsed his old com- 
 mander Marius. He drove the enemy out of Campania, subdued 
 the Hirpini, and then penetrated into the very heart of Samnium. 
 Here he defeated Papius Mutihis, the Samnite consul, and 
 followed up his victory by the capture of the strong town of 
 Bovianum. 
 
 Meanwhile Pompeius Strabo had been equally successful in 
 the north. Asculum was reduced after a long and obstinate 
 siege. The Marrucinians, Vestinians, Paelignians, 
 and finally the Marsians, laid down their arms pf^iri^^ 
 before the end of the year. Their submission 
 was facilitated by the Lex Plautia Papiria, proposed by the 
 tribunes M. Plautius Silvanus and C. Papirius Carbo (89 B.C.), 
 
214 
 
 HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 [Chap. XXV 
 
 which completed the arrangements of the Lex Julia, and 
 granted, in fact, everything wliich the allies had demanded 
 before the war. All citizens of a town in alliance with Eome 
 could obtain, by this law, the Roman franchise, provided they 
 were at the time resident in Italy, and registered their names 
 with the praetor within sixty days.* 
 
 The war, which had cost the lives of 300,000 men, the flower 
 of Rome and Italy, was virtually concluded within two years, 
 although the SamnHes and Lucanians still main- 
 t' ®^°Pj^^?^^" tained a guerilla warfare in their mountains, 
 and continued to keep possession of the strong 
 fortress of Nola in Campania, from which all the efforts of Sulla 
 failed to dislodge them. The result was to merge Italy in Rome, 
 and to give the city-state a territory which stretched from 
 the Padus to the Straits of Messina. But 
 the franchise was grudgingly accorded; 
 and the incorporation granted was, in 
 deference to popular opinion at Rome, 
 still very incomplete. The allies were 
 enrolled in only eight of the thirty- five 
 tribes, to prevent their outnimibering the 
 old citizens ; nof could the suffrage be 
 effectively exercised in the absence of 
 representative institutions. But the 
 value of the Roman citizenship was 
 not to be measured by the voting power 
 it conferred. The allies had gained the 
 protection of the provocatio and the 
 sanctity with which the Roman name 
 invested them in the eyes of Roman 
 proconsuls and barbarian kings. 
 
 * A law of the consul Pompeius bestowed the 
 Ijatin franchise upon all the citizens of the Gallic 
 towns between the Po and Alps, the chief right so 
 conferred being the attainment of Roman citizen- 
 ship by any one who had held a magistracy in his 
 iloman in toga. native town. 
 
Terracina. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI. 
 
 FIKST CIVIL WAR. 
 
 -86 B.C. 
 
 One reason which induced the senate to bring the Social War 
 to a conclusion was the necessity of attacking Mithridates, king 
 of Pontus, one of the ablest monarchs with 
 whom Rome ever came into contact. It was Contest be-_ 
 this foreign war, the origin and history of which ^| SuUa^^'^^ 
 will be narrated in the following chapter, that 
 was the occasion of the first armed struggle of factions at Rome, 
 from the dispute it aroused between Marius and SuUa as to 
 which should have the command against Mithridates. The 
 ability which Sulla had displayed in the Social War, and his 
 well-known attachment to the senatorial party, naturally maiked 
 him out as the man to whom this important dignity was to be 
 granted. He wis accordingly elected consul for the year 88 B.C., 
 with Q Pompeius Rufus as his colleague ; and he forthwith 
 
216 HISTORY OF ROMK. [Chap. XXVI. 
 
 received the command of tbe Mithridatic War. But Marius had 
 long coveted this distinction ; he quitted the magnificent villa 
 which he had built at Misenum, and took up his residence at 
 Kome ; and, in order to show that neither his age nor his corpu- 
 lence had destroyed his vigour, he repaired daily to the Campus 
 Martins, and went through the usual exercises with the young 
 men. He was determined not to yield without a struggle to his 
 hated rival. As he had formerly employed the Tribune Satur- 
 ninus to carry out his designs, so now he found an able instrument 
 for his purpose in the Tribune P. Sulpicius Rufus. 
 
 Sulpicius was one of the greatest orators of the age, and had 
 acquired great influence by his splendid talents. He was an 
 . . intimate friend of the Tribune M. Livius Drusus, 
 
 and had been himself elected tribune for 88 B.C., 
 through the influence of the senatorial party, who placed great 
 hopes in him ; it has been suspected that his sudden defection 
 to the democratic party was due to his being overwhelmed with 
 debt, and to his having been promised by Marius a liberal share 
 of the spoils of the Mithridatic War. Sulpicius now brought 
 forward a law by which the Italians were to be disti-ibuted 
 among the thirty-five tribes. As they far outnumbered the old 
 Roman citizens, they would have an overwhelming majority in 
 each tribe, and would certainly confer upon Marius the command 
 of the Mithridatic War. To prevent the tribune from putting 
 these rogations to the vote, the consuls declared a Justitium, 
 during which no business could be legally transacted. But 
 Sulpicius was resolved to carry his point ; with an armed band 
 of followers he entered the forum, and called upon the consuls 
 to withdraw their prohibition ; and upon their refusal to comply 
 with his demand, he ordered his satelhtes to draw their swords 
 and fall upon them. Pompeius escaped, but his son Quintus, 
 who was also the son-in-law of Sulla, was killed. Sulla himself 
 took refuge in the house of Marius, which was close to the 
 forum, and in order to save his life he was obliged to remove 
 the jusHlium. 
 
 Sulla quitted Rome and hastened to his army, then besieging 
 Nola, which was still held by the Samnites (see p. 214). The 
 city was now in the hands of Sulpicius and Marius, and 
 the Redistribution Bill passed into law without opposition, as 
 well as a further decree conferring upon Marius the command 
 
Chap. XXVI.] FIRST CIVIL WAR. 217 
 
 of the Mithridatic War. Marius lost no time in sending some 
 officers of the legions to assume on his behalf the command of the 
 army at Nola ; but the soldiers, who loved Sulla, 
 and who feared that Marius might lead another Passing of 
 army to Asia, and thus deprive them of their , ^ ^ pician 
 anticipated plunder, stoned his deputies to death. 
 
 Sulla found his soldiers ready to respond to his wishes ; they 
 called upon him to lead them to Rome, and deliver the city from 
 the tyrants. He therefore hesitated no longer, 
 but at the head of six legions broke up from his Rome^*' ^^ 
 encampment at Nola, and marched towards the 
 city. His officers, however, refused to serve against their 
 country, and all quitted him, wrth the exception of one quaestor. 
 This was the first time that a Roman had ever marched at the 
 head of Roman troops against the city. Marius was taken by 
 surprise. Such was the reverence that the Romans entertained 
 for law, that it seems never to have occurred to him or to his 
 party that Sulla would venture to draw his sword against the 
 state. Mai'ius attempted to gain time for preparations by for- 
 Itidding Sulla, in the name of the Republic, to advance any 
 further ; but the praetors who carried this command narrowly 
 escaped bemg murdered by the soldiers ; and Marius, as a 
 last resource, offered liberty to the slaves who would join 
 him. 
 
 But it was all in vain. Sulla forced his way into the city, and 
 Marius took to flight with his son and a few followers. Sulla 
 used his victory with moderation. He protected 
 the city from plunder ; and only Marius, Sulpicius, j^^^. ° 
 and ten others of his bitterest enemies, were 
 declared public enemies by the senate. Sulpicius was betrayed 
 by one of his slaves, and put to death ; but Marius and his son 
 succeeded in making their escape. Marius himself embarked 
 on board a ship at Ostia, with a few companions, and then 
 sailed southward along the coast of Italy. At Circeii he and 
 his companions were obliged to land on account of the violence 
 of the wind and the want of provisions. After wandering 
 about for a long time they learnt from some peasants that a 
 number of horsemen had been in search of them; and they 
 accordingly turned aside from the road, and passed the night in 
 a deep wood in great want. But the indomitable spirit of the 
 
218 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXVI. 
 
 old man did not fail him ; and he consoled himself and encouraged 
 his companions by the assurance that he should still live to see 
 his seventh consulship, in accordance with a prediction that had 
 been made to him in his youth. Shortly afterwards, when they 
 were near to Minturnae, they descried a party of horsemen 
 galloping towards them. In great haste they hurried down to 
 the sea, and swam off' to two merchant-vessels, which received 
 them on board. The horsemen bade the crew bring the ship to 
 land or throw Marius overboard; but, moved by his tears and 
 entreaties, they refused to surrender him. The sailors soon 
 changed their minds ; and, fearing to keep Marius, they cast 
 anchor at the mouth of the Liris, where they persuaded him to 
 disembark, and rest himself from his fatigues till a wind should 
 rise ; but they had no sooner landed him than they immediately 
 sailed away. Marius was now quite alone amid the swamps 
 and marshes through which the Liris flows. With difficulty he 
 reached the hut of an old man, who concealed him in a hole 
 near the river, and covered him with reeds ; but hearing shortly 
 afterwards the noise of his pursuers, he crept out of his hiding- 
 place and threw himself into the marsh. He was discovered^ 
 and dragged out of the water ; and, covered with mud and with 
 a rope round his neck, was delivered up to the authorities of 
 Minturnae. The magistrates then deliberated whether they 
 should comply with the instruction that had been sent from 
 Rome to all the municipal towns to put Marius to death as soon 
 as they found him. After some consultation the\' resolved to 
 obey it, and sent a Cimbrian slave to carry out their orders. 
 The room in which the old general was confined was dark ; and, 
 to the frightened barbarian, the eyes of Marius seemed to dart 
 forth fire, and from the darkness a terrible vo'ce shouted out, 
 " Man ! durst thou slay Cains Marius ? " The barbarian immedi- 
 ately threw down his sword, and rushed out of the house, 
 exclaiming, "I cannot kill Cains Marius!" Straightway there 
 was a revulsion of feeling among the inhabitants of Minturnae. 
 They repented of their ungrateful conduct towards a man who 
 had saved Rome and Italy. They got ready a ship for his 
 departure, provided him with everything necessary for the 
 voyage, and, with prayers and wishes for his safety, placed him 
 on board. The wind carried him to the island of Aenaria (now 
 Ischia), where he found the rest of his friends ; and from thence 
 
Chap. XXVI.] FIRST CIVIL WAR. 219 
 
 he set sail for Africa, which he reached in safety. He landed 
 near the site of Carthage, but he had scarcely put his foot on 
 shore before the praetor Sextilius sent an officer to bid him 
 leave the country, or else he would carry into execution the 
 decree of the senate. This last blow almost unmanned Marius. 
 Grief and indignation for a time deprived him of speech, and his 
 only reply was, " Tell the praetor that you have seen Caius 
 Marius a fugitive sitting on the ruins of Carthage." Shortly 
 afterwards Marius was joined by his son, and they crossed over to 
 the island of Cercina, where they remained unmolested. 
 
 Meantime a revolution had taken place at Rome, which pre- 
 pared the way for the return of Marius to Italy. Sulla's soldiers 
 were impatient for the plunder of Asia, and he 
 had abruptly to interrupt his great work of the ^^P^^]^ "^ *"® 
 reform of the constitution, M'hich he had alreadv ]o„g 
 commenced. After securing the repeal of tlie 
 Sulpician laws, he sent forward his legions to Capua, that they 
 might be ready to embark for Greece ; he himself remained 
 in Rome till the consuls were elected for the following year, to 
 secure if possible the support of his interests in the capital during 
 his absence in Asia. But the candidates whom he recommended 
 were rejected, and the choice fell on Cn. Octavius, who belonged 
 to the aristocratical party, but was a weak and irresolute man, 
 and on L. Cinna, a professed champion of the popular side. 
 
 Sulla did not attempt to oppose their election : to have recalled 
 his legions to Rome would have been a dangerous experiment 
 when the soldiers were so eager for the spoils of 
 the East ; and he only took the vain precaution j^j^ *^^^ ^ 
 of making Cinna promise that he would make no 
 attempt to disturb the existing order of things. But as soon as 
 Sulla had quitted Italy, Cinna again brought forward the law for 
 incorporating the new Italian citizens among the thirty-five 
 tribes. The two consuls had recourse to arms — Octavius to 
 oppose, and Cinna to carry the law. A dreadful conflict took 
 place in the forum. The party of Octavius obtained the victory, 
 and Cinna was driven out of the city with great slaughter. But 
 in spite of this repulse, he was soon at the head of a formidable 
 army composed chiefly of the new citizens, whose cause he had 
 espoused. 
 
 As soon as Marius heard of these changes he set sail from 
 
220 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXVL 
 
 Africa, and offered to serve uuder Cinna, who gladly accepted his 
 proposal, and named him proconsul ; but Marius refused all 
 
 marks of honour. The sufferings and privations 
 Cinna^ *° ^^ ^^^ endured had exasperated his proud and 
 
 haughty spirit almost to madness, and nothing but 
 the blood of his enemies could appease his resentment. He 
 continued to wear a mean and humble dress, and his hair and 
 beard had remained unshorn from the day he had been driven 
 out of Rome. After joining Cinna, Marius prosecuted the war 
 with great vigour. He first captured the corn-ships, and thus 
 cut off Rome from its usual supply of food. He next took Ostia 
 and the other towns on the sea-coast; then, marching north- 
 ward, he encamped on the Janiculura. Famine began to rage 
 in the city, and the senate were obliged to yield. They sent a 
 deputation to Cinna and Marius, inviting them into the city, but 
 entreating them to spare the citizens. Cinna received the 
 deputies sitting in his chair of office, and gave them a kind 
 answer. Marius stood in silence by the side of the consul, but 
 his looks spoke louder than words. 
 
 After the audience was over they entered the city. The most 
 frightful scenes followed. The Consul Octavius was slain while 
 
 seated in his curule chair. The streets ran with 
 ftTome^^ the noblest blood of Rome. Every one whom 
 
 Marius hated or feared was hunted out and put 
 to death ; and no consideration, either of rank, talent, or former 
 friendship, induced him to spare the victims of his vengeance. 
 The great orator, M. Antonius, fell by the hands of his assassins ; 
 and his former colleague, Q. Catulus, who had triumphed with 
 him over the Cimbri, was obliged to put an end to his own life. 
 Cinna was soon tired of the butchery ; but the appetite of Marius 
 seemed only whetted by the slaughter, and daily required fresh 
 victims for its gratification. 
 
 Without going through the form of an election, Marius and 
 Cinna named themselves consuls for the following year (86 B.C.), 
 
 and thus was fulfilled the prediction that Marius 
 jialvivLS should be seven times consul. But he did not 
 
 long enjoy the honour : he was now in his seventy- 
 first year; his body was worn out by the fatigues and sufferings 
 he had recently undergone ; and on the eighteenth day of his con- 
 sulship he died of an attack of pleurisy, after a few days' illness. 
 
Mount Argaeus in Cappadocia. 
 
 CHAPTEE XXVII. 
 
 FIRST MITHKIDATIC WAR. 
 
 ^-84 B.C. 
 
 The kingdom of Pontus, which derived its name from being on 
 the coast of the Pontus Euxinus, or Black Sea, was originally 
 a satrapy of the Persian Empire, extending from 
 the river Halys on the west to the frontiers of f pontus 
 Colchis on the east. Even under the later 
 Persian kings the rulers of Pontus were really independent ; and 
 in the wars of the successors of Alexander the Great it became 
 a separate kingdom. Most of its kings bore the name of 
 Mithridates ; and the fifth monarch of this name formed an 
 alHance with the Romans, and was rewarded with the province 
 of Phrygia for the services he had rendered them in the war 
 against Aristonicus (p. 177). 
 
222 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXVIl. 
 
 He was assassinated about 120 b.c, and was succeeded by his 
 son Mithridates VI., commonly called the Great, who was then 
 . . only about twelve years of age. The young 
 
 1 ri a es. jj^Qn^^ch grew up to be the type of ruler which 
 is the ideal of the Eastern mind. His vast strength and powers 
 of endurance, his matchless skill in arms and the restless vigour of 
 his mind were emblems of that power under which the Oriental 
 loves to be crushed, and whose guidance he will ever follow. A 
 careful training had still further developed these natural gifts. 
 As a boy, Mithridates had been brought up at Sinope, where he 
 had probably received the elements of a Greek education, and 
 so powerful was his memory that he is said to have learnt not 
 less than twenty-five languages, and to have been able, in the 
 days of his greatest power, to transact business with the deputies 
 of every tribe subject to his rule in their own peculiar dialect. 
 
 As soon as he was firmly established on the throne, he began 
 to turn his arms against the neighbouring nations. On the west 
 
 his progress was hemmed in bj' the power of 
 ExtMision of Rome, and the minor sovereigns of Bithynia and 
 
 Cappadocia enjoyed the all-powerful protection of 
 
 theKepublic. But on the east his ambition found 
 free scope. He subdued the barbarian tribes between the 
 Euxine and the confines of Armenia, including the whole of 
 Colchis and the province called Lesser Armenia ; and he even 
 added to his dominions the Tauric Chersonesus, now called the 
 Crimea. The Greek kingdom of Bosporus, which formed a 
 portion of the Chersonesus, likewise submitted to his sway. He 
 further strengthened himself by alliances with Tigranes, king of 
 Greater Armenia, to whom he gave his daughter Cleopatra in 
 marriage, and with the warlike nations of the Parthians and 
 Iberians. He thus found himself in possession of power and 
 resources sufficient to make him deem himself equal to a contest 
 with Rome itself. 
 
 Many causes of dissension had already arisen. Shortly after 
 his accession the Eomans had taken advantage of his minority 
 
 to wrest from him the province of Phrygia. In 
 Mithridates 93 ^ ,^_ ^^^^ resisted his attempt to place upon 
 with Some ^^ throne of Cappadocia one of his own nephews, 
 
 and appointed a Cappadocian named Ariobarzanes 
 to be king of that country. For a time Mithridates submitted, 
 
Chap. XXVII. J MITHRIDATES IN CONFLICT WITH ROME. 223 
 
 but the death of Nicomedes II, king of Bithynia brought 
 matters to a crisis. That monarch was succeeded by his eldest 
 son Nicomedes III., but Mithridates took the opportunity to set 
 up a rival claimant, whose pretensions he supported with an 
 army, and quickly drove Nicomedes out of Bithynia (90 B.C.). 
 About the same time his generals openly invaded Cappadocia, 
 and expelled Ariobarzanes from his kingdom, establishing the 
 Pontic pretender Ariarathes in his place. Both the fugitive princes 
 had recourse to Rome, where they found ready support : a 
 decree was passed that Nicomedes and Ariobarzanes should be 
 restored to their respective kingdoms, and the execution of it 
 was confided to M'. Aquillius and L. Cassius. 
 
 Mithridates again yielded, and the two fugitive kings were re- 
 stored to their dominions ; but no sooner was Nicomedes replaced 
 on the throne of Bithynia than he was urged by the Roman 
 legates to invade the territories of Mithridates, into which he 
 made a predatory incursion. Mithridates offered no resistance, 
 but sent to the Romans to demand satisfaction, and it was not 
 until his ambassador was dismissed with an evasive answer that 
 he prepared for immediate hostilities ^88 B.C.). His first step 
 was to invade Cappadocia, from which he easily expelled 
 Ariobarzanes once more. His generals drove Nicomedes out 
 of Bithynia, and defeated AquilHus. 
 
 Mithridates, following up his advantage, not only made him- 
 self master of Phrygia and Galatia, but invaded the Roman 
 province of Asia. Here the universal discontent 
 of the inhabitants, caused by the oppression of the Mithridates in- 
 Roman governors, enabled him to overrun the 
 whole province almost without opposition. The Roman officers, 
 who had imprudently brought this danger upon themselves, were 
 unable to collect any forces to oppose his progress ; and Aquillius 
 himself, the chief author of the war, fell into the hands of the 
 king of Pontus. 
 
 Mithridates took up his winter quarters at Pergamus, where 
 he issued the sanguinary order to all the cities of Asia to put to 
 death on the same day all the Roman and Italian 
 citizens who were to be found within their walls, ^^.ssacre of 
 So hateful had the Romans rendered themselves Italians 
 during the short period of their dominion, that 
 these commands were obeyed with alacrity by almost all the 
 
224 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXVII. 
 
 cities of Asia. Eighty thousand persons are said to have 
 perished in this fearful massacre. 
 
 The success of Mithridates encouraged the Athenians to join 
 the Uberator of the East; and the king accordingly sent his 
 
 general Archelaus with a large army and fleet into 
 Greek cities Greece. Most of the Greek states had declared 
 ^ ' for the king when Sulla landed in Epirus in 87 
 
 B.C. He immediately marched southwards, and laid siege to 
 Athens and the Piraeus. For many months all his attacks 
 were resisted ; but Athens at last surrendered in the spring of 
 the following year ; and Archelaus, despairing of defending the 
 Piraeus, withdrew into Boeotia, where he received some powerful 
 reinforcements from Mithridates. 
 
 The Eoman array now captured the Piraeus, and Athens 
 and her seaport were given up to plunder. This, however, 
 
 was the only penalty which the Athenians suffered 
 Mke^'^^ °^ ^^^" *'^®^'" treachery ; their state, in virtue of the 
 
 memories of the past, was still allowed to remain a 
 free city. 
 
 Sulla then turned against Archelaus in Boeotia, and defeated 
 him with enormous loss at Chaeronea. Out of the 110,000 men 
 
 of which the Pontic army consisted, Archelaus 
 Battle of assembled only 10,000 at Chalcis in Euboea, where 
 
 he had taken refuge. Mithridates, on receiving 
 news of this great disaster, immediately set about raising fresh 
 troops, and was soon able to send another army of 80 000 men 
 to Euboea. But he now found himself threatened with danger 
 from a new and unexpected quarter. While Sulla was still 
 occupied in Greece, the party of Marius at Piome had sent a 
 fresh army to Asia under the Consul L. Valerius Flaccus, to 
 carry on the war at once against their foreign and domestic 
 enemies. Flaccus was murdered by his troops at the instigation 
 of Fimbria, who now assumed the command, and gained several 
 victories over Mithridates and his generals in Asia (85 B.C.). 
 
 About the same time the new army, which the king had 
 sent to Archelaus in Greece, was defeated by Sulla in the 
 
 neighbourhood of Orchomenus. These repeated 
 
 Battle of 
 Orohomen 
 
 (84 B.C.), when, unmoved by the triumph of his enemies at 
 
 - disasters made Mithridates anxious for peace, but 
 
 it was not granted by Sulla till the following year 
 
Chap. XXVII.] 
 
 RETURN OF SULLA. 
 
 225 
 
 home, he resolved to finish the work by carrying the war into 
 Asia. 
 
 The terms of peace were definitely settled at an interview 
 which the l^oman general and the Pontic king had at Dardanus 
 in the Troad. Mithridates consented to abandon 
 all his conquests in Asia, to restrict himself to the lynthridates 
 dominions which he held before the commence- 
 ment of the war, to pay a sum of 2000 talents, and to surrender 
 to the Romans his present fleet of seventy ships fully equipped. 
 
 Sulla was now at liberty to turn his arms against Fimbria, 
 who was with his army at Thyatira. His name was sufficient 
 to cause the troops of Fimbria to desert their 
 general, who put an end to his own fife. Sulla g„ji„ 
 now prepared to return to Italy. After exacting 
 enormous sums from the wealthy cities of Asia, he left his 
 legate, L. Licinius Murena, in command of that province, with 
 two legions, and set sail with his own army to Athens. While 
 preparing for his deadly struggle in Italy, he did not lose his 
 interest in literature. He carried with him from Athens to 
 Rome the valuable library of Apellicon of Teos, which contained 
 most of the works of Aristotle and Theophrastus. 
 
 Oota of Nicomedes III., King of Bithynia. 
 
CHAPTER XXVIII. 
 
 SECOND CniL WAK — 
 
 Sulla's dictator- 
 ship. LEGISLATION, 
 AND DEATH. 83-78 
 B.C. 
 
 Sulla landed at Brun- 
 dusium in the spring of 
 
 83 B.C., 
 Fruitless j j^ ^ j, g 
 
 negotiations ■, 
 
 of the senate, consul- 
 
 ship of L. 
 Scipio and C. Norbanus. 
 During the preceding 
 j^ear he had written to 
 the senate, recounting 
 the services he had 
 rendered to the com- 
 monwealth, complaining 
 of the ingratitude witli 
 which he had been 
 treated, announcing his 
 speedy return to Italy, 
 and threatening to take 
 vengeance upon his 
 enemies and those of 
 the Repubhc. The 
 senate, in alarm, sent 
 an embassy to Sulla to 
 
Chap. XXVIII.] SECOND CIVIL WAR. 227 
 
 endeavour to bring about a reconciliation between him and his 
 enemies, and meantime ordered the consuls Cinna and Carbo 
 to desist from levying troops and making further preparations 
 for war. 
 
 Cinna and Carbo gave no heed to this command ; they knew 
 that a reconcihation was impossible, and resolved to cross the 
 Adriatic with an army in order to oppose Sulla in 
 Greece ; but, after one detachment of their troops /j;^Ia^'^ ° 
 had embarked, the rest of the soldiers rose in 
 mutiny, and murdered Cinna. The Marian party had thus lost 
 their chief leader, but continued nevertheless to make every 
 preparation to resist Sulla, for tliej^ were well aware that he 
 would never forgive them, and that their only choice lay between 
 victory and destruction. 
 
 Besides this the Italians were ready to support them, as these 
 new citizens feared that Sulla would deprive them of the rights 
 which they had lately obtained after so much 
 bloodshed. The Marian party had every prospect I'^P^^^tions 
 of victory, for their troops far exceeded those 
 of their opponent. They had 200,000 men in arms, while Sulla 
 landed at Brnndusium with only 30,000, or at the most 40,000 
 men. But, on the other hand, the popular party had no one of 
 sufficient influence and military reputation to take the supreme 
 command in the war ; their vast forces were scattered about 
 Italy, in different armies, under different generals ; the soldiers 
 had no confidence in their commanders, and no enthusiasm in 
 their cause ; and the consequence was, that whole hosts of them 
 deserted to Sulla on the first opportunity. Sulla's soldiers, on 
 the contrary, were veterans, who had frequently fought by each 
 other's sides, and had acquired that confidence in themselves 
 and in their general which frequent victories always give. Still, 
 if the Italians had remained faithful to the cause of the Marian 
 party, Sulla would hardly have conquered, and therefore one of 
 his first cares after landing at Brundusium was to detach them 
 from his enemies. 
 
 For this purpose he would not allow his troops to do any 
 injury to the towns or fields of the Italians in his march from 
 Brundusium through Calabria and Apulia, and « n > 
 he formed separate treaties with many of the ^ ^^^' 
 
 Italian towns, by which he secured to them all the rights and 
 
228 HISTORV OF ROME. [Chap. XXVIII. 
 
 privileges of Eoman citizens which they then enjoyed. Among 
 the Italians the Samnites continued to be the most formidable 
 enemies of Sulla. They had joined the Marian party, not 
 simply with the design of securing the supremacy for the latter, 
 but with the hope of conquering Kome by their means, and then 
 destroying for ever their hated oppressor. Thus this civil war 
 became merely another phase of the social war, and the struggle 
 between Rome and Samnium for the supremacy of the peninsula 
 was renewed after the subjection of the latter for more than 
 two hundred years. 
 
 Sulla marched from Apulia into Campania without meeting 
 
 with any resistance. In Campania he gained his first victory 
 
 over the consul Norbanus, who was defeated 
 
 Scff5s°army. ^^*^ ^^^* ^°^^» ^^^^ obliged to take refuge in 
 Capua. His colleague Scipio, who was at no 
 great distance, willingly accepted a truce which Sulla offered 
 him, although Sertorius, the ablest of the Marian generals, 
 warned him against entering into any negotiations. His caution 
 was justified by the event. By means of his emissaries Sulla 
 seduced the troops of Scipio, who at length found himself 
 deserted by all his soldiers, and was taken prisoner in his 
 tent. Sulla dismissed him uninjured under the pretence that 
 the convention now concluded bound the whole of the revolu- 
 tionary party, which should lay down its arms immediately or 
 become public enemies of Rome. This suborning of Scipio's 
 troops led Carbo to observe " that he had to contend in Sulla 
 both with a lion and a fox, but that the fox gave him more 
 trouble." Many distinguished Romans meantime had taken up 
 arms on behalf of Sulla. Cn. Pompeius, the son of Cn. 
 Pompeius Strabo, then only twenty-three years of age, levied 
 three legions in Picenum and the surrounding districts ; and Q. 
 Metellus Pius, M. Crassus, M. Lucullus, and several others offered 
 their services as legates. It was not, however, till the following 
 year (82 B.C.) that the struggle was brought to a decisive issue. 
 The consuls of this year were Cn. Papirius Carbo and the younger 
 Marius ; the former of whom was entrusted with the protection 
 of Etruria and Umbria, while the latter had to guard Rome and 
 Latium. Sulla appears to have passed the winter at Campania. 
 At the commencement of spring he advanced against the 
 younger Marius, who had concentrated all his forces at 
 
Chap. XXVIIL] SECOND CIVIL WAR. 229 
 
 Sacriportus, and defeated him with gi-eat loss. Marius took refuge 
 in Praeneste ; and Sulla, after leaving Q. Lucretius Ofella with a 
 large force to blockade the town, marched with 
 the main body of his army to Rome. Marius was pl^eneste 
 resolved not to perish unavenged, and accordingly, 
 l)efore Sulla could reach Rome, he sent orders to L. Damasippus, 
 the praetor, to put to death all his leading opponents. His 
 orders were faithfully obeyed. Q. Mucins Scaevola, the Pontifex 
 Maximus and jurist, P. Antistius, L. Domitius, and many other 
 distinguished men were butchered, and their corpses thrown into 
 the Tiber. Sulla entered the city without opposition, and 
 marched against Carbo, who had been previously opposed by 
 Pompey and Metellus. The history of this part of the war is 
 involved in great obscurity. Carbo made two efforts to relieve 
 Praeneste, but failed in each ; and, after fighting with various 
 fortune against Pompey, Metellus, and Sulla, he at length 
 embarked for Africa, despairing of further success in Italy. 
 
 Meantime Rome had nearly fallen into the hands of the enemy. 
 The Samnites under Pontius Telesinus and the Lucanians 
 under M. Lamponius, after attempting to relieve 
 
 Praeneste, resolved to march straight upon Rome, n^n-^l n„*„^ 
 ,.,,1, T p • ^ ^ . Colliiie Gate. 
 
 which had been lert without any army for its pro- 
 tection. Sulla arrived barely in time to save the city. The 
 battle was fought before the Colline Gate ; it was a long and 
 obstinate contest, the issue of which was not merely the 
 supremacy of a party : for the very existence of Rome was at 
 stake, and Pontius had declared that he would raze the city to the 
 ground. The left wing, where Sulla commanded in person, was 
 driven oiF the field by the vehemence of the enemy's charge ; 
 but the success of the right wing, which was commanded bj^ 
 Crassus, enabled Sulla to restore the battle, and at length gain 
 a complete victory. Fifty thousand men are said to have fallen 
 on each side. All the most distinguished leaders of the Marian 
 party either perished in the engagement, or were taken prisoners 
 and put to death. Among these was the brave Samnite Pontius, 
 whose head was cut off and carried under the walls of Praeneste, 
 thereby announcing to the younger Marius that his last hope of 
 succour was gone. To the Samnite prisoners Sulla showed no 
 mercy. He was resolved to root out of the peninsula those 
 heroic enemies of Rome. On the third day after the battle he 
 
230 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXVllI. 
 
 collected all the Samnite and Lucanian captives in the Campiis 
 Martius, and ordered his soldiers to cut them down. The dying 
 shrieks of so many victims alarmed the senators, who had been 
 assembled by Sulla in the neighbouring temple of Bellona ; but 
 he bade them attend to what he was saying, and not mind what 
 was taking place outside, as he was only chastising some rebels. 
 Praeneste surrendered soon afterwards. The Eomans in the 
 town were pardoned ; but the Samnites and Praenestines were 
 Surrender of massacred without mercy. The younger Marius 
 Praeneste. put an end to his own life. The war in Italy was 
 Sulla master now virtually at an end, for the few towns which 
 of Italy. g^iu |;^g^(j Q^^ l^ad no prospect of offering any 
 
 effectual opposition, and were reduced soon afterwards. In other 
 parts of the Roman world the war continued still longer, and 
 Sulla did not live to see its completion. The armies of the 
 Marian party in Sicily and Africa were subdued by Pompey in 
 the course of the same year; but Sertorius in Spain continued 
 to defy all the attempts of the senate till 72 B.C. 
 
 Sulla was now master of Rome. He had not commenced the 
 civil war, but had been driven to it by the mad ambition of 
 Marius. His enemies had attempted to deprive him of the 
 command in the Mithridatic War, which had been legally con- 
 ferred upon him by the senate ; and, while he was fighting the 
 battles of the Republic, they had declared him a public enemy, 
 confiscated his property, and murdered the most distinguished 
 of his friends and adherents. For all these wrongs Sulla had 
 threatened to take the most ample vengeance ; and he more 
 than redeemed his word. He resolved to extirpate the popular 
 party root and branch, and renew in a legalized form the indis- 
 criminate massacres of his Marian rivals. 
 
 One of his first acts was to draw up a list of his enemies who 
 were to be put to death, which list was exhibited in the forum 
 to public inspection, and called a proscriptio* 
 scrii^ion ^* ^^^ ^^ ^^^* instance of the kind in Roman 
 
 history. All persons in this list were outlaws, 
 who might be killed by any one with impunity ; their property 
 was confiscated to the state ; their children and grandchildren 
 were for ever excluded from all public offices. Further, all who 
 
 * Proscriptio means literally the " notice of sale " of the goods of outlawed 
 persons. It was here exten<1ed to include the act of outlawry. 
 
Chap. XXVIIl.] DICTATORSHIP OF SULLA. 231 
 
 killed a proscribed person, or indicated the place of his conceal- 
 ment, received two talents as a reward, and whoever sheltered 
 such a person was punished with death. Terror now reigned, 
 not only at Rome, but throughout Italy. Fresh lists of the pro- 
 scribed constantly appeared. No one was safe ; for Sulla 
 gratified his friends by placing in the fatal lists their personal 
 enemies, or individuals whose property was coveted by his 
 adherents. An estate, a house, or even a piece of plate, was to 
 many a man, who belonged to no political party, his death- 
 warrant ; for, although the confiscated property belonged to the 
 state, and had to be sold by public auction, the friends and 
 dependents of Sulla purchased it at a nominal price, as no one 
 dared to bid against them. Oftentimes Sulla did not require the 
 purchase-money to be paid at all, and in many cases he gave 
 such property to his favourites without even the formality of a 
 sale. Four thousand seveu hundred names are said to have 
 found their way into the SuUan proscription lists. 
 
 At the commencement of these horrors Sulla had been ap- 
 pointed dictator. As there were no consuls, he caused the 
 senate to elect Valerius Flaccus interrex, and the 
 latter brought before the people a rogatio, con- Sulla 
 ferring the dictatorship upon Sulla, for the purpose ^wotQ]. 
 of restoring the Republic, and for as long a time 
 as he judged to be necessary, and giving a retrospective sanction 
 to his acts (81 B.C.). This dictatorship had little resemblance 
 to the occasional office of the early Republic. It was practically 
 a restoration of the monarchy, and foreshadowed the autocratic 
 power of Caesar in later times. But the new ruler did not mean 
 to be king. His dictatorship was only a provisional government 
 by which he meant to place the government of the RepubHc on 
 a firm and secure basis. Consuls were chosen for the following 
 year (81 b.c), and Sulla was elected to the office himself in 
 80 B.C., while he continued to be dictator. 
 
 At the beginning of 81 B.C. Sulla celebrated a splendid triumph 
 on account of his victory over Mithridates. In a speech which 
 he delivered to the people at the close of the gorgeous ceremony, 
 he claimed for himself the surname of Felix, as he attributed his 
 success in Hfe to the favour of the gods. All ranks in Rome 
 bowed in awe before their master ; and among other marks of 
 distinction which were voted to him by the obsequious senate, 
 
232 HISTORY OF ROME, [Chap. XXVIII. 
 
 a gilt equestrian statue was erected to his honour before the 
 Rostra, bearing the inscription, " Cornelio Sullae Imperatori 
 Felici." 
 
 During the years 80 and 79 B.C. Sulla completed his various 
 reforms in the constitution, of which an account is given at the 
 end of this chapter. Two questions which im- 
 f Tt 1 mediately engaged his attention were the punish- 
 
 ment of the rebel communities in Italy, and the 
 rewards to his soldiers. Both were settled by the same means. 
 Although he wisely upheld the distribution of the new Italian 
 citizens in the thirty-five tribes, the inhabitants of those Italian 
 towns which had fought against him were deprived of the full 
 Roman franchise which had been lately conferred upon them, 
 while their lands were confiscated and given to the soldiers who 
 had fought under him. 
 
 A great number of these colonists were settled in Etruria. 
 They had the strongest interest in upholding the new institu- 
 tions, since any attempt to invalidate the latter 
 Settlement oi ^q^j^j j^ave endangered their newly acquired pos- 
 sessions. But, though they were a support to the 
 power of Sulla, they hastened the fall of the commonwealth ; 
 nothing could change the idle and licentious soldiery into agri- 
 culturists ; and Catiline found nowhere more adherents than 
 among the Sullan veterans. While Sulla thus established 
 throughout Italy a population devoted to his interests, he created 
 at Rome a kind of body-guard for his protection by giving the 
 citizenship to a great number of slaves belonging to the pro- 
 scribed. The slaves thus rewarded are said to have been as 
 many as 10,000, and were called Cornelii after him as their 
 patron. 
 
 Sulla had completed his reforms by the beginning of 79 B.C. ; 
 and as he longed for the undisturbed enjoyment of his pleasures, 
 he resigned his dictatorship, and declared himself 
 Sulla_ resigns ready to render an account of his conduct while 
 Lis dictator- j^ ^^^^^ rj.^.^ voluntary abdication by Sulla of 
 the sovereignty of the Roman world has excited 
 the astonishment and admiration of both ancient and modern 
 writers. But it is evident that Sulla never contemplated, like 
 JuUus Caesar, the establishment of a monarchical form of govern- 
 ment; and both his life and his institutions were strongly 
 
Chap. XXVIII.] DEATH OF SULLA. 233 
 
 guarded against attack. The 10,000 Cornelii at Eome, and his 
 veterans stationed throughout Italy, as well as the whole strength 
 of the aristocratical party, secured him against all danger. Even 
 in his retirement his will was law^ and shortly before his death 
 he ordered his slaves to strangle a magistrate of one of the 
 towns in Italy, because he was a public defaulter. 
 
 After resigning his dictatorship, Sulla retired to his estate at 
 Puteoli, and there, surrounded by the beauties of nature and 
 art, he passed the remainder of his life in those _. 
 literary and sensual enjoyments in which he had 
 always taken so much pleasure. He died in 78 B.C., in the 
 sixtieth year of his age, of apoplexy brought on by a fit of pas- 
 sion. The senate, faithful to the last, resolved to give him the 
 honour of a public funeral. This was, however, opposed by the 
 Consul Lepidus, who had resolved to attempt the repeal of 
 Sulla's laws ; but the dictator's power continued unshaken even 
 after his death. The veterans were summoned from their 
 colonies, and Q. Catulus, L. Lucullus, and Cn. Pompeius placed 
 themselves at their head. Lepidus was obliged to give way, 
 and allowed the funeral to take place without interruption. It 
 was a gorgeous pageant. The magistrates, the senate, the 
 equites, the priests, and the Vestal virgins, as well as the 
 veterans, accompanied the funeral procession to the Campus 
 Martius, where the corpse was burnt according to the wish of 
 Sulla himself, who feared that his enemies might insult his 
 remains, as he had done those of Marius, which had been taken 
 out of the grave and thrown into the Anio at his command. It 
 had been previously the custom of the Cornelia gens to bury 
 and not burn their dead. A monument was erected to Sulla in 
 the Campus Martius, the inscription on which he is said to have 
 composed himself. It stated that none of his friends ever did 
 him a kindness, and none of his enemies a wrong, without being 
 fully repaid. 
 
 All the reforms of Sulla were effected by means of leges, 
 
 which were proposed by him in the Comitia Centuriata, and 
 
 bore the general name of Leges Gorveliae. The 
 
 main object of his reforms was to restore the °5-? ?. 
 
 J.1 j.Li-^ TIT.- J constitution. 
 
 senate s power and to set it on a legal basis; and, 
 
 in order to secure its permanence, to weaken the authority both 
 
 of the magistrates and of the people. 
 
234 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXVIII. 
 
 His efforts were primarily directed against the tribunate. 
 This magistracy, which had first served the interests of the 
 plebs, and afterwards those of the senate, had now 
 Changesin degenerated into a weapon which was used by 
 straw^^" powerful party-leaders for their own aggrandize- 
 
 ment. Sulla took away from the tribunes their 
 right of initiative in legislation, by prohibiting them from pro- 
 posing measures except on the request of the senate. He also 
 subordinated their power of veto to a similar control. To 
 degrade the tribunate still further, he made the holding of this 
 office a bar to all further advancement in the state ; it ceased to 
 be a stepping-stone and became a stumbling-block in the path 
 to the higher magistracies. 
 
 The danger of prolonged and unusual commands had recently 
 been exhibited; Sulla consequently re-enacted the Leijes Annnles, 
 making it necessary to hold the quaestorship before the praetor- 
 ship, and the praetorship before the consulship ; and he also 
 forbade the same magistracy to be held a second time until 
 after the expiration of ten years. But it was military com- 
 mand in the provinces, and its frequent combination with 
 a home magistracy, that chiefly threatened danger to the 
 state. Sulla secured a complete separation between home and 
 foreign command. After his time the consul or praetor no 
 longer takes the field. He is confined to civil duties during 
 his year of office, and only then goes out as proconsul or 
 propraetor. 
 
 The priestly colleges (especially those of the pontiffs and 
 augurs) were of hardly less political importance than the magis- 
 tracies. By a Lex Domitia of 104 B.C. the right 
 ^"lle^^s"^^^^^ ^^ ^^'^^S ^V tbese corporations had been given to 
 ' an assembly of seventeen out of the thirty-five 
 
 tribes. Sulla restored the old principle of co-optatin, by which 
 the members of these bodies added to their own numbers, and 
 thus rendered these corporations more aristocratic. 
 
 The popular voice was necessarily restricted by the limitations 
 
 on the tribunate ; for the Assembly of the Plebs could now only 
 
 ratify the decrees of the senate ; it still, however, 
 
 ^^ *^5 elected the plebeian magistrates. The power of 
 
 ' the Assembly of the Centuries was left technically 
 
 unimpaired, but Sulla abolished the democratic system of tribe- 
 
Chap. XXVIII.] REFORMS OF SULLA. 235 
 
 voting,* and restored the old arrangement of the centuries on 
 
 the Servian basis. 
 
 The senate, reduced in numbers by the late proscription, was 
 
 recruited by the addition of 300 members from the equestrian 
 
 order ; and a permanent change was made in its . ^, , 
 
 ,.' , . ^„, . . , *= „ , , in the senate, 
 
 constitution, ihe principle was now nxed by 
 
 which the quaestorship was made the only stepping-stone to 
 
 senatorial dignity ; henceforth the personal choice by the censor 
 
 ceases, and the senate is recruited in a purely automatic manner. 
 
 The increase of the quaestors to twenty permanently doubled 
 
 the number of its members, which from this time was about 600. 
 
 A thorough reform was also undertaken in the administration 
 of justice. In place of the criminal jurisdiction of the comitia, 
 or of the occasional commissioners which it . . 
 appointed, Sulla established permanent courts ^. ^ 
 (quaestiones perpetuae), each of which was to 
 try a definite crime. A precedent for this change had been 
 given by the Lex Calpurnia of 149 B.C., by which a standing 
 commission was appointed for all trials repetundarum. Since 
 that date the court for the trial of extortion had been frequently 
 reconstituted, and another for the trial of bribery (ambitus) had 
 been added. The number of quaestiones was greatly increased 
 by Sulla ; and treason, murder, breach of the peace, peculation, 
 and forgery were made the subjects of the new criminal com- 
 missions. 
 
 These new courts, consisting each of a definite number of 
 jurors (Judices), were presided over by those praetors who were 
 not engaged in civil jurisdiction ; as the praetors were now 
 raised to eight, six were available as criminal judges ; but the 
 courts exceeded this number, and consequently they were some- 
 times presided over by a foreman chosen from the jury {judex 
 quaestionis). Their establishment by Sulla was made the occa- 
 sion of a Lex Judiciaria enacting that \hQ judices should be taken 
 exclusively from the senators and not from the equites, the latter 
 of whom had possessed this privilege, with one brief interrup- 
 tion, from the time of C. Gracchus, The dependence of the 
 senate on the equestrian order was thus removed, and the 
 aristocracy was armed with a weapon by which it could defend 
 its privileges and abuses and hold its enemies in check. 
 
 * p. 146. 
 
236 
 
 HISTOKV OF ROME. 
 
 [Chap. XXVIII. 
 
 Such are the outlines of one of the most extraordinarj' attempts 
 at reactionary legislation that history records. The new consti- 
 tution contained within itself the germs of dissolu- 
 General view ^j^jj . f^^ j^ invited attack from every side. The 
 oftheSuUan ! , i i r i . j n- 
 
 constitution senate s power had tormerly rested on public 
 
 opinion, and for this coercive laws are a poor 
 substitute. The shackles imposed on the tribunate made the 
 restoration of the powers of this magistracy a popular party cry. 
 The knights, whose support might have bolstered up the consti- 
 tution, were hopelessly alienated by the loss of the judicia. 
 The senate, still bent on plundering the provinces, showed no 
 tendency to reform ; and the censorship, which had kept the 
 order comparatively pure, was practically abolished. We are 
 not surprised, therefore, to find that in a few years Sulla's 
 bulwarks were swept away. Those portions of his constitution 
 alone were permanent that were not marked by a partisan 
 spirit. His reconstruction of the senate, his regulation of pro- 
 vincial commands, and his criminal courts remained proofs of 
 his genius for organization. 
 
 Coin of Sulla. 
 
Cn. Pompeius Magnus. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX. 
 
 KKOM THE DEATH OF SULLA TO THE CONSULSHIP OF POMPBY 
 AND CRASSUS. 78-70 B.C. 
 
 Sulla was scarcely dead before an attempt was made to over- 
 throw the aristocratical constitution which he had established. 
 The Consul M. Lepidus had already, as we have 
 seen, endeavoured to prevent the burial of Sulla i,g|,jjug 
 in the Campus Martins. He now proposed to 
 repeal the dictator's laws ; but the other consul, Q. Catulus, 
 remained firm to the aristocracy, and offered the most strenuous 
 opposition to the measures of his colleague. Faesulae in Etruria 
 was soon the scene of a revolt of the proletariate which had 
 been dispossessed by Sulla. "When the consuls were ordered to 
 
238 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXIX. 
 
 suppress it, Lepidus seized the opportunity of putting himself at 
 the head of the insurgents in the revolted district and march- 
 ing straight upon Rome. The senate assembled an army, which 
 they placed under the command of Q. Catulus, with Pompey as 
 his lieutenant. A battle was fought near the Mulvian bridge, in 
 which Lepidus was defeated, and, finding it impossible to main- 
 tain his footing in Italy, he sailed with the remainder of his 
 forces to Sardinia, where he died soon afterwards. 
 
 Meantime the remains of tlie Marian party had found refuge 
 in Spain. Q. Sertorius, one of the ablest of their generals, had 
 received the government of this country in the 
 Sertorius in y^^^, g2 b.c. He soon acquired an extraordinary 
 ^ ■ ascendency over the minds of the natives, and 
 
 flattered them with the hope of establishing an independent state 
 which might bid defiance to Rome. His influence was enhanced 
 by the superstition of the people. He was accompanied on all 
 occasions by a tame fawn, which they believed to be a familiar 
 spirit. So attached did they become to his person, that he 
 found no difficulty in collecting a formidable army, which for 
 some years successfully opposed all the power of Rome. Sulla's 
 generals had forced him for a time to quit Spain for Africa ; but 
 he soon returned, consolidated his power afresh, and was rein- 
 forced in 78 B.C. by a considerable body of troops which Perperna 
 carried with him into Spain after the defeat of Lepidus. In 
 79 B.C. Metellus, who had been consul the previous year with 
 Sulla, was sent against him ; but, though an able general, he was 
 baffled by the unexpected nature of a war, which was no longer 
 a revolt, but a struggle for national independence ; and the senate 
 sent Pompey to aid in the reduction of the power, half Roman, 
 half Spanish, of which Sertorius was the head. Pompey, though 
 only thirty years of age, was already regarded as the ablest 
 general of the Republic; and as he played such a prominent 
 part in her later history, we may here pause to give a brief 
 account of his early career. 
 
 Pompey was born in 106 B.C., and was, as we have already seen, 
 the son of Cn. Pompeius Strabo, who fought against the Italians 
 in his consulsliip, 89 B.C. The young Pompey 
 j?ompey. served under his father in this war, when he was 
 
 only seventeen years of age, and continued with him till his 
 death two years afterwards. Subsequently he was obliged to 
 
Chap. XXIX.] POMPEY, 239 
 
 fight in the ranks of the democrats, when Cinna forced his way 
 into Rome (87 B.C.) ; but Pompey was no democrat at heart. 
 As soon as Sulla had finished the Mithridatic War, and was on 
 his way to Italy, instead of waiting, like the other leaders of the 
 aristocracy, for the arrival of their chief, he resolved to share 
 with him the glory of crushing the Marian party. Accordingly 
 he proceeded to levy troops in Picenum without holding any 
 public office ; and such was his personal influence that he was 
 able to raise an army of three legions. Before joining Sulla he 
 gained a brilliant victory over the Marian generals, and was 
 received by Sulla with the greatest distinction. Upon the con- 
 clusion of the war in Italy, Pompey was sent first into Sicily, and 
 afterwards into Africa, where the Marian party still held out. 
 His success was rapid and decisive. In a few months he re- 
 duced the whole of Numidia, and, unhke other Roman governors, 
 abstained from plundering the province. His military achieve- 
 ments and his incorruptibility procured him the greatest renown, 
 and he returned to Rome covered with glory (80 B.C.). Numbers 
 flocked out of the city to meet him ; and the dictator himself, 
 who formed one of the crowd, greeted him with the surname of 
 Magnus or the Great, which he bore ever afterwards. Sulla 
 at first refused to let him triumph, for he had held no magistracy : 
 but as Pompey insisted upon the. honour, Sulla gave way, and 
 the young general entered Rome in triumph as a simple eques, 
 and before he had completed his twenty-fifth year. 
 
 Pompey again exhibited his power, in promoting, in 79 B.C., 
 the election of M. Aemilius Lepidus to the consulship, in opposi- 
 tion to the wishes of Sulla. The latter had now retired from 
 public affairs, and contented himself with warning Pompey, as 
 he met him returning from the comitia in triumph, "Young man, 
 it is time for you not to slumber, for you have strengthened your 
 rival against yourself." Lepidus seems to have reckoned upon . 
 the support of Pompey ; but in this he was disappointed, for 
 Pompey remained faithful to the aristocracy, and, after the 
 struggle with Lepidus, crushed the remains of the revolutionary 
 party in Cisalpine Gaul. The senate, who now began to dread 
 Pompey, ordered him to disband his army ; but he found various 
 excuses for evading this injunction, as he was anxious to obtain 
 the command of the war against Sertorius in Spain, They 
 hesitated, however, to give him this opportunity for gaining fresh 
 
240 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap, XXIX 
 
 distinction and additional power ; and it was only in consequence 
 of the continuous success of Sertorius tliat they at length un- 
 willingly determined to send Pompey to Spain, with the title of 
 proconsul, and with powers equal to Metellus. 
 
 Pompey arrived in Spain in 76 B.C. He soon found that he 
 had a more formidable enemy to deal with than he had yet 
 encountered. He suffered several defeats, and. 
 Pompey com- j-jiough he gained some advantages, yet sucli 
 Sertorius "were his losses that at the end of two years he 
 
 was obliged to send to Rome for reinforcements. 
 The war continued three years longer ; but Sertorius, who had 
 lost some of his influence over the Spanish tribes, and who had 
 become an object of jealousy to M. Perperna and his principal 
 Roman officers, was unable to carry on operations with the same 
 vigour as during the two preceding years. Pompey accordingly 
 gained some advantages over him, but the war was still far from 
 a close ; and the genius of Sertorius would probably have soon 
 given a very different aspect to affairs, had he not been assassi- 
 nated by Perperna in 72 b.c. 
 
 Perperna had flattered himself that he should succeed to the 
 power of Sertorius ; but he soon found that he had murdered 
 
 Murder of ^^^® '^^^y ™^'^ ^^^^ "^^^ ^^^^ *° ^^^''^ ^"™ ^^"^ ™^"' 
 Sertorius. In his first battle with Pompey he was completely 
 
 Conquest of defeated, his principal officers slain, and himself 
 Spain. taken prisoner. Anxious to save his life, he 
 
 offered to deliver up to Pompey the papers of Sertorius, con- 
 taining letters from many of the leading men at Rome. But 
 Pompey refused to see him, and commanded the letters to be 
 burnt. The war was now virtually at an end, and the remainder 
 of the year was employed in subduing the towns which still held 
 out. Metellus had taken no part in the final struggle with 
 Perperna ; and Pompey thus obtained the credit of bringing the 
 war to a conclusion. The people longed for his return, that he 
 might deliver Italy from Spartacus and his horde of gladiators, 
 who had defeated the consuls, and were in possession of a great 
 part of the peninsula. 
 
 A righteous retribution had overtaken the Romans for their 
 
 love of the cruel sports of the amphitheatre. 
 
 Spartacus. rJ^^^ gladiators were generally prisoners taken in 
 
 war and sold to persons who trained them in schools for the 
 
Chap. XXIX.] THE STRUGGLE WlTIt SPARTACUS. Ul 
 
 Roman games. There was such a school at Capua, and among 
 the gladiators was a Thracian of the name of Spartacus, origin- 
 ally a chief of banditti, who had been taken prisoner by the 
 Romans, and was now destined to be butchered for their amuse- 
 ment. Having prevailed upon about seventy of his comrades, 
 he burst out of the school with them, succeeded in obtaining 
 arms, and took refuge on Vesuvius, at that time an extinct 
 volcano (73 B.C.). Here he was soon joined by large numbers 
 of slaves, who flocked to him from all quarters. He was now 
 at the head of a formidable army. The desolation of the social 
 and civil wars had depopulated Italy, while the employment 
 of slave-labour furnished Spartacus with an endless supply of 
 soldiers. In addition to this, the war with Sertorius was not 
 yet finished, and that with Mithridates, of which we shall speak 
 presently, had already commenced. For upwards of two years 
 Spartacus was master of Italy, which he laid waste from the 
 foot of the Alps to the southernmost corner of the peninsula. 
 In 72 B.C. he found himself at the head of 100,000 men, and 
 defeated both consuls. 
 
 As the consuls of the following year had no military reputa- 
 tion, the conduct of the war was entrusted to the praetor, 
 M. Licinius Crassus, who had greatly distinguished „ 
 himself in the wars of Sulla. He had been re- 
 warded by the dictator with donations of confiscated property, 
 and had accumulated an immense fortune. Six legions were 
 now given him in addition to the remains of the consular armies 
 already in the field. The Roman troops were disheartened 
 and disorganized by defeat, but Crassus restored discipline by 
 decimating the soldiers. Spartacus was driven to the extreme 
 point of Bruttium ; his design was to pass over to Sicily, where 
 he would have been welcomed by thousands of followers. But he 
 failed in his attempt to cross the straits, and Crassus drew strong 
 lines of circumvallation across Bruttium to cut off his retreat. 
 Spartacus broke through the lines and again entered Lucania. 
 
 The Roman general hastened in pursuit, and fell in with the 
 main body of the fugitives. A desperate battle ensued, in which 
 Spartacus perished, with the greater part of his 
 followers. About 6000 were taken prisoners, gnorfacas 
 whom Crassus impaled on each side of the 
 Appian road between Rome and Capua. A body of 5000 
 
242 HISTORY OP ROME. [Chap. XXIX. 
 
 made their way northwards, whom Pompey met as he was 
 returning from Spain, and cut to pieces, Crassus had in reality 
 brought the war to an end; but Pompey took the credit to 
 himself, and wrote to the senate, saying, " Crassus, indeed, has 
 defeated the enemy, but I have extirpated them by the roots." 
 
 Pompey and Crassus now approached the city at the head of 
 their armies, and each laid claim to the consulship. Neither of 
 
 them was qualified by the laws of Sulla. Pompej'' 
 Coalition CI ^^^g ^^j^, j^ j^jg thirty-fifth year, and had not even 
 Crassus. ^^^^ ^^^ office of quaestor. Crassus was still 
 
 praetor, and two years ought to elapse before he 
 could become consul. A compromise was come to between the 
 generals, and, in order to win support from the democratic party 
 within the city, Pompey declared himself the advocate of the 
 popular rights, and promised to restore the tribunician power. 
 The senate dared not offer opposition, and accordingly they were 
 elected consuls for the following year. Pompey entered the 
 city in triumph on the 31st of December, 71 B.C., and Crassus 
 enjoyed the honour of an ovation. 
 
 The consulship of Pompey and Crassus (70 b.c.) was memor- 
 able for the downfall of the most important portions of Sulla's 
 
 constitutional reforms. The law making the tribu- 
 Downfall of ^^^^ ^^ ^^^. ^q higher offices had already been 
 constitution. I'^pealed by a Lex Aurelia of 75 B.C. ; but 
 
 Pompey now removed the disabilities on its 
 right of initiative and on the intercession. He also struck 
 another blow at the aristocrac3^ By one of Sulla's laws the 
 judices during the last ten years had been chosen from the 
 senate. The corruption and venality of the latter in the ad- 
 ministration of justice had exciteii the general indignation which 
 finds expression in Cicero's Verrines, and some change was 
 clamorously demanded by the people. 
 
 Accordingly, the Praetor L. Aurelius Cotta, with the approba- 
 tion of Pompey, proposed a law by which the judices were to 
 
 be taken in future from the senate, equites, arid 
 
 Tribuni Aerarii, the latter probably representing 
 the order which came next to the equites in the census. This 
 law was likewise carried ; but, though it rendered the courts less 
 of a political weapon, it did not improve the purity of the adminis- 
 tratioa of justice, since corruption was not confined to the 
 
Chap. XXIX.] COALITION OF POMPEY AND CRASSUS. 243 
 
 senators, but pervaded all classes of the community alike. 
 Pompey had thus broken with the aristocracy, and had become 
 the great popular hero. In carrying both these measures he 
 was strongly supported by Caesar, who, though he was rapidly 
 rising in popular favour, could as yet only hope to weaken the 
 power of the aristocracy through Pompey's means. The demo- 
 cratic programme was again allied with the military power, 
 and both were paving the way for absolutism. 
 
Coin ot Mithridates. 
 
 CHAPTER XXX. 
 
 THIRD OR GREAT MITHRIDATIC WAR. 74-61 B.C. 
 
 When Sulla returned to Italy after the first Mithridatic War, 
 he left L. Murena, with two legions, to hold the command in 
 Asia. Murena, who was eager for some oppor- 
 SecondMithn- ^^j^^j^^ ^^ earning the honour of a triumph, pre- 
 tending that Mithridates had not yet evacuated 
 the whole of Cappadocia, not only marched into that country, 
 but even crossed the Halys, and laid waste the plains of Pontus 
 itself (83 B.C.). To this flagrant breach of the treaty so lately 
 concluded the Roman general was in great measure instigated by 
 Archelaus, who, finding himself regarded with suspicion by Mithri- 
 dates, had consulted his safety by flight, and was received with 
 the utmost honour by the Romans. 
 
 Mithridates, who was wholly unprepared to renew the contest 
 
 with Rome, offered no opposition to the progress of Murena ; 
 
 but finding that general disregard his remon- 
 
 Defeat of strances, he sent to Rome to complain of his 
 
 IH nffi'nfl. 
 
 aggression. When, in the following spring 
 (82 B.C.), he saw Mtu'ena preparing to renew his hostile in- 
 cursions, he at once determined to oppose him by force, and 
 assembled a large army, with which he met the Roman general 
 on the banks of the Halys. The action that ensued terminated 
 in the complete victory of the king ; and Murena with difficulty 
 effected his retreat into Phrygia, leaving Cappadocia at the 
 mercy of Mithridates, who quickly overran the whole province. 
 Shortly afterwards A. Gabmius arrived in Asia, bringing 
 
Chap. XXX.] THIRD MITHRIDATIG WAR. 245 
 
 peremptorj'^ orders from Sulla to Miirena to desist from hostili- 
 ties ; whereupon Mithridates once more con- 
 sented to evacuate Cappadocia, and the peace ^, Deace 
 with Rome was renewed. 
 
 Notwithstanding the interposition of Sulla, Mithridates was 
 well aware that the peace between him and Rome was in fact 
 only a suspension of hostilities; and that the 
 
 haiiehty Republic would neA^er suffer the massacre J^?5^ ^^^ 
 
 f 1 V ■ ^ ■ ^ • ■ i. A of Mithri- 
 
 01 her citizens in Asia to remam unpunished, ^^tes. 
 
 Hence all his efforts were directed towards the 
 formation of an army capable of contending, not only in numbers 
 but in discipline, with the legions of Rome. With this view he 
 armed his barbarian troops after the Roman fashion, and en- 
 deavoured to train them in that discipline the effect of which 
 he had so strongly felt in the preceding contest. In these 
 attempts he was, doubtless, assisted by the refugees of the Marian 
 party, who had accompanied Fimbria into Asia, and, on the 
 defeat of that general by Siilla, had taken refuge with the king 
 of Pontus. At their instigation also Mithridates sent an embassy 
 to Sertorius, who was still maintaining his gi-ound in Spain, and 
 concluded an alliance with him against their common enemies. 
 
 But it was the death of Nicomedes III., king of Bithynia, in 
 75 B.C., that brought matters to a crisis, and became the imme- 
 diate occasion of the war which both parties had 
 long felt to be inevitable. That monarch left his bithynia be- 
 dorainions by will to the Roman people ; and B,oiiie. 
 Bithynia was accordingly declared a Roman pro- 
 vince. But Mithridates asserted that the late king had left a 
 legitimate son by his wife Nysa, whose pretensions he imme- 
 diately prepared to support by arms. 
 
 The forces with which Mithridates was now prepared to take 
 the field were such as might inspire him with no unreasonable 
 confidence of victory. He had assembled an 
 army of 120,000 foot-soldiers, armed and dis- ^Uhridafes 
 ciplined in the Roman manner, and 16,000 horse, 
 besides a hundred scythed chariots. His fleet also was so far 
 superior to any that the Romans could oppose to him, as to give 
 him the almost undisputed command of the sea. These pre- 
 parations, however, appear to have delayed him so long that 
 before he was able to take the field the season was far advanced, 
 
246 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXX. 
 
 and both the Koman consuls, L. Licinius Lucullus and M. 
 Aurelius Cotta, had arrived in Asia. Neither of them, however, 
 was able to oppose his first irruption ; he traversed almost the 
 whole of Bithynia without encountering any resistance ; and 
 when at length Cotta ventured to give him battle under the 
 walls of Calchedon, his army and fleet were totally defeated. 
 Mithridates now proceeded to lay siege to Cyzicus both by sea 
 and land. But Lucullus, who had advanced from Phrygia to 
 the relief of Cotta, and followed Mithridates to Cyzicus, took 
 possession of an advantageous position near the camp of the 
 king, where he almost entirely cut him off from receiving 
 supplies by land, while the storms of the winter prevented him 
 from depending on those by sea. Hence it was not long before 
 famine began to make itself felt in the camp of Mithridates ; and 
 all his assaults upon the city having been foiled by the courage 
 and resolution of the besieged, he was at length compelled (early 
 in the year 73 B.C.) to abandon the enterprise and raise the siege. 
 In his retreat he was repeatedly attacked by the Roman general, 
 and suffered very heavy loss at the passage of the Aesepus and 
 
 Granicus. By the close of the year the great 
 Lucullus army with which he had commenced the war had 
 
 been almost annihilated ; and he was not only 
 compelled to retire into his own dominions, but was without the 
 means of opposing the advance of Lucullus into the heart of 
 Pontus itself. But he now again set to work with indefatigable 
 activity to raise a fresh army ; and while he left the whole of 
 the sea-coast of Pontus open to the invaders, he established 
 himself in the interior at Cabira. Here he was again defeated by 
 Lucullus ; and despairing of opposing the further progress of the 
 Romans, he fled into Armenia to claim the protection and assist- 
 ance of his son-in-law Tigranes. 
 
 Tigranes was at this moment the most powerful monarch of 
 Asia, but he appears to have been unwilling to engage openly in 
 
 war with Rome ; and on this account, while he re- 
 ^.^^ nes ceived the fugitive monarch in a friendly manner, 
 
 he refused to admit him to his presence, and 
 showed no disposition to attempt his restoration. But the arro- 
 gance of the Romans brought about a change in his policj'^ ; and 
 Tigranes, offended at the haughty conduct of Appius Claudius, 
 whom Lucullus had sent to demand the surrender bf Mithridates, 
 
Chap. XXX.] THIRD MITHRIDATIC WAR. 247 
 
 not only refused this request, but determined at once to prepare 
 for war. 
 
 While LucuUus was waiting for the return of Claudius, he 
 devoted his attention to the settlement of the affairs of Asia, 
 which was suffering severely from the oppressions of the farmers 
 of the public taxes. By various judicious regulations he put a 
 stop to their exactions, and earned the gratitude of the Asiatic 
 cities ; but at the same time he brought upon himself the enmity 
 of the equites, who were the farmers of the revenue. They were 
 loud against him in their complaint's at Eome, and by their con- 
 tinued clamours undoubtedly prepared the way for his ultimate 
 recall. 
 
 Meanwhile community of interests between Mithridates and 
 Tigranes had led to a complete reconciliation between them ; and 
 the Pontic king, who had spent a year and eight 
 months in the dominions of his son-in-law without ^."^^'' "'^ 
 being admitted to a personal interview, was now 
 made to participate in all the councils of Tigranes, and com- 
 missioned to raise an army to unite in the war. But it was in 
 vain that in the ensuing campaign (69 B.C.) he urged upon his 
 son-in-law the lessons of his own experience, and advised him to 
 shun a regular action with Lucullus : Tigranes, confident in the 
 multitude of his forces, gave battle at Tigranocerta, and was 
 defeated, before Mithridates had been able to join him. But 
 this disaster, so precisely in accordance with the warnings of 
 Mithridates, served to raise the latter so high in the estimation of 
 Tigranes, that from this time forward the whole conduct of the 
 war was entrusted to the direction of the king of Pontus. 
 
 In the following summer (68 b c.) Lucullus crossed the Taurus, 
 
 penetrated into the heart of Armenia, and again defeated the 
 
 allied monarchs near the city of Artaxata. But 
 
 the early severity of the season, and the discontent Defeat of 
 
 of his own troops, checked the further advance „„^;^^ 
 ' ' armies, 
 
 of the Roman general, who turned aside into 
 
 Mesopotamia. Here Mithridates allowed him to lay siege to the 
 
 fortress of Nisibis, which was supposed to be impregnable, while 
 
 he himself took advantage of his absence to invade Pontus, at 
 
 the head of a large army, and endeavour to regain possession of 
 
 his former dominions. The defence of Pontus was confided to 
 
 Fabius, one of the lieutenants of Lucullus, but the oppression of 
 
248 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXX. 
 
 the Eomans had excited a general spirit of disaffection, and the 
 people crowded around the standard of Mithridates. Fabius 
 was totally defeated, and compelled to shut himself up in the 
 fortress of Cabira. In the following spring (67 b.c.) Triarius, 
 
 other of the Eoman generals, was also defeated with immense 
 loss at Zela. The blow was one of the severest which the 
 Roman arms had sustained for a long period : 7000 of their 
 troops fell, among whom were an unprecedented number of 
 officers, and their camp itself was taken. 
 
 The advance of Lucullus himself from Mesopotamia prevented 
 
 Mithridates from following up his advantage, and he withdrew 
 
 into Lesser Armenia, where he took up a strong 
 
 pisaifection position to await the approach of Tigranes. But 
 
 in Xiiicullus 
 
 army. ^^^ further proceedings of Lucullus were paralyzed 
 
 by the mutinous and disaffected spirit of his own 
 
 soldiers. Their discontents were fostered by P. Clodiiis, whose 
 
 turbulent and restless spirit already showed itself in its full 
 
 force, and were encouraged by reports from Rome, where the 
 
 demagogues who were favoura:ile to Pompey, or had been 
 
 gained over by the equestrian party, were loud in their clamours 
 
 against Lucullus. They accused him of protracting the war for 
 
 his own personal objects, either of ambition or avarice; and the 
 
 soldiery, whose appetite for plunder he had often checked, 
 
 readily joined in the outcry. Accordingly, on the arrival of 
 
 Tigranes, the two monarchs found themselves able to overi'un 
 
 almost the whole of Pontus and Cappadocia without opposition. 
 
 Such was the state of affairs when ten legates arrived in Asia 
 
 to reduce Pontus to the form of a Roman province; and they 
 
 had in consequence to report to the senate that 
 
 inted ^^^ country supposed to be conquered was again 
 
 in the hands of the enemy. The adversaries of 
 
 Lucullus naturally availed themselves of so favourable an 
 
 occasion, and a decree was passed transferring to M'. Acilius 
 
 Glabrio, one of the consuls for the year (67 b.c), the province of 
 
 Bithynia, and the command against Mithridates. 
 
 But Glabrio was wholly incompetent for the task assigned to 
 him. On arriving in Bithynia he made no attempt to assume the 
 command, but remained within the confines of his province, 
 while he still further embarrassed the position of Lucullus by 
 issuing proclamations to his soldiers, announcing to them that 
 
Chap. XXX.] WAR WITH THE PIRATES. 249 
 
 their general was superseded, and releasing them from their 
 obedience. Before the close of the year (67 b.c.) Luculhis had 
 the mortification of seeing Mithridates established 
 once more in the possession of his hereditary do- fruitless 
 
 Ti . -i i.-ii 11- i 1- resBltoftne 
 
 mmions. But it was still more galhng to his ^^^ 
 
 feelings when, in the spring of the following year 
 (66 B.C.), he was called upon to resign the command to 
 Pompey, who had just brought to a successful termination the 
 war against the pirates. 
 
 The MediteiTanean had long been swarming with robbers. 
 From the earliest times piracy has more or less prevailed in this 
 sea, which, lying between three continents, and 
 abounding in numerous creeks and isJands, pre- 
 sents the greatest temptations and the greatest facilities for 
 piratical pursuits. In consequence of the social and civil wars, 
 and the absence of any united fleet to preserve order upon the 
 sea, the evil had reached an alarming height, and the governors 
 of the separate provinces, with the few sliips at their command, 
 found themselves quite unable to cope with this predatory 
 organization. The pirates possessed fleets in all parts of the 
 Mediterranean, were in the habit of plundering the most wealthy 
 cities on the coasts, and had at length carried their audacity so 
 far as to make descents upon the Appian road, and carry off 
 Eoman magistrates, with their lictors. All communication 
 between Rome and the provinces was cut oft', or rendered 
 extremely dangerous; the fleets of corn-vessels, upon which 
 Eome to a great extent depended for its subsistence, could not 
 reach the city, and provisions rose to famine prices. 
 
 The ruin of trade and the scarcity of food united the equites 
 and the masses against the government. At the beginning of 
 67 B.C. the tribune A. Gabinius, brought forward ^ p >,• • 
 a bill which was intended to give a delegate of 
 the people almost absolute authority over the greater part of the 
 Roman world. It proposed that a man of consular rank should 
 be chosen, who should possess command over the whole of the 
 Mediterranean with an imperium equal to that of other pro- 
 vincial governors whose provinces he touched; he was to be 
 given a fleet of 200 ships, with 15 senatorial legates, as many 
 soldiers and sailors as he thought necessary, and 6000 Attic 
 talents. The bill did not name Pompey, but it was clear who 
 
250 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXX. 
 
 was meant. The aristocracy were in the utmost alarm, and in 
 the senate Caesar was almost the only person who came forward 
 in its support. Party spirit ran to such a height that the most 
 serious riots ensued. Even Pompey himself was threatened by 
 one of the consuls, "If you emulate Eomulus, you will not 
 escape the end of Romulus." Q. Catulus and Q. Hortensius 
 spoke against the bill with great eloquence, but to no effect. 
 On the day that it became law the price of provisions at Rome 
 immediately fell — a fact which showed the immense confidence 
 which all parties placed in Pompey 's military capacity. 
 
 The admiral's plans were formed with great skill, and were 
 crowned with complete success. He stationed his lieutenants 
 
 with different squadrons in various parts of the 
 Pompey sub- Mediterranean to prevent the pirates from uniting, 
 Dirates. ^^^ *° '^""*' them out of various bays and creeks 
 
 in which they concealed themselves ; while, at the 
 same time, he swept the middle of the sea with the main body 
 of his fleet, and chased them eastwards. In forty days he drove 
 the pirates out of the western seas, and restored communication 
 between Spain, Africa, and Italy. After then remaining a short 
 time in Italy, he sailed from Brundusium ; cleared the seas as he 
 went along; and forced the pirates to the Cilician coast. Here 
 the decisive action was fought; the pirates were defeated; and 
 more than 20,000 prisoners fell into his hands. Those on whom 
 most reUance could be placed were distributed among the small 
 and depopulated cities of Cilicia, and a large number were settled 
 at Soli, which was henceforward called Pompeiopolis. The 
 second part of this campaign occupied only forty-nine days, and 
 the whole war was brought to a conclusion in the course of three 
 months. Pompey remained in Cilicia during the remainder of 
 this year and the beginning of the one following. 
 
 Meanwhile the tribune C. Manilius brought forward a bill 
 (66 B.C.) giving to Pompey the command of the war against 
 
 Mithridates, with a command unlimited by time 
 Lex am la. ^^ place over the army and the fleet in the East, 
 and with rights equal to those of the ordinary provincial gover- 
 nors (imperium infirdtum aequum). As his proconsular power 
 already extended over all the coasts and islands of the Medi- 
 terranean in virtue of the Gabinian law, this new measure 
 virtually placed almost the whole of the transmarine provinces 
 
Chap. XXX.] THIRD MITHRIDATIC WAR. 251 
 
 in his hands. But there was no power, however excessive, 
 which the enthusiasm of the people and the anger of the equites 
 were not ready to entrust to the new hero; and the bill was 
 accordingl}' passed, notwithstanding the opposition of Hortensius, 
 Catulus, and the aristocratical party. Cicero, the spokesman of 
 the equestrian order, advocated the measure in an oration which 
 has come down to us {Pro Lege Manilia), and Caesar likewise 
 supported it with his growing popularity and influence. 
 
 On receiving intelligence of this new appointment, Pompey 
 immediately crossed the Taurus, and took the command of the 
 army from Lucullus. The power of Mithri dates 
 had been broken by the previous victories of Qfvt^nev^ 
 Lucullus, and the successes which the king had 
 gained lately were only occasional and were mainly due to the 
 disorganization of the Roman army. In the plan of the campaign 
 Pompey displayed great military skill. One of his first measures 
 was to secure the alliance of the Parthian king, which not only 
 deprived Mithridates of all hopes of succour from that quarter, 
 but likewise cut him off from all assistance from the Armenian 
 king Tigranes, who was now obliged to look to the safety of his 
 own dominions. Pompey next stationed his fleet in different 
 squadrons along the coasts of Asia Minor, in order to deprive 
 Mithridates of all communication from the sea, and he then 
 proceeded in person at the head of his land forces against the 
 king. Thus thrown back upon his own resources, Mithridates 
 sued for peace, but, as Pompey would hear of nothing but 
 unqualified submission, the negotiation was broken off. The 
 king was still at the head of 30,000 foot and 3000 horse, but he 
 knew too well the strength of a Roman army to venture an 
 engagement with these forces, and accordingly withdrew gradu- 
 ally to the frontiers of Armenia. 
 
 For a long time he succeeded in avoiding a battle, but he was, 
 at length, surprised by Pompey in TiCsser Armenia as he was 
 marching through a narrow pass. The battle was 
 soon decided ; the king lost the greater number of Mithridates 
 his troops, and escaped with only a few horsemen 
 to the fortress of Synorium, on the borders of the Greater 
 Armenia, Here he again collected a considerable force ; but as 
 Tigranes refused to admit him into his dominions, because he 
 suspected him of fomenting the intrigues of his son against him, 
 
252 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXX. 
 
 Mithridates had no alternative but to take refuge in his own 
 distant dominions in the Cimmerian Bosporus. To reach thera 
 he had to march through Colchis, and to fight his way through 
 the wild and barbarous tribes that occupied the country between 
 the Caucasus and the Euxine. He succeeded, however, in this 
 arduous enterprise, and reached the Bosporus in safety in the 
 course of the next year (65 B.C.). Pompey abandoned at 
 present all thoughts of following the fugitive king, and resolved 
 at once to attack Tigranes, who was now the more formidable of 
 the two monarchs. 
 
 On entering Armenia Pompey met with no opposition. He 
 was joined by the young Tigranes, who had revolted against his 
 father, and all the cities submitted to them on 
 Conquest of ^j^^jj. jjppj-oach. When the Romans drew near to 
 Artaxata, the king, deserted by his army and his 
 court, went out to meet Pompey, and threw himself before him 
 as a suppliant. Pompey received him with kindness, acknow- 
 ledged him as king of Armenia, and demanded only the payment 
 of 6000 talents. His foreign possessions, however, in Syria, 
 Phoenicia, Cilicia, and Cappadocia, which had been conquered by 
 Lucullus, were to belong to the Romans. To his son Tigranes, 
 S.iphene and Gordyene were given as an independent kingdom ; 
 but as the young prince was discontented with this arrangement, 
 and even ventured to utter threats, Porapej' had him arrested, 
 and kept him in chains to grace his triumph. 
 
 After thus settling the affairs of Armenia, Pompey proceeded 
 northwards in pursuit of Mithridates. Conflicts ensued with the 
 Iberians and Albanians, and, after the defeat of the 
 Alh^^^^^ ^" latter, all the tribes south of the Caucasus were 
 formally admitted into alliance with Rome(65 B.C.). 
 But Pompey did not continue his projected march to the Crimea 
 further than the Phasis. Here he obtained more certain in- 
 formation of the movements of Mithridates, and learning the 
 wild and inaccessible nature of the country through which he 
 would have to march in order to reach the king, he retiaced 
 his steps, and led his troops into winter-quarters at Amisus, on 
 the Euxine. He now reduced Pontus to the form of a Roman 
 province. 
 
 In 64 B.C. Pompey marched into Syria, where he deposed 
 Antiochus Asiaticus, and made the country a Roman province. 
 
Chap. XXX.] CLOSE OF THE MITHRIDATIC WARS. 253 
 
 He likewise compelled the neighbouring princes, who had es- 
 tablished independent kingdoms on the ruins of the Syrian 
 empire, to submit to the Roman dominion. The . 
 whole of this year was occupied with the settle- 
 ment of Syria and the adjacent provinces. 
 
 Next year (63 B.C.), Pompey advanced further south, in order 
 to establish the Roman supremacy in Phoenicia, Coele-Syria, and 
 
 Palestine. The latter country was at this time dis- _ , ^. 
 
 jfl.lftST.1nfi 
 
 tracted by a civil war between the priest-kings 
 Hyrcanus and Aristobulus. Pompey espoused the side of 
 Hyrcanus i and Aristobulus surrendered himself to Pompey, 
 when the latter had advanced near to Jerusalem. But the 
 Jews refused to follow the example of their king ; and it was 
 not till after a siege of three months that the city was taken. 
 Pompey entered the holy of holies, the first time that any 
 human being, excei^t the high priest, had penetrated into this 
 sacred spot. He reinstated Hyrcanus in the high priesthood, 
 but compelled him to pay a war indemnity to Rome : Aristobulus 
 accompanied him as a prisoner. It was during this war in 
 Palestine that Pompey received intelligence of the death of 
 Mithridates. 
 
 During the last two years Mithridates had been making the 
 most extensive preparations for the renewal of the contest. He 
 had conceived the daring project of marching 
 round the north and west coasts of the Euxine, j, thr'd t 
 and emulating Hannibal by penetrating into Italy, 
 and was busily engaged in assembling an enormous fleet and 
 army. But his proceedings were delayed by a long and painful 
 illness, which incapacitated him for any personal exertion. At 
 length, however, his preparations were completed, and he found 
 himself at the head of an army of 36,000 men and a considerable 
 fleet. But during his illness disaffection had made rapid progress 
 among his followers. The full extent of his schemes was pro- 
 bably communicated to few ; but enough had transpired to alarm 
 the multitude ; and a formidable conspiracy was organized by 
 Pharnaces, the monarch's favourite son. 
 
 He was quickly joined both by the whole army and the 
 citizens of Panticapaeum, who unanimously pro- . 
 claimed him king; and Mithridates saw that no 
 choice remained to him but death or captivity. Hereupon he took 
 
254 
 
 HISTORr OF ROME. 
 
 [Chap. XXX. 
 
 poison, which he constantly carried with him ; but his constitu- 
 tion had been so long inured to antidotes, that it did not pro- 
 duce the desired effect, and he was compelled to call in the 
 assistance of one of his Gallic mercenaries to despatch him 
 with his sword. 
 
 Pompey now devoted his attention to the settlement of affairs 
 in Asia. Ilis organization of the East marks the close of the 
 third period of the extension of the Roman empire. 
 The Protectorate system, so long clung to in the 
 East, had now been given up, and the acquisition 
 of the provinces of Pontus, Bithynia, and Syria 
 made direct imperial rule extend to the Black Sea and the 
 Euphrates. But a chain of client-states was still kept along 
 the frontier. Pharnaces, the son of Mithridates, was confirmed 
 in the possession of the kingdom of Bosporus ; Deiotarus, 
 tetrarch of Galatia, was rewarded with an extension of territory ; 
 and Ariobarzanes, king of Cappadocia, was restored to his king- 
 dom. Great efforts were made to cultivate in the new provinces 
 the Greek civic organization ; and thirty-nine new towns are 
 said to have sprung into life at Pompey's bidding. 
 
 Pompey's 
 organization 
 of the East. 
 
 Coin of Tigranes, 
 
CHAPTEE XXXT. 
 
 IKTERSTAL HISTORY, FROM THE COKSXJLSHIP OF POMPEY AND 
 CRASSUS TO THE RETURN OF POMPEY FROM THE EAST. — THE 
 COXSPIRACY OF CATILINE. 69-61 B.C. 
 
 During the five years of Pompey's absence in the East 
 (67-62 B.C.) he had been the uncertain element in the pohtics 
 of the Roman world ; and both parties watched 
 
 State of 
 parties. 
 
 anxiously to see to what purpose he would use his 
 vast military power. The senate had been beaten 
 by the Gabinian and Manilian laws, and felt their position in- 
 secure. The popular party was still crushed and humiliated, 
 and for their recent success had been forced to lean on P. 
 Crassus and the equites. Meanwhile a new leader of the popular 
 party had been rapidly rising into notice, who was destined not 
 
256 HiSTORy OP ROME. [Cnx-p. XXXT. 
 
 only to crush the aristocracy, but to overthrow the RepubHc and 
 become the undisputed master of the Roman world. 
 
 C. Julius Caesae, who was descended from an old patrician 
 family, was six years younger than Pompey, having been born 
 in 100 B.C. He was connected with the popular 
 party by the marriage of his aunt Julia with the 
 great Marius, and he himself married, at an early age, Cornelia, 
 the daughter of Cinna, the most distinguished of the Marian 
 leaders. Sulla commanded him to divorce his wife, and on his 
 refusal his life was for a time in danger. The vestal virgins and 
 his friends with difficulty obtained his pardon from the dictator, 
 who observed, when they pleaded his youth and insignificance, 
 " that that boy would some day or another be the ruin of the 
 aristocracy, for that there were many Mariuses in him." 
 
 This was the first proof which Caesar gave of the resolution 
 and decision of character which distinguished him throughout 
 life. His first campaign was fought under M. Minucius Thermus, 
 in Asia, where he was rewarded, at the siege of Mitylene, with 
 a civic crown for saving the life of a fellow-soldier. His political 
 career commenced with the accusation of Cn. Dolabella for ex- 
 tortion in his province of Macedonia (77 B.C.)- Dolabella was 
 acquitted by the senatorial judges ; but Caesar gained great 
 reputation by this prosecution, and showed that he possessed 
 powers of oratory which bade fair to place him among the fore- 
 most speakers at Rome. To render himself still more perfect, he 
 sought the school of rhetoric at Rhodes, then frequented by 
 Roman nobles ; but on his voyage thither he was captured by 
 pirates, with whom the seas of the Mediterranean then swarmed. 
 They detained him until he could obtain fifty talents from the 
 neighbouring cities for his ransom. Immediately on obtaining 
 his liberty, he manned some Milesian vessels, overpowered the 
 pirates, and conducted them as prisoners to Pergamus, where 
 he shortly afterwards crucified them — a punishment he had 
 frequently threatened in sport when he was their prisoner. He 
 then repaired to Rhodes, where he studied for a short time 
 under ApoUonius, but soon afterwards crossed over into Asia, on 
 the outbreak of the Mithridatic War in 74 B.C. Here, although 
 he held no public office, he collected troops on his own authority, 
 and repulsed the commander of the king, and then returned to 
 Rome to receive from the people his first public appointment as 
 
Chap. XXXI.] CAESAR AND CTCERO. 257 
 
 a militj^vy tribune. His affable manners, and still more his 
 unbounded liberality, won the hearts of the people. 
 
 Caesar obtained the quaestorship in 68 e.g. In this year he 
 lost his aunt Julia, the widow of Marius, and his own wife 
 Cornelia. He pronounced orations over both of them in the 
 forum, in which he took the opportunity of passing a panegyric 
 upon the former leaders of the popular party. At the funeral of 
 his aunt he caused the images of Marius to be borne in the pro- 
 cession ; they were welcomed with loud acclamations by the 
 people, who were delighted to see their former favourite brought, 
 as it were, into public again. 
 
 Caesar warmly supported the Gabinian and Manilian laws, 
 which bestowed upon Pompey the command against the pirates 
 and Mithridates : for to support these laws was to weaken the 
 power of the senate. In 65 e.g. he was curule aedile, and still 
 further increased his popularity by the splendid games which he 
 exhibited. He now took a step which openly proclaimed him 
 the leader of the Marian party. He caused the statues of 
 Mirius and the Cimbrian trophies, which had been all destroyed 
 by Sulla, to be privately restored and placed at night in the 
 Capitol. In the morning the city was in the highest state of 
 excitement ; the veterans of Marius wept with joy at beholding 
 once more the features of their leader and the trophies of their 
 victories, and greeted Caesar with shouts of applause. Q. 
 Catulus brought the conduct of Caesar before the notice of the 
 senate, but the popular excitement was so great that they 
 thought it better to let the matter drop. This year brought 
 Caesar into the full current of home politics, and into contact 
 with a man of very different birth, temperament, and political 
 views. 
 
 M. TuLLius Cicero was born at Arpinum in 106 e.g., and 
 consequently in the same year as Pompey. His father was of 
 the equestrian order, and hved upon his here- 
 ditary estate near Arpinum, but none of his 
 ancestors had ever held any of the offices of Eome. Cicero 
 was, therefore, according to the Roman phraseology, a New 
 Man (see p. 155). He served his first and only campaign in the 
 social war (89 e.g.), and in the troubled times which followed 
 he gave himself up with indefatigable perseverance to those 
 studies which were essential to his success as a lawyer and 
 
 & 
 
258 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXI. 
 
 orator. When tranquillity was restored by the final discomfiture 
 of the Marian party he came forward as a pleader at the age of 
 twenty-five. The young orator was not lacking in courage ; the 
 first important speech which he delivered upon a criminal trial 
 was that in defence of Sex. Roscius of Ameria, who was charged 
 with parricide by Chrysogonus, a freedman of Sulla, supported, 
 as it was understood, by the influence of his patron. The speech 
 contained a terrible invective against the creatures of the 
 dictator, and, though kindly exempting their master from any 
 active participation in their frauds, was the first strong protest 
 raised against the iniqu'tics of the Sullan regime. In con- 
 sequence of the failure of his health Cicero quitted Rome in 
 79 B.C., and spent two years in study in the philosophical and 
 rhetorical schools of Athens and Asia Minor. On his return to 
 the city he took his station in the foremost rank of forensic 
 orators, and ere long stood alone in acknowledged pre-eminence; 
 his most formidable rivals — Hortensius, eight years his senior, 
 and C. Aurelius Cotta, who had long been kings of the bar — 
 having been forced, after a short but sharp contest for supremacy, 
 to yield. 
 
 Cicero's reputation and popularity already stood so high that 
 he was elected quaestor (76 B.C.), although, comparatively 
 speaking, a stranger, and certainly unsupported by any powerful 
 family interest. He served in Sicily as quaestor of Lilybaeum 
 under the propraetor Sex. Peducaeus. In 70 b c. he gained 
 great renown by his impeachment of Verres for his oppression 
 of the Sicilians, whom he had ruled as propraetor of Syracuse for 
 the space of three years (73-71 B.C.). The most strenuous exer- 
 tions were made by Verres, backed by some of the most powerful 
 families, to wrest the case out of the hands of Cicero, who, how- 
 ever, defeated the attempt; and having demanded and been 
 allowed 110 days for the purpose of collecting evidence, he 
 instantly set out for Sicily, which he traversed in less than two 
 months, and returned attended by all the necessary witnesses. 
 Another desperate effort was made by Hortensius, now consul- 
 elect, who was counsel for the defendant, to raise up obstacles 
 which might have the effect of delajang the trial until the com- 
 mencement of the following year; but here again he was 
 defeated by the promptitude and decision of his opponent, 
 who opening the case very briefly, proceeded at once to the 
 
Chap. XXXI.] FIRST CATILINARIAN CONSPIRACY. 259 
 
 examination of the witnesses and the production of the deposi- 
 tions and other papers, which taken together constituted a mass of 
 testimonjr so decisive that Verres gave up the contest as hopeless, 
 and retired at once into exile without attempting any defence. 
 In the course of his accusation, Cicero pointed out that senatorial 
 juries themselves were on their trial — a warning all the more 
 signiiicant as the judiciary law of Aurelius * had already been 
 proposed. 
 
 In 69 B.C. Cicero was aedile and in 66 praetor. In the latter 
 year he delivered his celebrated address to the people in favour 
 of the Manilian law. Having now the consulship in view, and 
 knowing that, as a new man, he must expect the most deter- 
 mined opposition from the nobles, he resolved to throw himself 
 into the arms of the popular party, and to secure the friendship 
 of Pompey, now certainly the most important person in the 
 Republic. 
 
 The same year (66 b.c.) was marked by the first conspiracy of 
 Catiline: a plot of such obscurity that its very existence has 
 been doubted ; yet it seems certain that the move- 
 ment which culminated two years later must have ^^^st Catili- 
 already commenced. The circumstances of the gnij-acv 
 times were favourable to a bold and unprincipled 
 adventurer. A widespread feeling of disaffection extended over 
 the whole of Italy. The veterans of Sulla had already squandered 
 their ill-gotten wealth, and longed for a renewal of those scenes 
 of blood which they had found so profitable. The multitudes 
 whose estates he had confiscated and whose relations he had 
 proscribed were eagerly watching for any movement which 
 might give them a chance of becoming robbers and murderers 
 in their turn. The evil of debt was at its height, and the lower 
 classes in Rome and Italy had real grievances which called for 
 settlement. Nor were leaders wanting; the younger nobility, as 
 a class, were thoroughly demoralized, for the most part bank- 
 rupts in fortune as well as in fame, and eager for any change 
 which might relieve them from their embarrassments. The 
 rabble were restless and discontented, filled with envy and hatred 
 against the rich and powerful. The time seemed favourable for 
 revolution; for never was the executive weaker. The senate 
 and magistrates were wasting their energies in petty disputes, 
 
 * Page 242. 
 
260 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXI. 
 
 indifferent to the wider interests of the state. Pompey, at the 
 head of all the best troops of the Republic, was prosecuting a 
 long-protracted war in the East ; there was no army in Italy, 
 where all was hushed in a treacherous calm. 
 
 Few of the nobles at this time were the subjects of darker 
 rumours than L. Sergius Catilina. He was the descendant of 
 an ancient patrician family which had sunk into 
 poverty, and he first appears in history as a zealous 
 partisan of Sulla. During the horrors of the proscription he 
 killed his brother-in-law, Q. Caecihus ; he was suspected of an 
 intrigue with a vestal virgin ; and it was rumoured that he had 
 made away with his first wife and afterwards with his son in 
 order that he might marry the profligate Aurelia Orestilla, who 
 objected to the presence of a grown-up step-child. Such is the 
 incredibly black picture which two contemporaries, Sallust and 
 Cicero, have painted of a man who moved in the best society, 
 enjoyed great popularity among the younger nobles, and was a 
 successful candidate in the race for honours. It is more certain 
 that he possessed extraordinary powers of mind and body, and 
 that all who came in contact with him submitted more or less to 
 the charm of his manner and his many-sided genius. He was 
 praetor in 68 b.c. ; was governor of Africa during the following 
 year ; and returned to Rome in 66 B.C. in order to press his suit 
 for the consulship. The election for 65 b.c. was carried by P. 
 Autronius Paetus and P. Cornelius Sulla, both of whom were 
 soon after convicted, of bribery, and their places supplied by 
 their competitors and accusers, L. AureUus Cotta and L. Manlius 
 Torquatus. Catiline, who was desirous of becoming a candi- 
 date, had been disqualified in consequence of an impeachment 
 for extortion in his province preferred by P. Clodius 
 Pulcher. Exasperated by their disappointment, Autronius 
 and Catiline are said to have formed a project to murder 
 the new consuls upon the first of January when offering up 
 their vows in the Capitol, after which the conspirators were 
 to seize the fasces. This extraordinary design is said to have 
 been frustrated" solely by the impatience of Catiline, who gave 
 the signal prematurely before the whole of the armed agents 
 had assembled. 
 
 Catiline was soon afterwards left unfettered by his acquittal 
 on the charge of extortion — a result secured by collusion with 
 
Chap. XXXI.] CONSULSHIP OF CICERO. 261 
 
 his prosecutor — and his mind was again bent on securing the 
 highest dignity of the state. Had he become consul for 63 B.C., 
 there would have been no Catilinarian con- 
 spiracy, but probably a very violent financial revo- ^ kv ^^ 
 lution conducted on the lines of the constitution. 
 He planned an abolition of all existing debts and wholesale 
 measures of confiscation; and his agents were already chosen. 
 They were men of broken fortunes ; chief amongst them were 
 Lentulus, an ex-consul who had been struck out of the list of 
 the senate, and Cethegus, a violent and sanguinary revolu- 
 tionist. 
 
 Catiline's competitors at the consular elections in 64 b.c. were 
 Cicero and C. Antonius. Antonius he had already secured as 
 
 an ally, and the struggle lay between himself and _. 
 
 n- m i. -u ^e • j: u- Cicero consul. 
 
 Cicero, ihe government, halt conscious of his 
 
 plans, was in the utmost alarm. There was no senatorial 
 candidate who stood a chance of success, and, therefore, tin-ow- 
 ing its prejudices against a new man to the winds, it 
 warmly supported Cicero. The orator, who already had the 
 support of the equites and of a large section of the municipal 
 voters of Italy, was returned at the head of the poll with 
 Antonius as his colleague. 
 
 When Cicero assumed the consulship in 63 B.C. the democratic 
 party was in great straits. A fragment of it was struggling for 
 revolution with Catiline. The larger and more 
 respectable portion now strove to gain for its f^^^i^'^ 
 leaders a position in the state which might 
 balance that of Pompey in the East. An agrarian law was 
 introduced by the tribune Rullus which, under tlie pretext of 
 providing land by purchase for the poorer citizens, aimed at 
 establishing a commission of ten men, with vast powers at home 
 and abroad. If the democrats relied on Cicero's support, they 
 were mistaken. The orator paid his debt to the aristocracy and 
 to Pompey, whose position the law imperilled, by opposing and 
 defeating Rullus' bill. 
 
 The democrats were outwitted ; bnt Cicero had now to meet 
 the plots of the revolutionists. The safety of the _. 
 state depended on his watchfulness, and he theconsraraov 
 showed consummate skill in baffling what had 
 aow become a formidable conspiracy. 
 
262 HISTORY OP ROME. [Chap. XXXI. 
 
 He gained over his colleague Antonius by resigning to him 
 the province of Macedonia. Meantime he be- 
 Second Cati- came acquainted with every detail of the plot 
 SDiracv " ^'h'"^"?^^ Fulvia, the mistress of Q. Curius, one 
 of Catiline's intimate associates. 
 
 Thus informed, Cicero called a meeting of the senate on the 
 21st of October, when he openly denounced Catiline, charged 
 him broadly with treason, and asserted that the 28th was the 
 period fixed for the murder of the leading men in the Republic. 
 The senate thereupon invested the consuls with dictatorial power. 
 The comitia for the election of the consuls was now held. 
 Catiline, again a candidate, was again rejected. Driven to 
 despair by this fresh disappointment, he resolved at once to 
 b.ing matters to a crisis. On the night of the 6th of November 
 he summoned a meeting of the ringleaders at the house of M. 
 Porcius Laeca, and made arrangements for an immediate out- 
 break. Cicero, being immediately informed of what took place, 
 summoned, on the 8th of November, a meeting of the senate in 
 the temple of Jupiter Stator, and there delivered the first of 
 his celebrated orations against Catiline. Catiline, who upon his 
 entrance had been avoided by all, and was sitting alone upon a 
 bench from which every one had shrunk, rose to reply, but had 
 scai'cely commenced when his words were drowned by the 
 shouts of " enemy " and " parricide " which burst from the 
 whole assembly, and he rushed forth with threats and curses on 
 his lips. He now resolved to strike some decisive blow before 
 troops could be levied to oppose him, and accordingly, leaving 
 the chief control of affairs at Rome in the hands of Lentulus 
 and Cethegus, he set forth in the dead of night, and proceeded 
 to join Manlius, an old soldier who was mustering the troops of 
 the revolutionists at Faesulae. 
 
 Shortly afterwards fresh evidence came into Cicero's hands 
 which, he thought, justified prompter action. Ambassadors 
 from the Gallic tribe of the Allobroges, who were 
 Eome'^^ ^^^ ^ ""^^ ^* Rome, had been tampered with by the 
 conspirators. They thought fit to reveal the 
 communication to Q. Fabius Sanga, the patron of their state, 
 who in his turn acquainted Cicero. By the instructions of the 
 latter the ambassadors affected great zeal in the undertaking, 
 and obtained a written agreement signed by Lentulus, Cethegus, 
 
Chap. XXXI.] SECOND CATILINARIAN CONSPIRACY. 263 
 
 and others. They quitted Rome soon after midnight on the 3rd 
 of December, accompanied by one T. Volturcius, who was 
 charged with despatches for Catiline. The ambassadors were 
 seized as they were crossing the Mulvian bridge by two of the 
 praetors who had been stationed in ambush to intercept them, 
 
 Cicero instantly summoned Lentulus, Cethegus, and the other 
 conspirators to his presence. Lentulus being praetor, the 
 consul led him by the hand to the Temple of 
 Concord, where the senate was already met ; the r^ ^ arrested' 
 rest of the accused followed closely guarded. 
 Volturcius, finding escape impossible, agreed, upon his own 
 personal safety being insured, to make a full confession. His 
 statements were confirmed by the Allobroges, and the testimony 
 was rendered conclusive by the signatures of the ringleaders, 
 which they were unable to deny. The guilt of Lentulus, 
 Cethegus, and seven others being thus established, Lentulus 
 was forced to abdicate his office, and then with the rest was 
 consigned to the charge of certain senators, who became respon- 
 sible for their appearance. 
 
 These circumstances, as they had occurred, were then narrated 
 by Cicero in his third oration, delivered in the forum. On the 
 nones (5th) of December the senate was again 
 summoned to determine upon the fate of the ■Execution of 
 conspirators. The feeling of the senate was in guij-Qtop- 
 favour of their execution until the resolution of 
 many was weakened by a vigorous speech from Caesar. While 
 expressing horror of the conspiracy, he deprecated the death- 
 penalty as unconstitutional, and proposed, as an alternative, 
 that the property of the prisoners should be confiscated, and that 
 they should be kept in perpetual confinement in municipal towns 
 in Italy. But the scale was turned again by Cato's speech. He 
 strongly advocated that the conspirators should be put to death, 
 and his view found favour with the consul, who put his opinion 
 to the vote. It was carried, and on the same night Lentulus 
 and his associates were strangled by the common executioner in 
 the Tullianum, a loathsome dungeon on the slope of the Capitol. 
 
 While things went thus at Rome Catiline had collected a force 
 amounting to two legions, although not above one-fourth part 
 were fully equipped. When the news of the failure of the 
 plot at Rome reached his camp many deserted. He thereupon 
 
264 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXI. 
 
 attempted to cross the Apennines and take refuge in Cisalpine 
 
 Gaul, but the passes were strictly guarded by Metellus Celer 
 
 . . with three legions. Finding, therefore, that es- 
 
 defeated ^^P^ ^^^ *^"^ ^'^ ^"^ front while Antonius was 
 
 pressing on his rear, Catiline determined as a last 
 resource to hazard an engagement. Antonius, in consequence of 
 real or pretended illness, resigned the command to M. Petreius, 
 a skilful soldier. The battle was obstinate and bloody. The 
 rebels fought with the fury of despair ; and when Catiline saw 
 ftiat all was lost he charged headlong into the thickest of the 
 fight and fell sword in hand (62 B.C.). 
 
 Although it is impossible to say how dangerous the Catilinarian 
 movement really was, Cicero seemed for the moment to have 
 rendered important services to the state. Catulus 
 Uega "y ? in the senate and Cato in the forum hailed him as 
 the "Father of his Country;" thanksgivings in 
 his name were voted to the gods; and all Italy joined in 
 testifying enthusiastic admiration and gratitude. Cicero's elation 
 knew no bounds ; he fancied that his political influence was now 
 supreme, and looked upon himself as a match even for Pompey. 
 But his splendid achievement contained the germ of his humilia- 
 tion and downfall. There could be no doubt that the punishment 
 inHicted by the senate upon Lentulus and his associates was a 
 violation of the fundamental principles of the Roman constitution, 
 which declared that no citizen could be put to death until 
 sentenced by the whole body of the people assembled in their 
 con)itia, and for this act Cicero, as the presiding magistrate, was 
 held responsible. It was in vain to urge that the consuls had 
 been armed with dictatorial power ; the senate, in the present 
 instance, assuming to themselves judicial functions which they 
 had no right to exercise, gave orders for the execution of a 
 sentence which they had no right to pronounce. Nor were 
 Cicero's enemies long in discovering this vulnerable point. On the 
 last day of the year, when, according to established custom, he 
 ascended the Rostra to give an account to the people of the 
 events of his consulship, Metellus Nepos, one of the new tribunes, 
 forbade him to speak, exclaiming that the man who had put 
 Roman citizens to death without granting them a hearing was 
 himself unworthy of being heard. But this attack was premature. 
 The audience had not yet forgotten their recent eacape; so that, 
 
Chap. XXXI.] SECOND CATILINARIAN CONSPIRACY. 265 
 
 when Cicero swore with a loud voice that " he had saved the 
 Kepublic and the city from ruin," the crowd with one voice 
 responded that he had sworn truly. 
 
 It was rumoured that many other eminent men had been 
 privy to Catiline's conspiracy. Among others the names of 
 Crassus and Caesar were mentioned in connection Kumoured 
 with the first conspiracy of 66 B.C., but the par- complicity of 
 ticipation of either of these men in such an enter- the democratic 
 prise seems most improbable. The interests of leaders. 
 Crassus were opposed to such an adventure ; his vast wealth 
 was emp]o3'ed in a variety of speculations which would have 
 been ruined in a general overthrow ; while he had not the 
 energy or ability to seize and retain the helm in the confusion 
 that would have ensued. Of Caesar's guilt there is no satis- 
 factory evidence, and it is improbable that so keen-sighted a 
 man would have leagued with such a desperate adventurer as 
 Catiline. It is true that Caesar was suspected by some of the 
 leading optimates ; but then to men of this stamp all " radicals " 
 (improbi), as Caesar and Catiline were indifferently called, are 
 alike. It is impossible to say how much complicity there must 
 be between the two extremes of the same party ; but it is 
 certain that in the next year (62 B.C.), when a suspicion of 
 Caesar's guilt was raised, he challenged with success Cicero's 
 testimony that he had of his own accord given the consul 
 evidence concerning the conspiracy. 
 
 Coin of Pompey. 
 
C. Julius Caesar. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXII. 
 
 FROM POMPEY'R RETURN FROM THE EAST TO CICERo's BANISH- 
 MENT AND RECALL. 62-57 B.C. 
 
 PoMPEY reached Italy in 62 p..c. To the astonishment and 
 relief of all parties, he disbanded his army immediately after 
 landing at Brundusium. He did not, however, 
 Pompey's ^^^^j. j^Q^g j^ triumph till the 30th of September, 
 
 trLiunnli ^^ ^'^' "^^^ triumph lasted two days, and sur- 
 
 passed in splendour every spectacle that Rome 
 had yet seen. The tablets carried in the procession, on 
 ■which his victories were emblazoned, declared that he had 
 subdued 14 nations, taken 1000 strong fortresses, 900 towns, 
 and 800 ships; that he had founded 39 cities; that he had 
 increasdd the revenue of the Roman people by 85 million 
 
Chap. XXXII.] POM PEY'S RETURN FROM THE EAST. 267 
 
 sesterces ; and that he had brought into the public treasury 
 20,000 talents. Before his triumphal car walked a crowd of 
 piratical chieftains, Eastern princes, and hostages from Albania 
 and Iberia. 
 
 "With this triumph the first and most glorious part of Fompey's 
 life may be said to have ended. Hitherto he had been employed 
 almost exclusively in war ; but now he was called upon to play 
 ■ a prominent part in the civil commotions of the Republic — a 
 part for which neither his natural talents nor his previous habits 
 had in the least fitted him. 
 
 From the death of Sulla to the present time, a period of 
 nearly twenty years, he had been unquestionably the first man 
 in the Roman world, and it is certain that, down to . 
 the outbreak of the civil war, he was still looked o/j>^m °^ 
 on as the leading man in the state, although he 
 must himself have felt that the real power was centering in 
 Caesar's hands. Pompey, on his return to Rome, hardly knew 
 to which party he might have to attach himself. He had been 
 appointed to the command against the pirates and Mithridates 
 in opposition to the aristocracy, and they still regarded him with 
 jealousy and distrust. At the same time he seems to have been 
 indisposed to unite himself to the popular party, now more than 
 ever discredited by the rash proceedings of Catiline. But the 
 object which engaged the immediate attention of Pompey was 
 to obtain from the senate a ratification of his acts in Asia, 
 and an assignment of lands which he had promised to his 
 veterans. In order to secure this object, he had purchased the 
 consulship for one of his officers, L. Afranius, who was elected 
 with Q. Metellus for 60 B.C. But L. Afranius was a man of 
 slender ability ; and the senate, glad of an opportunity to put 
 an affront upon a person whom they both feared and hated, 
 resolutely refused to sanction Pompey's measures in Asia. 
 
 This was the deciding point ; it is probable that, even before 
 his return, overtures had been made to him by the democratic 
 party. They were now accepted; the short- 
 sighted policy of the optimates threw Pompey Ji^nction with 
 into Caesar's arms, and thus sealed the downfall craggag 
 of their party. Pompey was resolved to fulfil, at 
 all costs, the promises which he had made to his Asiatic clients 
 and bis veteran troops. 
 
268 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXII. 
 
 Caesar had returned from Spain in the middle of this year. 
 He had been in that province for one year as propraetor, 
 during which time he displayed some military ability and a 
 capacity for eniiching himself at the expense of the provincials. 
 For some successes gained in Lusitania his troops had saluted 
 him as imperator, and the senate had honoured him by a public 
 thanksgiving. He now laid claim to a triumph, and at the same 
 time wished to become a candidate for the consulship. For the 
 latter purpose his presence in Rome was necessary ; but as he 
 could not enter the city without relinquishing his triumph, he 
 applied to the senate to be exempted from the usual law, and to 
 become a candidate in his absence. As this was refused, he at 
 once relinquished his triumph, entered the city, and stood for 
 the consulship. He was elected without difficulty, but the 
 aristocracy succeeded in associating with him in the consulship 
 M. Bibulus, who belonged to the opposite party, and who had 
 likewise been his colleague in the aedileship and praetorship. 
 
 The coalition still lacked the support of the capitalist class ; 
 but this was soon supplied b}^ M. Crassus, who, by his con- 
 
 nexions and immense wealth, possessed great 
 triumvirate political influence. Pompey and Crassus had for 
 
 a long time past been deadly enemies, but Caesar 
 effected a reconciliation, and the three entered into an agree- 
 ment to divide the power between themselves. This first 
 triumvirate, as it is called, was therefore merely a private 
 arrangement between the three most powerful men at Rome, 
 which remained a secret till the proceedings of Caesar in his 
 consulship showed that he was supported by a power against 
 which it was in vain for his enemies to struggle. 
 
 As soon as Caesar had entered upon his consulship he fulfilled 
 part of his compact with Pompey, and at the same time attracted 
 
 the sympathy of the masses by proposing an 
 Caesar's con- ^2.^^^^.;^^^ ]a,^y for t^e division of the rich Cam- 
 sulsnip. 
 
 panian land — a portion of the public domain 
 
 which had been exempted even from the legislation of the 
 Gracchi. The opposition of the aristocratical party was in vain, 
 and Pompey and Crassus both spoke in favour of the law. On 
 the day on which it was put to the vote Bibulus and the other 
 members of the aristocracy were driven out of the forum by 
 force of arms : the law was carried, the commissioners appointed, 
 
Chap. XXXII.] CONSULSHIP OF CAESAR. 269 
 
 and about 20,000 citizens, comprising of course a great number 
 of Pompey's veterans, subsequently received allotments, Bibulus, 
 despairing of being able to offer any further resistance to Caesar, 
 shut himself up in his own house, and attempted to interrupt 
 public business by the announcement of omens, which were 
 consistently disregarded by his colleague. 
 
 Caesar obtained from the people a ratification of all Pompey's 
 acts in Asia ; and, to cement their union more closely, gave 
 him his only daughter Julia in marriage. His next step was 
 to gain over the equites, who had rendered efficient service to 
 Cicero in his consulship, and had hitherto supported the aristo- 
 cratical party. An excellent opportunity now occurred for 
 accomplishing this object. In their eagerness to obtain the 
 farming of the public taxes in Asia, the equites had agreed to 
 pay too large a sum, and accordingly petitioned the senate for 
 more favourable terms. This, however, had been opposed by 
 Metellus Celer, Cato, and others of the aristocracy ; and Caesar 
 therefore now carried a law to relieve the equites from one- 
 third of the sum which they had agreed to pay. Having thus 
 gratified the people, the equites, and Pompey, he was easily able 
 to obtain for himself the provinces which he wished. 
 
 It is not attributing any extraordinary foresight to Caesar to 
 suppose that he already saw that the struggle between the 
 , different parties at Rome must eventually be terminated by the 
 sword. The same causes were still in operation which had led 
 to the civil wars between Marius and Sulla ; and he was well 
 aware that the aristocracy would not hesitate to call in the 
 assistance of force if they should ever succeed in detaching 
 Pompey from his interests. 
 
 It was therefore of the first importance for him to obtain an 
 army which he might attach to himself by victories and rewards. 
 Accordingly he induced the tribune Vatinius to 
 propose a bill to the people granting him the ttfcaesar^^ 
 provinces of Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum for 
 five years (58-54 b.c). Transalpine Gaul was shortly after- 
 wards added. Caesar chose the Gallic provinces, as he would 
 thus be able to pass the mnter in Italy, and keep up his com- 
 munication with the city, while the disturbed state of Further 
 Gaul promised him sufficient materials for engaging in a series of 
 wars in which he might employ an army that would afterwards 
 
270 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXII. 
 
 be devoted to his purposes. In addition to these considerations, 
 Caesar was also actuated by the ambition of subduing for ever 
 that nation vsrhich had once sacl^ed Rome, and which had been, 
 from the earUest times, an object of dread to the Roman state. 
 
 Cicero, in spite of earnest invitations, had held aloof from the 
 
 triumvirate ; and Caesar felt that it would be unsafe to leave 
 
 Rome unless a man with a large Italian following, 
 
 wcero s ^^^ whose matchless oratory was now at the 
 
 position. • r ii *. • 1 / 
 
 service ot tne senatorial party, was in some way 
 silenced. It was needless to devise means for Cicero's banish- 
 ment; it was only necessary to refuse him protection against 
 the attacks of Clodius. 
 
 P. Clodius Pulcher was the darling of the city mob, and repre- 
 sented their views as to the illegality of the execu- 
 tion of the Catilinarian conspirators. His hostility 
 to Cicero was increased by a private grudge. In 62 B.C., 
 while the wife of Caesar was celebrating in the house of her 
 husband, then praetor and Pontifex Maximus, the rites of the 
 Bona Dea, from which all male creatures were excluded, 
 it was discovered that Clodius had found his way into 
 the mansion disguised in women's apparel, and, having been 
 detected, had made his escape by the help of a female slave. 
 The matter was laid before the senate, and by them referred 
 to the members of the Pontifical College, who passed a reso- 
 lution that sacrilege had been committed. Caesar forthwith 
 divorced his wife. Clodius was impeached and brought to 
 trial. In defence he pleaded an alibi ; but Cicero came forward 
 as a witness, and swore that he had met and spoken to Clodius 
 in Rome on the day in question. In spite of this decisive testi- 
 mony, and the evident guilt of the accused, the judices pro- 
 nounced him innocent by a majority of voices (61 B.C.). Clodius 
 now vowed deadly vengeance against Cicero. To accomplish 
 his purpose more readily, he determined to become a candidate 
 for the tribunate, but for this it was necessary that he should 
 be adopted into a plebeian family. This, after protracted opposi- 
 tion, was at length accomplished through the interference of the 
 triumvirs, and he was elected tribune for 58 B.C. 
 
 One of the first acts of Clodius, after entering upon office, was 
 to propose a bill interdicting from fire and water any one who 
 should be found to have put a Roman citizen to death untried. 
 
Chap. XXXII.] BANISHMENT OF CICERO. 271 
 
 Cicero changed his attire, and, assuming the garb of one accused, 
 went round the forum soHciting the compassion of all whom 
 he met. For a brief period public sympathy was . 
 awakened. A large number of the senate and ^ cicero 
 the equites appeared also in mourning, and 
 the better portion of the citizens seemed resolved to espouse 
 his cause. Bui all demonstrations of such feelings were promptly 
 repressed by Piso and Gabinius, the consuls for the year, who 
 were both creatures of the triumvirs ; and Cicero was left to 
 his fate. Giving way to despair, he quitted Rome at the 
 beginning of April (58 B.C.), and reached Brundusium about the 
 middle of the month. From thence he crossed over to Greece. 
 The instant that the departure of Cicero became known, 
 Clodius passed a law pronouncing his banishment, forbidding 
 any one to entertain or harbour him, and denouncing as a 
 public enemy whosoever should take any steps towards pro- 
 curing his recall. His mansion on the Palatine, and his villas at 
 Tusculum and Formiae, were at the san^e time given over to 
 plunder and destruction. 
 
 Clodius, having thus gratified his hatred, did not care to 
 consult any longer the views of the triumvirs. He restored 
 Tigranes to liberty, whom Pompey had kept in 
 confinement, ridiculed the great imperator before noses Pomtiev 
 the people, and was accused of making an attempt 
 upon his life. Pompey in revenge resolved to procure the 
 recall of Cicero from banishment, and probably Caesar, who 
 never ceased to court the orator's support, thought that the 
 lesson had been sufficient. The new consuls (57 B.C.), too, 
 were favourable to Cicero ; but though Clodius was no longer 
 in office, he had several partisans among the tribunes who 
 offered the most vehement opposition to the restoration of his 
 great enemy. 
 
 One of the chief supporters of Cicero was the tribune T, 
 Annius Milo, a man as unprincipled and violent as Clodius 
 himself. He opposed force to force, and at the __., 
 head of a band of gladiators attacked the hired 
 ruffians of Clodius. The streets of Rome were the scenes of 
 almost daily conflicts between the leaders of these assassins. 
 
 At length the senate, with the full approbation of Pompey, 
 determined to invite the voters from the different parts of Italy 
 
272 HISTORY OP ROME. [Chap. XXXII. 
 
 to repair to Rome and assist in carrying a law for the recall of 
 Cicero. Accordingly, on the 4th of August, the bill was passed 
 , by an overwhelming majority. On the same day 
 
 Cicero quitted Dyrrachium, and crossed over to 
 Brundusium. He received deputations and congratulatory 
 addresses from all the towns on the line of the Appian Way ; 
 and having arrived at Rome on the 4th of September, a vast 
 multitude poured forth to meet him, while the crowd rent the 
 air with acclamations as he passed through the forum and 
 ascended the Capitol to render thanks to Jupiter (57 B.C.). 
 
Temple of Nemausus (iVimes), now called the Maison Carrie. 
 
 CHAPTEE XXXIII. 
 
 Caesar's campaigns in gaul. 58-50 b.c. 
 
 Caesar set out for liis province immediately after Cicero had 
 gone into exile (58 b.c). During the next nine years he was 
 occupied with the subjugation of Gaul, In this time he con- 
 quered the whole of Transalpine Gaul, which, with the exception 
 of the province of Narbonensis, had hitherto been independent 
 of Rome. Twice he crossed the Rhine, and carried the terror of 
 the Roman arms beyond that river. Twice he landed in Britain, 
 which had been hitherto unknown to the Romans. We can 
 only offer a very brief sketch of the principal events of each 
 year. 
 
274 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXIII. 
 
 First Campaign, 58 B.C. — Caesar left Rome towards the latter 
 end of April, and arrived at Genava in eight days. His first 
 
 campaign was against the Helvetii, a Gallic people 
 Defeat of the gj^^ated to the north of the Lake of Geneva, and 
 
 between the Rhine and Mount Jura. This people, 
 quitting their homes under pressure from the Germans, had 
 passed through the country of the Sequani, and were plundering 
 the territories of the Aedui. Three out of their four clans had 
 already crossed the Arar (Saone) ; but the fourth, which was still 
 on the eastern side of the river, was surprised by Caesar and 
 cut to pieces. He then threw a bridge across the Arar, followed 
 them cautiously for some days, and at length fought a pitched 
 battle with them near the town of Bibracte {Auttm). The 
 Helvetii were defeated with great slaughter, and the remnant 
 compelled to return to their former homes. 
 
 This great victory roused the Gauls to ask Caesar's assistance 
 against the Germans ; and the Aedui, with the consent of the 
 
 central Gallic tribes, solicited his help against 
 
 fl^tvi^ Ariovistus, a German king who had invaded Gaul, 
 
 Germans. ^^^ ^^^ constantly bringing over the Rhine fresh 
 
 swarms of Germans. Caesar commanded Ario- 
 vistus to abstain from introducing any more of his countrymen 
 into Gaul, to restore the hostages to the Aedui, who were clients 
 of Rome, and not to attack the latter or their allies. A haughty 
 answer was returned to these commands, and both parties pre- 
 pared for war. Caesar advanced northwards through the 
 country of the Sequani, took possession of Vesontio (Besangon), 
 an important town on the Dubis {Douhs), and some days after- 
 wards fought a decisive battle with Ariovistus, who suffered a 
 total defeat, and fled with the remains of his army to the Rhine, 
 a distance of fifty miles. Only a very few, and amongst others 
 ArioAnstus himself, crossed the river ; the rest were cut to pieces 
 by the Roman cavalry. The Rhine had now become, what it 
 afterwards remained, the boundary of the Roman empire against 
 the Germans. 
 
 Second Campaign, 57 B.C. — Central Gaul was for the moment 
 
 pacified ; but the northern tribes had not sought 
 f the Belffae Caesar's help, and now the cantons of the Belgae, 
 
 who dwelt between the Sequana (Seine) and the 
 Rhine, alarmed at his success, had entered into a confederacy 
 
Chap. XXXIir.] CAESAR'S CAMPAIGNS IN GAUL. 275 
 
 to oppose him, and had raised an army of 300,000 men. 
 Caesar opened the campaign by marching into the country of 
 the Remi, who submitted at his approach. He then crossed the 
 Axona (Aisne), and pitched his camp in a strong position on the 
 right bank. The enemy soon began to suffer from want of pro- 
 visions, and they came to the resolution of breaking up their 
 vast army, and retiring to their own territories. Hitherto Caesar 
 had remained in his entrenchments, but he now broke up from 
 his quarters, and resumed the offensive. The Suessiones, the 
 Bellovaci, and the Ambiani were subdued in succession, or sur- 
 rendered of their own accord ; but a more formidable task 
 awaited him when he came to the Nervii, the most warlike of 
 all the Belgic tribes. In their country, near the river Sabis 
 {Sambre), the Roman army was surprised by the enemy while 
 engaged in fortifying the camp. The attack of the Nervii was 
 so unexpected that before the Romans could form in rank the 
 enemy was in their midst : the Roman soldiers began to give 
 way, and the battle seemed entirely lost. Caesar freely exposed 
 his own person in the first line of the battle, and discharged ahke 
 the duties of a brave soldier and an able general. His exertions 
 and the discipline of the Roman troops at length triumphed ; 
 and the Nervii were defeated with such immense slaughter, that 
 out of 60,000 fighting-men only 500 remained in the state. 
 The Belgae were subdued, and the Reini, as the clients of Rome, 
 made the leading canton in the district. 
 
 TJiird Campaign, 56 B.C.— In the third campaign Caesar com- 
 pleted the subjugation of Gaul. He conducted in person a naval 
 war against the Veneti, the inhabitants of the „ 
 modern Brittany, and by means of his lieutenants ygj,„fj 
 conquered the remaining tribes who still held out. 
 In the later part of the summer Caesar marched against the 
 Morini and Menapii (in the neighbourhood of Calais and 
 Boulogne), who retired into their forest fastnesses. Thus all 
 Gaul had been reduced in three years to an outward show of 
 obedience, which ill expressed the yet unbroken spirit of the 
 people. 
 
 Fourth Campaign, 55 B.C. — But Caesar felt that the conquest 
 of Gaul was useless unless measures were taken to check the 
 tide of German immigration from across the Rhine ; for it 
 was this that caused the movement of the Celtic nations which 
 
276 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXIIL 
 
 had so often threatened the safety of Italy, Two German tribes, 
 the Usipetes and the Tencteri, had just been driven out of 
 their own country by the Suevi, and had crossed 
 Renewed con- ^^^ jj^^jj^g ^j^i^ ^j^g intention of settling in Gaul, 
 flicts with the mi • 1 n 1 J 4. 
 
 Germans Ihis, however, Caesar was resolved to prevent, 
 
 and accordingly prepared to attack them. 
 The Germans opened negotiations with him, but while these 
 wei'e going on, a body of their cavalry defeated Caesar's Gallic 
 horse. On the next day all the German chiefs came into 
 Caesar's camp to apologise for what had been done ; but Caesar 
 detained them, and straightway led his troops to attack the 
 enemy. Deprived of their leaders and taken by surprise, the 
 Germans, after a feeble resistance, took to flight, and were 
 almost all destroyed by the Roman cavalry. 
 
 After this victory Caesar resolved to cross the Rhine in order 
 to strike terror into the Germans. In ten days he built a bridge 
 
 of boats across the river, probably in the neigh- 
 the Bhine bourhood of Cologne; and after spending eighteen 
 
 days on the eastern side of the Rhine, and 
 ravaging the country of the Sugambri, he returned to Gaul and 
 broke down the bridge. 
 
 Although the greater part of the summer was now gone, 
 Caesar resolved to invade Britain. His object in undertaking 
 
 this expedition at such a late period of the year 
 of Britaiir^^*'^ ^^^ rather to inspire the natives with the fear of 
 
 attack, and to force them to desist from their com- 
 munications with Gaul, than with any view to permanent con- 
 quest. He accordingly took with him only two legions, with 
 which he sailed from the port Itius (probably Wissant, between 
 Calais and Boulogne), and effected a landing somewhere near 
 the South Foreland, after a severe struggle with the natives. 
 Several of the British tribes hereupon sent offers of submission ; 
 but, in consequence of the loss of a great part of the Roman fleet 
 a few days afterwards, they took up arms again. Defeated, 
 they renewed their offers of submission to Caesar, who simply 
 demanded double the number of hostages he had originally 
 required, as he was anxious to return to Gaul before the 
 autumnal equinox. 
 
 The news of these victories over the Germans and far-distant 
 Britons was received at Rome with the greatest enthusiasm. 
 
Chap. XXXIII.] CAESAR'S CAMPAIGNS IN GAUL. 277 
 
 The senate voted a public thanksgiving of twenty days, not- 
 withstanding the opposition of Cato, who declared that Caesar 
 ought to be delivered up to the Usipetes and Tencteri, to atone 
 for his treachery in seizing the sacred persons of ambassadors. 
 
 Fifth Cam'paign., 54 B.C. — The gi'eater part of Caesar's fifth 
 campaign was occupied with his second invasion of Britain. He 
 sailed from the port Itius with an army of five 
 legions, and landed without opposition at the Second in- 
 same place as in the former year. The British j^^*"^ ° 
 states had entrusted the supreme command to 
 Cassivellaunus, a chief who ruled Middlesex and the surrounding 
 districts to the north of the Thames (Tamesis). The Britons 
 bravely opposed the progress of the invaders, but were defeated 
 in a series of engagements. Caesar crossed the Thames above 
 London, probably in the neighbourhood of Kingston, took the 
 town of Cassivellaunus, and conquered great part of the counties 
 of Essex and Middlesex. In consequence of these disasters, 
 Cassivellaunus sued for peace ; and after demanding hostages, 
 and settling the tribute which Britain should pay yearly to the 
 Roman people, Caesar returned to Gaul towards the end of the 
 summer. Nothing was gained by this invasion in the way of a 
 permanent occupation of the island ; but this was, perhaps, not 
 intended. Caesar's immediate and professed object — to prevent 
 the Celts of Britain from furnishing assistance to disaffected 
 Gallic chiefs across the Channel — was possibly attained. 
 
 In consequence of the great scarcity of corn in Gaul, Caesar 
 was obliged to divide his forces, and station his legions for the 
 winter in different parts. This seemed to the 
 Gauls a favourable opportunity for recovering 5'^ ■, 
 
 their lost independence, and destroying their con- ugj-yji 
 querors. The Eburones, a Gallic people between 
 the Meuse and the Rhine, near the modern Tongres, destroyed 
 the detachment under the command of T. Titurius Sabinus 
 and L. Aurunculeius Cotta. They next attacked the camp of 
 Q. Cicero, the brother of the orator, who was stationed among 
 the Nervii. Cicero repulsed the enemy in all their attempts, 
 till a mounted messenger was able to steal through their 
 lines and bring the news to Caesar. He rapidly approached 
 with two legions to the aid of his beleaguered legate. The 
 siege was raised ; Caesar defeated the forces of the enemy, 
 
278 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXIII. 
 
 which amounted to 60,000 men, and the insurgents rapidly 
 dispersed. 
 
 Sixth Campaign, 53 B.C. — In the next year the Gauls again 
 took up arms, and entered into a most formidable conspiracy to 
 
 recover their independence. The destruction of 
 b a^^ °^ " *'^® Koman troops under Sabinus and Cotta, and 
 
 the unsettled state of Gaul during the winter, had 
 led Caesar to apprehend a general rising of the natives ; and he 
 had accordingly levied two new legions in Cisalpine Gaul, and 
 obtained one from Pompey, who was remaining in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Rome as proconsul with the imperium. Being thus 
 at the head of a powerful armj-, he was able to subdue the tribes 
 that revolted, and soon compelled the Nervii, Senones, Carnutes, 
 Menapii, and Treviri to return to obedience. 
 
 But as the Treviri had been supported by the Germans, he 
 crossed the Rhine again a little above the spot where he had 
 
 passed over two years before ; and after receiving 
 Second pas- the submission of the Ubii, ravaged the country 
 Rhiae**^^ of the Suevi. On his return to Gaul he laid 
 
 waste the country of the Eburones with fire and 
 sword. At the conclusion of the campaign he prosecuted a 
 strict inquiry into the revolt of the Senones and Carnutes ; and 
 caused Acco, who had been the chief ringleader in the con- 
 spiracy, to be put to death. 
 
 Seventh Campaign, 52 B.C. — The unsuccessful issue of last 
 year's revolt had not yet damped the spirits of the Gauls. The 
 
 execution of Acco had alarmed all the chiefs, as 
 General insur- every one feared that his turn might come next ; 
 Gaul**^ ^^ ^^ hatred of the Roman yoke was intense ; and 
 
 thus all the materials were ready for a general 
 
 conflagration. It was first kindled by the Carnutes, and in a 
 
 short time it spread from district to district till almost the whole 
 
 of Gaul was in flames. Even the Aedui, who had been hitherto 
 
 the faithful allies of the Romans, and had assisted them in all 
 
 their wars, subsequently joined the general revolt. 
 
 At the head of the insurrection was Vercingetorix, a young 
 
 man of noble family belonging to the Arverni, and by far the 
 
 . . ablest general that Caesar had yet encountered. 
 
 Vercmgetorix. ^^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^ united: 
 
 Caesar's conquests of the last six years seemed to be now 
 
Chap. XXXIII.] CAESAR'S CAMPAIGNS IN GAUL. 279 
 
 entirely lost. The campaign of tliis year, therefore, was by far 
 the most arduous that he had yet conducted ; but his genius 
 triumphed over every obstacle, and rendered it the most brilliant 
 of all. He concentrated his forces with incredible rapidity, and 
 lost no time in attacking the chief towns in the hands of the 
 enemy. Vellaunodunum (in the country of Chateau- Landon), 
 Cenabum {Orleans), and Noviodunum {Nouan, between Orleans 
 •and Bourges) fell into his hands without difficulty. Alarmed 
 at his rapid progress, Vercingetorix persuaded his countrymen 
 to lay waste their country and destroy their towns. This plan 
 was accordingly carried into effect ; but, contrary to the wishes 
 of Vercingetorix, Avaricum (Bourges), the chief town of the 
 Bituriges, and a strongly fortified place, was spared from the 
 general destruction. This town Caesar accordingly besieged; 
 and, notwithstanding the heroic resistance of the Gauls, it was 
 at length taken, and all the inhabitants, men, women, and 
 children, were indiscriminately butchered. 
 
 Caesar now divided his army into two parts : one division, 
 consisting of four legions, he sent, under the command of T. 
 Labienus, against the Senones and Parisii ; the other, comprising 
 six legions, he led in person into the country of the Arverni, and 
 with them laid siege to Gergovia (near Clermont). The revolt 
 of the Aedui shortly afterwards compelled him to raise the siege, 
 and inspired the Gauls with fresh courage. 
 
 Vercingetorix retired to Alesia [Alise in Burgundy), which 
 was considered impregnable, and resolved to wait for succours 
 from his countrymen. Caesar immediately laid 
 siege to the place, and drew lines of circumval- }^^^ 
 lation around it. The Romans, however, were in 
 their turn soon surrounded by a vast Gallic army which had 
 assembled to raise the siege. Caesar's army was thus placed in 
 imminent peril, and on no occasion in his whole life was his 
 military genius so conspicuous. He was between two great 
 armies. Vercingetorix had 80,000 infantry alone in Alesia, and 
 the Galhc army without consisted of between 250,000 and 
 300,000 men. Still he would not raise the siege. He pre- 
 vented Vercingetorix from breaking through the lines, entirely 
 routed the Gallic army without, and finally compelled Alesia to 
 surrender. Vercingetorix himself fell into his hands. The fall 
 of Alesia was followed by the submission of the Aedui and 
 
280 
 
 HISTORY OF ROME, 
 
 [Chap. XXXIII, 
 
 Arverni. Caesar then led his troops into winter quarters. After 
 receiving his despatches, the senate voted him a pubUc thanks- 
 giving of twenty days, as in the year 55 B.C. 
 
 Eighth Campaign, 51 B.C. — The victories of the preceding 
 year had determined the fate of Gaul ; but many states still 
 remained in arms, and entered into fresh con- 
 titm^of'tt' ul"*" ^piracies during the winter. This year was oc- 
 cupied in the reduction of these states, into the 
 particulars of which we need not enter. During the winter 
 Caesar employed himself in the pacification of Gaul; and, as he 
 already saw that his presence would soon be necessary in Italy, 
 he was anxious to remove all causes for future wars. "While 
 fixing the tribute for each community, he treated the states 
 with honour and respect, and even bestowed Roman citizenship 
 upon some of their chiefs. The experience of the last two 
 years had taught the Gauls that they had no hope of contending 
 successfully against Caesar, and even in the great turmoil of the 
 ensuing civil wars their loyalty to Rome i-eraained unshaken. 
 
 So ended the nine years' war, which, though it appeiirs as a 
 long series of aggressions on Caesar's part, was really waged 
 in a defensive spirit. It gave the Roman Empire a northern 
 frontier, and saved the civilized world from barbarian invasions 
 for more than four hundred years. 
 
 Outline view of the Maison Carree at Nimes. 
 
Coin of Cuesar. 
 
 CHAPTEE XXXIV. 
 
 INTERNAL HISTORY, FROM THE RETURN OF CICERO FROM BANISH- 
 MENT TO THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE CIVIL WAR. — EXPE- 
 DITION AND DEATH OF CEaSSUS. 57-50 B.C. 
 
 Cicero returned from banishment an altered man. Though his 
 return had been glorious, he saw that his position was entirely 
 changed, and he was forced to yield to a power 
 which he no longer dared to resist. He even tv^ tiirimvirs 
 lent his support to the triumvirs, and praised in 
 public those proceedings which he had once openly and loudly 
 condemned. Meantime the power of Pompey had been shaken 
 at Rome. A misunderstanding had sprung up between him 
 and Crassus ; and Cato and the other leaders of the aristocracy 
 attacked him with the utmost vehemence. The senate began 
 to entertain hopes of recovering their power. They determined 
 to support L. Domitius Ahenobarbus, who, in 56 e.g., had 
 become a candidate for the consulship for the following year, 
 and who threatened to deprive Caesar of his provinces and 
 armies. Even Cicero was encouraged to join in the attack, and 
 to propose in the senate a reconsideration of Caesar's distribu- 
 tion of the Campanian land. 
 
 But these attacks only served to draw the triumvirs together. 
 Caesar invited Pompey and Crassus to meet him at Luca {Lucca) 
 in the spring of 56 B.C. ; and the conference was 
 largely attended by the partisans of the coalition. ^ t vino 
 It was arranged that Pompey and Crassus should 
 be consuls for the next year, and obtain provinces and armies, 
 while Caesar was to have his government prolonged for another 
 five years, and to receive pay for his troops. On their return 
 
282 HISTORY OF EOME. [Chap. XXXIV. 
 
 to Kome Pompey and Crassus became candidates for the consul- 
 ship ; but the aristocratic opposition was so strong that it was 
 found impossible to carry their election that year. By the help 
 of the tribunician veto the consular comitia were prorogued, and 
 the elections did not take place till the beginning of 55 B.C., 
 under the presidency of an interrex. Even then Ahenobarbus 
 and Cato did not rekx in their opposition ; and it was not till 
 the armed bands of Pompey and Crassus had cleared the Campus 
 Martius of their adversaries that they were declared consuls for 
 the second time (55 b.c). 
 
 They forthwith proceeded to carry into effect the compact 
 that had been made at Luca. They induced the Tribune C. 
 Second con- Trebonius to bring forward a bill which gave the 
 sulship of province of the two Spains to Pompey, and that 
 
 Pompey and of Syria to Crassus ; another law proposed by the 
 Crassus. consuls prolonged Caesar's government for five 
 
 years more, namely, from the 1st of March, 54 B.C., to the 1st of 
 March, 49 B.C.* Pompey was again in command of the home 
 government ; and at the expiration of his year of office would 
 no longer be a private man, but with the command of an army 
 and in possession of the imperium. He had, however, no 
 intention of quitting Rome ; and after his year of office, while 
 he sent an army into Spain under the command of his lieutenants, 
 L. Afranius and M. Petreius, he himself remained in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Rome as proconsul. During his consulship he 
 opened the theatre he had just built with an exhibition of 
 games of unparalleled splendour and magnificence. The build- 
 ing itself was worthy of the conqueror of the East. It was 
 the first stone theatre that had been erected at Rome, and was 
 sufficiently large to accommodate 40,000 spectators. The games 
 exhibited lasted many days. Five hundred African lions 
 and eighteen elephants were killed ; and even the hardened 
 Roman mob were satiated and disgusted with the wholesale 
 slaughter. 
 
 Before the end of the year, 54 B.C., Crassus set out for Syria, 
 with the intention of attacking the Parthians. He burnt to 
 share in the military distinction of Pompey and Caesar; and, 
 though upwards of sixty years of age, chose to enter upon an 
 
 • March 1st was the beginniug of the official year in the provinces, as January 
 let was at Rorae. 
 
Chap, XXXIV.] DEFEAT AND DEATH OF CRASSUS. 283 
 
 undertaking for which he had no genius rather than continue the 
 pursuit of wealth and influence at home. He crossed the 
 Euphrates in 54 B.C., but, hesitating to proceed 
 at once against Parthia, he gave the enemy time to Defeat and 
 assemble his forces, and returned to Syria without QpaggT,g 
 accomplishing anything ot importance. He spent 
 the winter in Syria, where, instead of exercising his troops and 
 preparing for the ensuing campaign, he plundered the temples, 
 and employed his time in collecting money from every quarter. 
 In the following spring (53 B.C.) he again crossed the Euphrates, 
 and with seven legions plunged into the sandy deserts of Meso- 
 potamia. He trusted to the guidance of an Arabian chieftain, 
 who promised to lead him by the shortest way to the enemy. 
 But this man was in the pay of the " Surenas," as the Parthian 
 general was entitled; and when he 'had brought the Romans 
 into the open plains of Mesopotamia, he seized a frivolous 
 pretext, and rode oft" to inform the Surenas that the Roman army 
 was delivered into his hands. The Parthians soon appeared. 
 They worried the densely marshalled Romans with showers of 
 arrows ; and by feigned retreats, during which they continued 
 their desultory attack, they led the Romans into disadvantageous 
 positions. The son of Crassus, who had distinguished himself 
 as one of Caesar's lieutenants in Gaul, was slain ; and the 
 Romans, after suffering great loss, retreated to Carrhae, the 
 Biblical Haran. On the following day they continued their 
 retreat ; and the Parthian general, fearing that Crassus might 
 after all make his escape, invited him to an interview. He was 
 treacherously seized, and in the scuffle which ensued was slain 
 by some unknown hand. His head was carried to the Parthian 
 king Orodes, and exhibited to the court, while an actor chanted 
 the words of Agave from the Bacchae of Euripides — 
 
 "We bear a fresh-cut tendril from the mountains to the hall." * 
 Twenty thousand Roman troops were slain, and ten thousand 
 taken prisoners, in this expedition, one of the most disastrous in 
 which the Romans were ever engaged. Only a small portion of 
 the Roman army escaped to Syria under the command of L. 
 Cassius Longinus, afterwards one of Caesar's assassins, who had 
 displayed considerable ability during the war, but whose advice 
 Crassus had constantly refused to follow. 
 * I. nil. 
 
284 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXIV. 
 
 The death of Crassus left Pompey and Caesar alone at the 
 
 head of the state ; and it became evident that sooner or later a 
 
 struggle would take place between them for the 
 
 Estrangement supremacy. The death of Julia, in 54 B.C., to 
 
 dc^^^^ whom both her father and husband were strongly 
 attached, broke a link which might have united 
 them much longer. Pompey considered that he had been the 
 chief means of raising Caesar to power, and he appeared long 
 to have deemed it impossible that the conqueror of Mithridates 
 could be thrown into the shade by any popular leader. Such a 
 residt, however, was now imminent. Caesar's brilliant victories 
 in (laul were in everybody's mouth ; and Pompey saw with 
 ill-disguised mortification that he was becoming the second 
 person in the state. Though this did not lead him to break 
 with Caesar at once, it made him anxious to increase his power 
 and influence, and he therefore now resolved, if possible, to 
 obtain the dictatorship. 
 
 He accordingly used no effort to put an end to the disturbances 
 at Rome between Milo and Clodius in this year, in hopes that 
 all parties would be willing to accede to his wishes 
 Milo an -j^ order to restore peace to the city. Milo was a 
 
 candidate for the consulship and Clodius for the 
 praetorship. Each was attended by a band of hired ruffians ; 
 battles took place between them daily in the forum and the 
 streets ; all order and government were at an end. In such a 
 state of things no elections could be held ; and the confusion at 
 length became downright anarchy, when Milo murdered Clodius 
 on the 18th of January in the following year (b.c. 52). The 
 two rivals had met on the Appian way near Bovillae, accom- 
 panied, as usual, by their armed followers. A fray ensued. 
 The party of Milo proved the stronger, and Clodius took refuge 
 in a house. But Milo attacked the house, dragged out Clodius, 
 and having despatched him, left him dead upon the road. His 
 body was found by a senator, carried to Rome, and exposed to 
 the eyes of the people. Their excitement at the death of their 
 favourite was still further inflamed by the harangues of the 
 tribunes. The benches and tables of the senate-house were 
 seized to make a funeral pile ; and the senate-house with 
 several other public buildings were reduced to ashes. As the 
 riots still continued, the senate had no longer any choice but to 
 
Chap. XXXiV.] SOLE CONSULSHIP OF POMPEY. 285 
 
 call in the assistaflce of Pompey. They therefore commissioned 
 him to collect troops and put an end to the disturbances. 
 
 Pompey, who had obtained the great object of his desires, 
 obeyed with alacrity ; he was invested with the supreme power 
 in the state by being elected sole consul at the 
 close of the winter ; and in order to deliver the „q°'^i^ ^** ^ 
 oity from Milo and his myrmidons, he brought 
 forward laws against violence and bribery at elections. Milo 
 was put upon his trial ; the court was surrounded with soldiers ; 
 Cicero, who defended him, was intimidated, and Milo was con- 
 demned, and went into exile at Massilia.* Others shared the 
 same fate, and peace was once more restored. 
 
 The fear of Caesar's possible designs now weighed heavily 
 on the aristocratic party, and the approaches which they 
 made to Pompey were met halfway. After 
 Julia's death he had married Cornelia, the Measures _ 
 daughter of Metellus Scipio, whom he made his paesar 
 colleague on the 1st of August. His next step 
 was to strike a blow at Caesar. He brought forward an old 
 law that no one shoidd become a candidate for a public office 
 while absent, in order that Caesar might be obliged to resign his 
 command, and to place himself in the power of his enemies at 
 Kome, if he wished to obtain the consulship a second time. 
 But the renewal of this enactment was so manifestly aimed at 
 Caesar that his friends insisted he should be specially exempted 
 from it ; and, as Pompey was not yet prepared to break openly 
 with him, he thought it more expedient to yield. At the same 
 time, Pompey provided that he himself should remain in com- 
 mand of an array after his rival had ceased to have one, by 
 obtaining a senatus-consultum, by which his government of the 
 Spains was prolonged for another five years. And, in case 
 Caesar should obtain the consulship, he caused a law to be 
 enacted, in virtue of which no one could have a province till 
 five years had elapsed from the time of his holding a public 
 office. For the next five years the senate was to fill up com- 
 mands at the earliest date at which they were legally vacant.f 
 
 * Cicero sent to Milo at Massilia the oration which he meant to have delivered, 
 the one which we still have. Milo, after reading it, remarked, " I am glad it was 
 not delivered, for I should then have been acquitted and never known the delicate 
 flavour of these Massilian mullets." 
 
 f Caesar's command technically e.xpired on March 1st. 49 ; hut, in accordance 
 With the invariable custom, he claimed to continue it until January 1st, 48, when 
 he would be succeeded by one of the consuls of 49. 
 
286 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXIV 
 
 In the following year (51 B.C.) Pompey declared himself still 
 more openly on the side of the senate ; but still he shrank from 
 supporting all the violent measures of the Consul M. Claudius 
 Marcellus, who proposed to send a successor to Caesar, on the 
 plea that the war in Gaul was finished, and to deprive him of 
 the privilege of becoming a candidate for the consulship in his 
 absence. The consuls for the next year (50 B.C.), L. Aemilius 
 PauUus and C. Claudius Marcellus, and the powerful tribune C. 
 Curio, were all reckoned devoted partisans of Pompey and the 
 senate. Caesar, however, gained over Paullus and Curio by 
 large bribes, and with a lavish hand distributed immense sums 
 of money among the leading men of Rome. It was proposed 
 in the senate that Caesar should lay down his command on 
 March 1st, 49 B.C. The consular elections were in July; and 
 if Caesar came to Rome as a private man to sue for the consul- 
 ship, there could be no doubt that his life or liberty would be 
 sacrificed. Cato had declared that he would bring Caesar to trial 
 for the illegalities committed during his consulship ; but the trial 
 would have been only a mockery, for Pompey was in the neigh- 
 bourhood of the city at the head of an army, and would have over- 
 awed the judges by his soldiery as at Milo's trial. The tribune 
 Curio consequently interposed his veto upon the proposal. The 
 senate, anxious to diminish the number of his troops, had, under 
 pretext of a war with the Parthians, ordered that Pompey and 
 Caesar should each furnish a legion to be sent into the East. 
 The legion which Pompey intended to devote to this service 
 was the one which he had lent to Caesar in 53 B.C., and which 
 he now accordingly demanded back ; and, although Caesar saw 
 that he should thus be deprived of two legions, which would 
 probably be employed against himself, he complied with the 
 request. Upon their arrival in Italy, they were not sent to the 
 East, but were ordered to pass the winter at Capua. Caesar 
 took up his quarters at Ravenna, the town in his province which 
 bordered closest upon Italy. 
 
 Though war seemed inevitable, Caesar still showed himself 
 Neffotiations "billing to enter into negotiations with the aris- 
 between tocracy, and accordingly sent Curio with a letter 
 
 Caesar and the addressed to the senate, in which he expressed his 
 senate. readiness to resign his command if Pompey would 
 
 do the same. Curio arrived at Rome on the 1st of January, 
 
CHAP. XXXIV.] CAESAR AND THE SENATE. 287 
 
 49 B.C., the day on which the new consuls, L. Cornelius Lentulus 
 and C. Claudius Marcellus, entered upon their office. It was 
 with great difficulty that the tribunes, M. Antonius, afterwards 
 the well-known triumvir, and Q. Cassius Longinus, forced the 
 senate to allow the letter to be read. After a violent debate 
 the motion of Scipio, Pompey's father-in-law, was carried, 
 " that Caesar should disband his army by a certain day, and 
 that if he did not do so he should be regarded as an enemy 
 of the state." On the 6th of January the senate passed the 
 decree investing the consuls with dictatorial power. Antonius 
 and Cassius, considering their lives no longer safe, fled from the 
 city in disguise to Caesar's army, and called upon him to protect 
 the inviolable persons of the tribunes. 
 
 This was the crisis. The senate intrusted the management 
 of the war to Pompey, determined that fresh levies of troops 
 should be held, and voted him a sum of money 
 from the public treasury. Both the senate and J^^P^^^ ^°^8 
 Pompey seem to have relied on an imagined dis- 
 affection amongst Caesar's troops, and grossly miscalculated 
 their own military resources. It is true that Pompey com- 
 manded legions in Spain through his legates, and his personal 
 influence could secure him almost unbounded resources in the 
 East ; but these would be of no avail against a direct attack 
 from Gaul. He had boasted that he had only to stamp his foot, 
 and armed men would spring from the soil of Italy ; but, when 
 the critical moment came, almost his only serviceable troops 
 were the two legions taken from Caesar, and therefore of 
 doubtful fidelity, and Italy was left defenceless. 
 
CHAPTER XXXV. 
 
 FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE CIVIL WAR TO CAESAR's 
 DEATH, 49-44 B.C. 
 
 As soon as Caesar learnt at Ravenna the last resolution of the 
 senate, he assembled his soldiers, informed them of the wrongs 
 
 he had sustained, and called upon them to support 
 Caesar |-,jf^-^^ Finding them quite willing to follow him, 
 
 a vances ^^^ crossed the Rubicon,* which separated his 
 
 through Italy. . ' • j a • • 
 
 provmce irom Italy, and occupied Arimmum. 
 
 He commenced his march with only one legion, consisting of 
 
 * The crossing of tliis Rtream was in reality a declaration of war against the 
 Republic, :ind later writers relate that upon arriving at the Rubicon Caesar long 
 hesitated whether he should take this Irrevocable step, and that, after pondering 
 many hours, he at length exclaimed, "The die is cast," and plunged into the 
 river. But there is not a word of this in Caesar's own narrative. 
 
Chap. XXXV.] CAESAR'S CONQUEST OP ITALY. 289 
 
 5000 foot-soldiers and 300 horse, but others had orders to 
 follow him from Transalpine Gaul, and he knew the importance 
 of speed that might anticipate the enemy's plans, and of successes 
 at the outset that might turn the hearts of waverers. Though 
 it was the middle of winter, he pushed on with the utmost 
 rapidity, and such was the popularity of his cause, or the 
 defencelessness of Italy, that city after city opened its gates to 
 him, and his march was like a triumphal progress. Ancona, 
 Arretium, Iguvium, and Auximum fell into his hands. These 
 successes caused the utmost consternation at Eome ; it was 
 i-eported that Caesar's cavalry were already at the gates ; a 
 general panic seized the senate, and they fled from the city 
 without even taking with them the money from the public 
 treasury. Caesar continued his victorious march through 
 Picenura till he came to Corfinium, which L. Domitius Aheno- 
 harbus held with a strong force ; but, as Pompey did not march 
 to Ills assistance, Domitius was unable to maintain the place, 
 and fell himself into Caesar's hands, together with several other 
 senators and distinguished men. Caesar, with the same 
 clemency which he displaj^ed throughout the whole of the Civil 
 War, dismissed them all iminjured. He then hastened south- 
 ward in pursuit of Pompey, who had now resolved to abandon 
 Italy. He reached Brundusium before Caesar, but had not 
 sailed when the latter arrived before the town. 
 
 Caesar straightway laid siege to the place, but Pompey skil- 
 fully evacuated it on the 17th of March, and embarked for 
 Greece. Caesar was unable to follow him for 
 want of ships. He accordingly marched back Po^P^J 
 from Brundusium, and repaired to Rome, having /j-gg-g 
 thus in three months become the master of the 
 whole of Italy. 
 
 Caesar was now in possession of the capital and of the 
 machinery of government, and the onlv opposition which he met 
 with in Rome was from L. Metellus the tribune, 
 who attempted to prevent him from entering the -^^IJ^ 
 " more sacred treasury," which contained the 
 reserve destined for defence against a Gallic invasion — a resist- 
 ance which drew from the professed champion of the tribunate 
 the caustic remark : " War is no time for words ; when I have 
 laid down my arms, I shall listen to your arguments." After 
 
 u 
 
290 HlSTORr OP HOME. [Chap. XXXV. 
 
 remaining in the neighbonrhood of Rome for a short time, he set 
 out for Spain, leaving M. Lepidus in charge of the city and M. 
 Antonius in command of the troops in Italy. -Pompey had 
 threatened to starve Italy into surrender; hence it was all- 
 important to get possession of the corn-supplying provinces. 
 Caesar, therefore, sent Curio to drive Cato out of Sicily, and 
 Q. Valerius to take possession of Sardinia. Curio and Valerius 
 obtained possession of their respective islands without opposition.; 
 and the former then passed over into Africa, which was in 
 possession of the Porapeian party. Here, however, he encountered 
 strong opposition, and at length was defeated, and lost his life, in 
 a battle with Juba, king of Mauretania, who supported P. Atius 
 Varus, the Pompeian commander. But this disaster was more 
 than counterbalanced by Caesar's victories in the mean time in 
 Spain. 
 
 Leaving Rome about the middle of April, he found, on his 
 
 arrival in Gaul, that Massilia refused to submit to him. He 
 
 besieged the place forthwith, but, unable to take 
 
 Caesar con- -^ immediately, he left C. Trebonius and D. 
 Quers spam. "^ 
 
 Brutus with part of his troops to prosecute the 
 
 siege, and continued his march to Spain. On the approach of 
 Caesar, L. Afranius and M. Petreius, the lieutenants of Pompey 
 in Spain, united their fo'rces, and took up a strong position near 
 the town of Ilerda {Lerkhx in Catalonia), on the right bank of 
 the Sicoris {Segre). After experiencing great difficulty at first 
 and some reverses, Caesar at length reduced Afranius and 
 Petreius to such straits that they were obliged to surrender. Thfey 
 themselves were dismissed uninjured, part of their troops dis- 
 banded, and the remainder incorporated among Caesar's forces. 
 The conqueror then proceeded to march against Varro, who 
 commanded two legions in the Further Province ; but, after the 
 victory over Afranius and Petreius, there was no army in Spain 
 capable of offering resistance, and Varro accordingly surrendered 
 to Caesar on his arrival at Corduba {Cordova). Having thus 
 subdued all Spain in forty days, he returned to Gaul. Massilia 
 had not yet yielded ; but the siege had been prosecuted with so 
 much vigour, that the inhabitants were compelled to surrender 
 the town soon after he appeared before the walls. 
 
 During his absence in Spain Caesar was appointed dictator 
 by the praetor M. Lepidus, who had been empowered to do so 
 
Chap. XXXV.] CAESAR CROSSES TO EPIRUS. 291 
 
 by a law passed for the purpose. On his return to Eome, 
 Caesar assumed the new dignity, but laid it down again at the 
 end of eleven days, after holding the consular 
 comitia, in which he himself and P. Servilius Vatia ^iifj-^or " 
 were elected consuls for the next year. But during 
 these eleven days he caused some very important laws to be 
 passed. The first was intended to relieve debtors, but at the 
 same time to protect to a great extent the rights of creditors. 
 He next restored the exiles banished under the exceptional 
 legislation of 52 B.C., and removed the disabilities imposed by 
 Sulla on the children of the proscribed ; finally he conferred the 
 full citizenship upon the Transpadani, who had hitherto held 
 only the Latin franchise, and thus made Italy Eoman up to 
 the Alps. 
 
 After laying down the dictatorship Caesar went in December 
 to Brundusium, where he had previously ordered his troops to 
 assemble. He had lost many men in the long „ 
 march from Spain, and also from sickness arising j-ni-^g 
 from their passing the autumn in the south of 
 Italy. Pompey during the summer had raised a large force in 
 Greece, Egypt, and the East, the scene of his former glory. 
 He had collected an army consisting of nine legions of Roman 
 citizens, and an auxiliary force of cavalry and infantry ; and his 
 forces far surpassed in number those which Caesar had assembled 
 at Brundusium. Moreover Pompey's fleet, under the command 
 of Bibulus, Caesar's colleague in his first consulship, completely 
 commanded the sea. Still Caesar ventured to set sail from Brun- 
 dusium on the 4th of January, and he arrived the next day in 
 safety on the coast of Epirus. In consequence, however, of the 
 small number of his ships, he was able to carry over only seven 
 legions, which had been so thinned as to amount only to 15,000 
 foot and 500 horse. After landing this force he sent back his 
 ships to bring over the remainder ; but part of the fleet was 
 intercepted in its return by M. Bibulus, who kept up such a 
 strict watch along the coast that the rest of Caesar's army was 
 obliged for the present to remain at Brundusium. Caesar was 
 thus in a critical position, in the midst of the enemy's country, 
 and cut off from the rest of his army ; but he knew that he 
 could thoroughly rely on his men, and therefore immediately 
 commenced acting on the offensive. After gaining possession 
 
292 HISTORy OF ROME. [Chap. XXXV. 
 
 of Oricum and Apollonia, he hastened northwards, in hopes of 
 surprising Dyrrhachium, where all Pompey's stores were de- 
 posited ; but Pompey, by rapid marches, reached this town 
 before him, and both armies then encamped opposite to each 
 other, Pompey on the right, and Caesar on the left hank of the 
 river Apsus. Caesar was now greatly in want of reinforcements, 
 and such was his impatience that he attempted to sail across the 
 Adriatic in a small boat. The waves ran so high that the 
 sailors wanted to turn back, till Caesar discovered himself, telhng 
 them that they carried Caesar and his fortunes. They then 
 toiled on, but the storm at length compelled them to return, and 
 with difficulty they reached again the coast of Greece. Shortly 
 afterwards M. Antonius succeeded in bringing over the remainder 
 of the army. 
 
 Pompey meantime had retired to some high ground near 
 Dyrrhachium, and, as he would not venture a battle with 
 Caesar's veterans, Caesar, in spite of the inferiority 
 Campaign ^f j^jg ^^j^ forces, began to blockade him in his 
 
 Dyrrhachium position, and to draw lines of circumvallation of 
 an extraordinarj' extent. It was an error of 
 judgment ; Pompey forced a passage through Caesar's lines 
 before they were completed, and drove back his legions with 
 considerable loss. Caesar thus found himself compelled to 
 retreat from his present position, and commenced a march on 
 Thessaly. Pompey's policy of avoiding a general engagement 
 with Caesar's veterans till he could place more reliance upon his 
 own troops was undoubtedly a wise one, and had been hitherto 
 crowned with success ; but his hand was forced by the ignorance 
 and impatience of his aristocratic supporters. 
 
 Stung by the reproaches with which they assailed him, and 
 elated in some degree by his victory at Dyrrhachium, he re- 
 solved to bring the contest to an issue. Accord- 
 Phawalus ^"^'^ ^^ offered battle to Caesar in the plain of 
 
 Pharsalus, or Pharsalia, in Thessaly. The num- 
 bers on either side were very unequal : Pompey had 47,000 foot- 
 soldiers and 7000 horse, Caesar 22,000 foot-soldiers and 1000 
 horse. The battle, which was fought on the 9th of August, 
 48 B.C., according to the old calendar,* ended in the total defeat 
 of Pompey's army. 
 
 * In reality, on the 6th of June. 
 
Chap. XXXV.] FLIGHT AND DEATH OP POMPET. 293 
 
 The Eepublic was not yet lost, but Pompey's hopes were at 
 an end. He made no attempt to rally his forces, though he 
 might still have collected a considerable army; 
 but, regarding everything as lost, he hurried to p ^ ° . 
 the sea-coast with a few friends. He embarked 
 on board a merchant-ship at the mouth of the river Peneus, and 
 first sailed to Lesbos, where he took on board his wife Cornelia, 
 and from thence made for Cyprus. He now determined to seek 
 refuge in Egypt, as he had been the means of restoring to his 
 kingdom Ptolemy Auletes, the father of the young Egyptian 
 monarch. On his death in 51 B.C. Ptolemy Auletes had left 
 directions that' his son should reign jointly with his elder sister 
 Cleopatra. But their joint reign did not last long, for Ptolemy, 
 or rather Pothinus and Achillas, his chief advisers, expelled 
 his sister from the throne. Cleopatra collected a force in Syria, 
 with which she invaded Egypt. The generals of Ptolemy were 
 encamped opposite her, near Alexandria, when Pompey arrived 
 off the coast and craved the protection of the young king. This 
 request threw Pothinus and Achillas into great difficulty, for 
 there were many of Pompey's old soldiers in the Egyptian army, 
 and they feared he would become master of Egypt. They 
 therefore determined to put him to death. Accordingly they 
 sent out a small boat, took Pompey on board with three or 
 four attendants, and rowed for the shore. His wife and friends 
 watched him from the ship, anxious to see in what manner he 
 would be received by the king, who was standing on the edge 
 of the sea with his troops. Just as the boat reached the shore, 
 and Pompey was in the act of rising from his seat, in order to 
 step on land, he was stabbed in the back by Septimius, wh© 
 had formerlj^ been one of his centurions. 
 
 Achillas and the rest then drew their swords; whereupon 
 Pompey, withont uttering a word, covered his face with his 
 toga, and calmly submitted to his fate. He had „. , , 
 just completed his 58th year. His head was cut 
 off", and his body. Avhich was cast upon the shore, was buried 
 by his freedman Philippus, who had accompanied him from the 
 ship. The head was brought to Caesar when he arrived in 
 Egypt soon afterwards, but he turned away from the sight, shed 
 tears at the untimely end of his rival, and put his murderers to 
 death. 
 
294 HlSrORy OP ROME. [Chap. XXXV. 
 
 When news of the battle of Pharsalus reached Rome, various 
 laws were passed which conferred supreme power upon Caesar. 
 Though absent, he was nominated dictator a second time, and 
 for a whole year. He appointed M. Antonius his master of the 
 horse, and entered upon the office in September of this year 
 (48 B.C.). He was also nominated to the consulship for the 
 next five years, though he did not avail himself of this privilege ; 
 and he was invested with the tribunician power for life. 
 
 Caesar had followed closely in pursuit of Pompey, and upon 
 his arrival in Egypt he became involved in a war, which 
 detained him several months, and gave the re- 
 ■m-oj. mains of the Pompeian party time to rally and 
 
 to make fresh preparations for continuing the 
 struggle. The war in Egypt, usually called the Alexandrine 
 War, arose from Caesar's resolving to settle the disputes re- 
 specting the succession to the kingdom. He determined that 
 Cleopatra, whose fascinations completely won his heart, and 
 her brother Piolemy should reign in common, according to the 
 provisions of their father's will ; but as this decision was opposed 
 by the guardians of the young king, a war broke out between 
 them and Caesar, in which he was for some time exposed to 
 great danger on account of the small number of his troops. 
 But, having received reinforcements, he finally prevailed, and 
 placed Cleopatra and her younger brother on the throne, the 
 elder having perished in the course of the contest. 
 
 After bringing the Alexandrine War to a close, towards the 
 end of March, 47 B.C., Caesar marched through Syria into 
 _ . . . .„ . Pontus in order to attack Pharnaces, the son of 
 the celebrated Mithridates, who had defeated Ca, 
 Domitius Calvinus, one of Caesar's lieutenants. This war, 
 however, did not detain him long ; for Pharnaces, venturing to 
 come to an open battle with the dictator, was utterly defeated, 
 on the 2nd of August, near Zela. It was in reference to this 
 victory that Caesar sent the celebrated laconic despatch to the 
 senate, Veni, vidi, vici, " I came, I saw, I conquered." He 
 then proceeded to Rome, caused himself to be appointed 
 dictator for the remainder of the year, and nominated M. 
 Aemilius Lepidus his master of the horse. At the same time 
 he quelled a formidable mutiny of his troops which had broken 
 out in Campania. 
 
Chap. XXXV.] BATTLE OF THAPSUS. 295 
 
 Caesar did not remain in Rome more than two or three 
 months. "With his usual activity and energy he set out for 
 Africa before the end of the year (47 B.C.), in _, . ... 
 order to carry on the war against Scipio and 
 Cato, who had collected a large army in that country. Their 
 forces were far greater than those which Caesar could bring 
 against them ; but he had too much reliance on his own genius 
 to be alarmed by mere disparity of numbers. 
 
 At first he was in considerable difficulties ; but, having been 
 joined by some of his other legions, he was able to prosecute 
 the campaign with more vigour, and finally 
 brought it to a close by the battle of Thapsus, frvoug^ g 
 on the 6th of April, 46 B.C., in which the Pom- 
 peian army was completely defeated. 
 
 All Africa now submitted to Caesar, with the exception of 
 Utica, which Cato commanded. The inhabitants saw that re- 
 sistance was hopeless ; and Cato, who was a sincere Republican, 
 resolved to die rather than submit to Caesar's despotism. 
 After spending the greater part of the night in perusing 
 Plato's Phaedo, a dialogue on the immortality of the soul, he 
 stabbed himself. His friends, hearing him fall, _ ^•l j. « ^ 
 ran up, found him bathed in blood, and, while 
 he was fainting, dressed his wounds. When, however, he re- 
 covered consciousness, he tore open the bandages, and so died. 
 
 Caesar returned to Rome by the end of July. Great appre- 
 hensions were entertained by his enemies, lest, notwithstanding 
 his former clemency, he should imitate Marius and Sulla, and 
 proscribe all his opponents. But these fears were perfectly 
 groundless. A love of cruelty was no part of Caesar's nature ; 
 and, with a magnanimity which victors rarely show, and least 
 of all those in civil wars, he freely forgave all who had borne 
 arms against him, and declared that he should make no 
 difference between Porapeians and Caesarians. His object 
 was now to allay animosities, and to secure the lives and 
 property of all the citizens of his empire. 
 
 As soon as the news of his African victory reached Rome, a 
 public thanksgiving of forty days was decreed in his 
 honour ; the dictatorship was bestowed upon him . caesar 
 for ten years ; and the censorship, under the new 
 title of " Praefectus Morum," for three years. Caesar bad never 
 
296 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXV. 
 
 yet enjoyed a triumph ; and, as he had now no further enemies 
 to meet, he availed himself of the opportunity of celebrating 
 his victories in Gaul, Egypt, Pontus, and Africa, by four magni- 
 ficent triumphs. None of these, however, were in honour of 
 his successes in the civil war, although, in the African triumph 
 which celebrated his victory over Juba, the deaths of Scipio 
 and Cato were depicted. These triumphs were followed by 
 largesses of corn and money to the people and the soldiers, by 
 public banquets, and all sorts of entertainments. 
 
 Caesar now proceeded to correct the various evils which had 
 crept into the state, and to obtain the enactment of several laws 
 
 suitable to the altered condition of the common- 
 teiotm^ wealth. He attempted, by severe sumptuary 
 
 laws, to restrain the extravagance which per- 
 vaded all classes of society. But the most important of his 
 changes this year (46 B.C.) was the reformation of the calendar, 
 which was a real benefit to his country and the civilized world, 
 and which he accomplished in his character of Pontifex Maxi- 
 mus. The old Roman year had only 355 days, and the regula- 
 tion of the Roman calendar had always been entrusted to the 
 college of pontiffs ; they had been accustomed to insert inter- 
 calary months at their pleasure for political purposes, and the 
 confusion had at length become so great that the Roman year 
 was three months behind the real time. To remedy this 
 serious evil, Caesar added 90 days to the current year, and thus 
 made it consist of 445 days ; and he guarded against a repetition 
 of similar errors for the future by creating a year of 365 days 
 6 hours, and thus adapting the calendar to the sun's course. 
 
 The Pompeians were now preparing to make their last stand 
 
 in Spain, where a formidable army had been collected under the 
 
 . . command of Pompey's sons, Cneius and Sextus. 
 
 Caesar left Rome at the end of 46 b c, and with 
 his usual activity arrived at Obulco near Corduba in 27 days. 
 
 He found the enemy able to offer stronger opposition than he 
 had anticipated ; but he brought the war to a close by the battle 
 
 of Muiida, on the 17th of March, 45 B.C. It was 
 Battle of g^ hard-fought battle : Caesar's troops were at 
 
 first driven back, and were only rallied by their 
 general's exposing his own person, like a common soWier, 
 m the front line of the battle; but at last victory declared 
 
Chap. XXXV.] CAESAR'S RULE. 297 
 
 for the dictator. Cn. Pompeius was killed shortly afterwards, 
 but Sextus made good his escape. The settlement of the affairs 
 in Spain detained Caesar in the province some months longer, 
 and he consequently did not reach Rome till September. 
 
 At the beginning of October he entered the city in triumph 
 on account of his victories in Spain, although the victory had 
 been gained over Roman citizens. The senate 
 received him with the most servile flattery. They New honours 
 had in his absence voted a public thanksgiving of Caesar 
 fifty days, and they now vied with each other in 
 paying him every kind of adulation and homage. He was to 
 wear, on all public occasions, the triumphal robe ; he was to 
 receive the title of " Father of his Country ; " his statue was to be 
 placed amongst those of the seven kings in the Capitol ; his 
 portrait was to be struck on coins ; the month of Quintilis was 
 to receive the name of Julius in his honour, and he was to be 
 raised to a rank among the gods. But there were still more 
 important decrees than these, which were intended to legalize 
 his power, and confer upon him the whole government of the 
 Roman world. He received the title of Imperator for life ; he 
 was nominated consul for the next ten years, and dictator for 
 life ; his person was declared sacred ; a guard of senators and 
 knights was offered for his protection; and the whole senate 
 took an oath to watch over his safety. 
 
 If we now look at the way in which Caesar exerted his 
 sovereign power, it cannot be denied that he used it in the main 
 for the good of his country. He still pursued his _ , , 
 former merciful course : no proscriptions or exe- 
 cutions took place ; and he took the first steps in a projected 
 reform of the constitution which he did not live to carry out. 
 He raised the senate to 900 members by the introduction of 
 Gauls and Spaniards, on whom he had conferred the franchise, 
 and Romans of the lowest class ; there was a corresponding 
 increase in the magistrates, the quaestors being raised to 40 and 
 the praetors to 16. By swamping the senate Caesar was break- 
 ing the spirit of the republic and preparing the way for the 
 monarchy, in which this body, now including representatives 
 from the provinces, was to be only a council of advisers. A 
 more distinctly res:al act was his creation of new patrician 
 families : for the patriciate had never been increased since the 
 
298 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXV. 
 
 downfall of the monarchy at Rome. It was now whispered that 
 Caesar, a king in fact, meant also to be a king in name. The 
 popular sentiment was tested when in the next year (44 B.C.) 
 the consul Antonius ofiiered him the diadem, the symbol of 
 Oriental royalty, at the festival of the Lupercalia. It was 
 declined; and the shouts of the people showed that, though 
 they could submit to the reality of monarchy, they could not 
 endure the name. 
 
 Caesar's mental activity at this time was prodigious. One of 
 its products was a comprehensive municipal law, by which 
 uniform regulations were made for the towns possessing Roman 
 citizenship in Italy and in the provinces. He also planned a 
 codification of the existing Roman law, and material improve- 
 ments, such as the draining of the Pomptine marshes and the 
 enlargement of the harbour of Ostia. Amongst his immediate 
 cares was the protection of the frontiers of the empire ; he 
 planned expeditions against the Parthians and the barbarous 
 tribes on the Danube, and had already begun to make prepara- 
 tions for his departure to the East. In the midst of these vast 
 projects he entered upon the last year of his life (44 B.C.), and 
 his fifth consulship and dictatorship, with M. Antonius as his 
 colleague in the consulship and M. Lepidus as his master of the 
 horse. 
 
 A conspiracy against Caesar's life had been formed as early 
 as the beginning of the year. It had been set on foot by a 
 
 personal enemy, C. Cassius Longinus, and more 
 Tne con- ^-^^^ sixty persons were privy to it. Private 
 
 hatred alone seems to have been the motive of 
 Cassius, and probably of several others. Many of them had 
 taken an active part on the Pompeian side, and had not only 
 been forgiven by Caesar, but raised to offices of rank and 
 honour. Among others was M. Junius Brutus, whom he had 
 pardoned after the battle of Pharsalus, and had since treated 
 almost as his son. In this very year Caesar had made him praetor, 
 and held out to him the prospect of the consulship. Brutus, 
 like Cato, seems to have been a sincere Republican, and Cassius 
 persuaded him to join the conspiracy, and imitate his great 
 ancestor who freed them from the Tarquins. It was now 
 arranged to assassinate the dictator in the senate-house on the 
 Ides or 15th of March. Rumours of the plot got abroad, and 
 
Chap. XXXV.] MURDER OF CAESAR. 299 
 
 Caesar was strongly urged not to attend the senate. But he 
 disregarded the warnings which were given him. 
 
 As he entered, the senate rose to do him honour ; and when 
 he had taken his seat, the conspirators pressed around him as if 
 to support the prayer of one TilUus Cimber, who 
 entreated the dictator to recall his brother from /i„g.-_ 
 banishment. When Caesar began to show dis- 
 pleasure at their importunity, Tillius seized him by his toga, 
 which was the signal for attack. Casca, one of the tribunes of 
 the Plebs, struck the first blow, and the other conspirators bared 
 their weapons. Caesar defended himself till he saw Brutus had 
 drawn his sword, and then, exclaiming, "And thou, too, 
 Brutus ! " he drew his toga over his head, and fell pierced with 
 three and twenty wounds at the foot of Pompey's statue. 
 
 Caesar's death was undoubtedly a loss not only for the Roman 
 people, but the whole civilized world. The Republic was utterly 
 lost. The Roman world was now fated to go through many 
 years of disorder and bloodshed, till it rested again under the 
 supremacy of Augustus. The last days of the Republic had 
 come, and its only hope of peace and security was under the 
 strong hand of military power. 
 
 Caesar was in his 56th year at the time of his death. Sculp- 
 tures and coins still preserve his noble and commanding 
 presence. They show a clear-cut face, worn with thought and 
 toil, but serene and benign ; and we are told that he was tall in 
 stature, and that his dark eyes were full of expression. His 
 constitution was originally delicate, and he was twice attacked 
 by epilepsy while transacting public business ; but, by constant 
 exercise and abstemious living, he had acquired strong and 
 vigorous health, and could endure almost any amount of 
 exertion. He took great pains with his person, was considered 
 to be effeminate in his dress, and in his later years strove to 
 conceal his increasing baldness with the golden laurel crown. 
 
 Caesar was probably the greatest man of antiquity. He was at 
 one and the same time a general, a statesman, a lawgiver, a jurist, 
 an orator, and an historian; his idler moments 
 were devoted to philology and the general culture noesar 
 of the day, while, like most Roman nobles of the 
 time, he dabbled in poetry. He was a perfect example of the 
 Eomau genius for practical life, combining great conceptions 
 
300 
 
 HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 [Chap. XXXV. 
 
 with an extraordinary command of detail. As a general he 
 possessed some of the rarest military gifts : a mastery over men, 
 a capacity for setting routine at defiance and adapting means to 
 ends at the shortest notice, and an unequalled power of rapidity 
 of movement. To estimate his military genius, one has only to 
 remember that till his 40th year, when he went as propraetor 
 into Spain, he had been almost entirely engaged in civil life, and 
 his experience of war must have been of the most limited kind. 
 Most of the greatest generals in the history of the world have 
 been distinguished at an early age : Alexander the Great, 
 Hannibal, Frederick of Prussia, and Napoleon Bormparte, gained 
 some of their most brilliant victories under the age of 30 ; but 
 Caesar from the age of 23 to 40 had seen nothing of war, which 
 he took up as a subordinate instrument to be used in his task of 
 reforming the Roman world. 
 
 statue of a Roman, representing the Toga (from the Louvre). 
 
AT THE DEATH OF OESAR 
 
 ^ Roman Territory &' Provinces 
 
 r ] Protected States 
 
 Soman MiXe^ 
 
 Harper & Brol 
 
ork & London. 
 
 JolmB3itkolom.e^(r& Co.Xaiu 
 
M. Autonius. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVl. 
 
 FKOM THE DEATH OF CAESAR TO THE BATTLE OF PHILIPPI. 
 44-42 B.C. 
 
 When the bloody deed had been finished, Brutus and his fellow- 
 liberators rushed into the forum, proclaiming that they had 
 killed the tyrant, and calling the people to join compromise 
 them. But they met with no response, and, finding agreed on; 
 alone averted looks, they retired to the Capitol, amnesty to 
 Here they were joined by Cicero, who had not Caesar s 
 been privy to the conspiracy, but was now one of ^^^ ^^^' ' 
 the first to justify the murder. Meantime the friends of Caesar 
 were not idle. Lepidus, the master of the horse, who was in 
 the neighbourhood of the city, marched into the forum in the 
 night ; and Antony hastened to the house of the dictator, and 
 
302 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXVI. 
 
 took possession of his papers and treasures. But both parties 
 feared to come to blows. A compromise was agreed to ; and 
 at a meeting of the senate it was determined that Caesar's 
 murderers should not be punished, but on the other hand that 
 all his regulations should remain in force, that the provisions of 
 his will should be carried into effect, and that he should be 
 honoured with a public funeral. The conspirators then descended 
 from the Capitol ; and, as a proof of reconciliation, Cassius supped 
 with Antony and Brutus with Lepidus. 
 
 This reconciliation was only a pretence. Antony aspired to 
 succeed to the power of the dictator ; and to rouse the popular 
 fury against the conspirators Caesar's will was 
 Antony rouses immediately made public. He left as his heir his 
 great-nephew Octavins, a youth of eighteen, the 
 son of Atia, the daughter of his sister Julia. He bequeathed 
 considerable legacies to his murderers. He gave his magnificent 
 gardens beyond the Tiber to the public, and to every Roman 
 citizen he bequeathed the sum of 300 sesterces (rather less than 
 £3 sterling). When this became known, a deep feeling of sorrow 
 for the untimely fate of their benefactor seized the minds of the 
 people. Their feelings were raised to the highest point two or 
 three days afterwards, when the funeral took place. The body 
 was to be burnt in the Campus Martins, but it was previously 
 carried to the forum, where Antony, according to custom, pro- 
 nounced the funeral oration over it. After relating the exploits 
 of the great dictator, reciting his will, and describing his terrible 
 death, he lifted up the blood-stained robe which Caesar had worn 
 in the senate-house, and which had hitherto covered the corpse, 
 and pointed out the numerous wounds which disfigured the body. 
 At this sight a yell of indignation was raised, and the mob rushed 
 in every direction to tear the murderers to pieces. The liberators 
 fled for their lives from the city, and the poet Helvius Cinna, 
 being mistaken for the praetor Cinna, one of the assassins, was 
 torn in pieces before the mistake could be explained. 
 
 Antony was now master of Rome. Being in possession of 
 Caesar's papers, he was able to plead the au- 
 Arrangement thority of the dictator for everything which he 
 vinces pleased. The conspirators hastened to take pos- 
 
 session of the provinces which Caesar had as- 
 signed to them. D. Brutus repaired to Cisalpine Gaul, M. Brutus 
 
Chap XXXVt.] ARRIVAL OP OCTAVIAlJ. 30S 
 
 to Macedonia, and Cassius to Syria. Antony now procured a 
 new disposition of the provinces, which gave Cisalpine Gaul to 
 himself, Macedonia to his brother C. Antonius, and Syria to 
 Dolabella. 
 
 Meantime a new actor appeared upon the stage. Octavius 
 was at Apollonia, a town on the coast of Illyria, at the time of 
 his uncle's death. Caesar had determined to take 
 bis nephew with him in his expedition against the "•'''^'^^^'^ 
 Parthians, and had accordingly sent him to Apol- uome. 
 Ionia, where a camp had been formed, that he 
 might pursue his military studies. The soldiers now offered to 
 follow him to Italy and avenge their leader's death, but he did 
 not yet venture to take this decisive step. He determined, 
 however, to sail at once to Italy, accompanied by only a few 
 friends. Upon arriving at Brimdusium he heard of the will of 
 the dictator, and was saluted by the soldiers as Caesar. As the 
 adopted heir of his uncle, his proper name was now C. Julius 
 Caesar Octavianus, and by the last of these names we shall 
 hencefortli call him. He now made up his mind to proceed to 
 Rome arid claim his uncle's inheritance, in opposition to the 
 advice of his mother, who dreaded this dangerous honour for 
 her son. Upon arriving at Rome, he declared before the praetor 
 in the usual manner that he accepted the inheritance, and he 
 then promised the people to pay the money bequeathed to them. 
 He even ventured to claim of Antony the treasures of his uncle; 
 but, as the latter refused to give them up, he sold the other 
 property, and even his own estates, to discharge all the legacies. 
 Antony threw every obstacle in his way ; but the very name of 
 Caesar worked wonders, and the liberality of the young man 
 gained the hearts of the people. He had indeed a difficult part 
 to play. He could not join the murderers of his uncle; and 
 yet Antony, their greatest enemy, was also his most dangerous 
 foe. In these difficult circumstances the youth displayed a 
 prudence and a wisdom which baffled the most experienced 
 politicians. "Without committing himself to any party, he pro- 
 fessed a warm attachment to the senate. Cicero had once more 
 taken an active part in public affairs ; and Octavian, with that 
 dissimulation which he practised throughout his life, completely 
 deceived the veteran orator. 
 
 On the 2nd of September Cicero delivered in the senate the 
 
S04 mSTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXVI. 
 
 first of his orations against Antony, which, in imitation of those 
 of Demosthenes against PhiHp, are known by the name of the 
 Philippics. Antony was absent at the time, but 
 Cicero shortly afterwards attacked the orator in un- 
 
 Autonv. measured terms. Cicero rephed in the Second 
 
 PhiHppic, one of the most violent invectives ever 
 written. It was not spoken, but was published soon after 
 Antony had quitted Rome. 
 
 Meantime the emissaries of Octavian had been sounding the 
 
 disposition of the soldiers, and had already enlisted for him a 
 
 . considerable number of troops in various parts of 
 
 raSeVt^oops. ^^"^^^ ^"toi^y ^^^ ^^^^^ the power was slipping 
 from imder his feet. Two of the legions which 
 he had summoned from Epirus passed over to Octavian ; and, in 
 order to keep the remainder under his standard, and to secure the 
 north of Italy to his interests, Antony now proceeded to Cisalpine 
 Gaul, which had been previously granted to him by the people. 
 Upon entering the province towards the end of December, D. 
 Brutus threw himself into Mutina {Modena), to which Antony 
 laid siege. 
 
 Soon after Antony's departure Cicero prevailed upon the 
 senate to declare him a public enemy, and to intrust to the 
 young Octavian the conduct of the war against 
 War declared him. Cicero was now at the height of his glory. 
 against jjjg activity was unceasing, and in the twelve re- 
 
 maining " PhiHppics " he encouraged the senate 
 and the people to prosecute the war with vigour. The two new 
 consuls (43 b.c.) were A. Hirtius and C. Vibius Pansa, both of 
 whom had been designated by the late dictator. As soon as 
 they had entered upon their office, Hirtius, accompanied by 
 Octavian, marched into Cisalpine Gaul, while Pansa remained 
 in the city to levy troops. 
 
 For some weeks no movement of importance took place in 
 either army, but, when Pansa set out to join his colleague and 
 Battles of Octavian, Antony marched southward, and on the 
 
 Forum Gal- 15th of April attacked him at Forum Gallorum 
 lorum and near Bononia (Bologna). A fierce battle ensued, 
 Mutina. \^ which Pansa was mortally wounded ; success 
 
 at first declared for Antony, but the timely arrival of the other 
 consul, Hirtius, forced him to retire to his camp before Mutina, 
 
Chap. XXXVI.] THE SECOND TRIUMVIRATE. 305 
 
 A few days afterwards a more decisive battle took place. 
 Antony was defeated with great loss, and forced to raise the 
 siege of Mutina ; but Hirtius fell in leading an assault on the 
 besieger's camp. The death of the two consuls left Octavian 
 the sole command ; and so timely was their removal that he was 
 accused by many of causing their death. 
 
 Antony, although he had found it impossible to continue the 
 sisge of Mutina, retreated in good order northwards, crossed the 
 Alps, and was well received in Further Gaul by Lepidus, who 
 had promised him support. Meantime the good understanding 
 between Octavian and the senate had come to an end. The 
 latter, being resolved to prevent him from obtaining any further 
 power, gave the command of the consular armies to D. Brutus ; 
 and Cicero talked of removing the boy. 
 
 But the " boy " soon showed the senate that he was their 
 master. He gained the confidence of the soldiers, who gladly 
 followed the heir of Caesar to Rome. Though 
 only twenty years of age, he demanded of the „-!Ls^^^ 
 senate the consulship. At first they attempted to 
 evade his demand; but his soldiers were encamped in the 
 Campus Martins, and in the month of August he was elected 
 consul with his cousin Q. Pedius. The first act of his consul- 
 ship showed that he had completely broken with the senate. 
 His colleague proposed a law declaring all the murderers of 
 Caesar to be outlaws. 
 
 Octavian then quitted Rome to march professedly against 
 Antony, leaving Pedius in charge of the city; but it soon 
 appeared that he had come to an understanding 
 with Antony, for he had hardly entered Etruria Ji^ijction with 
 before the unwilling senate were compelled, upon iiepi^^fg, 
 the proposal of Pedius, to repeal the sentence of 
 outlawry against Antony and Lepidus. These two were now 
 descending the Alps at the head of seventeen legions. Octavian 
 was advancing northwards with a formidable army. Between 
 two such forces the situation of D. Brutus was hopeless. He 
 was deserted by his own troops, and fled to Aquileia, intending 
 to cross over to Macedonia, but was put to death in the former 
 place by order of Antony. 
 
 Lepidus, who acted as mediator between Antony and Octavian, 
 now arranged a meeting between them on a small island near 
 
 X 
 
306 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXVI. 
 
 Bononia, formed by the waters- of the river Ehenus, a tribu- 
 tary of the Po. The interview took place near the end of 
 
 November. It was arranged that the government 
 triumvirate '^^ ^^^^ Roman world should be divided between 
 
 the three for a period of five years, under the 
 title of " Triumvirs for settling the affairs of the Republic." * 
 Octavian received Sicily, Sardinia, and Africa ; Antony the two 
 Gauls, with the exception of the Narbonese district, which, with 
 Spain, was assigned to Lepidus. Octavian and Antony were to 
 prosecute the war against M. Brutus and Cassius, who were in 
 possession of the eastern provinces. Lepidus was to receive 
 the consulship for the following year, with the charge of Italy. 
 
 The triumvirs next proceeded to imitate the example of Sulla 
 by drawing up a proscription — a list of persons whose lives were 
 _ . . to be sacrificed and property confiscated. But 
 
 they had not Sulla's excuse. He returned to 
 Ital}'^ exasperated to the highest degree by the murder of his 
 friends and the personal insults he had received. The triumvirs, 
 out of a cold-blooded policj^, resolved to remove every one 
 whose opposition they feared or whose property they coveted. 
 In drawing up the fatal list they sacrificed, without scruple, 
 their nearest relatives and friends. To please Antony, Octavian 
 gave up Cicero ; Antony in return surrendered his own uncle, 
 L. Caesar; and Lepidus sacrificed his own brother Paullus. 
 As many as 300 senators and 2000 equites were entered in the 
 lists. 
 
 As soon as the triumvirs had made their secret arrangements 
 they marched towards Rome. Hitherto they had published the 
 names of only seventeen of the proscribed ; but the city was in 
 a state of the utmost alarm, and it was with difficulty that Pedius 
 could preserve the peace. So great was his anxiety and fatigue 
 that he died the night before the entry of the triumvirs into the 
 city. They marched into Rome at the head of their legions, 
 and filled all the public places with their soldiery. No attempt 
 at resistance was made. A law was proposed and carried con- 
 ferring upon the triumvirs the title and powers they had assumed. 
 The work of butchery then commenced. Lists after lists of 
 the proscribed were published, each more numerous than the 
 former. The soldiers hunted after the victims, cut off their 
 * Triumviri Reipublicae constituendae. 
 
Chap. XXXVI.] DEATH OF CICERO. 307 
 
 heads, and brought them to the authorities to prove their claims 
 to the blood-money. Slaves were rewarded for betraying their 
 masters, and whoever harboured any of the proscribed was 
 punished with death. Terror reigned throughout Italy. No 
 one knew whose turn would come next. 
 
 Cicero was included in the first seventeen victims of the pro- 
 scription. He was residing in his Tusculan villa with his 
 brother Quintus, who urged him to escape to 
 Brutus in Macedonia, They reached Astura, a Q^^arn ° 
 small island off Antium, when Quintus ventured 
 to Eome to obtain a supply of money, of which they were in 
 need. Here he was apprehended, together with his son, and 
 both were put to death. The orator again embarked, and 
 coasted along to Formiae, where he landed at his villa, resolving 
 no longer to fly from his fate. After he had spent a night in 
 his own house, his attendants, hearing that the soldiers were 
 close at hand, forced him to enter a litter, and hurried him 
 through the woods towards the shore, distant a mile from his 
 house. As they were passing onwards they were overtaken by 
 their pursuers, and were preparing to defend their master with 
 their lives, but Cicero commanded them to desist ; and, stretch- 
 ing his head out of the litter, called upon his executioners to 
 strike. They instantly cut off his head and hands, which were 
 carried to Rome. Fulvia, the widow of Clodius and now the 
 wife of Antony, gloated her eyes with the sight, and even thrust 
 a hair-pin through his tongue. Antony ordered the head to be 
 nailed to the Rostra, which had so often witnessed the triumphs 
 of the orator. Thus died Cicero, in the sixty-fourth year of his 
 age. He had not sufficient firmness of character to cope with 
 the turbulent times in which his lot was cast ; but as a man he 
 deserves our admiration and love. In the midst of almost 
 universal corruption he remained uncontaminated. He was an 
 affectionate father, a faithful friend, and a kind master. 
 
 Many of the proscribed escaped from Italy, and took refuge 
 with Sextus Pompeius in Sicily, and with Brutus and Cassius in 
 the East. After the death of Caesar the senate 
 had appointed Sextus to the command of the po'^nf;„ 
 Republican fleet. He had become master of 
 Sicily ; his fleet commanded the Mediterranean ; and Rome 
 began to suffer from want of its usual supplies of corn. It 
 
308 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXVL 
 
 was arranged that Octavian should attempt the conquest of j 
 
 Sicily, while Antony was preparing for the campaign in the i 
 
 East. A fleet under Salvidienus Rufus was sent against ^ 
 
 Pompeius, but was worsted by the latter in the Straits of Sicily, ] 
 
 in sight of Octavian. The war against Brutus and Cassius was i 
 
 more urgent; and accordingly Octavian and Antony sailed i 
 
 shortly afterwards to the East, leaving Pompeius undisputed ' 
 
 master of the sea. i 
 
 M. Brutus had gained secure possession of Macedonia. The i 
 
 remains of the Pompeian legions, which had continued in Greece [ 
 
 after the battle of Pharsalus, gathered round him ; 
 
 Brutus and g^^^j q_ Antonius, whom his brother had sent over , 
 
 East^^^ ^^ ^ **^ **^® ^^^ command of the province, was obliged , 
 
 to become his prisoner. His colleague had been l 
 
 Equally fortunate in Syria. Dolabella, to whom Antony had " 
 
 given this province, was besieged in Laodicea by Cassius, and j 
 
 put an end to his own life (43 B.C.). ! 
 
 Brutus and Cassius were now masters of the Roman world j 
 
 east of the Adriatic. It was evident that their enemies before | 
 
 long would cross over into Greece ; but instead of concentrating j 
 
 their forces ia that country, they began to plunder the cities of ; 
 
 Asia Minor, in order to obtain money for their troops. Brutus "' 
 
 pillaged Lycia, and Cassius Rhodes. The inhabitants of the I 
 
 Lycian town of Xanthus refused to submit to the exactions of i 
 
 Brutus, made an heroic defence when they were attacked, and ] 
 
 preferred to perish in the flames of their city rather than to i 
 
 yield. Brutus and Cassius were thus engaged when the news of 
 
 the triumvirate and the proscription reached them ; but they c 
 
 continued some time longer plundering in the East, and it was f 
 
 not till the spring of 42 B.C. that the Republican chiefs at length I 
 
 assembled their forces at Sardis, and prepared to march into I 
 
 Europe. \ 
 
 So much time, however, had now been lost, that Antony and \ 
 
 Octavian had landed without opposition upon the ^ 
 
 Arrival of ^^^^g^ ^f Greece, and had already commenced • 
 
 Octavian, ^^^^^ march towards Macedonia before Brutus ; 
 
 and Cassius had quitted Asia. ^ 
 
 Brutus seems to have had dark forebodings of the approaching ] 
 
 struggle. He continued his studious habits during the cam- ^ 
 
 paign, and limited his hours of sleep. On the night before his \ 
 
Chap. XXXVl.] BATTLES AT PHILIPPl. 309 
 
 army crossed over into Europe he was sitting in his tent, the 
 lamp burning dim, and the whole camp in deep silence, when he 
 saw a gigantic and terrible figure standing by him. He had the 
 courage to ask, " Who art thou, and for what purpose dost thou 
 come? " The phantom replied, " I am thy evil genius, Brutus ; 
 we shall meet again at Philippi ! " and vanished. 
 
 Brutus and Cassius now marched through Thrace and Mace- 
 donia to Philippi, where they met the army of the triumvirs. 
 The Republican leaders took up their positions 
 on two heights distant a mile from each other, ■Dt■^^l^■^ 
 Brutus pitchmg his camp on the northern, and 
 Cassius on the southern near the sea. The camps, though 
 separate, were enclosed within a common entrenchment, and 
 midway between them was the pass which led like a gate from 
 Europe to Asia. The enemy was on the lower ground in a less 
 favourable position ; Octavian opposed Brutus and Antony 
 Cassius. The numbers that met in this last struggle for the 
 Republic were enormous, and nineteen legions were counted 
 on either side. The triumvirs, whose troops began to suffer 
 from want of provisions, now endeavoured to force the Republican 
 leaders to an engagement. Cassius was unwilling to quit his 
 strong position, and recommended that they should wait for their 
 fleet ; but Brutus was anxious to put an end to this state of 
 suspense, and persuaded the council to risk an immediate battle. 
 Brutus himself defeated the army opposite to him, and pene- 
 trated into the camp of Octavian, who was lying ill and unable to 
 take part in the battle. His litter was seized, and brought forth 
 covered with blood, and a report spread that he had been 
 killed. 
 
 Meantime, on the other side of the field, Cassius had been 
 driven back by Antony. Retiring to a neighbouring hill with 
 some of his men, he saw a large bodj'^ of cavalry 
 approaching. Thinking that they belonged to the Death of 
 enemy and that everything was lost, he ordered Bj^t^g, 
 one of his freedmen to put an end to his life. In 
 reality Brutus had sent the cavalry to obtain news of Cassius ; 
 and when he heard of the death of his colleague he wept over 
 him as " the last of the Romans," an eulogy which Cassius had 
 done nothing to deserve. 
 
 Twenty days after the first battle Brutus again led out his 
 
310 
 
 HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 [Chap. XXX VI. 
 
 forces; but this time he was completely defeated, and with 
 difficulty escaped from the field. He withdrew into a wood, and 
 in the night-time fell upon his sword, which Strato, who had 
 been his teacher in rhetoric, held for him. Philippi was the 
 last — perhaps the only — contest in which the existence of the 
 Republic was the stake ; with Brutus it perished, and indeed it 
 would have been strange had its salvation been due to him. 
 He was doubtless a sincei'e believer, but he was a man of weak 
 judgment, deficient in knowledge of mankind, and more fitted 
 for a life of study than the command of armies and the govern- 
 ment of men. 
 
 Coin of Antony and Cleopatra. 
 
Coin of Augustus with head of M. Agrippa on the reverse. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVII. 
 
 FROBI THE BATTLE OF PHILIPPI 10 THE BATTLE OF ACTITJM. 
 41-30 B.C. 
 
 After the battle the victors separated. Antonj'^ remained in 
 the East to collect money for the soldiers. Octavian, who was 
 in ill-health, returned to Italy to give the veterans 
 the lands which had been promised them. ^^°^^ "^ *^® 
 Anton}^ traversed Asia Minor, plundering the 
 unfortunate inhabitants, who had already suffered so severely 
 from the exactions of Brutus and Cassius. In the voluptuous 
 cities of Asia he surrendered himself to every kind of sensual 
 enjoyment. He entered Ephesus in the character of Bacchus, 
 accompanied by a wild procession of women dressed like 
 Bacchantes, and men and youths disguised as Satyrs and Fauns. 
 At Tarsus in Cilicia, whither he had gone to prepare for the 
 war against the Parthians, he was visited by Cleopatra, whom 
 he had summoned to his presence to answer for .. „ 
 her conduct in supplying Cassius with money and nJeoTjatra ° 
 provisions. She was now in her twenty-eighth 
 year, and in the full maturity of her charms. In her fifteenth 
 year her beauty had made an impression on the heart of Antony, 
 when he was at Alexandria with Gabinius ; and she now trusted 
 to make him her willing slave. She sailed up the Cydnus to 
 Tarsus in a magnificent vessel with purple sails propelled by 
 silver oars to the sound of luxurious music. She herself reclined 
 under an awning spangled with gold, attired as Venus and 
 fanned by Cupids. The most beautiful of her female slaves 
 held the rudder and the ropes. The perfumes burnt upon the 
 
312 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXVII. 
 
 vessel filled the banks of the river with their fragrance. The 
 inhabitants cried that Venus had come to revel with Bacchus. 
 Antony accepted her invitation to sup on board her galley, and 
 was completely subjugated. Her wit and vivacity surpassed 
 even her beauty. He followed her to Alexandria, where he 
 forgot everything in luxurious dalliance, and the charms of her 
 society. 
 
 Meantime important events had been taking place in Italy. 
 Octavian found immense difficulties in satisfying the demands of 
 the veterans. All Italy was thrown into con- 
 
 Italy. 
 
 c avian in fusion. Though he expelled thousands from their 
 
 homes in Cisalpine Gaul, in order to give their 
 farms to his soldiers, they still clamoured for more. Those who 
 had obtained assignments of land seized upon the property of 
 their neighbours, and those who had not were ready to rise in 
 mutiny. The country people, who had been obliged to yield 
 their property to the rude soldiery, filled Italy with their com- 
 plaints, and flocked to Rome to implore in vain the protection of 
 Octavian. Even if he had the wish, he had not the power to 
 control his soldiers. 
 
 Fulvia, the wife of Antony, who had remained behind in Italy, 
 resolved to avail herself of these elements of confusion, and 
 
 crush Octavian. She was a bold and ambitious 
 Revolt of L. woman ; she saw that sooner or later the struL'gle 
 P^^^Jg^ must come between her husband and Octavian ; 
 
 and by precipitating the war she hoped to bring 
 her hu•^band to Italy, and thus withdraw him from the influence 
 of Cleopatra. L. Antonius, the brother of the triumvir, who 
 was consul this year (41 b.c), entered into her views. They 
 proclaimed themselves the patrons of the unfortunate Italians, 
 and also promised to the discontented soldiery that the triumvir 
 would recompense them with the spoils of Asia. By these 
 means they soon saw themselves at the head of a considerable 
 force, and even obtained possession of Rome. 
 
 But Agrippa, the ablest general of Octavian, forced them to 
 quit the city, and pressed them so hard that they were obliged 
 
 to take refuge in Perusia {Perugia), one of the 
 Siege 01 j^Qg^ powerful cities of Etruria. Here they were 
 
 besieged during the winter, and suffered so dread- 
 fully , from famine that they found themselves compelled to 
 
Chap. XXXVII.] PEACE OF BEUNDUSIUM. 313 
 
 capitulate in the following spring. The lives of L. Antonius 
 and Fulvia were spared, but the chief citizens of Perusia itself 
 were put to death, and the town burnt to the ground. 
 
 While Antony's friends were thus unfortunate in Italy, his 
 own forces experienced a still greater disaster in the East. Q. 
 Labienus, the son of Caesar's old lieutenant in Gaul, had been 
 sent by Brutus and Cassius to seek aid from Orodes, the king of 
 Parthia. He was in that country when the news arrived of the 
 battle of Philippi, and had remained there up to the present 
 time. 
 
 The war in Italy, and Antony's indolence at Alexandria, held 
 
 out a favourable opportunity for the invasion of the Eoman 
 
 provinces. Orodes placed a large army under the 
 
 command of Labienus and his own son Pacorus. f^^^"}^^ 
 mi 1 ii T-i 1 i • ^rv T invasion of 
 
 ihey crossed the iLiuphrates in 40 B.C., and car- gypja,. 
 
 ried everything before them. Antony's troops 
 were defeated; the two powerful cities of Antioch and Apamea 
 were taken ; and the whole of Syria overrun by the Parthians. 
 Pacorus penetrated as far south as Palestine, and Labienus 
 invaded Cilicia. Such alarming news, both from Italy and the 
 East, at length aroused Antony from his voluptuous dreams. 
 Leaving his lieutenant Ventidius in Syria, to conduct the war 
 against the Parthians, Antony sailed to Athens, where he met 
 his brother and wife. He now formed an alliance with Sextus 
 Pompeius, sailed to Italy, and laid siege to Brundusium. 
 
 Another civil war seemed inevitable ; but the soldiers on both 
 sides were eager for peace ; and mutual friends persuaded the 
 chiefs to be reconciled, which was the more easily 
 effected in consequence of the death of Fulvia at Brundusium 
 Sicyon. A new division of the Eoman world was 
 now made. Antony was to have all the eastern provinces, and 
 Octavian the western, the town of Scodra in Illyricum forming 
 the boundary between them. Italy was to belong to them in 
 common. Lepidus was allowed to retain possession of Africa, 
 which he had received after the battle of Philippi, but he had 
 ceased to be of any political importance. It was agreed that 
 Antony should carry on the war against the Parthians, and that 
 Octavian should subdue Pompeius, whom Antony readily sacri- 
 ficed. The consuls were to be selected alternately from the 
 friends of each. To cement the alliance, Antony was to marry 
 
314 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXV^II. 
 
 Octavia, the siater of Octavian and widow of C. Marcellus, one 
 of the noblest women of her age. The two triumvirs then 
 repaired to Kome to celebrate the marriage (close of 40 B.C.). 
 
 Discontent, however, prevailed at Eo me. Sextus Pompeius, who 
 had been excluded from the peace, still continued master of the 
 
 sea, and intercepted the ships which supplied the 
 Mfs^Bum '^^^^ ^'^^^ corn. The people were in want of 
 
 bread, and became so exasperated that Octavian 
 and Antony found it necessary to enter into negotiations with 
 the enemy. An interview took place between the chiefs at Cape 
 Misenum. It was agreed that Pompeius should receive Sicily, 
 Sardinia, Corsica, and Achaia, and that he should send to Kome 
 an immediate supply of corn. The chiefs then feasted one 
 another, and Pompeius entertained Octavian and Antony on 
 board his own galley. When the banquet was at its height, a 
 Greek named Menas or Menodorus, one of Pompeius' captains, 
 whispered to him, " Shall I cut off the anchors of the ship, and 
 make you lord of the Koman world ? " To which his master 
 made the well-known reply, " You ought to have done it without 
 asking me." The two triumvirs, on their return to Rome, were 
 received with shouts of applause. The civil wars seemed to 
 have come to an end (39 B.C.). 
 
 Antony, with Octavia, returned to the East, where he found 
 that his legate Ventldius had gained the most brilliant success 
 Viotories of ^^'®^ ^^^^ Parthians. This man was a native of 
 Ventidius Picenum, and originally a mule- driver. He was 
 
 over the taken prisoner in the Social War, and walked in 
 
 Partliiaiis. chains in the triumphal procession of Pompeius 
 Strabo. He was made tribune of the Plebs by Julius Caesar, 
 and was raised to the consulship in 43 B.C. In the Parthian 
 War he displayed military abilities of no ordinary kind. He first 
 defeated Labienus, took him prisoner in Cilicia, and put him to 
 death. He then entered Syria, and drove Pacorus beyond the 
 Euphrates. In the following year (38 B.C.) the Parthians again 
 entered Syria, but Ventidius gained a signal victory over them, 
 and Pacorus himself fell in the battle. 
 
 The treaty between Sextus Pompeius and the triumvirs did 
 not last long. Antony refused to give up Achaia, and Pompeius 
 therefore recommenced his piratical excursions. The^price of 
 provisions at Eome immediately rose, and Octavian found it 
 
Chap. XXXVII.] WAR WITH SEXTUS POMPEIUS. 315 
 
 necessary to commence war immediately ; but his fleet was twice 
 defeated by Pompeius, and was at last completely destroyed by 
 a storm (38 B.C.). This failm-e only proved the 
 necessity of making still more extensive prepara- ^^^ witn 
 tions to carry on the war with success. The power pomugiug 
 of Octavian was insecure as long as Pompeius was 
 master of the sea, and could deprive Eome of her supplies of 
 corn. Nearly two years were spent in building a new fleet, and 
 exercising the newly raised crews and rowers. The command 
 of the fleet and the superintendence of all the necessary pre- 
 parations for the war were entrusted to Agrippa. In order 
 to obtain a perfectly secure and land-locked basin for his fleet, 
 and thus secure it against any sudden surprise, he constructed 
 the celebrated Portus Julius on the coast of Campania near 
 Baiae, by connecting the inland Lake Avernus, by means of a 
 canal, with the Lake Lucrinus, and by strengthening the latter 
 lake against the sea by an artificial dyke or dam. While he 
 was engaged in these great works, Antony sailed to Tarentum, 
 in 37 B.C., with 300 ships. Maecenas hastened thither from 
 Rome, and succeeded once more in concluding an amicable 
 arrangement. He was accompanied on this occasion by Horace, 
 who has immortalized, in a well-known satire, his journey from 
 Rome to Brundusium. 
 
 Octavian and Antony met between Tarentum and Meta- 
 pontum ; the triumvirate was renewed for another period of 
 five years ; Antony agreed to leave 120 ships to 
 assist in the war against Pompeius ; and Octavian ^^^^^^1 oi 
 promised to send a land-force to the East for the y^j-ate 
 campaign against the Parthians. 
 
 Octavian, now reheved of all anxiety on the part of Antony, 
 urged on his preparations with redoubled vigour. By the 
 summer of 36 b.c. he was ready to commence operations. He 
 had three large fleets at his disposal : his own, stationed in the 
 Julian harbour ; that of Antony, under the command of Statilius 
 Taurus, in the harbour of Tarentum ; and that of Lepidus, off 
 the coast of Africa. His plan was for all three fleets to set sail 
 on the same day, and make a descent upon three different parts 
 of Sicily; but a fearful storm marred this project. Lepidus 
 alone reached the coast of Sicily, and landed at Lilybaeum ; 
 Statilius Taurus was able to put back to Tarentum; but 
 
316 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXVII. 
 
 Octavian, who was surprised by the storm off the Lucanian 
 promontory of Pahnurus, lost a great number of his ships, and 
 was obhged to remain in Italy to repair his shattered fleet. 
 
 As soon as the ships had been refitted, Octavian again set sail 
 for Sicily. Agrippa defeated Pompeius' fleet off Mylae, destroy- 
 ing thirty of his ships ; but the decisive battle 
 Naubohus ^^^ fought on the 3rd of September (36 B.C.), 
 off Naulochus, a seaport between Mylae and the 
 promontory of Pelorus. Agrippa gained a brilliant victory ; 
 most of the Pompeian vessels were destroyed or taken. Pompeius 
 himself fled to Lesbos with a squadron of seventeen ships. 
 
 Octavian did not pursue him, as Lepidus, who was at the head 
 
 of a considerable force, now claimed Sicily for himself, and an 
 
 equal share as triumvir in the government of 
 
 e iremen ^j^^ Roman world ; but Octavian found means to 
 
 seduce his soldiers from their allegiance ; and 
 
 Lepidus was at last obliged to surrender to Octavian, and to 
 
 throw himself upon his mercy. His life was granted, but he 
 
 was deprived of his triumvirate, his army, and his provinces, and 
 
 vras compelled to retire to Italy as a private person. He was 
 
 allowed, however, to retain his property and the dignity oi 
 
 Pontifex Maximus. He lived till 12 B.C. 
 
 In 35 B.C. Pompeius crossed over from Lesbos to Asia, with the 
 view of seizing that province ; but he was easily crushed by the 
 lieutenants of Antony, was taken prisoner as he 
 Death of attempted to escape to Armenia, and was put to 
 
 Pompeius. death at Miletus. By the death of Pompeius and 
 the deposition of Lepidus, Antony and Octavian 
 •were now left without a rival ; and Antony's mad love for 
 Cleopatra soon made Octavian the undisputed master of the 
 Roman world. 
 
 After Antony's marriage "with Octavia, in 40 B.C., he seems 
 for a time to have forgotten or at least conquered the fascinations 
 of the Egyptian queen. For the next three years he resided at 
 Athens with his w\ie ; but after his visit to Italy, and the re- 
 newal of the triumvirate in 37 B.C., he left, Octavia behind at 
 Tarentum, and determined to carry out his ■ long-pi'ojected 
 campaign against the Parthians. 
 
 As he approached Syria, " that great evil," as Plutai'ch calls 
 it, his passion for Cleopatra, burst forth vpith more vehemence 
 
Chap. XXX VII.] ANTONY IN EGYPT. 317 
 
 than ever. From this time she appears as his evil genius. He 
 summoned her to him, and loaded her with honours and 
 favours. He added to her dominions Phoenicia, 
 Coele-Syria, Cyprus, a large part of Cilicia, Pales- J^^^^^J/^' 
 tine, and Arabia, and publicly recognized the cieonatra 
 children she had borne him. Although he had 
 collected a large army to invade the Parthian empire, he was 
 unable to tear himself away from the enchantress, and did not 
 commence his march till late in the year. The expedition 
 proved most disastrous ; the army suffered from want of 
 provisions ; and Antony found himself compelled to retreat. 
 He narrowly escaped the fate of Crassus; and it was with the 
 utmost difficulty that he succeeded in reaching the Armenian 
 mountains after losing the best part of his troops. 
 
 Antony returned to Alexandria, and surrendered himself 
 entirely to Cleopatra. In 34 b c. he made a short campaign 
 into Armenia, and succeeded in obtaining pos- 
 session of Artavasdes, the Armenian king. He -J^ °^J ^^ 
 carried him to Alexandria, and, to the great 
 scandal of all the Romans, entered the city in triumph, with all 
 the pomp and ceremonial of the Roman pageant. He now laid 
 aside entirely the character of a Roman citizen, and assumed 
 the state and dress of an Eastern monarch. Instead of the toga 
 he wore a robe of purple, and his head was crowned with a 
 diadem. Sometimes he assumed the character of Osiris, while 
 Cleopatra appeared at his side as Isis. He gave the title of 
 kings to Alexander and Ptolemy, his sons by Cleopatra. The 
 Egyptian queen already dreamed of reigning over the Roman 
 world. 
 
 Wliile Antony was disgusting the Romans and alienating his 
 friends and supporters by his senseless follies, Octavian had 
 been restoring order to Italy ; and, by his wise and energetic 
 administration, was slowly repairing the evils of the civil wars. 
 In order to give security to the frontiers and employment to the 
 troops, he attacked the barbarians on the north of Italy and 
 Greece, and subdued the lapydes, Pannonians, and Dalmatians. 
 He carried on these wars in person, and won the affection of 
 the soldiers by sharing their dangers and hardships. 
 
 The contrast between the two triumvirs was sufficiently 
 striking, but Octavian called attention to the follies of Antony. 
 
318 
 
 HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 [Chap. XXXVII. 
 
 Letters passed between them full of mutual recriminations, and 
 both parties began to prepare for the inevitable struggle. 
 
 Towards the end of 32 B.C. the senate declared war against 
 Cleopatra,* since there was no ground for treating Antony as a 
 public enemy. The five years of the triumvirate 
 War declared had expired on the last day of this year ; and on 
 against ^-^e 1st of January, 31 B.C., Octavian, as Consul of 
 
 the Republic, proceeded to carry on the war 
 against the Egyptian queen. The hostile fleets and armies 
 assembled on the western coasts of Greece. Antony's fleet was 
 superior both in the number and size of the ships, but they were 
 clumsy and unmanageable. They were anchored in the 
 
 Ambraciot Gulf in the 
 modern Bay of Pre- 
 vesa. (See Plan, P.) 
 The army was en- 
 camped on the pro- 
 montory of Actium 
 (Plan, 3), which has 
 given its name to the 
 battle. The fleet of 
 Octavian consisted of 
 light Liburnian ves- 
 sels, manned by crews 
 which had gained ex- 
 perience in the wars 
 against Sextus Pompeius. It was under the command of the 
 able Agrippa, who took up his station at Corcyra, and swept the 
 Adriatic Sea. 
 
 Octavian in person took the command of the land-forces, which 
 were encamped on the coast of Epirus opposite Actium, on the 
 spot where Nicopolis afterwards stood. (Plan, 1.) 
 The generals of Antony strongly urged him to 
 fight on land ; but the desertions among his 
 troops were numerous ; Cleopatra became alarmed for her 
 safety ; and it was therefore resolved to sacrifice the army, and 
 retire with the fleet to Egypt. But Agrippa was on the watch, 
 and Antony had no sooner saUed outside the strait than he was 
 compelled to fight. The battle was still undecided and equally 
 * Antony retaliated by sending Octavia a bill of divorcs. 
 
 Plan of Actium. 
 
 Nicopolis. I 3. Prom. Actium. 
 
 O. La Scara. \ 5. Temple of Apollo. 
 
 P. Bay of Prevesa. 
 
 Battle of 
 Actium. 
 
Chap. XXXVII.] DEATH OF ANTONY AND CLEOPATRA. 319 
 
 favourable to both parties, when Cleopatra, whose vessels were 
 at anchor in the rear, taking advantage of a favourable breeze 
 which sprung up, sailed through the midst of the combatants 
 with her squadron of sixty ships, and made for the coast of 
 Peloponnesus. When Antony saw her flight, he hastily followed 
 her, forgetting everything else, and shamefully deserting those 
 who were fighting and dying in his cause. The remainder of 
 the fleet was destroyed before night-time, and the army, after a 
 few days' hesitation, surrendered. The battle of Actium was 
 fought on the 2nd of September, 31 B.C., from which day the sole 
 rule of Octavian may be dated, although his constitutional position 
 as Princeps was not secured until four years later (27 B.C.). 
 
 Octavian did not follow Antony to Alexandria for nearly 
 twelve months after the battle of Actium. He sent Agrippa to 
 Italy with his veteran troops, and himself passed the winter at 
 Samos ; but he could not satisfy the demands of the soldiers, 
 who broke out into open mutiny. Octavian hastened to Brun- 
 dusium, and with difficulty raised a sufficient sum of money to 
 calm their discontent. 
 
 This respite was of no service to Antony and Cleopatra. 
 They knew that resistance was hopeless, and therefore sent 
 ambassadors' to Octavian to solicit his favour. 
 To Antony no answer was given, but to Cleopatra +o ^J^^^ ^^^^ 
 hopes were held out if she would betray her lover. 
 She began to flatter herself that her charms, which had fascinated 
 both Caesar and Antony, might conquer Octavian, who was 
 younger than either. Octavian at length appeared before Pelu- 
 sium, which surrendered to him without resistance. He then 
 marched upon Alexandria. Antony, encouraged by some slight 
 success in an action with the cavalry, prepared to resist Octavian 
 both by sea and land ; but as soon as the Egyptian ships ap- 
 proached those of Octavian, the crews saluted them with their 
 oars and passed over to their side. Antony's cavahy also 
 deserted him ; his infantry was easily repulsed ; and he fled to 
 Alexandria, crying out that he was betrayed by Cleopatra. 
 
 The queen had shut herself up in a mausoleum which she 
 had built to receive her body after death, and where she had 
 collected her most valuable treasures. Hearing of Antony's 
 defeat, she sent persons to inform him that she was dead. He 
 fell into the snare ,• they had promised not to survive one 
 
320 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXVII. 
 
 another ; and Antony stabbed himself. He was drawn up into 
 the mausoleum, and died in her arms. She was apprehended 
 by the officers of Octavian, and a few days after- 
 Deatn of wards had an interview with the conqueror. Her 
 
 Cleopatra. charms, however, failed in softening the colder 
 
 heart of Octavian. He only " bade her be of good 
 cheer and fear no violence." Soon afterwards she learnt that she 
 was to be sent to Rome in three days' time. This news decided 
 her. On the following day she was found lying dead on a golden 
 couch in royal attire, with her two women lifeless at her feet. 
 The manner of her death was unknown. It was generally believed 
 that she had died by the bite of an asp, which a peasant had brought 
 to her in a basket full of figs. She was thirty-nine j^ears of age at 
 the time of her death. Egypt became a Roman possession. 
 Octavian did not return to Rome till 29 B.C., when he celebrated 
 a threefold triumph over the Pannonians, Dalmatians, and 
 Egypt. The temple of Janus was closed for the third time in 
 Roman history, and the exhausted Roman world, longing for 
 repose, gladly acquiesced in the sole rule of Octavian. 
 
 Thus ended the Roman Republic, an end to which it had been 
 tending for the last hundred years. The corruption and de- 
 moralization of all classes had rendered a Republic 
 The Prmci- almost an impossibility ; and the civil dissensions 
 of the state had again and again invested one or 
 more persons with despotic authority. The means which Augustus 
 employed to strengthen and maintain his power belong to a 
 history of the Empire. He proceeded with the caution which 
 was his greatest characteristic. He refused the names of king 
 and dictator, and was contented with the simple appellation of 
 Princeps, or " chief citizen," which had long been used to 
 designate any one eminent in the service of the Republican 
 government. He received, however, in 27 B.C., the novel title 
 of Augustus, that is, " the sacred," or " the venerable," which 
 was afterwards assumed by all the Roman emperors as a sur- 
 name. His authority was secured by the assumption of two 
 extraordinary powers — the Proconsulare imperium, which made 
 him commander-in-chief of the Roman armies ; and the Tribanicia 
 potestas, which gave him pre-eminence over the civil magistrates 
 of the state. He made a new division of the provinces, allow- 
 ing the senate to appoint the governors of those which were 
 
Chap. XXXVII.] 
 
 THE PRINCIPATE. 
 
 321 
 
 quiet and long-settled, like Sicily, Achaia, and Asia, but re- 
 taining I'or himself such as required the presence of an army, 
 which were governed by means of his Legati. On the death of 
 Lepidus in 12 B.C., he succeeded him as Pontifex Maximus, and 
 thus became the head of the Roman religion. While he thus 
 united in his own person all the great ofiSces of state, he still 
 allowed the consuls, praetors, and other magistrates of the 
 Republic to be annually elected, and to perform their normal 
 functions, while he restored the senate to the numbers fixed by 
 Sulla, and to its Republican character of a body of Italian nobles. 
 " In a few words, the system of Imperial government, as it was 
 instituted by Octavian, and maintained by those princes who 
 understood their own interest and that of the people, may be 
 defined as an absolute government disguised by the form of a 
 commonwealth. The masters of the Roman world surrounded 
 their throne with darkness, concealed their irresistible strength, 
 and humbly professed themselves the accountable ministers of 
 the senate, whose supreme decrees they dictated and obeyed." * 
 
 * Gibbon. 
 
 Coin of Augustus commemorating the conquest of Egypt. 
 
Medal of Horace. 
 
 CHAPTEE XXXVIII. 
 
 SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE, FROM THE 
 EARLIEST TIMES TO THE DEATH OF AUGUSTUS. 
 
 Folk-songs. 
 
 For many centuries after the foundation of the city the Eomans 
 can hardly be said to have had any Hterature at all. There may 
 
 have existed, at an early period, some songs or 
 
 ballads, recounting, in rude strains,* the exploits of 
 the heroes of Roman story, but all trace of these has disappeared. 
 It was not till the conquest of the Greek cities in Southern Italy, 
 shortly before the First Punic War, that we can date the com- 
 mencement of a true literature. 
 
 It began with the Drama. The earliest dramatic exhibitions at 
 Rome had been introduced from Etruria in 364 B.C. ; they had 
 
 a religious significance, and were intended to avert 
 dranmtic art ^^^ anger of the gods on the occasion of a severe 
 
 pestilence. But these exhibitions were only 
 pantomimic scenes to the music of the flute, without any dialogue. 
 It was not till 240 B.C. that a drama with a regular plot was 
 performed at Rome. 
 
 * These were probably composed in the Saturnian metre, the oldest species of 
 versification among the Romans, the freedom of which, with regard to the laws of 
 quantity, gave greater play to the genius of the Latin language than the dactylic 
 hexameter borrowed from the Greeks. 
 
Chap. XXXVIII. ] ROMAN LITERATURE. 323 
 
 Its author was M. Livius Andeonicus, a native of Magna 
 
 Graecia, who was taken prisoner at the capture of Tarentum, 
 
 and carried to Rome, where he became the slave 
 
 of M. Liviiis Salinator. He was afterwards set free, .'^Tj^^ • 
 
 , T Ti . 11 ... Anoronicus. 
 
 and, accordmg to Koman practice, took the gentihc 
 
 name of his master. He acquired at Rome a perfect knowledge 
 
 of the Latin language ; and wrote both tragedies and comedies, 
 
 which were borrowed or rather translated from the Greek. He 
 
 also wrote an Odyssey in the Saturnian metre, and some hymns. 
 
 He may be regarded as the first Roman poet. His works were 
 
 read in schools in the time of Horace. 
 
 Cn. Nakvius, the second Roman poet, was a Campanian by 
 birth. He served in the First Punic War, and, like Livius, 
 wrote dramas borrowed from the Greek. His „ 
 first play was performed in 235 B.C. He was 
 attached to the plebeian party ; and, with the hcence of the old 
 Attic comedy, he made the stage a vehicle for assailing the 
 aristocracy. In consequence of his attacks upon the Metelli 
 he was thrown into prison. He obtained his release through the 
 tribunes, but was soon compelled to expiate a new offence by 
 exile. He retired to Utica, where he died about 204 B.C. In 
 his exile he wrote, in the Saturnian metre, an epic poem on the 
 First Punic War, in which he introduced the celebrated legends 
 connected with the foundation of Rome. This poem was ex- 
 tensively copied both by Ennius and Vergil. 
 
 Q. Ennius, however, may be regarded as the real founder of 
 Roman literature. Like Livius, he was a native of Magna 
 Graecia. He was born at Rudiae, in Calabria, 
 239 B.C. Cato found him in Sardinia in 204 S^.,?^*'^^ 
 B.C., and brought him in his train to Rome. He 
 dwelt in a humble house on the Aventine, and maintained him- 
 self by acting as preceptor to the youth of the Roman nobility. 
 He lived on terms of the closest intimacy with the elder Scipio 
 Africanus, and died in the year 169 B.C., at the age of seventy. 
 He was buried in the sepulchre of the Scipios, and his bust 
 was allowed a place among the effigies of that noble house. His 
 most important work was an epic poem, entitled the " Annals of 
 Rome," in eighteen books, written in dactylic hexameters, which, 
 through his example, supplanted the old Saturnian metre. This 
 poem commenced with the story of Aeneas, and contained a 
 
324 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXVIII. 
 
 chronological record of events down to the writer's own time. 
 Vergil borrowed largely from it ; and, down to his time, it was 
 regarded as the great epic poem of the Latin language. He also 
 wrote numerous tragedies, a few comedies, and several other 
 works, such as Saturae, miscellaneous poems composed in a 
 great variety of metres, from which circumstance they probably 
 received their name. 
 
 The comic drama of Kome, though it continued to be more 
 
 or less a translation or an imitation of the 
 
 Plautus " Greek, was cultivated with distinguished success 
 
 by two writers of genius, several of whose plays 
 
 are still extant. 
 
 T. Maocius Plautus was a native of Sarsina, a small village 
 in Umbria, and was born about 254 B.C. He probably came to 
 Rome at an early age, and was first employed in the service of 
 the actors. With the money he had saved in this inferior 
 station he left Rome, and set up in business : but his speculations 
 failed : he returned to the capital, and his necessities obliged him 
 to enter the service of a baker, who employed him in turning a 
 hand-mill. While in this degrading occupation he wrote three 
 plays, the sale of which to the managers of the public games 
 enabled him to quit his drudgery, and begin his literary career. 
 He was then about thirty years of age (224 B.C.), and continued to 
 write for the stage for about forty years. He died in 184 B.C., 
 when he was seventy years of age. The comedies of Plautus en- 
 joyed unrivalled popularity among the Romans, and continued to 
 be represented down to the time of Diocletian. Though they were 
 founded upon Greek models, the characters in them act, speak, 
 and joke like genuine Romans, and the poet thereby secured the 
 sympathy of his audience more completely than Terence. It 
 was not only with the common people that Plautus was a 
 favourite ; educated Romans read and admired his works down 
 to the latest times. Cicero places his wit on a level with that of 
 the old Attic comedy ; and St. Jerome used to console himself 
 with the perusal of the poet, after spending many nights in tears 
 on account of his past sins. The favourable opinion which the 
 ancients entertained of the merits of Plautus has been confirmed 
 by the judgment of modern critics, and by the fact that several 
 of his plays have been imitated by many of the best modern 
 poets. Twenty of his comedies are exiant. 
 
Chap. XXXVIII.] ROMAN LITERATURE. 325 
 
 P. Tekentius Afek, usually called Teeence, was born at 
 Carthage, 195 B.C. By birth or purchase he became the slave 
 of P. Terentius, a Roman senator, who afforded „ 
 him the best education of the age, and finally 
 gave him his freedom. The Andria, the first play of Terence 
 placed on the stage (166 B.C.), was the means of introducing 
 him to the most refined and intellectual circles of Rome. His 
 chief patrons were Laelius and the younger Scipio, both of whom 
 treated him as an equal, and are paid even to have assisted him in 
 the composition of his plays. He died in the thirty-sixth year 
 of his age, in 159 B.C. Six comedies are all that remain to us. 
 The ancient critics are unanimous in ascribing to Terence im- 
 maculate purity and elegance of language. Although a foreigner 
 and a freedman, he divides with Cicero and Caesar the palm 
 of pure Latinity. 
 
 There were two other comic poets, whose works are lost, but 
 who enjoyed a great reputation among the Romans. Statius 
 Caecilius was a native of Milan, and, like Terence, came to 
 Rome as a slave. He was the immediate predecessor of Terence, 
 and died 168 B.C., two years before the representation of the 
 Andria. L. Afranius flourished 100 B.C., and wrote comedies 
 describing Roman scenes and manners, called Gomoediae Togatue, 
 to distinguish them from those depicting Grecian life, which were 
 termed PaUiatae, from pallium, the national dress of the Greeks. 
 
 There were two tragic poets contemporary with Terence, who 
 also enjoyed great celebrity, though their works have likewise 
 perished. M. Pacuvius, son of the sister of 
 Ennius, was born about 220 B.C., and died in the pacuvius" 
 ninetieth year of his age. He is praised by the 
 Latin writers for the loftiness of his thoughts, the vigour of his 
 language, and the extent of his knowledge. Hence we find the 
 epithet dodus frequently applied to him. Most of his tragedies 
 were taken from the Greek writers ; but some belonged to the 
 class called Praetextafae, in which the subjects were taken from 
 Roman story. One of these, entitled Paidlus, had as its hero L. 
 Aemilius Paullus, the conqueror of Perseus, king of Macedonia. 
 
 L. Accius, a younger contemporary of Pacuvius, was born 
 - 140 B.C., and lived to a gi-eat age. Cicero, when . 
 a young man. frequently conversed with him. 
 His tragedies, like those of Pacuvius, were chiefly imitations of 
 
326 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXVIII. 
 
 the Greek ; but he also wrote some on Roman subjects, one of 
 which was entitled Brutus. 
 
 Though the Roman drama, properly so called, was derived 
 from, the Greeks, there were some kinds of dramatic exhibitions 
 , which were of Italian origin. The first of these 
 
 were the Attllanae Fabulae, or Atellane Plays, 
 which took their name from Atella, a town in Campariia. They 
 were at first rude extemporaneous farces, but were afterwards 
 divided into acts like a regular drama. They were originally 
 composed in the Oscan dialect ; but, when cultivated by the 
 youth of Rome, who readily assumed parts in these pieces, 
 they must have been acted in Latin. 
 
 The Mimes were another species of comedy, of which only 
 the name seems to have been derived from the Greek. They 
 were a species of low comedy, in which the 
 dialogue was subordinate to mimicry and gesture. 
 The Dictator Sulla was very fond of these performances. The 
 two most distinguished writers of Mimes were D. Laberius, 
 a knight, and P. Syrus, a freed man, and originally a Syrian 
 slave, both of whom were contemporaries of Julius Caesar. At 
 Caesar's triumphal games in October, 45 B.C., P. Syrus 
 challenged all his craft to a trial of wit in extemporaneous farce, 
 and Caesar offered Laberius 500,000 sesterces to appear on the 
 stage. Laberius was sixty years old, and the profession of a 
 mimus was infamous, but the wish of the dictator was equiva- 
 lent to a command, and he reluctantly complied. He had, 
 however, revenge in his power, and took it. His prologue 
 awakened compassion, and perhaps indignation ; and during the 
 performance he adroitly availed himself of his various characters 
 to point his wit at Caesar. In the person of a beaten Syrian 
 slave he cried out, "Marry! Quirites, but we lose our free- 
 dom," and all eyes were turned upon the dictator : and in 
 another mime he uttered the pregnant maxim, '' Needs must 
 he fear who makes all else adread." Caesar, impartially or 
 vindictively, awarded the prize to Syrus. 
 
 The Fescennine Songs were probably the origin of the Satire, 
 
 the only important species of literature not derived from the 
 
 Greeks, and altogether peculiar to Italy. These 
 
 Fescennine Songs were rude dialogues, in which 
 
 the coimtry people assailed and ridiculed one another in 
 
Chap. XXXVIII.] ROMAN LITERATURE. 327 
 
 extempore verses, and which were introduced as an amusement 
 into various festivals. 
 
 Baturae* although the name was given to certain poems of 
 Ennius, first assumed definite Hterary shape from the hands of 
 C. LuciLius, who wrote in hexameter verse, and _ ... 
 attacked the follies and vices both of dis- 
 tinguished persons and of mankind in general. He was born 
 180 B.C., at Suessa Aurunca, and died at Naples in 103 B.C. 
 He lived upon terms of intimacy with the younger Scipio and 
 Laelius ; and was the great-uncle of Pompey on his mother's 
 side. Lucilius continued to be admired in the Augustan age ; 
 and Horace, while he censures the harsh versification and the 
 slovenly haste with which Lucilius threw off his compositions, 
 acknowledges with admiration the fierceness and boldness of his 
 attacks upon the vices and follies of his contemporaries. 
 
 Between Lucilius and the poets of the Augustan age lived 
 Lucretius and Catullus, two of the greatest — perhaps the greatest 
 — of all the Roman poets. 
 
 T. LucuETius Caeus was born 96 b.c, and died in 55 b.c. 
 He is said to have been driven mad by a love-potion, and to 
 have perished by his own hand. The work which Poets of the 
 has immortalized his name is a philosophical later Re- 
 didactic poem, in heroic hexameters, entitled De piil>lic :_ 
 Rerum Natura, divided into six books, and ^^cretius, 
 addressed to C. Memmius Gemellus, who was praetor in 58 B.C. 
 Its object is to state clearly the leading principles of the 
 Epicurean philosophy in such a form as might render the study 
 attractive to his countrymen. He attempts to show that there 
 is nothing in the history or actual condition of the world which 
 does not admit of explanation without having recourse to the 
 active interposition of divine beings. The work has been 
 admitted by all modern critics to be the greatest of didactic 
 poems. The most abstruse speculations are clearly explained 
 in majestic verse ; while the subject, which in itself is dry and 
 dull, is enlivened by digressions of matchless power and beauty. 
 
 Valerius Catullus was born at Verona or in its immediate 
 vicinity, in 87 B.C. He inherited considerable property from his 
 father, who was the friend of Julius Caesar ; but he squandered 
 
 * The name signifies a mixture or medley. Hence a lex per saturam lata is 
 a law which contained several distinct regulations at once. 
 
328 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXVIII. 
 
 a great part of it by indulging freely in the pleasures of the 
 metropolis. In order to better his fortunes he went to Bithynia 
 _ .^ in the train of the praetor Memmius, but it 
 
 appears that the speculation was attended with 
 little success. It was probably during this expedition that his 
 brother died in the Troad, a loss which he deplores in the 
 affecting elegy to Hortalus. On his return he continued to reside 
 at Rome, or at his country-seats on the promontory of Sirmio 
 and at Tibur. He died about 54 B.C. His poems are on a 
 variety of topics, and composed in different styles and metres. 
 Some are lyrical, others elegies, others epigrams ; while the 
 Nuptials of Peleus and Thetis is an heroic poem. Catullus 
 adorned all he touched, and his shorter poems are characterized 
 by original invention and felicity of expression. His Atys is 
 one of the most remarkable poems in the whole range of Latin 
 literature, distinguished by wild passion and the noblest diction. 
 Among the poets of the Augustan age Vergil and Horace 
 stand forth pi'e-eminent. 
 
 P. Vekgilius Maro was born, 70 B.C., at Andes, a small 
 village near Mantua in Cisalpine Gaul. His father left him 
 
 a small estate, which he cultivated. After the 
 The Augustan battle of Phihppi (42 b.c.) his property was among 
 Vereil. *^* lands assigned by Oc: avian to the soldiers. 
 
 Through the advice of Asinius Pollio, who was 
 then governor of Cisalpine Gaul, and was himself a poet, Vergil 
 applied to Octavian at Rome for the restitution of his land, and 
 obtained his request. The first Eclogue commemorates his 
 gratitude. Vergil lived on intimate terms with Maecenas, whom 
 he accompanied in the journey from Rome to Brundusium, 
 which forms the subject of one of the Satires of Horace. His 
 most finished work, the Geon/ics, was undertaken at the 
 suggestion of Maecenas.* The poem was completed after the 
 battle of Actium, 31 B.C., while Octavian was in the East.f 
 The Aeneid was the occupation of his latter years. His health 
 w^as always feeble, and he died at Brundusium in 19 B.C., in his 
 fifty-first year. His remains were transferred to Naples, which 
 had been his favourite residence, and placed on the road from 
 Naples to Puteoli {PozzuoU), where a monument is still shown, 
 supposed to be the tomb of the poet. It is said that in his last 
 * Georg. iii. 41. j Comp. Georg. iv. 560, and ii. 171. 
 
Chap. XXXVIII.] ROMAN LITERATURE. 329 
 
 illness he wished to burn the Aeneid, to which he had not given 
 the finishing touches, but his friends would not allow him. He 
 was an amiable good-tempered man, free from the mean passions 
 of envy and jealousy. His fame, which was estabHshed in his 
 lifetime, was cherished after his death as an inheritance in which 
 every Roman had a share ; and his works became school-books 
 even before the death of Augustus, and continued such for 
 centuries after. He was also the great poet of the Middle Ages. 
 To him Dante paid the homage of his superior genius, and 
 owned him for his master and his model. The ten short poems 
 called Bucolics, or Eclogues, were the earliest works of Vergil, 
 and probably all written between 41 B.C. and 39 B.C. They 
 have all a Bucolic form and colouring, but some of them have 
 nothing more. Their merit consists in their versification, and 
 in many natural and simple touches. The Oeorgics is an 
 " Agricultural Poem " in four books. Vergil treats of the culti- 
 vation of the soil in the first book, of fruit-trees in the second, of 
 horses and other cattle in the third, and of bees in the fourth. 
 This poem shows a great improvement both in his taste and in 
 his versification. Neither in the Oeorgics nor elsewhere has he 
 the merit of striking originality ; his chief excellence consists in 
 the skilful handling of borrowed materials. The Aeneid, or 
 adventures of Aeneas after the fall of Troy, is an epic formed on 
 the model of the Homeric poems. It was founded upon an old 
 Eoman tradition that Aeneas and his Trojans settled in Italy, 
 and were the founders of the Roman name. In the first six 
 books the adventures of Ulysses in the Odyssey are the model, 
 and these books contain more variety of incident and situation 
 than those which follow. The last six books, the history of the 
 struggles of Aeneas in Italv, are based on the plan of the battles 
 of the Iliad. Latinus, the king of the Latini, offers in marriage 
 to the Trojan hero his daughter Lavinia, who had been betrothed 
 to Turnus, the warlike king of the Rutuli. The contest is ended 
 by the death of Turnus, who falls by the hand of Aeneas. The 
 fortunes of Aeneas and his final settlement in Italy are the 
 subjects of the Aeneid, but the glories of Rome and of the Julian 
 house, to which Augustus belonged, are indirectly the poet's 
 theme. In the first book the foundation of Alba Longa is 
 promised by Jupiter to Venus, and the transfer of empire from 
 Alba to Rome ; from the line of Aeneas will descend the 
 
330 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap XXXVIII. 
 
 " Trojan Caesar," whose empire will only be limited by the 
 ocean, and his glory by the heavens. The ultimate triumphs of 
 Rome are predicted. 
 
 Q. HoRATius Flaccus, usually called Horace, was born at 
 Venusia in Apulia, 65 B.C. His father was a freedman. He 
 had received his manumission before the birth of 
 the poet, who was, therefore, of ingenuous origin, 
 but who did not altogether escape the taunt which adhered to 
 persons even of remote servile descent. His father's occupation 
 was that of a collector {coador) of taxes. With the profits of 
 his office he had purchased a small farm in the neighbourhood 
 of Venusia. Though by no means rich, he declined to send the 
 young Horace to the common school, kept in Venusia by one 
 Flavins, to which the children of the rural aristocracy resorted. 
 Probably about his twelfth year his father carried him to Rome 
 to receive the usual education of a knight's or senator's son. 
 He frequented the best schools in the capital. One of these 
 was kept by Orbilius, a retired military man, whose flogging pro- 
 pensities have been immortalized by his pupil. The names of 
 his other teachers he has not recorded. He was instructed in 
 the Greek and Latin languages : the poets were the usual school- 
 books — Homer in the Greek, and the old tragic writer, Livius 
 Andronicus, in the Latin, In his eighteenth year Horace pro- 
 ceeded to Athens, in order to continue his studies at that seat 
 of learning. When Brutus came to Athens after the death of 
 Caesar, Horace joined his army, and received at once the rank 
 of a military ti'ibune. He was present at the battle of Philippi, 
 and shared in the flight of the republican army. In one of his 
 poems he playfully alludes to his flight and throwing away his 
 shield. He now resolved to devote himself to more peaceful 
 pursuits ; and having obtained his pardon, he ventured at once to 
 return to Rome. He had lost all his hopes in life ; his paternal 
 estate had been swept awav in the general forfeiture ; but he 
 was enabled to obtain sufficient money to purchase a clerkship 
 in the quaestor's office ; and on the profits of that place he 
 managed with the utmost frugality to live. Meantime some of 
 his poems attracted the notice of Varius and A^ergil, who in- 
 troduced him to Maecenas (38 B.C.) Horace soon became the 
 friend of Maecenas, and this friendship quickly ripened into 
 intimacy. In the year following tlie commencement of their 
 
Chap. XXXVIII.] ROMAN LITERATURE. 331 
 
 friendship (37 b.c.) Horace accompanied his patron on the 
 journey to Brundusium already alluded to. About the year 
 32 B.C. Maecenas bestowed upon the poet a Sabine farm, 
 sufficient to maintain him in ease, comfort, and even in content, 
 during the rest of his life. Besides this estate, his admiration of 
 the beautiful scenery in the neighbourhood of Tibur inclined him 
 either to hire or to purchase a small cottage in that romantic 
 town ; and all the later years of his life were passed between 
 the metropolis and these two country residences. He died in 
 8 B.C., in his fifty-seventh year. He was buried on the slope of 
 the Esquiline Hill, close to his friend and patron Maecenas, who 
 had died before him in the same year. Horace has described his 
 own person. He was of short stature, with dark eyes and black 
 hair, early tinged with grey. In his youth he was tolerably 
 robust, but suffered from a complaint in his eyes. In more 
 advanced life he grew fat, and Augustus jested about his cor- 
 pulence. His health was not always good, and he seems to have 
 inclined to be a valetudinarian. In dress he was rather careless. 
 His habits, even after he became richer, were generally frugal 
 and abstemious ; though on occasions, both in youth and maturer 
 age, he seems to have indulged in conviviality. He liked choice 
 wine, and in the society of friends scrupled not to enjoy the 
 luxuries of his time. He was never married. The Odes of 
 Horace want the higher inspirations of lyric verse. His amatory 
 verses are exquisitely graceful, but they have no strong ardour, 
 no deep tenderness, nor even much of light and joyous gaiety; 
 but as works of refined art, of the most skilful felicities of 
 language and of measure, of translucent expression, and of 
 agreeable images embodied in words which imprint themselves 
 indelibly on the memory, they are unrivalled. In the Satires of 
 Horace there is none of the loftv moral indignation, the fierce 
 vehemence of invective, which characterized the later satii-ists. 
 It is the folly rather than the wickedness of vice which he 
 touches with such playful skill. In the Epodes there is bitter- 
 ness provoked, it should seem, by some personal hatred or sense 
 of injury. But the Epistles are the most perfect of the Horatian 
 poetry, the poetry of manners and society, the beauty of which 
 consists in its common sense and practical wisdom. The 
 Epistles of Horace are, with the Poem of Lucretius, the Georgics 
 of Vergil, and perhaps the Satires of Juvenal, the most perfect 
 
332 HISTORV OF ROME. [Chap. XXXVIII. 
 
 and most original form of Roman verse. The Art of Poetry was 
 probably intended to dissuade one of the younger Pisos from 
 devoting himself to poetry, for which he had little genius, or at 
 least to suggest the difficulties of attaining to perfection. 
 
 Three celebrated Elegiac poets — Tibullus, Propertius, and 
 Ovid — also belong to the Augustan age. 
 
 Albius Tibullus was of equestrian family, and possessed an 
 hereditary estate between Tibur and Praeneste. His great 
 patron was Messala, whom he accompanied in 
 31 B.C. to Aquitania, whither Messala had been 
 sent by Augustus to suppress a formidable insurrection which 
 had broken out in this province. In the following year (30 B.C.) 
 Messala, having pacified Gaul, was sent into the East. Tibullus 
 set out in his company, but was taken ill, and obliged to remain 
 in Corcyra, from whence he returned to Rome. So ceased the 
 active life of Tibullus. He died at an early age soon after 
 Vergil. The poetry of his contemporaries shows Tibullus as a 
 gentle and singularly amiable man. To Horace especially he 
 was an object of warm attachment. His Elegies, which are 
 exquisite small poems, celebrate the beauty and cruelty of his 
 mistresses. 
 
 Sextus Propertius was a native of Umbria, and was born 
 about 51 B.C. He was deprived of his paternal estate by an 
 p ,. agrarian division, probably that in 36 B.C., after 
 
 ' the Sicilian War. He began to write poetry at a 
 very early age, and the merit of his productions soon attracted 
 the attention and patronage of Maecenas. The year of his 
 death is altogether unknown. As an elegiac poet a high rank 
 must be awarded to Propertius, and among the ancients it was 
 a disputed point whether the preference should be given to him 
 or to Tibullus. To the modern reader, however, the elegies 
 of Propertius are not nearly so attractive as those of Tibullus. 
 This arises partly from their obscurity, but in a great measure 
 also from a certain lack of natural inspiration. The fault of 
 Propertius was too pedantic an imitation of the Greeks. His 
 whole ambition was to become the Roman Callimachus, whom 
 he made his model. He abounds with obscure Greek myths, 
 as well as Greek forms of expression, and the same pedantry 
 infects even his versification. 
 
 P. OviDius Naso, usually called Ovid, was born at Sulmo, in 
 
Chap. XXXVIIL] ROMAN LITERATURE. 333 
 
 the country of the Paeligni, on the 20th March, 43 b.c. He was 
 descended from an ancient equestrian family, and was destined 
 to be a pleader. But the bent of his genius ^ . 
 showed itself very early. The hours which should 
 have been spent in the study of jurisprudence were employed 
 in cultivating his poetical talent. It is a disputed point whether 
 he ever actually practised as an advocate after his return to Rome. 
 The picture Ovid himself draws of his weak constitution and 
 indolent temper prevents us from thinking that he ever followed 
 his profession with perseverance, if indeed at all. He became,how- 
 ever, one of the Triumviri Capitales ; and he was subsequently 
 made one of the Oentumviri, or judges who tried testamentary 
 causes. Till his fiftieth year he continued to reside at Rome, 
 where he had a house near the Capitol, occasionally taking a 
 trip to his Paelignian farm. He not only enjoyed the friendship 
 of a large circle of distinguished men, but the regard and favour 
 of Augustus and the imperial family ; notwithstanding which, in 
 9 A.D. he was suddenly commanded by an imperial edict to 
 transport himself to Tomi, a town on the Euxine, near the 
 mouths of the Danube, oti the very border of the empire. He 
 underwent no trial, and the sole reason for his banishment stated 
 in the edict was his having published his poem on the Art of 
 Love {Ars Amatoria). The real cause of his exile is unknown, 
 for the publication of the Art of Love, demoralizing as the poem 
 might be held to be, was certainly a mere pretext. Ovid draws 
 an aflecting picture of the miseries to which he was exposed in 
 his place of exile. He complains of the inhospitable soil, of the 
 severity of the climate, and of the perils to which he was ex- 
 posed, when the barbarians plundered the surrounding country, 
 and insulted the very walls of Tomi. In the midst of all his 
 misfortunes he sought some relief in the exercise of his poetical 
 talents. He died in exile in the sixtieth year of his age, 18 a.d. 
 Besides his amatory poems, Ovid wrote the MetamorpJioses in 
 fifteen books, which consist of such legends or fables as involved 
 a transformation, from the Creation to the time of Julius Caesar, 
 the last being that emperor's change into a star — the Fasti, in- 
 tended to extend to twelve books, of which only the first six are 
 extant, a sort of poetical Roman calendar, with its appropriate 
 festivals and mythology — and the Elegies, written during his 
 banishment. Ovid undoubtedly possessed a great poetical 
 
334 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXVIII. 
 
 genius, which makes it the more to be regretted that it was not 
 always under the control of a sound judgment. He exhibits great 
 vigour of fancy and warmth of colouring, but he was the first 
 to depart from that pure and correct taste which characterizes 
 the Greek poets and their earher Latin imitators. 
 
 We now turn to the history of prose literature among the 
 
 Kornans. The earhest prose works were Annals containing a 
 
 meagre account of the principal events in Roman 
 Annalists. , . , i i ^i • 
 
 history, arranged under their respective years. 
 
 The earliest annalists who obtained reputation were Q. Fabius 
 PiCTOE and L. Cincius Alimentus, both of whom served in the 
 Second Punic War, and drew up an account of tt, but they 
 wrote in the Greek language. 
 
 The first prose writer in the Latin language, of whom any 
 considerable fragments have been preserved, is the celebrated 
 censor, M. PoRCtus Cato, who died 149 b.c, 
 and of whose life an account has already been 
 given. He wrote an important historical work entitled Origines. 
 The first book contained the history of the Roman kings ; the 
 second and third treated of the origin of the Italian towns, 
 and from these two books the whole work derived its title ; the 
 fourth book treated of the First Punic War, the fifth book of 
 the Second Punic War, and the sixth and seventh continued the 
 narrative to the year 149 B.C. There is still extant a work on 
 agriculture (De Re Rudlca) bearing the name of Cato, which is 
 probably substantially his, though it is certainly not exactly in 
 the form in which it proceeded from his pen. There were many 
 other annalists, of whom we know little more than the names, 
 and whose works were used by Livy in compiling his Roman 
 history. 
 
 Oratory was always cultivated by the Romans as one of the 
 chief avenues to political distinction. Cicero, in his work en- 
 titled Brutus, has given a long list of distinguished 
 orators whose speeches he had read : but he him- 
 self surpassed all his predecessors and contemporaries. In his 
 works the Latin language appears in the highest perfection. 
 Besides his numerous orations he also wrote several treatises 
 on Rhetoric, of which the most perfect is a systematic treatise 
 on the art of oratory (Z>e Oratore) in three books. His works on 
 
Chap. XXXVIII.] ROMAN LITERATCRE. 335 
 
 Philosophy were almost the first specimens of this kind of 
 literature ever presented to the Romans in their own language. 
 He does not aim at any original investigation or research. His 
 object was to present in a familiar and attractive form the 
 results at which the Greek philosophers had arrived, not to 
 expound any new theories. His Epistles, of which more than 
 eight hundred have come down to us, are among the most 
 valuable remains of antiquity. Cicero, during the most im- 
 portant period of his life, maintained a close correspondence 
 with Atticus and with a wide circle of political friends and 
 connections. These letters supply the most ample materials for 
 a history of the Roman Republic during its last struggles, and 
 afford a clear insight into the personal dispositions and motives 
 of its chief leaders. 
 
 The most learned Roman under the Republic was M. Teken- 
 Tius Varro, a contemporary and friend of Cicero. He served 
 as Pompey's lieutenant in Spain in the civil wars, 
 but was pardoned by Caesar after the battle of 
 Pharsalus, and was employed by him in superintending the 
 collection and arrangement of the great library designed for 
 public use. Upon the formation of the second triumvirate, 
 Varro's name appeared upon the list of the proscribed : but he 
 succeeded in making his escape, and, after having remained for 
 some time in concealment, he obtained the protection of Octa- 
 vian. His death took place 28 B.C., when he was in his 89th 
 year. Not only was Varro the most learned of Roman scholars, 
 but he was likewise the most voluminous of Roman authors. We 
 have his own authority for the assertion that he had composed 
 no less than 490 books, but of these only two have come down 
 to us, and one of them in a mutilated form : 1. De Re Rustica, 
 a work on agriculture, in three books, written when the author 
 was eighty years old ; 2. De Lingui Latina, a grammatical 
 treatise which extended to twenty-five books, but six only have 
 been preserved, and these are in a mutilated condition. The 
 remains of this treatise are particularly valuable. They have 
 preserved many terms and forms which would otherwise have 
 been altogether lost, and much curious information connected 
 with the ancient usages, both civil and rehgious, of the Romans. 
 
 C. Julius Caesar, the great dictator, was also distinguished 
 as an author, and wrote several works, of which his memoirs 
 
336 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXVIII. 
 
 (Oommentarii) alone have come down to us. They relate the 
 history of the first seven years of the Gallic War in seven 
 ^ • books, and the history of the Civil War down to 
 
 the commencement of the Alexandrine in three 
 books. Neither of these works completes the history of the 
 GalHc and Civil Wars. The history of the former was completed 
 in an eighth book, which is usually ascribed to Hirtius. The 
 history of the Alexandrine, African, and Spanish wars was 
 written in three separate books, which are also ascribed to 
 Hirtius, but their authorship is uncertain. The purity of 
 Caesar's Latin and the clearness of his style have deservedly 
 obtained the highest praise. 
 
 C. Sallustius Ceispus, a contemporary of Caesar, and one of 
 his supporters, was also distinguished as an historian. He was 
 born 86 B.C. at Amiternum, in the country of the 
 Sabines, and died in 34 B.C. After the African 
 War (46 B.C.) he was left by Caesar as governor of Numidia, 
 where he acquired great riches by his oppression of the people. 
 Two of his works have come down to us — the Catilina, the 
 history of the suppression of Catiline's conspiracy; and the 
 Jugurtha, the history of the war against Jugurtha. Sallust 
 imitated Thucydides, and attained the conciseness, without the 
 obscurity, of his great model. 
 
 CoKNELius Nepos, the contemporary and friend of Cicero 
 and Atticus, was the author of numerous works, all of which 
 are lost, with the exception of the Biographies 
 nTos "^ ^^^'^ ^^^ Atticus, and the Lives of Dis- 
 
 tinguished Commanders ( Vitae Excellentium Im- 
 peratorum). But even these Lives are possibly an abridgment 
 of the original work of Nepos, made in the fourth century of the 
 Christian era. 
 
 Of the prose writers of the Augustan age the most distinguished 
 was the historian Titus Livius, usually called Livy. He was 
 _. born at Patavium {Padua), 59 B.C. The greater 
 
 part of his life appears to have been spent in 
 Rome, but he returned to his native town before his death, 
 which happened at the age of seventy-six, in the fourth year of 
 Tiberius, a.d. 17. His literary talents secured the patronage 
 and friendship of Augustus; and his reputation became so 
 widely diffused, that a Spaniard travelled from Cadiz to Rome 
 
Chap. XXXVIIL] ROMAN LITERATURE. 337 
 
 solely for the purpose of beholding him. and, having gratified 
 his curiosity in this one particular, immediately returned home. 
 Livy's " History of Rome " extended from the foundation of the 
 city to the death of Drusus, 9 B.C., and was comprised in 142 
 books. Of these thirty-five have descended to us. The whole 
 work has been divided into decades, containing ten books each. 
 The First decade (bks. i.-x ) is entire. It embraces the period 
 ■from the foundation of the city to the year 294 B.C., when the 
 subjugation of the Samnites may be said to have been completed. 
 The Second decade (bks. xi.-xx.) is altogether lost. It included 
 the period from 294 B.C. to 219 B.C., comprising an account, 
 among other matters, of the invasion of Pyrrhus and of the 
 First Punic War. The Third decade (bks. xxi.-xxx.) is entire. 
 It embraces the period from 219 B.C. to 201 B.C., comprehend- 
 ing the whole of the Second Punic War. The Fourth decade 
 (bks. xxxi.-xl.) is entire, and also one-half of the Fifth {bks. 
 xli.-xlv.) These fifteen books continue the history from 201 
 B.C. to 167 B.C., and develop the progress of the Roman arms 
 in Cisalpine Gaul, in Macedonia, Greece, and Asia, ending with 
 the triumph of Aemilius Paullus. Of the remaining books 
 nothing is extant except inconsiderable fragments. The style 
 of Livy may be pronounced almost faultless. In judging of 
 his merits as an historian, we are bound to ascertain, if possible, 
 the end which he proposed to himself. No one who reads his 
 work with attention can suppose that he ever conceived the 
 project of drawing up a critical history of Rome. His aim was 
 to offer to his countrymen a clear and pleasing narrative, which, 
 while it gratified their vanity, should contain no startling 
 improbabilities or gross amplifications. To effect this purpose 
 he studied with care the writings of some of his more celebrated 
 predecessors in the same field. But in no case did he ever 
 dream of ascending to the fountain-head, and never attempted 
 to test the accuracy of his authorities by examining monuments 
 of remote antiquity. 
 
338 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXIX, 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIX. 
 
 THE EMPIRE FROM AUGUSTUS TO TRAJAN. 
 
 The victory at Actium on the 2nd of September, 31 B.C., 
 gave Octavian free opportunity for the great task of con- 
 solidating the administration of the provinces, and of effecting 
 the transformation of the government into a skilfully disguised 
 monarchical rule. In the war against Antony and Cleopatra, 
 he had been presented as the champion of Rome against a 
 foreign foe (Horace, Od., i. 37) ; and under this form many old 
 opponents found a good excuse for acquiescing in his domination.* 
 After reorganizing the Eastern provinces, the conqueror returned 
 and entered Rome in a triple triumph which lasted from the 
 13th to the 15th of August, 29 (Hor., Od., i. 2. 49). The forms 
 under which he had hitherto held power were obviously 
 unconstitutional. With masterly policy he now acknowledged 
 that it was so. He justified his past action by the plea of 
 necessity ; but he declared that the necessity was now no 
 longer urgent. He closed the temple of Janus on the 11th of 
 January, 29, in token of profound peace in the Roman world. 
 On the 13th of January, 29, he formally resigned into the hands 
 of the senate the extraordinary and unconstitutional powers 
 which he had held, and retired into private life as an ordinary 
 citizen of the free Roman republic. 
 
 It had been carefully arranged beforehand, by those who 
 pulled the strings of the puppet-show, that the senate should 
 refuse to accept his resignation, pleading that Rome was still 
 surrounded by dangers, and that only the master-hand, which 
 had guided the ship of the state to port through the storms of 
 
 * Hence he dedicated the Palatine temple of ApolJia on the 24th of October, 28 
 (Hor., Od., i. 31), in honour of Actium ; but he did not inaugurate the Temple of 
 Mars Ultor in commemoration of Philippi until the let pf August, 2 B.C. 
 
Chap. XXXIX.] OCTAVIAN BECOMES AUGUSTUS. 339 
 
 civil war, was fit to direct her course through the stormy seas 
 that still lay before her (Hor., Od., i. 14) : it was impossible to 
 release Octavian from the onerous task of government. A 
 compromise, therefore, was made ; that he should conduct the 
 government with proconsular power in the parts of the Empire 
 which were still exposed to danger, while the senate and the 
 ordinary magistrates were to exercise their wonted authority 
 elsewhere. This was the beginning of the constitutional prin- 
 cipate, and on the 16th of January the new title Augtostus 
 (Hor., Od., iii. 3. 11) was conferred by the senate on the "lead- 
 ing citizen," ^rmce29s (i.e. c'vium, Hor., Od., i. 2. 50). 
 
 The compromise had been skilfully arranged so that all real 
 power, i.e. the command of the soldiers, should remain in the 
 hands of Augustus. All provinces in which war or rebellion 
 was likely to occur, and where armies were needed, were to be 
 governed by Augustus himself (acting through his lieutenants), 
 and were called imperatorial provinces ; while only the peaceful 
 provinces, which had been long under Roman power, and were 
 thoroughly pacified, and where no armies were needed, remained 
 under the control of the senate. On the other hand, Augustus 
 granted with a liberal hand the outward show and trappings of 
 authority to the governors whom the senate appointed in its 
 provinces ; * they were all, whatever their previous rank in the 
 service, adorned with the consular insignia and title {pro con- 
 side) ; whereas the governors sent to the provinces, which as 
 dangerous were put under his direct authority, were 'merely his 
 lieutenants {legati of Augustus) with the insignia of praetors {/iro 
 praetore). In the city Augustus was to hold authority as consul, 
 elected year by year, while in the specified imperatorial provinces 
 the consular authority for a period of ten years was conferred 
 on him. The pretence was obviously kept up that these also 
 were gradually to pass into the category of peaceful provinces 
 under senatorial control. With the command of all armies, the 
 right of declaring war and peace, of making treaties, and of 
 levying soldiers, remained in the hands of Augustus. The only 
 exception was Africa, which, though senatorial, required a legion 
 to protect its southern frontier. 
 
 * Asia and Africa were governed by consulares ; Sicily, Gallia Narbonensis, 
 Hispania Baetica, feithynia, Crete and Cyrene, etc., by praetorii. Under later 
 emperors many changes in the classification of provinces were made. 
 
340 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXIX, 
 
 Of the imperatorial provinces the more important were 
 governed by Augustus's Heutenants of consular or of praetorian 
 rank,* the less important by equestrian procurators, while 
 Egypt, from which Rome drew her principal corn suppHes, stood 
 by itself under the Emperor's own hand. The administration 
 of the vast group of provinces was conducted from the central 
 bureau in Rome ; and a regular system of sound government 
 was there developed, as a long series of reports from the governors 
 was received, read, and preserved, and questions were continually 
 sent in and answered by the Emperor in rescript. Even the 
 government of the senatorial provinces, though partaking more 
 of the old haphazard Republican fashion, was much improved ; 
 for in most cases the senatorial governors, though designated by 
 lot, had been trained in the imperatorial provinces. 
 
 The compromise was so skilfully adjusted that it was 
 described by Augustus and his panegyrists, with some show of 
 truth, as the restoration of constitutional government {res publica 
 restituta), but by historians as the beginning of the Imperial or 
 monarchical rule (Tac, Hut., i. 1). There was all the outward 
 appearance of a republic ; the usual ofScials were elected in the 
 usual way ; Augustus was, in Rome apparently, only one of the 
 consuls, and in the provinces invested for a specific period with 
 special powers, as others had been in former times. But the 
 reality was utterly different, and practically every wish of 
 Augustus was law. 
 
 In 26 Augustus set out for Spain to carry on a campaign 
 against the Cantabri and Astures. In the next year the war was 
 brought to a close successfully (Hor , Od., iii. 8. 21 ; iii, 14. 3), 
 and the temple of Janus was again closed. It was not till 
 20 B.C., however, that the Cantabri were finally crushed by 
 Agrippa (Hor., Od., iv. 14. 41 ; Up., i. 12. 26). Augustus 
 returned to Rome in 24 B.C. An expedition to Arabia Felix 
 (Hor., Od., i. 29), undertaken in the previous year by Aelius 
 Gallus, came to a disastrous termination. 
 
 In 23 B.C. the principate was further developed into the form 
 which it henceforth retained. On the 26th of June, Augustus 
 resigned the consulship, retaining pro consule the special powers 
 
 * Syria, the Gennanies, Pannonia (founded 10 a.d.), etc., by consulares; Gallia 
 Lugudunensis, Lusitania, etc., by praetorii; but all had the same title, legatus 
 Augusti pro praetore. 
 
Chap. XXXIX.] STEADY GROWTH OF IMPERIAL POWER. 341 
 
 in the provinces which had been conferred upon him in 27 
 for ten years. But special acts of the senate restored to him in 
 a new form all the power which the consulship hitherto con- 
 ferred on him. By strict law his proconsular authority ceased 
 if he entered Rome, but he was exempted from this rule ; he 
 retained all the consular insignia, together with the power of 
 issuing edicts, and holding meetings of the senate,* and he 
 ranked as equal in all respects with the actual consuls of the 
 year. The appearance of republican equality was seriously 
 strained by these powers; and it was, perhaps, to counteract 
 this that Augustus now began to lay more stress on his position 
 as Champion of the Commons. He had held tribunicia potestas 
 since 36 ; but from 23 he began to use it as an official title, 
 adding in succeeding years a number to indicate the annual 
 repetitions of this power. From henceforth every Roman 
 emperor counted the years of his reign as the years during 
 which he had been Champion of the Commons ; and 23 B.C., 
 therefore, may most suitably be reckoned as the first year of 
 the fully formed empire. The theory always continued that 
 the Imperial power was granted by a special and voluntary act 
 of the Roman people (acting through the senate) to an individual, 
 and did not descend. 
 
 Naturally, the permanence of Augustus, beside the rapidly 
 changing series of consuls, made the imperial power grow steadily 
 by insensible steps and often without any express enactment. 
 The people became more accustomed to " slavery " (as those 
 called it who, like Tacitus,t pretended to sigh for a republic), 
 and the emperors to command. As a rule, the people pressed 
 upon Augustus far larger powers than he was willing to accept. 
 
 In B.C. 22, during a famine, Augustus undertook the duty of 
 superintending the corn-supply of Rome (ctira annonae). and 
 this duty always continued the most pressing necessity of the 
 empire. The vast populace of Rome must be fed, whatever 
 happened, or its discontent was likely to overturn the emperor. 
 Egypt, the granary of Rome, was kept under the immediate 
 personal ct)ntrol of the emperor ami his jf^amilia ; and after 6 a.d. 
 a praefedus annonae was appointed to direct the importation. 
 
 * This last power he accepted in 22, when the people pressed on him a 
 permanent dictatorship and consulship. •> 
 
 t Cf. Bist., i. 1. 
 
842 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXIX. 
 
 Similarly the water-supply, the prevention of fire, the order 
 of the city, and the management of the public roads, were 
 trusted to the emperor, and committed by him to special 
 officials. 
 
 In 22 Fannius Caepio and Licinius Murena * were condemned 
 on a charge of conspiracy, but the facts are very obscure. 
 Maecenas, brother-in-law of Murena, and hitherto Augustus's 
 principal minister in Rome (Hor., Od., iii. 8. 17), lost much of 
 his influence henceforth at court. Though he accepted no 
 public office (honos), his diplomacy had aided Octavian as much 
 as the military genius of Agrippa ; he was mainly instrumental 
 in attaching the gi'eat Roman writers to the party, and his 
 liberality has made his name that of the typical patron of 
 literature in all subsequent time. He lived in half retirement 
 till his death in 8 B.C. Late in 21 Augustus went to regulate 
 the East anew (21-19). Tiberius, his stepson, followed him by 
 land with an army in 20 (Hor., Ep., i. 3). The mere show of 
 power induced Phraates, the Parthian king, to restore the 
 standards captured at Carrhae in 53, an event celebrated by 
 the poets (Hor., Ep., i. 12. 27). 
 
 In 22 the last two censors of the old style had held office. 
 In 13 Augustus declined a wide authority tendered to him as 
 regimen legum et morum ; but in practice he exercised it (Hor., 
 Ocl, iv. 5. 22 ; Ep., ii. 1. 1 ; Ovid, Met., xv. 832 ; TrisL, ii. 
 233 ; Suet., Aug., 27 ; Dion., liv. 10), passing in 18 and 17 the 
 great body of the Leges Juliae, and attempting to reform society 
 and religion. He restored many old Roman cults, which had 
 sunk into disuse, and rebuilt more than 80 temples. He passed 
 laws intended to check extravagance and licentiousness, and to 
 encourage marriage and the old Roman family life. The celebra- 
 tion of the Ludi Saeculares in 17 was intended as the crowning 
 step in this process, when literature and piety united to mark 
 the inaugm-ation of a new age for the Roman state. Horace 
 wrote the official hymn for the occasion, the Carmen Saeculare. 
 
 In 16-13 Augustus visited Gaul (Hor., Od., iv. 2. 33,; iv. 5) ; 
 and the regulation of the north-western frontier now engaged 
 his attention. At first he aimed at fixing the limit at the line of 
 the Elbe and Danube. His great general Agrippa (who had 
 
 * The latter is mentioned in Hor., Od., ii. 10, and iii. 19 (published in 23 before 
 the conspiracy). 
 
Chap. XXXIX.] SECURING THE SUCCESSION. 343 
 
 married his daughter Julia in 21) was in charge of the eastern 
 frontier countries, 16-13 B.C.; and the northern wars were 
 trusted to his stepsons Tiberius and Drusus. They conquered 
 the tribes of TjtoI, Ehaeti, VindeUci and Norici in 15 ; and 
 in 14-13 the hitherto dreaded Alpine tribes were pacified, and 
 roads built. In 12-9 Tiberius reduced Pannonia, and Drusus 
 fought in Germany. The death of the latter brought Tiberius to 
 undertake the German war, 9-6 ; but his retirement interrupted 
 the work. Agrippa had died in 12 ; and Augustus could not 
 allow any general outside the family to gain renown, and 
 endanger the dynastic succession. Tiberius returned to Germany 
 4 A.D., but the revolt of Pannonia called him there, 6-9. In 
 A.D. 9 Arminius, who had instigated a revolt in north-west 
 Germany, attacked P. Quintilius Varus, the governor of Germany, 
 while he was marching through a pass in the Saltus Teuto- 
 burgiensis, and annihilated his force, which consisted of three 
 legions. This disaster caused the greatest consternation at 
 Rome, and was a severe blow to the aged Emperor, who was 
 often heard to exclaim, " Vare, Vare, redde legiones ! " Tiberius 
 resumed the German command, 10-13. Germanicus, son of his 
 dead brother, succeeded him, 13-16 ; but the jealousy of Tiberius 
 recalled him in 17 ; the dream of an Elbe frontier was abandoned, 
 and the much longer Rhine-Danube frontier was substituted. 
 
 The later years of Augustus's life were uneventful. In 12 B.C. 
 he succeeded Lepidus as Pontifex Maximus ; and this office 
 thenceforward was imperial, marking the emperors as heads 
 of the state-religion. In 9-8 B.C. the management of the city 
 was reorganized ; it was divided into districts ; magistri-vicorum 
 were instituted, and festivals called compitalia in honour of the 
 Lares Publici and Augustus were held. This was the greatest 
 concession which Augustus made in Italy to the popular desire 
 to worship him. In 2 B.C. the title paier patriae was conferred 
 on him. 
 
 The question of a successor had long troubled Augustus, and 
 determined much of his domestic policy. His only child was 
 Julia, born in 39, daughter of his second wife Scribonia. M. 
 Marcellus, the popular and promising son of his sister Octavia, 
 was destined to succeed him, and had married Julia in 25 (Hor., 
 Od., i. 12) ; but his death in 23 (Virg., Aen.^yl 867-886) ruined 
 the plan, and Agrippa was then selected, and made to divorce 
 
344 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXIX 
 
 his wife Marcella and to marry Julia in 21. The elder sons of 
 this marriage, Gains and Lucius, were early introduced to the 
 people, and pushed forward in the career of office ; but Lucius 
 died in 2 a.d., and Gaius in 4 a.d. Agrippa Postumus, born 
 after Agrippa's death in 12, was adopted by Augustus in 4 a.d., 
 but banished for misconduct in 7. 
 
 In 39 B.C. Augustus divorced Scribonia, and in 38 married 
 Livia Drusilla, taking her from her husband, Claudius Nero. 
 She bore Augustus no children, and her aim was to secure the 
 succession for her two able sons by her previous marriage, 
 Tiberius Claudius Nero and Nero Claudius Drusus. "When 
 Agrippa died in 12, Tiberius succeeded to his place, divorced his 
 wife Vipsania, married Julia in 11, and received the tribunician 
 authority in 6. But the death of Drusus in 9, and the retirement 
 of Tiberius to Rhodes 6 b.c. to 2 a.d., left the way open for the 
 young sons of Agrippa. Once more the disgraceful conduct of 
 Julia (exiled in 2 B.C. to Paiidataria) and the deaths of Gaius 
 and Lucius Caesar, restored Livia's influence. Tiberius was 
 adopted along with Agrippa Postumus (posthumous son of 
 Agrippa and Julia) in 4 a.d. ; the tribunician power was 
 restored to him in 4 a.d. ; Agrippa was exiled to Planasia in 7. 
 In 11 or 12 Tiberius was appointed colleague of Augustus in the 
 provinces, but not in Italy. 
 
 Augustus died on the 19th of August, 14 a.d., having been 
 thirteen times consul, twenty-one times saluted imperator, in his 
 37th year of tribunician power. 
 
 Tiberius. — Tiberius Claudius Nero reigned under the name 
 Tiberius Caesar, Divi Augusti Filius, Augustus. His noble 
 descent and distinguished services justified the choice which 
 Augustus had made of his successor ; but the death of the first 
 emperor was a critical moment in the history of the empire. In 
 theory the imperial power was merely a personal and temporary 
 gift made by the sovereign people to Augustus, who could not 
 bequeath it to any successor. No provision existed in the 
 imperial constitution for regulating the succession. Augustus 
 had shrunk from making any provision which would savour of 
 monarchical and dynastic rule ; and, while he informally made 
 such arrangements as might facilitate the path of his chosen 
 successor, yet he fully recognized the danger that some other 
 prominent noble might attract the popular eye and grasp at the 
 
Map showing the extent of the 
 
 ROMAN EMPIRE, 
 
 during the latter years of Augustus. 
 
 Senatorial Provinces shaded. «^^^**^ 
 
 REGNUM HERODIS as before 4 B.C: other hingdoms ana Imperatoriat 
 Provinces as at the death of Augustus Britannia added bij Claudius & 
 successors. Cappadocia by Tiberius. Mauretania & Thracia by Clauaius. 
 Regnum Polemonis by Nero. Dacia & Arabia by Trajan.. 
 
 A'LP'ES:-(M=Maritime, C^Cottiae. G.P.= Graiae et Penninae) 
 
NlsCoN^A 
 
 p- ; iiif.i! 
 
 'H-'aiker & BoiUall sc. 
 
 To face p. 314. 
 
Chap. XXXIX.] POLICY OF TIBERIUS. 345 
 
 reins of power. But the practised skill of Tiberius, long used 
 both to administration and to palace intrigue, supported by the 
 devotion of his mother, the Empress Livia, surmounted success- 
 fully the difficulties of the interval between the lapsing of the 
 powers entrusted to Augustus and the fresh delegation of similar 
 powers to the new emperor. The possible rivals against whom 
 Augustus had warned him made no attempt to compete with 
 him. But the army, on whose support ultimately the govern- 
 ment rested, was not so easily won over. The soldiers had 
 already shown signs of discontent with the strict terms of 
 military service ; and they were not disposed quietly to permit 
 these terms to become permanent under a new monarch. 
 Mutinies broke out in the two great frontier armies of Pannonia 
 and Germany. But the soldiers had no serious hostility to the 
 new emperor ; and readily accepted vague promises of amending 
 the terms of service, made by Drusus, son of Tiberius, in 
 Pannonia, and by Germanicus his nephew, in Germany. 
 
 The election of magistrates was entrusted by Tiberius to the 
 senate, and the popular assemblies {comitia) were discontinued. 
 The outward show of political life and freedom, left by Augustus, 
 was thus discontinued, and political career was henceforth, in 
 form as well as in fact, dependent on imperial favour. Vague 
 discontent and hostility to the empire were always smouldering 
 among the old nobility ; and this came to a head in the con- 
 spiracy of Libo Drusus, 16 a.d., which ended in his suicide 
 before it was really organized, and was so futile as to be doubted 
 by manJ^ 
 
 The empty result of the German wars has been alluded to 
 above. In 14 Germanicus led the repentant legions of the 
 German army against the Maisi, whom he defeated. He con- 
 tinued the war for the next two years, and vanquished Arminius, 
 but was recalled in 17, and celebrated a triumph. In the same 
 year Germanicus was sent to the East, to set in order the 
 provinces beyond the Hellespont. He settled the affairs of 
 Armenia, and made terms with Parthia, but died suddenly at 
 Antioch in 19. It was suspected by all, and beheved by 
 Germanicus on his death-bed, that his death was due to poison 
 administered at the instance of On. Calpurnius Piso, governor 
 of Syria, who, people said, had been sent out by the emperor to 
 be a spy and a check on him, and who had been on notoriously 
 
346 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXIX. 
 
 bad terms with him. Piso, on his return to Rome, was put on 
 his trial, and condemned for disobedience to his superior officer. 
 Germanicus ; but the charge of poisoning broke down, and there 
 is no reason to beheve tliat it was true. 
 
 From 17 to 24 a.d. a war was carried on against the 
 Numidian Tacfarinas by Junius Blaesus,* and afterwards by 
 P. Dolabella. It ended with the defeat of Tacfarinas. An 
 insurrection in Gaul under Julius Floras and Julius Sacrovir 
 (21 A.D.) was crushed by C. Silius, and risings in Thrace in 19 
 and 25 were put down, the latter by Poppaeus Sabinus. The 
 Frisii in North Germany revolted in 28, but the Komans were 
 not successful in crushing them. 
 
 It was in Tiberius's reign that the volunteer prosecutors 
 [delatores) f began to exercise unbounded influence. The 
 definition of treason (maiestas) had been so widened as to 
 include many ofiences not originally contemplated as coming 
 under the law, and any insulting speech or writing against the 
 emperor was enough to secure the conviction of the author. 
 Tiberius made some attempts to limit the application of the law, 
 but finally countenanced the delatores, owing to the influence of 
 Sejanus, his powerful favourite, and many noble famiHes were 
 thus brought to ruin. 
 
 Aelius Sejanus,t an eques of Etruscan descent, and prefect of 
 the praetorian guards, had steadily increased his influence with 
 Tiberius, and had formed the ambitious design of becoming his 
 successor. He first intrigued with Livilla, wife of Drusus, son 
 of Tiberius, and having with her connivance compassed Drusus's 
 death in 23 a.d., he vainly sought permission to marry her. In 
 26 the emperor left Eome for ever, and next year retired to 
 Capreae, a small island off Campania, and Sejanus was left more 
 free to prosecute his designs. After the death of the emperor's 
 mother, Livia, in 29, Sejanus succeeded in getting Agrippina, 
 widow of Germanicus, with her sons Nero and Drusus, banished. 
 Tiberius, however, now began to suspect Sejanus's designs, and 
 resolved to bring about his downfall. To conceal his intentions 
 
 * Blaesus was saluted "imperator " by the troops ; the last occa'ion when this 
 was permitted to any but the emperor. 
 
 t As no state prosecutor existed in Rome, it was left to private persons to take 
 the initiative in prosecuting criminal charges ; but such persons, though never 
 popular(Hor., Sat., i. 4, 65-68), now began to he a terror and a danger to innocent 
 as well as guilty. 
 
 X His career is sketched by Juvenal, 10. 56-107. 
 
Chap. XXXIX. J TIBERIUS'S LATER YEARS. 347 
 
 he loaded Sejanus with honours, made him joint consul with 
 himself, and at the same time sent Macro to supersede him. 
 Sejanus was condemned to death by the senate, and executed 
 in 31 amidst the execrations of the people. In 33 Agrippina 
 committed suicide after the murder of her son Drusus. 
 
 The later years of Tiberius's life were spent in almost unbroken 
 retirement at Capreae. Little was known in Eome as to his 
 way of living on the island, and the licence and foulness of 
 Roman scandal vented its dislike for the morose and unapproach- 
 able emperor in inventing or reporting a scandalous chronicle 
 of Capreae, which has made this period a proverb for vice of 
 the most hideous kind. What was truth and what mere malice 
 in these reports, we cannot tell and need not inquire ; but the 
 tales that cling round a historical figure are usually an index 
 of his character. It is remarkable that one whose early career 
 was so brilliant, whose talents were so great, and whose conduct 
 at first so good, should sink at last into a proverb of infamy ; 
 and the 'improbability of such a metamorphosis has led some 
 modern writers to air the theory that Tacitus and Suetonius 
 have mistaken false and groundless scandal for real history. It 
 is indeed true that Tacitus was bitterly prejudiced against the 
 early emperors, but his trustworthiness cannot be depreciated 
 so low as this theory would suppose. In happier circumstances, 
 Tiberius might have been a great man ; but, when set free from 
 all restraining influences, the faults of his nature, pride, coldness, 
 and suspicion, corrupted all that was good in him. 
 
 Tiberius died on the 16th of March, 37 a.d. He was suc- 
 ceeded by his grandnephew, Gains Caesar, surnamed Caligula 
 (" Little Boots ") by the soldiers from the soldier's boots (caligae) 
 which he used to wear as a boy. 
 
 Caligula. — The reign of Grains began well, and an era of 
 peace was expected. He abolished the right of appeal from 
 magistrates to himself, restored the comitia* promised the senate 
 to govern constitutionally, and discouraged the delatores. At 
 the end of eight months, probably through the influence of 
 Herod Agrippa, he plunged into a wild career of revelry and 
 debauchery, and attempted to play the Eastern potentate. He 
 put to death his cousin, Tiberius G-emellus, who, along with 
 himself, was the heir of the late emperor. His claim to be 
 * The restoration was not permanent. 
 
348 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap, XXXIX. 
 
 worshipped as a god caused riots among the Jews, both in Judaea 
 and Alexandria. His mad career exhausted the coffers of the 
 state, and led to exactions in Italy and in Gaul, where he went 
 in 40. His expedition there and to Germany has been travestied 
 by ancient writers. According to them, he went as far as 
 Boulogne, and, after making his army fill their helmets with 
 shells, returned to Rome. But there can be no doubt that the 
 expedition was undertaken with a view to crush the conspiracy 
 in which it was believed that Cn. Lentulus, governor of Upper 
 Germany for ten years, had engaged against Caligula ; and the 
 completeness of its success exposed it to the charge of being 
 an empty parade. Lentulus, though a great favourite with the 
 soldiers, was put to death, and great changes were made in the 
 disposition of the disaffected troops. 
 
 The sudden change of Gaius's life from the unceasing danger 
 and wearing anxiety of his position under Tiberius as probable 
 heir, liable at any moment from freak or suspicion to be slain by 
 the jealous tyrant, to the unbridled freedom of an emperor, was 
 more than his intellect could stand. The freaks and caprices 
 that are recorded reveal a monomania, which revelled in un- 
 restrained power. He delighted to be treated as a god, and to 
 heap insults on the nobles of Rome. He wished that all Rome 
 had one neck, to be cut at a blow. On the 24th of January, 41, 
 he perished by a conspiracy among a few of his personal 
 attendants, who were in constant terror that they might at any 
 moment be ordered to death. Ranging the palace after his 
 assassination, the soldiers found his uncle, Tiberius Claudius 
 Drusus Germanicus, a man of fifty, conceahng himself in terror 
 for his life. One of the soldiers, in jest, saluted the cowering 
 wretch as emperor, and the grim joke was carried into real 
 earnest by his comrades. 
 
 Claudius had been looked upon as unfit for statesmanship, 
 and had given his leisure hours to letters. He annulled the 
 acts of Gaius and modelled his statecraft on that of Augustus. 
 Many useful reforms were passed, albeit they often savoured of 
 pedantry. He purified the senate, and attended personally to 
 the administration of justice. He completed the Aqua Claudia, 
 an aqueduct which had been left unfinished by Gaius, built the^ 
 port of Ostia, and drained Lake Fucinus. 
 
 Whereas Tiberius had made a principle of carrying out 
 
Chap. XXXIX.] NERO SUCCEEDS CLAUDIUS. 349 
 
 Augustus's provincial administration with the least possible 
 change, and Gaius had treated it with indifference, Claudius paid 
 great attention to it, and made a number of changes, especially 
 in the East. Mauretania was annexed and divided into two 
 provinces ; Thrace was made a province ; Mithridates, king of 
 Armenia, was brought a prisoner to Rome ; the kingdom of 
 Herod was restored in Judaea ; the kingdoms of Polemon in 
 Pontus and of Antiochus in Cilicia, Lycaonia, and Commagene 
 were consolidated ; the franchise was freely extended throughout 
 the empire, and the political rights of the Gauls were increased. 
 
 The most important foreign event of the reign was the 
 conquest of the south and south-west parts of Britain. In 43, 
 preceded by his general Aulus Plautius, Claudius invaded the 
 country in person, remaining only sixteen days, and leaving the 
 work of consolidation and extension of the conquest to be carried 
 on by Plautius from 43 to 47, and by P. Ostorius Scapula from 47 
 to 52. The last-named conquered the British prince Caractacus. 
 
 Claudius's first wife after his accession was Messalina, who, 
 abetted by his freedmen. Narcissus, Pallas, and others, caused 
 great oppression of the nobles. Messalina formed, in 48, the 
 scheme of contriving the accession of C. Silius, a noble with 
 whom she actually went through the form (f marriage; but 
 here the freedmen stepped in and secured the ruin of the guilty 
 pair. Next year Claudius married his niece Agrippina the 
 younger. She set herself to win power in every way, and 
 induced Claudius to adopt her son L. Domitius Ahenobarbus 
 (called Nero after his adoption), to the detriment of his own son 
 Britannicus. Claudius might have revoked this step, but died 
 on the 13th of October, 54 A.D., so conveniently for her schemes 
 that he was universally believed to have been poisoned by her. 
 
 Nero. — The first years of Nero's reign were marked by a 
 contest between Seneca his tutor and Burrus the prefect of the 
 praetorian guards on the one hand and his mother Agrippina on 
 the other. Agrippina received a check in the dismission of the 
 freedman Pallas, and in revenge she espoused the cause of 
 Claudius's son Britannicus, whereupon Nero caused Britannicus 
 to be poisoned (55). Seneca and Burrus managed the state 
 well, but allowed Nero to pursue a course of dissipation. He 
 formed a liaison with Poppaea, wife of Otho, the future emperor, 
 and she induced him to put his mother to death (59). In 62 
 
350 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXIX. 
 
 Burrus died, and Seneca retired from public affairs. Nero 
 divorced Octavia, and married Poppaea, who, along with the 
 praetorian prefect Tigellinus, exerted great influence over the 
 emperor. In 64 occurred the great fire at Rome, and Nero was 
 accused by his contemporaries of having caused it, though there 
 is no sure evidence that he had anything to do with it.* To 
 divert popular clamour, the Christians were charged with the 
 deed, and many were put to death with cruel tortures. In 65 
 a conspiracy to dethrone Nero was formed under the leadership 
 of C. Calpurnius Piso, and its discovery was followed by many 
 executions, including those of Seneca and the poet Lucan. In 
 66 Nero visited Greece, and restored its freedom to the country. 
 While there he continued the scenic exhibitions which had 
 already done so much in Italy to bring him into contempt. 
 Reports of disaffection in the West recalled him to Rome. On 
 his return in March, 68, he heard that Gaul had revolted under 
 Julius Vindex, and that Servius Sulpicius Galba had taken arms 
 against him in Spain. Tlie first insurrection was crushed by 
 Verginius Rufus, who refused the empire offered him by his 
 victorious troops, but the news of Galba's action threw Nero 
 into a panic, and he committed suicide on the 9th of June, 68. 
 
 The chief foreign events of the reign were the successes of 
 Domitius Corbulo in Armenia from 58 to Q6, and the insurrection 
 in Judaea, which began in 66. In 61 Suetonius Paulinus put 
 down a revolt of the Iceni in Britain under their queen Boudicca 
 or Boadicea. The provincial administration, especially daring 
 the first half of the reign, was vigorous and successful. 
 
 Galea, who had been saluted as imperator by the soldiers, 
 and had declared himself " lieutenant of the senate arid people," 
 was proclaimed emperor immediately on Nero's death, and 
 marched for Rome. An attempt by Nymphidius Sabinus, the 
 praetorian prefect, to seize the throne, was put down. Galba 
 alienated his supporters by his policy in Gaul, by his meanness 
 (as they called his efforts to retrench, necessitated by Nero's 
 ruinous extravagance), by his severity, and by the fact that he 
 spared Tigellinus, the hated favourite of Nero. In the beginning 
 of 69 he adopted Piso Licinianus as his associate in the 
 principate. M. Salvius Otho, who had expected this honour, 
 
 * It is a fancy of some modern authorities that Nero caused the fire in order to 
 destroy the narrow ill-built streets of old Rome, and to rebuild them better, taking 
 all care to prevent loss of life from fire and from starvation. 
 
Chap. XXXIX.] YITELLIUS AND VESPASIAN. 351 
 
 raised a mutiny among the praetorian guards, who saluted him 
 as imperator. Galba and Piso attempted to quell the riot that 
 ensued, but were put to death in the Forum on the 15th of 
 January, 69. 
 
 Otho and Vitellius. — Meanwhile the legions of Lower 
 Germany had revolted against Galba, and hailed A. Vitellius as 
 imperator. Otho on his succession sent Vitellius overtures of 
 peace, promising him an honourable retreat if he would retire 
 from the contest, but these terms were rejected. Vitellius sent 
 A. Caecina and Fabius Valens on before him to Italy, and they, 
 after some indecisive fighting, effected a junction, and finally 
 defeated Otho's army near Betriacum, between Cremona and 
 Mantua. On the 19th of April Otho in consequence committed 
 suicide, and Vitellius came to the throne. Vitellius was met at 
 Lugudunum by Valens and Caecina. On coming to Eome he 
 conducted the government with comparative mildness, but the 
 real power lay with his two generals, vpho encouraged his 
 extravagance. 
 
 Meanwhile the armies in the East looked about for an emperor 
 of their own. C. Licinius Mucianus, legatus of Syria, refused 
 the proffered honour, and the choice fell upon T. Flavius 
 Vespasianus, legatus of Judaea, who was loyally supported by 
 Mucianus. Vespasian, who had greatly distinguished himself 
 as the lieutenant of A. Plautius by the conquest of the Isle of 
 Wight and the southern portion of Britain, was proclaimed 
 emperor at Alexandria on the 1st of July, 69, and it was decided 
 that he should hold Egypt, while Mucianus should march west. 
 Before Mucianus could arrive, Antonius Primus, legatus com- 
 manding the seventh legion, who had embraced the cause of 
 Vespasian, hurried to Italy, met Caecina, and induced him to- 
 desert Vitellius. Primus defeated the Vitellians at Betriacum, 
 marched on Eome before Valens could come north to oppose 
 him, and finally crushed Vitellius at Rome. This made the way 
 clear for Vespasian. In the troubles connected with the capture 
 of Rome, the temple of Jupiter on the Capitol was burned about 
 the 20th of December, 69. 
 
 There was also trouble in the North-west. In 69 Julius 
 Civilis induced his countrymen, the Batavi, to revolt fi'om Vitellius 
 and take up arms for Vespasian. The revolt spread, and he 
 was able to blockade the Roman army in Vetera (the modern 
 
952 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXIX. 
 
 Xanten). On the death of Vitellius, Civilis made no secret that 
 he was fighting against Eorae ; and his coadjutors, Juhus Clas- 
 sicus and Juhus Tutor, proclaimed an " Imperium GalHarum," 
 to which many of the Roman soldiers swore allegiance. In 
 70 Civilis, after some successes, was defeated by Petilius Cerealis, 
 and contrived to make terms for himself. His later history is 
 unknown. 
 
 Vespasian, the first of the Flavian line, a man of very humble 
 origin, came to Rome in the summer of 70. He had in the 
 spring renewed the operations against the Jews, which had been 
 dropped during the difficulties of the preceding year. His son 
 Titus was sent against Jerusalem, which he took after an 
 obstinate resistance on the part of the inhabitants, and levelled 
 with the ground. Judaea was made a Roman province ; and 
 in 71 the temple of Janus was closed. A new temple was 
 built to Jupiter Capitolinus in 70, and in the next few years 
 many new public buildings, including a temple to Peace (75), 
 were created. The emperor set about retrenching expenditure, 
 carrying out with better judgment the economical policy of 
 Galba, and adding to the taxes, so as to put the finances on a 
 sound basis. He treated the senate respectfully, but curtailed 
 its powers. He discouraged trials for maiestas, but did not allow 
 the delatores to be prosecuted. 
 
 Provincial administration was vigorously managed by Vespa- 
 sian. He conferred Latin rights (an incomplete form of Roman 
 citizenship) on all the municipia of Spain (74 a.d.), and on 
 the Helvetii. He organized and enlarged the united province 
 Lycia-Pamphylia ; and incorporated the kingdom of Antiochus in 
 the empire, repelled a Parthian invasion in 77, strengthened 
 the defences on the Danube, and continued the conquest of 
 Britain. 
 
 Vespasian died on the 23rd of July, 79, and was succeeded by 
 his son Titus, who had since the 1st of July, 71, been associated 
 with him in managing the empire, and counted the years of his 
 reign from that date. 
 
 Titus reigned from 79 to 81. He courted popularity, freely 
 squandered what his father had saved, and prosecuted the 
 delatores. He ordered no senator to execution, and his death 
 was universally regretted. In 79 occurred the great eruption 
 of Vesuvius which buried Pompeii and Herculaneum, and in 
 
Chap. XXXIX.] DOMITIAN, 353 
 
 80 the new temple of Jupiter Capitolinus and other public 
 buildings were burned. In 80 the Flavian amphitheatre, which 
 in its half-ruinous condition is now called the Coliseum, was 
 dedicated with games of extraordinary magnificence. Titus 
 died on the 13th of September, 81. 
 
 DoMiTiA2«', the younger son of Vespasia-n, succeeded his 
 brother. In 83 he led a campaign against the Chatti, and 
 - assumed the title of Germanicus. After this war Domitian set 
 himself to break down the power of the senate, by assuming the 
 censorship for life, by causing himself to be designated consul 
 for ten years in 84, and by assuming the power of life and death 
 over the senate. Cn. Julius Agricola, who had taken the 
 command in Britain in 78, defeated the Caledonian chief 
 Calgacus in the battle of Mount Graupius in 84. He was 
 recalled next year by Domitian. In 85 Decebalus, King of 
 Dacia, who had formed the ambitious scheme of founding a 
 great military state, attacked Moesia successfully. In 86 this 
 defeat was retrieved by Juhanus ; but the emperor thought it 
 best to make terms with Decebalus, on account of trouble with 
 the Suevic peoples, who would have been only too ready to join 
 arms with the Dacians. Decebalus was accordingly recognized 
 as king under the lordship of Rome. Domitian celebrated a 
 triumph in 89. In 92 he was for eight months in the field 
 against the Suevic nations and their Sarmatian allies, the 
 lazyges. Many reverses were sustained, and the war was con- 
 tinued into the next reign. In 88 the revolt of L. Antonius 
 Saturninus, governor of Upper Germany, which was suppressed 
 by Norbanus, turned Domitian into a cruel tyrant. The delatores 
 flourished again, and many prominent citizens were put to death. 
 The emperor, however, managed public affairs well. He strove 
 to put down Eastern effeminacy, and to revive the morality and 
 religion of the republic, and was careful in his choice of pro- 
 vincial governors. Domitian met his death, not from the senate 
 whom he feared, but from his own household. The Empress 
 Domitia, whom he had divorced but recalled, formed a plot 
 against him, and on the 18th of September, 96, he ieli by the 
 hand of a freedman called Stephanus. Thus perished the last 
 of the Flavian dynasty. 
 
 Under the Flavian dynasty the policy was begun of treating 
 Christians as outlaws, liable to death on confession of the name; 
 
 2 a 
 
354 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXIX. 
 
 and the persecution by Domitian is printed deep on the memory 
 of history, though few facts ai'e recorded. It would appear that 
 Christianity spread among the higher classes in Rome, and 
 affected even the Emperor's family. The Flavian policy towards 
 the Christians was continued by later emperors in theory, 
 though in practice it was carried out only occasionally in active 
 persecution. 
 
 Nerva. — M. Cocceius Nerva was elected emperor by the 
 senate. He took an oath to put no senator to death, and con- 
 sulted the senate in everything. Great attention was paid to 
 Italy, and comparatively little to the provinces. The praetorians 
 demanded the execution of Domitian's murderers, and Nerva 
 was forced to comply. This decided him to adopt a consort, 
 and his choice fell on M. Ulpius Trajanus, legatus of Upper 
 Germany, and a native of Spain. The adoption took place 
 on the 27th of October, 97, while Trajan was still in Germany. 
 Nerva died on the 25th of January, 98. 
 
 Tkajaut ranks among the most vigorous and the greatest of 
 the emperors. He spent the summer of 98 in Germany, and the 
 next winter on the Danube, making preparations for a Dacian 
 war. In the beginning of 99 he came to Rome, where he re- 
 mained two years. Early in 101 he started for Dacia, and after 
 two campaigns, in the course of which he captured the king's 
 capital, Sarmizegethusa, he compelled Decebalus to accept his 
 terms. Dacia, however, became a dependent state, having no 
 power of making peace or war without the consent of Rome. 
 The senate decreed to Trajan the title of Dacicus. Decebalus, 
 however, again revolted, and in 104 Trajan again set out for 
 Dacia. In 106 the war was brought to a close by the death of 
 Decebalus, and Dacia was made a province. Trajan returned 
 to Rome in 107, and celebrated a triumph. The native popula- 
 tion of Dacia was mostly driven out, and the country was re- 
 populated by colonists from all parts, especially from Asia Minor. 
 In 106 Arabia Petraea was formed into a province by the 
 governor of Syria, Cornelius Palraa. 
 
 During the next eight years Trajan was at Rome. He treated 
 the senate with marked respect, but at the same time did not 
 enlarge its prerogatives. His own powers were increased by 
 his creating new patricians, and by the appointment of a curator 
 rei ipuUicae to control the aflairs of the Italian towns and the 
 
Chap. XXXIX.] TRAJAN'S SUCCESSES. 355 
 
 free cities abroad. His success in finance was great, and was 
 due partly to the economj' of his court, and partly to the wealth 
 accruino; from the Dacian mines. The condition of slaves was 
 made harder. Special attention was given to increasing the 
 population and improving: the agriculture of Italy. Many new 
 buildings were erected in Italy and at Rome, notably the Forum 
 Ul^^ianum. Trajan was very liberal in making new roads in 
 the provinces, and sent special commissioners to several senatorial 
 provinces. Thus Pliny was sent to Bithynia, and the corre- 
 spondence between him and Trajan, which is extant, shows how 
 closely Trajan directed affairs in this province. In 112 Trajan 
 issued a famous rescript forbidding hetaerlae of Christians in 
 Bithynia. 
 
 Chosroes, King of Parthia, had interfered in the affairs of 
 Armenia by putting Parthoraasiris on the throne. Trajan re- 
 solved to punish him for this illegal act, declared war on him, 
 and left for the East in the end of 113. Chosroes sent an 
 embassy to meet him at Athens, but the terms offered were not 
 accepted, and Trajan pressed on to Antioch where he required 
 Parthomasiris to lay his crown before him in 115. The Armenian 
 king was then dismissed, but was shortl.y afterwards murdered, 
 possibly with Trajan's connivance. While in Antioch, Trajan 
 narrowly escaped with his life in the great earthquake of 115. 
 In the same year he founded the new provinces of Mesopotamia 
 and Adiabene, but these regions had soon to be reconquered. 
 In 116 he sailed down the Euphrates, and took Ctesiphon, the 
 Parthian capital. Chosroes fled, and the crown was given to 
 his son Parthamaspates, as a client of Rome. Trajan had the 
 title of Parthicus conferred on him. Meanwhile the Jews had 
 revolted in Mesopotamia, Palestine, and other countries where 
 they formed a large part of the population, and had to be put 
 down with great slaughter. Trajan's presence was urgently 
 required in the West, as difficulties had arisen with the Sarmatians, 
 the Moors, and the Britons ; but he died on his homeward 
 journey at Selinus, in Cilicia, in August, 117 a.d. 
 
356 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XL. 
 
 CHAPTEE XL. 
 
 THE EMPIRE FROM HADRIAN TO CONSTANTINE. 
 
 Hadrian, the successor of Trajan, reigned from 117 to 138 
 A.D. At the time of his accession revolts had broken out in 
 various parts of the empire, and the Parthians were threatening 
 its eastern territories, having gained several successes over 
 the Eoman troops. Hadrian had served with Trajan in war 
 and was the favourite of the army, but from the first he inclined 
 to a policy of peace. He decided to give up the plan of carry- 
 ing the Roman authority further eastward, and he came to 
 terms with the Parthians, giving them the lands beyond the 
 Euphrates. He devoted his entire reign to the improvement 
 and adornment of the empire, and was most liberal in his 
 patronage of the fine arts. In 119 he began a series of journeys 
 throughout his dominions, and a large part of his reign was 
 spent in this manner. He constructed many important public 
 works in the course of his visits ; he beautified Rome by his 
 Mausoleum and by his temple of Venus and Rome ; and he 
 had a fine villa at Tibur. In Britain he began the great work 
 known as Hadrian's Wall, reaching from the Solway to the 
 Tyne. He restored discipline to the army, and did much to 
 strengthen and consolidate the imperial power. Though occa- 
 sionally cruel, he governed on the whole mildly and with wis- 
 dom. Only one serious revolt occurred in his reign, that of 
 the Jews in Palestine, who under the leadership of a fanatic 
 made a fruitless attempt (131) to withstand the Roman power. 
 The suppression of this revolt in 135 was followed by the 
 death or dispersion of a vast number of the people. On the 
 site of Jerusalem was built the Roman city of Aelia Capitolina) 
 from which the Jews were excluded. 
 
 The Two Antoninbs (138-180 a.d.). — Hadrian was suc- 
 ceeded by his adopted sou, Antoninus Pius, whose reign was 
 
CHAP. XL.] THE ANTONINES. 357 
 
 one of the most prosperous and peaceful in the history of the 
 empire. The record is wholly one of internal improvement, 
 such as the building of roads and bridges, the development of 
 commerce, and the encouragement of literature and architec- 
 ture. A kindly man and an able administrator, he is regarded 
 as the best type of Roman emperor. 
 
 Marcus Aurelius Antoninus was the adopted son of Anto- 
 ninus Pius, and succeeded on the latter's death in 161. He was 
 among the best of Roman rulers, and the only one of whom it 
 can be said that his fame woukl have been nearly as great as 
 it is if he had never sat on the imperial throne. For it is as a 
 philosopher rather than as a Roman emperor that he is best 
 known. Yet his reign was distinguished both for military 
 success and for good government. His army was victorious 
 over the Parthians in the East ; and in the war against the 
 German tribes nearer home, Marcus Aurelius took the field 
 himself, with the result that the Marcomanni were driven 
 across the Danube and compelled to sue for peace ; and another 
 German tribe, the Quadi, were defeated in their own country. 
 The effect of this and other successes was to bring the Germans 
 to terms, and, for the time at least, to secure the northern fron- 
 tier of the empire against their attacks. The Stoic philosophy 
 had in him its finest example. He was brave, magnanimous, 
 and prudent. He was an unremitting student, and possessed 
 a remarkable range of accomplishments and learning. He had 
 many of those virtues which we identify with Christianity, 
 and yet he was one of the severest persecutors of the professors 
 of»the Christian faith. This was due to the very consistency 
 and earnestness of his character. He loved the heathen faith 
 and the heathen philosophy. Being heart and soul in favor 
 of the old system, he felt it his duty to check the encroach- 
 ments of the new religion, which, it is said, was grossly mis- 
 represented to him by its enemies. Like several others of the 
 best and most conscientious emperors who construed their 
 duties seriously, he regarded the Christians as a dangerous 
 element in the state, and strove to extirpate them. 
 
 A Century of Misrule (180-284 a.d.). — The century 
 that followed the death of Marcus Aurelius was on the whole a 
 period of confusion and misrule, and the reigns of the emperors 
 were, with few exceptions, brief. Commodus (180-193 a.d.) 
 
358 HISTORY OF ROME. [chap. XL. 
 
 is noted only for his vices and for the monstrous tyranny that 
 he exercised. He gratified a natural love of slaughter by kill- 
 ing wild beasts in the anipliitlieatre. Knowing that his sub- 
 jects hated him, he was in constant fear of conspiracy and 
 caused many to be put to deatli on groundless suspicions. He 
 was finally murdered in his bedroom, by members of his own 
 household who feared that his savage hatred would soon turn 
 against themselves. " So easy was it," says Gibbon, " to destroy 
 a hated tyrant who by the artificial powers of government had 
 oppressed during thirteen years so many millions of subjects, 
 each of whom was equal to their master in personal strength 
 and personal abilities." His murderers now placed on the 
 throne Pertinax, a man of unquestioned honesty of purpose, 
 and secured the consent of the army to his succession. But 
 Pertinax soon gave offence to the Praetorians (the emperor's 
 body-guard of soldiers at Rome) by the strictness of his rule, and 
 within less than three months from tlie death of his predecessor 
 he was murdered by the soldiers. The throne was now virtually 
 set up at auction by the Praetorians, and a rich senator, 
 Didius Julianus, purchased the succession ; but the jsrovincial 
 armies declared against him, each setting up its candidate. 
 The general in command of the Pannonian army, SejDtimius 
 Severus, promptly appeared in Rome at the head of his legions 
 and compelled the Praetorians to accept him as emperor. 
 Didius Julianus was dethroned and put to death in a little 
 over two months from the date of his accession (193). Severus 
 showed a high order of military skill in the civil wars that 
 arose froni the claims of rival candidates for the throne, and 
 within four years from his accession he had routed two armies, 
 one in Asia Minor and the other in Gaul. He governed by iin- 
 scrupulous methods, but with vigour and ability. He reorgan- 
 ized the Praetorian guard, recruiting it from the legionaries on 
 the frontier, by promoting from among them such as had dis- 
 tinguished themselves for valour and efficiency. He turned 
 the government, in fact, into a military despotism. 
 
 From the death of Septimius Severus, in 211 a.d., to the 
 accession of Diocletian, in 284, there were twenty-five em- 
 perors, of whom all but three were murdered by the soldiers 
 or at the instigation of rivals for the throne. Space is lacking 
 for the detailed treatment of each of these brief reigns, but the 
 
Chap. XL.] A CENTURY OF MISEULE. 359 
 subjoined table gives the important names and dates. Caracalla 
 
 Caracalla..., )211-217 Valerian 253-260 
 
 Geta...... 5211-212 Gallieiius 260-268 
 
 Macrinus 217-218 Claudius 268-270 
 
 Heliogabalus 218-222 Aurelian 270-275 
 
 Alexander Severus . . 222-235 Tacitus 275-276 
 
 Maximinus 235-238 Florianus 276 
 
 GordianusIII... 238-244 Probus 276-282 
 
 Philippus ... 244-249 Carus 282-283 
 
 Decius 249-251 Carinus 
 
 Gallus 251-253 Numerianus.. 
 
 I 283-284 
 
 and Geta, the two sons of Septimius Severus, succeeded him on 
 the throne ; but their jealousy culminated in Caracalla's 
 treacherous murder of his brother in 212. Caracalla's despotism 
 was not redeemed by a single quality that could win the respect 
 of his subjects, and he in turn was murdered as the result of a 
 secret conspiracy which had been inspired by his own jealousy. 
 
 Under Alexander Severus (222-235 a.d.) there was a return 
 to decent and orderly government. He was a man of many 
 accomplishments, but he showed an unwise lenity which 
 tended to relax military discipline. The brief and unfortunate 
 reign of Decius (249-251) is memorable for the successful 
 invasion of the eastern provinces by the Goths. Encounter- 
 ing but slight resistance from the Roman troops on the frontier, 
 the Goths poured into Dacia and Moesia. Decius led an 
 army against them, but was defeated and killed near a small 
 town in Moesia. During the reigns of Valerian (253-260) 
 and Gallienus (260-268) there arose a crowd of pretenders, 
 sometimes termed the "thirty tyrants." They seized the 
 power and held it for varying lengths of time and in different 
 parts of the empire. In the reign of Gallienus, especially, 
 the confusion resulting from this state of affairs reached its 
 height. The central authority was reduced to a nullity, and 
 the defence of the frontier had to be left to the legions them- 
 selves, who naturally lost all sense of subordination to the 
 authority at Eome. 
 
 Among these provincial empires the most lasting were those 
 in Gaul and Asia. Minor. The former was at one time ac- 
 knowledged by the legions of Britain, Spain, and the Rhine. 
 In Asia Minor the Prince of Palmyra made himself an inde- 
 pendent sovereign, and his widow, the famous Zenobia, ruled 
 over most of Asia Minor and even extended her authority to 
 
360 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XL. 
 
 Egypt. The emperors Claudius (268-270 a.d.) and Aurelian 
 (270-275) displayed more vigour in dealing with rebellion, and 
 the latter succeeded in restoring unity to the empire. 
 
 Diocletian (284-305 a.d.) removed the last traces of repub- 
 lican limitations on the imperial power and turned the gov- 
 ernment into an absolute monarchy. He abolished the old 
 national distinctions and established a uniform system of ad- 
 ministration, reducing Rome and Italy to the same level as 
 the provinces. Rome was no longer the seat of government. 
 All power was vested in the emperor alone, who now assumed 
 something of the style of an Oriental despot. To secure a 
 more efficient administration he associated another emperor 
 with himself in the government, and these two rulers, or 
 Augusti, had under them two Caesars. The empire was 
 divided among the four rulers, but Diocletian claimed a higher 
 authority than his three colleagues. During his reign this 
 administrative machinery proved effective, owing chiefly to his 
 own statesmanship ; but the division of power led to prolonged 
 conflicts after his death. Diocletian's policy was to seek by 
 every means to promote dissensions among the barbarians, and 
 at the same time to strengthen the frontiers by fortifications. 
 In these ends he was generally successful, and when the bar- 
 barians did invade the provinces they were repulsed by the 
 able commanders whom Diocletian selected for the different 
 frontier posts. He carried on a successful war against the 
 Persians, and extended the limits of the empire in the East. 
 Toward the close of his reign he began the severest persecu- 
 tion of the Christians that had yet been inflicted. He is said 
 to have been instigated to do this by his colleagues, and to 
 have been, at heart, in favour of toleration. On the other hand, 
 some writers say that it was his practice, when carrying out a 
 policy for which he thought he might be blamed, to profess to 
 have acted on the advice of others. In 303 a.d. he issued a 
 general edict of persecution, ordering the churches to be de- 
 molished. Christian property to be confiscated, and all persons 
 meeting for Christian worship to be put to death. These 
 measures were carried out with the utmost rigour. In 305 
 Diocletian formally abdicated, inducing the other Augustus, 
 Maximian, to do so at the same time. The next eighteen years 
 were for the most part taken up with conflicts between rival em- 
 
Chap. XL.] CONSTANTINE. 361 
 
 perors. Coilstantine, after contending with his rivals for 
 mastery for many years, finally became sole emperor (323). 
 
 CoNSTANTiNE (306-337 A.D.) was the son of Constantius, 
 who had become joint emperor with Galerius on the abdica- 
 tion of Diocletian, and who died in Britain in 306. Constan- 
 tine was chosen emperor by the Roman troops in Britain, but 
 Galerius refused to acknowledge his title. Soon other claim- 
 ants arose, and at one time there were six imperial rivals 
 contending for the throne. In the course of the civil war that 
 followed, Constantine made himself supreme in the West by 
 the overthrow of one of his rivals (312), and soon afterwards 
 Licinius became sole ruler of the eastern portion of the empire 
 by the death of his competitors. War now broke out between 
 Constantine and Licinius, and the latter, being worsted, ceded 
 a part of his territory to his colleague. After an interval of 
 several years, which Constantine employed in strengtheiiing 
 the frontier and reforming abuses in the administration, war 
 was renewed in 323, and Licinius was defeated and killed. 
 Constantine was now sole ruler. The two chief events of his 
 reign were the removal of the capital from Rome to Byzan- 
 tium, henceforth called in his honour Constantinople, and the 
 granting of toleration to Christianity. The former act was the 
 natural outcome of the Orientalizing policy above noted. It 
 left the western portion of the empire at the mercy of the bar- 
 barians, and it had the further result of enhancing the power of 
 the Roman bishops by withdrawing to a safe distance the over- 
 shadowing authority of the imperial throne. The effect of 
 Constantine's friendliness toward the Christians was to trans- 
 form the empire into a Christian state. From being the 
 religion of a persecuted sect, Christianity became the dominant 
 religion of the civilized world. At the Council of Nice, in 
 325, Constantine sided with orthodoxy against Arianism, 
 though influenced by political rather than theological consid- 
 erations. His whole attitude toward the church was, in fact, 
 dictated by politic and not religious motives. The strength 
 of the new faith rather than its righteousness appealed to him, 
 and he continued outwardly to observe the pagan forms till a 
 short time before his death, when he consented to be baptized. 
 As an administrator he ranks high, and he worked for the 
 welfare of his people ; but he was unscrupulous and cruel. 
 
362 HISTOKY OF ROME. [Chap. XLI. 
 
 CHAPTER XLI. 
 
 THE BARBARIAN INVASIONS — THE DECLINE AND FALL 
 OF THE EMPIRE (337-476 A.D.). 
 
 The Sons of Constantine (337-361). — Before the death of 
 Constantine he had parcelled out the empire among his three 
 sons — Constantine, Constans, and Constantius. This division 
 was not a definite dismemberment of the empire, and so it soon 
 brought discord among the young princes. Constantine, the 
 eldest, who was only twenty-one, was dissatisfied with his 
 allotment, and sought to enlarge his dominion ; but he 
 perished in his efforts to wrest some territory from Con- 
 stans (340). Ten years later the latter met death at the hands 
 of a traitor in his own camp — Magnentius, who received the 
 name of Augustus from his followers and ruled in the place of 
 Constans. IBut within three years Constantius had put down 
 Magnentius, together with another officer, Vetranio, general in 
 Illyricum, who had also been proclaimed Augustus. Thus the 
 empire was once more united under one emperor. 
 
 Of the relatives of Constantine, besides his sons, only two 
 nephews had survived the general slaughter of the family after 
 his death. Gallus had been made Caesar by Constantius, and 
 placed in command of the East, whence he was soon recalled 
 on the pretext that he was about to revolt. One year after his 
 death (354), the surviving cousin, Julian, was assigned to the 
 province of Gaul, with the title of Caesar. The retired scholastic 
 education of Julian had left him in ignorance of the arts of war 
 and government ; but the remarkable success of his arms and his 
 wise and popular administration in that province aroused the 
 jealous fears of Constantius, who ordered that the flower of his 
 army should forthwith be withdrawn and sent to Persia. That 
 order Julian's generals refused to carry out, for they recognized 
 that it meant the undoing of their idolized leader. Instead of 
 that they proclaimed him Augustus. Reluctantly accepting, 
 nevertheless Julian acknowledged the supremacy of his cousin. 
 
Chap. XLI.] DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE. S63 
 
 and at first refused to wage war against him. But the advance 
 of Constantius soon left him no alternative, and he set out to 
 meet this cousin. The death of the latter, however, and the 
 immediate adherence of the empire, prevented civil war. 
 
 Julian (361-363) received his apj^ellation of Apostate from 
 the fact that he was not even nominally a Christian, as his 
 predecessors since Constantine had been ; also from his attempt 
 to restore pagan worship. While he entered into this work 
 with enthusiasm, yet he forbade persecutions and extended to 
 all the inhabitants of the Roman world free and equal tolera- 
 tion. This attempted restoration had no more permanent 
 effect than did his effort to correct the administrative abuses 
 that had crept into the government under his weaker prede- 
 cessors. From the point of view of the continued life of the 
 empire, his vigourous defence of his province of Gaul against 
 the inroads of the barbarians across the Rhine was of the ut- 
 most importance. His expedition to Persia was at first suc- 
 cessful, but it ended with his defeat and death. 
 
 Division op the Empire (364). — The army at once pro- 
 claimed Jovian, who soon made an ignominious peace with 
 the Persians, by which five provinces of the empire lying be- 
 yond the Tigris were surrendered. Jovian ruled only nine 
 months, but he had sufficient time to reverse the religious 
 policy of Julian and restore the Christian religion. On his 
 death the army again made the choice of an emperor, and 
 elected Valentinian. Within a month he bestowed the title 
 of Augustus on his brother Valens. This marks the first 
 division of the empire, Valentinian becoming emperor of the 
 West, with his residence at Milan, while Valens ruled from 
 Constantinople over the empire of the East. 
 
 During his reign of eleven years (364-375) Valentinian 
 repelled the attacks of invaders into his own dominion with a 
 strong hand, and even helped the weaker Valens (364-378) to 
 keep the Goths from crossing the Danube. But on the death 
 of the elder brother, the Goths, now pressed from behind by 
 the Huns, appealed to Valens to save them from their foes. 
 Prudence gave way to flattered vanity, and he allowed about 
 200,000 fighting men — that is, probably about 1,000,000 per- 
 sons in all — to take up their abode in Moesia, inside the em- 
 pire. But soon they became exasperated at the rapacity of 
 
364 HISTOEY OF ROME. [Chap. XLI. j 
 
 their military governors and rose in revolt, and in the battle \ 
 
 of Adrianople (378) they completely routed the Roman army, j 
 
 two-thirds of which was destroyed. Valens was killed in the ; 
 
 retreat, lUyricum was ravaged, and Constantinople itself was \ 
 
 barely saved from capture. : 
 
 Theodosius I (379-395). — In the West, Valentinian was i 
 succeeded by his son Gratian (375-383), a youth of seventeen, 
 
 who immediately associated with him his brother Valentinian ] 
 II, a boy of five. But, more wisely, he soon recalled Theodo- 
 sius, a skilful general, from Spain, and raised him to be his 
 
 colleague and emperor of the East. This strong man was soon j 
 
 able to secure, out of the lamentable condition to which affairs j 
 
 in the East had fallen, a strong defence for the imperial power, ] 
 
 He admitted many Goths into the Roman army, and gave j 
 
 them the duty of defending the passage of the Danube. He j 
 
 also gave them lands, stipulating that they should become ; 
 
 permanent settlers. But most of his energies were required j 
 to support the impotent rule of the boyish Western emperors 
 
 and to defeat the successive pretenders. Gratian had been 1 
 
 overthrown by Maxiraus, but when the usurper left Gaul and \ 
 
 drove Valentinian II from Italy, Theodosius restored that prince | 
 
 to this throne, with Arbogast, the Frank, who had recently '■ 
 
 driven the Germans out of Gaul, as principal minister. After ; 
 
 the departure of Theodosius, Arbogast made way with the ' 
 
 youthful emperor, and had Eugenius, one of his creatures, pro- ! 
 
 claimed emperor. In the battle of Aquileia (394) the tyrants j 
 
 were overthrown. j 
 
 Final Division of the Empire (395). — This victory of 
 
 Theodosius over the usurper had made him master of the ' 
 
 West, and reunited for the last time the whole of the Roman ■ 
 
 world under one emperor. But this was quickly followed by ■ 
 
 his death. As his end approached, he divided his empire be- ' 
 
 tween his two sons, placing Arcadius, eighteen years of age, < 
 
 over the East, and Honorius, eleven years old, over the West. ! 
 
 The final overthrow of the empire as a Roman power was \ 
 
 from this point only a question of time. Henceforth there was to | 
 be very little cooperation, but more often jealousies, between the 
 two divisions of the empire, the conflicting interests of which 
 finally brought down upon them disastrous consequences. The 
 supreme rule of the empire was still nominally in the hands of 
 
Chap. XLL] BARBARIANS IN POWER. 365 
 
 the successors of the Caesars ; but the real power had forever 
 departed from the degenerate sons of the Roman line, and 
 hereafter was wielded by their barbarian ministers. Eufinus, 
 the minister of Arcadius at Constantinople, was by birth a 
 Goth, and Stilicho, the guardian of Honorius, was by descent 
 a Vandal. That these oflBces were held by barbarians was not 
 exceptional. The public service was being filled by Franks, 
 the army was constantly recruited from the Goths, and 
 thousands of barbarians had been welcomed as colonists within 
 the confines of what was properly known as the empire. 
 
 Having gained a foothold in court, in army, in vested terri- 
 torial rights, and having seen that Roman administration was 
 only a shell and no longer the mighty imperial power of the 
 past, the barbarians did not long remain a subject race, but 
 grasped at the highest benefits that Rome could bestow. By 
 reason of the jealousies of the ministers of the two emperors, 
 Eufinus lost his life through the cunning of Stilicho. De- 
 prived of his powerful minister, Arcadius was induced to adopt 
 a short-sighted policy with respect to Alaric, the chieftain of the 
 Visigoths. Partly to save his own territory from immediate at- 
 tack and partly from jealousy of Honorius, Arcadius connived 
 at the invasion of Greece by Alaric, and then (396) made him 
 master-general of Illyricum. Armed with Roman authority, 
 he was, from his vantage-ground in Illyricum, easily able to 
 swoop down on Italy. He had met defeat from the arms of 
 Stilicho in Greece, but in 400 he crossed the Alps — not 
 with his army only, but with all his people, including wives 
 and families. This first invasion carried devastation into 
 northern Italy, but was effectually checked by Stilicho, who 
 defeated Alaric in the battle of Pollentia (403), and forced him 
 to retire into Illyricum. 
 
 The Sack of Rome (410). — Stilicho, whose talents had 
 upheld the throne of Honorius for thirteen years, was ungrate- 
 fully and unjustly sacrificed by his master only two years 
 after he had again saved the empire from Radagaisus and his 
 horde of Vandals and Goths (406). The second invasion by 
 Alaric (408) was opposed by no such mighty hand. Having 
 rid himself of his minister, Honorius proceeded to purge his 
 army and the state of barbarians and heretics, and ordered a 
 massacre of German hostages. At once 30,000 imperial sol- 
 
366 HISTOKY OF EOME. [Chap. XLI. 
 
 diers joined Alaric ; these were soon recruited by 40,000 bar- 
 barian slaves who had escaped from their masters. Almost 
 unopposed, Alaric pushed on to Rome, and spared the city from 
 siege only on the payment of an enormous ransom (408). But 
 the emperor had not purchased his withdrawal from Italy. 
 Alaric wanted lands for his people in Italy and a post for 
 himself in the imperial army. When these were refused, he 
 again marched on Eome ; but he still spared the city and 
 allowed the citizens to choose Attalus, a Greek, as Augustus, 
 with himself as commander-in-chief. Tiring at last of such 
 trifling, he deposed Attalus, and failing once more in his 
 efforts to negotiate with Honorius at Ravenna, he laid siege to 
 Rome and carried away much plunder (410), but seems to 
 have spared the lives of the citizens and not to have despoiled 
 the churches. Alaric lived only two years after this, but 
 before his death he had made himself master of nearly the 
 whole peninsula. 
 
 With Rome, the imperial city and the heart of the empire, 
 pillaged by the barbarians, it is not strange that the more remote 
 members of the empire should one by one be cut off by them. 
 Adolf, the brother-in-law of Alaric, remained in Italy two 
 years after the death of his predecessor, and even made a 
 family alliance with Honorius, and fought against the Van- 
 dals and Suevi in Spain. To his successor, Wallia (419), as 
 king of the Visigoths, was granted a territory in southeastern 
 Gaul, where the foundation of the Visigothic monarchy was 
 laid. These Vandals against whom Adolf fought were a 
 part of the same stream of emigration which under Radagaisus 
 had invaded Italy in 406 and had been defeated by Stilicho. 
 They then overran Gaul and passed south into Spain, whence 
 the Roman power could not dislodge them. These German 
 tribes nominally recognized the sovereignty of the Roman em- 
 pire, but practically their settlement in Gaul and Spain meant 
 the cutting off of those provinces from the empire. The Roman 
 troops had been withdrawn from Britain in 409, and that 
 province had chosen so-called emperors of its own. Usurpers 
 had risen in Africa, and one of these. Count Heraclian (413), 
 even invaded Italy, but was defeated. 
 
 Honorius died in 423. The vacant throne was seized by 
 John, the secretary of the late emperor. The latter main- 
 
Chap. XLI.1 THE EMPIRE CRUMBLES AWAY. 36? 
 
 tainecl himself for two years ; but finally Theodosius II, em- 
 peror of the East, succeeded in placing the nephew of Honorius 
 on the throne. The reign of Valentinian III, a boy of six, 
 lasted until 455, much of the time under the regency of his 
 mother Placidia. The jealousy between Aetius, the Count of 
 Italy, and Boniface, the Count of Africa, exposed the African 
 province to invasion. By the consent of Boniface, if not by 
 his actual invitation, the Vandals under Gaiseric (Genseric), 
 their king, crossed over from Spain, eager for land and trea- 
 sure, and quickly spread themselves over that province (429). 
 Within ten years their possession of the country was ratified 
 by a treaty with Rome, and one of the chief granaries of the 
 empire had become a Vandal kingdom. 
 
 The Defeat of the Huns. — One after another the Ger- 
 manic peoples had been carving out from the Roman dominion 
 territories in which they were erecting kingdoms. But with 
 the onslaught of the nomadic, semi-barbarian, and altogether 
 heathen Huns, they felt that their own safety was at stake. 
 When Attila, the leader of the great horde, invaded Gaul, the 
 Visigoths joined the Roman general Aetius, whom they had 
 just been opposing, against the common foe. Other German 
 troops joined the force of Aetius, who defeated Attila in the 
 bloody battle of Chalons (451). This is regarded as one of the 
 great " decisive battles " of the world's history, for it made the 
 predominant power of Europe Teutonic rather than Tartar. 
 The next year Attila, who had come to be known as "the 
 scourge of God," invaded northern Italy, spreading desolation 
 through the valley of the Po ; but he soon withdrew, at the 
 request, it is said, of Pope Leo the Great, and died in 453. 
 
 The reign of Maximus, who murdered Valentinian III, and 
 ruled as his successor for three months (455), is remembered 
 for the sack of Rome by the Vandals. Gaiseric had come at 
 the request of Eudoxia, the widow of Valentinian and the un- 
 willing wife of Maximus. In two weeks the Vandals carried 
 away everything valuable on which they could lay their hands, 
 but they do not seem to have done much damage to the build- 
 ings. They carried away many Roman citizens as slaves. 
 
 End op the Western Empire. — The list of weakling em- 
 perors who occupied the throne of the Western Empire for its 
 last twenty years is a dreary catalogue. What little real power 
 
368 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XLI. 
 
 still remained was wielded by barbarian chiefs in the Roman 
 service, who for the most part dared not themselves assume the 
 imperial title. Avitus, commander in (jraul, on the nomination 
 of Theodoric II, the king of the Ostrogoths, held the throne 
 for a little over a year (455-456); but he was compelled to 
 abdicate by Count Ricimer, the Sueve. The latter decided 
 not to claim the throne for himself, but instead nominated 
 Majorian (457-461). He was a man of force, and tried to pro- 
 tect the empire against the Vandals. He was probably too 
 able and too independent to suit Ricimer, for he was forced to 
 abdicate. He was succeeded by Libius Severus (461-465) and 
 the Greek Anthemius (467-472), who wore the purple at the 
 command of Ricimer. Although the latter had consented to 
 the naming of Anthemius, yet this emperor had really been put 
 forward by Emperor Leo of the East. When he asserted his 
 independence, Ricimer retaliated by leading a barbarian army 
 against Rome, overthrowing Anthemius and replacing him by 
 Olybrius. During his reign of three months Count Ricimer 
 died, and his nephew, Gundobald, gave the title to Glycerius 
 (473). Next year the latter exchanged the throne for a bishopric, 
 and Julius Nepos (474), the candidate of the Eastern emperor, 
 added his name and one year to the list. By this time the 
 real power had passed to another barbarian general, Orestes, 
 the former secretary of Attila, who proclaimed his own son 
 emperor. Romulus Augustus, generally known by the con- 
 temptuous diminutive " Augustulus," the last of the Western 
 emperors, bore the title less than a year. Orestes had over- 
 estimated his power with the army, and fell before a younger 
 and more daring barbarian adventurer, Odoacer, who had won 
 the army to his allegiance. Romulus was not put to death, as 
 his father had been, but was forced to abdicate, after which 
 the empty dignity of the emperor of the West was abolished. 
 We have seen how, in the outlying provinces of the Roman 
 empire, there had, one by one, been set up new powers that had 
 nominal but no very real and vital connection with the em- 
 pire. The same thing had now happened in Italy, the heart 
 of the empire. Odoacer was proclaimed king by his troops, 
 and the imperial authority was no longer claimed. But, as 
 though in reverence for the old order, the new ruler recognized 
 the sovereignty of the empire of the East. 
 
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370 HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 II.— DESCENDANTS OF OCTAVIA, SISTER OF 
 AUGUSTUS. 
 
 (1) C. Marcellus = Octavia = (2) M. Antonius (triumvir). 
 
 M. Marcellus Antouia Antonia the 
 
 (d. B.C. 23). the elder = L. Doiuitius. younger = 
 
 N. Claudius 
 
 Drusus. 
 
 (See III.) 
 
 Domitia Lepida ( = M. Valerius Cn. Domituis 
 
 I Barbatus Messalla). ( = Agrippma 
 I the younger), 
 
 . Valeria Messalina 
 (wife of Imp. Claudius). 
 
 III.— AUGUSTUS'S STEP-CHILDREN. 
 
 (1) Ti. Claudius Nero = Li via Augusta = (2) Imp. Augustus. 
 
 I I 
 
 Imp. Tiberius = Vipsauia N. Claudius Drusus (= Antonia 
 
 1 Agrippina. I the 
 
 I younger). 
 
 Djubus Germanicus Livia (Livilla) Imp. Claudius 
 
 (= Livia, ( = Agrippina ( = Drusus, son ( = Messalina). 
 I sister the elder). of Tiberius). 
 
 I of Ger- 
 manicus). 
 
 Julia(= Nero, eldest Claudius Ootavia 
 
 son of Germanicus). Britannicus. ( = Imp. Nero). 
 
II^^DEX. 
 
 Accius, L., 325. 
 
 Achaean League, 129 ; in 
 alliance with Philip V., 
 130 ; control of, by 
 Rome, 165. 
 
 Achaean war, 166. 
 
 Adrianople, battle of, 364. 
 
 Aediles, 38, 142. 
 
 Aelius Gallus defeated in 
 Arabia Felix, 340. 
 
 Aemilius Lepidns, M., 
 military road made by, 
 138. 
 
 Aemilius Paullus,L.,slam 
 in the battle of Cannae, 
 107. 
 
 Aemilius Paullus, L. 
 (son), defeats Perseus, 
 163. 
 
 Aeneas, legend of, g. 
 
 Aequians, 5, 41. 
 
 Aetius, general, 367. 
 
 Aetolian League, 129 ; 
 forms alliance with 
 Bome, 130; but is 
 obliged to make jieace 
 with Philip v., 130; 
 chief town Ambracia 
 taken by the Romans, 
 134; compelled to sue 
 for peace, and the 
 League crushed, 134. 
 
 Afranius, L., Consul, 267. 
 
 Afranius, L. (poet), 325. 
 
 Africa, invaded by the 
 Romans, 89, 169. 
 
 Agrarian Law of iSp. Cas- 
 sius, 38; law intro- 
 duced by Ti. Gracchus, 
 181, 182 ; extended by 
 C. Gracchus, 187; laws 
 passed after the death 
 of the Gracchi, 191; law 
 
 proposed by Rullus, 
 261 ; law introduced by 
 Caesar, 268. 
 
 Agrigentum besieged and 
 taken, 87. 
 
 Agrippa, Herod, 347. 
 
 Agrippa, M., Octaviau's 
 general, drives L. Anto- 
 nius and Fulvia out 
 of Rome, 312; defeats 
 them at Perusia, 312; 
 constructs the Julius 
 Portus, 315; defeats 
 fleet of Sextus Pom- 
 peius, 316; defeats the 
 Cantabri, 340; death 
 of, 342. 
 
 Agrippina the younger, 
 wife of Claudius, 349; 
 believed to have poi- 
 soned the emperor, 349; 
 her death by Nero, 349. 
 
 Agrippina, widow of Ger- 
 manicus, banished, 346; 
 commits suicide, 347. 
 
 Alaric, 365, 366. 
 
 Alba Longa, foundation 
 of, 9 ; destruction of, 15. 
 
 Alban Lake, legend of 
 the, 53. 
 
 Alesia surrenders to Cae- 
 sar, 279. 
 
 Alexander Severus, 359. 
 
 Allobroges, ambassadors 
 of the, 262. 
 
 Alps, Hannibal's passage 
 of, 103 ; note on, 108. 
 
 Aiiibitus, 155. 
 
 Ancus Marcius, succeeds 
 Tullus Hostilius, 15 ; 
 conquers several Latin 
 cities, and removes in- 
 habitants to Rome, 15 ; 
 institutes the Fetiales, 
 IS ; founds a Colony at 
 Ostia, 15; fortifies the 
 371 
 
 Janiculum, 16 ; con- 
 structs the Pons Subli- 
 cius, 16 ; his reign and 
 death, 16. 
 
 Andriscvis, 166. 
 
 Antepildni, 149. 
 
 Antifichus, king of Syria, 
 proposes to Philip V. to 
 partition Egypt be- 
 tween them, 130; re- 
 ceives Hannibal as a fu- 
 gitive, 133; is persuaded 
 to invade Greece, 133 ; 
 is defeated at Ther- 
 mopylae, and returns 
 to Syria, 133; invades 
 the kingdom of Per- 
 gamus, but is defeated 
 near Magnesia, 134; is 
 compelled to cede all 
 his dominions in Asia 
 Minor, to pay fines, and 
 surrender Hannibal, 
 134; peace concluded, 
 and affairs of Asia set- 
 tled, 135. 
 
 Antiochus Asiaticus de- 
 posed, 252. 
 
 Antoninus Pius, reign of, 
 356, 357- 
 
 Antonius,C., 261,262,264. 
 
 Antonius, L., revolt of, 
 312. 
 
 Antonius, M. (orator), as- 
 sassinated, 220. 
 
 Antony (Marcus Anto- 
 nius), Consul with 
 Caesar, 298 ; offers a 
 diadem to Caesar, 298; 
 takes possession of 
 Caesar's papers and 
 treasures, 301 ; pro- 
 nounces the funeral ora- 
 tion over the body of 
 Caesar, 302 ; master of 
 Rome, 302 ; attacked by 
 
372 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Cicero in his Philippics, 
 304 ; retires to Cisal- 
 pine Gaul, and besieges 
 Mutina, 304 ; declared 
 a public enemy, 304 ; 
 defeats Pansa, 304 ; is 
 defeated by Hirtius,305 ; 
 received in Further Gaul 
 by Lepidus, 305 ; forms 
 Triumvirate with Oc- 
 tavian and Lepidus, 
 305 ; defeats Cassius at 
 Philippi, 309 ; licen- 
 tious conduct in Asia 
 Minor, and meeting 
 with Cleopatra, 311, 312, 
 follows her to Alex- 
 andria, 312 ; his troops 
 defeat d in Syria, 313 ; 
 meets his wife and 
 brother at Athens, 313 ; 
 his wife dies, 313 ; forms 
 an alliance with Sextus 
 Pompeius, 313 ; marries 
 Octavia, sister of Octa- 
 vian, 314 ; returns to the 
 East with Octavia, 314 ; 
 his success in Syria, 
 314 ; makes another 
 treaty with Octavian. 
 315 ; renews his union 
 with Cleopatra, 316 ; is 
 defeated in Parthia, 317 ; 
 returns to Alexandria, 
 317 ; is defeated by Oc- 
 tavian in the battle of 
 Actium, 318 ; is again 
 defeated at Alexandria, 
 319 ; stabs himself, 319. 
 
 Apollonia, besieged by 
 Philip V. of Macedon, 
 130. 
 
 Appellatio, 147. 
 
 Appius Claudius, the de- 
 cemvir, 45, 48. 
 
 Appius Claudius Caecus, 
 82 ; his son, 86. 
 
 Aquae Sextiae, battle at, 
 203. 
 
 Aquillius, M'., Consul, 
 suppresses the Second 
 Servile War iu Sicily, 
 205 ; is defeated, and 
 made prisoner by Mlth- 
 ridates, 223. 
 
 Arcadius, emperor, 364. 
 
 Archelaus defeated at 
 Chaeronea, 224 ; and 
 at Orchomenus, 224. 
 
 Ai'chimedes, 113. 
 
 Ariobarzanes expelled 
 from Cappadocia, 223 ; 
 restored, 223 ; again ex- 
 
 pelled, 223 ; restored to 
 his kingdom, 254. 
 
 Ariovistus defeated by 
 Caesar, 274. 
 
 Aristobiilus surrenders to 
 Pompey, 253. 
 
 Armenia, Pompey in, 257. 
 
 Army, Roman, organisa- 
 tion of, 148. 
 
 Artaxata, victory of Lu- 
 cuUus at, 247 ; sub- 
 mission of Tigranes at, 
 252. 
 
 As (weight), 23. 
 
 Ascanius, legend of, 9. 
 
 A^culum, levolt at, 211. 
 
 Atelldnae Fabulae, 326. 
 
 Athenio, leader of slaves 
 in Sicily, 205 ; defeated 
 and slain by Aquillius, 
 205. 
 
 Athens, 129, 224. 
 
 Attains Philometor, 177. 
 
 Attila, 367. 
 
 Augurs, 19, 62. 
 
 Augustus, title conferred 
 on Octavian, 339 ; sets 
 out for Spain, 340 ; Can- 
 tabri finally crushed, 
 340 ; resigns the consul- 
 ship, 340 ; superintends 
 the corn -supply of Rome, 
 341 , regulates the affairs 
 of the East, 342 ; passes 
 the Leges JuUae, 342 ; 
 visits Gaul, 342 ; suc- 
 ceeds Lepidus" as Ponti- 
 fex Maximus, 343 ; 
 divorces Scribonia and 
 marries Livia Drusilla, 
 344 ; Tiberius appointed 
 his colleague, 344 ; his 
 death, 344. 
 
 Aurunci, 6. 
 
 Autronlus Paetus, P., 260. 
 
 B. 
 
 Balearic sliagers, 151. 
 
 Batavi, revolt of, 351. 
 
 Belgic War, 274. 
 
 BIbiilus, M , 268, 269, 291. 
 
 Blaesus, Junius, with P. 
 Dolabella, defeats Tac- 
 farinas, 346. 
 
 Boadicea, queen of the 
 Iceni. defeated, 350. 
 
 Boii, 3, 97 ; finally con- 
 quered and slaughtered, 
 138. 
 
 Bononia (Bologna), colony 
 at, 138. 
 
 Bosporus, Cimmerian, 252. 
 
 Brennus, 55, 56, 58. 
 
 Britain, first invasion by 
 Caesar, 276 ; second in- 
 vasion, 277 ; invasion 
 of, by Claudius, 349 ; 
 revolt in, 350 ; Agrioola 
 
 >"• 353- 
 
 Bruttii, 6. 
 
 Brutus, D., besieges Mas- 
 silia, 290 ; governor of 
 Cisalpine Gaul, 302 ; 
 commands agamst An- 
 tony, 305 ; put to death 
 at Aquileia, 305. 
 
 Brutus, L. Junius, 28, 29 ; 
 his death, 31. 
 
 Brutus, M. Junius, 
 Praetor, conspires with 
 Cassius and others to 
 assassinate Caesar, 298 ; 
 retires to Macedonia, 
 303; collects an army 
 in Macedonia, 308 ; 
 plunders Lycia, 308 ; 
 crosses over into Thrace, 
 309 ; defeated by Oc- 
 tavian at Philippi, 310; 
 slays himself, 310. 
 
 c. 
 
 Caecilius, Q., 274. 
 
 Caesar, Caius Julius, early 
 life, 256, 257 ; Quaestor, 
 257 ; Aedile, 257 ; re- 
 stores statues and tro- 
 phies of Marius, 257 ; 
 Propraetor in Spain, 
 268 ; his conquests there, 
 268 ; Consul, 268 ; forms 
 cabal with Pompey and 
 Crassus (first Trium- 
 virate), 268 ; carries 
 Agrarian Law, 268 ; 
 supports Pompey, and 
 gives him his only 
 daughter Julia in mar- 
 riage, 269 ; divorces his 
 wife, 270 ; obtains com- 
 mand in Gaul, 269 ; ist 
 campaign in Gaul, 274 ; 
 2nd, 274 : 3rd, 275 ; 4th, 
 275 ; 5th, 277 ; 6th, 278 ; 
 7th, 278: 8th, 280; 
 rivalry of Pompey, 284- 
 287 ; quarters at Ra- 
 venna, 286 ; ordered to 
 disband his army, 287 ; 
 refuses and crosses the 
 Rubicon, 288 ; enters 
 Rome, 289 ; conquers 
 
INDEX. 
 
 373 
 
 bis opponents in Spain, 
 290 ; short Dictatorship, 
 291 ; crosses to Greece 
 to encounter Pompey, 
 agi ; total defeat of 
 Pompey in the battle of 
 Pharsalue, 292; Dictator, 
 294; pursues Pompey 
 into Egypt, 294 ; sup- 
 ports Cleopatra, 294 ; 
 conquers Pharnaces, 
 294 ; returns to Rome, 
 294 ; defeats Pompeian 
 army in Africa, 295 ; 
 master of the Roman 
 world, and Dictator for 
 ten years, 295 ; his 
 Triumph, 296 ; his 
 clemency and reforms, 
 291, 296, 297 : Impera- 
 tor and Dictator for life, 
 297 ; conspiracy ag .inst 
 him, 298 ; assassination, 
 299 ; cliaracter, 299 ; his 
 character as a writer, 
 
 335- 
 
 Caesar, Gains (Caligula), 
 succeeds Tiberius, 347 ; 
 restores the comitia 
 and discourages the 
 delatiirts, 347 ; causes 
 the death of his cousin, 
 Tiberius Gemellus, 347 ; 
 his expeditions to Gaul 
 and Germany travestied, 
 348 ; his freaks and 
 cap' ices, 348 \ assassin- 
 ated, 348. 
 
 Caesar, L. Julius, Consul, 
 212 ; in Social War, 212 ; 
 proposes Lex Julia, 
 
 213 
 
 Calabria, 7. 
 
 Caligula, 347,. 348. 
 
 Calpurnian Law, De Repe,- 
 tundis, 188. 
 
 Camillus, M. Furius, 53, 
 54. 57. 58, 61, 64. 
 
 Campagna, 6. 
 
 Campania, 6. 
 
 Cannae, battle of, 107. 
 
 Cantabriaiis, 139, 173, 340. 
 
 Canuleia, Lex, 50. 
 
 Capitolium, 28. 
 
 Capua opens its gates to 
 Hannibal, 108 ; retalien 
 by the Romans, 117. 
 
 Caracalla, reign of, 359. 
 
 Caractacus, 349. 
 
 Carbo, Cn. Papirius, Con- 
 sul, joins Cinna, 227. 
 
 Carthage, 84; capture and 
 destruction of, 171 ; re- 
 
 built by the Pomans, 
 171. 
 
 Carthaginians, their navy, 
 87 ; defeated by the Ro- 
 man navy, 88, 89, 93. 
 
 Catilina, L. Sergius, early 
 life, 260 ; conspiracy, 
 260, 262 ; accused by 
 Cicero, 262 ; leaves 
 Rome, 262 ; collects 
 troops, 263 ; defeated 
 and slain, 264. 
 
 Cassius Longlnus,C., fights 
 under Crassus in Meso- 
 potamia. 283 ; conducts 
 the retreat to Syria, 283 ; 
 originates the conspi- 
 racy against Caesar, 
 298 ; retires into SjTia, 
 303 ; defeats Dolabella 
 in Syria, 308 ; plunders 
 Rhodes, 308 ; marches 
 with Brutus into Thrace, 
 309 ; defeated by An- 
 tony at Philippi, 309 ; 
 his death, 309. 
 
 Cato, M. Porcius, in Spain, 
 139; Quaestor, Pr*tor, 
 Consul, 156, 157 ; Cen- 
 sor, 160 ; his reforms, 
 160 ; his prejudices, 
 160, 161 ; his severity 
 and avarice, 161 ; his 
 character as a writer, 
 
 334- 
 
 Cato, M. Porcius. advo- 
 cates the death of the 
 Catilinarian conspira- 
 tors, 263 ; his death at 
 Utica, 295. 
 
 Catullus, Valerius, 327. 
 
 Catiilus, Q. Lntatius, com- 
 bines with Marius in 
 the overthrow of the 
 Cimbri, 204 ; his death 
 by order of Marius, 220. 
 
 Cataius, Q. Lutatius (son), 
 hails Cicero as " Father 
 of his Country," 264. 
 
 Caudine Forks, battle at, 
 70. _ 
 
 Celtiberians, tribes of, 
 139; war with, 175. 
 
 Cenomani, 3. 
 
 Censors, 51, 144. 
 
 f^ensus, 51, 114. 
 
 Centuriones, 149. 
 
 i^ethegus, C. Cornelius, 
 261, 263. 
 
 Chalons, battle of, 367. 
 
 Chosroes, king, 355. 
 
 Cicero, M. Tullius, early 
 life, studies, and success 
 
 as an orator, 257 ; Qu»s 
 tor, 258 ; prosecutes 
 Verres, 258 ; his speech 
 for Sex. Roscius of 
 Ameria, 258 ; studies 
 at At' ens and in Asia 
 Minor, 258 ; Aedile, 
 Praetor, 259; Consul, 
 261 ; opposes agrarian 
 law of Rullus, 261 ; 
 denounces Catiline, 
 
 262 ; arrests conspira- 
 tors, 263 ; hostility of 
 ( lodius, 270 ; his banish- 
 ment, 271 ; his return to 
 Rome, 272 ; joius the 
 party of Caesar's assas- 
 sins, 301 ; his Philippics 
 against Antony, 304 ; 
 stimulates the Senate 
 against Antony and Oc 
 tavian, 305 ; is included 
 in the list of proscrip- 
 tions, 307 ; his death, 
 307 ; his character as a 
 writer, 334. 
 
 Cimbri, 201 ; they enter 
 and r .vage Spain, 202 ; 
 enter Jtaly, destroyed 
 by Aiarius and Catulus, 
 204. 
 
 Cincinnatus and the 
 Aequians, 41. 
 
 Cincius Alimentus, L., 
 
 334- 
 
 Cinna, L., Consul, 219; 
 conflict with Octavius, 
 219 ; associated with 
 Marius, 220 ; their mas- 
 sacres in Rome, 220; 
 murdered by his army, 
 227. 
 
 Circus Maximus, 21. 
 
 Cisalpine Gaul, a Roman 
 province, 138. 
 
 Cives Romani, 81. 
 
 Civilis, Julius, 331. 
 
 Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, 
 meets M. Antony at 
 Tarsus, 311 ; attracts 
 him to Alexandria, 312 ; 
 is deserted for Octavia, 
 314 ; again attracts An- 
 tony, who returns with 
 her to Alexandr.a, 317 ; 
 war declared against her 
 by the Senate, 318 ; 
 defeated w th Antony 
 at Actium, 318 ; de- 
 ceives Antony, but fails 
 to deceive Octavian, 
 319 ; kills herself, 320. 
 
 Clients, 16. 
 
374 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Clodius Pulcher, P., pro- 
 fligate conduct of, 270 ; 
 tribune, 270 ; procures 
 the banishment of Ci- 
 cero, 271 ; killed by 
 Milo, 284. 
 
 Clusium besieged, 55. 
 
 Cohorts, 151. 
 
 Collatia, CoUatinus, 21. 
 
 Colonies, Roman, 52. 
 
 Comitia Centuriata, 25, 
 146. 
 
 Comitia Curiata, 18, 25, 
 146. 
 
 Comitia TribUia Plehis, 
 44, 48, 62, 147. 
 
 Comitia TribUta Populi, 
 
 63, TJ7. 
 
 Commodus, 357, 358. 
 
 Constantin e, reign of, 361 . 
 
 Consuls, duties of, 143. 
 
 Corbulo, Domitius, 350. 
 
 Corfinium, 212. 
 
 Corinth burnt, 167. 
 
 Coriolanus, C. Marcius, 
 39; banished from Rome, 
 39 : invades Rome at 
 the head of a Volscian 
 army, 39 ; spares the 
 city, 39 ; his death, 40. 
 
 Cornelia, n.ilher of the 
 Gr.icchi, 8 . 
 
 Cornelia, daughter of Cin- 
 na, married to Caesar, 
 256 ; her death, 257. 
 
 Corneliae Legfs, 233. 
 
 Cornelii, slaves so called, 
 232. 
 
 Cors ca and Sardinia, 
 form d into a Roman 
 province, 96 ; revolt in 
 140. 
 
 Cotta, C. Aurellus, lawyer, 
 258. 
 
 Cotta, L. Aurelius, 260. 
 
 Cotta, M. Aurelius, de- 
 feated by Mithridates, 
 246. 
 
 Crassus, P. Licinius, de- 
 feated by Aristonicus, 
 177. 
 
 Crassus. M. Licinms, 
 Praetor, appointed to 
 command the army 
 against the Gladiators. 
 -41 : defeats and slays 
 Spartacus, 241 ; Consul 
 with Pompey, 242 ; 
 forms first Triumvirate 
 ■with Caesar and Pom- 
 pey, 268 ; meets Caesar 
 and Pompey at Luca, 
 281; second Consulship 
 
 ■with Pompey, 282 ; his 
 
 command in Syria, 282 ; 
 
 crosses the Euphrates, 
 
 283 ; defeated and killed, 
 
 283. 
 Cremona besieged, 138. 
 Cretan archers (l>'agit- 
 
 tarii), 151. 
 Curiae, 18. 
 Curiatii, 14. 
 Curius, M'., defeats Pyr- 
 
 rhus, 80. 
 Curtius, M., legend of, 64. 
 CurSles Magistratus, 142. 
 
 Decemvirate, 44 ; Decem- 
 viri appointed, 44 ; their 
 tyranny, 45 ; the Twelve 
 Tables, 48 ; Decemviri 
 continue in office, 45 ; 
 they assassinate Sicini- 
 us Dentatus, 46 ; Ver- 
 ginia slain by her father 
 to save her from the 
 Decemvir Appius Clau- 
 dius, 47 ; resignation of 
 the Decemvirs, 47. 
 
 Deeius, emperor, 359. 
 
 Decius Mus, P., self-sac- 
 rifice, 68; his son, 72. 
 
 Decuriones, 150. 
 
 Deintarus, tetrarch of Ga- 
 latia, 254. 
 
 Demetrius of Pharos, 96, 
 129. 
 
 Dictatorship, 34, 144 ; re- 
 vived by Sulla, 231. 
 
 Diocletian, reign of, 360. 
 
 Dolabella, Cn., accused of 
 extortion, 256. 
 
 Dolabella, P., governor of 
 Syria, puts' an end to his 
 own life, 308. 
 
 Domitian, succeeds Titus, 
 353 ; leads a campaign 
 against the Chatti, 353 ; 
 ryiuces the power of the 
 senate, 353 ; celebrates 
 a triumph, 353 ; recalls 
 Agricola from Britain, 
 353 ; meets reverses in 
 war, 353 ; his manage- 
 ment of public affairs, 
 353 : persecution of 
 Christians, 353 ; assassi- 
 nated, 35 . 
 
 Drama, Koman, 322. 
 
 Drepanum, siege of, 93. 
 
 Drusus, Libo, his con- 
 spiracy, 345. 
 
 Drusus, M., Livius, 189, 
 190. 
 
 Drusus, M. Livius, son 
 of the opponent of C. 
 Gracchus, elected - a 
 Tribune, endeavours to 
 obtain the Roman 
 franchise for the Al- 
 lies, 209 ; assassinated, 
 210. 
 
 Drusus, Nero Claudius, 
 343. 344- 
 
 Eburones, revolt of the, 
 
 277. 
 Egypt, 129 ; added to the 
 
 Roman Empire, 320 ; 
 
 the granary of Rome, 
 
 341- 
 Election of ten Tribunes, 
 
 47- 
 
 Enna (Servile War), 177. 
 
 Ennius, Q., 323. 
 
 Equestrian Order, 54, 188. 
 
 Ktruria, 4. 
 
 litruscans, their name 
 language, origin, and 
 portions of Italy occu- 
 pied by them, 3, 4 ; wars 
 with the, 52 ; defeated, 
 71 ; in league with the 
 Umbrians, 72 ; defeated 
 at Lake Vadimo, 74. 
 
 Eumenes, king of Perga- 
 mns. obtains the Cher- 
 sonnese, Mysia, Lydia, 
 and part of Caria, 135. 
 
 Eunus (Servile AVar), 177. 
 
 r. 
 
 Fabia Gens and the Veien- 
 tines, 40. 
 
 Fabius, Lieutenant, de- 
 feated by Mithridates, 
 247. 
 
 Fabius Maximus, Q., ap- 
 pointed Dictator, and to 
 the command-in-chief 
 against Hannibal, 106 ; 
 styled the Gunctator, or 
 " Lingerer," 106 ; ob- 
 tains Tarentum, 117. 
 
 Fabius Pictor, Q., 334. 
 
 Fabius Sanga. Q., 262. 
 
 Falerii surrenders to the 
 Romans, 53. 
 
 Fescennine songs, 326. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 371 
 
 Fetidles, x$. 
 
 Fidenae taken and de- 
 stroyed, 53. 
 
 Fimbria defeated, slays 
 himself, 225. 
 
 Flamens, 13. 
 
 Flamininus, T.,Quinctius, 
 appointed to the com 
 mand against Philip V., 
 whose army is defeated 
 in the battle of Cynos- 
 cephalae, 131 ; pro- 
 claims the independence 
 of Greece, 132 ; with- 
 draws the Roman garri- 
 sons from all the towns 
 of Greece, and returns 
 to Italy, 132. 
 
 Flaminius, C, defeats the 
 Insubres, gy ; is defeated 
 ^y Hannibal, near Lake 
 I'rasimenus, and slain, 
 105. 
 
 Forum Ulpianum, 355. 
 
 Fossa Mariana, 203. 
 
 Fulvia (mistress of Q. 
 Curius), 262. 
 
 Fulvia, wife of M. Antony, 
 312 ; is driven out of 
 Rome, and defeated at 
 Perusla, 312 ; dies at 
 Sicyon, 313. 
 
 Fulvius Nobilior, M., be- 
 sieges and captures the 
 town of Ambracia, 134. 
 
 Gabii, 28. 
 
 Gabinius, A., 249. 
 
 Gaiseric, 367. 
 
 Galatia, 128. 
 
 Galatians attacked by Cn. 
 Manlius Vulso, defeated 
 in two battles, and com- 
 pelled to sue for peace, 
 
 135- 
 
 Galba, Ser. Sulpicins, his 
 treachery, 173. 
 
 Galba, Servius S ilpicius, 
 proclaimed emperor, 
 350 ; marches for Rome, 
 350 ; puts down an 
 attempt to seize the 
 throne, 350 ; adopts Piso 
 Licinianus as his asso- 
 ciate, 350 : killed, 35:. 
 
 Gallia Cisalpina, 2. 
 
 Gallaecians, 139, 175. 
 
 Gaul, Caesar's wars in, 
 273-280. 
 
 Gauls in Italy, 2 ; (Insu- 
 bres), 3 ; conquered, 97 ; 
 (Senones) besiege Clu- 
 sium, 55 ; march against 
 Rome, 56 ; battle of the 
 Allia, 56 ; Rome de- 
 stroyed. 57 ; the Capitol 
 besieged, 57 ; Capitol 
 saved, 57. 
 
 Gentes, Roman, 16. 
 
 Germanicus, nephew of 
 Augustus, takes com- 
 mand in Germany, 343 ; 
 recalled, 343 ; defeats 
 the Marsi, 345 ; cele- 
 brates a triumph, 345 ; 
 sent to the East, 345 ; 
 dies at Antioch, 345. 
 
 Germanicus, Tiberius 
 
 Claudius Drusus, elected 
 emperor, 348 ; passes 
 many useful reforms, 
 348 ; completes the Aqua 
 Claudia, builds the port 
 of Ostia, and drains 
 Lake Fucinus, 348 ; 
 makes changes in the 
 East, 349 ; grants ex- 
 tension of franchise,349 ; 
 his conquests of parts of 
 Britain, 349 ; his mar- 
 riages, 349 ; death, 349. 
 
 Germany, wars in, 343, 
 346- 
 
 Glabrio, M'. Acilius, 248. 
 
 Glaucia, 208. 
 
 Goths, first invasion of, 
 359 ; later invasions, 
 363, .365. 
 
 Gracchi, 179-191. 
 
 Gracchus, Caius Sempro- 
 nius (the Tribune), re- 
 turns from Sardinia, 
 187 ; elected Tribune, 
 187 ; his legal reforms, 
 187-189 ; opposed by 
 in. Livius Drusus. i8g; 
 murdered, 190. 
 
 Gracchus, Ti. Sempro- 
 nius (father of the Tri- 
 bunes), subdues Spain, 
 140. 
 
 Gracchus, Ti. Sempro- 
 nius (the Tribune), 
 Quaestor in Spain, 181 ; 
 at the siege of Carthage, 
 181 ; elected Tribune, 
 18 1; introduces Agra- 
 rian Law, 181, 182 ; his 
 murder, 184. 
 
 Graecia, Magna, 7, 74. 
 
 Greek colonies in Italy, 7. 
 
 H. 
 
 Hadrian, reign of, 356. 
 Hamilcar excites Gauls 
 and Ligurians against 
 Romans, 137. 
 Hamilcar Barca, 93 ; re- 
 lieves Lilybaeum and 
 Drepanum, 93 ; con- 
 quests in Spain, 98 ; 
 death, 98. 
 Hannibal elected to suc- 
 ceed Hasdrubal, 99 ; first 
 campaigns in Spain, 99 ; 
 besieges and takes Sa- 
 guntum, 99 ; crosses 
 the Iberus and the Py- 
 renees with a large 
 army, 102 ; reaches the 
 Rhone, 102 ; crosses the 
 Alps, 103 ; encamps in 
 the plains of the Po, 
 among the Insubres, 
 103 ; reduces the Tau- 
 rini, 103 ; defeats the 
 army of Scipio near the 
 Ticlnus, 104 ; defeats 
 combined army of Scipio 
 and Longus near the 
 Trebia, 104 ; marches 
 through Liguria to the 
 Arno, 104 ; defeats C. 
 Flaminius at Lake Tra- 
 simenus, 105 ; eludes Q. 
 Fabius and defeats Mi- 
 nucius, 107 ; annihi- 
 lates an immense Ro- 
 man army at Cannae, 
 107 ; marches into Sam- 
 nium and Campania, 
 and obtains Capua, 108 ; 
 his rapid marches, in ; 
 campaigns of b.c. 215- 
 213, III, 112; obtains 
 Tarentum, 112 ; mar- 
 ches up to the walls of 
 Rome, but Is unable to 
 take the city, 116 ; loses 
 Capua, 117 ; loses Sa- 
 lapia, 117; destroys the 
 army of Cn. Fulvius at 
 Herdoniae, 117; loses 
 Tarentum, 117; is re- 
 called from Italy, 125 ; 
 defeated by Scipio near 
 Zama, 126 ; is protected 
 by Antiochus, after 
 whose defeat at Mag- 
 nesia, he escapes, and 
 is received by Prusias, 
 king of Bithynia, 134, 
 159 ; is demanded by 
 
376 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Rome, takes poison, and 
 dies, i6o. 
 
 Hanno, in command of 
 Carthaginian fleet, de- 
 feated by Lutatius Catu- 
 lUB, 93. 
 
 Hasdriibal succeeds Ha- 
 milcar, 98 ; founds New 
 Carthage, 98 ; assassi- 
 nated, 99. 
 
 Hasdrubal, brother of 
 Hannibal, marches from 
 Spain into Italy, 118; 
 is defeated on the Me- 
 taurus, and sUin, 119. 
 
 Hastati, 150. 
 
 Helvetii defeated by Cae- 
 sar, 274. 
 
 Hernicans, 5, 71. 
 
 HIero, king of Syracuse, 
 86 ; besieges Messana, 
 86 ; is defeated by the 
 Romans, and makes 
 peace, 87 ; his death, 
 112. 
 
 Hirtius, A., Consul, de- 
 feats Antony at Mutina, 
 but is slain, 305. 
 
 Hispania Citerlor and Ul- 
 terior, 139. 
 
 Honorius, 364-366. 
 
 Horatii, 14. 
 
 Horatius Flaccus, Q. 
 (poet), 330. 
 
 Hortensia, Lex, 63. 
 
 Hortensius, Q. (orator), 
 216, 217, 250, 251, 258. 
 
 Hostilius Mancinus, C, 
 defeated by the Celtibe- 
 rians, 175. 
 
 Huns, 367. 
 
 lapygians, 7. 
 
 Iceni, revolt of, under 
 Queen Boadicea, 350. 
 
 Tgnobiles, 155. 
 
 Illyria and lUyrians, 96. 
 
 Illyrian wars, 96. 
 
 Istria subdued, 140. 
 
 Italia, 2. 
 
 Italians proper, 4. 
 
 Italy, geography of, i ; 
 early inhabitants of, i ; 
 struggles in Central 
 Italy, 72 ; improvement 
 of agriculture, 355. 
 
 lulus, or Ascanlus, 9. 
 
 Janlciilum fortified, 16. 
 Janus, temple of, 14 ; 
 closed for the second 
 time, 96 ; for the third 
 time, 320, 338 ; for the 
 fourth time, 340. 
 
 Jerusalem taken by Pom- 
 P6y.253; (le.str()yed,352. 
 
 Jugurtha, under Scipio in 
 Spain, 176 ; early life, 
 193 ; bribes the Sena- 
 tors, iq4 ; defeats Ad- 
 herbal, and puts him to 
 death, 194 ; war declared 
 against him, but comes 
 to Home under safe con- 
 duct, 195 ; murders Mas- 
 siva, and is ordered to 
 quit Italy, 195 ; defeated 
 by Metellus, 196 ; and 
 by Marius, 199, who 
 takes him prisoner, and 
 conveys him to Rome, 
 where he is starved in 
 prison, 199, 200. 
 
 Julia, aunt of Caesar, 193; 
 her death, 257. 
 
 Julia, daughter of Caesar, 
 269, 284. 
 
 Julia, Lex, 213. 
 
 Julian, reign of, 362, 363. 
 
 Jovian, emperor, 363. 
 
 Jupiter Capitolinus, tem- 
 ple of,burned, 351 ; new 
 temple of, burned, 353. 
 
 Jus Imdginum, 155. 
 
 E. 
 
 Kings of Rome, 10-30. 
 
 Laberius, D., 326. 
 
 Latin War for the restora- 
 tion of Tarquin, 33 ; 
 battle of the Lake Re- 
 gillus, 34; Great Latin 
 War, 67 ; battle at the 
 foot of Vesuvius, 68 ; 
 self-sacrifice of P. De- 
 cius Mus, 68 ; defeat of 
 the Latins, 68 ; battle at 
 Trifanum, 68. 
 
 Latins, 4, 6. 
 
 Latium, 6 ; part of, incor- 
 
 porated with the Re- 
 public of Rome, 68. 
 
 Legends of early Roman 
 history, 9. 
 
 Leges and Plebiscita, 147. 
 
 Legiones, 148-151. 
 
 LentOlus, Cn., his con- 
 spiracy, 348 ; and death, 
 348. 
 
 Lentiilus Sura, P. Corne- 
 lius, 261, 263. 
 
 Lepidus, M., Consul op- 
 poses the public funeral 
 of Sulla, 233 ; proposes 
 the repeal of Sulla's 
 laws, 237 ; collects an 
 army and marches upon 
 Rome, 238 ; is defeated 
 near the Mulviun 
 Bridge, retires to Sar- 
 dinia, and dies, 238. 
 
 Lepidus, JM., Master of 
 the Horse, 298 ; forms 
 Triumvirate with Octa- 
 vian and Antony, 305 ; 
 in Africa and Sicily, 
 
 ^ 313. 316. 
 
 Licmian Rogations and 
 Laws, 60, 180. 
 
 Ludi Saeculares, ceh bra- 
 tion of the, 342. 
 
 Liguria, 2, 3 ; Ligurians, 
 
 , 3- 
 
 Lilybaeum, sieges of, 79, 
 92, 93. 
 
 Lmgones, 3. 
 
 Livia Drusilla, wife of 
 Augustus, 344 ; her 
 aims, 344. 
 
 Livitis Andronlcus, M., 
 323. 
 
 Livitis Titus, 336. 
 
 Lucaniaand Lucanians, 6. 
 
 Lucanians, 74, 214. 
 
 LScgres, 17. 
 
 Lucilius, C., 327. 
 
 Lucretius Carus, T. (poet). 
 
 327 
 
 Lucullus, L. Tiicinius, op- 
 poses and defeats Mith- 
 ridates in Bithynia 
 and Pontus, 246 ; sends 
 Appus Claudius to Ti- 
 granes, 246 ; his reforms 
 in Asia, 247 ; defeats 
 Tigranes at Tigrano- 
 certa and at Artaxata, 
 247 ; recalled, and su- 
 perseded by Pompey, 
 251. 
 
 Ludi Magni, 142. 
 
 Lusitania, invaded by Ser. 
 SulplciuB Galba, 173 ; 
 
INDEX. 
 
 377 
 
 successes of Caesar in, 
 268. 
 Lusitanians, 139, 174-5. 
 
 M. 
 
 Macedonia, kingdom of, 
 129. 
 
 Macedonian Wars, 129, 
 162. 
 
 Maelius, Sp., slain, 51. 
 
 M igister Equitum, 34, 69. 
 
 Magna Graecia, 7, 74. 
 
 Mamertini, 86. 
 
 Mauilian Law, Cicero's ad- 
 dress in favour of, 250. 
 
 Manilius, C, I ribune, 250. 
 
 Manipuli, 149. 
 
 Manlius, M., saves the 
 Capitol, 57 ; patron of 
 the poor, 59 ; his fate, 
 60. 
 
 Manlius Torquatus, L., 
 260. 
 
 Manlius Torquatus. T., le- 
 gend of, 59 ; and of his 
 son, 67. 
 
 Manlius Vulso, Cn., defeats 
 the Galatians and after- 
 wards, in conjunction 
 with commissioners, 
 concludes a peace with 
 Antiochus, and settles 
 the affairs of Asia, 135. 
 
 Marcellus, M., Consul, ar- 
 rives in Sicily, 112; 
 takes Leontini, 113 ; in- 
 vests Syracuse, where 
 he is baffled by Archi- 
 medes, 113 ; but finally 
 captures it, 114 ; takes 
 Salapia, 117 ; defeated 
 and slain in Lucania, 
 118. 
 
 Marous Aurelius, reign 
 of, 357- 
 
 Marius, C, early life, 193 ; 
 in Spain with Scipio, 
 193 ; elected Tribune, 
 193 ; sends the Consul 
 Metellus to prison, 193 ; 
 elected Praetor, 193 ; 
 marries Julia, sister of 
 Julius Caesar the elder, 
 193; accompanies Me- 
 tellus to Africa, 196 ; 
 returns to Rome, and 
 is elected Consul, with 
 command in Numidia, 
 198 ; repulses a com- 
 bined attack of Ju- 
 gurtha and Bocchus, 199; 
 
 attaches Bocchus to the 
 Komans, and takes Ju- 
 gurtha prisoner, both by 
 the agency of his Quaes- 
 tor Sulla, 199; elected 
 Consul during his ab- 
 sence, and returns to 
 Rome, leading Jugurtha 
 in triumph, 200 ; reor- 
 organises the army, 202 ; 
 elected Consul a third 
 and fourth time, 203 ; 
 defeats and destroys the 
 Cimbri, Teutones, and 
 Ambrones, 204 ; elected 
 Consul a fifth time, and 
 has a Triumph, 204 ; 
 enters into a compact 
 with Saturninus and 
 Glaucia, 206 ; and is 
 elected Consul a sixth 
 time, 206 ; loses reputa- 
 tion, and sets sail for 
 Cappadocia and Galatia, 
 208 ; in the Social War, 
 213 : is surpassed by 
 Sulla, 213 ; intrigues to 
 obtain the command 
 against Mithridates, 215; 
 is opposed by Sulla, who 
 enters Home with his 
 army, and Marius makes 
 his escape, 217 ; his suf- 
 ferings, risks, and return 
 to Rome with Cinna, 
 218, 220 ; his conquests 
 and the massacres in 
 Rome, 220 ; in con- 
 junction with Cinna 
 elects himself Consul 
 for the seventh time, 
 220 ; his death, 220. 
 
 Marius, the younger, de- 
 feated by Sulla, 229 ; 
 orders his opponents to 
 be put to death, 229 ; 
 embarks for Africa, 229 ; 
 puts an end to his own 
 life, 230. 
 
 Marrucini, 5. 
 
 Marsi, 5. 
 
 Marsic or Social War, 178- 
 180 
 
 Masinissa, enters into 
 treaty with Scipio, 122 ; 
 assists Scipio, 12s ; aids 
 Scipio to defeat Hasdru- 
 bal and Syphax, 125 ; 
 marries and loses 
 Sophonisba, 125. 
 
 Mediterranean Sea infest- 
 ed with pirates, 249. 
 
 Memmius, C, compels 
 
 the war with Jugurtha, 
 195 ; murdered, 207. 
 
 M6napli defeated by Cae- 
 sar, 275 
 
 MSnenlus Agrippa, fable 
 told by, 37. 
 
 Mercenary war at Car- 
 thage, 95. 
 
 Messana, 85. 
 
 Metellus Celer, 264, 267. 
 
 Metellus, L., defeats the 
 Carthaginians at Panor- 
 mus, 91. 
 
 Metellus (Macedonicus), 
 Q , 166. 
 
 Metellus Nepos, 264. 
 
 Metellus (Nnmidicus), Q. 
 Caecilius, Consul, con- 
 ducts the war in Africa 
 against Jugurtha, 196 ; 
 superseded by Marius, 
 198. 
 
 Mettius Fuffetius, 15. 
 
 Military Tribunes ap- 
 pointed, 51. 
 
 Mimes, 326 
 
 Mithridates, king of Ar- 
 menia, 349 
 
 Mithridates V., king of 
 Pontus, assassinated, 
 222, 
 
 Mithridates VI., king of 
 Pont'i -s early life, 222 ; 
 conquests and alliances, 
 222 : orders a mas- 
 sacre of Romans and 
 Italians in the cities of 
 Asia, 223 ; defeated by 
 L. Valerius Flaccus and 
 by Fimbria, 224 ; ob- 
 tains peace on hard con- 
 ditions, 225 ; defeats 
 Murena on the Halys, 
 244 ; makes peace with 
 Rome, and evacuates 
 Cappadocia, 245 ; re- 
 news the war with 
 Rome, 245 ; overruns 
 Bithynia, and defeats 
 Cotta, 246 ; retreats 
 before LucuUus into 
 Pontus, 246 ; defeated 
 by LucuUus at Cabira, 
 and takes refuge in Ar 
 menia, 246 ; defeats Fa 
 bins and Triarius, 248 
 unites with Tigranes, 
 when they overrun Pon 
 tus and Cappadocia, 248 
 is defeated by Pompey, 
 251 ; escapes into the 
 Cimmerian Bosporus, 
 2j2 ; conspiracy of his 
 
378 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 son Pharnaces, 253 ; his 
 
 death, 254. 
 Mithridatic Wars : first, 
 
 221-225; second, 244; 
 
 third, 245-254. 
 Aloorish dartmen, 151 
 Morini defeated by Csesar, 
 
 275- 
 
 Mucins Scaevola, C, 33. 
 
 Mulvian Bridge, battle of 
 the, 238. 
 
 Murena, L., invades Cap- 
 padocia and Pontus, 
 244 ; is opposed by 
 Mithridates, and de- 
 feated, 244. 
 
 Naevius, Cn., 323. 
 
 Nasica, Scipio, 184. 
 
 Navy, Carthaginian, 85, 87. 
 
 Navy, Roman, 87, 90. 
 
 Neapolis attacked, 69. 
 
 Nepos, Cornelius, 336. 
 
 Nero and Livius, Consuls, 
 defeat Hasdrubal, 119. 
 
 Nero, succeeds Claudius, 
 349 ; causes death of 
 Britanuicus, 34,) ; his 
 liaison with Poppaea, 
 349 ; divorces Octavia 
 and marries Poppaea, 
 350 ; accused of causing 
 the great fire at Rome, 
 350 ; bis persecution of 
 Christians, 350 ; con- 
 spiracy to dethrone him, 
 350; his dissipations, 
 350 ; commits suicide, 
 
 35°- 
 
 Nerva, M.Cocceius, elected 
 emperor, 354 ; sanc- 
 tions execution of Domi- 
 tian's murderers, 354 ; 
 chooses M. Ulpius Tra- 
 janus as consort, 354 ; 
 dies, 354. 
 
 Nervii defeated by Caesar, 
 
 of Bithynia, 223 ; re- 
 stored, 223 ; again ex- 
 pelled, 223 ; dies, leav- 
 ing his dominions to the 
 Roman people, 245. 
 
 Nobiles, 155 
 
 Nobility, 154-155. 
 
 Nonius, A., murder of, 207. 
 
 Norbanus, C, Consul, de- 
 feated by Sulla, 228. 
 
 Novus Homo, 155. 
 
 Numa Pomp lius elected 
 to succeed Romulus, 13 ; 
 his reign and institu- 
 tions, 13-14. 
 
 Numantine War, disas- 
 trous till conducted by 
 Scipio, 175, who cap- 
 tures and desti'oys Nu- 
 mantia, 176. 
 
 Numidia, political condi- 
 tion of, and war in, 193- 
 200 
 
 Niimltor, 10. 
 
 0. 
 
 Octavian (C. Julius Caesar 
 Octavianus\ appointed 
 heir to Caesar, 302 : 
 comes to Rome, and 
 claims the inheritance, 
 303 ; collects an army, 
 304 ; elected Consul, 
 
 305 ; forms Triumvirate 
 with Antony and Lepi- 
 dus, 305 ; proscriptions, 
 
 306 ; defeats Brutus at 
 Philippi, 309 ; returns 
 to Rome, 310 ; recon- 
 ciliation with Antony, 
 313 ; his fleet destroyed 
 by Sextus Pompeius,3 1 5 ; 
 renews the Triumvirate, 
 315 ; subdues the Dal- 
 matians, 317 ; rupture 
 with Antony, 318; de- 
 feats Antony and Cleo- 
 patra at Actium, 318 ; 
 his Triumph, 320, 338 ; 
 Princeps, Augustus, 
 Pontifex Maximus, 320, 
 338 ; end of the Re- 
 public, 320. See also 
 Augustus. 
 
 Octavius. See Octavian. 
 
 Oetavius, Cn., against 
 Cinna, 219 ; slain, 220. 
 
 Odoacer, 368. 
 
 Oppian Law repealed, 157. 
 
 Oscan language, 5. 
 
 Ostia founded, 15. 
 
 Otho, M. Salvius, raises 
 mutiny among prae- 
 torian guards, 351 ; suc- 
 ceeds Galba, 351 ; makes 
 overtures of peace to A. 
 Vitellius, which are re- 
 jected, 351 ; his army 
 defeated, 351 ; commits 
 suicide, 351. 
 
 Ovldius Naso, P. (poet), 
 333- I 
 
 Pacuvlus, M., 325. 
 
 Paeligni, 5. 
 
 Palaeopolis taken, 69. 
 
 Panormus, defeat there of 
 Carthaginians, 91. 
 
 Pansa, C. Vibius, Consul, 
 defeated by Antony, and 
 slain, =04. 
 
 Papius Matilus, C., 212 ; 
 defeated by Sulla, 213. 
 
 Patrts Majoi um and Mi- 
 norum Gentium, 21, 
 
 Patricians, 16 ; strugglea 
 between them and the 
 Plebeians, 35 ; ascend- 
 ancy of the Patricians, 
 35. _ See Plebeians. 
 
 Pdtronus, 16. 
 
 Paulinas, Suetonius, 350. 
 
 Pergamus, 128 ; made a 
 province, 177. 
 
 Perperna, M., reinforces 
 Sertorius in Spain, 238 ; 
 becomes jealous of Ser- 
 torius, and assassinat s 
 him, 240 ; is defeated by 
 P5mpey, 240. 
 
 Perseus succeeds Philip as 
 king of Macedon, 162 ; 
 defeated by L. Aemilius 
 Paullus, 163 ; death, 
 164. 
 
 Pertinax, reign of, 358. 
 
 Pharnaces, conspiracy of, 
 against Mithridates, 
 253 ; confirmed in pos 
 session of the king- 
 dom of the Bosporus, 
 
 254 
 Philip v., king of Mace- 
 don, enters into a treaty 
 with Hannibal, m ; ap- 
 pears in the Adriatic 
 with a fleet, and lays 
 siege to Oricum and 
 ApoUonia, 130 ; takes 
 Oricum, but is driven 
 from ApoUonia, and 
 burns his fleet, 130 ; 
 in alliance with the 
 Achaeans and at peace 
 with the Aetolians and 
 Romans, 130; assists 
 Hannibal at Zama, 130 ; 
 attacks the Rhodians 
 and Attalus, king of 
 Pergamus, 130 ; treats 
 with Antiochus for the 
 partition of Egypt, 130 ; 
 besieges Athens, which 
 
INDEX. 
 
 379 
 
 is relieved by a Roman 
 fleet, 131 ; sues for peace 
 after his defeat in ttie 
 battle of Cynoscephalae, 
 131 ; refuses to take part 
 with Antiochus against 
 the Romans, 133 ; his 
 death, 162. 
 
 Phoenicians, 84. 
 
 Phalanx, 76, 131, 163. 
 
 Phraates, Parthian king, 
 restores captured stan- 
 dards, 342. 
 
 Picentines, 5. 
 
 Piracy in the Mediterra- 
 nean suppressed by 
 Pompey, 249, 250. 
 
 Piso, C. Calpnrnius, 350. 
 
 Placentia, 138. 
 
 Placidia, rule of, 367. 
 
 Plautia Papiria, Lex, 213. 
 
 Plautus, T. Maccius, 324. 
 
 PlebiscUa, 48, 62, 63 ; and 
 I.eges, 147. 
 
 Plebs, Plebeians, origin of 
 the, 16 ; sufferings of 
 the, 36 ; Ager Publicus, 
 36 ; secession of Ple- 
 beians to the Sacred 
 Mount, 37 ; institution 
 of Tribunes of the Plebs, 
 37 ; Agrarian Law in- 
 troduced by Sp. Cassius, 
 38 ; retipwed struggles 
 of the Plebs, 43 ; the 
 Twelve Tables as ple- 
 beian law, 48 ; distress 
 after the Gallic invasion, 
 59 ; final struggle with 
 the Patricians, 61 ; close 
 of the struggle and vic- 
 tory of the Plebeians, 63. 
 
 Pneni, 84. 
 
 Pomerium, n, 25. 
 
 Pompaedius Silo, Q., 212. 
 
 Pompeii and Herculane- 
 um, destruction of, 352. 
 
 Pompeiopolis, 250. 
 
 Pompeius, Sextus, master 
 of the sea, 307 ; forms 
 alliance with Octavian 
 and Antony, 314 ; rup- 
 ture of the alliance, 314 : 
 defeats Octavian 's fleet, 
 315 ; his own fleet de- 
 feated by M. Agrippa, 
 316; is taken prisoner, 
 and put to death at Mi- 
 letus, 316. 
 
 Pompeius Strabo, Cn., in 
 Social War, 213. 
 
 Pompey (Cn. Pompeius 
 Magnus), early life and 
 
 career, 238 -g ; receives 
 the surname of Magnus, 
 239 ; sent to Spain as 
 Proconsul against Ser- 
 torius, 240 ; failures 
 and successes, 240 ; de- 
 feats Perperna, 240 ; 
 concludes the war, 240 ; 
 elected Consul with 
 Crassus, 242 ; restores 
 the Tribunician power, 
 242 ; suppresses piracy 
 in the Mediterranean, 
 250 ; supersedes Lucul- 
 lusin the East, 251 ; de- 
 feats Mithridates in 
 Lesser Armenia, 251 ; 
 receives the submission 
 of Tigranes, 252 ; his 
 conquests in Syria and 
 Palestine, 253 ; returns 
 to Italy, 267 ; his Tri- 
 umph, 267 ; Senate re- 
 fuses to sanction his 
 measures in Asia, 267 ; 
 forms cabal with Caesar 
 and Crassus (first Tri- 
 umvirate), 267 ; marries 
 Caesar's daughter Julia, 
 269 ; meets Caesar and 
 Crassus at I^uca, 281 ; 
 Consul with Crassus, 
 282 ; obtains covern- 
 ment of Spain, 28 • ; his 
 new theatre at Rome 
 opened 282 ; his w ife 
 Julia dies, 284 ; elected 
 sole Consul, 285 ; be- 
 comes hostile to Caesar, 
 28 s ; measures in oppo- 
 sition to Caesar, 285, 
 286 ; invested by the 
 Senate with command 
 of the army, 287 ; re- 
 treats before Cafsar, 
 289 ; embarks for Greece, 
 289 ; besieged by Caesar 
 at Dyrrachium, 292 ; 
 forces Caesar to retreat, 
 292 ; defeated by Caesar 
 at Pharsalus, 2925 flies 
 to Egypt, 293 ; slain 
 there, 2^3. 
 
 Pontiffs, i8, 62. 
 
 Pontine Marshes, 7, 298. 
 
 Pontius, C, defeats the 
 Romans, 70; he or his 
 son is defeated and put 
 to death, 72. 
 
 Pontius, the Samnite, 229. 
 
 Pontus, 128 ; kingdom of, 
 221 ; made a Roman 
 province, 254. 
 
 R)roius Cato, M. .S'ee Cato. 
 
 Porsgna, Lars, marches 
 against Rome in aid of 
 Tarquin, 32 ; bridge de- 
 fended by Horalius Co- 
 des, 32 ; C. Mucius 
 Scaevola, 33 ; Cloelia 
 swims across the Tiber, 
 33 ; Porsena withdraws 
 his army, 33. 
 
 Praeneste surrenders, 230. 
 
 Praetor Peregnnus, 143. 
 
 Praetorian Guard, power 
 of, 358. 
 
 Praetors and Praetorship, 
 62, 143. 
 
 Principate, 320. 
 
 Princeps, 520. - 
 
 Prinmpes, 150, 151. 
 
 Privernum, conquests of, 
 69. 
 
 Proconsuls, 6g, 143, 148. 
 
 Propertius, Sextus Aure- 
 lius (poet), 281. 
 
 Propraetors, 143, 148. 
 
 Proscriptio, what it was, 
 193. 
 
 Proscriptions, 230, 306. 
 
 Provinces, Roman, 148, 
 178, 254, 280. 
 
 Provocatio, 147. 
 
 Prusias, king of Bithynia, 
 shelters Hannibal, 134, 
 159 ; appears at Rome, 
 165. 
 
 Publilian Law (of Pub- 
 lilius Volero), 38. 44. 
 
 Publilian Laws (of Pub- 
 lilius Philol, 62. 
 
 Publicani. 145. 
 
 Punic War, First, 84-94 ! 
 Second, 101-127. 
 
 Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, 
 assists the Tarentines, 
 76 ; defeats the Romans 
 near Heraclea, 76 ; sends 
 Cineas to negotiate a 
 peace, 77 ; terms re- 
 jected, 77 ; marches on 
 Rome, 77 ; winter 
 quarters at .Tarentum, 
 78 ; embassy of Fabri- 
 cius, 78 : proposal to 
 poison Pyrrhus, 79 ; re- 
 leases Roman prisoners 
 without ransom, 79 ; 
 crosses over into Sicily, 
 79 ; is repulsed at Lily- 
 baeum, 79 ; returns to 
 Italy, 79 ; seizes the 
 treasures of the temple 
 of Persephone at Locri, 
 80 ; hia remorse, 80 ; is 
 
380 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 defeated at Beneventum, 
 80 ; returns to Greece 
 and is slain, So. 
 
 Quaestiones perpetuae, 
 
 235- 
 
 Quaestors and Quaestor- 
 ship, 51, 142. 
 
 Qulrites, 12. 
 
 R. 
 
 Ramnes, 17. 
 
 Kasena, 3. 
 
 Regillus, Lake, battle of, 
 
 34- 
 
 RSgulus, M. Atilius, de- 
 feats the Carthaginians, 
 89 ; is defeated by Xaii- 
 thippus, 90; sent, as 
 prisoner, with an em- 
 bassy to Borne, 91 ; 
 advises the Senate to 
 reject the terms, 91 ; 
 returns, and is put to 
 death, 91. 
 
 Remus and Romiilus, 10. 
 
 Repetundae, 155, 188, 235. 
 
 Republic established at 
 Rome, 30; end of, 320. 
 
 Rhea Silvia, legend of, 10. 
 
 Rliodes, 129 ; school of 
 rhetoric at, 256. 
 
 Riclnier, Count, 368. 
 
 Rngatio and Lex, 60. 
 
 Roma Quadrata, n. 
 
 Roman Literature, sketch 
 of 322-337 ; Poetry ;— 
 Saturnian Metre and the 
 Drama, 322; M. Livius 
 Andronicus, 323 ; Cn. 
 Naevius, 323 ; Q. En- 
 nius, 323 ; T. Maccius 
 Plautus, 324 ; P. Teren- 
 tius Afer, 3-25 ; Statius 
 Caecilius, L. Afranius, 
 325 ; M. Pacuvius, 325 ; 
 L. Accius, 325; Atel- 
 lanae Fabulae Mimes, 
 326 ; 1). Laberius, P. 
 Syrus, 326 ; Fescennine 
 Songs. 326 ; Satires, 327 ; 
 C. Lucilius, 327 ; T. Lu- 
 cretius Carus, 327 ; Va- 
 lerius Catullus, 328 ; P. 
 Virgilius Maro, 328 ; Q. 
 Horatius Flaccus, 330; 
 
 Albius Tibullus, 332 ; 
 Sextus Aurelius Proper- 
 tius, 332 ; P. Ovidius 
 Naso, 333. Prose Wri- 
 ters — Q. Fabius Pictor, 
 334 ; L. Cincius Alimen- 
 tus, 334 ; M. Porcius 
 Cato, 334 ; M. Tullius 
 Cicero, 334; M. Teren- 
 tius Varro, 335 ; C. Ju- 
 lius Caesar, 336 ; C. Sal- 
 lustius Crispus, 336 ; 
 Cornelius Nepos, 336 ; 
 Titus Livius, 336. 
 
 Rome, situation and first 
 inhabitants, 8 ; legends 
 and early history, 9 ; 
 first four kings, 11-16; 
 last three kings, 16-28 ; 
 foundation of, 11; de- 
 stroyed by the Goths 
 (Senones) under Bren- 
 nus, 47 ; rebuilt, 48 ; 
 pestilence at, 52 ; nre 
 at, 350; sacked, 366, 367. 
 
 Romiilus, birth of, 10; 
 slays Remus, 11 ; rape 
 of Sabine virgins, 11 ; 
 war with Sabines, 12 ; 
 reigns conjointly witii 
 Titus Tatius, 12; suc- 
 ceeds T. Tatius as ruler 
 of the Sabines, and thus 
 becomes sole ruler, 13; 
 his disappearance, 13; 
 institutions, 18. 
 
 Romulus Augustulus, 368. 
 
 Rupilius, P., captures 
 Tauromenium and En- 
 na, and ends the First 
 Servile War. 177. 
 
 Rutilius Rufus, found 
 guilty, and banished, 
 20,^. 
 
 RutilTuj Lupus, P., Con- 
 sul, 212 ; defeated and 
 slain, 212. 
 
 s. 
 
 Sabellians, 5. 
 
 Sabine virgins, rape of, 11. 
 
 Sabines, s, 11 (note). 
 
 Sacred Mount, first seces- 
 sion to, 37 ; second se- 
 cession, 47 
 
 Saguntum captured, 99. 
 
 Salli, priests of Mars, 14. 
 
 Sallustius Crispus, C, 336. 
 
 Salvius, leader of the 
 slavei in Sicily, 204 ; 
 
 assumes the surname ol 
 Tryphon, 205. 
 Samnites, 5, 65 ; conquer 
 Campania and Lucania, 
 
 65 ; attack the Sidicini 
 and Campanians, 65 ; 
 enter into war with the 
 Romans, 66; are de- 
 feated at Mount Gaurus, 
 
 66 ; peace, 66 ; second 
 or Great War with the 
 Romans, 6q ; quarrel be- 
 tween Q. Fabius Maxi- 
 mus and L. Papirius 
 Cursor, 69 ; Samnite ge- 
 neral, C. Pontins, de- 
 feats the Romans at 
 the Caudine Forks, 70 ; 
 treaty rejected by the 
 Romans, 71 ; successes 
 of the Romans, and 
 peace, 71 ; th'rd war, 72 ; 
 battle of Sentinum, 72 ; 
 defeat, and peace, 72. 
 
 Sardinia obtained from 
 Carthage, and formed 
 into a Roman province, 
 96 ; revolt in, 140 ; Prae- 
 tor for, 143. 
 
 Satires, Roman, 327. 
 
 Saturnian Metre, 322. 
 
 Saturninus, elected Tri- 
 bune, 207 ; brings in 
 an Agrarian Law, 207 ; 
 murders Memmius, 207 ; 
 is declared a public 
 enemy, 208 ; pelted to 
 death with tiles by the 
 mob, 208. 
 
 Scipio, Cneius, in Spain, 
 114; slain there, 116. 
 
 Scipio, P. Cornelius, 
 marches to oppose Han- 
 nibal, 103; killed in 
 Spain, 116. 
 
 Scipio Africanus Major, P. 
 Cornelius, his early lile, 
 120 ; elected Proconsul, 
 and goes to Spain, 121 ; 
 captures New Carthage, 
 121 ; defeats Hasdrubal. 
 122 ; master of nearly 
 all Spain, by another 
 victory, 122 ; crosses 
 over to Africa, 122 ; 
 quells insurrection and 
 mutiny in Spain, 123 ; 
 captures Gades, 123 ; 
 returns to Rome, and 
 is elected Consul, 123; 
 passes over to Sicily, 
 and thence to Africa, 
 124 ; besieges Utica, 
 
INDEX. 
 
 381 
 
 124 ; is opposed by Has- 
 drubal and Syphax, 
 whom he defeats, 125 ; 
 defeats Hannibal near 
 Zama, 126 ; prosecuted, 
 158 ; retires from Rome, 
 159 ; death, 159. 
 
 Sciplo Africanus Minor, 
 169 ; captures and de- 
 stroys Carthage, 170, 
 171 ; sent to Spain, 175 ; 
 opposes Ti. Gracchus, 
 185 ; found dead in his 
 room, 185. 
 
 Scipio, L. Cornelius (Asia- 
 ticus), appointed to the 
 command against Anti- 
 ochus, who had invaded 
 the kingdom of Perga- 
 .mus, 134 ; defeats Anti- 
 ochus near Magnesia, 
 and returns to Rome, 
 134 ; pi'osecution of, 158. 
 
 Scipio Nas ca, P. Corne- 
 lius, subdues the Boii, 
 
 138. 
 
 Sejanus, Aelius, mtngues 
 of, 346 ; causes banish- 
 ment of Agrppina, 346 ; 
 condemnation and exe- 
 cution, 347. 
 
 Sempronian Laws, 187. 
 
 Senators bribed by Jugur- 
 tha found guilty by a 
 commission, 196. 
 
 Senate, 18, 145. 
 
 Stnatus Consaltum, 146. 
 
 Senones, 3, 55. 
 
 Septimius Severus, 358. 
 
 Sertorius, Q., in Spain, 
 238 ; is opposed to Pom- 
 pey, 240 ; assassinated 
 by Perperna, 240. 
 
 Servile War in Sicily, 
 first, 177 ; second, sup- 
 pressed by M'. Aquil- 
 lius, 204. 
 
 Serviltus, Q., murdered, 
 211. 
 
 Servius Tullius, succeeds 
 Tarquinius Prisons, 22 ; 
 reforms the constitution, 
 and divides the terri- 
 tory, 23 ; increases the 
 city, and surrounds it 
 with a wall, 25 ; forms 
 an alliance with the 
 Latins, 26 ; his death, 
 26 ; his two daughters, 
 26. 
 
 Seven hills of Rome, 25. 
 
 Sextlus, L., first Plebeian 
 Consul, 61. 
 
 Sicily, invaded by the Ro- 
 mans, 86 ; made subject 
 to the Romans, except 
 Syracuse, 94 ; Praetor 
 for, 143. 
 
 Sicinius Dentatus slain, 46. 
 
 Sidiclni, 65. 
 
 Slaves, under the Romans, 
 155, 161, 177, 179. 
 
 Social War, or Marsic 
 War, 211-214. 
 
 SScii, or Allies, 81 ; troops, 
 furnished by, 150. 
 
 Sociorum Praefecti, 150. 
 
 Soli, afterwards Pompeio- 
 polis, occupied by pi- 
 rates, 250. 
 
 Spain, in two provinces, 
 139 : praetors for, 143. 
 
 Spanish wars, 139, 140, 
 173-176, 340- 
 
 Sparta, 129. 
 
 Spartacus, a gladiator, ex- 
 cites an insurrection of 
 slaves, 241 ; devastates 
 Italy wit 1 a large army 
 of slaves, 241 ; defeated 
 by Crassus, 241 ; slain 
 in battle, 241. 
 
 Spolia oplvia, 12, 52, 98. 
 
 Stilicho, 365. 
 
 Suffetes, 85. 
 
 Sulla, C. Cornelius, early 
 life and character, igg ; 
 Quaestor with Marius 
 in Africa, 200 ; gains 
 over Bocchus, and en- 
 traps and makes a pri- 
 soner of Fugurtha, 199 ; 
 in Social War, 213 ; 
 Consul, 215 ; rivalry 
 with Marius, 216 ; enters 
 Rome with his army, 
 and takes possession of 
 the city, 217 ; leaves 
 Rome for the East, 219 ; 
 plunders Athens, 224; 
 victory at Orchomenus, 
 224 ; makes peace with 
 Mithridates, 225 ; over- 
 comes Fimbria, 225 ; de- 
 feats the younger Ma- 
 rius, and enters Rome, 
 229 ; battle with the 
 Samnites and Lucanians 
 for the possession of 
 Rome, 229 ; their defeat, 
 229 ; elected Dictator, 
 231 ; his massacres and 
 proscriptions, 230 ; elec- 
 ted Consul, 231 ; his 
 Triumph, and assumed 
 title of Felix, 231 ; bis 
 
 military colonies, 232 ; 
 his reforms, 233-236 ; 
 resignation of Dictator- 
 ship, retirement and 
 death, 232, 233. 
 
 Sulpicius Rufus, P., sells 
 himself to Marius, 216; 
 put to death, 217. 
 
 Supplicdtio, 152. 
 
 Synorium, fortress of, 
 251. 
 
 Syphax, at war with Car- 
 thage, 115; is visited by 
 Scipio, but, falling in 
 love with Sophonisba, 
 daughter of Hasdrubal, 
 becomes an ally of the 
 Carthaginians, 123 ; de- 
 feated by Scipio and Ma- 
 sinissa, and flies into 
 Numidia, 125 ; is pur- 
 sued and taken prisoner 
 by Laeliiis and Masi- 
 nissa, 125. 
 
 Syracuse captured by Mar- 
 cellus, 114. 
 
 Syria, condition of, 128 ; 
 made a Roman province, 
 
 254- 
 Syrus, P., 326. 
 
 Tacfarinas, war against, 
 346 ; defeat of, 346. 
 
 Tarentum, 7, 74, 75 ; cap- 
 tured, 80 ; betrayed to 
 Hannibal, 112; retaken 
 by Rome, 117. 
 
 Tarpela, 12. 
 
 Tarquinius Priscus, Lu- 
 cius, his birth and de- 
 scent, 20; elected fifth 
 king of Home, 21 ; de- 
 feats the Sabines and 
 captures Collatia, 21 ; 
 takes also many Latin 
 towns, and becomes 
 ruler of all Latium, 21 ; 
 constructs the cloacae, 
 2T ; lays out the Circus 
 Maximus, and institutes 
 the games of the Circus, 
 21 ; increases the Senate 
 and the Vestal Virgins, 
 21 ; appoints Servius 
 Tullius his successor 
 21 ; his reign and death, 
 22. 
 
 Tarquinius Superbus, Lu- 
 cius, succeeds Servius 
 
 2b 
 
382 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Tullius, 27 ; his tyranny, 
 27 ; alliance with the 
 Latins, 27 ; war with the 
 Volscians, 27 ; founds 
 the temple named the 
 Capitollum, 28 ; pur- 
 chases the threj Sybil- 
 line books, 28 ; attacks 
 and captures Gabii, 28 ; 
 sends to consult the 
 oracle at Delphi, 28 ; 
 besieges Ardea, 29; Lu- 
 cretia ravished by Sex- 
 tus Tarquinius. 30 ; 
 death of Lucretia, 30 ; 
 Tarquin is expelled 
 from Rome with his 
 sons, 30 ; attempts to 
 regain the throne, 31 ; 
 his Etruscan allies de- 
 feated, 31 ; assisted by 
 the Latins, 33 ; their 
 defeat, 34 ; Tarquin dies 
 at Cumae, 34. 
 
 Terentlus Afer, P.. 325 
 
 Teutones and Ambrones 
 enter France, in march 
 for Italy, 203 ; defeated 
 by Marius, 203. 
 
 Theodosius I., 364. 
 
 Thurii, 7, 74 
 
 Tiberius Claudius Nero, 
 engaged with Drusus in 
 
 ■ northern wars, 343 ; re- 
 duces Pannonia, 343 ; 
 returns to Germany, 
 343; adopted by Au- 
 gustus, 344 ; succeeds 
 Augustus, 344 ; rebel- 
 liotis armies in Pannonia 
 and Germany pacified, 
 345 ; countenances the 
 delatores, 346 ; leaves 
 Rome and retires to 
 Capreae, 346 ; his ex- 
 cesses and character, 
 347 ; his death, 347. 
 
 TibuUus, AlbTus (poet), 
 
 335- 
 
 Tigranes, kingof Armenia, 
 receives his father-in- 
 law Mithridates, 246 ; 
 defeated by Lucullus at 
 Tigranocerta, 247 ; acts 
 in concert with Mithri- 
 dates, 247 ; submits to 
 Pompey, 252. 
 
 Tigranes the younger re- 
 volts against his father, 
 252 ; brought to Rome 
 as a prisoner, 252. 
 
 Titles 17. 
 
 Titus, succeeds his father 
 
 Vespasiim, 352 ; his 
 reckless expenditure, 
 352 ; dedicates the Coli- 
 seum, 353 ; his death, 
 353. 
 
 Trajanus, M. Ulpius, his 
 campaigns in Germany, 
 354 ; comes to Rome, 
 354 ; his conquest of 
 Dacia, 354 ; receives the 
 title of Dacicus, 354 ; 
 again sets out for Dacia, 
 354 ; returns to Rome, 
 and celebrates a triumph, 
 354 ; his financial suc- 
 cess, 355 ; builds the 
 Forum Ulpianum, 355 ; 
 declares war on Chosroes, 
 and leaves for the East, 
 355 ; deposes the Ar- 
 menian kiug, 355 ; nar- 
 rowly escapes death in 
 great earthquake, 355 ; 
 receives title of Parthi- 
 cus, 355 ; dies on home- 
 ward journey, 355. 
 
 Trasimenus, Lake, Roman 
 army destroyed at, 105. 
 
 Triarii, 149. 
 
 Triarius, defeated by Mith- 
 ridates, 248. 
 
 Tribes, patrician, 17; of 
 Servius Tullius, 23 ; the 
 thirty-five tribes, 96 ; 
 assemblies of the, 147. 
 
 Tribunate, degraded by 
 Sulla's laws, 197. 
 
 Tribunes, 37. 
 
 Tributum, a property-tax, 
 147. 
 
 Triumph, the general s, 
 152. 
 
 Triumvirate, First, 268 ; 
 Second, 306. 
 
 Triumviri visit Greece to 
 inquire into the laws, 
 44. 
 
 Tullianum (dungeon), 263. 
 
 TuUus Hostilius, elected 
 to succeed Numa, 14 ; 
 battle of the Horatii and 
 Curiatii, 14 ; conquers 
 the Albans, 15 ; con- 
 quers the Etruscans, 15; 
 punishes Mettius Fuf- 
 fetius, 15 ; destroys Alba 
 Louga, and removes in- 
 habitants to Rome, 15 ; 
 his reign and death, 15. 
 
 Twrmae, 150. 
 
 Twelve Tables, 48. 
 
 Umbria, 5. 
 
 Umbrians, in league with 
 
 the Etruscans, 72. 
 Umbro-Sabellians, 4, 5. 
 
 Vadinio, Lake, 74. 
 
 Valens, Fabius, general of 
 Vitellius' army, 351. 
 
 Valens, emperor, 363, 364. 
 
 Valentinian, 363. 
 
 Valerian and Horatian 
 Laws, 48. 
 
 Valerius Corvus, M., 59. 
 
 Valerius Publicola, 32. 
 j Vandals, 365-367. 
 
 Varro, M. Terentius, 290, 
 335- 
 
 Varus, P. Quintilius, de- 
 feated by Arminius, 343. 
 Vectigdlia, 148. 
 
 Veii besieged, 53 ; Alban 
 Lake, 53 ; city captured, 
 
 _53- 
 I VelUes, 150. 
 
 Veneti of Italy, 3; of Gaul, 
 defeated by Caesar, 275. 
 
 Ventidius, Tribune and 
 Consul, 314; his success- 
 ful wars against the Par- 
 tbians, 314. 
 
 Vercingetorix defeated and 
 taken prisoner, 279. 
 
 Vergilius Maro, P., 328. 
 
 Vespasianus, T. Flavins, 
 his conquest of the Isle 
 of Wight and southern 
 Britain, 351 ; proclaimed 
 emperor at Alexandria, 
 351 ; comes to Rome, 
 352 ; renews operations 
 against the Jews, 352 ; 
 makes Judaea a Roman 
 province, 352; retrenches 
 expenditure, 352 ; his 
 extension of ynpire, 352 ; 
 repels Parthian inva- 
 sion, 352 ; continues 
 conquest of Britain, 352 ; 
 his death, 352. 
 
 Vestal Virgins, 14, 21. 
 
 Ve.stini, 5. 
 
 Vesuvius, great eruption 
 of. 352- 
 
 Veto of the Tribunes, 37, 
 147. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 383 
 
 Vexilldrms, 149. 
 
 Via Aemilia, Appia, Fla- 
 minia, 82, 138, 145. 
 
 Vindex, Julius, Gallic re- 
 volt under, 350. 
 
 Viriathus, 174; assassi- 
 nated, 175. 
 
 Visigoths, invasions of, 
 365, 366. 
 
 Vitellius, A., hailed as 
 
 imperator in lower Ger- 
 many, 351 ; his army 
 successful, 351 ; comes 
 to Rome as emperor, 
 351 ; opposition to him 
 in the East, 351 ; his 
 defeat by Primus, 351 ; 
 and death, 351. 
 
 Volscians, 5. 
 
 Voltureius, T., 263. 
 
 Xanthippus, 90. 
 
 Z. 
 
 Zenobia, 359. 
 
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