Copy 1 A Comparative Study of the Township District, ConsoHdated, Town and City Schools of Indiana BY LESTER BURTON ROGERS, A.M. Professor of Education, Lawrence College Appleton, Wisconsin Research Scholar, Teachers College, 1910-11 Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for THE Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, in the Faculty of Philosophy, Columbia University George Banta Publishing Companv Menasha, Wisconsin A Comparative Study of the Township District, ConsoHdated, Town and City Schools of Indiana BY LESTER BURTON ROGERS, A.M. Professor of Education, Lawrence College Appleton, Wisconsin Research Scholar, Teachers College, 1910-11 Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for THE Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, in the Faculty OF Philosophy, Columbia University George Banta Publishing Company Menasba, Wisconsin Copyright 1915 By LfesTER Burton Rogers Gift > TTtiivertltjf MAS 4 m% TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter I. — Introduction page I. Current opinions concerning rural education and consolidation. 2. Pur- pose of this investigation. 3. Selection and distribution of school corporations investigated. 4. Original data. 5. Definition of terms. 6. System of organization and administration. 7. Statistical method employed. . .1 j Chapter II. — School Plants I. Basis for comparison. 2. Original data presented. 3. Comparison of the different types of schools. 4. Recent legislation relative to the sanitation of school buildings. 5. Standards applied to existing schools I A Chapter III. — Teachers I. Legal qualifications. 2. Sex. 3. Grade teachers; (a) Professional training, (b) Experience, (c) Classification and salary. 4. High School teachers; (a) Professional training, (b) Experience, (c) Sal- ary. 5. Special teachers ; (a) Number and distribution, (b) Salary. . 37 Chapter IV. — Enrichment of Curricula I. The course of study as an index of the work of the school. 2. The state course of study. 3. Legal requirements. 4. Extent of the use of the state manual. 5. Local courses of study y;^ Chapter V. — Supervision I. Supervisory staffs. 2. Nature and extent of the supervision of instruc- tion. 3. Professional improvement of teachers in the service. 4. Medical inspection. 5. School and community activities 80 Chapter VI. — School Statistics I. Original data. 2. Changes in population. 3. School census. 4. Enroll- ment. 5. Average daily attendance. 6. Length of school year 92 Chapter VII. — School Finances — Receipts I. Basis of support of schools. 2. Distribution of state tax. 3. Distribu- tion of county and local levies and wealth per capita school population. 4. Relation of wealth per capita and tax levies. 5. Tuition receipts. 6. Distribution of the Common School Fund. 7. Results obtained by use of teacher- average-daily-attendance basis 103 Chapter VIII. — School Finances — Expenditures I. Distribution of expenditures. 2. Relation of expenditures to wealth per capita and tax levies. 3. Distribution of expenditures in the corporations spending more than the average for the group 152 Chapter IX. — Summary and Conclusion I. Application of facts revealed to the claims made for consolidated schools. 2. Needs for reorganization. 3. Suggestions for reorgani- zation. 4. The effect of reorganization on the different types of schools. 5. Conclusion 201 iii LIST OF TABLES TABLES I-IV V VI-IX X XI XII XIII XIV XV XVI XVII-XIX XX XXI XXII XXIII- XXIV XXV XXVI XXVII XXVIII XXIX XXX XXXI XXXII- XXXV XXXVI- XXXIX XL XLI-XLIV XLV PAGE Buildings, sanitation and equipment in the four types of schools 15-26 Summary of statistics on school plants 28 Distribution of grade teachers on basis of sex, pro- fessional training, experience, rank and salary 40-47 Summary of distribution of grade teachers on basis of sex 48 Summary of distribution of grade teachers on basis of professional training 49 Percentile distribution of teachers on basis of training 49 Distribution of grade teachers on basis of experience 54 Percentile distribution of grade teachers in periods of years of experience 55 Distribution of grade teachers on basis of rank and salary 55 Salaries of all grade teachers in the four types of schools compared with salaries in earlier years... 56 Distribution of high school teachers on basis of sex, training, experience and salary 58-60 Training of high school teachers 61 Percentile distribution of high school teachers on basis of training 6i Distribution of high school teachers on basis of experience 63 Distribution of high school teachers, including prin- cipals, on basis of salary 67-68 Special teachers and supervisors 70 Salaries of special teachers 71 Median salaries of grade, special, and high school teachers in the different types of schools ^2 Courses of study used in different types of schools. . . 76 Number and per cent of schools offering the newer subjects 78 Supervision in the different types of schools 80 Nature and extent of school and community activities 89 Population and school statistics for the four types of schools 93-96 Changes in population, and school statistics given in per cents 97-100 Central tendencies and deviations in population and school statistics loi Property valuation and tax levies in the four types of corporations 106-111 Central tendencies and deviations in corporation wealth and tax levies 1 13 V VI List of Tables XLVI- XLIX L LI-LIV LIVa LV-LVIII LIX-LXII LXIII- LXVI LXVII LXVIII LXIX- LXXII LXXIII LXXIV- LXXVII LXXVIII- LXXXI LXXXII- LXXXV LXXXVI LXXXVII- XC XCI XCII-XCV XCVI Wealth per capita school population and percentile distribution of tax levies 114-117 Central tendencies and deviations of v^realth per capita, and tax levies on basis of per cent of total tax levies 119 Data for comparison of wealth per capita and tax levies in the four types of corporations 121-122 Quartile ratios of wealth per capita and tax levies in the four types of corporations 123 Sources and amounts of tuition receipts 124-127 Percentile distribution of tuition receipts 128-131 Distribution of tuition receipts on basis of number of pupils in average daily attendance 134-137 Central tendencies and deviations in percentile dis- tibution of tuition receipts 138 Central tendencies and deviations in tuition receipts on basis of amount received per pupil in average daily attendance 141 Data showing the effect of distribution of state funds on teacher-average-daily-attendance basis 142-145 Comparison of effect of teacher-average-daily-attend- ance basis of distribution on the four types of schools 148 Distribution of school expenditures 149-158 Percentile distribution of school expenditures I59-I75 Distribution of expenditures on basis of pupils in average daily attendance 176-183 Central tendencies and deviations from central ten- dencies in distribution of school expenditures. . . . 184 Data for comparison of total cost per pupil to teach- ers' salaries, wealth per capita and tax levies 188-191 Relation of total cost per pupil to expenditures for teachers' salaries, wealth per capita and tax levies in the four types of schools 192 Distribution of excessive expenditures 195-198 Comparison of excessive expenditures in the four types of schools 199 CHAPTER I Introduction Much is being written and more said concerning the limitations and deficiencies of the one-room district or rural school of today as compared with the efficiency of the township consolidated, town, and city schools. The question has provided subjects for many series of lectures, magazine articles, special reports by commissions and quite a number of books. All are agreed that the rural schools do not effectively meet the needs of country life but do not agree as to the changes that should be made in order that the desired results may be obtained. It is a case where the doctors disagree. One insists that the greatest need is a more modern and sanitary school plant, another prescribes better trained teachers, a third insists that an enriched course of study is the most imperative need, while a large percentage offer consolidation as a panacea for exist- ing ills since all these other things will be assured as a natural result. The attitude of a very large group of writers is illustrated by the following: "The retention of the small one-room school as a local institu- tion and as a land-mark is a worthy sentiment, but a sentiment much more worthy is that which would create a new rural school conse- crated to a new principle in education and farm life and founded to endure through another period of national greatness until in a later generation, other wise men shall rebuild the educational struc- ture again suited to their needs and their conditions How- ever useful and effective the small district was in its day, it is, in most localities, getting out of touch with present-day rural affairs and with the rural community." (G. W. Knorr — A Study of Fifteen Consolidated Rural Schools, p. lo.) In speaking of the great advantages of the consolidated school over the one-room rural school the same writer in another bulletin (No. 232, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture) expresses himself as follows: "The advantages of the new system are obvious : The fusion of a number of small districts into a larger administrative unit fur- nishes a stable and extensive basis for financing the school and thereby make for higher efficiency. The school, no longer seriously affected by fluctuations in school population, becomes an institution 2 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana with fixed location and belongings. An incentive is given to make permanent improvements, to beautify the school grounds, secure modern sanitation and provide ample schoolroom equipment. The large number of children assembled at a centrally located school makes possible graded classes and a better division of the school day. Studies can be introduced which require special equipment and specially trained teachers, such as agriculture, home economics, manual training, music — advantages almost unattainable in small district schools. These centrally located country-life schools, too, form convenient social centers for communities ; local interests and activities affiliated with the schools, so that public use is fre- quently made of their commodious classrooms or auditoriums. Encouragement is given to the growth of literary and debating societies, social and agricultural clubs, grange meetings, reading circles, athletic and other competitives among pupils, and entertain- ments of various kinds It was assimilated into the rural-school system as a result of observation and careful experi- ment, and fortunately lacked every element of a fad. It gains a foothold chiefly where civic ambition and high educational ideals establish high standards and determine to attain them." Another writer (See The American Rural School by Foght) speaks of the efficiency of urban schools as follows : "Graded schools, in cities and villages alike, have reached a stage of development or evolution so satisfactory that their future is practically assured Secondary and higher education within our country have attained a satisfactory degree of excellency and efficiency." While such generalizations as those quoted above may be true, they certainly would be given much greater consideration if based on something more than general observations. Furthermore, there seemed to be a tendency, and it still prevails to a certain extent, to assume that the city school has reached a high degree of perfec- tion and is the standard by which the efficiency of the rural school is to be measured. If a rural school imitates the city school to a large extent in its organization and practices it is considered pro- gressive and worthy of great commendation. In the beginning of a new movement it is always necessary to theorize concerning the probable results, and in this regard the consolidated school is no exception. This, however, should not continue longer than is necessary for educational practice in har- A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 3 mony with the advanced theories to have continued for a sufficiently long period to provide data for a study of the results. The con- solidated school has been in existence long enough to justify itself on this basis. If an investigation clearly shows that the consolidated school, on account of its organization and administration, is a much more efficient institution for the training of children than the one- room rural school and that the results of this better training are manifested through improved economic and social conditions of the community, there is no need for further discussion of the question ; it is a time for decisive action. If, on the other hand, these results are lacking or are not sufficiently in evidence to offset the objec- tions to consolidation, it means that there must be a more intensive study of the situation before the problems of rural education are solved satisfactorily. With the development of the statistical and survey methods of investigation have come a number of studies which bear more or less directly on the problems of the rural schools. One of the most recent and intensive of these and one that is devoted entirely to rural education is that made by Dr. Burnham. (See his Two Types of Rural Schools. ) In this he gives a careful survey of the economic and social conditions of the communities in which the schools are located before attempting an intensive study of the schools. His conclusions indicate that some of the generalizations concerning the merits of the consolidated schools based on general impressions are not well founded. This study is especially valuable in two respects, (a) It presents correlated data concerning the two types of rural schools, (b) The tables showing the relative standing of the two communities economically and socially, fail to reveal any pronounced advancement of the community in which the consoli- dated schools are located over the communities in which there are only the one-room rural school. In order to obtain perfectly reliable data, however, concerning the relative influence of the two types of schools on the community life, it would be necessary to secure correlated data for a period of years. When considering one type of schools alone, it is difficult to estimate the true value of the different phases of the work. In order to see things in their true relationship it is necessary to have some basis for comparison. For example, one may emphasize the fact that a teacher in a consolidated school has only one grade to teach, but fail to observe that a pupil in the one-room rural school 4 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana is given more individual attention and has a greater opportunity to exercise his own initiative and originality. The same difficulty, in a little more complex form, is present when the rural situation is considered apart from the conditions and practices in the urban schools. There is a tendency to over-emphasize the deficiencies of the one and the excellencies of the other. While recognizing the fact that both the rural and urban schools have problems that are pecu- liarly their own, it is also true that in dealing with many of the larger phases of the work a comparative study is profitable. Such a comparative study will not only aid in seeing the rural situation in proper perspective, but may correct some of the misconceptions and reveal some of the needs of the urban schools. Purpose The efficiency of a school may be tested in two ways : either on a basis of results as seen in increased attendance, advanced standing of its graduates and the improved social conditions of the commu- nity in which the school is located, or on a basis of relative efficiency of the various parts of the organization and thus judge the efficiency of the whole as an institution for the right training of children. This study will approach the situation from the latter point of view, presenting correlated data of the four types of schools, the one- room township district school, the township consolidated school, the village or town school, and the city school of Indiana. An effort will be made to present correlated data that will reveal the exact condition of these four types of schools with reference to school plants, teachers, school population, attendance, curricula, super- vision, revenue and expenditures, and to determine: — (i) To what extent do the facts substantiate the claims made by the advocates for consolidation. (2) Which of the advantages gained by consolidation are limited to this type of organization. (3) To what extent is the present plan of organization and administration of consolidated schools applicable to the rural situation. (4) The essentials in the reorganization and administration of all rural and town schools to insure equality of opportunity for all children of school age. A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 5 Selection and Distribution of School Corporations Great care was taken to insure a random selection of the school corporations considered and to include only such schools as would clearly fall within the limitations of the four types indicated above. School corporations from twenty-five of the ninety-two counties of Indiana were selected as follows : It was first determined in what counties of the state were located consolidated schools that provided educational facilities for all of the children of the town- ship (the township being the unit of taxation and administration), and were not united with the schools of a village or town. From such counties data were obtained for one township in which were only one-room rural schools, the township or townships in which there was complete consolidation in one or two buildings, the one town whose population was nearest one thousand, and a city, pro- vided its population was greater than twenty-five hundred and did not exceed twenty thousand, if there were any such town and city within the county. The township selected was the first in each county, taken alphabetically, that met the required conditions, namely, that had only one-room district schools and had no town or city within its limits. (Two exceptions were discovered after the data were collected and work well under way. Such cases were omitted if exceptional in any respect.) In some cases where there were only a few schools in this township, a second was taken, in which case the last township on the list that met the requirements was selected. Since there were so few townships within the state in which the consolidated schools met the above conditions, it was found advisable to include the two townships that met the require- ments in two counties and the three in the third. In all other cases not more than one township with consolidated schools is taken from any county. It sometimes happened that the records on file in the county offices were incomplete so that it was not possible to get the desired data for the towns and cities. In such cases the writer selected the nearest town or city in an adjoining county. The dis- tribution of the counties in which are located the consolidated schools is quite wide, extending to almost every part of the state except the extreme northeastern and southern parts, though a greater number are to be found in the middle half than in the northern and southern fourths combined. In addition to the coun- ties which had one or more townships with consolidated schools, a number of other counties were selected, so that the total number 6 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana of counties included in the study are as nearly equally distributed throughout the state as it is possible to select them. Only in cases of counties with consolidated schools do any two selected have a common boundary line. Original Data The first effort to secure the data for this study was made during the summer of 191 1 while the writer was teaching in the Summer School of Indiana University. A blank, somewhat simpler in form than the one given below, was given at the close of the term, to members of classes in Secondary Education and sent to friends and fellow students who were located in the different counties through- out the state. The returns received varied so greatly and some were so incomplete that it was thought best to discard all except the returns from three counties. This experience was sufficient to show that any form of a questionnaire method would be inadequate for an investigation of this kind. The summer of 1912 and some time during the summer of 19 13 was spent by the writer visiting cities, county seats, towns, and a few townships in the different counties, securing the material on which this investigation is based. The forms given below served as a guide in this work. The information concerning buildings, equipment, sanitation, etc., was secured, for the cities, by personal observation and con- ferences with city superintendents ; for towns and consolidated schools, by personal observation and conferences with the principals of the schools and county superintendents, and in a number of cases by correspondence as it frequently happened that the principals of these schools did not reside in the town or were away during the summer vacation ; for townships, by personal observation in a few cases but usually by conference with the county superintendent and by some correspondence with some teacher in the township. The information concerning teachers and supervision was se- cured from records in the offices of the county superintendent and by interviewing city, town and county superintendents. Where it was impossible to meet the superintendent personally the desired information was obtained through correspondence. Records in the offices of the state superintendent of public in- struction, county auditors, and county superintendents supplied the statistical and financial data. A complete transcript of the expendi- tures in each corporation was made and classified by the writer with the aid of one assistant, so that uniformity prevails throughout. A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 7 BUILDINGS, EQUIPMENT AND SANITATION 1. Number of buildings in use? Rooms in use? 2. Number of rooms heated by means of — a. Stoves? b. Stoves with jackets or screens? .. c. Furnace? d. Steam? e. Hot w^ater? f. Direct - indirect system? 3. Number of rooms ventilated by means of — a. Doors and windows only? b. Some form of gravity system? c. Fan or force system? 4. Number of rooms lighted by windows on — a. One side only? b. Two adjacent sides? c. Two opposite sides? d. Three sides? 5. Number of rooms furnished with — a. Single non-adjustable desks? b. Single adjustable desks? c. Double non-adjustable desks? d. Double adjustable desks? 6. Number of buildings at which water is provided by means of — a. Pail and common drinking cup? b. Pail and individual drinking cups? c. Pump or faucet and common cup? d. Pump or faucet and individual cups? e. Drinking fountains? 7. Decorations. a. How often are the walls redecorated? b. V/hat per cent of the rooms are provided with pictures? At public expense? Through efforts of teachers and pupils? 8. Sanitation. a. How often is the furniture and woodwork washed? b. How often are all marks, carvings, etc., removed and furniture revamished? c. How often are the rooms disinfected? d. Are floors kept clean by means of a broom? Oil and brush? Mop? Vacuum cleaning system? e. Are toilets inside or outside of school building? Sanitary or unsanitary? Are they free from marks, carvings, etc.? 9. Libraries. a. Have you a public library maintained at public expense? b. Have j^ou a library in school? Maintained at public expense? Through efforts of teacher and pupils? c. In what subjects have you supplementary books? TEACHERS Number of — Men teaching in Women teaching in Total in Grades Grades Grades High School High School High School Special Special Special 8 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana GRADE TEACHERS Number of years (or weeks) Name Teaches in Present Normal College Experi- Daily Class A, what Position Training Training ence salary B or C I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 lO II 12 13 14 15 HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS SPECIAL TEACHERS ADMINISTRATORS AND SUPERVISORS (nOT INCLUDED ABOVE) I 2 3 4 SUPERVISION Average number of visits made by the superintendent to each room during the year? Average length of each visit? State, in order of importance, the purpose of such visitation. a b c d e Number of institutes held, in the corporation during the year? Teachers' meetings? Average length of each? Per cent of the time devoted to (a) routine work of school? (b) larger problems of education? Any other means of professional improve- ment of teachers and if so, what was nature of same? Do you have medical inspection other than city or county Board of Health? How often? Dental inspection? How often? A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana STUDENT AND COMMUNITY ACTIVITIES a — What student organization or activities in school? b — Number of meetings of each during the year? c — Per cent of students taking part in each? a be Number of patrons' meetings held during the year? What social center activities carried on by the school and how often? COURSE OF STUDY Do you use the "State Course of Study" in the grades? In the high school? If not, by whom formulated? In what respects does it differ from the "State Course of Study"? Please indicate what work is done in the following subjects : — Tn what r,raHf.<;' ^°- °^ Lessons Average Length m what trades . per Week? of Periods? a. Music b. Drawing c. Nature-study d. Agriculture e. Manual training f. Domestic Science g. Domestic Art h. Physical culture i. School gardens Have you a kindergarten in your school? If so, is it a part of public school system or maintained by philanthropic effort? In what subjects do you have special supervisors? Definition of Terms Since there may be some doubt as to what is meant by the differ- ent types of schools mentioned, it may be well to give the chief characteristics of each at this time. The term "city schoor' is used in this study to indicate the school in centers of population varying from twenty-five hundred to twenty thousand. The term "town" in Indiana has the same meaning as the term "village" in many other sections of the country. While the civic organization of a lo A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana town is more simple than that of the city, the school organization is practically the same in towns where an independent school as well as civic corporation is maintained, except that the head of the school is sometimes called a principal and devotes the larger part, if not his entire time, to teaching. The towns included in this in- vestigation vary in population from five to fifteen hundred people and are limited to towns with independent school corporations, that is, not combined in any way with the organization of the township in which the town is located. The unit of administration in rural affairs is the township or what is called "town" in some states such as Massachusetts and Wisconsin. The size of the township varies greatly, but the average area will be a little larger than the congressional township but the boundary lines by no means coincide with the boundary lines of the congressional township. The term "township consolidated school" is used to indicate the one centrally located school ; sometimes there are more than one in a township, to which all the children of the township are transported, thus abandoning the one-room schools of that township. Only townships with complete consolidation are included in this study, since it would complicate matters very ma- terially to include townships which have one or more one-room schools in addition to a consolidated school, since the township is the basis for statistical and financial reports and no distinction is made between the two types. The Organisation and Administrative System The schools of Indiana are more centralized than in many states. The head of the system is the state superintendent of public instruc- tion who is elected by popular vote and holds office for two years. The state superintendent and the state board of education, composed of the governor of the state, the state superintendent of public in- struction, the president of the state university, the president of Purdue University, the president of the state normal school, the superintendents of the three largest city schools in the state and three citizens prominent in educational affairs, one of whom shall be a county superintendent, exercise control over the schools of the state. While the state superintendent has jurisdiction over all the schools of the state it has been the practice of many superintendents to give much greater attention to rural school problems and thus A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 1 1 leave the city school problems to be worked out by the city school superintendent in his own way. Exceptions to this general state- ment occur when the state superintendent is emphasizing industrial education, sanitation, medical inspection, and other movements that affect both rural and urban schools. The problems the state super- intendent wishes to be considered by teachers and school officials are brought to their attention by means of bulletins, reports, insti- tute outlines, and through city and county superintendents. The county superintendent has supervision over all the schools of his cotmty except those located in cities and towns which main- tain independent school corporations. The duties of the county superintendent specified by law are somewhat limited, consisting of holding examinations, granting county certificates, visiting all the schools of the county under his supervision at least once each year, making out a success grade for each teacher, conducting county and township institutes, making reports to the county board of commissioners and the state superintendent concerning educational matters in his county. The influence of the county superintendents varies greatly. Some are little more than clerks attending to the routine work of the office, while others, through their leadership and authority by virtue of their office, exercise much greater control and do much constructive work. The city school is administered by a board of school trustees composed of three members appointed by the city council. This board employs the superintendent, principals and teachers, levies taxes, purchases supplies, determines when school shall open and the length of the school year, may uphold or rescind the action of the superintendent in the administration of the schools, etc. In many cities the superintendent is given great freedom in many of these matters as well as in determining the internal workings of the school. The tendency of the board in a few of the larger cities is to consider the superintendent an expert and competent to direct the work of the school in all its details and merely concern itself with the larger problems referred to them by the superintendent and with financial affairs. Unfortunately this attitude is not general. The smaller the city the more jealous the school board is of its prerogatives. The administration of the town school is very similar to that of the city except that it is more simple and that the head of the school is little more than a regular teacher. He usually has nothing 12 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana to say in school affairs except in mere routine matters such as making out the schedule, attending to problems of discipline, etc. The rural township schools, whether consolidated or one-room, are under the administration of the township trustee who has the three-fold duty of administration of schools, caring for the poor and looking after all public highways except macadam roads which are under the supervision of the county commissioners. School affairs require the greater portion of the time that is devoted to his official duties. He is responsible for the building of new school houses, keeping old buildings in repair, purchasing equipment and supplies, employing teachers, levying taxes, etc. The number of schools under the jurisdiction of the township trustee varies from one consolidated school with four teachers or three or four one- room schools to a number of consolidated schools with commis- sioned high schools or a great number of one-room schools. In some cases a trustee employs as many as four superintendents or principals of consolidated schools and thirty or more teachers. It should be added that the law provides for the election of a school director by the voters of a school district, who shall look after the repairing of the building, provide fuel, visit schools, suspend or expel incorrigible pupils, etc. If the voters of the district fail to elect such a school director at the time specified the trustee is to appoint some one in the district to fill this office. In actual practice, however, few such directors are to be found in the state, as the township trustee prefers to attend to all these matters himself. It gives him a certain prestige and an opportunity to increase his salary, but it may also mean economy to the township and a more equal distribution of funds for repairs and supplies. Briefly summarized, Indiana has a state system of schools under the direction of the state superintendent of public instruction and state board of education. The smaller units of administration under the state organization in certain respects, are the city, town, and the county. The schools of cities and towns are administered by boards of school trustees and superintendents elected by them. The rural schools of the county are under the supervision of the county superintendent; the county, in turn, is divided into smaller units called townships for administrative purposes. At the head of each township is the township trustee. All financial and statistical re- ports of townships, towns, and cities are filed v^ith the county super- intendent who in turn compiles a report for the entire county which is forwarded to the state department. A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 13 Statistical Methods Employed In making tabulations and computations, an effort has been made to use methods that are fair to all types of schools considered and to avoid technicalities as far as possible. In all tables that follow, except the first, it will be observed that the original data are given, followed by tables derived from the same that will give an adequate basis for comparison. The average and median are used to indicate the central tenden- cies and the average deviation and quartile to express variabilities. The median, M, is a measure above and below which exactly fifty per cent of the cases lie. In data with fairly normal distribution in which we wish to retain the influence of all cases and to give due consideration to variations in the size of cases included, the average is a better index of the true character of each measure and was about as readily determined as the median, since computations were made by use of machines, mathematical tables, and slide rule wherever possible. The mean or average deviation, A D, is the sum of the deviations of the individual measures from the central tendency divided by the number of cases. The quartile, Q, was used more extensively than the average deviation. This is found by counting in from the lower end of the distribution twenty-five per cent of the cases and counting in from the higher end of the dis- tribution twenty-five per cent of the cases. The two points found mark the limits of the middle fifty per cent, which is always a fairer index of characteristic groups than the total range of cases. Sub- tracting the lower from the higher value found and dividing the difference by two gives the quartile or variability in terms of unit of measure. Any individual case will probably fall within the limits of this variability when applied both above and below the median or average. Any reader wishing more detailed information con- cerning the statistical methods is referred to Thorndike's Mental and Social Measurements, or to Rusk's Experimental Education. CHAPTER II School Plants It is somewhat difficult to find a basis for comparison of school plants that will not give a wrong impression of one or more of the types considered. The most common basis used has been the valua- tion of school property. In some cases attempts have been made to give valuation statistics meaning by showing the amount of money per capita school population is invested in school property. It is needless to say that these valuation statistics as given in most reports are of little value since the estimates are made by a great number of individuals with different attitudes and ideals of values, and with no common basis for judgment. Neither is there much, if any, relationship between the amount of money invested and ability of the corporation to pay ; nor does it necessarily follow that a large expenditure means better accommodations and more modern conveniences. A very striking illustration of the last fact mentioned was observed in one of the towns of the state in which the school board, or rather one of the members who dominated the board, erected an expensive building according to his own architectural ideas and pecuniary inclinations. Some objections were made by members of the community which reached the state board of health. The result was, the building was condemned and had to be recon- structed before it could be used for school purposes. From an educational point of view it is worth a great deal more to make a comparison on the basis of conformity to scientific principles of hygiene and sanitation than on the basis of valuation. The data hereafter presented were collected with this idea in mind. Most of the items call for information that could be given by anyone familiar with the situation with little variation on account of indi- vidual standards or bias, hence are fairly reliable. One or two items permit of some variation but are included to show tendencies rather than to give accurate information on the subject involved. The per cent basis has been used in all the tabulations so that comparisons may be made with little difficulty. The sum of all the items under each general heading such as "heating", etc., for each corporation or type of school equals one hundred per cent except under sanitation in which case there is an over-lapping since a number of schools reported two or more methods used in cleaning floors. After the complete tabulations of the data for the four types of schools studied will be found a table showing the summary and relative standings of the township district, township consoli- dated, town, and city schools. -Isnfp'E-non aiqnoQ siqirjsnrpB siSuifs 9iqB^sntpB -uou 3l3ins sapis 33iHX O"^ OO OsO Ot}<0000>0 O"0tJ< O OrOiOOiOO 000"20 sspis sjisoddo OMx OCKOOOOVOOO 00 "^"^OOOr^OOOi^CDOOOOr-HroOrO sapis ^uaoBtpB omx X|uo apisano var^'sXs me} jo aojo j lO T) fO '^ *^ *^ ura:)sXs Xjiabi^ Xpio SMOpUIAV pUB SiOOQ ■}D3ITpm-133IXQ laiBM-ttoji uiBa^s oSooooooooooOoooooooiooomnooonOOO aDBujnj S135{OBf-Il'B JO suaajos x\iyA saXoig saAOjs Xq pai'eaq siuooj JO ^uaa ja)l-000-iOvO'* ioo\CM--ooooo'r-< T-t «= ,-1 ,-< T-( A- ri, -H ^ a. a_ ^ ^ 'paqsnij-BAaj s^jsgp puB paAoraai '-oia aj(U(U(uo OO lOOLOCN "^22 s spnnj Dtiqnd uioi} (-, o o oo ooooo S2 g c^ lo o "0 lo 00 o o 00 oo H- 1 < ^XjBjqq jooqDS B noX sa-e jj H 1 '3 1 'SSUIAJBO 'si^JBUI UIOJ} SSI} o oooooiSooooooooooooo^ °°M^°^OOv^ -lUBstm io •a 'S 's "a "a >, "a "a "a "a 'a 'a "a >, >,■§ "^ ■§ g ^ ■« "a ■« "a ^ 'S 'a ^ ^^^^^^ ^^$%^^ $ss ill i-a uiajsXs UBJ JO 3DI0j[ o o o o o o ma^sXs X)iABi9 oo o oo o oo oo oo oo oo -* o O O 00 o Joo Xp30 SMOpOTM pve SIOOQ VOO ■rtO CO CO uiajsXs 5Daiipni-}3ajiQ 8 § § J9}Bm-?0H § uiBajg 8 OrjH O o lo o oo o oo o 8 aDOTin_j 8 8 vOO •*o ooo ■ 8 Sia^DBf-IlB 10 suaajDs qjiM 'sako^g saA0)5 Xq pai'Baq siuooj JO juaojaj vO asn ni smoo^ lO ■<* 00 vO 00 <^in \o o\ 00 LO O I') lO VO O asn tn sSmpjina ^ ^ -^(N ^ CM CN (>) ^ ro -- dtqsuMOj JO aaqiun^^ '^ CM <^ •* lO vO t^ 00 0\ O —< r '-I '-H ^ cvi cs ^'^' MDOOOO OOOOOOO ^pajBjoaapaj s]IBm ajB uajjo Aiojj Newbldg., never Every year Never Never Irregularly New building Irregularly Every 3 or 4 years Irregularly Every 2 or 3 years Every 2 or 3 years New building Every 5 years New building New building k4 a Q snreiunoj Sni3[UTjQ 88 i 8 8 §8 8 dnD |BnpiAipm laan^j lo dumj O O OOO O ■* O lO o dna uounuoa ;aDnBj JO dmnj o o ■^ o o o O O "O O lOO sdna l^npiAipm puB [IB J •dnD nouiuioapnB jibj diqsuMO? 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K bo d e ~ - ^ - C «(j3 C "S CAl "O en ^TJ ■'6 ""S Id -d T3 ^'6'T3T3'0 t3 "3 "O bl)"9 — 55 ? ^ i'^ 2 OOiOOO 10 vOOO ^''J "0 1 iwddns JO ;u3D jaj W en tn en tn en en en CJ 4) 13 U 1> C^ C^ UJ H>Hffi>H>H >H>^>H><>H >.>H>H>H>H >.>^>.>H »*> _ _ tn 03 „ ^ tn tn in in m ojiqnd B noX sabh o) 0) a> (i> a> QJ OJ .;^>.>^ •0^3 •Si in in 'SSUIAJBO 2 2 2 's^jBxa _ _ en tn en tn tfi tfi _ ui u S^o^^ tn en _ tn tU (U (U tnOJJ 331} ^'^><>>< >^>H>^:z;>H ;^^^^^ >H<;zi<< >.>H^>. b >^>,>i>^>^ >>>.>.>>>. b bb.5 bbbbb bbbb idBiniBsan c3 ^ (d c^ C c3 c^ cd c3 rt ^ "S'S'S'S'S a a c a c G^ C C S cS rt cd h5 axNWCAiP •a -a -a -3 -a •a -a -a -a cj c3 cS cj aj (^ ?j c^ c^ c^ f2 C/3 CO CAl CA) CA) inininimn irnninu^tn inin^tr> J 3pTSaT Pi 10 apisi'no aj « a; QJ 0^ OJ 0^ CD « 4J JO iaquin^ "-I '-< "-I 'H CM CN. rl^ 1^ SO O fN 1-1 so so r^ Xjno apis auQ Ti^ Os Os Os •!t so t^ OS CN CNl ^ c o •a > uiajsXs aojojjouBj 17.6 16.0 24.0 uia^SiCs XlIABJQ 9.0 73.6 51.3 67.1 Xfuo s.iiopuiM puB saooQ p oqw 0C5 ^ 00 CN 00 OS CO •1 ;Daj -ipm-5oajiQ 16.7 16.0 8.1 jajBM-joH sqio^ uiBais csootJ; 00 '-H so CN Tf VO C On P O 1~-; O; p t--. msK XJ3A3 -pimq A\9^ S5JJBIU UIOIJ 33JJ r)U3D J3 J XjBiiniBS jn3o' 13 J ro J>- p ro ro ■■-I ro 00 p'i ^ p ro Ov >* r^ O O PO [30] fo r^ Or^ art C! 2 C & C & >> o o o.ti HUHU A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 31 many as the town schools, while very few adjustable seats are to be found in the township district schools. No double seats are to be found in the consolidated schools while a few are to be found in city schools, usually in some remote one-room building. Seven per cent in town schools and about twenty-nine per cent in the township district schools are equipped with desks of this type. The table shows that about twenty per cent of the township district schools are provided with sanitary drinking facilities as compared with seventy per cent of the consolidated schools, seventy-eight per cent of the town schools and eighty-one per cent of the city schools. The data concerning decorations are not so reliable as that which we have been considering but indicate that little or no attention is given to the walls in sixty-seven per cent of the township district schools and fifty-two per cent of the town schools as compared with forty-one per cent of the township consolidated schools and twenty per cent of the city schools. Very few pictures are to be found in the township district schools and it is only in the city schools that the matter is considered of sufficient importance to lead the school officials to appropriate public funds for the purchase of pictures. Practically the entire expense for pictures in town, consolidated, and township district schools is met by the efforts of the teachers and pupils. All except about ten per cent of the township district schools are provided with school libraries. The most that can be said from the data at hand is that some attention is being given to reading outside of textbooks. It may be safely added from general observation that the libraries in all except the larger city schools consist, for the most part, of books selected from the Young Peo- ple's Reading Circle and a few reference books in the high school subjects. In the matter of public support of libraries it will be observed that the town schools rank lowest with twenty-two per cent of the cost of maintenance being borne by the public as com- pared with thirty-one per cent in the township district schools, forty-three per cent in the consolidated schools, and sixty-nine per cent in the city schools. Few supplementary books are to be found in the one-room rural schools, while the consolidated and town schools rank about the same in this regard and the city schools are fairly well supplied. Reading is the one subject for which supple- mentary books are most frequently reported. History ranks second and geography third. 32 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana The data concerning sanitation reveals nothing new in regard to the township district schools but show that there is room for decided improvement along some lines in both the town and city schools. The township district buildings are usually cleaned just before the opening of school at which time the floors are scrubbed and the woodwork washed, but little or no effort is made to remove the marks, carvings, etc., from the desks. This one cleaning ends the efforts for the year unless there is an epidemic in the school in which case the building is thoroughly cleaned and disinfected. Some of the floors are oiled at the beginning of the school year and some form of "dustdown" and brush is used in ten per cent of the buildings, while the broom continues to hold sway in all other build- ings. Only thirteen per cent of the toilets are reported as sanitary and sixteen per cent free from marks and carvings. Much more consideration is given sanitation in the consolidated schools than in the rural schools just considered. Thirty-five per cent of the con- solidated school buildings are cleaned more frequently than once each year ; twenty-five per cent of the desks are kept free from all marks and carving and an effort is made in sixty-three per cent of the buildings to clean the floors by some method that will eliminate the dust. Fifty-three per cent of the toilets of the consolidated schools are located within the buildings, which indicates that these buildings have water systems of their own which provide water for all school purposes. Usually these buildings are equipped with gasoline engines which are used to run the ventilating systems dur- ing the regular school hours and to pump water into pressure tanks at other times when needed. This is an excellent showing when compared with what we find in the town schools where only forty per cent of toilets are located within the school buildings. Sixty- five per cent are reported as sanitary in the consolidated schools as compared with forty per cent in the town schools. Fifty-nine per cent are free from all marks and carvings as compared with fifty- two per cent in the town schools and forty-nine per cent in the city schools. Recent Legislation Prior to 191 1 there was little direct legislation concerning the sanitation of school buildings though some control was exercised by the state and county boards of health. The assembly of 191 1- 191 2 passed a number of law^s requiring all buildings erected or A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 33 remodeled to be constructed according to certain hygienic and sani- tary specifications. A digest of these laws is given after which an effort will be made to show how these laws will affect the different types of schools we have been considering. Sites. The sites shall be dry and well drained ; not nearer than 500 feet to a railroad, livery, or other stable used for breeding pur- poses, or "any noise-making industry, or any unhealthful condition". Dry walks from street or road to school building and to all out- buildings and suitable playgrounds must be provided. Buildings. If it is a brick building it shall have a foundation of stone or a layer of non-absorbing material above the ground line. Every two-story school building shall have a well-lighted basement with concrete floor and a ceiling not less than ten feet high, under the entire building. The ground floor must be at least three feet above the ground level and the area between the ground and floor well ventilated. Each pupil shall be provided with not less than 275 cubic feet of space and the interior walls painted or tinted some natural color as gray, slate, buff, or green. Lighting. All schoolrooms used for study shall be lighted on one side only and the glass area shall not be less than one-sixth of floor area and the windows shall extend from not less than four feet from the floor to at least one foot from the ceiling. All win- dows shall be provided with adjustable shades of natural color. Seating. Adjustable seats and desks are recommended and twenty per cent in each room required to be adjustable. They shall be so arranged that the light will fall over the left shoulder of right-handed pupils and over the right shoulder of left-handed pupils. Blackboards. Blackboards shall be preferably of slate, but of whatever material, the color shall be a dead black. Cloakrooms. Wtell-lighted, warmed and ventilated cloakrooms, or sanitary lockers, shall be provided for each study schoolroom. Water Supply. All school houses shall be provided with pure drinking water which shall be supplied from driven wells or other source, approved by the health authorities. Only smooth stout glass or enameled metal cups shall be used. All pumps shall be supplied with drains to take away the waste water. No pools shall be allowed about the well. Water buckets and tin drinking cups are unlawful and forbidden. Drinking fountains are recommended and required if practicable. "When water is not supplied at pumps or water 34 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana faucets or sanitary drinking fountains, then covered tanks or coolers supplied with spring or self-closing faucet shall be provided." (A later law prohibits the use of common drinking cups.) Heating and Ventilating. Ventilating heating stoves, furnaces and heaters of all kinds shall be capable of maintaining a tempera- ture of 70 degrees Fahrenheit in zero weather and of maintaining a relative humidity of at least forty per cent. All heaters shall take air from outside the building and after heating, introduce it into the schoolroom at a point not less than five feet nor more than seven feet from the floor and at a minimum rate of thirty cubic feet per minute for each pupil, regardless of outside conditions. (An ex- ception is made for the direct-indirect system of heating.) All halls, cloakrooms, laboratories, etc., must be heated. Direct steam heat- ing is forbidden. All rooms must be provided with ventilating ducts of ample size to withdraw the air at least four times every, hour and said ducts must be on the same side of the room with the hot air ducts. Toilets. Water-closets or dry closets when provided shall be efficient and sanitary in every respect, detailed specification being given. Good dry walks shall lead to all outhouses. Screen or shields must be provided. Cleaning and Disinfecting. All school houses shall be well cleaned and disinfected each year before they are used for school purposes. The cleaning shall consist in first sweeping, then scrub- bing the floors, washing the windows and wooden parts of seats and desks. The disinfecting shall be done in accordance with the rules of the state board of health. The penalty for the violation of above law is a fine in any sum not less than one hundred dollars and not more than five hundred dollars; and any money claim for material entering into or any money claim for the construction of any schoolhouse, which does not in every way and in all respects comply with the requirements specified, shall be null and void. A graphic representation of the extent to which the present school plants in the different types of school corporations measure up to the requirements summarized above is given in Figure i. It will be observed that the buildings for consolidated schools equal or surpass buildings for all other types in all requirements except water supply and toilets and second only to cities in these particu- A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 35 lars. In the one item, that of lighting, in which all schools of each type might have been made to measure up to hygienic requirements without additional expense is the one in which all show greatest deficiency. The enforcement of these laws will result in a radical change in the architecture for rural schools. V ^ ^ 6.4 a 99.1 b 81.9 c 94.6 d 9. a 91.2 b 67.3 c 92.7 d 4.4 a 26.9 b 27.9 c ^ 19. d 9.5 a 93. S b 39.5 c 46.5 d 18.3 a bo 70.4 62.2 b c ^ 88.7 d 0. a I 64.7 b 40. c 95.7 d ■ Figure i. A chart showing what per cent of the schools of each type studied, measure up to the standard set by recent legislation. a — township district schools; b — township consolidated schools; c — town schools; d — city schools. [36] CHAPTER III Distribution of Teachers on Basis of Sex, Training, Experi- ence, AND Salary While the only true measure of efficiency of the teaching force of a school system is to be determined by testing the results before and after a period of instruction, we do know, as has been shown by investigations that have been made, that there is a corre- lation between the training and experience of the teachers in a system of schools and the ability of these teachers to do effective work. It will be necessary, however, before attempting to give the distribution of teachers on basis of training, experience, and salary, in the four types of schools studied, to indicate briefly the condi- tions and legislation that have led to the present situation in order to have a basis for a rational interpretation of the facts presented. Prior to 1894 no academic or professional training was required of teachers other than the ability to pass an examination in the "Common School Branches" and "Theory and Art of Teaching". It was no unusual occurrence for a boy or girl from the common or elementary school, to study the "Teachers' Reading Circle" books on which the questions in theory and art of teaching were based, and to pass an examination which permitted him or her to teach in the elementary schools of the state without having had any train- ing beyond the eighth grade. There was a law requiring applicants to be eighteen years of age before they could be granted a certifi- cate, but it was no unusual thing to find beginning teachers who were only sixteen and seventeen years of age. Before any legisla- tive measures had been enacted requiring teachers to have had some academic and professional training, some county superintendents attempted to raise the standard of scholarship of the teachers by being more stringent in grading the manuscripts of applicants for certificates and thus caused beginning as well as experienced teach- ers to attend some normal school or college during the spring or summer terms. In a similar manner some of the more aggressive city superintendents encouraged many of their teachers to attend the summer sessions of normal schools and colleges by promises of promotion' and increase of salaries on the one hand, or threatened dismissal on the other, but such efforts were spasmodic and not far-reaching. Under these conditions the natural result was that 38 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana the cities with their longer terms of school, better conditions for work and higher salaries, would have a larger and superior group from which to select their teachers than the schools in the rural communities. The first step to remedy the situation was taken in 1898 by the passage of a minimum salary law whereby the salary a teacher received was determined by the grade of certificate held. The grade of certificate of a beginning teacher was determined by scholarship alone, while that of an experienced teacher was determined by scholarship and a "success grade" given by county or city superin- tendent. A teacher holding a twelve months' certificate received a salary per diem equal to two and one- fourth cents multiplied by the average scholarship attained in all subjects in which the teacher was required to pass an examination, or in the case of an experi- enced teacher, the salary per diem was determined by multiplying two and one-fourth cents by his general average, that is the average of average scholarship and "success grade". A teacher holding a twenty- four months' certificate received a salary per diem equal to two and one-half cents multiplied by his general average, and a teacher holding a thirty-six months' certificate received a daily salary equal to two and three-fourths cents multiplied by his gen- eral average. The effect of this legislation was to eliminate the six-months' or trial license on which many beginning teachers had been teaching and to stimulate scholastic attainment among all teachers. It also caused the rural teachers to be paid the same salary per month as the city teachers since very few cities paid more at that time than the minimum salary specified by law. A higher scholastic attainment and more specific professional training was required of all teachers by the law that went into effect in 1907, and at the same time the minimum salary was in- creased. All young men and women wishing to enter the teaching profession after this date were required to have had an academic training equivalent to a four year high school course and to have had at least twelve weeks of specified professional training before being eligible to write for a certificate. All candidates who met the above requirements and passed an examination in the common school subjects and the theory and art of teaching, which entitled them to a twelve months' certificate, were in class A and received a salary per diem equal to two and one-half cents multiplied by average scholarship, or by general average, in the case of an experi- A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 39 enced teacher. All teachers, who in addition to the requirements for class A, had had one year of successful experience, an addi- tional twelve weeks of professional training and held a twenty-four months' certificate were in class B, and received a salary per diem equal to three cents multiplied by their general average. Teachers who were graduates from schools maintaining a professional course for training of teachers, had had three or more years of successful experience and passed an examination which entitled them to a thirty-six months' certificate, were in class C and received as the minimum salary per diem, the amount equal to three and one-half cents multiplied by their general average. With this brief survey of the requirements that obtained for all schools, a presentation of the facts concerning sex, training, ex- perience, salary, and classification of the teachers in each type of schools is given followed by some inferences that may be made from the same. Table vi shows the number, sex, professional training, experience and salaries of teachers in the rural schools of each township included in this study. For example, in township number one, there were five teachers employed, three of whom were men and two were women ; two had had twelve weeks and three had had one year of professional training ; one was a begin- ning teacher, that is, had had no experience ; one had had one year ; one ten years ; one fourteen years ; and one fifteen years of ex- perience. Two of the five teachers were in class A with an average daily salary of $2.00; two in class B with an average salary of $2.92 ; and one in class C with a daily salary of $3.46. Tables vii, VIII, and IX, giving data for consolidated, town and city schools, are to be read in the same way. At first it was thought advisable to distribute the salaries of all teachers and to determine the central tendency and mean varia- tion of the whole group, but it was found that such a method would result in a tri-modal cui-ve and that the average for each class would give a more reliable basis for comparison. This holds true in corporations where more than the minimum salary is paid, since the basis for the salary schedule is the classification of teachers according to the requirements mentioned above. There is little variation in the amount paid teachers in the same class in any corporation; so that the average salary of the teachers of each class is a fair index of all the teachers of that class. The mean variation is so small for any one corporation that it is almost negligible. o >< X a u 'f 1— 1 yA > H < r ) h4 g m M < S Q M < W p^ rn Z is O H 2; siv^K f\ SJB3X fX SIB3X II SJB3X n SIB3X 01 SJ'BaX 6 sjT3aX 8 sjBaX i sjBaj^ 9 sawX 5 SIV3K f SJB3X f sj-eaX z jBaX I suojvi aiBnpBjg sa^aX ^ SIB3X £■ siBaX 3 jBaXx s:^33.\i x,j s^iaaAv J] 3U0^ Ii=?0X nauiOyW U3J\[ drqs -UMO} }0 iaqum|,j •rt •rt OJ .rt T-H T-l T-l ,-( ,-1 T-H .r-l tH t-H ■^ ^H CN rO CN '-H '-I ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^^^ ^ ^ ^ ^ C^ '-H (^0 ^ ^ ^ ^ ^^ ■r-l ^ CN •.-H ^ ^ ^H CNl ^^ ._| r-l ^ CN T-l (vj csj ^ ,-, >-It-(.-(tH T-li-H.-irD'-HT-l ^-H tH r-l.-(,-l »-l.-H.-(T-(THtN»-( ,_( vo -rH -rt fv) rt rt ,-1 ro i-H CO tN ,^ Tti .-H ro CN T-^ tN ^ to ,-( LO ^ Tf< ^ ,-( T^ cvi T-H •.-1 .r-C -,-1 r-1 rt ■rt T-H CN rO ■Tfl lO CN T-H T-HUOrOT-HCNVOT-HrlH»-HCNCNrJOCOT-HT-H lOMDrO'^tN'^CNlOCNCN ,-H T*l rH T-C^ ^ CNr<|vO'*r01-->OOOCNvOvOior-»rOfO\Of':>rOt^rCiOOOCv|LOsOOONOs'*'0 rOvOfOfO^Ot^rO'^'^t^T-i'^T-HT-HT-HroOro roCNiOOsrOT-H-^csr^rOT-H [40] a oj a o U O O 33W9AY vO lO O O »0 lO o ■^ Ov lo ^ <^ ro Tf< 1 (N O O lO OOOO lO O O O lO lO o o Ch •^ •<* CN LO •* O LO CS lO -O O t^ O rfi lO ro fO fO ro fO ro ro rOPOfOro rOf^fOrO rOfOfO"*<~0<^fOt<^ jaquin^ T^rocNTtiTjHirjT-irorfaN •-I »-i (>) CN 1-1 ro <-! ^ (M (M t^ i-H rt »-i ro lO CN pa 1 aS'BjaAy 2.92 2.70 2.85 2.90 2.90 O r-1 lOOO 00000100»00»OOUOO oo OnCC ^-•O^C^t-^CNOO^OOOO■^_^-;OCNvO»-lOO CN CN CN CS (M CN fS ro (M tN tN ro CN ro ro OJ ro CN jaqiun^ fN ir> <^ \0 UT^ •-H rH PO ro i-H ^H ^ CN T+i CN rt ro ro <-H T-i -^ ro lO CN ro •^ < i aSBiSAy 00 lo o o lo o to C-J (M lO !>1 CM PO CN iDOOuOOOOOOiOOOiOiOiDOOOO CNroiOroro-^frocNTtifSioroir^CNCNvOroiOO CN (M r-q (M CN CN CN CN(»#'^TtioorovOCNOrOO\CNiO a ft W SJB9;t 52 ^ - sjBaX 52 •.-1 I— 1 ^^ sjBaX n SIB3X ez - SJB3X 22 - SIB3X 12 - SJB3X 03 - SJB3X 61 - - ^ sjBaX 8T SiB3iC XX 1-H •i-l Cvl sjBaX 91 ^^ - SIB3K SX ^-^C^1^0^lO'0^r^OOC^O ^O^fO-^uoOt^OOCNO'-HCNrOr^iJ^Ot^OOasO diqsuMOi JO jaqum^ [41] p; l-H fJ a a> a I SJBaX^I T-l ^-H 1-1 sjWjCfi -^ 1-1 sxvsjl 21 1-1 1-4 -^ SIB9X n ^ SJB3X 01 tH 1-1 -^-^ aiB3iC 6 ^ -H 1-1 1^ 1^ sj^sX g r-{ T-i ^H CN SJB9X i -^ ^1-. -^ SJB3X9 ^ ^ ^1-, si^aX s T-H CS SJB3jC f- - ,-.,^ - - sjwX f -^ ro CN 1-1 1-1 - - SJB3K Z ^ CN CN - CN jBaX I <>1 -H -H CN ^^ - auo^ tH 1-1 ^ 1^ -' 1-1 5(J0M SKSK f - CN ^ ^ sjBaX f - 1-1 CN ^ -H SIB3X 2 CN T-l ^ IN ^ CN re 1-1 1-1 CN jBaXx •.-1 ro '-I fS ■^ (N ^H CN i-H c^ (N S3133M ^J T-H CN CN CN i-< CO es TH --^ S3[a3M2l 1-1 1-1 CN CN -^ ■^tH auojsi CN - (N 1-1 CO FloX liO ro vO lO LO OvOOI^-* "^ 1* lO tJ* CO CO '*<'* U3UI0AV ro ro IT) ■* <^ 0\ 00 lO CO o\ rC-*0 vor- 00 Os O ^r^C^^lT) 1-1 1-1 [42] ■a g o 1 u ArejBs Xjrep O O O lO I'J to O lo t>» fS ro Tf ro fo PO OOOOOiO ■*. ■*. "^ "1 ^ lO lO o >o t>. iq rj< t^_ fq f^CN < i 33BJ3AV 2.30 2.20 2.65 2.28 2.60 2.75 2.75 3.00 2.50 2.50 2.35 CN CN CN CN jsquin^ CN CN CN •^ CN CN CN " - SJB3X S2 - sj'BaX ^j si^aX f 3 siea^ZZ siuaX 1 2 SJB3X 02 - sivaA 61 - sjBaA 81 fS SIB3X i\ - Siva A 9t - sjBaX SI - - ^ ^ JO wqum|ii '-H CNCO-* lO vOt- OOOnO ■•-< CN (^ •>* lO >-| T-l Tl T-l T-t vOt^ [43] m 1 o EQ u <; ^ o H O SJ'BSiC ^I sj'EaX f X sjcaX zt sivaS. \ I sjeaXoT saraXe SIB3X 8 SJB3A i satiaX 9 SIE3X s si^aX t sie3A f siBaX J JE3/? I suojI l^iox uaiuoyW uaj^ cs »-< ro '-I CM T-H th cs ,-1 I CN fS (M rt CN (^^^ ro ro •^ CN ■ CN rO'rt-lCN fO ■•-hC-J r-l .-H tN Co fC Tt; rf rcr~ rO fO rc fO f) jaqum^ CN "-I —( ,-1 ro Q tH CN CM T-t CN ^^^ SiB3X (I »-l ^ CN ^^^^ -- r^ CN SJBSX J I •.-H ro ^ ^ rr> Oi CN ^ C^ (N -- "-H CN CN SIBSX n 10 T^ r-( tH •--< r-( CN ^ (N -i-l -H ^ {N ^ siva/i 01 »-i T^ ro "^ T-( C'l CN CN -^ ^ »-< CN CN CN CO Tj< CN CN -^ sj^aX 6 CN '-H T-H ^-1 CN CO CO (M •* -rt T-( * CN CN ^ CO ^ ^ CN ^ CO sj^aXt (M CN CN "-I liO CN »^ ^ ^ rr^ Tji ■rt ^ T-.CN ^^^ SJB3X e CN •rt ro (^5 T-H rt^ CN CN '-H CN CO 10 •^ CN T-l C2 CN CS ^ »* roio rt 00 -* ■^ LO t^ •* •* (NO 00 ■* CO Tt*^ -H s■^l^3A^ 31 ^^ •rH Tf r^ ^ CN to CO CN CN ■^ Tj< ^tH STIOfvI 1^ '-1 ^ 10 " t^ CN ■* ^ CN i-H mox 000 '-t'-l 00 ■rt ^ •^ Tt< CN OM^ C7\ r^ CN CN f<5 CO CN Ov CN CO LO CN »-l '-H •^ CN CN ■^ CN CO OS 00 00 T-H •rt ro !N usraoyVi OOOMO ^ •rt ^ CO "^ CN 00 CN 00 fO ^ CN CO CO CN 00 so CO CN 10 CO <5 CO -^ 00 On ^ SO sO SO r^ r-H -^ CN ^ nsH CN CN \0 •^ ^ 10 ^ T^l ^ ■rt VO t^ T-( CN CO (TM •-H CO CN Tfl CO A; 13 JO Mquin|<[ »H CS CO •* 10 vO t^ 00 On '-H CN CO ■* 10 \o t^ 00 o\ -H ^ TH T^ CN •-^ > •§ a .2 ca S 1 U D loioooo Tfi CM 00 lO lO ooo O OO O lOO Tf lo o t^ "0 OOO CN O Lr> lO T^ NO lO oooo lO ID ■«i< lO crj fO fC <^ t^ (v^ CO 00 OO oo oOtJh ooro OO 00 oo oo oo 00 OO OO OO jaquin^ l^ fO T-i Ov O ro \0 MS O oo O On 0\ (M oo '-H CN ^ On t^ 00 oo VO \OOOrJ< 1-1 ^ CN -H m 33BJ9AV o o lo lo o O 0\ O oo oo OOO O O O OiOOO 00 vOt^ 00 O •OOiOOOiO CN ONt^t~ OV OUOOO Ot^ 00 O CN CN <^ CN CN ro 00 ro 0^ CN CN OO CN CO oo CN CN CN CN OO tJ, V 6 m >, u a V u H i2 >» 1- 3 1) 3 n bo bo a 'S a u bo . V o-li HU TS « ca IS .>. & e o o HU g >+- * rt u ■a ja ■? ll ^ [52] A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 53 in city schools it is seven. Fifty per cent of the teachers in the rural schools have taught one to seven years as compared with the same number in consolidated schools who have taught two and one-half to ten years. Fifty per cent of the town teachers have taught three to nine years, and an equal number in city schools have taught five to twelve years. The distribution of teachers in the four types of schools on basis of service is shown graphically in Figure iii. It will be observed that the curve of distribution of rural teachers is uni- lateral with the mode at zero. The mode for consolidated school teachers is three years. The curve for town teachers is bi-modal, one mode being at three years and the other at six years. This may be due to a lack of sufficient number of cases, but it will be observed that the mode for city school teachers falls between these two, being at five years, which might be inferred to indicate a point of greatest transition from one type to another. In order to compare the results of this investigation with other data secured by a different method, the writer took such parts of Dr. Coffman's tabulations (See The Social Composition of the Teaching Population) as pertained to Indiana and reduced them to the same basis as the tabulations given in this study. The com- parison of the results of Dr. Cofifman's investigation and the totals of the four types of schools as derived in this study are shown in Figure iv. The similarity of the two curves is quite marked. The variation for the first two years seems to indicate that Dr. Coffman had a relatively larger number of rural teachers than is included in this investigation. This inference will probably account for the fact that the median experience of all teachers included in this investigation, which is six and six-tenths years, is slightly higher than the median given by Dr. Cofifman's data, which is five and two-tenths years. TABLE XIII Distribution of Grade Teachers on Basis of Experience Number of teachers in each 1 Per cent of teachers in | All types All types by type each type combined CofEman i a 1 .2* IS 1 SI a 4) B 3 15 1 72 6 9 11 24.5 6.8 6.5 1.9 98 8.7 78 11.6 1 40 10 6 20 17.0 11.4 4.3 3.4 86 7.6 83 12.3 2 37 9 11 25 12.6 10.2 7.9 4.2 82 7.3 61 8.9 3 16 11 18 40 5.5 12.5 13.0 6.7 85 7.5 49 7.2 4 13 5 14 38 4.4 5.9 10.0 5.7 70 6.2 46 6.8 5 11 3 8 67 3.7 3.4 5.8 11.3 89 7.9 50 7.4 6 12 4 19 53 4.2 4.5 13.8 8.9 88 7.8 44 6.5 7 11 4 11 40 3.7 4.5 7.9 6.7 66 5.9 25 3.7 8 9 5 5 27 3.1 5.9 3.6 4.5 46 4.1 24 3.5 9 7 5 7 26 2.4 5.9 5.1 4.4 45 4.0 25 3.7 10 11 4 6 37 3.7 4.5 4.3 6.2 58 5.1 30 4.5 11 4 1 6 20 1.4 1.1 4.3 3.4 33 2.9 11 1.6 12 5 3 4 28 1.7 3.4 2.9 4.7 40 3.6 21 3.2 13 5 2 2 12 1.7 2.3 1.4 2.0 21 1.9 9 1.3 14 4 3 1 15 1.4 3.4 .7 2.5 23 2.0 13 1.9 15 5 4 2 23 1.7 4.5 1.4 3.9 34 3.0 15 2.4 16 4 1 13 1.4 1.1 2.2 18 1.6 6 .9 17 3 1 9 1.1 1.1 1.5 13 1.2 7 1.0 18 3 2 1 13 1.1 2.3 .7 2.2 19 1.7 8 1.2 19 2 1 9 .7 1.1 1.5 12 1.1 8 1.2 20 2 1 2 22 .7 1.1 1.4 3.7 27 2.4 11 1.6 21 1 1 5 .3 .7 .8 7 .5 3 .4 22 1 1 4 .3 .7 .7 6 .5 9 1.3 23 1 4 .3 .7 5 .4 2 .3 24 4 .0 .7 4 .3 6 .9 25 4 1 1 9 1.4 1.1 .7 1.5 15 1.3 4 .6 26 3 2 4 28 1.1 2.3 2.9 4.7 37 3.3 9 1.3 [54] A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 55 TABLE XIV Percentile Distribution of Teachers in Given Number of Years OF Experience Years Township Consolidated Town City None 24-5 43.2 6.8 6.5 41.0 1.9 1-5 years 43-4 31-3 6-10 years . . • • I7.I 25.3 33.7 21.9 II - 15 years 7-9 14.7 10.7 16.S 16 - 20 years 5-0 6.7 2.1 II. I 20-25 years .... 2.3 I.I 2.1 4.4 26 and above . . . I.I 2.3 2.3 4.7 Notw^ithstanding the fact that the rural schools have a much larger percentage of beginning teachers, it will be observed that the number of teachers with one to five years of experience in the first three types is nearly the same, and that the teachers in the city schools with one to five years of experience is much smaller, but that in the longer periods of service the city has a larger per cent. This would seem to indicate that the migration from the rural schools to consolidated and town schools occurs during the first five years, and from the rural, consolidated and town schools to the city schools after, as well as during this time. Classification and Salaries of Teachers TABLE XV Summary of Classification and Distribution of Teachers on Basis OF Salaries Received Corporation Total A Numbers B C Per cents ABC Salaries ABC Township Consolidated Town City 141 19 21 52 83 30 60 168 72 40 47 373 47.6 28.0 24.3 21. 1 33-3 45.5 16.4 46.8 36.7 9.8 31.5 58.7 $2.36 $2.88 $3.36 2.50 2.91 3.53 2.65 2.94 3.56 2.53 3.06 3.58 From the previous table it is to be expected that there would be a much larger per cent of class A teachers in the rural schools than in any other type. The consolidated schools rank second. Notwithstanding the fact that the consolidated schools had about the same per cent of inexperienced teachers as the towns, according to Table xv, the towns have a much smaller per cent of class A teachers which indicates that a smaller per cent of experienced teachers in the consolidated schools have met the scholastic and professional training necessary for promotion to a higher class. On the whole the consolidated schools with forty-five and five-tenths 56 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana per cent of class C and thirty-three and three-tenths per cent of class B teachers outrank the town schools with thirty-six and seven-tenths per cent of class C teachers and forty-six and eight- tenths per cent of class B teachers. The general effect of the legislation concerning the minimum salary and professional training of teachers has been to cause a gradual increase in the salaries of teachers in all types of schools, especially the rural schools. By taking the reports of the state superintendent of public instruction for the years 1904 and 1910 and computing the average salary for all teachers in each type as tabulated in this investigation, we get the following results which verify the above statement : TABLE XVI Average Salary of All Grade Teachers in Each Type of Schools Com- pared WITH Amounts Received in 1904 and 1910 Township Consolidated Town City 1904 (report) 1910 (report) ....••.. 1912 (this investigation) $2.36 2.62 2.75 2.97 3.10 $2.69 311 3-12 $3-05 314 3-34 It would seem that teachers in the same class should receive the same salary, regardless of the type of schools in which they teach. The fact that class A teachers in the rural schools receive on an average only two dollars and thirty-six cents per day, while teachers in the same class in the consolidated schools receive two dollars and fifty cents per day and the teachers in the towns and cities even a greater amount, may be due to one of two reasons. It may be due to the fact that the township trustees usually pay only the minimum amount called for by law even to a fraction of a cent, while the officials in the other schools are governed only in a general way by the minimum salary law and may pay even a little more than this amount, or it may be due to the fact that the general average of all teachers in each class in the rural schools is lower than in the other types. The minimum salary law has affected the distribution of teachers in another way. It is a frequent occurrence for township trustees, on account of a false notion of economy, to refuse to employ any but class A teachers, while officials in other schools, especially of city schools, emphasize the fact that they want only class C teachers. A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 57 High School Teachers The legislation, a summary of which was given above, has to do almost entirely with grade teachers. Beginning high school teachers, however, must have had the professional training equiva- lent to that required for class A before entering the profession, but neither advancement nor salary is dependent on the classification that obtains for grade teachers, since very few high school teachers receive a smaller salary than is paid elementary teachers in class C. It is usually assumed that the more poorly prepared and less experienced as well as the most poorly paid teachers are to be found in the more remote and smaller high schools of the state. It will be our endeavor to see to what extent this assumption holds true, by giving as many of the facts that bear on the situation as possible and forming such conclusions as these facts will warrant. The original data are given in Tables xvii-xix and should be read in the same manner as the tables for grade teachers. On account of the difficulty in tabulating the data pertaining to salaries of the teachers in each school, the original data are not given in these tables. It would have been more satisfactory if we had had a greater number of cases, but this was impossible in the case of consolidated schools, since practically all that have been established any length of time are included. The results obtained from data for town and city high schools indicate that we have a representative sampling and that a greater number of cases would not change the final results materially. The summary of the distribution of high school teachers on the basis of training is given in total numbers in Table xx and in per cents in Table xxi. A graphic representation of the same is given in Figure v. The returns were too indefinite to permit a detailed distribution of those who had had post-graduate work. It ranged from six weeks to two years. In computing the average training of the teachers in each type of high schools, it was arbi- trarily assumed that one year would be a fair average for all who reported having had post-graduate work. This is probably too large and would favor the city high schools since one out of every four have had some work beyond that required for an A.B. degree, while only one in every fifteen in the town and consolidated high schools report having had any graduate work. The central ten- dency for teachers in consolidated schools is a little higher than o o n -l T-^ (» SJTJSX i - Si138A 9 1 sa^aX 5 siBajf f- - ■rt t-l tS - «IB3X i ^ ^ ^ - ^ SJB3J? 2 ^ - - jBaX T ro anof^ ^^^ ^ ^ Ml a H ■3JJOA\ ^^ - SJB3X t- ^ ^ ^ ^ rO CN ro CN -^ -^ -^ CN CN SJB3A f •rt (M •rt -- - - SiB3X j - ro ^^ J-BSX \ - STjasM ^2 S5ia3M 21 auojvj FlOi ^ ro T-H ro lO O Tj< tN t^ CO CN CN CN CN CN uauiOjY^ 0 1-- 00 On O ^ CN m X z w o hj hj m o < o H w 5^ ^ O H sjB3Xof-92 SJB3X 91 sivaK SI sivsK 01 SJ'B3X 6 sj'BaX i si'BaX 9 siBaX s SJB3A f sjBaX 2 JB3;C J 3U0|<[ '-H CN '— I CN T-l »-H T— I w IjJOM sjEaX ^ r-000\0 -i-H CN CO "* lO O l^ 00 OS O ^< X < X o w f/i t-i P5 o < W H >- H w a. siBaX le »-4 »-i T-l '-' siB3Xo£-9^ - CM - - si^Agz-iz ^ ^ - - SiBSX 0^ - ^ ^ - - SIB3X 6T - - SJB3X 81 - SI133X n CN - SIB8X 9X - ^^ - - sj^aX 51 - CN CN ^ -. sjBaX ^1 - ^^ - - sjBaX fi - - CN T-l SJB3X ^i - - - ^ ,-^ SIB3X n <>J CS -H ^ CN - SJB3X 01 ^ ^^ ^ - ■.-1 - CN CN si'eaX 6 tN ^^^ - SJB3X 8 CN ^^^ ^ - SJB3X i CN tN fS rt T-H CN ,^ CN ^ sjBaX 9 ^ ^ - - <-< CN ■^ ,^ T^,-. sjBaX J •-( (M ^^^ rt Tf T-H CN - CN CN •^ siBaX t (M ^ ,^ rt CN CN "-I ^^^ ^ ^ ^ sjBaX f T-H CN ro (M ro »-i CN - - SJBSX 2 Tj< - ^ ^ - - jBaX 1 --- ^ ^ - CN "-I ^ ^ ano^ - - - g 1 ^JOM ajBnp-Ejf) ro »-i (M r^ '-I ro fO ^ lO ■rt T-H T-H T-i •^ r/5 (N CN CN CN SJBSX f. ro ro lO CN lO O ro rt< rc ro O r^ VO Tji to ■<* CO CN Tj< CO in po sj^aX f - J^ CN T-H ^ ,-( -rt rC(N ^ CN i-H CN sjBaX 2 T-H CN '-I CN i» - jtaX I - - - S-SI33M ^2 s-siaaM z\ - 300^ Flox \o "11^ to o *^ vO 00 T}H 0\ t-~ 00 00 »o t^ 00 OvOOv VO uamoyVV * 'ti ro CO CO vo CO ■'* naK •^ CN On 00 ■* CM 0\ CN ^ CN ■* O t^ •* Tj< T*! CN ■* ID CO CO "OrO /i^ D JO jaqum^ T-i CN rOTt. (U rt V is Corporation V V V ^ ^ >. ;^ ■4-* ^3 5 _ o C ^ j3 ^ t^! 12; IM H H tlH (U <•" Consolidated I 6 8 27 3 3.55 Town . . • ■ I 14 15 42 6 3.4« City I 7 14 28 113 50 3.«5 TABLE XXI Percentile Distribution of High School Teachers on Basis of Training Corporation u a >. a m >. H H V-i rt >. 3 u 3 ISO ll < Consolidated 2.2 13.3 17.8 60.0 Town 1.2 18.1 19.2 53.8 City 1 .5 ■■ 3-3 6.6 13.1 53-1 6.7 3-55 T-1 348 23-5 3-85 that of the town high schools, but a Uttle lower than the central, tendency for city high schools. The curves of distribution are very similar except that the variation for city teachers is greater. On the whole, the training of teachers in the city high schools is very little superior to the training of teachers in the consolidated and town high schools, which would indicate that some other factor than the amount of professional training was the determining factor in the distribution of high school teachers. [62] A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 63 TABLE XXII Distribution of High School Teachers on Basis of Experience Total Numbers Per cents S 1 bfi £ 3 a ■s J3 r2 ir g a 1 3 1 >> >. > u H G U H u 5 3 3 11.4 3.8 1.5 1 3 6 11 6.8 7.6 5.4 2 4 4 9 9.1 5.1 4.4 3 5 6 19 11.4 7.6 9.3 4 6 11 22 13.6 13.9 10.7 5 1 9 20 2.3 11.4 9.8 6 2 6 12 4.6 7.6 5.9 7 1 6 16 2.3 7.6 8.8 8 5 7 10 11.4 8.9 4.9 9 1 3 6 2.3 3.8 3.0 10 1 4 14 2.3 5.1 6.9 11 2 9 2.6 4.4 12 1 1 7 2.3 1.3 3.5 13 2 2 5 4.6 2.6 2.5 14 1 3 5 2.3 3.8 2.5 15 2 1 7 4.6 1.3 3.5 16 5 2.5 17 1 3 2.3 1.5 18 1 .5 19 2 1.0 20 2 5 2.6 2.5 21 1 4 2.3 2.0 22-25 3 5 3.85 2.5 26- 2 4 4.6 2.0 A summary of the distribution of high school teachers on the basis of experience is given in Table xvii. It will be observed that there is a much greater percentage of beginning teachers to be found in the consolidated high schools than in the town and city high schools. This field is so limited, however, that the consolidated schools cannot be said to be the training schools for the other two types as the rural schools are said to be training schools for grade teachers in consolidated, town, and city schools. The limited num- ber of beginning teachers in the high schools may be explained by the fact that most high school teachers have had experience in grade work before entering the high schools. To what extent this holds true, cannot be determined from the data at hand. It can be <^ be >g^ ^ . '^ o o OH [64] A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 65 said, relatively speaking, that three times as many inexperienced teachers entering the high schools without experience, begin in the township consolidated high schools as begin in the town high schools, and seven times as many as begin in the city high schools. In other words, a college graduate with no experience will find it three times easier to get a position in a consolidated high school than in a town high school, and seven times easier than to enter a city high school, leaving out of consideration for the moment, the difference in the number of schools in each type. The graph. Figure vi, showing the distribution of teachers as given in Table xvii, shows that we have too limited a number of cases in the consolidated high school to warrant many inferences with reference to experience of teachers. The curves of distribu- tion for towns and cities are quite similar notwithstanding the fact that there are three times as many cases in^ the latter as in the former. It will be observed that the modes for the three types of schools are the same. The median number of years of experience of teachers in the consolidated schools is four and eight-threehun- dredths. The median number of years of experience of the teachers in the high schools of the towns is six and eight-hundredths, and that of the teachers in the city high schools is seven and thirty- eight hundredths years. These facts as well as the limited returns as to "length of service in present position" indicate that changes are more frequent in consolidated schools than in either of the other two types. An effort was made to secure data that would permit an analysis of the situation as to length of service in one position, but the returns were inadequate for this purpose. Con- sidering all the facts at hand, it is safe to conclude that experience is a much more vital factor in the distribution of high school teachers than is academic and professional training. Contrary to common opinion, the facts as revealed in Table XXIII fail to show the great advantage that teachers in the city high schools are thought to enjoy from the standpoint of salaries received, over the teachers in the consolidated and town high schools. The median salary of all teachers, including the principals, in the city high schools is four dollars and fifty-four cents per day with an average deviation of sixty-one cents, while the median salary of teachers in the consolidated high schools is four dollars and forty-eight cents with an average deviation of fifty-five cents, and in the town high schools it is four dollars and forty-six cents NO NO cl K ^ OP « ss o o [66] A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 67 TABLE XXIII Distribution of High School Teachers , Including THE Principals, on the Basis of Daily Salary Number of teachers in each type Per cent of teachers in each type receiving sal ary given receiving salary given Daily Salary Consoli- dated Town City Consoli- dated Town City $3.00 1 1 1.95 1.38 0.00 3.25 3 2 2 5.88 2.77 1.25 3.50 4 8 8 7.84 11.11 5.00 3.75 4 6 15 7.84 8.22 9.37 4.00 7 14 27 13.92 18.43 16.87 4.25 7 6 25 13.92 8.22 15.62 4.50 6 6 19 11.76 8.22 11.88 4.75 3 4 19 5.88 5.55 11.87 5.00 7 6 17 13.92 8.22 10.62 5.25 2 2 7 3.92 2.77 4.57 5.50 3 4 3 5.88 5.55 1.88 5.75 1 2 2 1.95 2.77 1.25 6.00 1 1 4 1.95 1.38 2.50 6.25 1 5 4 1.95 6.94 2.50 6.50 1 1.38 .63 6.75 2 2.77 1.25 7.00 1 1 1.95 1.38 .62 7.25 3 1.38 1.87 7.50 1 1.38 .66 Median A D $4.48 $0.55 $4.46 $0.82 $4.54 $0.61 with an average deviation of eighty-three cents. There is a greater variabiHty in the salaries of teachers in the town high schools than in either of the other two types. With the thought of determining the cause of this greater deviation, a second table was compiled (see Table xxiv), omitting the high school principals who on account of some administrative work and supervision of the work of the grades receive a higher salary than the regular high school teachers. Naturally the effect will be much more pronounced on the type of high schools employing the fewer number of teachers. The median salary was found to be four dollars and fourteen cents per day with an average deviation of forty-one cents for teachers in the consolidated high schools, not including the principals, four dollars and seven cents with an average deviation of forty-three cents for teachers in the town high schools, and four dollars and forty-two cents with an average deviation of forty-five cents for teachers in the city high schools. While the median salary of the entire teaching population in the three types of schools is practically 68 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana the same, the higher salary paid the principals of the consolidated and town high schools as compared with the salary paid regular teachers, causes the salary of the regular teachers in the high schools to be a little lower than that paid the teachers in the city high schools. Generally speaking, the principalship of a smaller high school is more desirable from the standpoint of salary than is a regular teaching position in city high schools. Figure vii shows the distribution of high school teachers on basis of salary in the three types of schools when the principals were included, while Figure viii shows the distribution without the principals. The second mode at five dollars for teachers in consoli- dated schools and at six dollars and twenty-five cents for teachers in the town high schools in Figure vii are not present in Figure viii, which would indicate that these are the most frequent salaries of the principals in these two types. The greater difiference in the median salaries of consolidated and town high school teachers when principals are included, also shows that the principals in the town schools receive a larger salary in relation to the number of teachers TABLE XXIV Distribution of High School Teachers, Not Including the Principals, on Basis of Salary Number of teachers receiving salary given Per cent of teachers in each type receiving salary given Daily Salary Consoli- dated Town City Consoli- dated Town City $3 .00 3.25 3.50 3.75 4.00 4.25 4.50 4. '5 5.00 5.25 5.50 5.75 6.00 6.25 6.50 6.75 1 3 4 4 7 6 3 1 1 2 8 5 13 5 5 4 6 1 2 8 15 27 25 14 19 15 6 1 1 2 1 1 3.12 9.36 12.48 12.48 21.85 18.73 9.36 9.36 3.12 2 4 16 10 26 10 10 8 12 2 1.46 5.84 10.95 19.70 18.10 10.20 13.80 10.90 4.30 1.^6 1.46 2.92 1.46 1.46 Median A D .14 .405 .07 .426 $4.42 .541 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 69 under them than do the principals of consoHdated schools. Taking the school as a whole, the consolidated high school teachers are better paid than teachers in the town high schools. Special Teachers and Supervisors The nature and extent of the work of special teachers and super- visors is so varied that it is difficult to get any basis for comparison of the work in the different types of schools. In one school a supervisor may do all the teaching in a special subject, such as music, or she may plan the work for the entire system, giving special instruction and supervising the work of the grade teachers, or she may devote the greater part of her time to instruction in the high school and merely plan the work, secure materials and special aids for the regular teachers. Be that as it may, the fact that a school system has a special teacher on its pay-roll who devotes all her time and energy along the line of her specialty would indicate that that system of schools is giving greater consideration to that line of work than a school system that has no such teacher. The state board of education requires high schools to give work in music and drawing in order to be commissioned or certified, as the case may be. In order to meet this requirement, some school boards secure local talent to give a few hours' instruction in the high school each week. In one case it was reported that the salary per day of a music teacher was five dollars while the monthly pay- roll showed that she received twenty-five dollars per month. In a number of cases the work in music and drawing was taught by teachers of the regular high school subjects, which would mean that no attention was given to these subjects in the grades except as was given by the grade teachers themselves. Cases were found where teachers were employed to give instruction in a special line of work, but were also required to take one or more classes in the regular high school subjects. The two cases in Table xxv where a special teacher gives in- struction in music and drawing in the township district schools, are examples of a recent movement in Indiana to provide instruction for the rural schools in some of the special subjects that is in a way comparable with that given in consolidated, town, and city schools. A few townships or combination of townships employ a special teacher who goes from school to school to give instruction in music and drawing. Recent legislation has provided for an agent or 70 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana supervisor for each county who shall devote his whole time to the rural schools. While it is not mandatory, many counties are pre- paring to take up this work as provided for by law. In some cases the transportation of these special teachers is provided by the town- ship, while in others the teachers have to provide their own con- veyances. These teachers give out plans and material and give instruction to the teachers at each regular meeting of the teachers in township institutes ; so that the work can be made as efifective as in schools located in centers of population. TABLE XXV Special Teachers and Supervisors Number Per cent Number and per cent of school corpora- tions with .J. 2 >. £ 1-0 g >» 3 ©■s ,o *^ 3 ols o .^ OS U-o H u « u-S ^ o 1 No special teacher or supervisor 29 3 8 93.5 17.6 32 00 2 One special teacher or supervisor 2 6 12 4 6.4 35.3 48 16.6 3 Two special teachers or supervisors 7 2 8 41.3 8 33.3 4 Three special teachers or supervisors 2 7 8 28.0 Four special teachers or supervisors 3 12.5 Five special teachers or supervisors 2 8.3 Number of school corporations in which the special subjects are taught by Regular teachers 7 3 28 12.5 One special teacher for music 7 1 13 41.2 4 54.2 One special teacher for drawing 6 1 10 35.3 4 41.6 One special teacher for music and draw- ing 2 6 11 10 6.6 35.3 44 41.6 One special teacher for music, drawing, and domestic art 1 1 5.8 4 One special teacher for domestic science 5 8 20 33.3 One special teacher for manual training 1 9 4 37.5 One special teacher for agriculture One special teacher for penmanship 2 8.3 One special teacher for German in grades 1 4.16 Supervisor of primary work 2 8.3 Table xxv shows that consolidated schools are giving greater consideration to the newer subjects than the town schools. Thirty- two per cent of the latter have no special teacher or supervisor, forty-eight per cent with only one, and eight per cent with two spe- cial teachers, as compared with seventeen per cent of the consoli- dated schools with no special teacher, thirty-five per cent with only one, and forty-one per cent with two special teachers. This same A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana yi fact is shown a little farther down in the table where forty-four per cent of the towns have the one special teacher for both music and drawing, while the consolidated schools have a special teacher for the two subjects in only thirty-five per cent of the schools. The consolidated schools far surpass the town schools and compare very favorably with the city schools in the number in which there is a special teacher for each of the two subjects, music and drawing. In all cases in the consolidated schools manual training was taught by some teacher who was selected primarily to teach other subjects. The same was true in the town schools with one exception. While agriculture was given considerable attention by a number of schools, TABLE XXVI Distribution of Special Teachers on Basis of Salary Number Per cent "i-o a Id |t3 C5 § §^ % ^ 1 1 ^ p^ U-o H u rA U-S ] H o $2.00 1 1 1 5.8 6.2 2 2.50 1 2 1 1 50 11.7 6.2 2 3.00 4 2 2 23.5 12.4 4 3.25 1 4 2 4 50 23.5 12.4 8 3.50 4 2 4 23.5 12 A 8 3.75 2 2 6 11.7 12.4 12 4.00 3 10 18.6 20 4.25 1 9 6.2 18 4.50 8 16 4.75 3 6 5.00 2 1 12.4 2 6.00 1 Median .34 $3 .67 $4 .17 especially the town and consolidated schools, only one teacher was found who was selected primarily for that work, and that was in a town school. While domestic science and domestic art are given as much attention in the consolidated schools as in the town schools, as we shall see a little later, we find that the former have only one school where a special teacher has this work, while special teachers are provided in twenty-four per cent of the town schools, and thirty- three per cent of the city schools. Special teachers of penmanship, German in the grades, and supervisors of primary work were found only in a very small per cent of the cities. 72 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana The salaries of special teachers per diem in the consolidated schools are lower than the salaries of special teachers in the towns, which is the reverse of what was found concerning the salaries of regular teachers, both in the grades and high school. The median salary of the special teachers in the consolidated schools is three dollars and thirty-four cents per day as compared with the median salary of three dollars and sitxy-seven cents for the special teachers in the town and the median salary of four dollars and seventeen cents for the special teachers in the city schools. The salaries of special teachers in all schools are lower than the salaries of the regular high school teachers, but somewhat better than the salaries of the regular grade teachers as will be observed by referring to Table xxvii. TABLE XXVII Median Salaries of Grade, Special, and High School Teachers in Con- solidated, Town, and City Schools Grade Teachers Special Teachers High School Teachers Consolidated $3.10 $3.34 3.67 4-17 $4.14 Town 3-12 City 3-34 4.07 4.42 CHAPTER IV Enrichment of Curricula A good test of the kind of work a school is doing, though some- what intangible, is to study the nature and extent of the effort of that school to enrich its course of study. Not plans and outlines on paper merely, but enrichment in the sense that an effort is made to bring to the child those things demanded by the life he is living and the problems he will have to meet and in such a manner as to cause an appreciation and response on the part of the child. It may happen that a certain school has introduced manual training with the idea of satisfying the ambitious desires of a city superintendent to keep apace with what some other school or superintendent is doing and there be a decided lack of any understanding of what should be attempted or the values to be realized. On the other hand a superintendent and his teachers may gradually develop a line of work in response to local needs without giving a specific name to it or a definite time and place in the curriculum, but correlate it with some of the traditional subjects. While it may be true that one school does more work in a certain line, nature study, for example, in connection with home geography, than another school which has a definite time and place in its course for this work, it is more than probable, at this stage in the evolution of our schools, that the extent to which the newer subjects are given a definite place in the curricula of the different types of schools may be considered a fair index of the nature and extent of the work that is being done by them along these lines. It is on this assumption that a presentation of the time and place of the newer subjects in the curricula of the different types of schools is given in a more or less detailed manner. The legislature and the state board of education have had a de- termining influence on the curricula of schools. The law enacted in 1869, which is still in force, pertaining to what shall be taught in the common schools of the state is as follows: "The common schools of the state shall be taught in the English language and the trustee shall provide to be taught in them orthog- raphy, reading, writing, arithmetic, English grammar, physiology, history of the United States, and good behavior, and such other branches of learning and other languages as the advaricement of the pupil may require and the trustees from time to time direct. And whenever parents and guardians of twenty-five or more chil- 74 ^ Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana dren in attendance at any school of a township, town, or city shall so demand, it shall be the duty of the school trustee or trustees of said township, town, or city to procure an efficient teacher and introduce the German language as a branch of study in such schools; and the tuition in said schools shall be without charge, provided such demand is made before a teacher for said district is employed." To the above list of required subjects was added "Scientific Temperance" in 1895. The great factor in determining the curricula of the schools of the state has been the initiative and leadership of the state superin- tendent of public instruction supported by the state board of edu- cation. The control the state superintendent has in formulating the course of study for the schools of the state has been gained by the exercise of initiative on the part of certain men who have held this position and by virtue of the power delegated to this office rather than by any direct legislation. Prior to 1894 each county board of education was supposed to adopt a course of study for the schools of the county, but at a meeting of the county superinten- dents' association of that year a resolution was passed which placed the construction of the course of study in the hands of the state superintendent. The course is adopted and enforced by the county board of education of each county, though modifications and addi- tions may be made by any school corporation if sanctioned by the state department so long as these changes do not interfere with the subjects specified by law. On account of the fact that the rural schools had the greatest need for a definite course of study to guide the work in these schools, it has been planned to fit the conditions and meet the needs of the rural school particularly so that modifica- tions need to be made to fit the course of study to the organization of town and city schools with their longer school year as well as local needs. Naturally, a course of study planned for a six months' rural school would not be suited to a nine or ten months' school year of town and city without some adjustments. The course of study issued by the state superintendent for the year 1913-1914 is a marked improvement over preceding courses. It is organized on the semester basis with a maximum and minimum amount of work specified, the minimum amount to be covered by the rural schools with a shorter school year, and the maximum to be completed by schools which continue in session eight or nine months. It also provides for the correlation of the work in rural schools so as to A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 75 make possible a reduction in the number of classes and specifies in more detail the work that should be covered by schools with short school year and what should be added in schools which continue in session a longer period. While the matter of seeing that teachers follow the state course of study in the grades is left, for the most part, to local officials, the state board of education exercises direct supervision of the work of the high schools. A high school is not compelled to use the course of study issued by the state department, but the courses used must be approved in order for this school to retain its commission or certificate as the case may be. The required work in the more recent courses is limited and definite, with exten- sive electives, so that it is possible for a pupil to select most any kind of a course he may desire. He may take work that will fit him to meet college entrance requirements or he may take more practical work and specialize in science and agriculture. The state manual or course of study for the grades for the year 1911-1912 gave definite outlines for the work in the required sub- jects for each year they were to be taught, combining and corre- lating physiology, hygiene and scientific temperance, and in addi- tion, gave detailed outlines for work in music and agriculture, and general suggestions for work in drawing. This course was adopted by most, if not all, county boards of education and became the official guide for all rural and consolidated schools. All rural schools weie found to be using this state manual, but when a more detailed investigation was made, it was found in several cases, and probably is true in many schools, that it was followed in so far as it pertained to the textbook work in the traditional subjects but that little attention was given to elementary language and history work and to the newer subjects of the curriculum such as music, drawing, agriculture, manvial training, and domestic science. Ex- ceptions were found where schools were in charge of well-trained, experienced teachers. All consolidated schools use the state course of study in the grades without modification, with one exception, in which case a local course in geography was planned. The situation in the town schools was very similar to that found in the consoli- dated schools, while the greatest deviations from the state course of study were found in the city schools. The number and per cent of schools using the state manual without and with modification and the number using a course of study planned for the one school, is given in Table xxviii. 76 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana TABLE XXVIII Courses of Stxtdy Used in the Foxjr Types of Schools Grades High School Number Per cent Number Per cent u ■p§ using using usmg usmg ^ 3 '5 3 ^ -0 •n T3 •0 eg ?8 8-0' -0 "3 (U ^ "d > en a 1 jooqog qS;H ^OO apBio lO On 0\ t^ to a '% a O jooqas qsjH apBio lO U-) OS Cv) ■rt T-H CN 3 looqDg qSiH apBio Ol^'-H •* T-l T-H (M CJ spwo CNOro ^ CO » em 5 .S jooqag q3;H I^O OS ■* CN CN apwo qovq t^ vO ^ •>* CN ■* 1 bO <; looqos qsjH TjH ro t^ apvic) 0\q q O ro CN O ro iA> ■^ lOoqos qSiH 00 spwO ^ ^ 'R '^ SO ro MD 0\ ■rt IT) ro CN .a 1-1 ft lOoqDg qS'H 00 CNOO apwo vq cN q vq vO 00 so »-i '-I 00*^ Os 3 looqog qsiH (M > :3 o o.ti [78] A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 79 and average length of period for each. It was found in most cases, when music was given that it extended through the grades and the high school. The schools were about equally divided, half the number devoting only one period per week to the subject and half the schools giving two periods per week to it in the grades, and one period per week in practically all the high schools. The same could be said of drawing except in the towns, especially in the high schools. Nature study was given in the lower grades, usually the first four, and correlated with the work in home geography. Agri- culture, manual training, and domestic science were given in the first year of high school and sometimes extending through the second year. When given in the high school these subjects were also taught in the seventh and eighth grades. These subjects are seldom taught in the grades when not taught in the high school. So much is being said and written about industrial education, agriculture, manual training, domestic science, and the like, that we are often inclined to believe that these newer subjects have definite places in the curricula of most of our schools. To what extent these subjects are being taught in the different types of schools of Indiana may be seen by referring to Table xxix. It will be observed that only one-third of the rural schools pretend to do any systematic work in music and only one-sixth do any work in drawing. Some attention is given to nature study and agriculture in about one-third of the schools. All consolidated schools give regular and systematic work in drawing in the high schools, but in only eighty-eight per cent of the grades. Fifty per cent of the consolidated schools offer nature study in the lower grades and agriculture in the upper grammar grades and high school, forty- seven per cent give regular work in manual training and about forty per cent offer courses in domestic science, which is a very creditable showing, as compared with what is done in the town schools in these subjects, where only about thirty-five per cent give any attention to agriculture and twenty per cent give instruction in manual training and domestic science. The city schools rank second to the consoli- dated schools in all these subjects except agriculture in the high school. The work in agriculture in the city schools is more of a textbook subject and taught with a different purpose than the agriculture that is given in the consolidated schools. While quite a number of the larger cities included in this study are industrial centers, no mention is made of industrial courses except commercial work in the curricula of any of the high schools. CHAPTER V Supervision A comparison of the supervision in the different types of schools must take the form of a survey for the most part and be limited to a comparison of the supervisory forces, nature and extent of the efforts of the supervising officials to give constructive super- vision of the regular work of the teachers, provision for profes- sional improvement of teachers in service and special attention given to the physical needs of the children. If a distinction were made between inspection and supervision, a discussion of the latter would be limited to something less than fifty per cent of consolidated and city schools and ten per cent of town schools. The supervision of instruction of rural schools is under the direction of the county superintendents. The county superinten- dent also has the same jurisdiction over consolidated schools which are under the immediate supervision of the principal. The princi- pals of town schools supervise the work of the town schools. The supervisory staff of the city schools consists of a superintendent, ward, and high school principals, supervisors of special subjects and frequently departmental supervisors such as a supervisor of primary grades and a supervisor of grammar grades. Table xxx shows that there is little possibility of real super- vision in the rural schools. The average number of teachers under TABLE XXX Supervision in the Different Types of Schools Rural Consoli- dated Towri City Average number of teachers under each superintendent 103 6 " 34 Average number of teachers under each principal 8 8 6 Average number of teachers for each special teacher or supervisor 6.4 10.8 12.2 Average number of visits per year to each room by superintendents 1.8 2.5 45 Average number of visits per year to each room by principals 5.6 48 Average length in minutes of visits by superintendents 85 60 24 Average length in minutes of visits by principals 12 23 Average amount of time in minutes spent by superintendents and prin- cipals with each teacher per week 6.4 28 27 29 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 8i each county superintendent is one hundred three. The average number of visits made by county superintendents to each teacher in the township district schools was one and eight-tenths and the average length of each visit was eighty-five minutes. When we take into consideration the fact that practically all the schools under the jurisdiction of the county superintendent are one-room schools located about three miles apart, that much of his time is taken up with clerical duties and the grading of manuscripts for the certifi- cation of teachers, we can readily understand why little more than a hasty inspection of the schools in the county is possible even where the county superintendent is fitted by training and experience to do effective supervision. Many county superintendents make it a point to inspect the work of beginning teachers more frequently than they do the work of experienced teachers. It sometimes hap- pens that a teacher has difficulty in arranging her work or meeting other problems of the school, in which case the county superinten- dent will make a number of visits and spend considerable time in getting matters adjusted. Such cases are rare and usually reach a critical stage before the superintendent knows about them and aids the teachers in solving the difficulties. In the report of county superintendents to the state superintendent very few mention anything that would indicate that any systematic effort is made to improve the work of the teachers. Administrative problems, such as sanitary conditions, consolidation of schools, introduction of agriculture were discussed, but no consideration given to internal work of the schools. Further evidence of lack of any constructive supervision on the part of most county superintendents is seen in the answers given when asked to state in order of importance, the purposes in mind in visiting the schools. The three things men- tioned most frequently were: a — legal requirement, that is, a- super- intendent must visit all teachers once during the year in order to be able to give each teacher a success grade for the year ; b — to see that teachers are following the state course of study, another legal requirement; and c — general inspection. One out of every eleven county superintendents gave an answer that would indicate an effort to do constructive work such as improvement of primary methods, reading, use of supplementary books, emphasis on importance of phonics and systematic work in spelling, encouragement of more systematic work in agriculture, and the like. When we consider the number of visits and amount of time spent at each school, we know that such efforts are not far-reaching. 82 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana The work of the consolidated schools is much more carefully supervised. These schools, where found, are given considerable attention by friends and foes alike so that the men who are respon- sible for them put forth a great effort to place the work on as high a plane as possible. The county superintendent visits these schools more frequently than he does the township district schools and the principal is selected with reference to his ability to supervise more than is the principal of a town school. In addition to the inspec- tions made by the county superintendent, the principals of the consolidated schools average fifty-six visits to each teacher dur- ing the year, spending on an average twelve minutes in each room. The county superintendent and principal cooperate in their en- deavor to make the work of the school equal to that found in any school of the state by perfecting the organization, securing neces- sary materials and equipment, but not giving a great deal of atten- tion to the improvement of instruction. One is impressed by the fact that too much consideration is given to what is being done in the city schools and not enough to the local situation. The special teachers devote very little time to supervision as they do practically all the work in the different grades in their special subjects. The answers given by county superintendents to the question concern- ing the purpose of visitations showed that the legal aspect was of secondary importance and that educational problems were appre- ciated to a certain extent and given consideration. The work of the town schools is the most poorly supervised of any type considered, except the rural schools. The principals have had little training or experience in supervising grade work and are usually required to devote the larger part of their time to classroom instruction. These schools are frequently handicapped by lack of adequate material and equipment. The stimulus for doing the best work possible, given consolidated schools on account of being a newer movement and thus under more or less critical observation of patrons and schoolmen, is also lacking. These schools are deprived, through practice rather than by legislation, of the stimulus and suggestions of the count}' superintendent since towns are permitted to withdraw from the jurisdiction of the county superintendent, the same as city schools. Notwithstanding these limitations, the showing made by the principals of town schools who average forty-eight visits of twenty-three minutes each to each teacher compares favorably with the efforts of the superintendents A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 83 of city schools and principals of consolidated schools. The answers to the question as to the purpose of visitation indicate that the work of most of the principals is inspectorial rather than supervisory. Sixteen per cent of the principals seemed to be doing what might be called constructive supervision. The supervisory force and conditions in most of the city schools are such that effective work can be done. The nature and extent of such work depends more on the initiative and progressiveness of the city superintendent than on external factors. While no data are at hand to indicate the extent of the work of the ward principals, it is safe to assume that their work is in a way comparable to what is done by the principals of the town schools. In addition to the work of these principals we find that the city superintendents aver- age forty-five visits of twenty-four minutes each to each teacher. The answers of forty-five per cent of the superintendents to ques- tions concerning the purpose of visitation indicated that they were at work on definite problems which they mentioned without hesi- tation, while the answers of the remaining fifty-five per cent showed their work to be general inspection. Professional Improvement of Teachers in Service One of the essentials in a progressive school system is to provide some means of stimulating the professional spirit among beginning teachers and to keep this spirit alive and encourage experienced teachers to keep in touch with the progress made in the various fields of education, in order that they may not become narrow and their work become mechanical. The regular educational organizations open to all teachers, which are intended to meet these needs, are "The State Teachers' Association" held during the Christmas vacation, the two sectional associations held during the spring vacation, county institutes held at the county seats during August and the first week of September and a "County Teachers' Association" usually held during the Thanksgiving vacation. There is also a "State Superintendents' and Principals' Association" that holds annual meetings during the month of March. The state and sectional associations are conducted on the plan of all larger organi- zations of teachers. There are general meetings attended by all, followed by sectional meetings at which problems pertaining to the work of the teachers of that particular group are discussed. While any teacher in the state is eligible to membership, the superinten- 84 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana dents and principals of the various schools and teachers of the city schools attend in greater number than do the teachers in town and rural schools. The county institute conducted by the county superintendent continues in session five days with morning and afternoon sessions. Attendance on the part of teachers under the jurisdiction of the township trustees and county superintendent is in a way compul- sory. Regular attendance means an addition of two per cent to general average which in turn means an increase in daily salary for the following year, provided the teacher is paid the minimum amount called for by her certificate as provided by law. This in- crease in salary amounts to about what the teacher would receive for one week of regular school work. Failure to attend not only means the forfeiture of this additional salary but also a lowering of success grade which in turn means a decrease in salary for the succeeding year. The additional two per cent is granted to town and city teachers but as many of them receive little more than the minimum salary or are teaching on a normal school diploma or exemption license, attendance does not mean any increase in salary for them the following school year. Failure to attend, on the other hand, does not mean lowering of success grade and reduction of salary as the city superintendents who make out the success grades of city teachers do not, as a rule, give as much importance to the county institute as do the county superintendents. While there is this lack of compulsion on the part of city teachers, they do attend quite regularly. The work is usually given by two or three special instructors, one devoting his time to psychology and methods, one to a discussion of importance, purpose, and methods of teaching some subject, such as history, and the third giving work along some special line such as music or agriculture. The work of the whole institute is planned for the most part with reference to the needs of rural teachers, since the attendance is made up more largely of teachers from district schools and the county superintendent has greater interest in them. In some counties the afternoon program consists of sectional programs which make it possible to arrange the work to meet the interests and needs of the different groups of teachers. The County Teachers' Association is a voluntary organization of the teachers of the county and is controlled and managed by the teachers themselves. The school officials in many counties have A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 85 encouraged this organization by permitting teachers to draw regular salary for Thanksgiving Day and the Friday following, provided they attend the two-day sessions of the association regularly, that is held on Friday and Saturday following Thanksgiving Day. Thus far we have been speaking of organized activities in which teachers of all types of school join on a common basis. When we come to consider the professional work of teachers in service in the different types, considerable variation is found. The teachers in township district and consolidated schools must meet in institute one Saturday each month for which they receive the same salary as for one day of teaching. Failure to attend without a good excuse causes the teacher to forfeit not only the salary for the day, but also an additional day's salary or an additional day of regular teaching may be substituted. This provision is not always vigor- ously enforced. The work of the township institute is planned by the state department and is based for the most part on the State Teachers' Reading Circle books, adopted by the state board of education, with an additional line of study more or less closely related to the work of the elementary schools and is under the direc- tion of the county superintendent or someone appointed by him. Each teacher, in addition to preparing all the work for the day has some definite work to do. The reports given by the teachers and the discussions that follow are of great value in getting teachers to think about the problems and movements in their profession. While no definite provision is made for the discussion of the prob- lems of the individual teacher that arise in the schoolroom, they are often presented and discussed so that the teacher concerned has the benefit of the experience of other teachers in solving her difficul- ties. The interest and value of the work of the institute depend to a great extent on the initiative and leadership of the one in charge. The town and city school teachers have no all-day meetings for professional study comparable to the township institute for rural and consolidated school teachers. The teachers of a few of the towns attend and take part in the institutes when held in their own town, but the lack of pay for attendance as well as penalty for non-attendance causes them to be irregular and to feel less responsi- bility for the work. The town schools, however, have their own teachers' meetings varying in number from three during the year to one each week, and in length from twenty minutes to two and 86 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana one-half hours. The average number of meetings of the teachers of the towns was sixteen or about one in every two weeks. The average length of these meetings was one hour and five minutes. It was found that the whole time of these meetings in twenty per cent of the towns was devoted to discussion of the routine work of the school, forty-four per cent divided the time, devoting about one-third of the time to consideration of local affairs and two-thirds to study and discussion of professional work, and twenty-eight per cent gave entire time to professional study. When this showing is compared with what the township district and consolidated school teachers are doing, we see that one-fourth of the town teachers spend only as much as one-third the time in meetings for profes- sional improvement as the former, forty- four per cent spend about one- fourth the time while twenty-seven per cent spend no time at all in work that would stimulate interest and develop a professional attitude. Cities vary greatly and to a certain extent according to size, in provisions made for professional advancement of teachers in service. A few cities in which only short monthly business meetings were held ofifer no better advantages than did the poorest group of town schools. Other cities were found in which regular bi- weekly meetings were held. Alternate meetings were addressed by specialists in the various fields of education and the programs of the other meetings consisted of talks by the superintendents and papers read by teachers, followed by general discussions. In addi- tion to these meetings regular grade meetings were held at which the problems and plan of work for the particular grade were pre- sented and discussed and the supervisors of the special lines of work gave plans and instructions for carr}ang on the work in their particular subjects. The average number of general meetings for the teachers in city schools for the year was twenty-one with an average length of session of one hour and five minutes each. Twelve per cent of the schools devoted the entire time to announce- ments and routine work of the school, twenty-one per cent divided the time, giving a short period for routine work followed by longer period given to a consideration of the larger problems of education and sixty-six per cent spent the entire time in professional work of some sort. The superintendents of schools in which no time of the general meetings was given to routine work of the school, attend to such matters themselves by keeping in touch with the teachers by A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 87 means of mimeographed announcements and instructions, reports received from teachers from time to time and conferences with the teachers most vitally concerned in any particular problem of the school. The professional study of the city teachers is neither so systematic nor does it require so much study on their part as that done by the rural and consolidated school teachers, but on account of community of interests and initiative and ability of those in charge, the results are more satisfactory and far-reaching. Medical Inspection The introduction of medical inspection into the schools of Indiana followed the same course that many of the progressive movements in education have taken. Some steps were taken in this work at first by a few of the more progressive schools of the state, enlarging the functions of the local board of health and utilizing the proffered services of some of the local professional men, followed by mandatory legislation for the larger cities and permissive legislation for other school corporations. At the present time permissive legislation only, obtains for all school corporations except Indianapolis, the one city of the state with a population of more than one hundred thousand. In 1909 a law was enacted requiring the board of health and charities of cities having a popu- lation of more than one hundred thousand to make medical inspec- tion from time to time of all persons attending, or employed in or about, all public, private or parochial schools in such city. The law authorized the board to prescribe rules and regulations concerning the number and character of inspections, prohibit the presence of anyone whose health is such that his presence will be injurious to himself or others and appoint competent physicians and district nurses with visitorial power. The law further provides that the city council shall levy a tax of one-half cent on each one hundred dollars to carry on this work. The permissive legislation enacted in 191 1 provides "That school trustees and township trustees are permitted and recommended to institute medical inspection of school children at any time, the said trustees may require teachers to annually test the sight and hearing of all school children under their charge, the said tests and uses thereof to be made according to rules hereafter authorized." Medi- cal inspection is defined as including the testing of sight and hearing of school children and the "inspection of said children by school 88 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana physicians for diseases, disabilities, decayed teeth and other defects which may reduce efficiency or tend to prevent their receiving the full benefits of school work." The law provides for the appoint- ment of one school physician for each school corporation ; or two or more corporations may unite and employ one physician, but he must not have more than two thousand children under his charge. The man appointed must be a licensed physician, be informed and skilled in medical inspection of children, informed in the health laws and health rules of the state board of health, shall be temperate, able-bodied, cleanly in person, not addicted to drugs and be of good moral character. The compensation of the school physician is de- termined by the appointing trustee or trustees. The duties of a school physician, when appointed, are set forth in detail and are man- datory so that no one is exempt from the examination by him except on a certified statement of a reputable physician that he has made a thorough examination of the child and notified the parents of the results of such examination. The state board of health and state board of education are authorized to jointly formulate rules and regulations for the detailed enforcement of the provisions of this law. The medical authorities who exercised control over the school before the enactment of the law for medical inspection and at the present time in school corporations where no school physician has been appointed, is the board of health. This board exercises juris- diction over schools only when such action is necessary to prevent the spread of disease and to see that school buildings have been properly fumigated after having been occupied by children with contagious diseases. The law providing for the appointment of school physicians had been on the statutes only a short time when the data for this investigation were collected, though a number of schools had some form of medical inspection prior to its enactment. No evidence was found indicating that the schools of rural districts and towns intended to introduce medical inspection. Eleven per cent of the consolidated schools and twenty-one per cent of the city schools have some form of medical inspection, which may be classi- fied into three almost equal groups. The first being composed of the schools in which the tests are made by the teachers, the second is made up of schools in which the teachers make certain tests of all the children and a physician examines cases referred to him by teachers or, as sometimes happens, physicians volunteer their A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 89 services and examine all children of the school. The third group is composed of the schools in which there is a regularly appointed school physician who performs the duties prescribed for him by law. In the schools composing this group," the school physician examined all children at the beginning of the school year and re- ported to parents any defects discovered. He made further exami- nations of all children sent to him by the teachers and principals from time to time and kept a record of all examinations made and reports sent to parents. A few schools reported dental inspection apart from the regular medical inspection but such cases were where dentists volunteered their services and the work was not followed up or sufficiently systematic to be very effective. While this movement for the preservation of the health of chil- dren is just beginning there is not sufficient data available for relia- ble inferences, yet there is enough to indicate that the consolidated and city schools are more responsive to the movement for genuine medical inspection. School and Community Activities Since the question of making a wider use of the school plant and extending the socializing influence of the school is receiving so much attention in educational discussions, an effort was made to learn of all the work of the schools included in this study along these lines. The results obtained were rather meagre and justify only one conclusion, namely, the school organized as a social center is exceptional and is characteritsic of no particular type of schools. The results obtained are given in Table xxxi which, taking the city schools as an example, are to be read as follows : Out of the TABLE XXXI School .^nd Community Activities Number of organi- zation Number of meetings per month Per cent of pupils taking part Patrons' meetings per year a R D. a u 13 0) a fl> 0) JQ ^ S- RP c II) V t- i) u (3 c c r. H ^ H hU H b .-. ^ " s iz; ^ H fa U. K B Township 30 30 27 2 1 Consolidated 17 13 3 1 4 1 2 1 1 11 2 2 1 1 Town 25 12 10 2 6 4 1 3 2 2 2 1 21 2 1 1 City 24 10 4 6 4 13 10 2 8 3 1 2 14 3 3 1 3 90 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana twenty- four cities investigated, ten had no student activities at all in the high school ; four had one student organization each ; six had two ; four had three or more such organizations. Of the total number of organizations found, thirteen held one meeting each; ten held two meetings ; and two, four meetings per month. Eight of the high schools having such student activities enrolled fifteen per cent or less of the students in attendance ; three enrolled sixteen to twenty-five per cent; one, twenty-five to fifty per cent; and two, fifty to seventy-five per cent of the student body. Fourteen of the twenty-four cities held no patron meetings ; three held one ; three held two ; one held four ; and three held six during the year. A percentile table is unnecessary to show that there is little constructive work along these lines to be found anywhere. While the township district schools report no student organizations as such, we know that quite a number give special programs and the like on Friday afternoons, which, in a way, is comparable to the more definitely organized activities in the high schools of the other types of schools studied. Neither do we find any definite effort, with three exceptions, to arouse greater interest in the schools among the patrons. It is quite a general practice, however, for each school to give some entertainment or hold some kind of a social to which the young people of the community and the patrons are invited. The purpose of this is usually to raise money for the school library. In one case a teacher made an exhibit of the work of the pupils and invited the patrons to spend an afternoon in observing the work of the school. This work is in a way com- parable to what is found in more definitely organized form in consolidated schools. The predominating type of organizations among consolidated schools is the debating society and agricultural club. The meetings to which the patrons are invited also take the form of exhibition of the work in manual training and in agricul- ture, such as a corn show or stock judging contest, and the like. Among the town and city schools the predominating type of student activities outside of some form of athletic organization which is more or less common, is the debating society, which is greatly stimulated by the triangular debates held among schools of each vicinity. This form of organization, however, is not found in more than fifty per cent of the schools. The majority of the patrons' meetings, which are by no means common among the schools, take A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 91 the form of an exhibit at which is displayed the work of the various departments. It is no unusual occurrence for the superintendent or principal and teachers to invite visiting patrons to contribute to the school library, either by donating books or money which may be used for the purchase of books or to aid the school in some other kind of movement which the "school has under consideration. It is needless to add that this does not encourage attendance. One town school and one city school were found that were ex- ceptional in both student and community activities. Each had work that was definitely planned and carried out. The student activities were so organized as to include the majority of all the high school pupils, were under the control of the students themselves and pro- vided for the social as well as intellectual needs of the pupils taking part. The superintendents of these two schools had been able to arouse the interest of the patrons in the work of the school and to extend its influence in the various social functions of the commu- nity. There were special clubs for both men and women, social activities for the young people of the community, and a committee of business men to cooperate with the principal and superintendent in giving some vocational guidance to the boy of the community. The local lecture course was organized and maintained by the school. The result of all this work was that these schools were looked to for leadership and promulgation of all community activities. CHAPTER VI School Statistics One of the biggest problems the boards of education in the larger centers of population frequently have to face is to provide school facilities for an increasing and oftentimes, a shifting popu- lation within their jurisdiction. The opposite situation often con- fronts officials of rural schools where, in all older communities, there is a migration from the country to towns and cities. With the former it is a problem of providing additional and oftentimes temporary school buildings, equipment, etc., while with the latter it is a problem of closing some schools that at one time were well attended, consolidating adjoining districts, providing for trans- portation of pupils in opposition to community pride and local prejudices. The change in population in the different corporations during the past ten years will reveal the nature and significance of this problem in the different types of schools. The statistics with refer- ence to this point are given in the tables which follow. These tables also give data for determining the ratio of school census to total population, the efficiency of the different types of schools in retain- ing the pupils enrolled, the average number in daily attendance, the number completing the grades and the high school and the length of school year in days. In order to determine the number of children of legal school age in any school corporation enrolled in school, it was necessary to make corrections for the transfers from one school corporation to another. These corrections were made by determining the differ- ence between the amount of money paid out by each corporation for transfers and the amount received for the same purpose and dividing the difference in the case of township district schools, by two multiplied by the number of months the schools were in session and adding this quotient to or subtracting from the number of pupils enrolled in the schools of that corporation. If a greater amount was paid out than received for transfers, the number was added to the enrollment of the schools of that corporation, if the reverse, the number was subtracted. Two is taken as the divisor because two dollars per month is the maximum amount allowed by law for tuition of grade pupils of one corporation enrolled in the A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 93 TABLE XXXII Population and School Statistics of Townships with District Schools a :a 1 S3 1 1 'Co a—I ■32 &a a "XJo cSO 31 Pupils in parochial schools 3 C § in S 8 J3 a-a u.O u Children enrolled in schools of corporation 1 <-T3 (U 1 60 Is 3 .£P£ 1 OT3 g " 1-1 Si 1 790 850 1 210 180 158 126 11 140 2 2410 2657 834 519 519 488 32 135 3 873 1049 301 200 197 166 120 4 1687 1895 475 399 297 207 17 115 5 775 728 276 173 148 124 14 112 6 3335 3686 901 684 678 475 25 120 7 889 875 228 198 185 126 4 140 8 1670 1794 453 223 222 177 5 140 9 824 812 255 179 164 129 7 140 10 1782 2106 558 490 430 341 20 140 11 1137 1197 406 312 159 126 1 120 12 1185 1165 374 277 195 164 12 120 13 1165 1286 322 261 239 184 19 150 14 522 541 155 130 112 73 4 140 15 536 531 147 102 96 76 4 140 16 1505 1541 397 259 239 191 21 130 17 959 1052 274 214 244 207 12 160 18 1000 827 274 220 212 150 120 19 717 579 255 136 145 99 13 180 20 1483 1708 409 154 154 110 15 140 21 1053 1265 302 263 251 210 18 130 22 1897 1842 608 377 346 255 12 140 23 2671 2859 759 683 543 413 21 160 24 1114 1116 305 218 210 151 25 659 706 182 151 138 117 4 140 26 2413 2643 723 625 450 372 17 140 27 1519 1900 426 380 305 209 15 160 28 2727 2991 789 605 435 342 23 140 29 1222 1479 354 287 279 198 3 140 30 774 811 192 172 158 108 10 160 schools of another. In case of consolidated, town, and city school corporations, three multiplied by the number of months the schools were in session was taken as the divisor, as it is the average of the maximum amount allowed by law for grade and high school pupils. This somewhat arbitrary method of correction was necessary, since there was no means of determining what per cent of transfers were grade pupils and what per cent were high school pupils, neither were 94 ^ Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana TABLE XXXIII Population and School Statistics of Townships with Consolidated Schools a lo. o2 .25; g^ 8 & 2 — "3 a o c •3s -a o O U) 1 11 ll || Ho S.2 •A a 1^ iz:og § o 2 T3ja o 5.2 8 "2 3 ■2.S h3 >, 1 1146 1160 298 268 213 180 15 140 2 641 641 169 129 124 102 5 160 3 1738 1643 436 452 300 27 8 160 4 1070 1119 285 251 239 202 18 120 5 1131 1173 298 196 243 183 16 8 160 6 1904 1869 450 387 388 329 24 11 160 7 1594 1550 409 417 292 22 13 155 8 1428 1591 392 317 347 321 23 15 160 9 888 1031 217 182 174 153 6 5 140 10 2234 2564 536 467 469 412 23 12 160 11 776 842 179 152 166 162 5 5 170 12 652 657 171 142 154 118 6 160 13 873 973 213 186 190 145 10 5 160 14 691 684 160 145 157 134 9 140 IS 525 561 129 82 87 74 10 4 140 16 613 736 178 137 137 118 6 170 17 985 1095 262 187 189 154 there any data as to the exact amount of tuition charged per pupil by each school corporation. The results of this method of correc- tion are found in the columns with the headings, "Number of chil- dren of corporation enrolled in school". To illustrate the above method let us take number one of the township district school. The number of children enrolled in the schools of the corporation is 158. The amount of money paid out by this township for transfers was $320 and the amount received was $14 or a difference of $306. The schools of this corporation were in session seven months, hence the divisor was 2 X 7 or 14. 306 divided by 14 equals 21.8. Since more money was paid out than received it means that there were twenty-two more children transferred from than to the schools of that corporation and hence this number must be added to the num- ber enrolled in the school of that corporation, which gives 180. While an effort was made to secure reports of the number of children enrolled in parochial schools, no reliable data were avail- able since these schools are not under state supervision and few A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 95 TABLE XXXIV Population and School Statistics of Towns _ S a o "o 3 a 2 IS If f2^ 1 §.2 o — & C4 IS 2 o. e il J3 C C/3 O 13 c o a ^ rfi O 111 O.S8 IS Mo! Mm « -a a 1 5 S 1 1289 2116 397 279 329 271 19 93 160 2 439 476 135 113 126 84 2 136 3 911 832 191 150 211 164 7 7 180 4 864 915 192 137 214 170 11 10 160 5 1215 1503 327 259 385 319 18 140 6 425 465 87 78 108 92 7 140 7 1428 1567 367 313 346 288 19 17 165 8 961 908 275 208 259 202 13 7 160 9 1115 625 349 260 419 356 2 160 10 827 281 185 189 142 1 140 11 1166 1287 314 214 334 301 12 19 160 12 936 832 178 (209) 226 192 14 4 160 13 1233 1088 280 208 264 221 17 160 14 1148 1176 260 220 256 193 15 4 180 15 1235 1275 312 260 343 308 5 16 180 16 1608 974 422 (534) 574 482 29 18 160 17 1064 923 347 299 385 337 20 14 160 18 1293 1512 297 (418) 437 385 37 18 170 19 880 773 472 281 288 237 37 7 160 20 1757 1638 451 361 438 367 21 14 170 21 454 557 108 92 131 109 4 155 22 859 917 253 231 281 248 15 12 160 23 1167 1244 266 237 289 276 17 9 180 24 675 614 179 156 214 187 11 19 160 25 899 975 221 179 279 237 14 8 160 submitted any information. It is definitely known that a number of children of a greater number of corporations attended parochial schools than is indicated in these tables. The data for the length of school year are included in these tables for lack of better place for the same. Tables xxxvi, xxxvii, xxxviii, and xxxix are derived from the preceding tables and show the nature and extent of change in population in each school corporation in each type considered, the ratio of enrollment to school census, ratio of daily attendance to enrollment, and the per cent of average daily attendance com- pleting the grades and high school. 96 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana TABLE XXXV Population anb School Statistics of Cities 1 1 c .2 Is ^>> rt.ti 1 OS 3 IS o I .S II If d -. o -a o O rt S lli g8| Z o lis II J. 1 ^^ j3a ^Z gg 1 3919 3396 642 886 642 849 703 58 20 180 2 3335 3005 510 799 510 616 498 32 33 180 3 8838 6460 2975 1980 1530 180 4 9340 7786 1934 2902 1934 2139 1743 52 180 5 7738 6836 1894 1245 1314 1037 34 31 180 6 6229 2918 1710 1165 1204 928 28 25 180 7 8813 8130 270 2142 1572 1731 1348 80 69 180 8 2526 2336 640 362 430 342 20 13 180 9 8514 7810 2040 1518 1580 1300 68 61 180 10 5420 5034 1542 924 1089 880 52 48 180 11 2464 2527 744 406 462 369 25 13 177 12 10412 10774 107 4451 1802 1850 1408 69 31 180 13 17010 10609 4337 2997 3419 2191 64 69 178 14 10525 7113 3559 1531 1603 1179 31 34 190 15 3930 4326 118 1063 591 656 568 24 31 180 16 4529 4038 1375 651 1085 893 51 32 180 17 5073 4792 1278 901 1053 878 47 29 180 18 2915 2823 760 419 644 496 21 180 19 5130 4798 1349 1065 1165 998 45 23 180 20 4925 4541 1197 804 969 780 48 40 170 21 4115 3118 1103 950 1106 914 42 180 22 4075 3764 1227 921 1006 897 33 29 180 23 7854 8551 2482 1323 1483 1341 47 42 180 24 4266 3705 1159 753 5901 180 25 20081 18116 5678 3016 3075 2470 140 45 185 In fairly stable communities the number of graduates from the grades and high school may be taken as a fair index of the power of the schools of any corporation to retain the pupils enrolled. While we have sufficient data with reference to number of graduates, we were unable to determine the ratio of the number of graduates to the average daily attendance in the grades and high school separately, since the reports gave the average daily attend- ance of grades and high school together. The ratios of the graduates in both grades and high school to the total average daily attendance in each school corporation necessarily favor school corporations with large high school attendance and comparatively TABLE XXXVI Changes in Population and Statistics of Township District Schools Given in Per cent Change in population "o M tS o bo Jg a in ten years ^1 o % ^■^ o ^•S"-, g 3 8 Pi 11! Ill og a " Cm u 1 -60 -7.0 26.6 79.6 79.6 8.7 2 -247 -9.6 34.5 62.0 94.0 6.7 3 -176 -16.3 34.5 64.7 84.2 4 -208 -11.1 28.2 84.0 69.8 8.1 5 47 6.0 35.6 62.7 83.8 11.1 6 -351 -9.6 27.2 76.0 70.0 5.3 7 14 1.6 25.7 75.0 68.1 3.2 8 -124 -6.9 27.1 76.1 79.8 2.8 9 12 1.5 28.5 88.0 78.6 5 4 10 -324 -15.4 31.3 76.6 79.2 5.9 11 -60 -5.0 35.8 78.0 52.1 .8 12 20 1.7 31.5 78.0 84.0 7.3 13 -121 -9.4 27.6 84.0 77.1 10.3 14 -19 -3.5 29.6 68.3 65.2 5.5 15 5 .9 27.5 65.1 79.1 5.3 16 -36 -2.3 26 4 78.0 79.9 11.0 17 -93 -8.8 28.6 78.5 85.0 5.8 18 173 17.3 27 4 80.2 70.8 19 138 19.3 35.5 53.2 68.3 13.1 20 -225 -13.2 27.5 37.8 7.14 13.6 21 -212 -16.8 28.2 87.0 83.6 8.6 22 55 2.9 32.1 62.2 73.7 5.3 23 -188 -6.6 27.3 90.6 76.0 5.1 24 -2 -.2 27 4 72.0 71.8 25 -47 -6.6 26.7 82.9 84.8 3 4 26 -230 -8.7 30.0 86.2 82.7 4.6 27 -381 -20.1 28.1 89.0 68.3 7 4 28 -264 -8.8 28.9 76.7 78.6 6.7 29 -257 -17.6 28 4 81.2 71.1 1.5 30 -37 -4.5 25.8 89.7 64.1 9.3 [97] 98 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana TABLE XXXVII Changes in Population and Statistics of Township Consolidated Schools Given in Per cent 1 a Change in population in ten years ■§;§ o2 "op "0 iz; 1 3 is §i ft 4_)* fl-O v V a CO 1 -14 -1.2 26.1 89.7 84.5 8.3 2 26 4 76.8 82.0 4.9 3 95 5.5 25.1 66.3 11.7 4 -49 -4.6 26.6 88.0 84.8 8.9 5 -40 -3.5 26 4 65.6 75.1 13.1 6 35 1.8 24.6 86.2 84.6 10.6 7 44 2.8 25.7 70.1 11.9 8 -63 -A A 27.5 81.0 92.8 11.8 9 -143 -16.1 24.5 83.8 88.1 7.2 10 -330 -14.9 24.0 87.5 87.8 8.0 11 -66 -8.5 23.1 85.0 97.8 6.6 12 -5 -.8 26.1 83.1 77.8 5.1 13 -100 -11.5 24 4 87.1 75.1 10.2 14 7 1.1 23.2 90.6 85.2 6.7 15 -36 -6.8 24.6 63.8 85.0 18.9 16 -123 -20.1 29.0 77.1 86.3 5.1 17 -110 -11.2 26.6 71.3 81.3 small grade attendance. Since, however, the town and consolidated schools are very similar in this respect, it is doubtful if the relative standing of the two in the above table would be changed if we had exact data concerning this point. Table xl shows the central tendencies and deviations in data given in the preceding tables and provides a basis for comparison of the standing of the different corporations and schools in the different phases considered. It will be seen from this table that there is a decrease in population in all types of school corporations except the city, in which there is a marked increase. While there is an increase in a few of the corporations of township district, consolidated and town schools, this increase is more than offset by the number which show a decreasing population as well as the amount of the decrease. The total change in all the townships with district schools was a decrease of 3,250 or 5.7 per cent. The de- crease in townships with consolidated schools was a total of 838 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 99 TABLE XXXVIII Changes in Population and Statistics of Town Schools Given in Per cent 1 Change in population —3 u B in ten years 1-s 1:^ ^8-S fc 13 "1 la 11 It 5s 'oa v % Change in population in ten years 3I ■" ""3 8 ■3 -g-g S3 III " £ S (1^ Sis rt S •" 60 b ^ 1 sllL PL, CS tS 6OM 1 523 13.4 22.6 72.8 82.8 11.3 2 330 10.0 24.0 64.0 82.2 13.2 3 2378 26.8 33.6 77.2 4 1554 16.6 31.2 66.5 81.5 5 902 11.6 24.5 65.8 78.5 6.3 6 3311 53.2 27.4 68.3 77.2 5.7 7 683 77.5 24.1 83.6 77.9 11.1 8 190 4.3 25.4 .56.7 79.5 9.6 9 704 8.2 23.8 74.4 82.2 9.9 10 386 7.1 27.8 59.8 81.1 11.4 11 -53 -2.2 31.3 54.8 79.9 10.4 12 -362 -3.5 42.7 40.8 76.3 7.1 13 6401 37.5 25.4 69.0 64.0 6.1 14 3412 32.5 33.8 42.8 73.8 5.6 15 -396 -10.1 27.1 55.5 86.7 9.7 16 491 10.8 30.2 47.5 82.3 9.3 17 281 5.5 25.1 70.7 83.4 8.6 18 91 3.1 26.1 55.1 77.1 19 332 6.5 26.3 78.1 85.6 6.8 20 384 7.8 24.3 67.3 80.8 11.3 21 997 24.1 26.8 86.0 82.3 22 311 7.7 30.2 75.0 88.1 6.9 23 -697 -8.9 31.8 53.6 90.6 6.6 24 561 13.2 27.1 78.2 25 1865 9.3 28.4 53.3 81.0 7.8 seem to indicate that the population of townships with consoUdated schools and towns is made up more largely of older residents, many of whom have perhaps retired from active business and whose children are beyond legal school age. The statistics bear out the contention made by advocates of consolidated schools that consolidation means a larger enrollment of children in the schools of the township, since the ratio of enroll- ment to school census for consolidated schools is 81.1 per cent, while that of the town is 79.5 per cent, township district schools 78.1, and that of the city schools is only 61 per cent. It will also be noted that the variation for consolidated schools is less than that < H P d c4 '^ 3 4, c o «^ Ha ts - Pi 15 u o 3 c^-^ 00 VO t^ 00 O 00 CM OS »r5 ro ^ 1^ (N 00 CN C^l ro I I lO I > o o o.-J:; HUHU [lOl] I02 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana for any other type. While the enrollment in consolidated schools surpasses that in all other types, it will be noted that in average daily attendance the consolidated schools rank second to the town schools, but excel both city and township district schools. This is probably due to the fact that town school corporations are small and offer few inducements to older boys and girls to drop out to engage in some economic pursuit. Taking the tables as they are given, we note that the town schools rank first in the retention of their pupils and that the consolidated schools rank second, while the township district and city schools are about equal. The average length of the school year for township district schools is 139 days with a variation of 14 days as compared with 1 56. 1 days for consolidated schools with a variation of 10, 160.6 days for town schools, and 179 for city schools. In conclusion it may be said that the consolidated schools are found in townships in which there is less decrease in population than in townships with district schools, and in townships with older residents and comparatively fewer children of legal school age ; that consolidation increases the enrollment, average daily attend- ance, the power of the school to retain its pupils, and the length of the school year, but the consolidated school does not equal its pupils, which surpasses both the township district and city schools with reference to these points. CHAPTER VII School Finances — Receipts The question of financial support of schools is a vital one and will bear much study. No investigation concerning the educational situation in the different types of schools would be complete, which did not take into consideration the corporation wealth upon which the financial support of the school is based, the distribution of the total receipts of each corporation, the ratio of the amount raised for schools to the amount raised for other purposes, and a compari- son of the amount received for tuition or teachers' salaries, with the amount received for buildings and equipment, as well as a study of the distribution of the state funds among the schools of each type. The data on which the first part of this phase of the investigation is based, is the property valuation and tax levies in each corporation, and the distribution of the state funds and other indirect receipts as given in total number of dollars received from each source. The tax levies, instead of the total amounts received or the budget for the year, are made the basis for comparison on account of availability and completeness of the data. The total receipts for each item, if available, would be a little more satisfactory basis for comparison, since the somewhat variable factor, poll tax, which is not included when we consider property tax alone, would be elimi- nated. This, however, is a very minor factor since there are no wide variations among different corporations and the property tax without the poll tax is a better index of the support given the various accounts or departments in each corporation. The number of polls and amount assessed were given, but there was nothing to show how many paid the assessment. A comparison of the amount of tax levied on each poll by the state, county, and local corporation, shows little or no difference in the township with district schools and the township with consolidated schools, while the amount of the levy by cities is greater than either, and the amount of the levy by towns exceeds that of the cities. It will be observed that the same relationship exists among the various corporations in the amount of the tax levied on property in the different types considered, so that the elimination of poll tax in consideration of support of schools will not affect the results materially. I04 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana The tables giving the property valuation and tax levies differ from preceding tables in that they are exact and complete and have been compiled from reports according to the specifications of the law governing the same and are thus free from the variations which might otherwise have been noticeable. This is one phase of the in- vestigation that is based on uniform reports and is a good illustra- tion of what might be expected if such uniformity prevailed in other departments. While the items given for the township and consoli- dated schools differ somewhat from those given for town and city corporations, the similarity is so great that valid comparisons are easily made. In the tables which follow, it will be observed that the first column calls for total assessed valuation less mortgage exemptions. It might be explained that there is a law in force in Indiana at the present time which permits any resident holding property on which there is a mortgage to file an affidavit with the county auditor, which will exempt such property from taxation to the amount of seven hundred dollars valuation, provided the mort- gage is equal to or greater than this amount. The total tax which any resident of the state pays is the sum total of the levies made by the state, county, and local corporation. The state tax for 191 1 was $0.3185 on each one hundred dollars valuation and was divided as follows : State $0.09 Debt 015 School 136 State university and state normal school 0275 Benevolent institutions 05 This tax, as will be observed, is the same for all corporations. It should be explained that the state levy for schools is distributed in two ways. A part is given as special aid to those school corporations whose local taxes are not sufficient to maintain schools equal to the standard specified by law, and the remainder is distributed on the census basis. The county levy is the same for all corporations in each county. The local tax is levied, in the case of townships by the township trustee, and in the towns and cities by the town and city councils. In Table xliv it will be observed that the local tax is distributed as follows : Township, Tuition, Special School, Poor, Road, Gravel road, and all other purposes. The township levy is made for the purpose of meeting the general running expenses of a township and A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 105 corresponds very closely to the corporation levy of the towns and cities. The salary of the trustee, the road supervisor, office expenses, traveling expenses, and the like, are paid from this fund. The tuition of pupils attending schools in other corporations may also be paid out of this fund. The tuition levy is made to pay the salaries of the teachers. The salaries of the advisory staff and the expenses of buildings and equipments are paid out of the special school fund. The distinction between roads and gravel roads is that the levy for "Roads" is for the purpose of maintaining all highways that have not been macadamized, while "Gravel roads" is the levy made to pay the bonds which were issued by a special vote of the citizens of the township for the purpose of building macadam roads. All levies for purely local purposes are given under the item "All other purposes". The distribution of local taxes in town and city corporations needs no explanation. Anyone interested in the taxes of the townships in which rural schools are maintained, will observe by study of Table xliv that there is little correlation between the assessed valuation of a cor- poration and the amount of the local tax for that corporation. A corporation with high valuation may have a high local levy, as in the case of township number two, or a low local levy, as in the case of township number twenty-eight, and in like manner it will be observed that a township with a low valuation may have a low tax levy, as in the case of township number fourteen, or a high local tax, as in the case of township number eighteen. If the size of the townships and the number of schools maintained were the same, these facts might justify an investigation, but since there is a con- siderable variation in the size of the townships and the density of the population, no inferences are justifiable on these data alone. The variability observed in the townships with district schools is also to be observed in the townships with consolidated schools, but not in such a marked degree. Notwithstanding the fact that the state levy is uniform in all corporations and that the variation in the county is not great, it will be observed that the total amount of taxes in towns greatly exceeds that in the townships, but is not equal to the total tax levies in the cities. The central tendencies and variations in the tax levies on one hundred dollars, is given in Table XLV. The variation in the amount of the county tax in the four types of schools considered is probably due to the additional office expenses necessary to keep the records of the counties in which o ^ pq & sssodjnd SpBOI pBO-g JOOJ jooqDS )^l33dS uopinx dtqsuMox S3! l^iox CNfSCNCSCSr-lCNCS' diqsuMox rOOO'^CNrOO\OiOOOPOO^r^t^OOsCNir~-iOCN'-iriiriir)ir3iriir)ir)U-i\r3U^i/->u^iri\ri Xinno3 1^ ■^\OOrtOOOOiOOOiOOiCO>O'*OiOOOOOOO"0OO>DO.rf( OfO<^^•*OCOT-(T-loOTtlO■*0■'-^■^t^"^vO^LO^OC^vOO^'*'OC^OOS ^-^ o TjT oT t--^ -rt c-^ ro lo O c-T -^J^" ■r4" 00 oC os^ c^ O r^^ c^ '-T 06" t^ cn" '^ OrovO-^'O'-iO'^CN'-it^r^'^-rfONr^oOCNr^iO'-icNCNOO-^iON'-'CviTtiS t--LOvO-^CN"0"0t~t^'^iO00CNTJ<00 0\0 rT) 0^c> r^TjH^r-^O^O^ro^o •* Os qq diqsiuio) }o iaquin^ •.-ics'«*>'^^t^ooo\0' [106] K q ^ 'o d _o 3 .£ 5 sasodind laqioiiv oo rop p ■^ ^ SpBOI o o o lo 1/5 ■^ T)< IT) o O Ooo.^ •— lOs lO^ pBO^ O 00 00 o o CN O ■^ rri -; CO ro ro oo CNI CN dtqsuAiox O 00 O lO O 00 O ro OS O O-^r-HOO OOO tJooO '-I O ^ ^ '-I too O CN 1 Ii^iox lO O CN \o o CN ^ rO •rH CM CN (N q sq sq p rsq ro tH .-1 CN «N to to 00 oo 00 00 00 PO PO CO CO ro lO to lO to to 00 oo 00 00 00 CO CO CO CO CO tOiO OOOO CO CO suopdmaxs 33i;S -;joui ssaj nop^n -\VA. passassB fe^ox $1,490,370 1,020,910 1,742,085 1,064,645 568,900 1,939,160 1,591,915 1,497,605 1,327,495 2,299,910 oo '-HOOs so 00 CO SO t^ OS to 00 -^ Os t--rt-rco^ro't--r •* r~) -^ lO O CO CsJ 00 to to ^o O rsj si -UMO} dtqs jaquiii^ th cs ro T* lO sOt^ooOsO T-H Cs) CO ■* to so t^ [107] ^ w w J m > g h-J 1 "o ■3 5 1 10.02 .02 .02 CO CN •^ CO I 00 in CO lo o o CN t^ \0 lO »-l ooooo to CO to •<* to O to O O o CO to to to to OOOioO to to to CO to 8 ooooo U^ •<4< "0 >/^ lO OOOOt^ T^ lo lo lo o ooooo ■* CM to to lO OiOiOOO to 1* CO to to OOOOO to to lO to to ^ g o o o lo lo o ro "-! Tjt r^ lO OOiOCOO •rH lO CM t^ U-) oooooo CO to OS so to VO to o o to CO CO so CO t^ OtOiOO>0 OS ■^ CO CO CM * o PL, e2 (T) On '^ O t~- 0\-*coi00 00 CO CM to ■^ so OS to ■^ CM Csj PS] SC ■«* CM CM CM ^ i-H ■>* CM CM t~ ■* O to *0 t^ O so (T) »-i PO CM fO CM CO CO (M ^ CM 1-1 CO CM ■^ CO CO CO CO CO CO CN CM CO (M l^t^ (N O P— ll-~ t^ -^ CO to OS to to Tj^ CO CO CO so COSO-HOCO P>o to to to 00 00 00 00 00 CO CO CO CO CO 8 If |i f2| lo >o o •'I o CO 0\ CN CN '-I t^ 00 00 00 00 to o o lo o OO T-ir^ lo lo ■* so vO O CO Orf OOO (^ CO so OS to so OS 00 t^ '-I oiooto o Ost^ so •^ 1-1 00 Tt< o NOt^oooNO ^H CM CO ■* to sOt^OOOsO t-l ^H ^^ i-H CM •^C^cOtJOO «MCSCMCs»eM [io8] 11 ^ s < ft E ^ l-t oi p^ >^ ^-H »-l lO^-l »-» a P pp ^ .Q i^ «©^ •S § "0 U-) 10 J= •^ CN ■rH p CS ■3 «©. u m 10 _ cq S ■a c ^ ID ID IT) bO P (NP^ .C !3 «■ i^ 10 oic >0 00 CN •D .s CN '1 "^ PO '-H ro fD CN ■^ ^ »-< !10 J ^ M 10 ID 00 ID 10 "1 CN CVJ 0» CN OS ^ * ^ Cl K kt 10 ID l> >D OlDlD CN "-H fS P CNj cv; Cvj »-< CN M ^ T3 ^#= C3 « •S ^0 tN fO 00 «N «N m «N s €©^ >H ^ II T-ICNf<^rt 10 Ot^ 00O\O -H (N fo 'i* ID vOJ--00O>O »-t r^ ro Tj< ID T— < ^-H *-H tH ^— ( '-i'-i^^r>4 lO IT) ■^ U-) cvi \o vO D ID ID 'Sj* T}< r^ •^ ■>* 0>D00 ■^ ID CO ID ID 8 Tuition 0000-* ri< lO lO lO * CO CO •<* cs * Corporation 00 Ov 00 \o \o tCOiDOO \0 \0 '-I ID o O O O t^ ID ID 00 -H ■^ NO ID ID 00 ID >D l^ ID CM CO 00 g " - "" »H " s O "3 0^ "-I 00 lO "* . f»5 T-i roi~- lO 00 O CS 00 O P<1 CNO-<*ro Cvl I--. »D CS t^ 00 On CM > 3 a LO lO lO lO IC ■rt .-H T-l T-H tH ■<* lO CO ro ^^ ■4i '^ 00 vO ro 6015 4515 4415 4415 5215 iTi iTi ir^ u^ \ri On CO 00 J^ NO •^ ■*CO>D'* IT) \rj iTi i/^ in t^ T-H^ t^ 00 '^ rt< O^ •* ^ ID ID ID to ID ID tD ID NO 00 cO>* >OCOTj« 8 UO >0 lO lO IT) 00 00 00 00 00 (T) ro rO ro ro ID lO "0 lO lO 00 00 00 00 00 CO CO ro CO CO ID ID ID ID ID 00 00 00 00 00 CO CO CO CO CO u~i ir^ irnT) IT) OO 00 OO 00 00 CO CO CO CO CO ITi IT) XT) ITi ir^ 00 00 00 00 00 CO CO CO CO CO 8 o "D lo lo o • lO lO o oiouoo CO O O Osl^ t^ ID 1 <^ 5 !2i0 r^ r^ 05> ro lO 00 "0 O VO OOO VD in 2 '-jP pp P P -H p PPpP -^ p p <>) p OJ i o 2 ^^ ■S g lO O"0lO fO 00 CN ir^ 00 lO in ^ ■^ ro ^ CN '^ p p OJ <>1 <>J CN 8 o .q o (n t/i O OsCS "^ Pvl O r^ ir> T3 g ^. *^'~! CJ CO CO Q, m ^ T3 1 IT) O Ov CD lo lO lO o lo bO C<1 p CN p ■-;P O .a o * .-1 «©■ on o o >o "-5 o o lO £ T-l .rHfO *^. ■^ CN ^ 8 lO dJ O 00 00 lO "O o oo 1^3 cd *"! '"1 CN CO CN th ^f*5 Ol 1 * ^ a> S a CM o o»o 00 O o o '-H '"'. "^. '"i CN CN pg CSl o g o Cti •a P oc^i-* CNUT-H o 1 o ca «<» ^ O «- o s>> THCSf*) ^lO vOt^OOOvO ^H oj ■^ ic vOt- OOCNO -H «N CO -^ UO ^.■s T-H ▼— ( ^— t ^-H !—< T-H •rH T-l T-fi-H > 3 O O -H .rt IT) ro lO »0 OO CK aSvisAy '^ ^. ■* rt< O sipjBnC) oooo 2 VO lO "^ lO CAI CO 00 00 00 33BJ3AV <^ ro ro tr> O OOOO fN '^ ■■-1 O ro t^ ^ Ch O 3[niTOf) •O OS »-i vo vO CO '-H lo ^ ^ ro 'H ro g #^ "-H % a i 0\ "-I t^ 00 a •* po t^ o VO (M ON oo c3 t^ ^ ro •^ a3BJ3AV ■<* -rt* 00 Ttl CN CN PO lO '-I T-i ro €. o o o.ti HUHU M ~ [113] « Ov On ^^ lO & aipjBtif) O tN ^-( n-. • * ' O a ^^ O J^ O ro '-I NOt-. vo o aSwaAy O O fN ro ^ s lO O 00 T^ ■M '^ 0-* -^ " ajiiJBnf) o O lO r^ CN 00 t^ rti O lO ro ■^ ro o Pi 33BJ3Ay &i lO lO lO lO oooo anVTJnf) 8 o p< CN 00 ro r^j o tN »o oooo 33W3AV O r^ Tfi lo t^ O r^ Ov T^ ajprtn^ o^-^-^- ^9^ 13 O li-) OO LO t^ H NO o -H po ^ t^ On 00 aS'EjaAv O CNl lO t^ lO "0 CN OOOO T3 aipjTOf) o a „ ^^ "o ;5< O NO lO ■^ ir> lo 00 o CN Tf rti -^ CAI a3w3Av o 4©- lO lO IT) irj li") On oooo anu^nf) Q ^©: o ■;3 '3 NO 00 '-H NO H i-H IT) LO t^ CN CN Ttl ro sSwaAy o ^^ fN ^^ PO PO "0 >o O O -H fN Sd anwunf) o ' ' ' .S--B ©5^ J3 g ia NO PO lO r-H s b TjHO 001^ •^-HT* 00 H <^ 33BJ3AV & c & >. o o o.-a HUHU TABLE XLVI Wealth per Capita School Population and Percentile Distribution of Tax Levies in Township with District Schools a 1 "S If T3 0.60 s s c 0. C e2 .o i 1 o o |1h i ^ ■i 2 1 O 1 S a O < 1 $3371 15.6 21.4 63.0 6.7 12.2 13.0 .8 21.3 46.0 2 1835 11.5 22.8 65.7 5.5 22.0 27.5 1.1 11.0 33.0 3 2208 13.5 26.8 59.7 15.2 21.5 14.3 10.6 38.4 4 3052 15.8 21.4 62.8 8.7 23.6 10.3 1.6 31.5 23.6 .8 5 971 14.3 19.3 61.4 11.0 18.2 11.0 1.4 22.0 36.4 6 1677 11.3 19.7 69.0 7.6 16.4 20.5 1.5 12.9 41.1 7 2205 13.1 19.1 67.8 17.3 18.4 18.4 1.3 24.6 18.4 2.5 8 1641 13.5 22.2 64.3 6.6 19.7 19.7 23.0 31.0 9 3089 19.3 26.7 54.0 18.0 18.0 18.0 1.2 44.8 10 2527 15.7 19.4 64.9 7.5 19.0 11.5 23.0 39.0 11 1411 18.3 28.3 53.4 25.8 12.9 10.8 2.1 10.8 37.6 12 2338 19.8 30.7 49.5 31.6 6.3 6.3 1.2 12.6 42.0 13 3854 20.6 28.6 50.8 12.2 23.1 24.4 3.7 36.0 14 2893 19.5 19.2 61.3 17.0 20.0 20.0 3.0 40.0 15 6121 18.9 26.9 54.2 18.7 26.4 12.1 5.5 23.1 11.0 3.2 16 4230 16.1 19.4 54.5 12.8 15.7 7.8 15.7 44.9 3.9 17 2490 13.2 15.8 71.0 5.8 17.7 29.4 .6 14.7 31.8 18 1171 12.4 27.1 60.5 16.2 16.2 25.8 22.6 19.3 19 4204 16.0 22.3 61.7 12.3 12.3 20.5 8.2 46.7 20 4475 16.5 23.5 60.0 7.0 17.4 17.4 1.7 13.1 39.1 4.3 21 4674 21.3 25.6 53.1 10.1 20.2 15.2 2.5 22.8 29.1 22 2350 15.2 22.6 62.2 9.2 23.1 23.1 7.7 23.1 10.0 3.8 23 3588 18.5 23.4 58.1 10.0 26.0 22.0 10.0 30.0 2.0 24 3550 21.7 24.8 53.5 20.5 25.6 25.6 28.3 25 5794 16.3 24.8 58.9 10.4 22.0 8.7 .9 24.6 33.4 26 3318 15.7 17.3 67.0 7.4 14.7 33.2 1.4 11.8 31.6 27 4483 17.7 26.8 55.5 14.0 19.0 22.0 11.0 34.0 28 4338 19.7 27.8 52.5 8.3 18.8 18.8 4.7 49.4 29 5481 17.9 33.9 48.2 11.6 25.5 29.1 4.6 11.6 17.5 30 4184 17.6 25.2 57.2 16.5 29.1 23.4 1.9 29.1 [114] A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 115 TABLE XLVII Wealth per Capita School Population and Percentile Distribution of Tax Levies in Township with Consolidated Schools '° 0. Q. bx) 0. *~* en Eg 4) iy5 >> u 1 1 a .0 H |-3 Ol in -a S. 1| og ^1 1 $5001 13.6 19.3 67.1 6.6 12.7 31.5 1.3 16.4 31.5 2 6041 14.4 23.8 61.8 5.8 18.5 36.0 5.8 33.9 3 3995 15.0 18.5 66.5 7.1 16.3 35.5 12.8 28.4 4 3735 13.5 16.6 69.9 9.1 9.1 30.3 18.2 33.4 5 1909 15.0 21.0 64.0 4.4 30.0 37.3 15.0 13.2 6 4309 15.6 21.9 62.5 6.2 24.0 38.8 23.3 7.7 7 3892 16.0 13.0 71.0 7.1 21.3 35.5 2.8 12.1 21.2 8 3820 15.8 19.2 65.0 10.0 28.5 30.8 .8 13.9 15.4 .7 9 6117 17.3 26.2 56.5 8.7 17.4 31.6 1.0 24.0 17.3 10 4292 17.5 26.5 56.0 5.9 24.5 39.1 2.0 17.6 10.8 11 7530 19.9 30.1 50.0 12.3 25.0 50.0 1.2 10.0 1.3 12 7178 19.3 29.2 51.5 9.4 22.4 58.8 9.4 13 3961 15.6 22.4 62.0 11.2 24.8 40.0 24.0 14 3459 14.1 20.1 65.8 10.2 20.3 33.7 .7 23.6 11.5 15 3938 13.7 19.5 66.8 6.4 22.5 35.5 19.4 16.2 16 5801 15.6 28.1 56.3 4.4 17.3 15.6 .9 17.4 44.4 17 3986 13.7 15.8 70.5 12.3 12.3 31.2 18.7 11.8 13.7 Levies in towns and cities for water, lighting, and the like, are grouped in I'able xlv under the heading, "All other purposes," simply because there is nothing in the other corporations which is comparable to these expenditures. Tax levies for all these purposes are much greater in the cities than in the towns. Tables xlvi, xlvii, xlviii, and xlix are derived from the preceding tables and express in per cents the distribution of the tax levies for the various purposes. For example township number one in Table xlvi is read as follows : The wealth per child of school age is $3,371, 15.6 per cent of the total tax levy is levied by the state, 21.4 per cent by the county, and 63 per cent by the township. Six and seven-tenths of the total local levy in this township is levied for township purposes, 12.2 per cent is levied for tuition purposes, 13 per cent for special school fund, .8 of one per cent for poor, 21.3 per cent for roads, and 46 per cent for gravel roads, or in other words, in this township one-eighth of the total levy is for salaries of the teachers in that township, which is about one-half as much as is raised for the roads and about one- fourth as much as is raised for l-l w O s9Sodmd raqio ijV p lO V^d iCreiqiq •^ lO spuoq jooqDS 0\ l^ •* cs o spuoqiwliainnjfli 13.0 3.4 sq re pimjSanints 2.0 10.6 8.6 ^qSi-i 7.5 6.8 10.6 o 13.5 8.4 4.2 4.5 "* t^ mvfA. o 00 8.2 11.8 .7.5 p^ 133US lO pTO^ 11.3 3.5 o VD q 10.0 8.5 10.7 7.4 11.4 pBOJ pABjg 21.0 10.0 16.2 21.2 lo \q <5 »-H OO lO Ov Ov (M ,_! Ol .rt 36.5 18.2 13.2 17.7 lo p o\ "0 po m^i^ooo -H tM PO -H (M -H 12.5 21.4 31.5 iOOJ t^ i-i r^ O 00 ■^ >:*< 00 lio o\ \o »- 1 >o O 00 ID Ov re PM lOrJ* -' -' 0 00 -H r^ 0 O Os t^ -^ 00 ■* CN t~~l^ T-H PO 1 PS| uopwo(iio3 lO t— n so »^ (D ■ t^ l^ *0 l^ PC vO VO ro O 00 ■^ (M t^ \0 J^ t^ 00 to ro lO to I~~ t^ t^ t-~ t^ r^ pe -H ps) pg o so t^ l^ t^J^ jt}imo3 vO 0\ '-< "0 00 ■rH Ti< T-H (M 00 reiOCM^'* SO -H re O P* t^ tH »o re t— so sOl^ t^ PM '-I ■rt "-H »H aws '*0 t-H tN-^ On •-I 0\ ^ (M ooio T-HOio CM OS ^ o re pg tH uo PSl PM Ov O O 0 ) PM PSI psj PI [n6] X! < § sasodmd "HJOIIV ^■"BJ jClWqiq spnoq looqos spnoq X4!3 ptmj aU15(UTg ?qsn js^BjW 133flS SpBOJ ■—< Cs| (-0 rO CN 'O CS ■rt CN P>1 tS JOOJ jooqDs ■Eiasdg "1 ^ ro w fO O On 00 "1 00 p c^i lO CN 00 vq rn CN CN 00 »0 ■5tl T-H lO CN •^ J~-. lO ■>* t^ (N ■<* lO 0\ 00 00 u^ O CO t^ '-1 OCJCNoqCNf-- r)-H -rt -H OJ rvl (M T-H ^ .,-( ^ _H _- _, ■^(v^-r^iovq wrocNoqo oocO'-icNTti iocnidoio OOt^OO^O CJ noiipx noi} -Bjodjoi) Tt< (T) ^_ to 00 "-H 00 On "^ t^ 00 ro •* po•^_c^^Olq uoio-<*iO'* coO'*c<^oo ^:r;~~^^'' CNOs-^^-t^ lO'»fTj iOt-hO\LOIO lOOvCN'^t^ 10010-^00 ^?!3 CNro<~0'-irJ< lOinCN'-iCN OsOOO^O lorocOvOrJ* iO»-iOiOt^ X}nno3 SiBJS 33b jooqos }opi!qD J3d q?iB3AV Xip JO Mqicnjij o lo lo vo t^ CO CN CO T^ rj< 0\ VO O •^ t-~ t--. TjH CO 00 CN t^ rf ro ■rf lO CO O -H »-i 00 00 t--; t^ CO '-I r-l i-H lO O t^ 00 CN CN CO Ov O O 00 0\ r. CN CO "-H O O 00 o CN 00 VO *0 00 O O 00 00 OS t-- CN CO CN CN O 00 0\ 0\ "-I ^ O '-H LO lO •rt CN 00 00 O •^liO'^t^lT) Tj<^Ht^r*00 VO CO UO 00 oo vO O "-I 00 ^ Ooot^oO^O r^vOO\>OCN O »0 co --i t^ lo ■.-< th -S oo CM \0 '-H CO O tm t-~ vo "-H CN (M 0\ CO I'l Tf r^ 00 ■<* O CO tJ< t* ■«* "S ?5 CO v-HCNrHCNCN '-M i-H»-H*-H ^-Ht— l^-Hr-|i-' CN -rH ^ m^ CN '-H ■.-4 »-< CN '-ICSCOTflO Ot^OOOsO »-lCNCO'*tO [117] 1 18 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana gravel roads. The variation observed in the state levies in the differ- ent types of corporations is due to the great variation in the local levies. When the local levy is low then the ratio of the state levy to the total levy will be high. Tables xlvii, xlviii, and xlix are to be read in a similar manner. By expressing the tax levies in per cent of the total, we have a basis for direct comparison of the amount of money raised for the various purposes in any corporation as well as the relative support in different corporations with the same type of school and relative distribution of funds raised in the one type as compared with the distribution found in another. These tables make it possible to avoid errors in inferring that one corporation is more liberal in the support of some department or account, when considered in rela- tion to the amount raised for other purposes, it is relatively low. In number five of the townships with district schools it will be ob- served that only ii per cent of the total local levy was for school buildings and 18.2 per cent of the total local levy was for the pay- ment of teachers. While in township number twenty-six one-third of the total levy is for the building and equipment of school houses and only 14.7 per cent for the salaries of teachers. The central ten- dencies and variabilities in terms of per cent are given in Table l. The average wealth per capita school population in townships with consolidated schools is $4412, as compared with $3251 for township district schools, $1912 for cities, and $1432 for town schools, which means that pupils in consolidated schools have fifty per cent more wealth on which the support of their education depends than pupils in townships with district schools, more than twice the wealth sup- porting the education of the city child and three times the wealth supporting the education of the town child. The consolidated schools not only have a greater wealth per capita school population, but also have a greater variability, while the town schools have the lowest amount of wealth per child of school age, and also have the least variability. From these facts it is safe to conclude that the towns are burdened much more for the proper support of the schools than any other type of corporation considered. It is necessary in comparing the relative standing of the different types of cor- porations as to per cent of total tax levied by the state, to also consider the per cent of the total tax levied by local authorities. While the state tax is the same for all corporations the per cent of the total tax levied by the state will vary according to the amount <: u ^ pj u w (i< ^ m w H < < H B o 00 O 00 o rt QjpjBnf) Tt (N OrO ^— 1 T-l O, O U 1-1 o a J3 ^^OO P aSuMAV ^ ^_ -. ir> "^ CN CN o 1-) ■* vOiO 00 33BI3AV O (M »-* ■* \0 O t^l^ 31!Vrenf) l~- Os 0\ Ol !r> rn . c o ■* 00 tN ^ 33BJ3AV rr> ■^ t^ lO Cv| CN "-I 1-1 aipjEnf) ^ O^, ■* ON D CN ■rt '-I +J Ol CS o ro '-I aSBWAV vO"-! ■^O 00 oor^ 00 O "-) rO •fi 3ljVEnC) 0\0f0 '^ «<5^ n a a-5 2J3 u-3 ^1 -^ CN » 0."S b-<^i->U a i M < 3I!ViBnO 00 ■>* NOOvO f- Tf vq -^ aSBisAV aijV^nf) t- es >o >o CO CM vq o) ^ fVJ ^ ^ 33BJ3AV i-t P4 ainiTjnf) CM \q j-^ \q 3&BJ3AV 00 O '-; ■rt ^ CM 1 -a c 3 1 ajpjEnf) On ri; ■* t^-OvO-* W PQ < ajsS^AV ^ CO CM <^ Ov CO ■^ CO 10 •* H 3 a in 3[njT:n5 ^ p C; vO (NO "0 CM a3Bi3AY cMONoqoo_ "5 ^-^ 00 (M PD CM »-l (3 .0 '3 H a iJTOf) ^. P "^. ^. fO ■* CD CTi aSwaAv 17.9 20.4 21.4 15.5 Township Consolidated Town City [119] I20 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana of the county and local levies. The higher the per cent of the total levy levied by the state, the lower must necessarily be the local tax. In the townships with district schools the average per cent of the total levy, levied by the state, is 16.2 ; while the local levy is only 60.4 per cent as compared with the state levy of 11.3 per cent in towns, and lo.i per cent in cities, and a local levy of 71.5 per cent and 74.8 per cent in these corporations, respectively. In other words, towns and cities require a greater amount of money to conduct their affairs than do townships in which are district, and townships in which are consolidated schools. To determine the generosity of any corpora- tion in the support of its schools, it is necessary to compare the amount of money raised for the school purposes with the amount of money raised for all other purposes in that corporation. The average levy in townships with district schools for the general busi- ness affairs of the township is 12. i per cent with a variability of 4.8 per cent as compared with an average levy of 8.1 per cent with a variability of 2 per cent in townships with consolidated schools and 25 per cent in towns with a variability of 10.8 per cent and 36 per cent in cities with a variability of 13.6 per cent. In other words, it costs a township with district schools about 50 per cent more to conduct the general business of the township than it costs the town- ship with consolidated schools. When we compare the dififerent types of corporations in the amount of levies made for school purposes, we see that cities which average 15.5 per cent of the total levy for the payment of teachers and 18.8 per cent for special school funds, spend less, relatively speaking, for the support of their schools than any other type of corporation. The townships with district schools with an average of 17.9 per cent of the total levy for the payment of teachers and 20.2 per cent for the special school fund, or a total of 39.1 per cent, rank second. Towns which devote 21.4 per cent of the total levy for the payment of teachers and 21. i for the special school fund or a total of 43.3 per cent rank third, while townships with consolidated schools with 20.4 per cent of the total levy for the payment of teachers and 35.9 per cent for the special school fund or a total of 56.3 per cent of the total levy for school purposes, are most liberal in the support of their schools. If the assumption that consolidated schools are located in town- ships with better public highways is true, it is because these town- ships have better highways on account of natural conditions than on TABLE LI Data for Showing Relation of Wealth per Capita and Tax Levied for Town- ship District Schools Per cent the levy Number of Wealth per Per cent the state Per cent the local for tuition and township capita levy is of total levy levy is of total levy special school fund is of total local levy 5 $ 971 14.3 61.4 19.2 18 1171 12.4 60.5 42.0 11 1411 18.3 53.4 23.7 8 1641 13.5 64.3 39.4 6 1677 11.3 69.0 36.9 2 1835 11.5 65.7 49.5 7 2205 13.1 67.8 36.8 8 2208 13.5 59.7 39.4 Average 1639 .8 13.48 62.72 36.1 15 $6121 18.9 54.2 38.5 25 5794 16.3 58.9 30.7 29 5481 17.9 48.2 54.6 21 4674 21.3 53.1 35.4 27 4483 17.7 55.5 41.0 20 4475 16.5 60.0 34.8 28 4339 19.7 52.5 37.2 16 4230 16.1 64.5 23.5 Average 4949 .6 18.1 55.36 36.9 TABLE LII Data for Showing Relation of Wealth per Capita and Tax Levied for Con- solidated Schools Per cent the levy Number of township Wealth per capita Per cent the state levy is of total levy Percent the local levy is of total levy for tuition and special school funds is of total local levy 5 $1909 15.0 64.0 67.3 14 3459 14.1 65.8 54.0 4 3735 13.5 69.9 39.4 8 3820 15.8 65.0 59.3 7 3892 16.0 71.0 54.8 15 3938 13.7 66.8 58.0 Average 3458 .8 14.70 67.10 55.46 11 $7530 19.9 50.0 75 .(W l: 7178 19.3 51.5 81.24 2 6041 14.4 61.8 54.55 16 5801 15.6 56.3 32.9 9 6117 17.3 56.5 49.0 1 5001 13.6 61.1 44.2 Average 6278 15.0 57.95 56.1 [121] TABLE LTII Data for Showing Relation of Wealth per Capita and Tax Levied for Town Schools Per cent the levy Number of town Wealth per capita Per cent the state levy is of total levy Per cent the local levy is of total levy for tuition and special school funds is of total local levy 2 $1029 16.0 59.1 55.6 10 1043 21.2 46.0 24.7 8 1060 9.9 73.0 48.6 1 1087 9.4 79.0 37.4 11 1156 11.8 73.9 45.5 5 1222 8.4 74.8 46.1 17 1234 9.9 73.0 42.7 22 1242 12.1 71.0 54.0 Average 1133.1 12.34 68.72 44.3 12 3027 16.5 60.0 43.0 6 2419 13.9 66.0 43.1 14 2256 13.0 71.3 51.3 18 2293 10.1 75.6 35.7 4 1941 12.2 71.3 42.2 3 1905 10.1 70.8 51.7 25 1819 12.2 70.4 54.8 23 1654 11.5 72.5 49.8 Average 2164.2 12.44 69.74 46.45 TABLE LIV Data for Showing Relation of Wealth per Capita and Tax Levied for City Schools Per cent the levy Number of Per cent the state Per cent the local for tuition and Wealth per capita levy is of total levy is of total special school city levy levy funds is of total local levy 12 $ 765 10.0 75.0 26.7 6 1101 10.2 70.5 45.4 3 nil 8.2 70.3 36.8 11 1274 11.4 70.9 38.1 4 1385 9.3 73.1 39.0 22 1413 8.2 80.1 27.6 23 1415 9.3 75.0 27.7 18 1437 8.6 65.3 28.9 Average 1262 .6 9.5 72.5 33.8 5 3025 12.9 74.4 37.7 7 2782 11.3 72.5 31.1 21 2456 10.7 77.5 36.3 20 2378 9.8 75.4 32.9 25 2288 11.2 71.7 36.4 1 2264 10.8 74.2 36.8 10 2260 10.4 72.2 33.7 9 2188 10.5 75.1 45.2 Average 2455 11.2 74.1 35.5 [122] A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 123 account of the amount of money spent for the buildingvand upkeep, as is shown by the amount of the total levies devoted to the building and upkeep of roads. We find that 27.2 per cent of the total levy in townships with consolidated schools is for the purpose of building and repairing roads, as compared with 47.3 per cent of the total levy in townships with district schools devoted to the same purpose. It may seem a little strange that towns with an average of 19.6 per cent of the total levy, devoted to roads and streets, should spend more, relatively speaking, than do the cities which devote 12.2 per cent of the total levy for this purpose. This is probably due, as was stated before, to the fact that the towns are located in communities where there are a great many macadam roads, so that the amount of money devoted to this purpose is relatively high on account of the limited wealth of these corporations. It is generally assumed that there is a negative correlation be- tween the wealth per capita of any corporation and the amount of tax levied by that corporation for local purposes, that is, the greater the wealth per capita, the lower the local tax rate and vice versa. In order to determine to what extent this assumption is true the fol- lowing tables were compiled. The wealth per capita, the per cent of the total levy levied by the state and by the local corporation and the per cent of the total local levy levied for school purposes were taken for eight of the corporations with least wealth per capita and the eight corporations with the greatest wealth per capita in townships with district schools, and the average in each item for each group determined. In a similar way, six townships with consolidated schools, eight towns, and eight cities with the least wealth per capita and six townships, eight towns, and eight cities with the greatest wealth per capita were selected, and the average in each item of each group determined. TABLE LlV(a) Ratio of Wealthier Group to Poorer Group of Corporations in Wealth PER Capita and Tax Levies Wealth per capita State Local School Township Consolidated Town City 3.02 1.82 1.72 1.94 1.33 1.02 1.00 1.19 .89 .87 1.02 1.02 1.02 1.01 1.05 1.05 TABLE LV Amount of Money Received from the Various Sources for Tuition Fund in Townships with District Schools Indirect Direct g So 111 Mia ■5; S 9 a -0 a T3 en m i2 a a S8 i 1 1 ■0 — S « OH 1 $ 879 $ 39 $ 54 $ 14 $ 39 $ 1025 $ 1181 $ 2206 2 2911 46 114 71 3142 3625 6767 3 1170 64 41 149 1424 1672 3096 4 1817 34 $ 271 57 48 59 2286 3759 6045 5 1011 96 151 30 32 1320 831 2151 6 3540 121 122 36 1554 5373 3646 9019 7 1039 103 204 57 104 1507 1653 3160 8 1762 100 85 187 103 2237 2181 4418 9 947 24 28 10 65 1074 1095 2169 10 2299 71 112 155 2637 3600 6237 11 1619 30 335 129 385 71 2569 695 3264 12 1498 114 328 118 371 171 2600 2175 4775 13 1147 136 53 229 169 1734 3075 4809 14 575 116 58 33 782 1320 2102 IS 630 66 14 83 793 1541 2334 16 1673 63 64 174 1974 3296 5270 17 1097 86 68 488 264 2003 1819 3822 18 1035 46 69 23 1173 820 1993 19 992 26 1049 29 223 75 2394 1443 3837 20 1669 32 55 397 2153 2855 5008 21 1182 57 22 181 1442 2135 3577 22 2381 111 48 42 32 2614 4649 7263 23 2878 276 558 204 340 4256 8037 12293 24 1178 83 72 1333 2418 3751 25 595 45 43 28 49 760 2469 3229 26 2824 168 75 170 3237 5391 8628 27 1666 70 435 32 143 204 2550 3154 5704 28 3174 283 233 170 386 4705 8565 29 1160 411 18 55 255 1899 3374 5273 30 755 118 106 47 181 1207 1748 2955 [124] A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 125 TABLE LVI Amount or Money Received from the Various Sources for Tuition Fund in Townships with Consolidated Schools Indirect Direct <\ ID il-s it h. Mia ^rt C c aj 2" 3 c •T3 ■a II a H a S8 SS u OH 1 % 1236 $ 56 $ 85 $290 % 123 $ 1790 $ 1207 $ 2997 2 642 38 31 $ 38 190 939 1641 2580 3 1607 40 85 178 144 2054 2313 4367 4 1196 31 59 24 73 1383 1443 2826 5 1086 156 50 1163 74 2529 2719 5248 6 1879 146 42 32 129 2228 5887 8115 7 1673 53 $ 551 75 58 2410 4356 6766 8 1498 71 1094 206 2869 3639 6508 9 844 64 55 27 167 1157 1927 3084 10 11 617 256 219 16 228 136 1472 2585 4057 12 228 440 168 13 183 107 1139 2165 3304 13 821 73 116 51 94 137 1292 1901 3193 14 568 46 80 35 321 68 1118 1316 2434 15 487 51 68 30 56 48 740 1127 1867 16 637 159 133 11 51 99 1090 1734 2824 17 977 107 62 48 143 1337 2144 3481 After determining the average of each group with the least wealth per capita and the average of each group with the greatest wealth per capita, the ratios of the former to the latter were found and are given in Table Liv(a). While the wealth per capita of the second group in townships with district schools is 3.02 times the wealth per capita in the first group, the ratio of the state levy in the former is only 1.33 times that of the latter and the average local levy in the former group is .89 per cent of the average of the townships with the least wealth per capita. The average of the per cent of the total levy for school purposes in the group of townships with the greatest wealth per capita is 99 per cent of that for the group of townships with the least wealth per capita, which goes to show that in town- ships with district schools there is little correlation between the amount of the tax levy and the ability of the corporations to pay,. 126 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana TABLE LVII Amount of Money Received from the Various Sources for Tuition Fund in Towns Indirect Direct Ha JO E a o hi 1^. all g-g 2 a 1 bo o o 72 a H a e2 1 U O OH 1 $ 1544 $ 47 $ 80 $369 $1007 $ 339 $ 3017 $ 2209 $ 5226 2 521 11 $ 108 36 219 16 1280 484 1764 3 833 78 10 31 1115 10 2077 1761 3838 4 720 14 108 23 1140 43 2048 2575 4623 5 1499 17 51 2376 146 4089 2042 6131 6 330 23 66 18 529 40 1006 794 1800 7 1412 40 80 676 51 2259 2554 4813 8 1167 40 35 982 61 2285 1358 3643 9 1295 10 33 3269 642 5249 2442 7691 10 1098 35 231 83 72 13 1532 167 1699 11 1248 33 75 2573 95 4024 1887 5911 12 716 99 101 45 360 73 1394 1659 3053 13 1254 56 86 1116 24 2536 2029 4565 14 1015 48 1070 2133 2801 4934 15 1291 33 1365 39 2029 46 4803 2136 6939 16 1988 93 40 819 63 3003 3211 6214 17 985 47 44 1824 59 2959 1886 4845 18 1276 24 40 389 52 1781 2024 3805 19 1883 90 23 28 98 2122 5688 7810 20 1825 84 41 1729 61 3740 3140 6880 21 416 19 28 752 18 1233 985 2218 22 1148 14 50 1163 74 2449 1872 4321 23 1002 19 27 1291 110 2449 2348 4797 24 665 40 32 755 511 162 2165 1192 3351 25 778 69 61 2031 65 3004 1647 4651 and that the support of schools is determined by other factors than the wealth per capita school population in these communities. What is said of townships with district schools also holds true, though in a somewhat more striking way. in townships with consolidated schools. Instead of the relatively smaller amount in the wealthier corporations being devoted to schools, it will be observed that there is a very slight increase in the per cent devoted to them in these corporations. The same condition prevails in both town and city schools. These tables show that the assumption, that the wealthier the community the lower the tax rate, is not well founded. While A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 127 TABLE LVIII Amount of Money Received from the Various Sources for Tuition Fund in Cities Indirect Direct § a cSlI Ml -a a Q •a C/3 « 1 Is S2 13 CO 3 ■0 — Oh 1 $ 3575 $ 66 $108 $4618 $ 259 $ 8626 $ 8690 $17316 2 3 4 2976 238 67 1830 346 5457 6340 11797 11775 31 354 4428 2654 19242 18007 37249 5 7372 156 630 1548 365 10071 10820 20891 6 6234 94 $ 72 183 901 281 7765 7919 15684 7 8975 404 621 3777 1913 15690 17483 33173 8 2447 63 2588 74 1436 344 6952 3643 10595 9 8384 100 367 1350 470 10671 13181 23852 10 5963 352 288 3598 160 10361 16833 27194 11 2895 68 602 240 1522 110 5437 3968 9405 12 17290 328 2574 506 999 557 22255 3472 25727 13 15875 354 831 7649 326 25035 22045 47080 14 16081 261 3013 287 1572 571 21785 16095 37880 15 4407 169 867 241 1518 314 7516 6168 13684 16 5345 250 109 5350 11054 11187 22241 17 5080 264 267 3438 4567 13616 8950 22566 18 3097 140 208 3087 148 6680 3356 10036 19 5305 252 64 2306 726 8653 9815 18468 20 4415 334 291 2920 482 8442 9663 18105 21 4283 30 99 3580 529 8521 10708 19229 22 4326 385 280 2031 65 7087 7270 14357 fe 23 , 24 25 9558 325 295 3874 156 14208 13930 28138 23495 120 5912 442 1302 2706 33977 30854 64831 there may be a very slight decrease in the amount of levy in the wealthier corporations, it is much safer to assume that the total tax levies in the communities is determined without any reference to the wealth of the community and that the larger amount of money raised in the wealthier communities is about equally distributed among the various expenditures of that corporation, though the schools receive a little more liberal support, relatively speaking, in the corporations with the greater wealth. TABLE LIX Percentile Distribution of Tuition Receipts for Township District Schools Indirect Direct S-3 all O m 3 a 2 3 i T3 p Is §8 1 5 1 39.6 1.8 2.5 .7 1.8 46.5 53.5 2 43.1 .7 1.6 1.0 46.4 53.6 3 38.0 2.0 1.3 4.7 46.0 54.0 4 30.0 .6 4.5 .9 .8 1.0 37.7 62.3 5 47.0 4.4 7.0 1.4 1.5 61.4 38.6 6 39.2 1.3 1.4 .4 17.3 59.6 40.4 7 32.8 3.2, 6.5 1.7 3.3 47.6 52.4 8 39.9 2.3 1.9 4.2 2.3 50.6 49.4 9 43.5 1.1 1.2 .4 3.0 49.2 50.8 10 36.8 1.1 1.8 2.5 42.3 57.7 11 49.6 .9 10.3 4.0 11.8 2.2 78.8 21.2 12 31.4 2.4 6.9 2.5 7.8 3.6 54.5 45.5 13 23.8 2.8 1.1 4.8 3.5 36.0 64.0 14 27.4 5.5 2.7 1.6 37.3 62.7 15 27.1 2.7 .6 3.6 34.0 66.0 16 31.7 1.2 1.2 3.3 37.4 62.6 17 28.8 2.2 1.8 12.7 6.8 52.3 47.6 18 51.9 2.3 3.5 1.1 58.8 41.2 19 25.7 .7 27.4 .8 5.8 1.9 62.3 37.7 20 33.4 .6 1.1 7.9 43.0 57.0 21 33.1 1.6 .66 5.0 40.4 59.6 22 32.7 1.5 .7 .6 .4 36.2 63.8 23 23.5 2.3 4.6 1.5 2.8 34.7 65.3 24 31.4 2.2 1.8 35.4 64.6 25 18.5 1.4 1.3 .9 1.5 23.6 76.4 26 32.8 1.9 .9 2.0 37.6 62.4 27 9.3 1.2 7.6 .6 2.5 3.5 44.7 55.3 28 37.2 i.i 2.7 2.0 45.2 54.8 29 22.0 7.8 .3 1.0 4.9 36.0 64.0 30 25.6 3.9 3.6 1.1 6.1 40.8 59.2 [128] A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana i2g TABLE LX Percentile Distribution of Tuition Receipts for Township Consolidated Schools Indirect Direct S3 t! 3 s -a ■B •a c H i S8 "a 73 1 29.7 .9 1.5 20.9 19.2 6.5 57.8 42.2 2 29.6 .6 6.2 2.0 12.4 .9 72.6 27.4 3 21.7 2.1 .3 .8 28.8 .3 54.0 46.0 4 15.6 .3 2.4 .5 24.6 .9 44.3 55.7 5 24.5 .3 .8 38.3 2.4 66.8 33.2 6 1^.3 1.3 3.7 1.0 29.4 2.2 55.9 44.1 7 29.4 .8 1.7 14.1 1.0 47.0 53.0 8 32.0 1.1 1.0 26.9 1.6 62.6 37.4 9 16.8 .1 .4 42.5 8.4 68.2 31.8 10 64.5 2.1 13.6 4.9 4.3 .8 90.2 9.8 11 21.1 .5 1.3 43.5 1.6 68.0 32.0 12 23.5 3.2 3.3 1.5 11.9 2.4 45.8 54.2 13 27.3 1.2 1.9 24.6 .5 55.5 44.5 14 20.5 1.0 1.0 21.7 43.2 56.8 15 18.6 .5 19.8 .6 28.1 .7 69.3 30.7 16 32.1 1.5 .6 13.2 1.0 48.4 51.6 17 20.2 .9 .9 37.8 1.2 61.0 37.0 18 33.5 .7 1.0 10.3 1.4 46.9 53.1 19 24.1 1.1 .3 .4 1.3 27.2 72.8 20 26.5 1.2 .6 25.2 .9 54.4 45.6 21 18.8 .9 1.3 33.8 .8 55.6 44.4 22 9.6 .3 1.2 27.2 1.7 56.7 43.3 23 21.0 .4 .6 27.0 2.3 51.0 49.0 24 19.8 1.2 .9 22.5 15.2 4.7 64.3 35.7 25 16.7 1.5 1.3 43.7 1.4 64.6 35.4 Dr. Cubberly in his book, School Funds and Their Apportion- ment, makes, in his summary of conclusions, the following state- ment : "The use of the school census basis for the apportionment of funds as required by so many state constitutions and as used in whole or in part by thirty-eight dififerent states, though an im- provement over the 'taxes-where-paid' basis is nevertheless one of the worst and unjust bases of apportionment we have in use and its complete abandonment in the future for some better single basis or a combination basis plan is greatly to be desired " After presenting the data relative to this point, we shall attempt to show that a dis- tribution of forty per cent of the state revenue on the teacher basis A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 131 TABLE LXII Percentile Distribution of Tuition Receipts for City Schools Indirect Direct h a Congres- sional in- terest tn 1 1 T3 1 li ■73 I 1 20.7 .4 .6 26.6 1.5 49.8 50.2 2 25.2 2.0 .6 15.5 2.9 46.2 53.8 3 4 31.4 .1 .9 11.9 7.3 51.6 48.4 5 35.2 .8 3.0 7.4 1.7 48.1 51.9 6 39.3 .6 .5 1.2 5.8 1.8 49.2 50.8 7 27.0 1.2 1.9 11.4 5.8 47.3 52.7 8 23.1 .6 24.4 .7 13.7 3.3 65.8 34.2 9 35.2 .4 1.5 5.8 2.0 44.9 55.1 10 21.9 1.4 1.2 13.3 .7 3S.5 61.5 11 30.7 .7 6.4 2.5 16.3 1.2 57.8 42.2 12 67.1 1.3 10.1 2.0 3.9 2.2 86.5 13.5 13 33.7 .8 1.7 16.2 .6 53.0 47.0 14 42.7 .7 7.7 .8 4.1 1.4 57.4 42.6 15 32.3 1.2 6.4 1.7 11.1 2.3 55.0 45.0 16 23.8 1.1 .5 24.0 49.8 50.2 17 23.8 1.2 1.2 15.1 20.1 60.4 39.6 18 30.8 1.4 2.1 30.7 1.6 66.6 33.4 19 28.7 1.4 .3 12.4 3.9 46.7 53.3 20 24.4 1.8 1.6 16.2 2.7 46.7 53.3 21 22.3 .2 .5 18.7 2.7 44.4 55.6 22 30.1 2.7 1.9 14.2 .4 49.2 50.8 23 34.0 1.2 1.1 13.6 .7 50.5 49.5 24 25 36.3 .2 9.1 .7 2.0 4.1 52.4 47.6 and sixty per cent on average daily attendance basis would result beneficially to the schools in greatest need. For convenience we have classified the sources of revenue for tuition purposes under the two headings : Indirect, and Direct. This division is more for convenience and is somewhat arbitrary, as will be observed when we present the sources of each fund classified under the indirect receipts. The common school fund which is distributed by the state is derived from two sources : interest on a permanent endowment, and the money received from the state tax levy of $0,136 on each $100.00 of property and $0.50 levy on each poll. The permanent endowment is made up of the bequests of the 132 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana national government to the state for educational purposes and cer- tain funds reverting to this endowment in accord with the provisions of the state constitution, and amounted to $8,846,825.10 in 191 1. The interest received annually from this permanent fund to- gether with the money received from the state tax levy was distri- buted semi-annually among the counties of the state on the census basis. The legislature of 1907 amended the law then in force by setting aside 5.2 per cent of this fund so that all school corporations levying a tuition tax of $0.25 on each $100.00 should receive aid sufficient to maintain a six months' term of school, and all corpo- rations levying a tuition tax of $0.40 on each $100.00 should receive aid sufficient to enable them to maintain a seven months' term of school. The fund for distribution in 191 1 amounted to $132,245.57. The total number of corporations applying for aid was one hundred eighty-four, representing thirty-five counties. The total demand made by these corporations amounted to $169,316.51. The addi- tional amount required to meet the provision of the law was met at a subsequent date by a special appropriation. The amount of money received from this special fund by the corporations included in this study is given under "Special State Aid." Under Congressional Interest is given the amount of money re- ceived in interest by each corporation from what is known as the congressional school fund. The United States government in the convention of 1787 obligated itself to the encouragement of schools and the means of education. The Indiana Territorial Convention in 1816 ratified this policy and reserved the sixteenth section of each congressional township for the use of schools. A little later a second township was set aside for the same purpose. Some townships dis- posed of this section when land was very cheap so that little was received, while others retained this property and received a much larger amount. The aggregate amount derived from the sales of these lands was $2,476,297.00. The Constitution of 1850 provided for the consolidation of this congressional fund with other funds to constitute what is known as a "Common School Fund." Complaints were made against this law, since some communities which had re- ceived much greater returns would be deprived of a part of that sup- port if distributed on the census basis, so that the matter was brought in the form of a test case before the supreme court. The decision of the court was such as to require the distribution to be made to each congressional township pro rata with the amount of A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 133 money received from the sale of the school land of that township. In order to secure an equal distribution of funds, a law was passed requiring the county auditors, after having distributed the congres- sional funds to the various school corporations composing a con- gressional township, to so distribute the common school fund as to bring about an equal distribution in all corporations. This practi- cally places the distribution upon a per capita basis and substantially carries out the purpose of the law of 1852. This method of account- ing, however, is somewhat complicated and the state department has experienced some difficulties with certain county auditors in enforc- ing all the provisions concerning the distribution of these two funds. These facts will account for the slight variation in the amounts re- ceived per capita school population in the different school corpora- tions. The amounts given under "Liquor License" is the money each corporation received for the licenses to liquor dealers within that county. Since local option has become effective in a great num- ber of counties, many of the corporations received no money from this source. The law requires the assessor in each civil corporation to collect at the time of making the assessment, a special dog tax from all owners of dogs. The money received constitutes what is known as a "Dog Fund," which is used to pay for all animals killed or maimed by dogs. When this fund in any township in the state amounts to more than $100.00 on the first Monday in March of each year, the surplus must be reported and transferred to the county treasurer and constitutes what is known as the "County Dog Fund," which in turn is distributed among the townships of the county in which the orders drawn against the dog fund exceed the money on hand on the second Monday in March of each year. Any surplus left from the county dog fund after provisions have been made for the payment of all live stock and fowls killed or maimed in the town- ships of the county, must be distributed among the schools of the county in the same manner as the common school revenue of the state is distributed. The larger part of the money tabulated under "Miscellaneous Sources" is received from the interest on the money in possession of the school officials in each corporation and from tuition received from nonresident pupils attending the schools of that corporation. The amount of money given under the local tax is the money re- ceived from each corporation on the basis of the tax levy made by TABLE LXIII Distribution of Tuition Receipts on Basis of Amount Received per Pupil in Average Daily Attendance in Township Distmct Schools Indirect Direct o H ■zS 3 a T3 1 ■a 'o a; m to 1 (-1 H lU 1 3 "2- OH 1 $ 6.97 $0.31 $0.43 $0.11 $0.31 $ 8.14 $ 9.37 $17.51 2 5.96 .09 .23 ^ .15 6.45 7.42 13.87 3 7.04 .39 .25 .90 8.59 10.06 18.65 4 8.77 .16 $ 1.31 .28 .23 .29 11.04 18.16 29.20 5 8.15 .76 1.22 .24 .26 10.64 6.70 17.34 6 7.45 .25 .26 .07 3.27 11.31 7.67 18.98 7 8.24 .82 1.62 .45 .83 11.95 12.30 24.25 8 9.95 .56 .47 1.05 .58 12.61 12.32 24.93 9 7.32 .19 .23 .08 .50 8.32 8.49 16.81 10 6.74 .21 .33 .46 7.74 10.55 18.29 11 12.83 .24 2.65 1.03 3.06 .56 20.38 5.52 25.90 12 9.13 .70 2.00 .72 2.26 1.04 15.85 13.26 29.11 13 6.23 .74 .29 1.24 .92 9.42 16.71 26.13 14 7.87 1.58 .80 .45 10.70 18.09 28.79 15 8.29 .86 .18 1.10 10.43 20.28 30.71 16 8.75 .33 .34 .91 10.34 17.25 27.59 17 5.29 .42 .33 2.36 1.27 9.68 8.78 18.46 18 6.90 .31 .46 .15 7.82 5.46 13.28 19 10.02 .26 10.60 .29 2.25 .76 24.18 14.57 38.75 20 15.17 .29 .50 3.61 19.57 25.95 45.52 21 5.62 .27 .10 .87 6.87 10.16 17.03 22 9.33 .43 .19 .17 .13 10.25 18.23 28.48 23 6.96 .67 1.35 .50 .82 10.30 19.46 29.76 24 7.80 .55 .48 8.83 16.01 24.84 25 5.08 .38 .37 .24 .42 6.49 21.10 27.59 26 7.59 .45 .20 .46 8.70 14.49 23.19 27 7.94 .33 2.09 .16 .69 .99 12.20 15.09 27.29 28 9.28 .83 .68 .49 11.58 13.46 25.04 29 5.85 2.08 .09 .28 1.28 9.58 17.04 26.62 30 6.99 1.09 .98 .43 1.68 11.18 16.18 27.36 [134] A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 135 TABLE LXIV Distribution of Tuition Receipts on Basis of Amount Received per Pupil in Average Daily Attendance in Township Consolidated Schools Indirect Direct 1 1 a 2 C3 a .0 a a 3 V i2 8 a C3 1 B *-• oj rt "! V a $3 °1 0^ a V a.s 3 3 a a H i C3 1 C3 . ro lo rv; CN — < SO 0\ spunj Sm -AI933J snoii -Bjodjoa JOJ 33BJ3AV ro '-; <^ csi t^ IT) so Os snoij -•Bjodjoa \\E JOJ 3SBJ3AY T^ T-H r^ Os CN r-q ^H (N "3 c ^ II c3 3iipBn^ !--_ O ro 00 3SBJ3AV Ti t^ 0\ Os tN CM a gox) S 2 S SJpjTOf) SO t^ lO lO aSwaAV 00 o —J sq ■3 ■a CI u o aipjiJnf) J^ ■* O 0\ ro lO C<1 O lO (^ CS PC 33BJ3AV o "0 fo lo T-l rji r^ f~- ■^ ^ OOfS (M CN ^ CM H t-1 31!:MBnf) ^ t^ ■^ -^ o p o H aipjBtif) o lo o cs lAj O OO CN t-H ^ 'H fC 33W3AV CO ^ 00 00 O vq rJH ON poOO '-I D O c aiiVBtif) ro t^ ■* O ro CS •^^ CO aS^jaAv t^ -^ r^ irj 00 On rO t-; c aniJBnQ O ■ NO a! H aipiEtif) (M O OO •^ aSwaAy \0 ro 00 00 ro CN '-I Ol li 23 31!iaw0 !>. 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ON P P 33BI3AV ID ■<* ■^ "^ ID_ p OS O 00 Tt< On ^H ID 1^ CM CM CNl CM 1 1 1 C/3 sjiViBnf) 00 00 .11 1.15 .71 33BjaAV r^ O O ID ro Os ID ID r^ r^ ID -H'* On —1 +-> og — a, O " H 31 VBnf) O r~ i^ 00 tJh iD\q<^ l-~ VOID ro oo ■* Ov r^ ID 0\ 00 ■*CD '-H T-4 33BJ3AV O^CSiD ro 00 t^ 0\ O O ro tD Tf ID CN CN 13.75 22.76 7.11 8.53 .a "3 1 aniJ^nf) O tD O 00 "* P On rD t^ t^ ID tr> On <~0 1^ 'i* On ID p ID PO rti (TNI CM 33BJ3AV o o oo "0 MS »-H CM p OnOsvO-* ID -^ r^ 1^ 20.31 22.09 19.91 24.22 O 3ip«nf) t- CN •* ro On 00Tt-; r^ m CM CN 33BJ3Ay O 00 •^ ID vq CN CN "^ On f^ O •<-l ID PO rj< ID 20.31 14.93 12.00 16.84 "3 1 afiViBnf) OOOn t^ vO NO IDrJtCM 1.65 .91 1.25 33BJ3AY 15.88 30.04 22.60 7.16 7.91 7.38 a ft O'-H VOVO CM !>■ Ost^ t^ ID CN rj< 34 .06 44.85 27.02 32.75 :^ Township g J Consolidated a 1 Town ft- I City T3 o o o.-S HUHU [Tdnd jad sjaso V SJB[ -jop m 5S03 [184] 5 « 2 ^IpJTOO 00 o f^ lo \o o CS) lO "^ ^ ""! ^ 33W3AV i^ O f^ O^ t"^ ^ \0 O »; <^. f^. <^ •Eg ajTvrenO O T-H .^ •rt^ o o o o 32BJ3AV O'-lOvlO ■^C^OOOO ■^ C<1 CN CS ■•-< tH O O a o aii^renf) •>* lO ■>*_ rq p c3 > aSBMAV t^roO\>'~.' 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(U Sja o .s 1 11 '"JS Jj PL, 73 '3 H a. 3 e2 3 $41.54 69.5 30.5 $1905 $0.50 $0.65 $3.14 26 35.58 73.3 26.7 23 34.14 59.9 40.1 1654 .50 .50 2.77 19 32.95 84.6 15.4 .50 .50 3.14 21 32.34 76.3 23.7 1583 .50 .50 3.52 20 31.59 70.0 30.0 1314 .50 .50 3.42 7 30.12 72.3 27.7 1508 .50 .73 3.14 4 30.00 76.8 23.2 1941 .50 .28 2.61 Average 33.53 72.8 27.2 1650 .50 .52 3.11 10 16.34 83.2 16.8 1043 .07 .10 1.50 6 18.92 82.1 17.9 2419 .40 .25 2.29 17 19.15 84.6 15.4 1234 .45 .55 2.25 9 20.48 81.9 18.1 1326 .50 .50 2.18 12 22.75 80.9 19.1 3027 .20 .30 1.93 8 23.58 77.1 22.9 1060 .50 .65 3.23 18 25.18 68.5 31.5 2293 .35 .50 3.16 16 25.28 84.5 15.5 1492 .50 .30 3.22 Average 21.71 80.4 19.6 1737 .37 .39 2.47 lower group is three cents more than the average for the higher group for tuition purposes and six cents more than the average for the upper group. A similar relationship exists with reference to special school funds. Taking all these things into consideration it is safe to conclude that most corporations with a limited wealth per capita so distribute their school funds that the amount for teachers' salaries more nearly equals the amount spent for this purpose by the wealthier communities, and economize in other expenditures but are not able to pay as large salaries as the wealthier commu- nities. A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 191 We have seen that corporations spending less than the average for the entire group per capita for schools distribute the school expenditures in such a way as to minimize the difference in the amount paid for teachers' salaries by these corporations and the amount paid by the corporations spending a much larger amount per capita for school purposes. In order to do this these corpora- tions with limited means must necessarily economize in all other TABLE XC Statistics Showing the Relation of Total Cost per Pupil to the Amount Spent FOR Teachers' Salaries, Wealth per Capita, and Tax Levies in City Schools. "3 lu ^S B Tax levy per $100 M s 2s'S g& 1 M-l 0* ^■2-3 Q.3 *j <" in 0. 5J kl ■w fl-u, -U M a a li t. fi a> .J3 d X: ■" S'2 fi-a -M 2 .2 s 1^ •-til a « g 11 1 ■3 Q. CO "3 14 $46.50 71.5 28.5 $1567 $0.40 $0.45 $3.86 7 39.80 73.4 26.6 2782 .40 .23 2.79 24 39.10 73.5 26.5 1584 .40 .50 3.48 9 37.31 70.3 29.7 2188 .40 .64 3.06 10 37.22 69.3 30.7 2260 .38 .37 3.06 20 36.88 75.6 24.3 2378 .35 .45 3.23 25 36.41 72.4 25.6 3025 .24 .45 2.46 5 36.18 76.4 23.6 2288 .24 .50 2.83 Average 38.68 72.8 27.0 2259 .35 .45 3.09 6 24.33 78.5 21.5 1101 .50 .50 3.12 22 24.54 61.4 38.6 1413 .37 .50 3.90 17 26.32 68.4 37.6 1861 .50 .45 2.96 23 27.45 76.6 23.4 1415 .38 .35 3.51 4 28.03 76.9 23.1 1385 .50 .50 3.52 16 28.32 66.9 33.1 1704 .50 .50 3.12 12 28.84 87.0 13.0 965 .10 .50 3.00 19 29.57 69.6 30.4 1614 .45 .45 3.67 Average 27.17 73.2 26.6 1432 .41 .47 3.35 expenditures for school purposes. This necessarily gives rise to the question, "What is the distribution of the additional money spent by the school corporations in the different types which spend more than the average for the entire group?" In order to answer this question eight corporations from townships with district schools, towns, and cities, and six corporations from townships with con- solidated schools were selected in the order of the amount spent for all purposes except teachers' salaries, beginning with the highest. In like manner an equal number of corporations were selected be- u u "n X w W ►-) m M < H H rt o p< > 1 33^ -WAB UIOI} UOpBlAaQ 1 C> T-H 1 1 1 VO 1 33W3AV CN 00 ro oqo\ ^ T-H rH CN O; CN •^ •—1 CN CN »-i Tj< r^ CO <» CN Ov 10 VO qcNco CO CO CO is 3SB -jaAB UIOJJ UOpBtASQ 1 q q 1 q ? 33W3AV T-H -^00 O) CN CNj ^^^ CN »0 0\ 10 On r^ ^ "^ ^ c _o ■3 H aSB -J3AB WOIJ UOpBIAaQ q q 1 CN --1 q q 10 00 q q 1 q q 1 3SBJ9AV •■-H CN 00 o t^ 10 ■* ro 10 00 •^ CO CO •* ^ p. 33b -a3AB UIOJJ nopBIA3Q[ ro On S 1' 0\ ^ CN CO >o '-I CN CO 1- •* 00 CO Ttl 33BJ3AV 00^ 00 00 10 10 r'i P^l -rt Tt ro CN T-( CN '-I 00 '-H 00 ■* '* "-I 10 '^ ■.* CN r^ 10 CO ro -^ r~. Ov !>) CM 10 "-iro (M Ov '^ CN '-I •.-1 C^ Q. 33b -J3AB UiOJJ U0;}BIA3Q c^ "1 ,-1 t^ 1 1 1 1 "1 '^. CN 00 33BI3AV On OCN li-j 00 ro 000 10 li-3 10 (>i t--. vq t-~ CO o\ CN CN i-~ o\ 0^ 0^ 00 CO <* CN vO • t^ !>. 00 00 q CN 00 S T 10 CO 1 CO 00 Ov liO 10 10 33BJ3AV 0\ vO vo CO CN ^- >-< 00 CNt^ cOcotN dnojQ Township f Higher District <^ Total Schools [ Lower fcC-M g ::2 WHh-1 T3 v Id ;3 to 11 Hc/3 :3 "o [192] A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 193 ginning with the lowest. The amount spent by these corporations for the more important items, such as business administration, janitors' services, suppUes, fuel, repairs, census, transportation of pupils, insurance, and reference books, were tabulated as given in Tables xcii, xciii, xciv, and xcv. The central tendencies of each selected group and the deviations of the same from the central tendencies of the entire group are given in Table xcvi. A study of the results given in the above table shows no unusual variations. The average for the higher group of townships with district schools exceeds the average for the entire group of all expenditures for school purposes, exclusive of teachers' salaries, $6.25, while the average for the lower group is $6.33 less than the average for the entire group, which means that the higher group spends about three times the amount of money for current expenses as does the lower group. When we study the distribution of the money among the items mentioned, we find that practically the same ratio prevails in business administration, school supplies, and re- pairs. The higher group spends more for transfers and transporta- tion of pupils, but spends about the same amount for school census and reference and supplementary books. The amount spent for janitor service by the higher group exceeds the amount spent by the lower group about fifty per cent. The same ratio prevails in the amount spent for fuel. The ratio of the average of the two selected groups for town- ships with consolidated schools is much smaller than the ratio for the townships with district schools. The average for the higher group is $29.41 or $6.65 more than the average for the entire group, while the average for the lower group is $18.32 or $5.56 less than the average for the entire group ; that is, the average of the higher group exceeds the average of the lower group about sixty per cent. The average of both the higher and the lower groups exceeds the average for the entire group in business administration and fuel. The amount spent for transfers by the higher group is $1.02 more than the average for the entire group, while the average for the lower group is $0.18 less than the average for the entire group. A similar relationship but not quite so pronounced will be observed in the amounts spent for supplies, repairs, and transportation of pupils. When we consider the relationship of the two groups of town schools, much the same condition prevails as in the other types of 194 ^ Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana schools considered. While the average for the higher group is little more than twice the average spent for the lower group, considerable variation is observed in the different items of expenditures. The upper group spends relatively more for janitor service, supplies, repairs, and reference and supplementary books, but the amount spent by the lower group for fuel and insurance almost equals that spent by the higher group and is greater than the average for the entire group. The average for the higher groups of city schools varies much less from the central tendency of the entire group than do the higher groups in the other types considered. Taking all these facts into consideration, it will be observed that more money for the township and consolidated schools means rela- tively larger expenditures for business administration, while a greater amount of money in town and city schools does not affect the cost for this purpose. A greater amount of money means a relatively greater amount spent for janitor service, supplies, labora- tory, manual training and domestic science supplies, and repairs, but does not necessarily mean a greater amount of money for fuel, school census, or insurance. a o -dns puB 3DU3J3J3^ SDuwnsui noi;-E}jodsnBJX g\ -H .rt lO On lO •rH oo -H O fO ON Os OO t+i oCT-;ioooo\q<>a lO Os^r-jti. ir2c-5 S snsu33 lO -H lO >/^ CN tN \0 ro 00 lO VO Os «0 ■* O (>g r^ "■; "1 '"! 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"1 vOf^ vO ro lO 00 00 vq qS c 3 33b -i3ab uioij UOpBtASQ 1.07 -.54 vO CN vq T-H q § 1 33BI3AV lO 00 •^ vq iq p O^ VO Tj- 00 (T) CN ^_ CN Ol CN So"- O.P. V 3SB -J3AB mojj uoi;bia3q 6.25 -6.53 6.65 -5.56 3.38 -2.09 2.21 -2.24 33BJ3AV 22.00 13.75 7.22 29.41 22.76 18.32 10.49 7.11 5.02 '^ CO Ov 1--. ir; cv; OOO VO dnoi{) [Higher Township o X w 33BJ3AV vO PO O ■<*iO00 qS^ O 00 lO pq 1 33t; -j3a-b uiojj UOp-BIA3Q 1 00 00 q -H 1 l-~ 00 po q 00 00 "1 P<0 1 33BJ3AV lO Ttl U-> o\^ PO I-- 1~~ lo <>j 00 r~- CN Tji \0 TJH OC) ■<* 3SB -MAB UIOJJ nOi;-ElA3Q vO OS 1 ^ q ^ q On O CN lO 1 33BJ3AV PO t^ 00 lopo q (N 00 00 CN ■.-H 1-1 MD r