NORMAL SCHOOL EDUCATION EFFICIENCY IN TEACHING JUNIUS LATHROP MERIAM, A.M. SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN THE Faculty of Philosophy Columbia University PRINTED FOR THE AUTHOR JU^E 1905 NORMAL SCHOOL EDUCATION EFFICIENCY IN TEACHING BY JUNIUS LATHROP MERIAM, A.M. SUBMriTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN THE Faculty of Philosophy Columbia University prikted fob the author June 1905 Gift Oaraegia Inst. 14 F '06 CONTENTS CHAPTER I PAGE General introduction 9 CHAPTER II PSYCHOLOGY IN THE CURRICULUM FOR TEACHERS Introduction : 1. The problem; 12 2. Generalizations reached 12 Present Requirements oi Psychology in the Preparation of Teachers : 1. State Examinations 14 2. Colleges and Universities 17 3. Normal Schools 22 Development ot the Idea that Psychology is Essential in the Training of Teachers : 1. Before Normal Schools took up this work 27 2. In the Normal Schools 31 (i) Early Schools 31 (2) Sixty Years of Normal Work 33 (3) Influence of the National Educational Association. 35 Conclusion 36 CHAPTER III OPINIONS OF STUDENTS AS TO THE VALUE OF NORMAL SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY Introduction : 1. The problem 38 2. Generalizations 41 Discussion on the Five Questions : 1. Aim in the Study 42 2. Portions of the Study Emphasized 43 3. Text-books Used 43 5 6 CONTENTS FAGB 4. Principles for Teaching 43 5. Psychology vs. Experience 45 Conclusion 49 CHAPTER IV ON THE CORRELATION BETWEEN TEACHING EFFICIENCY AND SCHOLARSHIP Introduction : z. The problem 51 2. General Conclusions Reached 52 Method of Study : 1. Data Collected 55 2. Character of Data 57 3. Method of Securing Data 59 4. Method of Treatment 60 (i) Coefficients of Correlation 60 (2) Combining Schools 64 (3) Tables of Distribution 67 Interpretation and Discussion : 1. General Explanation of Tables and Tabular Views of Indices 68 2. General View of the Correlations jy 3. More Specific Considerations 78 (i) Teaching and Practice Teaching 78 (2) Teaching and "Professional" Studies 80 (3) " Methods " and " Academic " Work 81 (4) Civil Service Examinations 83 (5) Manual Arts , 85 (6) Methods of Marking 86 Marks too high 87 Distribution eccentric 88 Grading by relative position 91 Wide range of distribution 92 Normal curve the standard 94 4. Samples of Grades 96 5. Sample Tables 99 CHAPTER V GENERAL TRAINING OF ELEMENTARY TEACHERS Introduction : 1. The problem 104 2. Generalizations 104 CONTENTS y PAGE Method : 1. Data collected 105 2. Regrouping 106 Discussion of the Five Questions : 1. Grade in School 107 2. Experience in Teaching 108 3. Study in High School iii 4. Study in College 112 5. Professional Study 114 CHAPTER VI THE INSTRUCTORS IN THE NEW YORK STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS Introduction : 1. The problem 116 2. General Conclusions 119 3. Data used 120 Degrees Held by Normal School Teachers : 1. Distribution of Degrees 120 1. In Normal Schools • 120 2. In Schools of Education 127 2. Colleges and Universities Represented by Degrees .... 130 Non-degree Instructors 132 Study oi one School 134 Summary and Conclusion 136 Supplementary Study : 1. 49 State Normal Schools 139 2. Contributions to Pedagogical Literature by Normal School Teachers 147 Bibliography = 151 NORMAL SCHOOL EDUCATION AND EFFICIENCY IN TEACHING CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The five studies here collected relate to the work of Nor- mal Schools as training- institutions, and to the efficiency of teachers in the elementary schools. They all bear upon the problem of the relation between ability to teach and proficiency in previous study and training. There is room for much more emphasis upon limiting the work of the Normal Schools to the preparation of teachers for elementary schools, instead of attempting, as some do, to prepare superintendents and principals in town high schools, as well as special teachers in high schools. This is particularly true where such teachers, principals and super- intendents have had no more advanced education than that offered in our secondary schools. On the letter-heads used by one of these Normal School graduates a statement is made of the various courses of study and of the opportuni- ties offered in his school, after which are the words : " Col- lege preparatory work our specialty." Here is an illustra- tion of how the Normal Schools tend to place their graduates in secondary school positions, and how these teachers un- dertake work which cannot be efficiently done with so limited training. Such tendencies carry with them the implication that the 9 lO NORMAL SCHOOL EDUCATION elementary school does not present the real educational prob- lems found in the higher work. An educational institution is doing real work when it is delving into vital educational problems. If the elementary jfield did not offer such prob- lems, to enter the higher fields is of course advisable. The present studies may serve, however, to point out some prob- lems of the lower grades that need study. That scarcely any of such work is now done in the Normal Schools may find some explanation in one of the present studies, that on the instructors in the State Normal Schools of New York. The first study given here is of an historical nature, in- quiring briefly into the beginning and rise of the study of psychology in Normal Schools (confined here to the United States). It will be seen that the study of psychology has been a prominent factor in the curriculum from the first, but that the nature of this work has been very general and even indefinite, and that its improvement has not kept pace with the advances of psychology itself. The second study is that of a questionnaire on the contri- bution made by Normal School psychology to efiiciency in teaching. This is based wholly on the personal opinion of Normal School graduates now teaching, hence generaliza- tions can be made only provisionally. The evidence, direct and indirect, shows that the work of the schools in psychol- ogy is vague, loose, and in need of reconstruction. The third is a statistical study of the relations between teaching efficiency and scholarship in the various studies pursued by teachers in their Normal School course. This involves a study of 1,185 teachers, and about 25,000 indi- vidual records of scholarship. Here success in practice- teaching and in the study of psychology are found to be the largest contributors to efficiency in teaching. The study also suggests that the emphasis given to "Methods" is ill- placed; that subject-matter courses themselves take slightly INTRODUCTION II higher rank than such " Methods." Further, the study- shows weakness in present methods of grading scholarship in school work. Another method is suggested. The fourth study deals very briefly with the general prep- aration of elementary teachers. After a year or so, ex- perience seems to contribute little, if any, to efficiency. That is, teachers with two years' experience have as high a rank as those with five, ten, or fifteen years' experience. More or less than a four-years' high school course makes no difference. College graduates are less successful in the lower grades. Professional work in Normal Schools does not contribute as much as one would expect, though Nor- mal School graduates do better than teachers trained in city training schools, and these in turn better than teachers with no pedagogical education at all. The fifth study inquires concerning the qualifications of the teachers in the State Normal Schools of New York. Only about one-fourth of these are college graduates, and one-third have never studied further than the Normal Schools in which they are teaching. This characteristic of the teaching staffs is supported further by a detailed study of one of the schools throughout its history; also, by a study of forty-nine representative Normal Schools through- out the country, outside of New York; and lastly, by the slight contributions made to current pedagogical literature by Normal School teachers. The outline in the presentation of these studies is : 1. Introduction, stating — (i) The problem. (2) The general conclusions. 2. Method of treating the study. 3. Details of the study. 4. Generalizations and conclusions, more in detail. CHAPTER II PSYCHOLOGY IN THE CURRICULUM FOR TEACHERS Introduction 1. The Problem. What has decided the nature of the professional training of teachers? The introduction and development of psy- chology is taken as a type for study. The subjects of study pursued by those preparing for the work of a teacher are, in the main, selected according to the personal opinion of those in charge, or are now used because of their traditional standing. No pedagogical cur- riculum has ever been worked out by scientific method ; no scientific tests have ever been applied to the usual subjects in the curriculum to see what relative value they have in the preparation of the teacher. We have, therefore, only traditional standing and personal opinion to guide us. To point out what this opinion is (with reference to one sub- ject, psychology) and to show how opinion has developed in the preparation of the teacher in the elementary schools is the purpose of this chapter. 2. Generalisations Reached. The points of emphasis in this chapter may be seen in the following brief outline : I. The present requirements in the preparation of the teacher, with special reference to psychology. I. Examinations for state certificates ask for some knowledge of psychology in a majority of cases. PSYCHOLOGY IN THE CURRICULUM n 2. Certificates to teach, given by colleges and uni- versities, make this same requirement, with but few exceptions. 3. Diplomas from State Normal Schools invariably require psychology. 2. The development of the idea that psychology is needed in courses for teachers. 1. Though the Normal School idea was first pre- sented in 1789, it was not until 1825 that open opinion was expressed in favor of the study of mind as essential for teachers. This contained no clear idea of the scope or content of psychol- ogy, but was a demand for the study of mental phenomena, so far as possible at that time. 2. Study in the philosophy of mind was present in all the early Normal Schools, due to the concep- tion that the science of education and the art of teaching were based on the philosophy of mind, but the great need of academic work in the com- mon branches made this subject secondary. 3. Its development from 1839 until recent years was very slow, and its content was very indefinite. Its character seems closely allied to moral phil- osophy. 4. Its more rapid development in some schools since about 1897 seems to be due, in part, to influence from the National Educational Association. This chapter assumes : I. That the Normal School is, at present, the leading in- stitution in the training of elementary teachers, and that the development of the idea that psychology is essential in the courses is representative of that of other subjects. 14 NORMAL SCHOOL EDUCATION 2. That the behef in the value of psychology — whatever be the truth or error in the idea — is based, not upon knowledge and measurement, but upon personal opin- ion and custom. 3. Tliat a better criterion for the worth of any subject in the curriculum for teachers is found in a statistical study ; and that in this study an approximation is made to a knowledge of the quantitative worth of any sub- ject in such courses. Present Requirements in Psychology for the Preparation of Teachers It may be safely said that teachers qualify for their posi- tions in one or more of three ways : 1. Certificates secured through state, county, or local ex- amination. 2. Certificates granted for work done in schools of edu- cation, as in colleges and universities. 3. Diplomas given in recognition of courses pursued in Normal Schools (here including City Training Schools). The character of the work required as presented by these three methods indicates what is commonly regarded as essential in the equipment of a teacher. I. STATE examinations The state of New York issues three grades of certificates to teach. The lowest, or third grade, is a license to teach for one year. Examinations must be passed in the follow- ing subjects: American History, Arithmetic, Grammar, English Composition, Geography, Orthography, Penman- ship, Physiology and Hygiene, School Law, and Reading. The second grade certificate is a license for three years, granted upon the completion of ten weeks of experience in teaching and of examinations in the following subjects in PSYCHOLOGY IN THE CURRICULUM 15 addition to those for the third grade: Civil Government, Current Topics, Drawing-, Methods and School Manage- ment. The first grade certificate is a license for ten years, given upon the completion of two years of teaching experi- ence and the passing of examinations, in addition to those in the two grades above, in Algebra, Bookkeeping, History of Education, and Physics/ Chapter 329 of the Acts of 1894 of the Massachusetts Legislature, approved April 28, 1894, directs that " the Board of Education shall cause to be held public examina- tions of candidates for the positions of teachers in the public schools of the Commonwealth. Such examinations shall test the professional as well as the scholastic abilities of the candidates." The Secretary of the Board states that the law has not been carried into effect, because of insufficient appropriation. " This [permission to teach without examination] is in sympathy with the general Massachusetts spirit in things educational, a spirit that invites and tries to convince before it positively com- mands." ^ " The Massachusetts ideal is a system of state licensing whose standards shall be above those of the Nor- mal schools and colleges. . . . The system implies, for the present, a voluntary basis, since its standards are higher than could be maintained on a compulsory basis. It does not require the teacher to hold a state license or the school committee to demand it." ^ Ohio grants two state certificates good for life: I. Common schools : Examinations are given in Orthog- raphy, Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, Algebra, Geography, English Grammar and Composition, History of the United 1 Report of State Superintendent of New York for 1902, pp. 167-169. 2 Report of Massachusetts State Board of Education, 1899-1900, p. 228. 3 Ibid., 1899-1900, p. 230. 1 6 NORMAL SCHOOL EDUCATION States including Civil Government, General History, Eng- lish Literature, Physiology and Hygiene, Physics, Theory and Practice of Teaching, and Scientific Temperance. 2. High schools : In addition to the above, examinations in Geometry, Rhetoric, Civil Government, Latin, Psychol- ogy, History of Education, Science of Education. Also three branches from the following: Chemistry, Botany, Zoology, Geology, Astronomy, Trigonometry, Logic, Greek, German, Political Economy.^ Illinois ^ grants two state certificates ; one for five years, the other for life. The former calls for examinations in the usual academic work; the latter increases the academic work, and adds " Pedagogy." Two state certificates are granted in Iowa,® High School and Elementary. Under the former " Graduates of the col- lege of liberal arts of the state university, who have pursued in addition to the course in psychology, a pedagogical course of at least one year . . . will be admitted to the examina- tions. . . . School Management, Elementary Psychology, and Methods of Instruction constitute the examination in this subject" (Didactics). An examination in the " Psy- chology of the Child " is required of elementary teachers. In Missouri, " all applicants for state certificates will be "examined in . . . psychology." * The state report for 1904 makes psychology optional. In New Hampshire, " permanent certificates " require examinations in psychology and the history of education. In Michigan and Colorado, I find no mention of psychol- ogy in examinations. ^ Report, Commissioner of Common Schools, 1902, p. 19. 2 Report, Illinois Board of Education, 1900- 1902, p. 29. • Report, Iowa Board of Education, 1902-1903, p. 140-142. * Report, Missouri State Superintendent of Schools, 1897, p. 24. PSYCHOLOGY IN THE CURRICULUM 17 These nine states may be taken as representative states, or better, as leading states. The importance of such data in this particular investigation does not call for a larger representation of states. Examinations for state certificates only have been con- sidered. It is well known that county, township, and local examinations vary much, but the probability is that such examinations are considerably directed by those for the state certificates. 2. COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES Consider, secondly, requirements in the various schools of education in colleges and universities. Teachers College of Columbia University offers a four years' course leading to the degree of Bachelor of Science in Education. The first two years' work is considered col- legiate, though arranged with a view to later professional work. Students in the Collegiate Course are required to take work during the freshman and sophomore years amounting to a total of thirty points. The courses necessary to meet these requirements may be chosen by the student at will — from -those designated in the annual Announcement by letters and by the numbers 1-9 inclusive — subject to the approval of the Committee on Undergraduate Students, and according to the general regulations of the College and the following: Outline of Course (A) For all students: I — English A — Rhetoric and Composition — 3 points. 2 — English 2 or 5 — Literature — 2 points. 3 — Biology and Physical Education 3 ■» Physiology and Hygiene / ^ P°'"*^- 4 — And courses amounting to 2 points in Fine Arts, Music, or Manual Training. 1 8 NORMAL SCHOOL EDUCATION (B) Students who do not offer the following subjects at entrance must take in college the courses appearing opposite them (unless a more advanced course in the same department be elected), namely, Entrance Subjects. College Courses. I — German German A — 3 points. 2 — French French A — 3 points or German 2 — 3 points. 3 — Advanced Mathematics Mathematics A or B — 3 points. 4 — Advanced History History A — 3 points. (C) Also two of the courses following, unless the subjects appearing in connection with them are offered at entrance: I — Chemistry Physical Science i — 2 points. 2 — Physics Physical Science 2 — 2 points. 3 — Botany Biology i — 2 points. 4 — Zoology Biology 2 — 2 points. 5 — Physiography Geography i — 2 points. (D) All students in the freshman and sophomore years of the Col- legiate Course are required to take systematic physical exercise two hours weekly, under the direction of the Professor of Physical Educa- tion. Students may meet this requirement by taking, with credit. Physi- cal Education i or 2. Electives should be selected with a view to the Professional Course that is to ifollow. Courses in Education (except Psychology A and Education 10, which are recommended to qualified sophomores) are not open to collegiate students.! The last two years are considered professional. If taken without the two years of collegiate work, they lead to Bach- elors' diplomas. The following is the course leading to the diploma in elementary education : Junior Year Prescribed (s points) : Psychology A— Elements of psychology, and Education 10 — Educational psychology — (to- gether) 3 points. Education 12 — Child study — 2 points. 1 Teachers College Announcement, 1904-1905, pp. 35-37. PSYCHOLOGY IN THE CURRICULUM 19 Elective (10-13 points) (a) Recommended for primary teachers : Biology and Physical Education 3, Education 16, English A, English 2 or S, English 10, Geography i, History A, Manual Training i and 27, Mathematics B, Music i, Nature Study 10 and 12. {b) Recommended for grammar grade teach- ers : Biology I, Biology 2, Biology and Physical Education 3, English A, English 2 or 5, Geography i or 2, History A, History 2, Mathematics B, Manual Training i and 27, Music I, Physical Science i, Physical Science 2. Senior Year Prescribed (8 points) : Education 50 — History and principles of edu- cation — 3 points. Education 15 — General .method and practice teaching — 3 points. Education 20, 26, 32, 38, or 46, with practical work — 2 points. Elective (7-10 points) : (a) Recommended for primary teachers: Education 20 — Nature Study; Education 26 — English; Education 32 — Geography; Educa- tion 46— Mathematics ; Fine Arts 3, Geog- raphy I or 2, Music 2. (&) Recommended for grammar grade teach- ers : Education 20 — Nature Study; Education 26 — English ; Education 32 — Geography ; Educa- tion 38 — History; Education 46 — Mathe- matics ; Domestic Art 12, Fine Arts 3, Geog- raphy I, 2, or 3, History 10, Music 2.1 Similar courses are outlined for teachers in secondary schools, teachers of kindergarten, domestic art, domestic science, fine arts, manual training, music, physical educa- tion. These subjects are common to all as prescribed work : Elements of psychology, educational psychology, and history and principles of education. All graduate ^ Teachers College Announcement, 1904-1905, pp. 39-40. 20 NORMAL SCHOOL EDUCATION diplomas or degrees require of the candidate educational psychology, and history and principles of education, as well as ability to read French and German. The College of Education in Chicago University outlines the following two years' course for teachers in the elemen- tary schools : ^ Philosophy and Education 3 points. History, English, and Oral Reading 3 " Arts 2 " Mathematics i " Science 3 " Electives 6 " (Total required) 18 Specific prerequisites for this work are Psychology, Ethics, and Educational Theory — two points. For second- ary and Normal School teachers, " Psychology and Ethics are required as antecedents." In General Course A four points in psychology are required. The Teachers College of the University of Missouri, which began its work in the fall of 1904, offers a four years' course leading to the degree of Bachelor of Science in Education. One hundred and twenty (120) hours of work are required. (This means 15 hours of class attend- ance each week.) Further requirements of the student are : " He must complete work in education to the amount of 24 hours, including Practice Teaching (3 to 9 hours credit) and Educational Psychology." " He must com- plete a course in General Psychology with at least 3 hours credit. This course must be completed before the Junior year. Additional work in Psychology, or work in Ethics or in Sociology, may be required by the instructor in charge of any course in education." ^ 1 Chicago University Annual Register, 1902-1903, pp. 137-138. 2 Catalogue, University of Missouri, 1904-1905, pp. 143-144. PSYCHOLOGY IN THE CURRICULUM 2 1 Life certificates to teach in the secondary and elementary schools require the same amount of education and psy- chology. To secure a two years' certificate, the candidate must take education and psychology to the extent of at least half that required for the degree. In the specifications of the' Department of Education of the University of California, the following statement is made : " The undergraduate courses are reserved for the third and fourth years of college residence. Students who purpose taking any of the courses in education are advised to prepare for the study by taking one or more of the courses in psychology. After the year 1903-4, Philosophy 2 (general psychology) will be made a prerequisite of all undergraduate courses in the department." ^ In the University of Wisconsin, psychology is required for teachers' certificates, granted by the university under the regulation of the state. ^ Cornell University requires, for the New York State col- lege-graduate certificate, history of education and principles of education or psychological basis of education.^ In Dartmouth College, psychology is " strongly recom- mended as a preparation for the courses in education." * The University of Cincinnati requires psychology in its Teachers' College.^ In the University of Michigan,® three courses are re- quired for both the teachers' diploma and the teachers' cer- tificate: Practical Pedagogy (text, Gordy's A Broader Ele- 1 Catalogue, University of California, 1904, p. 136. 2 Catalogue, University of Wisconsin, 1903-1904, p. 94. 3 Cornell Register, 1904-1905, pp. 131-132. * Catalogue, Dartmouth College, 1903-1904, p. 147. ^ Catalogue, 1903-1904, p. 178. ® Catalogue of the University of Michigan, 1903-1904, pp. 92, 93, 124. 22 NORMAL SCHOOL EDUCATION mentary Education) ; The Art of Study (text, Hinsdale's The Art of Study) ; Theoretical and Critical Pedagogy (text, Harris' Psychological Foundations of Education) . These nine colleges and universities represent adequately the leading ones giving work in education. 3. NORMAL SCHOOLS The first Normal School in this country was founded at Lexington, in 1839. Within that year three more were started in Massachusetts. New York followed with one at Albany, in 1844. Other schools were established rapidly until in Massachusetts there are now eight; in New York, twelve; in the whole country, one hundred and eleven. The schools referred to here are State Public Normal Schools. The United States Commissioner's Report for 1902 gives the following classification of all Normal Schools : ^ 1. Public Normal Schools 173 2. Private Normal Schools 109 3. Public Normal Schools in universities and colleges... 39 4. Private Normal Schools in universities and colleges. . 195 S- Public Normal Schools in high schools 368 6. Private Normal Schools in high schools 357 The type of the third and fourth classes has already been indicated in the treatment of schools of education in col- leges and universities. The fifth and sixth classes are prob- ably intended to include many of the city training classes, the work of which is similar to that of the regular Normal Schools, though usually more limited in character and scope. The curricula in the various State Normal Schools in any 1 Report, Commissioner of Education, 1902, p. 1581. PSYCHOLOGY IN THE CURRICULUM 23 given state are quite uniform, being usually prepared by- state officials, or by the joint action of the principals of the various schools. In most schools the work is wholly pre- scribed. The general course of study prescribed by the Board of Education of Massachusetts for the schools of that state is the following: 1. Psychology, history jf education, principles of teaching, methods of instruction and discipline, school organization, school laws of Massa- chusetts. 2. Methods of teaching the following subjects: (o) English — reading, language, composition, literature, history. (&) Mathematics — arithmetic, bookkeeping, elementary algebra, and geometry. (c) Science — elementary physics and chemistry, geography, physiology and hygiene, stud}^ of minerals, plants, and animals. {d) Drawing, vocal music, physical training, manual training. 3. Observation and practice in the training school, and observation in other public schools. ^ This course of study was adopted May 6, 1880. Pro- vision is made for four other courses, mere modifications of this one, which is planned as a two years' course for those intending to teach in the elementary schools of the state. The equivalent of a high school education is re- quired for admission. The time devoted to each subject varies in the different schools. The schools of New York state have four courses, which were adopted September i, 1900.^ Two of these courses are for those students who are not graduates of high schools. These are four years in length. The other two are for high school graduates, and are two years in length, as follows : * Westfield (Mass.) Catalogue for igoi. • New Paltz (N. Y.) Year Book, 1902-1903. 24 NORMAL SCHOOL EDUCATION Classical and English Those in the English course omit the ancient and modern language requirements ibelow and substitute 5 hours of work per week under advice of division adviser. Classical students omit economics and astronomy. FIRST YEAK First Semester Second Semester Rhetoric 4 English literature 4 Psychology 4 Psychology and General meth. 4 Math, review ist 10 wk. 4 Science meth. 2d 10 wk. 4 Prim. meth. ist 10 wk. 4 Arithmetic meth. 4 Geog. meth. 4 Music ist 10 wk. 2 Drawing 2d 10 wk. 4 Music meth. 3d 5 wk. 4 Grammar meth. 4 Geog. meth. ist 10 wk. 4 Music 2d 10 wk. 2 Lang. meth. ist 10 wk. 4 Draw. meth. 4th 5 wk. 4 SECOND YEAR First Semester Second Semester Latin review 5 Civics 2d 10 wk. Adv. U. S. hist. 5 Greek, French or German IV Num. meth. 2d 10 wk. 4 Hist, of ed. ist 10 wk. 5 Economics or Library economy 3 Astronomy ist wk. 3 Gramimar meth. 4 School law 2d 10 wk. 5 School Econ. ist 10 wk. 5 Teaching Teaching Child Study once a week during the year.^ The time given to each subject is not uniform in the various schools. Other shght modifications are made to meet local conditions. The last catalogue of the State Nor- mal College " at Albany shows quite an innovation in the curricula offered. Many elective courses are opened, but certain subjects are required, such as Psychology, History of Education, Philosophy of Education, etc. The State Normal Schools of Wisconsin have the fol- lowing course designated by the Board of Regents : ' 1 New Paltz (N. Y.) Year Book, 1902-1903. 2 Circular and Announcement, 1904, pp. 12-21. » Catalogue, Oshkosh Normal School, 1901, p. 63. PSYCHOLOGY IN THE CURRICULUM 25 JUNIOR YEAR Firsi Quarter Observation German, or other language Drawing Rhetoric Second Quarter Theory German Drawing School Law {Yz) Professional Reading {Yz) SENIOR First Quarter Practice Teaching Professional Arithmetic Psychology Geometry Second Quarter Economics Professional History {%) Professional Gymnastics {%) Psychology Practice Teaching Third Quarter Theory German Drawing Music Physics Fourth Qtiarter School Management Professional Geography German Algebra Music Third Quarter History of Education Professional English Elective Science Literature Fourth Quarter Science of Education Practice Teaching Elective Science Literature The Normal Schools of California are well represented by the one at Los Angeles. Its course of study is : ^ FIRST YEAR Middles Middle A Professional Psychology 20-4 Psychology 20-4 English Composition, etc., ,20-4 Science Physiology 20-4 Biology 20-4 Domestic Science 20-2 Domestic Science 20-3 Geography and History U. S. History 20-4 Art and Manual Training Drawing 20-2 Drawing 20-.1 Sloyd 2»-a Sloyd 20-3 Miscellaneous Reading 20-4 Music 20-2 Music 20-2 Physical Culture 20-2 Physical Culture 20-3 1 Catalogfue, Los Angeles Normal School, 1901. 26 NORMAL SCHOOL EDUCATION Professional Enelish Science Geography and History SECOND YEAR Senior B Hist. & Phil, of Ed. 20-3 General Pedagogy 20-3 Pedagogy of Grammar 20-3 Pedagogy of Physics 20-2 Pedagogy of Geography 20-4 Mathematics Pedagogy of Arith. 20-5 Art and Manual Training Pedagogy of Drawing 20-2 Miscellaneous Pedagogy of Music 20-1 Pedagogy of Phy. Cult. 20-: Senior A School La\v 20-2 School Economy 10-3 Teaching 20-12^^ Lit. in the grades 20-2 Method in Language 20-1 Method in Biology 20-1 Method in History 20-1 Method in Geography 20-1 Method in Arith. 20-1 Method in Drawing 20-1 Method in Reading 20-1 Method in Music 20-1 Method in Phy. Cult. 20-2 The schools of these four states represent adequately the leading Normal Schools of the country. In these three groups of institutions, aiming to prepare teachers for their work, the emphasis upon psychology as an essential is evident. 1. Examinations (leading to state certificates L Nine leading states are here represented. Four distinctly require psychology. One requires " professional " work. One requires "pedagogy" (whatever this includes). Three call for academic work only. 2. Universities (granting teachers' certificates). Nine leading institutions are represented here. Seven distinctly require psychology. One strongly recommends psychology. One makes no mention of psychology, as such. 3. Normal Schools (granting diplomas and certificates). Four states, including about 30 of the leading schools, are here represented. All distinctly require work in psychology. (So far as I could ascertain, in looking over about 100 catalogues of State Normal Schools, psychology is included in all.) PSYCHOLOGY IN THE CURRICULUM 27 Development of the Idea that Psychology is Es- sential IN the Training of Teachers I. before normal schools took up this work Gordy has written on the Rise and Groiuth of the Normal School Idea in the United States/ He says that the first suggestion of this which he finds is in the Massachusetts Magazine for June, 1789. Here it is stated: " Tliere should be a pubHc grammar school established in each county in the state in which should be taught English Grammar, Latin, Greek, Rhetoric, Geography, Mathematics, etc., in order to fit young gentlemen for college and school teaching." The famous school law of 1647 gave to the towns of Massachusetts a grammar school. The grammar school here referred to is, therefore, more especially in- tended for the training of teachers. Gordy speaks further of the contribution to the Normal School idea given by Olmsted, of Yale, 1816; by Kingsley, of Yale, in 1823; also by Russel, of the New Haven Academy, and editor of the American Journal of Education, in 1823; and by Hall, who is recognized as the first principal of the first teachers' seminary in America, at Concord, in 1823. Here was pre- pared his Lectures on School Keeping, a brief outline of which is given in Barnard's American Journal of JEduca- tion, vol. 5, p. 388. While the contributors mentioned emphasize the need of training schools for teachers, none of them gives expression to the need of studying other subjects than those which are to be taught. In 1825, in the Boston Patriot, published by James G. Carter, appeared a series of articles with the signature 1 Also found in the United States Bureau of Education, Circulars of Information, i8gi, No. 8, pp. 1-142. 28 NORMAL SCHOOL EDUCATION *' Franklin," giving suggestions for an institution for the training of teachers/ It was there maintained that such an institution should " open up a new science somewhat peculiar to itself in the science of the development of the human mind. . . . The philosophy of the infant mind must be understood by the instructor before much progress can be made in the science of education. . . . Every book, there- fore, which v/ould aid in an analysis of the youthful mind should be placed in the library of the proposed institution." This is the first expression I find on the need of studying mental phenomena in the preparation of a teacher. Vari- ous other articles appear about this time in the Boston Patriot, North American Reviezv, United States Reviezv, Literary Gazette, but these advocate the founding of teach- ers' seminaries without going into detail. In the same year, 1825, Johnson issued a pamphlet on " The Need of Attending Lectures on the Science of Mental Develop- ment." ' In 1830 a school for the training of teachers was attached to Phillips Academy, at Andover. S. R. Hall was made principal. The course of study contains " intellectual phil- osophy " in the third year.^ In 1830, J. G. Carter, Secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Education, and often called the " Father of American Normal Schools," wrote an article on " Develop- ment of Intellectual Faculties." * Here he speaks strongly in favor of the study of mind as a requisite in the prepara- tion of a teacher. " The foundations of a teacher's pro- 1 Portions are quoted in Barnard, On Normal Schools, p. 75 et seq. 2 Gordy, supra, p. 14. 8 Barnard, American Journal of Education, vol. v, p. 379. * American Institute of Instruction, 1830, pp. 52-95. PSYCHOLOGY IN THE CURRICULUM 29 fessional skill are laid in an intimate acquaintance with the conditions, states, and wants of the youthful mind." He attempts a practical application in a lesson on map-drawing-, the methods of which are much like the methods of to-day. A. R. Baker, in the same periodical three years later, re- peats the thought in an article " On the Adaptation of In- tellectual Philosophy to Instruction." ^ His emphasis is upon the intimate relation between intellectual philosophy and education. Intellectual philosophy is defined as "a science of the human mind which investigates its phenom- ena, and applies the results of the investigation to the prac- tical purposes of active life." In 1833, Dr. Channing speaks of the importance of hav- ing the teacher comprehend " the mind in all its capacities, tracing out the laws of thought and moral actions, under- standing the perfection of human nature." ^ J. Gregg, in 1835, is yet more emphatic in writing on " The Importance of an Acquaintance with the Philosophy of Mind to an Instructor." ^ He says this is not mere psychology. " It does not consist merely in the observation and arbitrary classification of the phenomena of the con- scious states of the mind." It is rather " the knowledge of man as an intellectual and spiritual being — of his natures, powers, capacities, habitudes, wants — of the laws and prin- ciples that regulate the various mental and moral phenom- ena which he exhibits." The article aims to show that the philosophy of mind teaches the true (i) nature, (2) method, (3) means, and (4) ends of education. It is here very clear, as the article claims, that by the philosophy of mind 1 American Institute of Instruction, 1833, pp. 263-288. 2 Quoted by Barnard, On Normal Schools, p. 93. ^American Institute of Instruction, 1835, pp. 111-131. 30 NORMAL SCHOOL EDUCATION is intended what was then known as a scientific study of psychology, and also a philosophy of education. By act of the Legislature of New York, May 2, 1834, the Regents of the University were authorized to apply a part of the income of the Literature Fund to educate the teachers of the common schools. In the following year, 1835,^ a plan was put into effect whereby a department for the training of teachers was grafted upon selected academies. The course of study for teachers included the following: 1. The English Language. 2. Writing and Drawing. 3. Arithmetic, Mental and Written, and Bookkeeping. 4. The History of the United States. 5. Geometry, Trigonometry, Mensuration, and Survey- ing. 6. Geography and General History (continued). 7. Natural Philosophy and the Elements of Astronomy. 8. Chemistry and Mineralogy. 9. The Constitution of the United States and of New York. 10. Select Parts of the Revised Statutes and the Duties of Public Officers. 11. Moral and Intellectual Philosophy. 12. The Principles of Teaching.^ This indicates that the academies perceived the nped of giving to teachers a different kind of curriculum from the mere academic work. Yet this intellectual philosophy is probably not specially for teachers, as it is found in An- 1 First Quarto — Centennial History — Poitsdam Normal School, p. 17. 2 Report, State Superintendent, 1836-1837, pp. 41-42. PSYCHOLOGY IN THE CURRICULUM 31 dover Academy in 1848, and in Albany Academy in 1874/ when this work had passed from the academy to the Nor- mal School. But in the rise of Normal Schools, the acad- emies lost the work of training teachers. Horace Mann, in 1839,- in advocating Normal Schools for Massachusetts, opposed the academies of New York on the ground that in these the teachers' training department was only grafted on, while for real success it should be the principal part; hence the need of a distinct institution, the Normal School. These few expressions are types of many other opinions of those early years as to one particular subject of study needed by those who would be teachers. No reader will find in any of these writings a detailed conception of psy- chology, nor of what it has to offer to the prospective teacher. Yet one cannot fail to feel the insistence made that the study of mind is essential in preparing for efficient teaching. The public advocacy of such beliefs was a fore- runner of what was soon to be found in Normal Schools. 2. IN THE NORMAL SCHOOLS I. Early Normal Schools. The first course of study for Normal Schools was adopted by the Board of Education of Massachusetts in 1840. It was as follows, and is essentially that outlined by Horace Mann the year before at the opening of the work at Lex- ington : 1. Orthography, Reading, Grammar, Composition and khetoric, Logic. 2. Writing, Drawing. 3. Arithmetic, Mental and Written; Algebra; Geom- etry; Bookkeeping; Navigation; Surveying. 4. Geography, Ancient and Modern, with Chronology, Statistics, and General History. 1 See Catalogue for these years. 32 NORMAL SCHOOL EDUCATION 5. Physiology. 6. Mental Philosophy. 7. Music. 8. Constitution and History of Massachusetts and the United States. 9. Natural Philosophy, and Astronomy. 10. Natural History. 11. The Principles of Piety and Morality, common to all sects of Christians. 12. The Science and Art of Teaching, with reference to all the above-named studies.^ [The italics show the emphasis intended at that time.] In his opposition to the attempt of the House of Repre- sentatiA^es in Massachusetts, in 1840, to break up the Nor- mal Schools, Mr. Geo. B. Emerson, formerly principal of the Boston High School, based his arguments upon three prominent features of the work as carried on by Cyrus Pierce, principal of the Normal School at Lexington. The second of these features was the emphasis upon leading prospective teachers to an acquaintance with the minds and character of children.^ Dr. Samuel Howe, director of the Institute for the Blind in Boston, reported his observations of the work at Lexing- ton. " To me, sir, it was dehghtful to see how they [the students] were becoming acquainted with the nature of the children's minds before they undertook to manage them. . . . Every one was desirous of becoming acquainted with the philosophy of mind." ^ 1 Common School Journal, 1839, pp. 37-38. See also Barnard, On Normal Schools, pp. 56-57. 2 Common School Journal, 1840, p. 237. 8 Common School Journal, 1840, p. 238. PSYCHOLOGY IN THE CURRICULUM 33 The attempt of the House of Representatives failed, and the Normal Schools, under the lead of Horace Mann, con- tinued and maintained " mental science," or " philosophy of the mind" (various names were used), as one of the requisites in the training of teachers. The first Normal School of New York state was founded at Albany in 1844. Its first course of study included Abercrombie's Intellectual Philosophy.^ The first Normal school in Connecticut was founded at New Britain in 1850. The catalogue shows as a portion of the course " The Art of Teaching and its Methods, in- cluding the history and progress of education, the philos- ophy of teaching and discipline, as drawn from the nature of the juvenile mind. . . ." - These few schools referred to are doubtless typical of all early Normal Schools. The following generalizations are easily made, in studying further the courses of study offered : 1. The Normal Schools had a conception that the science of education and the art of teaching were in some way based on the philosophy of mind, but, 2. The need of a more thorough knowledge of the acad- emic work was so great that the instruction in the common branches was the chief work of these schools, so that, 3. Work in intellectual philosophy was rather secondary, and that, too, quite vague. But in the work of these early schools there is a distinct beginning of the teaching of psychology as essential in the preparation of the teacher. 2. Sixty Years of Normal School Work. An examination of the catalogues of the Normal Schools of Massachusetts and New York from their beginning to 1 Register and Circular, 1846, p. 16. 2 Barnard, On Normal Schools, pp. 48-49. 34 NORMAL SCHOOL EDUCATION the present time ; as also the State Annual Reports of these schools (which are very meager) lead one to the following conclusions : 1. Mental philosophy of some kind — even if only in name — has been in the courses of study from the beginning. 2. This subject has always been very vague and indefi- nite; yet it evidenced a constant endeavor to point to an important relation between the ability to teach and the knowledge of mental activity. 3- This subject is mixed up with other educational sub- jects, such as the history of education, philosophy of edu- cation, general method, etc. It has usually been taught by the principal of the school in connection with the other sub- jects mentioned. (At present, there are only three schools in Massachusetts which have special teachers of psychology, and in New York only five.) 4. There is no distinct time when " Psychology," as such, first appeared. It is thus mentioned first in Westfield, 1867 ; Bridgewater, 1869; Framingham, 1876. But there is no indication that the name changed the character of the work. 5. There is no indication of any uniformity in the char- acter of the work done, though the aims of the work, as stated in the catalogues of the various schools, are in close agreement. The only effort towards united action in this respect is that which was taken by the Wisconsin Normal Schools in an institute held at Oshkosh, December 17- 21, 1900, when the schools of the state agreed upon and formulated aims, content, and method of the work to be done in psychology. 6. There is striking evidence of a great lack of develop- ment in this work from the beginning. However, in a few schools, quite a change has been made in recent years, par- ticularly since 1897. This recent change seems due largely PSYCHOLOGY IN THE CURRICULUM 35 to the pressure brought to bear by the Normal School de- partment of the National Educational Association. The work of this organization in this particular can be summed up briefly. J. The Influence of the National Educational Association. The National Educational Association began in 1858, as the National Teachers' Association. The Normal School department gave the subject of psychology no attention until 1863. For the next decade various well-known men gave addresses emphasizing the value of psychology in the preparation of the teacher (in 1863, Dr. Sheldon/ of the Oswego Normal School; in 1864, President Hill,^ of Har- vard; in 1865, President Edwards/ of the Illinois Normal University; in 1866, W. F. Phelps/ of the Winona (Wis.) Normal School; in 1871, J. W. Dickinson/ principal of the Westfield (Mass.) Normal School). Whatever gen- eral influence these addresses may have had, no definite action was taken. In 1874 were presented two papers, one by L. Dunton," of the Bridgewater (Mass.) Normal School; one by John Ogden,'' of Ohio. These aroused sufficient interest to have a motion made that a committee be appointed for definite action, but the motion failed. During the next ten years there was a lull, save that three different years saw an attempt to do something, but in vain. In 1885, A. R. Taylor,* principal of the State Normal School of Kansas, succeeded in securing the appointment of a committee. Tliis became known as the " Chicago Com- 1 N. E. A., 1863, p. 95. ^Ibid., 1864, p. 179- ^Ihid., i86s, p. 271. ^Ibid., 1866, p. i3S- Ibid., 1871, pp. 73-79- " Ibid., 1874, pp. 234-245. ■^ Ibid., 1874, pp. 216-229. 8 Ibid., 1885, p. 223. 36 NORMAL SCHOOL EDUCATION mittee." In 1889, this committee made its final report on " Methods of Instruction and Courses of Instruction in Normal Schools." ^ This was so general in nature that it reached no definite conclusions. After a life of four years this committee died, leaving only a record of agitation. In the next five years, 1890- 1894, there was practically nothing done. In 1895, Z. X. Snyder, of the Normal School at Gree- ley, Colo., secured the appointment of what became known the next year as the " Denver Committee." This commit- tee worked for four years, and in 1899 made its report. Its chief contribution was the suggestion of six " centers " from which a good Normal School course could be derived. Genetic psychology is given one year's study. In the year 1893, the well-known " Committee of Fif- teen " was appointed by the department of superintendents. It reported in 1895. A sub-committee of five, all city superintendents, prepared a report on " The Training of Teachers." One question answered was, "To what extent should psychology be studied, and in what way?" The committee advocated the study of psychology as a basis for principles and methods. " Most fundamental and import- ant of the professional studies which ought to be pursued by one intending to teach is psychology." ^ The positive report of this committee, together with ap- pended expressions from individual men of educational prominence, has doubtless had considerable influence in arousing more attention to this subject in the Normal Schools, some of which give considerable evidence of this. Thus far, this chapter has tried to point out present prac- tice as to requirements made of those preparing to teach, 1 N. E. A., 1889, pp. 570-587. 2 Report of Committee of Fifteen, p. 24. PSYCHOLOGY IN THE CURRICULUM 37 as carried out in state examination systems and in curricula for intending teachers studying in universities and Normal Schools. Throughout, an emphasis has been found upon psychology/ This tradition and present practice is used as evidence — ^generally accepted — that psychology is an essen- tial, a sine qua non, in the preparation of the teacher. Whatever truth there may be in this conclusion, the method would be considered vi^rong by Pearson. " It is imagina- tion solving the universe, propounding a formula before the facts which the formula is to describe have been col- lected and classified. . . . Every few months we find, in one journal or another, some more or less brilliant hypoth- esis as to a novel factor in evolution; but how few are the instances in which this factor is accurately defined, or, be- ing defined, a quantitative measure of its efficiency is ob- tained." " 1 The development of this idea as to psychology is doubtless typical of that of any other subject in the Normal School course. 2 Pearson, Grammar of Science, p. 373. CHAPTER III OPINIONS OF STUDENTS AS TO THE VALUE OF NORMAL SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY It has elsewhere been pointed out that the Normal Schools have from the first emphasized the study of psy- chology by prospective teachers. This subject has appeared in the curriculum of every Normal School throughout the country. It has been tacitly assumed that the scientific or unscientific study of mind is a prerequisite to aiding in the developing of mind. Normal School instructors have looked to this subject as central in the course. Normal School students have usually had little, if any, choice in their work, and so have studied psychology without question. Patrons of the Normal School, and also the public schools, have usually been in sympathy with the Normal School practice. The real question as to the pedagogical value of psy- chology has been little discussed. The question was, how- ever, raised only two years after the founding of the Nor- mal School. This was done by the editor of the American Institute of Instruction.^ In a large number of articles in this periodical from the year of its founding, 1830 to 1899, the one article referred to is alone in calling in question the usually accepted value credited to this subject. In recent years Professor Miinsterberg sounded a similar dissent in asserting that while psychology is a good educator, it has 1 American Institute of Instruction, 1841, pp. 41-64. VALUE OF NORMAL SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY 39 no practical use in the hands of the teacher. Psychology is general, and cannot do justice to an individual case, as is demanded in teaching. Tact and sympathy are inhibited in the psychological teacher.^ Dr. E. Harlow Russell, the head of one of the best known Normal Schools, while not agreeing with Professor Miinsterberg, emphatically opposes the importance usually given to psychology.^ Just what psychology contributes to the individual teacher in her work is not easy to determine. It may even be im- possible, and thus always remain a matter of personal judg- ment. Yet, a consensus of personal opinion cannot but contribute to the problem, even if not directly to the solu- tion. A very limited questionnaire study has been made of the problem as to the contribution of psychology to efficiency in teaching. Many such studies have been pub- lished in the Pedagogical Seminary, and a few in the Amer- ican Journal of Psychology. The methods there used have been rightly subjected to pointed criticisms.^ i. Much ignorance in reply to such questions is used as if it were wisdom, but " no research can ever retain a reliability be- yond that possessed by the data with which it starts." 2. The facts reported are from a small and probably peculiar portion of the class involved, and hence are not represen- tative. 3. The interpretation of the replies is largely a matter of personal opinion, and unless corrected by various checks, may lead to gross error. 4. " The progress from a set of statements about individuals to a statement about a group including them is by no means a matter of simple addition." Thus conclusions reached through such unscien- tific methods would be wholly unreliable. ^Atlantic Monthly, 85, p. 656 (May, 1900). 2 Address before the New England Normal Council, May 15, 1903. 3 Thorndike, Educational Psychology, pp. 152-162. 40 NORMAL SCHOOL EDUCATION In the face of such plausible criticisms (with which I fully agree) a questionnaire study cannot be put forth for the purpose of conviction unless the above errors in method can be rendered harmless. In the present study, my use of the replies will be such as to make them at least of no great importance. The conclusions from this questionnaire study do not, therefore, pretend to be proved facts, but are given only as hypotheses suggested by the study. The purpose of this questionnaire was to get an estimate of the worth of psychology, as studied in Normal Schools, from the graduates of those schools now actively engaged in teaching. Questions were sent to graduates of all Nor- mal Schools in Massachusetts save one, to all such schools in New York save two, and to a few schools in Pennsyl- vania and the Northwest. Questions were sent to four hundred and seventy-two persons, most of whom had grad- uated since 1897, and had had at least two years of experi- ence. The following are the questions : 1. What did you feel to be the aim in the study of psy- chology ? 2. What portions of psychology were most emphasized? 3. What text-books or works on psychology did you study or read? 4. Did you find in psychology principles for teaching? Please suggest one or more. 5. Which has helped you the more in your work, your study of psychology, or your study of principles and meth- ods based on experience? A total of one hundred and sixty-seven replies were re- ceived. Twenty-seven schools were represented in these replies. The replies to the individual questions are con- sidered merely for their suggestiveness. It must be ad- mitted at the outset that the number of replies considered is VALUE OF NORMAL SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY 41 exceedingly small. A consensus of opinion reall}^ worth considering would probably ask for no fewer replies from each one of the twenty-seven schools. The individuals, however, to whom these questions were sent were selected wholly at random from lists furnished by the several schools. Thorndike, in his criticisms given above, points out that the questionnaire m^ethod is deficient on the ground that those who do reply are a special group, by reason of the desire either to oppose or support a suggested problem, while those without this desire do not trouble themselves in answering the questions asked. But in the case of the present ques- tionnaire, those not replying would probably support, even more than those who did reply, the conclusions given below. Upon the basis of this brief study, the following general- izations are made: 1. In the minds of those teaching, the work of psychol- ogy in the Normal Schools was very indefinite and unpro- ductive. 2. The work done by the various schools, or by students in the same school, is not centered about a few principles, but is scattered. 3. The consensus of opinion is strongly in preference for experience rather than psychology as a contributing factor in their success as teachers. 4. Normal Schools where there is a special teacher of psychology give a more favorable impression of the value of the study of psychology. 5. The opinions concerning 3. summarized in this study are found inconsistent with the evidence on the same ques- tion, given by the historical point of view,^ and also by the statistical study of the relation of psychology to teaching.' (However, this latter study, while showing that the cor- relations between scholarship in psychology and teaching 1 See Chapter II. 2 See Chapter IV. 42 NORMAL SCHOOL EDUCATION efficiency is .418, does not assert that the whole other factor involved is experience.) The question of greatest interest is the fifth. We are interested in the direct question as to whether the teacher is conscious of help from her study of psychology in the Normal School. The answers to the other questions, how- ever, explain somewhat the positions taken with respect to the fifth. The principle of apperception requires that only when a student " knows the purpose of the exercise do apperceiv- ing- ideas flow in rich fulness." That is, we expect a stu- dent to gain from his study of a subject in proportion as he knows the aim in the work. For this reason the first question was asked : " What did you feel to be the aim in the study of psychology?" To this question only 135 an- swers were made. This is only 81 per cent, of the whole number making- replies, and only 29 per cent, of those to whom letters were sent. There are, however, representa- tives from every one of the 27 schools. The answers are easily grouped as follows : 1. Knowledge of mind for the purpose of instruction. 2. Knowledge of mind as a scientific study. 3. " To understand the child." 4. Ethical development. 5. Special; i. e., scattering answers. Table I shows the distribution : Table I >4«c»i«4-c Number of Per cent, of Replies Per cent, of Replies answers. Answers. to this Question. to Total Inquiries. 1 76 56 16 2 26 19 6 3 II 8 2 4 4 3 I— 5 20 14 4 It is readily seen that the educational aspect has the VALUE OF NORMAL SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY 43 greatest prominence. Its interest is in its relation to the position taken on the fifth question considered below. It would be expected that the 56 per cent, who found this edu- cational aim would also find pedagogical help in the work, but the answers to question five are to the contrary. The chief interest in the answers to the second question (What portions of psychology were most emphasized?) is in what they do not contain: — I mean in their lack of defi- niteness. The answers were too scattered to have mean- ing: e. g., "Mental Development," "Fundamental Prin- ciples," " Principles of Teaching." Other answers covered an indefinite range: e. g., " Mental Development," "Mem- ory," " Attention," " Will," " Interest," " Imagination," all these in one answer. The leading conclusion, then, on this question is that no strong impression of one large and central thought, such as Herbart's apperception, or James' emphasis on native and acquired reactions, was made. The students left the school with many names of psychological topics in mind, and with no central thought. Answers to the question on text-books show the chaotic condition of Normal School instruction in psychology. Forty-eight different books are mentioned. James, Talks to Teachers and Briefer Course (not distinguished), heads the list. Next in order are Halleck, Sully, Baldwin, (Joseph, I suspect,) Todd, Titchener, etc. Some books are mentioned that are not now regarded as of much pedagog- ical worth, e. g., Haven, Porter, Hitchcock, Alden. Some replies show lack of knowledge as to what are psychologies by naming Laurie, Mann, McMurry, Rousseau. The fourth question asked what principles for teaching were found in the study of psychology. A large number were given. Many were answers in a single word, and this not in all cases suggestive of a real principle. The fol- lowing is the list of fifteen given in two or more of the answers : 44 NORMAL SCHOOL EDUCATION Number of votes Value of votes 1. Pt-oceed from the Known to the Unknown- 2,7 22 + 2. Association and Apperception 21 13 + 3. Perception 18 12 + 4. Habit 23 12 + 5. Attention 18 8 + 6. Interest 14 6 + 7. Memory 11 5 + 8. Order of Mental Development 8 5 + 9. Self-activity 2 2 10. Judgment 2 1 + 11. Idea first, then the Name 2 i -|- 12. Proceed from the Whole to the Parts 2 i — 13. Proceed from the Particular to the General- 3 i~ 14. First Impressions Are Strongest 3 i — 15. Proceed from the Easy to the Difficult 2 i — Only 109 replies were made to this question, i. e., 65 per cent, of total answers, and 23 per cent, of the inquiries made. The question of importance here is the emphasis laid upon the various so-called principles. Some mentioned one only; others gave several. It is unjust to count each principle suggested as one. The problem is essentially that of counting the ballots of voters who had the privilege of voting for any number they pleased. But in voting for more than one they thereby split their vote. Thus, one who cast five ballots gave to each of such candidates one-fifth of a vote. The list above shows the results by two methods. The first column of figures shows the total of 195 ballots cast for the various " candidates." The second column of fig- ures shows the result when each candidate received only his share when a ballot was split. The relative rank is thus slightly changed. Here it is seen that the " Proceed from the Known to the Unknown " " covers a multitude of sins." It is one of the indefinite statements so character- istic of all the answers. Secondly, it is evident that the Normal School psychology in the various schools is not emphasizing a few, but many diverse, principles. Per cent, of total. Per cent, of 114. 6l (71%) ye 19 (29%) 24 20 VALUE OF NORMAL SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY 45 The fifth question is the most direct and important one : " Which has helped you more in your work, your study of psychology, or your study of principles and methods, based on experience?" The total number of answers to this question was 143, i. e., 85 per cent, of all answers given and 30 per cent, of inquiries made. The distribution is as follows : Answers. In favor of experience. ... 87 In favor of psychology. . . . 2y The two not separated .... 29 There is evidence here of a strong emphasis upon ex- perience as more helpful than psychology. The 71 and 29 per cents, express the ratio when the answers of the 29, who do not separate experience and psychology, are evenly divided. The more equitable method, however, is to dis- card in this treatment these 29. This gives y6 and 24 as the percentages of the positive answers for experience and psychology. The question as stated may be interpreted as referring to psychology as a subject independent of the Normal School. It is perfectly possible that many of the answers are upon this basis. However, there is evidence that it was not so considered in the answers. Again, most of the answers are given by teachers who have been out of the Normal School less than five years, and they give no evidence of studying much psychology in that time. Again, as will be shown, there are a large number of positive refer- ences to the psychology as studied in the school. The ratio in favor of experience is of even more weight than indi- cated by the figures, when, as referred to above, it is re- membered that the answers — in large measure — are from those with quite limited experience. This want of experi- ence gives an advantage, if anything, to the side of psy- chology. 46 NORMAL SCHOOL EDUCATION It is of interest and profit to note the impression made by a few individual schools. It seems natural to expect that those schools having special teachers in psychology- would impress their students with the importance of psy- chology; whereas, in those schools in which the subject is given by the principal of the school, with a much more general treatment, much less may be expected. Table II, A and B, shows the schools having special teachers of psychology, and those having none, respectively. (Schools 23 to 29 are omitted, since there seems to be no definite field of psychology distinct from pedagogy.) At the side of the school list is indicated the number favoring experience or psychology. A marked contrast is seen at once. In those schools having special teachers of psychol- ^Sy^ 35/^ P^r cent, favor psychology; while in the other class of schools, the per cent, is reduced to 10. In group A, only one school, No. 20, gives evidence which might have been expected of schools with special teachers. Yet this weight is somewhat lessened when it is known that of the seven who directly favor psychology, three are teachers of psychology; one as principal of a Normal School, one at the head of this department in a Normal School, the third as teacher of a city training class. A similar disposition can be made of three of the seven in school No. 11. In group A are only three schools in which those favoring psychology equal their opponents in number, and in two of these cases they exceed. In group B, six schools have none in favor of the psychology studied; and the other four schools have only one representative each on this side. Thus, even in those schools where much might be expected in emphasis upon psychology, little support is found, and much less by the other group. Some characteristic replies of individuals throw a decided light upon the impression Normal School psychology has made upon those who have pursued the work. VALUE OF NORMAL SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY TABLE II PSYCHOLOGY VS. EXPERIENCE 47 A From schools with special 1 1 *. pq teachers of psychology. 1 CO 1 u * cq I 2 s I ^ I i I ^ I 3 2 I 8 I I 2 4 3 2 9 3 2 3 1 4 I I I 10 II :^ 7 I 8 1 I 2 18 4 I 2 9 3 2 3 20 3 7 4 ID 4 I 38 2 I I 11 i6 8 5 7 I 39 6 I 2 14 i6 40 = 64>^ f. 22 = 35'A % 17 i8 4 3 I 2 1 I 1 ■ 19 20 3 7 4 B 21 I I I From schools without special 22 23 24 25 7 I 3 I I I 2 2 teachers of psychology. S c ^ 26 3 ^ •3 3|C 28 I 8 ji 29 2 •g & ^ ^ i 2 2 (n w CM m 2 I I 39 6 I 2 I 2 5 I I I 87 = 76 % 27 = 24 % 1 29 4 3 2 S 4 I I 14 8 16 5 19 3 21 I I I 22 7 I I 37 2 2 39 = 90 + % 4 = 10— % 8 ♦This means that the answers took the position that the two are inseparable. These are not considered in the percentages given. 48 NORMAL SCHOOL EDUCATION " Psychology gave a rationale for all that experience taught. It enabled me to profit by experience. . . . Through psychology I gained a criterion of value." Essentially the same thought is expressed by two others (all three of these are Normal School instructors). A very few speak of psy- chology as having been to them of a general value — a basis for interpretations, a means of awakening mental activities, etc. A few, in favoring experience, speak of it as based in a general way upon psychology. Only one reply makes an attempt to state specifically and concretely results gained from the work in psychology. This reply is from a school known for its special strength in this department. On the other hand is the emphatic position taken by those replying against psychology. Many of the answers are accompanied by the expressions, " most decidedly," " emphatically," etc., none of which are used favoring psy- chology. " A waste of time " is used to express the gen- eral results of the work. No greater criticism is given upon the content of the work than in its being constantly characterized as " indefinite." This indefiniteness is indi- cated by those who speak in support of the work in psy- chology, as well as those who condemn it. Illustrative of the former is " My study of psychology taught me to study the child from a psychological standpoint;" others speak directly of getting very little that was definite. In the sec- ond case, this indefiniteness is even more strongly indi- cated ; for example, the work in psychology " began no- where and ended in the same place;" or, the work was " an harrassing blind groping after something intangible ;" again, even the instructor " did not know what he was doing." Many answers point out that the work was " not psy- chology at all, but philosophy of education." And this is clearly seen in the study of text-books reported. Others VALUE OF NORMAL SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY 49 Speak of the "very superficial study of psychology," and characterize it further as " old." A number of these an- swers are from college graduates, who have later pursued the Normal School course. Most of these express dissatis- faction with the work done in psychology. By these refer- ence is made to "the much larger and more helpful amount" received elsewhere. A representative of one of the leading Normal Schools — and now himself a principal — takes a position which well expresses the real tendency and chief emphasis in the ansv^^ers to this question. He says that in the Normal School, experience was of more value to him, but that since leaving the school, psychology has taken the lead. It is interesting to note, also, that the strongest ex- pressions of adverse criticism come from representatives of three schools ranked among the highest, all of which have special teachers of psychology. There may be more scientific tests of the worth of any subject, but the impression which such a study makes upon a random selection of individuals who have pursued that work is an indication of how it is valued, rf not of how it ought to be. The answers to our question as to the relative value of psychology and experience in Normal School work suggest, in brief, the following : 1. The work in psychology has favorably impressed only a small minority — 24 per cent. — and only a few of these speak specifically in commendation of the work. 2. The most favorable impression made is in the " gen- eral value " of the study — a " brain stretcher," as expressed by one. But this suggests : 3. Characteristic weakness in its indefiniteness. The work fails to bring forth results that show clearly to those who take it. 4. The work is more in name than in reality. Some re- so NORMAL SCHOOL EDUCATION plies state that there was no psychology given, though the subject does appear in the curriculum. The psychology — so-called — is superficial and " old," or is only a name for the " Philosophy of Education." 5. The work falls below that given in college, as testified by college graduates ; and further, below that which will be obtained in practical work in teaching. 6. Finally, the contrast between the schools having special teachers of psychology and those having none is marked. In the former class, roughly, a third favor psychology, while in the latter there is less than one in ten. It is, perhaps, unnecessary to call the reader's attention, in closing this chapter, to the fact that all its contents con- cern, not real psychology as it might be taught in Normal Schools, but the thing which has been taught under the name of psychology. Nor should the reader conclude that the obvious inadequacy of psychology as taught implies a greater worth in other Normal School subjects. On the contrary, there is reason to believe that the other subjects would have fared as badly if similarly tested by a question- naire of the same sort. CHAPTER IV ON THE CORRELATION BETWEEN TEACHING EFFI- CIENCY AND SCHOLARSHIP Introduction I. The Problem. Chapter II showed how one particular subject in the cur- riculum came to be considered necessary in the training of teachers. Chapter III showed the inadequacy of the in- struction in one sample subject of the Normal School cur- riculum. The present chapter proposes to study, by a sta- tistical and scientific method, the relation between teaching efficiency and scholarship in various subjects pursued in preparation for teaching. This is the problem : Is the efficient teacher the proficient scholar? To what extent is he so in each of the subjects of the Normal School course? In other words, does the one who stands high among fellow-teachers stand relatively high among fellow-students in the work preparatory to his teaching ? Such a study of mental relationships is in itself a study of causes. If it be found a rule that efficiency in teaching follows proficiency in scholarship, then, other things being equal, the latter may be considered a vital con- tribution to the former. And this is our present purpose : to discover, so far as possible, what elements enter into the making of a capable teacher. Corollary questions are: To what extent does proficiency in scholarship mean efficiency in teaching? That is, what is the quantitative relation? This involves the measurement of scholarship in the vari- 51 5 2 NORMAL SCHOOL EDUCATION ous subjects pursued; and the question of the relation of these measurements among themselves arises. Again, what do the details of the data suggest as to the character of the measurements used? This study is confined to elementary teachers only; that is, those below the high school/ A study of high school teachers would probably give different results, since there can be little doubt that scholarship enters more directly into the success of the high school teacher, who usually deals more with particular subject-matter and less with general human nature than the teacher in the elementary school. This study, also, does not attempt to ascertain fully just what does constitute teaching efficiency. Of the many pos- sible factors — health, personality, favorable environment, etc. — which determine success in teaching, only one, ability in academic and professional studies, is investigated. The present study seeks the relations between (i) those mental traits which are measured by Normal School records of scholarship, and (2) the ability to teach as measured by one who allows for favorable or unfavorable conditions. 2. General Conclusions Reached. The more important general conclusions reached in this study may be briefly stated as follows : I . The correlations ^ found are low. Taking together the 92 relationships calculated herein between teaching effi- ciency and scholarship in various subjects, the narrow mode, that point in the series containing the greatest number of 1 The data studied include one exception, viz., School F, but these marks are considered separately. 2 The reader unacquainted with the modern methods of estimating relationships should read the chapters on " Correlation " in Bowley's Elements of Statistics, Davenport's Statistical Methods, or Thorndike's Mental and Social Measurements. TEACHING EFFICIENCY AND SCHOLARSHIP 53 frequencies, is at the zero point, which means no correla- tion. Widen this mode so that it will include half the cases, and it then lies between .000 and .337, with the median at .175.. When we consider that the Normal Schools are strictly technical schools — or at least so intended — this low correlation between the theory as given in the school and the art as practiced outside is rather surprising. 2. The relation between the practice teaching within the school and actual teaching outside the training school is comparatively high, viz., .443. 3. The data lend support to the claim so generally made, especially in Normal Schools, that the ability developed in the study of psychology contributes much to one's success in teaching. This subject stands next to that of practice teaching, viz., .418. This is in accord with the opinion and experience of Normal School instructors from the first impulse made by Cyrus Pierce in Lexington (1839) to the present. But, as shown in Chapter II, the study of psychol- ogy has been constantly mingled with the history and prin- ciples of education, independently of which it cannot be well considered. Hence, in this stud)^ consideration is given to these various studies combined, called " Professional." As such, the correlation is lowered to .336, but still ranks second. 4. The question as to the relative value of studies in sub- ject-matter itself, and studies in the methods of teaching such subjects, receives a suggestion. In fourteen pairs of such relations studied, ten result in favor of the academic, i. e., the subject-matter work. The differences, however, are slight, as indicated in the following figures. These fig- ures express in thousandths the differences in the coefiEicients of correlation in favor of academic work : .043, .099, .039. .030, .020, .137, .059, .246, .193, .084. The differences in 54 NORMAL SCHOOL EDUCATION favor of methods are: .054, .052, .149, .072. In one of the city training schools there is evidence to this same effect. Examinations also show that abihty in academic subjects contributes more to successful teaching than ability in courses in methods. 5. The question of the efficiency of examinations as tests of ability to teach was studied. The results, however, are not satisfactory, because of the peculiar data used. But, so far as the present study goes, the evidence is against the efficiency of examinations as tests of ability to teach. In two schools considered, the correlations between teaching- efficiency and examination records are distinctly negative. In the third school the coefficient is below .20. 6. The order in closeness of relationship to teaching effi- ciency of the four branches of study, considered in two aspects, academic and methods, is as follows : English Methods. Science. " Hisitory Academic. English Mathematics Methods. Science Academic. Mathematics " History Methods. These are the leading conclusions as to the correlations calculated. In this study the question of marking, i. e., grading, could not be entirely avoided. The systems of marking used in the various schools indicate carelessness in this particular and a need of improvement in method. This is discussed at the close of the chapter, and suggestions are given for another system of measuring mental traits. This inaccuracy in grading, both in the subjects studied and in teaching efficiency, results in an " attenuation " of all the coefficients of correlation, as has been shown by TEACHING EFFICIENCY AND SCHOLARSHIP 55 Spearman/ As the data for this study were gathered be- fore his paper had shown the need of two independent measures for every trait to be related, I am not able to cor- rect my results for the attenuations due to chance error. There is no reason to believe that the relative closeness of relationship to teaching efficiency of the different abili- ties measured would be altered if the Spearman correction could be made. Method of Study I. Data Collected. The materials used consist of records of teachers from the following institutions : 1. Five representative Normal Schools of Massachusetts and New York: School A — 155 graduates. " B— 105 " c- 55 " D— 89 " E— 102 2. Two Normal Colleges. School F — 45 graduates. " G- 97 3. Two city training schools. School H — 157 graduates. " I- 52 4. One educational department of a university. School J — 222 students. 5. Three Ohio cities. School K — 106 teachers. Total number of individuals studied — 1,185. ^ American Journal of Psychology, Jan., 1904. 56 NORMAL SCHOOL EDUCATION The following table (III) shows the subjects in which marks have been secured in the various schools. For ex- ample, the Y in column A opposite Psycholog}^ indicates that I have records of individual students in Psychology at school A. The Math. Ac, Science Ac. etc., indicate acad- emic work in these four branches, distinct from the usual method work given in Normal Schools. Grades in both phases are used in this investigation. The term " Educa- tion " found in schools B and C means History of Educa- tion, Philosophy of Education, School Economy, etc., given in one course as found in some Normal Schools, or not easily distinguished here. It would, however, doubtless be safe to consider these two cases as History of Education in comparisons made, and I have so done in the calculations. The marks for Mathematics, Science, History, and English are made up from marks in the individual subjects in these branches, e. g., Mathematics includes Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry. The last five branches mentioned refer to acad- emic work preparatory to the work in the training school. The marks in school K are upon local examinations for teachers' certificates. The number of marks in the various subjects taken and upon teaching will average about twenty for each individual. This means about 25,000 (over 24,- 000) records used in this investigation. TEACHING EFFICIENCY AND SCHOLARSHIP cj TABLE III Schools A B C D E F G H I J K Teaching Y Y Y Y Y Y " Instruction. Y Y Discipline.. Y Y City Exam. " Hist. Prin. .... Y Y " Methods Y Y " Total Y Y Practice Teach. .... Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Psychology YYYYYY YYY Educ. Psy. Y Hist, of Ed. Y YYY ^ Y Y "Education" Y Y Y Mathematics YYYYYY Y Y Math. Ac YYY Science YYYYYY Y Y Science Ac. YYY History YYYYYY Y Y History Ac. Y Y Y English YYYYYY Y Y English Ac. YYY Art Y Y Man. Train. Y Y Gymnastics Y Academic work prior to training school work. Mathematics ■ Y Y Science Y Y History Y Y English Y Y Mod. Lang. Y 2. Character of Data. It must be frankly admitted at the outset that a strictly scientific treatment of the problem in hand is handicapped by the very nature of the data used. We have a strictly quantitative measure for land in the " foot-front " or acre, for coal in the ton or car-load. These are absolute meas- ures and are universal. Not so in the measurement of scholarship or teaching efficiency. These are mental traits 58 NORMAL SCHOOL EDUCATION to which physical measurements do not apply. Yet in almost all phases of educational work amounts of mentality are commonly expressed in some form of units of measure. Examinations are marked 98%, 86%, 37%, etc.; or by let- ters A, B, B — , C, C — , D, etc. ; or by numbers i, 2, 3, etc. ; or by words " excellent," " good," " poor," etc. Various are the terms used, not only in examinations, but in daily recitations, in written work of all forms, as symbols of impressions of teaching efficiency and of general scholarship. These " marks " are commonly accepted as good meas- ures, and they are commonly understood. Only in critical cases are these marks called in question, when it is seen that the same " mark " given by different individuals does not measure the same amount of mentality. 98% given by one teacher may mean the same as 86% given by an- other; an " A " student under one instructor is only a " B " student as marked by another. Further, and as a conse- quence of what has just been said, any " mark " is not a measure of the student's absolute mental ability, but is rather an expression of an individual's estimate of that ability. It is, in the last analysis, a personal opinion, rather than a universal measure. Yet, in spite of these real difficulties, we had best use " marks," for they are practically the only available meas- ures at present of mentality. This investigation makes use of such "marks," though tentatively, as approximations to true measures of ability, if treated as determining the order of merit. Conclusions reached from such data will be sub- ject to less criticism by reason of the two facts mentioned, vis., these " marks " are commonly accepted as an adequate measure, and these " marks " are commonly understood, though not with great accuracy. Time and experience may develop a standard of measurement of various mental traits, as the foot and ton in physical measurements. TEACHING EFFICIENCY AND SCHOLARSHIP 59 J. Method of Securing Data. 1. Marks for teaching efficiency. There are very few school systems where we find the teachers graded on the efficiency of their work. (This is done in practice work in training schools, but seldom in actual school work.) If each principal or superintendent marked his teachers, as these teachers mark their pupils, we would have at hand an estimate of the teaching power of each. But such is not the case. Any attempt to secure this estimate from the principals of 1,185 teachers scattered throughout three states or more, or to inquire into the actual work done by these teachers, would be an almost insur- mountable task. Another method was taken. Principals of Normal Schools usually follow quite closely the work of their graduates. The estimate of such men is probably the best available mark for teaching efficiency. This is the mark used in this study. In selecting the individuals, the roll of classes graduating between 1898 and 1902, inclusive, was taken. The indi- viduals were taken in order, in so far as the principal of the school had followed the work of the graduate sufficiently to be ready to estimate the efficiency of the teaching. All others were discarded. The above method was used for schools A-F, inclusive. For the graduates of schools G and H, marks are given by the principals of the schools in which such graduates are teaching. I have no records of the teaching of graduates of schools I and J. Their practice teaching only was avail- able. Marks for school K were given by the superinten- dents of the three schools respectively. 2. Marks for scholarship. These marks were secured for each of the 1,185 i^^i- 1 Mental and Physical Tests, Psy. Rev. Monograph, iii. no. 6, p. 35. 6o NORMAL SCHOOL EDUCATION viduals in the various subjects pursued in the schools, or upon examination. As ah'eady said, the mark in Mathe- matics is the combined marks of whatever subjects are found in that branch. In most of the Normal Schools, these are Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry. This combined mark is not the exact " average " of the other marks, but is rather the probable " mode," which is a truer mark.^ Note. — Wissler, in considering students' marks in Columbia Univer- sity, takes as the standing for the year the " sum of the products of the grades and ithe number of course hours divided by the total number of such hours, or the average grade per course hours." ^ While this method of exact average is doubtless well used in this case, the "mode" seems preferable where the marks cover a wider range and are less regular. 4. Method of Treatment. (i) Coefficients of correlation. With these " marks " as measures of intellectual powers in various subjects of study and of efficiency in teaching, the question is as to their relations, particularly the relation between teaching efficiency and scholarship in the various branches of study. If the work of the Normal Schools and teachers' colleges is to equip the individual for efficient teaching, it is important to know what subjects of study contribute to this end, and to what relative extent they do so. This calls for measurements of specific mental powers, and of the extent to which an individual's station in one corresponds to his station in others. This is done by a method based on that of Pearson's co- efficient of correlation.^ This method is not one of abso- 1 Thorndike, Educational Psychology, 166, and Lecture Notes, 1903- 1904. 2 This method is fully described in Pearson's Grammar of Science, pp. 392-402 ; also in Thorndike's Educational Psychology and his Mental and Social Measurements. TEACHING EFFICIENCY AND SCHOLARSHIP 6i lute amount of condition or of change. It is a measure of mental relationship, of the amount of excess or deficiency in relation to the central tendency of various relationships. The index or coefficient of correlation marks the degree of relationship. This may vary from + ioo%, which is per- fect correspondence, to — ioo%, which is perfect opposi- tion. "A correlation of +62% would mean that . . . any given station in the one trait would imply 62 hundredths of that station in the other. A coefficient of — 62% would, of course, mean that any degree of superiority would in- volve 62 hundredths as much inferiority, and vice versa.'' ^ This only means that the higher the correlation, the miore certain we can be that high scholarship in the given sub- ject is essential in efficient teaching; that a given efficiency in one is connected with proficiency in the other to the ex- tent indicated by the index of correlation. Pearson speaks of the increase in correlation as the " transition of correla- tion into causation. Causation tells us that B will accom- pany A ; correlation tells us the proportion of cases in which B accompanies." ^ One statement only needs to be made as to the method of securing the index of correlation. The Pearson coeffi- cient is obtained by the following process : ^ Find the sum of the products of the deviations of one class by the devia- tions associated therewith in the other class ; divide this sum by the product of the Standard Deviation of one class multiplied by the Standard Deviation of the other class, multiplied by the whole number of cases. This is ex- pressed by the formula : 1 Thorndike, Mental and Social Measurements, p. 123. 2 Grammar of Science, p. 397. 3, See Pearson's Grammar of Science, p. 400; Davenport, Statistical Methods, p. 32; Thorndike, Educational Psychology, p. 26. 62 NORMAL SCHOOL EDUCATION r = ^^-y The deviations have in all cases been calculated accord- ing to the hypothesis that the relative position of individuals marked by the same person is given by their marks, and that the distributions of the abilities studied approximate the so-called normal type. The amounts of the marks thus have no influence more than to determine within any one school the relative abilities of the individuals. The second part of this hypothesis is by no means secure, but any other way of treating the marks would make little difference in the resulting coefficients of correlation. The large amount of arithmetical work required in finding 2x.y, ^ per cent. An individual men- tal trait is too intangible and too variable to be submitted to that kind of measurement. Strength can be measured by the pound-weight : swiftness of foot, by the distance per minute, but scholarship in mathematics or history is really to be measured by its relative position in a group with which it can be compared. We might, for example, referring to the series of marks below, say of these 147 teachers : " Six of them stand in the fore-front, without making a discrim- ination among these six. There are ten others so near alike that we may give them second rank compared with Grade 95 90 85 80 75 70 65 60 50 40 Frequency 6 10 31 24 31 28 8 S 3 i the best six. In the succeeding lower ranks are the groups 31, 24, 31, 28, 8, 5, 3, I. In this case the six set the stand- 92 NORMAL SCHOOL EDUCATION ard of measurement, by which others stand or fall." Or we might begin at the lower extreme and take the single man in this case as the standard, and measure all the others upward. But the best man or the poorest man does not serve well as the standard for comparison. This should rather be the central tendency of the group. This should serve as the standard, and the better and worse be measured by their deviations from the central tendency. Thus we measure individuals in a group by their deviations from the central tendency in respect to a particular trait. This is far preferable to an imagined absolute measure. The per cent method of grading and the letter method, if properly used, are really measures by relative position. John should be marked 80, not because that number expresses his de- gree of mentality, but because he is slightly above the larger portion of the class, the average of which is rather arbitrarily placed at, say 75. In this way we are measuring the in- dividuals of a group in terms of a function of that group. (2) The range of distribution should be comparatively wide. In schools G and H, the. distribution is in three groups, though on a scale of four. Yet in these two schools, there is practically no distribution : that is, almost all cases are put into one group, B. Here is an extreme case of almost non-discrimination. One step removed from this extreme is that of two groups. These two may stand for the satisfactory and the unsatisfactory groups. And this is a very practical division. A principal or superintendent may, for his immediately practical purposes, -divide his teachers into the satisfactory and the unsatisfactory classes'. The one, he retains; the other, he dismisses. The eighth grade teacher, at the close of the year, may divide her fifty pupils into two groups; forty are satisfactory and are passed into the high school : the ten are unsatisfactory and are retained. This is the mere act of accepting and re- TEACHING EFFICIENCY AND SCHOLARSHIP 93 jecting. There are times when a carpenter may direct that a pile of lumber may be divided into two classes : that which is two or more inches in thickness, and that which is less. The former he can use; the latter is not wanted. But his various labors soon ask for finer measures and there are many practical purposes to be accomplished through a closer discrimination. A merchant asks the prin- cipal of a school for his two most capable boys in figuring. The one most capable in the class is valedictorian ; the next most capable presents the salutation in the closing exercises of the school: there are prizes and honors (and dishonors) to be distributed according to the standing of the individuals in class. These are practical purposes to be met by a closer discrimination between the mental traits of the pupils of the school. There is also a new demand for this finer measurement of mentality. Students of education in their study of prob- lems pertaining to school work are in need of these facts. The problem of educational values, e, g., does the study of Latin enable the pupil to accomplish more in algebra, can not be answered by knowing whether or not the student " passed." A closer discrimination of his algebraic ability is necessary. All inquir)^ as to the relation between mental traits calls for the finer measures of mentality. The old 100 per cent basis implies a possible grouping into 100 divisions. Yet probably such a range is never used. In the data here used, the range is from 100 to 15, yet there are few cases where twenty divisions are used. The number of di- visions must depend much upon the number of individuals graded, and much upon the motive in the grading. Where greater discrimination is wanted, the number of divisions must be greater. Where acceptable or non-acceptable is all that is wanted, two classes are sufficient. Further, where the number of individuals is small, the number of groups 94 NORMAL SCHOOL EDUCATION will be small. In school D, scholarship in the various sub- jects is marked by the three measures i, 2, 3. In the tables for this school, these three grades are expanded into five by the method of averages used, and even this means little discrimination where a hundred or more individuals are involved. The range of distribution should be sufficiently wide that one may be able to locate at least the extreme 10 per cent : that is, it would be well to be able to speak definitely of the best 10 per cent and of the poorest. In the use of only three divisions, this would necessitate 80 per cent in the middle class. Here is too little discrimination. It would be well to be able to speak of half the class grouped about the median grade. Retaining our 10 per cent ex- tremes, this would call for at least five groups, viz. : 10, 15, 50, 15 and 10 per cents. But to throw half of the whole number into one group is to measure very roughly that group, and it is also desirable that the extremes be less than 10 per cent : for one would wish to know the one, two, or three most capable boys in a school of 50 pupils. It would seem then that at least seven or nine divisions should be used, in case of even as few as twenty individuals. More than fifteen or eighteen grades become cumbersome and call for closer discrimination than is probably needed. The 100 per cent method of marking, so commonly used, is usually assumed to be an absolute measure — a certain per cent of perfection being the measure. Difficulties here are evident. Foremost of all is the fact that no work ever really merits a perfect mark. (3) The normal curve of distribution should serve as the standard. This nonnal course, as pointed out earlier, means simply — that, under normal conditions, of the members of a large group a considerable portion will be nearly equal in a given trait, and will represent the central tendency of TEACHING EFFICIENCY AND SCHOLARSHIP 95 the group. Above and below, for better and for worse, other members are about equally distributed: at the two extremes are to be found only comparatively few, repre- senting the very best and the very poorest. Psychology D, table VII, is not at all normal: and is probably not a just rating. It is probably not true that the great majority are at the very top. In actual application, the teacher would need first to decide upon the number of groups to make, according to the suggestion made above. Then pick out those of mediocre ability for the median class. The others are to be distributed above and below. In using this method, one must be careful not to follow it too rigidly. A perfectly normal distribution is probably not possible. 3, 5, 12, 20, 38, 20, 12, 5, 3 is expected to be somewhat altered. Yet this is a type to which all groups doubtless do tend. This method seeks the natural course, in two particulars : (i) Mental ability is really judged by no absolute standard, but by relation to the same kind of ability in other individ- uals. (2) Most of such abilities are neither very good nor very bad, but have what is known as the normal curve of distribution. That the suggestions made above concern a real issue is abundantly proven by the following table (Table VII) which gives some 60 samples taken at random of the grades used in the present study. The scales for these grades are given at the left of the table. 96 NORMAL SCHOOL EDUCATION TABLE VII SAMPLES OF GRADES GIVEN IN NORMAL SCHOOLS < pq u M pq fe fe ^ , >, >^ rt ai in rt nt a P-I p^ p^ H ffi S H ffi CM ^ £ § § '0 CO K 100 99 5 98 I 6 I 2 97 2 96 2 95 I 4 14 2 5 6 4 3 10 94 I 2 I I I 93 2 I 3 I I 2 92 5 5 6 I I 5 I 8 91 I 3 3 2 2 I 90 4 13 13 38 7 9 6 2 3 20 5 24 89 I 2 2 6 4 2 2 I I 88 14 15 6 ^^ 2 6 3 7 5 5 87 5 10 6 3 I 5 10 86 2 8 3 9 2 4 I 4 85 4 II 4 s 13 10 4 4 i8 7 23 7 I 16 84 13 3 2 5 2 7 4 3 6 3 83 II 5 5 I 6 3 9 3 8 I 6 I 82 2 7 6 5 6 5 II 4 14 5 7 9 81 2 4 5 2 I 3 7 80 12 6 3 7 17 7 4 4 25 5 10 21 12 70 19 79 5 I 3 I 4 21 7 15 3 78 13 4 5 7 I 2 I 19 3 29 6 12 20 9 77 i6 2 2 I I 6 3 25 3 4 24 76 9 6 6 3 4 I 30 2 5 25 7 75 S3 4 27 7 9 2 15 I 36 8 18 20 3 74 I 2 5 73 7 2 I 7 72 I I I I 71 I 70 5 I 2 2 I 69 68 I 67 66 65 I 64 63 62 61 60 I 15 I N 147 97 54 97 144 103 52 28 151 45 155 150 92 155 131 TEACHING EFFICIENCY AND SCHOLARSHIP ' TABLE Vll— Continued 97 W bo W rn W w « W u bo •— > 9 bo o .S H IS 1 C/1 1 a rt g 'o CO >> 1 o c IS H H PL. P4 IS A 20 23 i8 12 39 19 i6 i8 25 19 14 7 10 9 8 19 A— 30 16 27 30 21 21 B+ 5 24 23 5 II ^^ 10 ^•l 4 23 B 7 41 i8 31 35 6 13 i8 30 i8 7 32 i8 24 41 19 B- 7 7 I 12 7 8 Q c+ 9 2 8 9 12 2 I 4 6 I c 7 24 4 22 7 8 II s 3 II 20 19 13 12 c— 3 3 3 I 3 3 I I D+ D 2 10 I 2 I I 4 S 2 D— E+ E 3 2 I 3 N 54 lOI 102 lOI 97 52 100 102 94 lOI Z7 53 53 57 67 102 •-% ^ ■ *"* d •-4 Pi4 'C o m Oh g ts ^ •— » »— » CO (^ «« 'ot i £? -s 1? K 1 Id w S bo 1 A 7 I I 2 3 4 7 A-B 9 3 8 2 3 I 4 B , 13 31 28 2 II 8 12 29 B-C 10 9 lO I 3 3 9 25 C i6 10 15 9 21 24 21 39 C-D 6 2 2 4 3 7 i6 D 3 5 2 3 4 4 6 13 P-E I I 3 3 ■ E 4 1 7 N 64 62 67 24 49 50 * 140 NORMAL SCHOOL EDUCATION TABLE Mil— Continued ffi P W P . < ^ P W fx, P M _o ■ Si •+3 bO o bo bfl bo tn s rt 1 fe" .S C 'a •§ ^ ^ i H 1 H OT P^ ffi H" & vi S 100 i6 II 2 15 II IQ 21 95 6 14 10 17 3 14 22' 5 14 13 9U 10 27 24 32 3 32 19 12 31 30 85 31 I 10 6 I 13 i6 I 3 80 24 4 4 i8 4 4 12 i6 4 14 75 ^l 6 5 7 8 6 2 22 6 4 70 28 2 9 7 2 5 10 2 7 65 8 2 . 2 2 27 4 60 5 I 5 3 I I 10 I 2 55 I II 50 3 4 5 2 6 5 12 5 I 45 I I 40 I I I 2 35 30 I 25 4 4 5 6 2 15 I N 147 8o 64 io6 42 86 87 150 89 106 P P P P bo p bo P Q P P c H C S > ^ -a J i 0) 1 ffi 1 1 pm 7 21 17 21 14 21 14 10 16 9 19 ^ S 4 5 21 .4 23 8 9 19 13 J 29 28 29 44 27 23 31 31 12 ^ IS 5 15 16 II 14 12 21 8 5 13 II 13 II 14 5 18 18 4 7 N 83 6S 83 106 88 83 64 86 84 59 TEACHING EFFICIENCY AND SCHOLARSHIP 99 I regret that it is impossible for me to print here in full the original data from each of the 1185 teachers' records, and their correlation tables showing the detailed facts for each of the 140 coefficients calculated. To do so would re- quire some hundred pages of tables. I append a few sample tables which give the details in the case of some of the important relationships. In the nine tables that follow the scale of grading for teaching is given at the left of each table; that for the sub- ject correlated with teaching, at the top. The figures in the body of the table show the distribution of all the individuals studied and, by their position, indicate the standing for each individual in the two subjects com- pared. At the right and bottom are the sums of the several arrays. It should be said that in the first two tables (schools H and G) the scale at the left was originally A, B, C, D, though only A, B, C, was actually used, i cor- responds to A; 2-y to B; 8-10 to C. Thus in the first table II teachers are graded A; 136, B; and 7, C. The B and C grades were scattered by taking into account the + and — marks upon some of the grades. lOO NORMAL SCHOOL EDUCATION « wvo o « Tj- •«»■ t^ 0» »- J;h m.- w N fO 00 Si „ w w N w VO ^J5 " Is: o t>. I. •8 "* « w »C « w « H w I *" S " I S: 2 G^r^MNHHf.5 o*! «<^ NO t^ «0 Ov g •NM'»»VW^^*^*0Ov^ TEACHING EFFICIENCY AND SCHOLARSHIP iqi TABLE VIII (3) TABLE VIII (4) SCHOOLS A, B, C AND E SCHOOLS A . B, C, D AND E Teaching and Psychology Teaching and *^ Professional" 1 2 5 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 / ID II 7 28 1 17 14 4 4 I 40 2 i6 21 4 3 44 2 20 20 14 4 58 3 12 30 13 7 I 63 3 24 47 27 14 6 118 4 21 42 77 17 5 162 4 12 40 38 14 8 112 5 2 5 i8 II 4 40 5 10 20 30 11 5 76 6 4 7 2 5 18 6 5 7 II 7 7 37 7 ID II 8 II 4 44 7 3 4 9 8 I 25 71 124 134 51 19 399 91 152 133 62 28 466 TABLE VIII (5) SCHOOL A Teaching and Methods in English 95 90 85 80 75 70 65 60 50 40 94 I 93 92 I 90 00 2 3 3 7 I oV 88 3 I I 87 1 2 86 85 I 4 10 6 1 8 1 I 84 2 ■ I I 83 2 2 2 I I 82 I I 2 80 2 2 4 7 6 2 2 79 I 78 I I I I 2 77 I I 76 I 75 3 7 3 2 I 73 I 70 2 I 68 I 67 I 55 I 6 II 36 24 30 28 9 5 4 154 I02 NORMAL SCHOOL EDUCATION W ^3 TEACHING EFFICIENCY AND SCHOLARSHIP 103 TABLE VIII (7) SCHOOL c Teaching and Methods in English A B+ B B- c+ c C- D 95 I I 2 I 5 90 7 I I I 10 89 I I 85 2 I I I 5 80 2 I 2 I 6 79 I I 75 8 4 5 I 2 3 2 I 26 20 5 7 I 9 7 3 2 54 TABLE VIII (8) TABLE VIII (9) SCHOOL , D SCHOOL E Teaching and Methods in English Teaching and Methods in English I 1-2 ^ 2-3 3 A B c D E 100 I I II I 14 A 10 6 4 I 21 95 4 2 4 2 2 14 AB 5 9 5 19 90 3 6 9 4 7 29 B 3 20 7 3 33 85 I I 2 BC I 5 6 3 2 17 80 I I I 3 C I 2 3 I 7 75 2 I I 2 6 19 41 24 10 3 97 70 2 2 60 I I 50 2 I 2 5 40 I I 25 I 2 2 5 14 13 26 12 17 82 Note. — ^Criticism has been made upon this study to this effect: To establish a correlation between scholarship in psychology and ability to teach, for example, does not show that the study of psychology con- tributes to efficiency in teaching, but only that that study serves as an effective means of selecting those who have qualities required in successful teaching. An answer to this may be found in the quotation from Pearson given on page 61. But in either case the practical con- sequences are the same. CHAPTER V GENERAL TRAINING OF ELEMENTARY TEACHERS Introduction 1. The Problem. There is in New York and Massachusetts an increasing attention paid to the training of elementary teachers. New Normal Schools have been erected within the last few years and the efficiency in equipment has been much extended. Attendance upon these schools has increased to meet the de- mand. The larger cities have their own Normal Schools. Training classes in various local high schools are much en- couraged. While the graduates of these training schools are in much demand/ there is a demand in some localities for teachers who are " self-made," i. e., teachers who, in profiting by experience, have gained success. There are also a few college graduates teaching in the grades. We may well ask from what kind of training do the most efficient teachers come. The individual and personal element must, of course, enter largely, but in the present inquiry we shall set that aside. 2. Generalizations. This is too limited a study to insure completely valid re- sults. The generalizations indicated are as follows : 1. There is a slight tendency to promote the more effi- cient teachers into the upper grades. 2. Amount of experience seems to have little influence on the degree of teaching efficiency. 3. There is no indication that the amount of secondary school training- has any relation to teaching efficiency. 4. Only 35^ per cent of the teachers studied are college 1 Yonkers, N. Y., has few teachers who are not Normal School grad- uates. 104 TRAINING OF ELEMENTARY TEACHERS 105 graduates. These, as well as those who attended college but did not graduate, have a rank below the average in the schools in which they are teaching. 5. Normal School graduates do not stand emphatically above the average teacher. It is clear, however, that grad- uates of city training schools, and those who have not studied in pedagogical schools are somewhat inferior to the average teacher. Method I. Data Collected. For this inquiry answers were secured to the following questions : 1 . In what grade are you teaching ? 2. How many years have you taught ? 3. How many years did you study in the high school ? 4. How many years did you spend in college? Did you graduate? Give the name of the college. 5. Professional work. Wliat school did you attend? How many years? Did you finish the course? These questions were sent to elementary schools in New York and Massachusetts, containing from 8 to 31 teachers. These teachers answered the questions, after which the prin- cipal of the school expressed his estimate of the general teaching efficiency of each teacher by grouping them accord- ing to their relative rank. For example, one principal grouped his 27 teachers as follows : First rank. Second rank. Third rank. Fourth rank. Number of Teachers ... 5 8 10 4 The data here used come from 33 schools and represent 507 teachers. With but few exceptions, each teacher an- io6 NORMAL SCHOOL EDUCATION swered all the questions, so that the data are complete, so- far as they go. 2. Regrouping. The ranking of the teachers of the 33 schools differed much in the number of groups into which the corps of teachers was divided. For example, one principal divided his teachers into a first, second and third rank. Others made 5, 8, 12, and even 22 groups. In this last group were 22 teachers, who were thus arranged in perfect serial order from the most efficient teacher to the least efficient teacher. To use all these together they must be reduced to the same number of groups. The following table (IX) shows how they were reduced to five groups. Here the principle used was that the extremes should be disturbed as little as pos- sible. Thus, in an original grouping into 10 we now have: first rank remains first rank; second and third become sec- ond rank; the fourth to the seventh become third rank; eighth and ninth become fourth rank; and the tenth be- comes fifth rank. TABLE IX TABLE OF REGROUPING. Original First Second Third Fourth Fifth Groups Rank Rank Rank Rank Rank 5 2 3 4 5 6 2 3-4 5 6 7 2 3-5 6 7 8 2 3-6 7 8 9 2-Z 4-6 7-8 9 10 2-3 4-7 8-9 10 II 2-3 4-8 9-10 II 12 2-4 5-8 9-11 12 13 2-4 5-9 10-12 13 14 2-4 5-10 11-13 14 IS 2-5 6-10 11-14 IS 18 2-6 7-12 13-17 18 19 2-6 /-13 14-18 19 20 2-6 7-14 15-19 20 22 1-2 3-7 8-15 16-20 21-22 TRAINING OF ELEMENTARY TEACHERS 107 Discussion. I. First question. Any inquiry as to in what grade the better teachers are found has really no direct bearing on the question of effi- ciency in teaching. Consideration is given to it here only for the purpose of locating the cases studied in the ques- tions following. The desire for promotion is natural in teaching as in other occupations. Just what promotion in the elementary schools means is perhaps somewhat questionable. There is a feeling among such teachers that an advance to a higher grade in the school is given in recognition of greater effi- ciency, is promotion. In some schools teachers in the higher grades are recognized as the stronger teachers and are paid accordingly. For the present purpose I have rearranged the groupings of the various schools into three groups by the method sug- gested above. The following is the table of distribution, the first grade including a few designated as kindergarten teachers : TABLE X Grades 1 2 S 4 5 6 7 8 9 I 44 23 17 12 17 15 15 22 8 173 2 45 16 23 27 20 18 19 12 3 183 3 32 II 19 IS II 13 5 6 112 121 50 59 54 48 46 39 40 II 468 "As a rule, the best-trained teachers, those receiving the highest salaries, should be placed in the lower primary and the upper grammar grades, while the young and inexperi- enced should be placed in the intermediate." ^ This seems like a very plausible theory and there is a little evidence of 1 J. H. Phillips, Superintendent, Birmingham, Ala. Quoted in the Report of the Chicago School Comthission for 1900, p. 52. I08 NORMAL SCHOOL EDUCATION its practice here. Table X shows the lower and upper grades to have a little better representation in the first rank, while the third to seventh grades have more of the second rank teachers. 2. Second question. What do our data indicate as to the relation of experience to relative standing in teaching efficiency? We have such questions as these: Does the teacher's standing increase with her experience, i. e., do the older teachers stand fore- most, or is there a certain amount of experience at which a teacher is in her " prime of life?" In this study I have divided the thirty-three schools into two divisions : In the first division I have rearranged into five groups all schools already in five or more groups; in the other I have arranged into three groups those schools already in three or four groups. In the former group are 387 cases; in the latter, 117 cases — making 504 cases con- sidered. The number of years' experience in teaching is given in nine groups, as follows: o, i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 to 10, II to 15, 16 and over. The following table gives the distri- bution. The numbers at the top give the number of years' experience; those at the left indicate the rank of the teach- ers; the others show the individual cases in each. TABLE XI(i) TEACHING EFFICIENCY IN RELATION TO EXPERIENCE Amount of Experience Rank i+ ii-is G-io s H ^ 1 I 1 3 4 From Table XI L 8 TRAINING OF ELEMENTARY TEACHERS m Figure i presents graphically the comparison of amount of experience with efficiency in teaching. The numbers at the left are the rank in teaching efficiency. The Pearson formula for the index of correlation for the 387 cases with the better grading gives .097. This would be much smaller but for the group with one year of experi- ence. Apart from that group there is practically a zero correlation. It must be said, then, in answer to the relation between experience and teaching efficiency that beyond the ■first year of experience it is practically nil. After the first year the amount of experience is not an important criterion for efficient teaching in the elementary schools. The im- portance of this fact, if it is confirmed by later researches, to administrators of school systems is obvious. 3. Third question. Here the question is : Is there evidence of any difference in the teaching efficiency of those who took more or less than the usual four years in high school work. That is, does a post-graduate year in the high school tend to strengthen the teachers, and will less than four years in the high school give a lower teaching efficiency? There were 429 answers to this question. Of these 12 were ambiguous in that 7, 9, 10, 12, etc., were the answers. These twelve persons evidently misunderstood the question or used " sec- ondary schools " in a sense not intended. One answered, "Don't know." Discarding these 13 replies we have 416 to be considered. Only 19 report having taken an extra year in the high school; 169 spent less than four years in the high school. Any significance in more or less than four years of high school work must be found, if at all, in the distribution of these 19 and 169 in the schools in which they are ranked. This, for the evident reason that the other 288 took the full 112 NORMAL SCHOOL EDUCATION course, and the question here is consequently as to the more and less. If the former are found among the better of each group, there is evidence that the extra year contributes directly to teaching efficiency; if the latter are found among the lower of each group, there is the same evidence. For the line of demarcation between the better and the worse, I have taken the median of all the cases in each school. The significance of having spent more or less than four years in high school work depends, in the second place, upon the amount of deviation from this median. That is, if the 19 who spent more than the usual four years were found in the first rank when the median is, for example, 4.5, the contri- bution of this extra year is greater than if these 19 were in the third rank. The results are as follows : Of the 19 who did extra work in the secondary schools, 9 stand above the median, 10 below. The sums of the deviations from the medians are 12.60 above and 24.46 below. Of the 169 who spent less than four years, 85 are found above the median, 84 are below. The sums of the deviations are 197.33 and 225.93 respectively. Thus, so far as these results go, there is no proof that the amount of time spent in secondary school work has a bene- ficial influence on teaching efficiency, and the evidence is that it has little or none. It may be said that with but few exceptions these 19 and 169 have done other work than the high school in preparing for teaching. There is evidence that many of the 169 took their secondary studies in the Normal Schools with their professional work. 4. Fourth question. In many parts of the country a college training is re- quired for high school teachers. The tendency in all school systems is in this direction. In contrast to this, there are only a few college graduates in the elementary schools. TRAINING OF ELEMENTARY TEACHERS 113 The opinion has been expressed that the time is soon com- ing when these teachers also must be college graduates. On the other hand, it is strongly asserted that this more ad- vanced study tends to suppress that sympathy with child nature so much needed in the elementary schools. The data at hand are rather meager, but they tend to support the latter position. Of the 517 teachers replying, only 19 are college grad- uates. There are 14 others who have been in college from one to three years. Of the former group, the following are the colleges and the amounts of deviation of each teacher from the median rank in each group ( + indicates above the median; — , below) : Boston University — 8.50 College of the City of New York -f .83 College of the City of New York + .83 College of the City of New York — .17 Manhattan — .17 Mt. Holyoke — .25 New York University + .83 Normal College of the City of New York . — 2. 50 Pennsylvania College -f- 5. Radcliffe 4- 2.50 Smith -}- .45 Smith — .80 Smith — 4.25 Smith + 3.75 Syracuse — 1.50 Tufts + .20 Wellesley — .25 Wesleyan — 9.50 Woman's College of Baltimore — i. Total 4- 14.39 — 28.89 Thus, of the 19 college graduates, 11 rank below the median; only 8 above. And the deviations on the lower side are considerably greater than on the upper : 28.89 ^^^ 14.39 respectively. Of the 14 who attended college but did 114 NORMAL SCHOOL EDUCA TION not graduate, lo are ranked below the median and only 4 above, while the sums of the deviations are — 26.30 and -;|- 7.39 respectively. In this consideration four things are to be noted : 1. The small proportion of college-bred teachers in the elementary schools. Of those studied, only 33^ per cent are college graduates and slightly less than 3 per cent have studied in college without graduating. 2. The relative standing of these in teaching efficiency. Both classes rank below the average teacher. 3. The relation between the two groups. The college graduate stands higher as an elementary teacher than does the one who merely tasted college and did not take a full course. 4. The possibility that only the less gifted college students enter elementary teaching. 5. Fifth question. Here the inquiry is as to the contribution to efficiency in teaching made by professional study. The method used here is to count the number of Normal School graduates who stand above and below the median rank in each of the 33 schools. That is, is the number of teachers who are Normal School graduates above the median greater than the number below? But we must also take into account the amount above or below which each teacher is. We must give more credit to a teacher who stands first in a group of twelve than to one who stands fourth rank where the median is 5.50. Tlie whole number of Normal School graduates here con- sidered is 290. Of these, 158, or 53 per cent, are above the medians of the several groups. Below are 132, or 47 per cent. This means that so far as numbers go Normal School graduates as teachers are but slightly superior to the aver- TRAINING OF ELEMENTAL Y TEA CHERS i j 5 age. Considering the amounts of deviation in each of the 290 cases, we find that the total amount of deviation above the medians is 303.25, while that below is 341.22. In this group there are 90 teachers who are graduates of city training schools. Thirty-three, or 37 per cent, are above the median; 57, or 63 per cent, are below. Here is consid- erable difference on the basis of number. The sums of the deviations are: above, 115.45; below, 132.51. Thus, the argument of the numbers is supported and we can conclude that the city training school graduate is below the Normal School graduate. There are 69 teachers in this group who have had no pedagogical training. Thirty, or 43 per cent, are above the median, while 39, or 57 per cent, are below. This argument against the teacher with no pedagogical training is further supported when the deviations are considered. These are: above, 88.80; below, 141.04. The conclusion, then, is that the Normal School graduate is not much above the median standard, but that both those who had their preparation in city training schools and those who have had no pedagogical training at all are distinctly, though not far, below the standard. The importance of such a result is well worth considering by students of edu- cation. CHAPTER VI THE INSTRUCTORS IN THE NEW YORK STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS Interest in the study of education and attention to the training of teachers is on the increase. Normal Schools, city training schools, teachers' colleges, and schools of edu- cation in universities are much more prominent than a few years ago, and there is indication that increased attention to this work will continue for some time. Aside from the research work in educational problems conducted in educa- tional departments of universities, these institutions and the Normal and training schools emphasize the need of training teachers for their work in elementary, secondary, and even higher schools. Educational literature abounds in emphasis upon the need of training; teachers. Discussions in educa- tional gatherings bear upon these same subjects. On the other hand, there seems to be little said or written on the subject of this chapter: Are the instructors in the Normal Schools adequately prepared for their work ? It is, indeed, well to emphasize the training of those who are to teach in our public and private schools, or even in our colleges and universities ; but what of those who are teaching these pros- pective teachers? There are at present no established criteria for success- ful, efficient teaching. Perhaps none can be discovered. If teachers are bom, not made; if teaching is wholly an art, not at all a science; if there are really no grounds for a scientific inquiry as to what elements are needed as a prep- ii6 NEW YORK STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS ny aration for teaching, we have no occasion to point out to the prospective teacher certain prescribed principles for in- struction. There are at least elements commonly accepted as essential. First, scholarship, to some degree beyond that of the student under instruction. There is a strong tendency — and in some places even a decision — to require that teachers in our high schools shall be college graduates. This same principle, so characteristic in the German school system, is to be emphasized more and more throughout our educational system: viz., the teacher must be more in ad- vance of the student under his instruction. A second belief is that some study of educational problems and some training in the art of teaching are essential. In evidence of this, note the large number of teachers in New York state who have had pedagogical training. The following is a classification of the teachers of the state according to the kind of licenses held:^ Pedagogical Training, Normal School 3979 Training School 3323 Examination, State 328 College 197 Commissioners 9143 Temporary 436 This means that considerably more than one-third of all teachers in the state have had pedagogical training. In Massachusetts the increase in the number of pedagogically- trained teachers has been marked in the past decade.^ Finally, there is much reliance upon personality and in- dividuality as essential in successful teaching. This is more easily recognized than analyzed and developed. The first of these principles seems especially applicable to '^Report of the State Superintendent, 1902, pp. lo-ii. 2 Report of the Board of Education, 1902, p. 104. I.l8 NORMAL SCHOOL EDUCATION the teaching staff in a school for teachers — emphatically so in the Normal Schools. As was said, little attention has been paid to the qualifications of these instructors. The only reference to this particular matter which I have as yet found is by Atkinson.^ He finds the preparation of the teacher in secondary schools in this country inadequate, in that the Normal School in which he receives his training really supplies no more knowledge than he is supposed to teach. He notes in this connection the few college grad- uates on the faculties of certain of these Normal Schools, adding : " The presupposition may be advanced that those who are not college graduates or their equal in scholarship will not understand how to make the most of what the col- lege graduate brings." I think it may be safely asserted, further, that a Normal School instructor who has not had the experience and uplift of collegiate work, is not suffi- ciently ahead of his students, many or all of whom are high school graduates, to have a high and permanent influence upon them. The design of the Normal Schools of New York, as stated in most of their catalogues, is " to furnish trained teachers for the public schools of the state." " Thus, while the Normal Schools may aim primarily to prepare teachers for the elementary schools, they do also pretend to prepare for secondary work as well. The " Normal College " at Albany states its purpose as that of " giving instruction in the science and art of teaching," ^ and here there is a dis- tinct intention to prepare teachers for the secondary schools. Further, all 21 6 - 45 I I Total. 21 377 2 I I "^:^i "948I 25 12 special. I33J 2| ^1 1 I I NEW YORK STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS TABLE XVII— Continued WEST CENIRAL STATES 143 -rt i c ; .2 . bo . . 1 oQ go i CM Ph § pq Ph PQ < P Ph Special. II "T . j_: I 17 I I 2 5 2' '-' II rt 2 50 3 2 I 7 1 2 I 3 14 2 I U.S.A., iPh.M. 3* 27 1 I I 4 4 2B.M., iPh.M., W 4 20 2 1 2 3 I 2 2B.P. J3 9 1 I i 5 55 14 3 6 1 I 2 4S 4S 7« I I Ph.M., iLL.B. C d 6 24 I 2 2 i' l^ 2 I 7 18 I 3 I I ' 2-' i'^ iM.S.D. J3 0) 8 22 I I I 4 2 li ^ 9 7 i 4 I 2 I 2 M 10 10; 2 I 2 I lit 14 1 1 I I 3' in 12 19^ I 2' 2 2 I g 13 20 j 7 6 ^ V I I I 2* 2 I Ph. M. Total 13 313 1" 1521 17 20 Ve 46 IS II special. 45 " 2 * 16 without any degrees are graduates of this school. 1 7 are graduates of normal schools. 144 NORMAL SCHOOL EDUCATION TABLE y^NW— Concluded WESTERN STATES ' i § 1" bo , i pq £ ^ < Q PLH Special. III Ariz. I 7 I I I 2 20 2 I 3 I Cal, ^ 26 7 I I» ■ 3^ 2\ iB. P. I M. L, Col. 4 24 4 2 ^ I 2 4« 3 Mon. 5 9 2 I I 2 I N. M. 6 9 3 I I B. Acct. Wash. 7 13 I I 2 2 Ore. 8 17 I 4 I 4B. S. D. Ida. 9 10 4 2 - I 3 I 2 2' Total 9 135 2 10 10 4|i7 II 1 7 special. 7 ' 1 1 SOUTHERN STATES IV Ark. I 5 2 ji I L. I. Fla. 2 6 I 2 L.I. Ga. 3 4 5 14 3 I 2 4 I B. E. Vir. 5 12 3 I I W. Vir. 6 6 8 50 3 _ - ~i 2 I Total 1 10 6 2 4 Special. Grand Total 49 8« i88 12 8 1924 i' • 65 1^9 117 3 53 34 Special. NEW YORK STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS 145 The following table shows the totals in the four groups : TABLE XVIII. N. Eastern States . W. Central States. Western States • . . Southern States • . . Totals . ,£! rt ^ jm S W J pq c/i pq •d § Q rt V 6 1^ Tl ja . . X! n 'Z PM PU ^ pq Ph pq <: m < Ph c/) 377 2 I 45 . I 62s 9 48 25 12 313 6 5 15 21 17,20 16 46 15 II 135 4 2 I 3 2 IO|IO 4 17 II 7 50 I 10 6 2 4 87s 12 8 46 19 24 34 6s 29 117 53 34 Let us group these, as with the New York schools, into pedagogical, collegiate, higher, and special degrees. Pedagogical degrees : Pd. B. ; Pd. M. ; M. E.^ Collegiate " B. L. ; Ph. B. ; B. S. ; A. B. Higher " S. M.; A. M.; Ph. D. N. Eastern States. W. Central States Western States — Southern States • • • Total TABLE XIX (i). No. of teachers. Pedagogical. Collegiate. Higher. Special. 377 313 135 50 48 33 82 12 II 73 77 II 7 25 32 7 II 8 4 875 66 142 199 34 Expressing these in per cent of the number of teachers, 1 The M. E. is the " Master of Elementary Didactics " degree. This was at one time given by the Normal Schools of Pennsylvania, but has now been discontinued. TABLE XIX (2). . Pedagogical. Collegiate. Higher. Special. Nodej 15 9 22 3 51 3 23 24 3 47 5 19 24 5 47 22 16 8 54 146 NORMAL SCHOOL EDUCATION we have the following: showing, also, the percentage of teachers having no degree at all. N. Eastern States. .100 W. Central States.. 100 Western States 100 Southern States • • • 100 100 8 16 23 4 49 Comparing these figures with those for New York, we have: Pedagogical. Collegiate. Higher. Special. No degrees. New York 2 28 10 3 58 Other States 8 16 23 4 49 — The large percentage holding pedagogical degrees in '' other states " is due to the early practice in the Pennsyl- vania schools, already referred to. The lower percentage holding collegiate degrees — 16 as compared with 28 — is doubtless due to the inaccuracy of the data, in that 23 per cent are assigned to the higher degrees, while many of these are doubtless holders of collegiate degrees as well. If we assume that in " other states " the percentage of instructors having higher degrees without collegiate is that of New York, viz. : 10 per cent, we would then have practically the same percentage of collegiate degrees, viz. : 29. This as- sumption is probably not far from the truth. Those having special degrees are practically the same. The above figures show that 58 per cent of the New York Normal School teachers have no degrees : while in " other states," there are only 49 per cent. Yet these figures are probably, in reality, practically the same. Seventy per cent of all the pedagogical degrees in " other states " are the M. E., now discarded by the very schools which once gave them. This NEW YORK STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS 147 means, essentially, that 70 per cent of these 8 per cent must be ranked with those having no degree. This leaves only about 2 per cent in " other states " holding pedagogical de- grees, and gives 55 per cent having no degrees. Thus we conclude that the standing of the teachers in the Empire State Normal Schools is practically typical of that throughout the Normal Schools of the country. Or, in other words, the low standard in the New York schools, as pointed out above, is typical of the Normal Schools of the country; and all conclusions reached with reference to the former are substantiated by a study of the larger group. The holding of degrees — as discussed above — is only one of many standards by which one's preparation for an educa- tional position may be estimated. Too much must not be based on that standard. Too much must not be based on any one standard. One other standard may be here briefly considered. This is that of contributions to educational literature. This surely must not be considered a very safe standard. There are teachers, and there are writers. Greatness in the former does not necessarily suggest power in the latter. " Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler, in the Educational Review protesting against Dr. Stanley Hall's magnifying research and investigation as a necessary element in a progressive and effectual scholar, says : * It must be borne in mind that productive scholarship and printing are far from being iden- tical. The highest type of productive scholarship in our day finds its expression through will work in institutions, great and small.' " ^ President Butler would doubtless ap- ply this principle to the teacher. The highest type of effi- cient teaching is in " will work " in the class room, rather than in contributions to the press. 1 American Education, vol. v, p. 79. 148 NORMAL SCHOOL EDUCATION On the other hand, there is much in President Hall's em- phasis upon the value of research and investigation, as a necessary element in progressive and effectual educational work. This element is a necessary prerequisite to valuable contributions to educational Hterature. It is just as essen- tial to progressive and efficient teaching. One who is mak- ing such progress through some form of research will doubt- less make his advancement known through books or educa- tional periodicals. Thus contributions to current educa- tional literature form probably another actual criterion of the interest and progressiveness in educational work on the part of our Normal School instructors. To this end I have examined all the articles published in 1895, 1900, and 1903, in six of our leading educational periodicals (with one exception, American Education, which was not easily accessible for just these dates). As is well known, Normal Schools have laid considerable emphasis upon psychology. It is not, then, out of place to consider here two psychological magazines. Except in the School Review, all " Reviews " are included as regular articles. The contributors are divided in four groups: i. Normal School teachers; 2. Public School teachers, including prin- cipals and superintendents; 3. College and University in- structors ; 4. Others, including business men, public officials, and the writers of unsigned articles. The figures given in Table XX, page 150 are subject to some criticism, by reason of the indefiniteness of the fourth group. This includes all articles not classed in one of the other three groups. This includes a large number where no signature is given, or where I was unble to locate the author by his name alone. The importance, however, of these figures lies in the relations among the other three columns. NEW YORK STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS 149 Out of a total of 1438 articles examined, only 78, or about 5 per cent, are contributed by Normal School men: 13 per cent are contributed by teachers in the Public Schools; 48 per cent are contributed by college instructors. We must not place too much dependence on these figures : but they do measure the relatively small amount contributed to educa- tional literature by Normal School instructors. As pointed out above, this is one of many tests of activity in educa- tional problems. ISO NORMAL SCHOOL EDUCATION TABLE XX Il J 1^ C'S5 r (U 1 Psychological Review 1895 1900 1903 2 20 9 20 95 59 41 9 Total American Jour, of Psy. 1895 1900 1^03 228 25 14 36 109 14 17 2 33 27 34 21 337 Total Educational Review 1895 1900 1903 2 3 75 72 55 54 110 Total Education 1895 1900 1903 23 5 6 5 49 16 18 II 181 23 15 II 82 50 54 33 335 Total School Review 1895 1900 1903 16 3 3 2 45 19 12 17 49 64 41 23 137 23 20 14 57 18 17 2 247 Total Pedagogical Seminary 1895 1900 1903 8 I I 4 48 25 24 128 7 9 II 241 Total 6 4 19 27 2 2 37 7 15 70 1903-4 Total Grand Total 23 78 49 191 4 692 22 477 148 1438 BIBLIOGRAPHY Special references are made to the following: American Journal of Instruction, 1830, 1833, 1835, 1841. Atkinson, F. W. Professional Preparation of the Secondary Teacher in the United States. Barnard, H. On Normal Schools. Boas, . Yale Psychological Studies, 2 : 40. Brown, E. E. The Making of Our Middle Schools. Butler, N. M. American Education, 5 : 79. Common School Journal, 1839, 1840. Davenport, C. B. Statistical Methods. Gilbert, J. American Journal of Psychology, 4 : 366. Gordy, J. P. Beginning of the Normal Idea in the United States. Literary Gazette, 1825. Meriam, J. L. American Education, 1903. Miinsterberg, H. Atlantic Monthly, 1903. North American Review, 1825. Pearson, K. Grammar of Science. Phillips, J. H. Chicago School Commission's Report, 1900. Potsdam Normal School, First Quarto -Centennial History of. Spearman, C. American Journal of Psychology, 1904. Thorndike, E. L. Educational Psychology. Lecture Notes, 1903-1904. Mental and Social Measurements. United States Review, 1825. Wissler, C. Psychological Review Monograph, 3 : no. 6. Reports Chicago. Special Commission, 1900. Committee of Fifteen. Illinois. State Board of Education, 1900-1902. Iowa. State Board of Education, 1902. Massachusetts. State Board of Education, 1900-1902. Missouri. State Superintendent, 1897. National Educational Association, 1858-1900. 151 152 BIBLIOGRAPHY New York. State Superintendent, 1836, 1902. Ohio. Commissioner of Comm,on Schools, 1902. United States Commissioner of Education, 1897. Catalogues Albany Academy, 1874. Albany, Normal College, 1846, 1903, 1904. Andover Academy, 1848, 1874. California, University of, 1903. Chicago University, 1902-1903. Cincinnati University, 1901-1902. Cornell University, 1897-1899. Dartmouth College, 1903-1904. Illinois Wesleyan University, 1903, 1904. Los Angeles (Cal.) Normal School, 1901. Michigan, University of, 1903-1904. Missouri, University of, 1903-1904. New Paltz (N. Y.) Normal School, 1902-1903. Oshkosh (Wis.) Normal School, 1901. Teachers College, Columbia University, 1904-1905. Westfield (Mass.) Normal School, 1901. Wisconsin, University of, 1903-1904. ERRATA Page 129. Figure 3 should show 29, instead of 28, holding higher degrees in addition to a college degree. Of these 5, instead of 6, hold pedagogical degrees. The percents in the second part of the figure should be II and 2 respectively, instead of lo-j- and 2-|-. VITA The writer, Junius Lathrop Meriam, was born in Ran- dolph, Ohio, in 1872. He received the A. B. at Oberhn Colleg^e in 1895; graduated from the New York State Nor- mal College at Albany in 1898; was Austin Scholar in Harvard University, 1901-2, where he took the A. M. in 1902; continued graduate study in Education and Psy- chology in Harvard University, 1902-3, Columbia Uni- versity, 1903-4. He was township superintendent and high school principal in Wakeman, Ohio, 1895-7; principal of an elementary school in Akron, Ohio, 1898-9; supervisor of practice teaching in the New York State Normal College, 1899-1901 ; Assistant in Philosophy in Harvard University, 1902-3; Teaching Fellow in History of Education and Secondary Education in Teachers College, Columbia Uni- versity, 1903-4; Assistant Professor of Tlieory and Practice of Teaching in the University of Missouri, 1904-5; Pro- fessor 1905 — . 153 LIBRARY OF CONGRESS ■i 021 774 829 fl