Class I] Book_ ^6 - Cq0righrN?_J3£. COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2011 with funding from The Library of Congress http://www.archive.org/details/ironfoundercompr01boll THE IRON -FOUNDER A COMPREHENSIVE TREATISE ON THE ART OF MOULDING. INCLUDING CHAPTERS ON CORE MAKING; LOAM, DRY-SAND, AND GREEN-SAND MOULDING: ALSO CRYSTALLIZATION, SHRINKAGE, AND CONTRACTION OF CAST-IRON, AND A FULL EXPLANATION OF THE SCIENCE OF PRESSURES IN MOULDS; ADDED TO WHICH ARE FORMULAS FOR MIXTURES OF IRON, TABLES, RULES, AND MISCELLANEOUS INFOR- MATION. BY SIMPSON BOLLAND, Practical Moulder and Manager of Foundries. muwtvatrt tottf) ober S&ree ^uufcreir Bttgratunss* MAR 24 J892 NEW YORK: ^TC?J*> JOHN WILEY & SONS, 53 East Tenth Street. 1892. C tfws^ \ : <*\*~ ^ Copyright, 1892, BY SIMPSON BOLLAND. ROBEET DRUMMOND, Flaws BEOS., Electrotyper, Printers, 444 & 446 Pearl Street, S26 Pearl Street, New York. New York. PREFACE. Ik writing this book the principal object of the author has always been to help such of his fellow- crafts men as, by force of circumstances, have been shut out from the wider experience which it has been his good fortune to enjoy. It is not supposed that because a man is ignorant of cer- tain truths connected with his trade or profession, that he is desirous of always remaining in that condition; but it must be conceded that very few of us care to confess our ignorance openly, and accept the teachings of those with whom we have been in daily contact, and for whose ability we have entertained only common respect, without question or subsequent investigation. No man cares to parade his ignorance who feels within himself a consciousness of ability, if only the opportunity for improvement were offered him; and hundreds of men in our foundries to-day are earnestly looking for the means which shall lift them to a higher plane of usefulness, as well as establish within themselves a greater degree of self-re- spect. It will be a source of great satisfaction to the author if the advent of this book should be a help to such. As the title indicates, the subjects treated are numerous and interesting, especially to moulders; in fact this may be considered as a moulder's book, inasmuch as its pages are iv • PREFACE. devoted almost exclusively to such things as perplex the moulder in his every-day experience. Care has been taken both in detailed description and profuse illustration to make everything plain to the reader, and the choice of subjects for illustration has been made with the view of bringing out the best and most correct ideas of moulding. It is hoped that the subject of Crystallization, herein treated in mere outline only, will interest the reader suffi- ciently to cause still further investigation in that important branch of science. The author hopes that the chapter on Pressures will, in some measure at least, help to dispel the mystery which has hitherto surrounded that subject, and thinks that the table appended will be appreciated by such as do not care to study the whole subject as presented. When it is remembered that cupolas, ladles, cranes, and all appliances for transmission of power, are in the hands of specialists who might in a majority of cases furnish a better article at less cost, with all the necessary formulae for their successful working, the author judges it would have been unwise to admit the discussion , of such subjects in these pages, to the exclusion' of topics of far greater interest to the moulder. The tables, some of which are original, will be found use- ful in daily practice, and much time usually required for calculation will be saved by consulting them. Simpson Bollard. New York. CONTENTS. PART I. INTRODUCTION. PAGE Moulders: Past, Present, and Future. 1 To Apprentices. . . . • A First-class Moulder • » • - 8 Educated Moulders. • - 13 Apprenticeship by Indenture 14 Moulders' Tools— their Use and their Abuse 20 Foundry Flasks or Boxes 37 Foundry Ovens.... • Crystallization and Shrinkage of Cast-iron Pressures in Moulds °° Chilled Castings ^ Mixture for Rolls. , ■ 116 63 PART II. CORE-MAKING. Core-making. PART III. LOAM-MOULDING. 121 147 Loam-moulding ° • • Moulding in Loam, from a Complete Pattern. 171 To mould Kettles and Pans in Loam, with Full Instructions for Casting Bottom Up or Bottom Down > - 180 vi CONTENTS. PAGE Casings for Kettles and Pans, and How to Make them ..... 186 Moulding Condensers, Tanks, Hot-wells, Cisterns, etc. , in Loam. 191 To Mould a Screw-propeller in Loam 203 Making Elbows, Bends, and Branch-pipes in Loam 209 Making Large Elbow-pipes on End in Loam 227 PART IV. DRY-SAND MOULDING. Dry-sand Moulding, with Examples for making Different Classes of Work 233 To Mould a Steam-cylinder in Dry Sand 243 Cores for Moulding Steam-cylinders in Dry Sand , 250 Jacket-cores for Moulding Steam-cylinders 256 Moulding Guns, Hydraulic Cylinders, etc 264 To Mould Cylindrical Work in Top and Bottom Flasks with Spindle and Sweep .... 274 PART V. GREEN-SAND MOULDING. Pulleys, and How to Make them 284 To Make Square and Rectangular Columns. , t ,'. 297 To Mould Bevel-wheels without a Full Pattern 305 Moulding Bevel and Mitre Wheels 312 Spur-wheel Moulding from a Segment and Spindle , . . 315 Spur-wheels of Different Depths from the Same Pattern. 322 A Method for Making Irregular-shaped Pipes in Green Sand . . . 324 Moulding Small Castings 332 A Method of Moulding Pipes and Columns 335 Instructions for Making Patterns from Models, Templets, Plas- ter Casts, Carved Blocks, etc ,.„.<.......... 339 PART VI. MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS, RECIPES, TABLES, ETC. Useful Rules of Mensuration 5 , 350 Cast-iron Alloys 352 Weight of Cast-iron Balls in Pounds 352 CONTENTS. Vll PAGE Table showing the Weight or Pressure a Beam of Cast-iron will sustain without destroying its Elastic Force when it is sup- ported at Each End and loaded in the Middle 353 "Weight in Pounds of Circular Plates One Inch Thick from 1 to 103 Inches in Diameter 354 Table of Dimensions and W r eights of Short-linked Chains and Ropes, and Proof of Chain in Tons. 355 To Mend Castings 355 Weight of One Cubic Inch of Different Metals in Pounds 356 Weight of Different Substances in Pounds 357 Capacity of Cisterns for Each 10 Inches in Depth 357 The Fractional Parts of an Inch in Decimals 358 Melting-points of Solids 358 Strength of Materials 358 Relative Stiffness of Materials to resist a Transverse Strain 358 Weight of Cast-iron Pipes per Lineal Foot from 2 Inches to 10 Feet Core 359 Weight per Lineal Foot of Round Columns 364 Weight of Castings from Patterns 364 Weight of Square Columns 365 Weight of Square Plates One Inch Thick. . , 367 Weight of a Superficial Square Foot in Pounds from y 1 ^ Inch to 3 Inches 368 Table showing the Weight or Pressure a Beam of Cast-iron, 1 Inch in Breadth, will sustain, without destroying its Elastic Force, when it is supported at each End and loaded in the Middle of its Length, and also the Deflection in the Middle which that W r eight will produce . s 369 THE IRON-FOUNDER. PART I. INTRODUCTION. MOULDEKS: PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE. We often see in the "want" columns of our trade jour- nals and newspapers where some young man advertises himself as not only being capable in all respects to fill the position he seeks, but backs up the application by saying that he holds a certificate of competency granted by one or other of the great schools of technology. Very frequently this young aspirant is sneered at by our so-called "practical fellows/' who, I am sorry to say, are only too ready to condemn all such who have had the cour- age to step out of the beaten tracks in the honest effort to thoroughly master their trade in theory as well as in practice. Let us look for a moment at the course this young man has pursued to obtain his certificate, after which we will compare him with some of his detractors. In the first place he had a sensible father, who every day suffered more or less on account of the lack of edu- cation. 2 THE IRON-FOUNDER. This father, although an excellent workman, as things go, had been unable to get beyond the front rank of jour- neymanship from the fact that, like hundreds of others, he was unable to give a reason for what he was doing to effect certain results in the foundry; and oh ! how many times had he seen men preferred above himself all because of the "bit of book learning" which they possessed in conjunction with the natural talents shared in common with himself. Smarting from this, he determines that his son, who has been duly apprenticed to the trade, shall have full oppor- tunity to develop into a good man as well as a good mechanic, and so proceeds to surround him with good influences, excites his ambition, and encourages him in all legitimate means to obtain the desired end. He enters him on the rolls of the nearest institution of learning, technological or otherwise, where at evenings he at once begins a course of study which will enable him to understand his trade in all its bearings; and as this mode of procedure is productive of increased zeal, every day sees the foundation of a useful career growing at a pace which before had seemed impossible of realization. For it must be remembered, that as the boy increases in knowl- edge his ambition to excel kindles to the heat which will keep him constant to his studies, insuring success in the end. This, then, is the young man who possesses the certifi- cate, and where is the sense or reason in sneering at him ? We will inquire into the difference between him and such shopmates as have not qualified in the lines of thought pursued by the former. Firstly, his acquired knowledge enables him to determine the nature of the materials he works with, and by a careful analysis of such before using insures a measure of success to which the uneducated is a stranger. Secondly, the foundry furnishes abundant opportunity MOULDERS: PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE. 3 for the practical demonstration of the almost numberless theories in natural philosophy, and of exploding also the several so-called mysteries which have gathered around the business of founding owing to the ignorance of the past. And what an advantage our educated young man has over his fellows ! — for, knowing absolutely what will result from certain modes of procedure, he can easily avoid all errors, and thus secure distinction and recognition ; for it must be conceded that if the intelligence of the moulder measured up to the magnitude of the job he undertakes to do, barring accident, he would never fail in its successful accomplishment. Instead of sneering at the refined young man in the foundry, let us rather thank God that the ignorant father was led to do his duty by his son. And such of us as have boys of our own, let us hasten to do likewise; for, rest assured, it is only through determined effort in the right direction, by the fathers of to-day, that future moulders will be supe- rior to those of the past. But I am persuaded that we have entered upon a new era : the schools are slowly but surely accomplishing their great work; and as education increases, intemperance with its train of evils recedes from view. The sot in our foundries seeks to hide his face rather than to flaunt his shortcomings. I can with great pleasure now see the leavening influ- ence of intelligence : these young men are the stones, as it were, which mark the march of intellect among us; and before long I hope to see moulders take the place which legitimately belongs to them — the very foremost rank in the trades. I am anxiously looking for the time when it shall not be necessary to call in the aid of an engineer to arrange for the production of castings of more than ordinary magnitude, and when, by reason of such a course as is 4 THE IBON-FOUNDER. marked out above, such does occur, then will the moulder be able to command such remuneration for his labor as will secure for him the title which by rights belongs to him— the prince of mechanics. TO APPRENTICES. The whole of our trade is not learned exclusively in the foundry, and fortunate indeed is the apprentice of to-day in having for his guidance so many avenues of information other than the daily routine of the shop in which he is serving his time. Innumerable opportunities present themselves to-day for the young man's advancement in his trade, which did not exist when some of us were boys. Such being the case, it is surely not too much to expect that superior skill should be developed at this day, when compared with times past. The business of writing on the subject of moulding has until lately been monopolized by theorists, whose efforts have in the main proved fail- ures, so far as the object for which they wrote is concerned, entirely misleading the uninitiated, v and of no practical service to the workman; for the simple reason that the author has not had the practical training requisite to understand intelligently what he was writing about. It is not to be expected that a mere observer of our trade, one who collects his data from books with ideas vague as his own, can understand from such an appren- ticeship that which a lifetime's experience in the work itself fails very often to accomplish. True, there were some few engineers of rare ability in their own sphere who, seeing the necessity for useful and instructive manuals for the use of moulders, wrote works far beyond the intelligence of most moulders, yea, abso- lutely unintelligible to great numbers, owing to the fact TO APPRENTICES. 5 that the moulders were ignorant of the various branches of natural philosophy, and therefore could not understand them. These books are only to be found in the employer's office, unused, and covered with dust. During the last few years a gradual change has been taking place. We now find many of our most intelligent moulders who are not afraid of publishing their opinions upon subjects relating to the trade they follow. It used to be said that our best workmen were the least able to impart their own knowledge to others; but I am proud to say that many of our numbers have come to the front in foundry literature,— conclusively refuting the above stigma. My object in writing this is certainly not to excel as an author: that would be presumption on my part, inasmuch as my time has been spent in the foundry ; but I am anxious to have a plain talk with young moulders, and, if possible, help them to understand their trade, as well as their responsibilities, better, in order to qualify themselves for preferment. There has always been more or less repugnance on the part of parents to apprentice their boys to the trade of moulder, arising in a large measure from the fact that, to all appearance, it was not as clean and respectable as that of pattern-maker or machinist; and moulders themselves have contributed in no small degree towards making it unpopular, lacking, as they have, a right appreciation of their calling; but, thanks to the influence of superior edu- cation, not only moulders, but also the rest of the iron trades, are beginning to realize that the trade of moulder is not only respectable, but that, in order to become an expert in the art, demands are made on the intelligence of the man far greater than are required to master other branches of the metal industries. 6 THE IRON-FOUNDER. The moral tone of our foundries has improved to a remarkable extent of late, and amongst our moulders are now to be found some of the brightest and best men of the day — men with whom no parent need be afraid or ashamed to trust their sons. Eeverting to the subject of cleanliness, I am persuaded that if the same care was exercised to keep the foundry clean and in order as there is for the pattern and machine shop, we should hear less complaints on that head ; and when we remember that the great Michael Angelo himself had to work amidst the chips and dust from the stone which he so marvellously chiselled before he could accom- plish the mighty works of art he has given to the world, we need not be fastidious with regard to such minor matters. " What age shall I apprentice my son ?" is a question we often hear asked by the parent. If he is to be a moulder, let him not be older than fifteen years, as the nature of the profession demands that the apprenticeship shall be a long one ; coming young to the work, he all the more readily adapts himself to the nature of his calling, and has ample time to go through the legitimate routine required to make a good mechanic. Let me here observe that a great mistake is only too fre- quently made by the parents when their boy commences work, and the boy himself readily falls into the snare, — which is, to imagine that there is no further need of school and study. Avoid this common error, young man; and realize, if you can, that now is the time to apply such knowledge as you already possess, and that you need to be making constant additions to your knowledge, and prepar- ing the mind for the increased demands which will be made on you, as you march, as it were, step by step to the end of your apprenticeship. The fact that such results ensue from a certain course of action is not the wiiole so- TO APPRENTICES. 7 lution of the problems which daily present themselves in the foundry; therefore let the intelligent young man, who has chosen to be a moulder, continue his education, by pursuing a course of study at home, or better, at one of the schools of technology, in such branches of natural philoso- phy as are likely to be of use to him whilst he is learning his trade. By so doing, a real and intelligent knowledge of the business will be acquired as he goes along, enabling him to do that which hundreds of so-called moulders are unable to do, viz., to give a reason for every step he takes in the execution of his work. Another desideratum is to cultivate the acquaintance of such of his shopmates as are upright and sober; and in all things, both in and out of the shop, let his deportment be such as will command the respect of his superiors ; by so doing he will not only gain their good-will and help, but will also be laying a foundation for the future, which will enhance his prospects more than he thinks for. Of course the young man must not natter himself that he is going to master all the intricacies of his trade without meeting many difficulties, and perhaps failures ; but if after due effort on his own part he should still fail to see his way clear, let him make known his troubles to the foreman, or some of the most skilful and sensible men, who will at once assist him to overcome his task, and take great pleasure in doing it. Lastly, he must select for his companions only such as will assist him to rise, being ever ready to reciprocate their efforts in his behalf; maintain a strict integrity and deter- mine to manfully do his share in keeping up a high intel- lectual and moral standard in his profession. K 8 THE 1B0N-F0UNDEB. A FIRST-CLASS MOULDER Such is the title applied to many of our trade who, if their capabilities were examined by the light of modern research, would be found utterly wanting in the principles and laws which govern the art of moulding. It is not enough at this day that a man who takes to himself the above title shall be able to produce a creditable casting from the pattern given him to work from. The probabilities are that everything is found in good form for its production, the methods of manipulation having been thought out by some one in advance of him, either foreman or journeyman — not nnfrequently the latter. Very many of our so-called " first-class moulders" are clever only in their ability to "catch on" or "pick up" the modes of working going on around them. Such men will have their organs of imitation well developed, and in more senses than one will rank only with the parrot — as mere copyists or imitators. Others, again, having excellent memories, can recall experiences, either of themselves or others, and turn such to good account by avoiding past errors or by again adopting means which have worked suc- cessfully in the past, and thus escape present disaster. It is not my aim to depreciate in any sense the work of men whose natural intelligence is their only recommenda- tion, for it must be admitted that such men have been in the past great factors in foundry practice, and it is not wise to dispute their authority before examining into the ways by which they have arrived at their conclusions ; for the lack of acquired knowledge creates within them the good quality of sharp wit, and their very naturalness suggests to them a mode of reasoning which, if not strictly logical, will be found in the main to come so near the A FIRST- CLASS MOULDER. 9 truth as to command the respect of those who are more thoroughly initiated. Pass through any one of our best foundries, and note the several moulders working at their respective jobs. To the casual observer everything appears to move along smoothly, suggestive of a complete mastery over all the complex and intricate problems to be solved in the con- struction of the several moulds ; in fact, it would appear anomalous to call them at all difficult when we observe the apparent ease with which they are accomplished. But we are much deceived if we imagine that this has always been the experience of the foundry in question. On making inquiry, we discover that present success is only the result of repeated trials in the past, actual failures discovering to the workman the need of greater care, or increased strength, etc., of the various parts of his mould; and it is not going too far to say that in many instances, when disaster has followed disaster, chance has come to their relief and opened up the way of success. The only men to-day who can claim the title of " first- class moulders" are they who, seeing the end from the beginning, pursue an intelligent course throughout the whole process of forming their moulds, and are able to give a reason for every move they make. The moulder must possess constructive ability of no mean order, as demands are made upon him in this par- ticular which call not only for sound practical experience, but for a mental development superior and only possible in such men as have determined to merit the title above mentioned, and studiously and zealously work to maintain such title. Not only ought the several branches of the trade — loam, green-sand, dry-sand, and core-making — be all equally mastered by him, but also the ability to produce the molten iron for the finished mould in such mixture and condition as will best serve the requirements of the case. 10 TEE IitON-FOUNJDEB. How can any moulder claim to be "first-class" who cannot judge of the fitness of the cores supplied for his mould, and must in all cases trust to the core-maker, whose knowledge of the matter may be even less than his own, and very naturally so, too, when we consider that, from a misconception of the value and importance of that particular branch of the trade, even green laborers are per- mitted to produce such cores, — a simple case of the blind leading the blind, with the inevitable result of both falling into the ditch? Nor would there be any justice in the claim for excellence made by any moulder skilled only in one department of his trade, to the exclusion of all the rest. The basis of excellence consists in the association of all the branches, inclusive of the cupola (last, but not least); and it is not too much to expect in these days, when the opportunities for the acquisition of knowledge are so plentiful, that a firpt -class moulder shall answer to the standard herein laid down. The really first-class moulder leaves nothing to chance, and, as before stated, " sees the end from the beginning," every step he takes in the prosecution of his work mani- festing a previous study of the science of his business. He knoivs that his sand is suitable, because, along with his own experience and observations, he has studied the subject thoroughly, and can tell beforehand what mixture he needs to bring the silica, alumina, etc., into correct propor- tions for the work in hand. The flasks and other rigging he makes will be reliable, because he will have made the necessary calculations as to the weight to be sustained and pressures to be resisted, and proportions his arrangements accordingly. The oft- repeated query of the foundry, "I wonder if this is strong enough ?" never enters his mind: he knoivs it is. Should it be required that a mould must be secured by A FIBST- CLASS MOULDER. 11 weights, the first-class moulder never wonders how much weight he ought to place thereon. He has made a careful study of hydrostatics and kindred subjects, and applies the knowledge gained thereby to his every-day practice. By this means all the apparent mystery in moulding is made to vanish in a manner truly astonishing to his shop-mates who are so unfortunate as to have joined the "pooh-bah" association. To sum up, ignorance is at the bottom of all this so- called mystery in the foundry. I shall be amply repaid for this writing if I awaken in moulders a greater desire for knowledge than has manifested itself hitherto. It is fool- ish to say, as some do: "Oh, my education was very lim- ited," or, "I never went to school." To the former I say: Then finish your education now; and to the latter, Begin at once. Surely there is more pleasure in growing wiser, be it ever so slowly, than there is in remaining ignorant, only to be laughed at by the more ambitious ones around us. To the young men in our foundries I would say, Keep up your education by constant application to study. You need all the knowledge you can get to thoroughly under- stand your trade. Schools of instruction are becoming numerous all over the land, and must not be despised as means for culture in the trades. In these institutions in- telligent workmen may receive such instructions as will perfect their practical education and make them in every respect worthy the name of "first-class moulder." Lack- ing the opportunities of such schools, the moulder must make a school for himself. It is important to study. Where one studies is of minor importance. In these times, when opportunities for learning are more than plenty, there is no excuse for ignorance. l c 2 THE mON-FO UNDER. EDUCATED MOULDERS. A MORE SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION NEEDED— GOOD WORKMEN MUST UNDERSTAND THEIR WORK IN ALL ITS DETAILS. Moulders need instruction in some of the parts which go to make up a purely "scientific" education, whether they are supposed to receive such an education or not. The science of figures, of geometry, of chemistry, and all knowledge which relates to these subjects, ought at least to be measurably known to every moulder who aspires to be recognized as an authority on foundry matters. Because a man has reached the age of twenty-five, or even forty-five, before he discovers this fact need not deter him from at once proceeding to rectify the mistake he has made; and, depend upon it, all that is required, even at the latter age, is a firm determination to make the future, in some measure at least, correct the errors of the past. Some one has said, "A good mathematician would make a good man at anything else he might essay to do." This is true, as it is impossible .for any one to excel in the science who cannot concentrate his whole mind diligently on the one subject ; and any man who possesses this power of concentration need not hesitate about qualifying him- self in the branches of science before mentioned. Moulders need to bestir themselves in this matter ; for those who cannot read " drawings," for instance, however capable they may be in other respects, are being gradually relegated to the ranks of incapables. As well might we expect to see the draughtsman in- structing the pattern-maker from the drawing which he, the pattern-maker, ought to be able to read as that the pattern-maker should have to be sent for to instruct the EDUCATED MOULDERS. 13 moulder in laying out his work— a truly sad sight in any foundry, when the nature of the case is fairly understood. The only man who can claim to be a thorough moulder, in this particular, is he who can "read" the drawing from which he is expected to work sufficiently well to enable him to accomplish his jobs without the aid of any one. There need be no hesitation about undertaking these studies on account of their seeming irksomeness, for, rest assured, once they are begun each exercise will furnish the desire for further effort. Nor is it to be thought that be- cause a man works hard ten hours a day that he is unfit for any further endeavor. I would say to such, that an hour or two, each evening, spent in the pursuit of knowl- edge would tend not only to the development of the mind, but of the body also. By such a course the mind, being fully occupied with these higher pursuits, disdains the grosser elements which have hitherto predominated there, and consequently the whole man is benefited mentally, physically, and morally. An almost universal complaint amongst moulders is " that the trade is a monotonous one." To a great many this is strictly true, for the simple reason that they allow themselves to lapse into automatons, doing the same things every day with the same precision as the machinery around them, and with about the same amount of thought. They never share in the satisfaction which comes with the successful result of intelligent research and observa- tion, nor is it theirs to enjoy the practical demonstrations of the wonders of philosophy which are constantly taking place around them, giving a zest to toil which makes it at- tractive rather than monotonous. Moulders, arouse yourselves! Accept the means offered by the many institutions all around you. Teachers abound who, at reasonable salaries, would take charge of such mutual-improvement associations as might be formed in 14 THE IRON-FOUNDER. direct connection with the trade-unions, thus making them benefit associations in more senses than one. In almost every city of note is now to be found a school of technology, to which all thoughtful moulders in the vicinity should attach themselves at once. Lastly, educational literature is now so very cheap that there is absolutely no excuse for ignorance. All may, if they will, become intelligent in the things pertaining to their trade, and thus make it a pleasure instead of a toil. APPKEJSTTICESHIP BY INDEMNITEE. In discussing this subject I shall confine myself strictly to the trade of moulder, it being the trade with which I am most familiar. Writers in large numbers have come forward of late to explain the difficulties which beset the several trades and professions to which they belong, some arguing the justice and propriety of adopting the old and time-honored system of apprenticeship, whilst others, equally anxious for their individual welfare, have supported the doctrines of Dr. Adam Smith, who claimed that a long apprenticeshijD was unnecessary, even for the nicest mechanical arts ; the fal- lacy of which doctrine we shall endeavor to show, at least so far as it relates to the trade of moulder. To such as are ignorant of the moulder's art, the whole business seems an unfathomable mystery, and even to such as have a superficial knowledge of the trade it is full of interest, ever growing, as one after another of the various processes are revealed, resulting in the finished work which they unfeignedly pronounce " admirable." Granting the above, it would appear that more than APPRENTICESHIP BY INDENTURE. 15 an ordinary course of preparation is needed to make a thorough moulder; and when I say a thorough moulder, I mean all which the words imply, — not in any sense such a one as is generally understood. Usually it is said, "such a one is a good pipe-moulder," another is a "good plate-moulder/' a "good column- moulder," or a te good propeller-wheel moulder/' etc. ; but it must he borne iu mind that very many of these are good only at such special work, and not in any sense master of that one job, for the very simple reason that all their manipulations are not based upon a thorough knowledge of the trade, but are mere acts of memory on their part, doing only that which they have seen done before by other men, thus enact- ing the part of the parrot — imitators. Such men are easily discovered, even when engaged on their specialties, for when anything occurs out of the ordinary line of their daily drudgery, something which calls for a different line of thought and action, they are at once confounded, and en- deavor to escape their dilemma by pronouncing the whole thing a "mystery," and "chancing" it — with the inevitable result of a bad casting. Now this state of things is not confined to one foundry : all have more or less of this incompetency to contend with; therefore all ought to be equally interested in finding a remedy for it. If we inquire into the status of the men above mentioned, we shall find that the majority of them have no claim to be called moulders, other than the fact that they had helped a moulder until they were twenty or twenty-five years old, after which the foreman or employer was prevailed upon to "give them a show;" the show is given, with the result as above stated. Hundreds of others assume the name of moulder, and assert their ability to perform any kind of work creditably and with dispatch; they back their assertions by informing 16 THE IRON-FOUNDER. you that their trade was learned at a first-class establish- ment; upon these statements they are hired, and it seems incredible that such frauds as they prove themselves to be could have graduated from the firms they refer you to. The reason is plain, however : upon inquiry you discover that their boyhood was spent in one wild riot, the business they had engaged to learn being the last thing thought of by them; and just here let me say that it is a very rare oc- currence to find our boys in full accord with their employ- ers after the novelty of initiation into the trade has passed: a spirit of distrust, which seems mutual, appears to pervade both sides. The boy, more or less under the evil influence of the ruder spirits around him, assumes an air of false in- dependence, and asserts that he is not being rewarded ac- cording to his deserts, threatens to leave, makes things generally uncomfortable for all concerned, and finally quits, to the infinite relief of everybody, without having acquired even the rudiments of the trade his parents were anxious for him to learn. On the other hand, it not unfrequently happens that a boy engages with some unprincipled em- ployer, whose only object is to get all he can out of him as long as the boy is willing to suffer the injustice; but just as soon as he rebels, his place is wanted for some other victim: this is a crying injustice, and calls for prompt redress. When all these and kindred evils are considered, is it any wonder that we have such an army of incompetents, who insist upon being recognized as moulders, and does it not behoove us as artisans to look for a remedy? I go fur- ther, and assert that this question of inferiority as moulders is becoming a national one, for are we not called upon to witness the superior skill of the strangers who come to make their homes amongst us ? Well, you say, what remedy do you suggest ? I unhesi- tatingly answer, let us go back to the old method of ap- prenticeships by indenture^ which has proved to be the APPRENTICESHIP BY INDENTURE. 17 only reliable safeguard against difficulties such as we have been describing. Justice and honor demand that we approach this subject unbiased, and with fairness to all concerned, — the boy, the parent, the employer, and last, but not least, the national credit. Some one says, Are there no good American moulders ? There are some, but they are those whose boyhood days were watched over with deep solicitude by discerning parents or guardians, backed by a desire on the part of the em- ployers to do their full duty by the charge placed in their hands; thus in reality fulfilling every obligation which a sensible indenture would bind them to. Others again amongst us, whose claims for competency are well established, may not have had all the advantages of early training, but possessed of good natural ability, coupled with an indomitable will, they have determined to become thorough masters of the trade, and hesitating at no sacrifice which the ui-gency of the case demanded, they have pushed themselves to the front, and deservedly so; but these are a very small minority, and we feel assured that such men will heartily indorse any action which will insure an easier and surer way of lifting their fellow-men to the front ranks in their profession. It is urged by some of the opponents to the system of ap- prenticeship, that the institution interfered with the prop- erty which every man has or ought to have in his own labor, and also that the object is to maintain a high rate of wages by stinting the number of persons who are engaged in the occupation. Dr. Adam Smith, above referred to, and some of his school, claimed that it not only interfered with the liberty of the workman, but also with that of such as may choose to employ him, who were the best qualified to judge of his ability. They further contend that such laws tended to restrain competition to a much smaller num- 18 TEE IRON-FOUNDER. ber than would otherwise enter a trade. They also limit the time necessary to learn such trades as watch and clock making to a few weeks, or even days. Whilst some of these arguments may seem feasible, there is to my mind a good deal of error running through the whole, specially the latter, in regard to length of time necessary to learn a trade, which is simply ridiculous. "Apprenticeship, in law, is a contract whereby one per- son, called the master, binds himself to teach and another, called the apprentice, undertakes to learn some trade or profession, and to serve his master some length of time." The object of the above is to secure for the apprentice such a degree of proficiency in his trade as will enable him to earn his living creditably, the only return for which is a certain stipulated time of servitude to the person engaged with. Let us look at some of the advantages this method offers to the boy. In the first place, allowing that the age of the boy is fourteen years, there is comparatively no difficulty in getting him into full sympathy with the agreement, whose conditions become part of his belief, and conse- quently part of himself; any irksomeness which might present itself to him is immediately dispelled when he re- members that his skill as a moulder is increasing as the years go by, thus creating an ambition to be esteemed a man and an artist when he shall have attained his major- ity. The advantages of a legal apprenticeship can only be fully appreciated by such as have passed through that de- gree of probation, especially when all the conditions have been met, mutually, by both parties to the contract. The method engenders a feeling of kind regard for each other, as it is always to the employer's interest to be kind to his apprentices, and take pride in watching their steady progress. APPRENTICESHIP BY INDENTURE. 19 From experience, as well as from information carefully gathered, I am persuaded that a boy duly apprenticed re- ceives a greater share of the journeyman's sympathy and help than do those who are casually engaged to serve a full time or otherwise, as either or both shall determine. No moulder of good sound judgment and practical ability can pass through our foundries without being struck by the slipshod manner and methods the majority of our moulders exhibit in the use of their tools, a large number of which tools are practically useless to most of them, for the reason that their apprenticeship was neither long enough nor as thorough as it ought to have been, to acquire a nice artis- tic use of them. Who ever thinks of making a thorough musician of his boy, after allowing most of his young days to be spent at some hard calling, which demanded more than ordinary use of the hands ? After such training it would be impossible for the youth to adapt his fingers to the nice manipulation required to give due effect to string or key of the instru- ment chosen for him. And just so is it with regard to a moulder: a boy entering the trade in his early youth, under the favorable auspices mentioned above, attains to such a degree of proficiency in the use of his tools that nothing can deter him from turning out his work, stamped on every part with the mark of a true artist. The question may be asked, " Who will be the gainer by the adoption of a general system of lawful apprenticeship — the artisan or the employer?" I answer, both; and further, I claim that it would be productive of a better class of citizens, and therefore a national benefit. It seems to me that the moulders' unions could by a supreme effort become the pioneers in a movement which would bring about the above-mentioned reform, and I feel assured that no nobler object could possibly command their serious attention at the present moment, 20 THE IRON-FOUNDER. I am. aware that it will be urged by some that it will tend to make the trade more exclusive; but that, I claim, is their right equally with the professions, who for very good reasons claim protection on account of the forced appren- ticeship to which they were subjected before they could obtain their diplomas. But does not the public gain by the system, inasmuch as they are protected against fraud and deception? And just so would employers be protected against incapable mechanics. This latter ought to commend itself to the earnest consideration of all employers, causing them to co- operate with the trades unions, with the view of establish- ing a sound system of apprenticeship. This done, I have no hesitation in saying that the next generation of moulders would verify all I have said on this subject, and prove themselves equal, if not superior, to any in the world. MOULDERS' TOOLS— THEIR USE AND THEIR ABUSE. Some one has said that " neither wise men nor fools could work without tools," and again, that "the poor workman is always finding fault with his tools;" but if his tools are the only things he assails*, we may leave him to his quarrelling, and endeavor to do better ourselves by not only having the proper tools, but by having a full knowledge of their right use. By some it is thought that a moulder requires very few tools and that "few" of a very simple kind, and some moulders themselves boast of their ability to accomplish their work as well with a coat-pocket full of tools as others whose tool-chest is packed full of themj but if MOULDERS' TOOLS. 21 these gentry are carefully watched it will be discovered that they are constantly borrowing from their neighbors to make up for their own deficiency. Another thing we may notice here is, that no small number of our so-called journeymen moulders really need but very few tools, never having learned the proper use of them all, in consequence of which their jobs are turned out by hand, so to speak : in other words, made as well as their hands and a big square trowel can make them — a disgrace to the man as well as to the foundry that employs him. It is my purpose herein to explain the simplest tools used in the trade, as I see almost every day a misuse made of them. The shovel, for instance, to some men's minds is a thing of very small importance; no attention is paid to keeping it clean and well trimmed: they seem to forget that such neglect makes it much harder to dig with, or to clean off a joint, and of course the lives of both man and shovel are materially shortened thereby. Brushes, riddles, sieves, and bellows are equally ill-cared for, with a similar result. I advocate the method of sup- plying each moulder with a full set of the articles above mentioned, holding him responsible for their safe keeping, and to be returned when he leaves. It is customary for firms to supply these articles; but, excepting the shovels, they allow only a limited number of the others for general use: this is a mistake. I have tried both plans, and always found the former to work most profitably. Clamps and wedges come under the head of tools supplied by the firm, and, simple though they seem, it is important that they be made correctly, otherwise disaster very frequently ensues. Clamps should always be made with the view of being 22 THE IBON-FOVNDER. strong enough to resist the pressure exerted by the mould they are intended to secure. Very often we find them made with the corners rounded, as shown at Fig. 1; this is wrong, inasmuch as it reduces the part which is called upon to bear the most strain to the weakest part of the clamp. Clamps should always be made after the manner shown at Fig. 2, especially such as are made of cast-iron. We come now to wedges, which ought, if possible, to Fig. 3. Fig. 4. Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 5. be made of wrought- iron, and fashioned as shown at Fig. 3, not as we frequently find them, as seen at Fig. 4. Those shown at Fig. 3 may be used two together for work requiring great security; Fig. 5 illustrates the method of using them; the others are simply valueless for critical jobs, and ought to be discarded. A screw-driver and wrench, if not supplied by the firm, should be purchased for private use by every moulder, the former being always at hand to loosen any part of a pattern that will facilitate the moulding of the job; whilst the latter will save hours of time and much dis- MOULDERS' TOOLS. 23 appointment in hunting np the one belonging to the shop, which, strange to say, is always lost when wanted. To a careful moulder a pair of calipers is indispensable. How ridiculous the man appears when, upon trying off his cope, he finds more or less of his upper bearings crushed off on account of the cores being too large; or, opposite to this, when his casting is examined the core is found out of the centre, for the simple reason that his core was too small : either of which faults could have been avoided by a right use of the tool above mentioned! Parallel straight-edges, level, compasses, trammels, and square are usually supposed to be required by the loam- moulder only. I claim that every moulder should possess these tools, and what is more, he ought to make him- self acquainted with their uses; for he knows not when he may be called upon to demonstrate whether he knows his business fully or not. How simple one of our best green-sand moulders is made to appear when, if called upon to make plates or rings for the loam-moulder, he stands aside whilst the latter marks out the lines for his guidance! This ought to inspire every moulder to learn all of his trade, and save him the disgrace which such a thing subjects him to. For the guidance of such as are ignorant of, and desire to learn, the use of the above-mentioned tools, I will here describe the whole process of levelling a bed, and drawing thereon a simple job. Fig. 6 explains the process of laying down the straight-, edges preparatory to making the sand-bed thereon. The straight-edge A is first set level in the floor, resting on each end only; straight-edge B is then set similarly, at the required width; the parallel straight-edge C is set across the ends of both, as shown, and the end of B raised or lowered until the level shows it to be level with A ; the level is then placed lengthwise on B, and the opposite end 24 THE IRON-FOUNDER regulated until B is level also. The straight edges are now secured, and the sand-bed prepared in such a manner as will best suit the job as to depth and degree of hardness. We will suppose a plate is to be made square at the outer, and round at the inner edges, having six equal divisions drawn on the inner circle, one lug in the middle on each of the four sides, and four round holes in some fcg. 6. certain position cast in the body of the plate, as seen at Fig. 7. After setting in a centre-peg A, with small hole for the point of the trammel to work in, lay straight-edge B par- allel with the bed, and fair across the centre at A draw a line across, cutting the centre hole; then set the square against the straight-edge, with the corner true to the cen- tre hole; keep the square exact in this position whilst you move the straight-edge and place it against the other side of the square, after which the square is removed and line D is drawn. You now have two centre-lines at right MOULDERS' TOOLS. 25 angles to each other, from which lines you must measure for width and length of plate outside. All that is now required for describing the four holes in the body of the plate is to ascertain their distance from the centre-lines, marking them off each way as shown at EE ; the intersecting point of these lines will be the centre of the holes required. Because the sides are all equidistant from the centre, Fig. 7. the centre-lines themselves give the position of the lugs as seen at F. All that now remains to be done is to set the trammels to the required radius and draw the circle, the six divi- sions of which are obtained by marking off the length of the radius used to draw the circle. Any number of divisions of the circle in this proportion can be got by sub- division of the six, as twelve, twenty-four, forty-eight, etc. It will be observed that the circle is divided in four by the centre-lines: subdivisions of these will give eight, sixteen, thirty-two, etc. To such as are scholars this short lesson will be uninteresting; but to others who are 26 THE IRON-FOUNDER. ignorant of geometry I say, Do not rest at this simple illustration; get books on the subject, and study hard: it will repay you. A small water-pot with neat swab -is a useful adjunct to a moulder's outfit, providing it is used with discretion. A careful workman has one for his own private use, to stiffen an edge with where it is absolutely necessary; but should it be required to use more water than is good for the safety of the mould, he will see to it that the extra moisture is dried out before he casts. Not so the careless or the incompetent workman: he uses water to save labor in finishing, and should his cast- ing be measurably free from blisters and scabs, which is very rarely the case, it is certain that holes will be found in the upper surfaces, caused by the extraordinary amount of steam which is generated in such a damp mould, and which steam no ordinary amount of venting will carry away. This brings us to the subject of vent-wires and how to make them. Large vent-wires should always have the point made as shown at Fig. 8; this enlarged point enters the sand freely, making a hole larger than the body of the wire, which follows after without friction. Smaller wires only need to be filed square at the end, which should be jumped up a little by a few blows endwise; Fig. 9 gives an idea of what I mean. Gaggers may be considered moulders' tools, as they play a very important part in his work, very many castings being lost either from having too many or too few, or from not having the right kind. I have shown three kinds of gaggers at Figs. 10, 11, and 12. Where the amount of sand to be lifted is not too deep below the bars of the flask, Fig. 10 will serve the purpose. The principle involved is to secure, by ramming between the bars, the gaggers placed therein, so firmly that the weight of the MOULDERS' TOOLS. 27 hanging sand will not be sufficient to pull them out. Usually, when such is the case, recourse is had to chuck- ing; but very much of the wood used for this purpose may be saved by using the gaggers shown at Figs. 11 and 12. These hang on the bars of the flask, thus making failure to lift impossible. The subject of flasks is a very important one. A chapter has therefore been devoted to its discussion exclusively, to which I refer the reader, as I have treated that subject Ainerican Machinist Fig. 8. Fig. 9. Fig. 10. Fig. II. Fig. 12. more fully there than I could be expected to in this writing. We will now consider the subject of ramming or packing the sand against the pattern. This is accomplished by tools called rammers, which rammers, if used properly, will not only prevent the casting from swelling out of shape, but will also save considerable finishing by the moulder. The wooden rammer shown at Fig. 13 is used by bench-moulders to ram small flasks and snaps with: this kind is preferred by most of them, because they can use one in each hand, if they choose, thereby materially lessening the length of time needed to ram up their flasks; but for general jobbing work, on the floor and in larger 28 THE IRON-FOUNDm. flasks, it is necessary to have rammers suited to the height of the moulder who uses them, as he must invariably stand Fig. 13. Fig. 14. to his work. Fig. 14 shows the kind of rammer most suitable for floor work: it may be either double or single MOULDERS' TOOLS. 29 ended, the shank may be of piping with ends castor forged on, or the whole rammer may be forged solid. As stated, ramming is a very important operation, and the art should be learned thoroughly, as no amount of finishing will rec- tify faulty ramming. How often we see castings swelled in parts all along the side surfaces, or, if not swelled, blotches and scabs all over: both evils caused by inat- tention or inability, as the former results from ram- ming too far away from the pattern, and the latter from ramming too close, — in all probability frequently striking the pattern with the rammer! Again, how many comparatively good castings are marred by the ugly seam running along just where the one course of ramming joins the other ! By the use of Figs. 15 and 16 I shall endeavor to give a remedy for the evils spoken of. The figures show a round and square pipe or column bedded down in the floor or flask; it is at the joints A, A where the seams are formed, by continuing the ramming without first making the con- 30 THE 1RON-FOUNDEB. nection between the two layers of sand good and solid. This is remedied by laying down the facing- sand along the pattern, and carefully packing the joint with a smaller rammer made for the purpose, as seen at B, B, after which the facing can be pressed against the pattern, and backed with old sand ; the ramming can then be continued as shown at C, C, taking care to reach the bottom at each stroke, and never allowing the rammer to come closer than two inches from the pattern. We come now to the more artistic class of tools, such as are usually called finishing-tools, a full set of which Fig. 16. it ought to be the pride Qf every moulder, man or boy, to possess. The square trowel, Fig. 17, first claims our attention, because it is the most used. Of these there should be four, from four inches to seven inches long, of suitable widths according to length; they should be stiff and unyielding, with an even surface on the face. This enables the moulder to retain a perfectly even surface on the face of whatever part of the mould he smooths with them. This is worth consideration; for, painful as it is to relate, a careful inspection of some of our best work will reveal some very ugly marks, caused by finishing such surfaces with old round-faced trowels. As these trowels wear down and become pliable they MOULDERS' TOOLS. 31 are invaluable on curved surfaces, especially for loam and dry-sand work. Fig. 18 shows how such tools may be Fig. 17. Fig. 13. used, the trowel being bent to suit the contour of an elbow- pipe. One heart-trowel of good size, Fig. 19, will be found use- ful, as the point enables you to reach places impossible of access by the square trowel. Fig. 20 shows a combination of heart and square, — a very fjnO Fig. 19. Fig. 20. useful tool in good hands, and one which may be made to do good service. I have many reasons for saying " careful " in reference to the use of moulders' tools of all descriptions; for I am sorry to say that very many of our moulders, when they obtain a very handy tool, take infinite delight in smooth- ing away on the surface which it fits, either heedless or 32 THE IRON-FOUNDER. ignorant of the fact that by so doing they work the moist- ure, mixed with more or less clay, to the front. By and by this clayey surface clings to the tool and comes away in patches; the ignorant moulder then proceeds to fill Fig. 21. up the bad spots with his trowel, smoothing it on the whole surface indiscriminately, good and bad spots alike; the pressure he exerts to press in this sand loosens the Fig. 22. already overworked surface, which yields to the first touch of the molten iron, and an unsightly scar is the con- sequence. But irrespective of the above, it must be Fig. 23. remembered that the hard clayey surface caused by over- smoothing with the tools expands as soon as the molten iron reaches it, and this expansion not being equal all over MOULDERS' TOOLS. 33 the surface, but by degrees as the mould fills up, the skin of the mould buckles, causing a very unsightly as well as undesirable surface on the casting. Fig. 24. Lifters shown at Fig. 21 ought to range from a quarter of an inch in width about six inches long, and advance in size by eighths up to two inches wide, lengths to suit. A rr\ Fig. 25. Fig. 26. Fig. 27. very necessary adjunct to the lifter is the web-smoothers, shown at Figs. 22 and 23: these should be made to match the lifters as nearly as possible; they can be either cast or Fig. 28. Fig. 29. Fig. 30. forged in the form shown at Fig. 22, or threaded shanks of different lengths and stiffness can be procured, on which loose ends may be screwed (Fig. 23). The latter method is 34 THE IRON-FOUNDER. very advantageous, as almost every variety of tool may be cast at a slight cost; another advantage is that they are much less bulky than those which are forged or cast in one piece. These tools serve a good purpose, as they enable the moulder to finish the bottom of a web with dispatch, and with greater nicety than it would be possible to do with the lifter alone. Bead and flange tools, such as shown at Fig. 24, may be cast in one piece, or the ends may be loose, as just described. Figs. 25 and 26 show smoothers with two faces at right Fig. 3L Fig. 32. Fig. 33. angles to each other; one is concave and the other convex. These tools should only be used to give the final touch at the corners, after the mould has been made perfectly true. Figs. 27 and 28 represent a set of flute tools, the one at 28 reaching the outer edge and a part of the curve on each side, the one at 27 finishing the curve. Again, let me say that it is very tempting, especially to youth, to overwork the mould with these tools, they run along so easily, also avoid all smoothing until the faces have been well secured, and then do no more of it than is abso- lutely necessary. Smoothers, such as shown at Fig. 29, are made of differ- ent sizes to fit all diameters of pipes, columns, etc. The MOULDERS' TOOLS. 35 one shown at Fig. 30 is similar to Fig. 25, excepting that one of its sides is circular, and serves to smooth a corner, one side of which is flat and the other round. This class of tool may be made to any angle or shape required. Fig. 31 shows the form of tool required to fit the bends of elbow-pipes, etc., and needs to be of several sizes to suit the diameter of pipe : for this purpose they are best egg- shaped, as seen; for globes, the outer edge must be made to a true circle. Figs. 32 and 33 are simply modifications of the one seen at Fig. 22, any number of which may be made, in cast-iron or brass, to fit the job. Fig. 35. In conclusion, let me draw the attention of the moulder to another class of tools, the cheapest of all, but, if rightly used, the most productive of real artistic work. I mean strips of wood to be used for re-forming the broken sur- faces, too frequently seen in the mould when a bad pattern is drawn from the sand, or when a bad lift occurs in the cope. A simple example will best serve the purpose of illustra- tion. Suppose Fig. 34 to represent the surface required, 36 THE IRONFOUNDER. but the edge at A is broken, as seen at Fig. 35 ; never make the attempt to repair such a job by patching with the tool after the manner shown at Fig. 36, but have along Fig. 36. strip made the correct depth of the return, set it against the edge, as seen at Fig. 37, and make the corner good all along, after which the requisite tools may be used to finish with, and a true mould will result. Fig. 37. The above-described method of finishing put into general practice will not only secure the best work, thereby gaining distinction for the moulder, but will also facilitate produc- tion to a very appreciable extent, thus making it better for all parties concerned. FOUNDRY FLASKS OR BOXES. 37 FOUNDRY FLASKS OR BOXES. Flasks or moulding-boxes in which the patterns are rammed are made with the view of confining the amount of sand to be used to its smallest limit, consistent with safety, and should be made of such dimensions as will allow of the rammer being used at the distance of from 2 inches to 3 inches from the pattern. If made of wood, there must be a sufficient body of sand between the cast- ing and flask to prevent damage from burning. On this account iron flasks (as a rule) can be made much smaller, thereby saving time and labor in filling in. Fig. 38 shows a 14-inch iron flask for small work, and Fig. 38. where a large quantity of machinery small work is made, such flasks are much superior to wooden ones. Having no bars top or bottom, they are readily rammed and closed, two clamps being sufficient to bind them together for casting. But when there comes a job-requiring large numbers of extra-light castings, the sand can be rammed in a snap flask, in the same manner as in the iron one and when 38 THE IRON-FOUNDER. the mould is closed the flask can be loosened off and the sand cope held down by a flat weight heavy enough to resist the pressure when cast, a hole being cast in the weight to expose the runner or gate. Such a flask is shown at Fig. 39. The hinges and latches are seen at opposite corners, the other corners being bolted or screwed fast. The great advantage in this kind of flask (where it can be used with safety) is the number of iron or wood Fig. 39. flasks it saves, as well as the rapidity with which it can be worked. Fig. 40 is a perspective view of a 24-inch flask. As will be seen, this method does away with the necessity for either clamps, boards, or plates, the bottom or drag part, as seen at Fig. 41, having flat bars cast on. The intermediate parts or cheeks can be made of any depth required. The pin-holes being bored to templet insures a fit, no matter which parts are used. The flask shown has cheek 12 inches deep; others can be made of different depths, enabling the moulder to rig up a part flask to suit his job in very short order, nothing being required but the pins and keys, which must be kept in order by some responsible man, who will see that they are taken out and stored when not in use. Internal flanges may be cast on the bottom edge FOUNDRY FLASKS OR BOXES. 39 of the cheeks to suit the kind of work they may be used for. For general jobbing purposes this method of making Fig. 40. Fig. 41. flasks is good, for, though a little expensive at first, they pay well in the end. 40 THE IRON-FOUNDER. LARGER FLASKS, COPES, ETC. At Fig. 42 a 4-foot cheek part 12 inches deep is shown, with internal flange to carry grates, which may be made to fit any form of pattern, as shown at A and B, the grate in the former fitting a circle, the latter being square, such as would be required for tanks, etc. The lugs are strong and the bolt-holes are cast in; but the holes for pins must be drilled to templet, so that any cheek may be used for cope or drag. The half-inch strips cast on the edges give strength sufficient for this sized flask, and are more easily made than flanges. The lugs must be rammed in a core and bedded against the pattern, and care must be taken to have the holes for bolts made right and left. The internal flange adds strength to the flask, and enables the moulder to rig up for any kind of job at no greater ex- pense than a few grates. At Fig. 43 I have shown the way to make the cope and drag ; the notches in the bars will be appreciated by job- bing moulders particularly. A shows bar for cope, and B for drag. Where it is practi cable, «wronght-iron swivels can be cast in, as shown at C, Fig. 42; but if swivels must be cast-iron, let them be strong, as shown at (7, Fig. 43. It would be preposterous for me to lay down rules for lifting and handling flasks which would be applicable to all shops; but I show at Fig. 43 two other methods for lifting purposes, besides the swivels. The one at D is a cast handle made in a core, and set against the pattern when the flask is made; of course wrought-iron may be substituted, which is better. At E is shown a plain lug, into which, when needed, the ring-bolt F can be made fast. The latter is very simple, and can be made of universal application. Fig. 44 gives plan of a plain cope for floor uses (without flange top or bottom) 8 feet square; FOUNDRY FLASKS OR BOXES. 41 it lias 15-inch square hole in centre. This flask must be 9 inches deep and 1 inch thick on the outside and J inch in the Fig. 42. Fig. 43. bars. Staking pieces can be cast on, as shown at G, Fig. 43. Let the cross on tie-bars be placed as seen. The reason for sides and bars being so near alike in thickness is that 42 THE IRON-FOXJNftEft. the expansion and contraction whilst the box is in use may be kept as near alike as possible all over. The arrangement of cross-bars is intended to counteract in some measure the inequalities of the thrust, giving, as they do, elasticity to the structure. A box of this kind, cast with good strong iron, will outlast any other kind that is made for floor purposes. When the sides are made heavy, with flanges, etc., cast to their bars, you may look out for a broken box before it has been in use very long. FLASKS MADE UP OF LOOSE SIDES, ENDS, AND BARS. Fig. 45 is a view of sides, ends, and bar for a flask 5 feet wide by 8 feet long and 12 inches deep. As in this case all the parts may be cast in open sand, a very large flask may be strongly made at a light expense comparatively. It will, of course, be readily seen that (if boxes must be made to fit the job and save labor in moulding) unless some other plan be adopted than to make them all in one piece, the foundry would soon be full of unwieldy flasks, costing considerable time and money to make. It is to overcome this difficulty that the method shown at Fig. 45 is brought into use. It will be seen at A that the bars can be cast to fit any form of pattern; the sid^s can be made to bolt together as cope and nowel, holes for pins being drilled as shown at B and C; the flanges can be bracketed to any required degree of strength. Let the flanges stand in from the edge of side i inch so as to leave a space of y mcn when they come together, into which mud can be pressed to prevent running out. The end shown is for a wrought swivel D, which is secured by a key as seen at E. Should the box be very wide, and require to be turned over on the swivels, the ends can be still further stiffened, as shown at F. At G I have shown another method, which saves bolting of all the bars; this method FOUNDRY FLASKS OB BOXES. 43 necessitates the casting of pockets on the sides to receive. the end of a plain bar, as shown at 1. These pockets are made wide enough to admit of the projection 2 shdmg m easily when the bar rests on the bottom this projecting piece is opposite the recess cast in the pocket to receive ft and is driven home by the bent iron 3. This iron or 44 THE IRON-FOUNDER. wedge is a plain piece of wrought-iron 1^ inch wide by i inch thick, bent as seen, and driven down so that the bar is pressed close into the groove; by leaving this wedge stand- ing f inch ont at the top it can be quickly knocked out and the bar loosened instantly. This is a very quick method, and only requires a long bolt here and there along the length to make it equal, in strength, to the other. Another advantage where pockets are cast to receive the bars is shown at H, as on a pinch wooden bars may be substituted for iron ones and made fast with wooden wedges. FLASKS MADE OF WOOD. Where wooden flasks can be profitably used, good white- pine should be chosen to make them of, as it outlasts any other kind and keeps its shape best. Ordinarily they may be made up to 3 feet square out of 2-inch lumber; beyond that size and up to 6 feet it is best to use 3-inch. Many firms go to great expense in dovetailing the joints, — a very bad method too, as the vent blazes out at the joints of the dovetail, and the flask is rendered useless in a very short time. A much better plan is to let the ends into the sides about \ inch and nail them firmly together, after which a -J- inch bolt can be passed through each end in the inside. If the flasks be long, additional bolts may be passed through in the middle. Greater dependence can be placed on the bolts than on any system of dovetail or spikes. I have seen many plans for preserving the joints of wooden flasks (which, if unprotected, soon burn away), and in most cases the supposed cure has proved worse than the disease; but should it be considered worth while to pro- tect the edge (and I am satisfied that it is, where the flasks are in constant use), have strips of cast-iron made \ inch thick and the width of the lumber, with pins cast on. Have these strips drilled with countersunk holes for screw- FOUNDRY FLASKS OR BOXES. 45 heads, and set them hard down on a coat of thick metallic paint. This makes the joint between the iron and wood perfectly air-tight, preventing the gas from escaping, and consequently the flask is saved from burning. I have rigged flasks this way which have been in use every day for months without taking any harm from the blaze at the joint. Another thing I would suggest, where wooden flasks are in constant use: have a boy, or two, if need be, to throw water around the flasks as they are poured ; it pays in the end to do this. Sometimes, in shops where help is scarce and the crane untrustworthy, it is out of the ques- tion to make large iron flasks. In such cases let cast-iron ends be made with good bolting surface for the wood to bind against; have also here and there a cast bar to which the side must be firmly bolted. These precautions add very little to the weight, but serve to increase the strength and usefulness of the flask. Swivels or handles cast on plates can be bolted on the sides or ends, making them in every respect almost equal to the best iron flask. HINGED FLASKS. Although to show the substitution of hinges for pins in moulding-boxes is the primary object of this article, I was necessarily led into other important subjects in connection with their use. My experience has taught me, that in the majority of foundries all the ingenuity of the moulder is expended in devising methods that will enable him to mould nearly every large green-sand casting in the floor. This is generally done with the view of saving cost of flasks, and when only one or two such castings are needed, I believe it is the correct thing to do. But other reasons are advanced for this almost universal bedding-in system, the foremost of which is, that it is the safest plan to adopt 46 THE IRON-FOUNDER. when the job to be made is one of great magnitude; and, while I partly admit the force of such a reason, yet I am fully persuaded that much better results are assured by adopting a system which can be made equally safe, and at the same time enable the moulder to examine and finish all the parts of his mould with equal facility. It is well known that very many large jobs having critical parts are made in dry sand or loam for no other reason than to secure a well-finished casting, which could not result if it was made in green sand by the ordinary methods, on ac- count of the difficulty of reaching its remote parts. If such extra expense in the production of these castings can be saved, it must surely be folly to persist in such a course. Enter almost any foundry and examine such castings as we are speaking of, and the ugly fact of smooth upper sur- faces, and equally rough and unsightly lower surfaces pre- sents itself. To particularize, let it be an architectural works or a foundry making casting for tool and engine work : what do we find ? As before stated, all the in- genuity possible has been expended to have castings made in the floor, without separation of parts. Brackets are made in cores and rammed against the pattern, leaving in almost every case an unsightly mark, if not something worse; chipping faces and mouldings are pinned on loose, to be withdrawn after the pattern has left the sand, and as a natural consequence portions of the face of the mould are disturbed and fall into the bottom, or, worse still, are forced away when the iron enters the mould and rise to the surface. And yet, inconsistent as it may seem, the great- est care is taken with the very small surface which can be reached by the moulder to make that as smooth as tools and hands can make it; which, by the way, only shows up all the more by comparison the deficiencies of those parts of the mould which cannot be reached. This is seen more particularly on square and recta?-, 1 gular columns, having FOUNDRY FLASKS OR BOXES. 47 two or more face sides, with panels and other ornamenta- tion ; lathe beds, foundations for engines, etc. Some firms desiring quality rather than quantity partially overcome this difficulty by lifting out the sides of the mould, when practicable, on drawbacks, which are plates bedded alongside the pattern, and partings made where Fig. 46. requisite. After the mould is rammed and the pattern taken out, then such portions of the mould as rest on the plates can be lifted away; but this method necessitates still more digging and ramming, and of course adds to the cost whilst it is oftentimes but a sorry makeshift. It is to facilitate the making of such castings that prompts me to suggest the use of hinges. Fig. 46 is a 48 THE IRON-FOVNDER. perspective view of the mould of an ordinary square col- umn, the dimensions of which are 18 inches X 18 inches X 12 feet, with panels on three sides. I have shown the mould as cut across at the first hinge, so that the working parts can be seen. The cheeks are thrown back on the hinges A, the top flange resting on lugs B, exposing the core G its full length, as well as the bottom of the mould D. It will be plain to any one having a knowledge of such matters that all the parts of such a mould can be treated with the same care, the result being a casting equally per- fect all over. At Fig. 47 I have shown the necessary appliances for making castings by this method, and as this view is drawn isometrically, the whole details can be seen at a glance much more readily than would be possible by the ordinary plan and elevation. Only a section of the sides is shown, but this is all that is needed for a clear understanding of the whole. I have selected a square column of the dimen- sions specified, because it is a class of work which is going on all the time, and serves well to illustrate the method suggested. As I do not in this article propose to explain the details of moulding such a casting, I shall confine myself to the subject of hinges and the securing of the flask. The bot- tom flask A is shown longer than the cheeks, as it is sup- posed to be a fixture in a foundry exclusively engaged in this work. It is best to have such a bottom flask made with deep sides well down in the floor, and good stiff cross-bars bolted across; such a bottom flask serves to make ordinary columns or beams and girders in, the cope of course being made to correspond with flange at B, to which it can be bolted or clamped, thus saving both time and expense of weighing down. It is on just such a flask that these sides rest. The lower half of hinge C, into which the upper half works, serves the same purpose for the FOUNDRY FLASKS OR BOXES. 49 regular cope when the bottom is being used for ordinary work; but in this case, when the cheeks are being used, the cope can be pinned or iron slides bolted on to fit the recess shown at E, At .Pis shown the lifting-plates 50 TEE IRON-FOUNDER. secured to the' cheeks. These plates serve the double duty of stiffening the cheek as well as carrying the sand, and may, of course, be taken into consideration when the mould is being bound together. By referring to G, it will be seen how the cheek is turned on its hinges, and without giving dimensions it will suffice to say that one or more of these lugs may be used, according to the length of the cheek, and also that they must be made with leverage sufficient Fig. 48. to turn backward and forward easily. The lug shown at // is for binding purposes. Let as many of these be cast on the bottom flange, to correspond with similar ones on the cope, as may be considered necessary for effectually securing the mould when closed. Holes must be cast in these lugs large enough to admit a strong bar reaching from one to the other— as shown at Fig. 48— and wedged firmly between the bar and cheek. Sometimes it may not bo required to use any ends to the job in hand: if so, bolt FOUNDRY FLASKS OR BOXES. 51 holes cast in the sides at each end can be utilized when the way is clear, for the bolt or provision can be made for bolt- ing on loose ends as seen at i, Fig. 47. o O o o i. II '1 J Fig. 49. Fig. 50. Fig. 51. Fig. 52. Should it be required to lift away the end as well as sides of the mould, this may readily be done by continuing one cheek round the ends to meet the other, or carry one 52 THE IRON-FOUNDER half on each; but if the job in hand be too unwieldy for such a method, as for instance tanks, hot-wells, cisterns, etc., of large dimensions, then, of course, separate cheeks can be made and turned back on their own hinges. To bind such ends provision can be made to bolt them to the cheeks when they are turned into place, or they can be treated the same as directed for the cheeks. At Figs. 49, 50, 51, and 52, I have shown front and side elevations of both halves of a hinge suitable for the job described, with figured dimensions. This hinge is certainly the best as well as the cheapest that can be made, requir- ing no machinist work on it whatever; it is ready for use as soon as it leaves the sand. It is an absolute fit, cannot get out of order, and must therefore commend itself especially to foundries having no machine-shop. In con- clusion, a hinge like this can be almost universally applied on ordinary work where the lifts are not too deep, or the parts of the mould too high to clear as it closes on the circle. It will save considerable to a firm using large numbers of top and bottom flasks. FOUNDRY OVENS. To properly locate a foundry oven is a very important item in foundry construction, for many reasons. Too frequently we find that no attention has been given this subject until the foundry has been built, and then it is placed in one corner of the shop, thereby limiting the floor-space considerably, as well as making that particular spot very undesirable to work near during the warm months. When it can be done, which is nearly always, it is best to have the oven outside, so that the doors will come even FO UNDRT VENS. 53 with the inside of the wall, and in such a position as will permit a straight track to be laid directly under one or more of the cranes. Another important consideration is what kind of an oven to build. I must say it would seem that very little attention is paid to this part of the subject, for, go where you will, you find that the universal idea is to have a hole of some kind, with a very indifferent carriage, requiring ten times the help to move in and out that it ought to, on account of the disgraceful roadway provided for it to travel on. The same may be said in regard to the methods of firing such ovens, "any way" being considered "good enough," providing the cores or moulds are dry " some time." The thought that, by a judicious arrangement of these things, both time and money, as well as considerable annoy- ance, might be saved to all concerned, does not enter the mind of the originator; and so he pursues his way blindly, supposing that he is saving money for the firm by with- holding the cost necessary for alteration. When an oven is to be built, care should be taken that it will meet all the requirements of the shop, both as to size and equipment. Should an oven be required for a very small foundry, it is just probable that one or more of the very excellent rotary ovens now on the market will suffice, and be as cheap as anything which could be erected by the owner; but should it be that the amount of cores required are but few and small, a very cheap and handy device is to make cast or wrought iron sides and back the required width and height, the sides to be provided with slides at suitable intervals on which to rest the shelves. The top must be provided with a hole having a raised edge, on which a piece of stove-pipe maybe fitted; the front must be hinged on full size, so as to expose all parts of the oven at once. 54 THE iRON-FOVNDEn. An ordinary fire-pot, with provision for draught under- neath, can be set down in the floor and the oven set over, or the whole may be built within the plates, as shown at Fig. 57. Extemporized ovens of this class are very useful, even in large foundries, sometimes, especially when small cores are needed through the day. They save the annoyance arid loss caused by opening the large ovens, thereby allowing heat to escape, materially retarding the drying of the moulds. For large foundries something more elaborate is neces- sary. If the business of the firm is a special one, with the same routine of work every day, it is well worth the time to consider what is needed to facilitate the rapid handling and drying of the cores and moulds. The kind of furnace and its position, the place for the damper, and how to use it to get full duty from the fuel, are subjects worthy of consideration; also, how to regulate the damper in order to allow of the free exit of the vapor made during the process of drying, without interfering with the legitimate draught required to bring out the best results from the fuel used. These and kindred subjects should interest the moulder whose aim is to excel in these things. If the oven is intended for jobs that will require more than one night to dry them, it will be proper to set the furnace or furnaces so as to allow of easy access without disturbing the doors and allowing the heat to escape. To meet this requirement, pits must be made, at the most con- venient places outside the oven, to communicate with the inside by a fire-place, which can be built of fire-brick, either level with the floor or as much above as will allow of easy access from inside as well as outside. The regulation bear- ers and grate-bars can be used in the construction, and a front erected on the outside with doors after the manner FOUNDRY OVENS. 55 of an ordinary boiler-furnace. The pit in this case should not be less than 18 inches below the grate-bars, with ample room on all sides for firing and cleaning. Fig. 53. For an oven 12 feet by 10 feet, and 10 feet high, one such furnace will suffice if its dimensions are 4 feet by 3 feet, and 1 foot 8 inches deep. For rapid drying in larger ovens another furnace will invariably be required. One great objection to this method of firing is that the 56 THE IBON-FO UNDER heat is not evenly distributed, some of the moulds or cores being in a semi-green state, whilst others are burnt so much as to be almost useless. To overcome this, recourse has been had to several ingenious methods to secure a more even distribution of the heat. One is to build flues which pass under the floor only in some instances, and others have continued the system along the walls and roof. I remember when we thought all trouble of the kind above mentioned would cease after we had laid down a perforated floor; but, as in the former case, it was a com- parative failure, inasmuch as we did not obtain the maxi- mum amount of heat, nor was it evenly distributed; the extra heat at the end nearest the fire burnt out, and de- stroyed the castings so much as to make the arrangement almost valueless. For all ovens where one night's firing is all that can be allowed, the method shown in the accompanying figures is the most effective as well as the cheapest, because, whether one or more furnaces are needed, they can be so placed as to be equidistant from the walls all round, thereby giving an almost uniform heat all through, at least as near as is prac- ticable with open fires. I shall not dwell here on the pos- sibilities for heating where there are good supplies of natu- ral gas at a cheap rate; but it will be clear to all that the advantages which such offers ought to be made the best of. Neither is it required at this writing that I should enter into a description of all the elaborate systems of drying by the use of hot air and superheated steam : these methods are only to be thought of where there is not only the de- mand for such immense outlay, but likewise the necessary genius to adopt them. I have no doubt whatever that if our foremen founders were better posted in such matters and able to make themselves understood, employers would be led to make vast improvements in their working plant, as well to their credit as to their profit. FOUNDRY OVENS. 57 In laying down an oven track be sure and have it as wide as the oven will allow; this gives stability, and. allows for a good-sized carriage, which is a desideratum. But a good carriage is terribly marred by having an insufficient roadbed. The best roadbed for an oven is made by good longi- tudinal timbers crossed by 12-inch by 4-inch I-beams — wrought-iron — on which the ordinary steel rails can be bolted. Ovens should not be made any higher than is ab- solutely necessary ; the fuel needed to heat this extra space being so much wasted. Where there is to be continuous firing, either hard or soft coal, of a medium size and good quality, may be used ; but if all the coal needed is to be put on at once, then it is preferable that hard coal only should be used. I would here say that it pays to have a man of more than the common run of intelligence to look after the firing of foundry ovens; much may be saved by such a man. He will acquaint himself with all their peculiarities, especially how to meet the various changes of the wind, etc., which of course affects the draught very materially, a full knowl- edge of which will enable him to guard against a very com- mon occurrence, — either that the cores or moulds are not dried sufficiently, or that they are burnt so as to be use- less. By a careful observation as to the condition of the cores every morning, he will be able to modify his fire to suit the amount of drying to be done. If he finds that the walls and upper surfaces of the cores are covered with moisture, he will at once know that there has not been a sufficient allowance of draught made for the escape of the vapor; but he knows also that if he should open his damper too much to meet this evil, he encounters one equally as damaging, which is, that too free an egress for the vapor will carry along with it the heat also; the fires will burn too rapidly, 58 THE IRON-FOUNDER. and the result will be even worse than before. He will take a middle course as near as possible. These are only some of the things which will come under the observation of a good man in such a position; his use- FOUNDRY OVENS. m fulness will manifest itself in countless other ways, always proving the advisability of preferring such a man, even at an advanced rate of wages, to men of only ordinary calibre. The oven and carriage shown in the accompanying fig- ures were built for the production of column cores, round and square. I desired that none of the principles herein set forth should be violated; it was my aim to occupy as much of the space as was practicable without in any sense marring the usefulnesss of the oven for any other purpose for which I might require it in the future. 60 THE IRON-FOUNDER. The dimensions are 16 feet wide, 25 feet long, and 12 feet high; the walls are 16 inches thick, with roof com- posed of arches springing from seven 12-inch I-beams. Figs. 53 and 54 are end and side sectional elevations of oven and carriage racks, etc.; Figs. 55 and 56 are views of details. This oven is heated by two furnaces, AA, Figs. 53 and 54, which are 4 feet long, 3 feet wide, and 16 inches deep, re- spectively. A continuous flue BB, Figs. 53 and 54, commencing 6 feet Fig. 56. from door at C, Fig. 54, the same width as the furnaces, and 3 feet deep, running the whole length of the oven and out at the other end, supplies the draught, the damper being in the chimney at E. The damper shown regulates combustion admirably, and allows for the minimum amount of coal to thoroughly dry all the cores up to 12 inches thick, without in any sense injuring such as are smaller. FOUNDRY OVENS. 61 The carriage, as will be seen, is a plain one, put together in sections, and travels on a track 7 feet 10 inches wide; its length is 20 feet, and it stands 2 feet 2 inches from the floor; the side supports and upper frame, made in sections also, raises the platform, or table, FF, Figs. 53 and 54, 6 feet from the floor; this platform is 23 feet long and 9 feet Fig. 57. 4 inches wide, made in sections, with edges and one side planed true, and bolted firmly on the upper frame so as to form a perfectly even and smooth surface, on which almost any kind of rectangular core may be made by the use of a pair of sides and ends ouly. The uprights which support the table may be utilized for carrying cores by casting holes in them, through which eye-bolts may be secured. In these eyes racks may be made to turn either to the inside, as shown at G 9 Figs. 53 62 THE IRON-FOUNDER. and 54; or they may remain parallel with the carriage, as seen at H } Fig. 54; or brought outwards, as necessity occurs. An isometric view of the rack is shown at Fig. 56. Not desiring to limit the width of the oven by building in the walls stationary rack fixtures, — which are never the right distance between, — I succeeded in contriving a rack which answers admirably. As will be seen, the whole con- sists of nine fixings on each side of the oven, built firmly in the wall, parallel and straight with each other; in the projecting ends of the bottom fixings a cup is cast, in which rest the 9 bars 3 inches in diameter and 9 feet long, held in position above by other fixings, built in the wall, with the projecting ends open, provided with a key-way with which to secure the shaft after all the arms have been slipped on. The whole arrangement will be seen at a glance by care- fully examining Figs. 53 and 54, and still more plainly by referring to Fig. 55, A being the bottom and B the top fixings spoken of. C, Fig. 55, shows the arm, and D is a bush used to raise the arms to; allow of a larger core being inserted between them, as shown at i, Figs. 53 and 54. It must be understood 'that the bar is stationary, so that any of the arms can be turned out of the way at any time without disturbing anything which may be above or below. It will be readily seen that when all the arms, both on walls and carriage, as well as the upper and lower levels of the carriage, are in use there is certainly not much room lost; and when it is remembered that all that is needed to make a clear oven for other classes of work is to lay all the arms against the wall, as seen at J, Fig. 54, and strip the carriage of its upper rigging, one feels recompensed for the extra expense incurred in fitting up an oven after this manner. And really I do not consider there is anything extraor- dinary in the expense of such an oven, for there need be CRYSTALLIZATION AND SHRINKAGE OF CAST-IRON. 63 no machinist's help in the whole job; for allowing that proper clearance is given in all the parts described, every- thing can be lifted out of the sand and set into place with- out further preparation. CRYSTALLIZATION AND SHRINKAGE OF OAST- IRON. Before entering on the subject proper of this article, it is important that we consider for a while the nature and properties of cast-iron. Such a course will, I think, help to clear away much of the apparent mystery which seems to cling to the subjects of crystallization, contraction, shrinkage, and warping of castings. There is no valid reason for supposing that much if not all the trouble and anxiety which the founder experiences on account of warped and broken castings cannot be ob- viated, and the whole matter brought under absolute con- trol. But the moulder will never control this very important branch of his business until he steps out. of the beaten tracks made for him by his predecessors in the trade, and determines to acquire the knowledge that will enable him not only to mould from the pattern given him, but also to detect the faults in its design, and take such precautions as will insure success in the end. Again, no one believes that the moulder who is ignorant of the nature and properties of cast-iron can be thorough at his business, nor need ever such a one aspire to anything more than being a mere machine at his trade. Hundreds of moulders are absolutely ignorant of the modes of pro- ducing cast or pig iron, and therefore it cannot be expected that such will be able to meet the numerous emergencies which from time to time beset them. It is for their 64 THE IRON-FOUNDER. benefit, principally, that we take a brief survey of its manufacture. The ores from which iron is smelted are found all over the globe, the chief kinds being: 1. Carbonate of iron, in- cluding spathic ore, which is found in thin plates or scales; clay ironstone, and blackband ironstone. 2. Magnetic iron ore. 3. Ked hematite, specular or red iron ore. 4. Brown hematite, or brown iron ore. The magnetic ore gives the richest yield of metal — about 73 per cent when pure. It is found all over Europe, in Canada, and in the States of New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Virginia, etc. This ore is usually Fig. 58. Fig. 59. smelted with wood charcoal, this being the cause of its superiority, there being no sulphur in the fuel. Red hematite ore is also very rich in iron, giving about 70 per cent by weight. This ore is found in the Isle of Elba and other parts of Europe, especially Whitehaven and Ulver- stone, England. Brown iron ore is a very important ore in England, and is much sought after by Germany and France. Carbonate of iron is known as spathic when it is found comparatively pure and crystalline, and as clay ironstone and blackband when earthy and impure. The spathic ore is found in great quantities in Prussia and Austria, and is in great demand to yield the spiegeleisen required in the Bessemer process of making steel. To give some idea of CRYSTALLIZATION AND SHRINKAGE OF CAST-IRON 65 the large percentage of impurities contained in some of the ores, I append an analysis of the clay ironstone, Blackbed mine, Yorkshire, England : Protoxide of iron 36. 14 Peroxide of iron 0. 61 Protoxide of manganese 1. 38 Alumina 0. 52 Lime 2.70 Magnesia 2. 05 Carbonic acid 26. 57 Phosphoric acid = 0. 34 Sulphuric acid trace. Bisulphide of iron "..... 0. 10 Water, hygroscopic 0. 61 " combined 1. 16 Organic matter 2.40 Insoluble residue, chiefly silica and alumina. .25.27 99.85 Metallic iron, per cent 29. 12 This extraordinary amount of impurities in the ores ne- cessitates considerable preparation prior to smelting in the blast-furnace. One method is to break the ore into small pieces, and mix along with it small coal. The pile, which may contain a thousand tons or more, is lighted at the end and allowed to slowly burn or roast (as it is usual to term it) for about a month, or until the whole has under- gone calcination. Special kilns or calcining furnaces are also used for this purpose, the waste gases of the blast-fur- naces being utilized as fuel. The process of calcination separates from 30 to 50 per cent of these impurities from the ironstone, besides effecting certain changes in the chemical constituents of the ore, which greatly facilitates bb THE IRON-FOUNDER. the process of smelting. Kich and comparatively pure ores are not subjected to calcination. The proportions of materials necessary to smelt a ton of pig-iron will naturally vary according to the nature of the fuel and ore, but the figures given below are sufficiently near for illustration : 2 tons of calcined ironstone, 2-j- tons of coal (about 800 lbs. of which is required for the hot-air pipes and blowing engine), and from 1200 to 1600 lbs. of limestone. Blast-furnaces for the production of pig-iron are neces- Fig. 60. Fig. 61. sarily of large diameter, #nd are built from 40 to 100 feet in height; the charges are fed at the top, consisting of alter- nate layers of the materials mentioned in such order as will best secure perfect combustion of the fuel and steady melt- ing. Where hot air is used for blast, it is heated to from 600° to 1000° F., and enters the furnace through tuyeres arranged somewhat after the plan of a foundry cupola. When the furnace is successfully working, the clay of the ironstone unites freely with the limestone, and forms a slag or cinder, which is allowed to run off at suitable inter- vals; the oxide of iron at the same time gives up its oxygen to the fuel, and the metal falls to the bottom of the fur- nace. When sufficient metal has accumulated, it is tapped CRYSTALLIZATION AND SHRINKAGE OF OAST- IRON. 67 and run into moulds formed to receive it, such moulds being the form of the pigs as we see them in our foundries. The metal produced contains from three to five per cent of carbon, which it absorbs from the fuel, and it is this per- centage of carbon which gives it the quality of cast or pig iron, as distinguished from wrought-iron and steel. Owing to the great heat required to reduce the ores in the blast- furnace, the iron is never obtained free from the elements remaining in the ores after calcination, such as silicon, sulphur, phosphorus, manganese, and in some cases arsenic, titanium, copper, chromium, etc., according to the ore used. These impurities insinuate themselves into the cast-iron produced, in a greater or lesser proportion, according to the way the furnace is working; and a perusal of the analy- sis of Lake Superior pig-iron (charcoal), given below, will show to what extent this occurs: Iron 93.34 Combined carbon j 0. 38 Graphite ( 3.39 Silicon 2.28 Sulphur 0.03 Phosphorus 0. 10 Manganese 0. 17 99.69 The carbon in pig-iron is always found in the two forms, combined and graphitic, but varies in its proportions ac- cording to the variety of the iron ; the grayest iron having almost all of its carbon in the uncombined or graphitic form, whilst the hard, white irons have it almost wholly combined; but the amount never exceeds from 3 to 5 per cent in whichever form it may exist. The difference in color, strength, hardness, fusibility, etc., of cast-iron depends upon the relative proportions of these two forms of carbon, varied by the influence of the 68 THE IRON-FOUNDER. above-mentioned elements, which are always present in some degree or other. We thus have gray, mottled, and white iron, or, as they are commercially classified, No. 1, No. 2, No. 3, and forge iron. The No. 1 is the darkest gray, and contains the most graphitic carbon, as seen by the fracture, which is largely granular, and presents numerous graphitic planes or scales. When these abound, the iron will.be found weak, with very little tenacity, and only suitable for light ornamental work, stove-plate, and all thin castings requiring little or no finishing. This iron, when melted and in the ladle, lacks the brightness exhibited by some of the higher numbers, however high its temperature may be; and, should it be allowed to cool, it will be observed that a scum or kish rises to the surface, composed of graphitic carbon, evidencing the inability of the metal to hold as much carbon in solution whilst at a low temperature as it does at a greater heat. When kish appears on the surface of the metal it is rendered unfit for use, as castings run with such iron present an unsightly appearance, being covered witKa thick coat of plumbago. No. 2 presents a more regular appearance in the fracture, the crystals are smaller, the color is a lighter gray; it is also harder and stronger than No. 1, and when in a molten state it does not exhibit the same tendency to kish as it cools. This iron is esteemed the most useful for general purposes. No. 3 contains less graphite than No. 1 or No. 2, is less fluid when melted, but is much stronger, as it is more compact and dense; the crystals are still smaller and the color lighter than No. 2. This iron is suitable for heavy structural work. The higher numbers up to white iron are designated forge irons, and are serviceable for puddling. Sometimes the pig will solidify partly as gray and partly as white, the crystallization having commenced in patches, but not spread- CRYSTALLIZATION AND SHRINKAGE OF CAST-IRON. ing through the mass before it solidified. Such iron is called mottled pig, and it may be used in conjunction with other irons in heavy castings which call for great strength and closeness of grain. Certain kinds of gray iron, rapidly chilled after fusion, become white or mottled; the amount of combined carbon increasing, whilst a corresponding decrease of graphite takes place. On the other hand, some kinds of white iron, slowly cooled after fusion, show a separation of graphite and a corresponding diminution of the quantity of combined carbon; and according to Ackerman (a great authority on these subjects), " long-continued maintenance at a yellow heat is sufficient to change white iron into gray." Fig. 62. Fig. 63. Fig. 64. As cast-iron changes from the molten to the solid state it crystallizes, the form of the crystals being either octahe- dral, as seen in Fig. 58, or rhomboidal, as in Fig. 5.9. These crystals always arrange themselves in the casting with their principal axes perpendicular to the surface through which the heat has passed during the process of solidification. It is a noticeable fact that slow cooling produces the largest crystals : this should suggest to the founder the propriety of pouring large castings with metal at as low a temperature as will allow of a correct impression of the 70 THE IRON-FOUNDER mould being taken. By following this rule the crystals will be smaller, on account of the more rapid solidifica- tion of the mass, and consequently additional strength will be imparted to the casting, by virtue of the greater com- pactness of the iron. The appearance of the fractured surface of broken pig- iron is not always to be taken as a sure indication of its quality. It is pretty certain, however, that when the frac- ture shows a uniform dark gray, with strong metallic lustre, it indicates toughness; whilst, again, dark, leaden- colored irons, lacking lustre, with spots of mottle running through, will be weak and unserviceable. A light gray with strong- luster indicates strength and tenacity, but a light gray without lustre will invariably be found hard and brittle, and still more brittle as it approaches a grayish white. The founder, most assuredly, has many kinds of iron to choose from, the strength and fluidity of which will be according to their composition and mode of production. Cold-blast iron from the same ores is stronger than if produced by hot-blast. Iron which contains sulphur in small quantities is strengthened, whilst phosphorus has an opposite influence, decidedly weakening the iron, although it gives great fluidity when melted. Silicon, if present in iron above a certain quantity, weakens it; and if the pro- portion be large, makes it hard and brittle. Manganese, almost always present in pig-iron, tends to produce white- ness, as well as to make it more brittle. The strength of cast-iron is diminished by annealing. When we consider the great change brought about in the nature of iron by the introduction of these elements, we discover the difficulties which beset the founder in meeting successfully all the demands made upon him for just the correct mixture for every casting he makes. When selecting iron for castings which have to resist impact, such as hammers for forges, etc., it is best to select from among CRYSTALLIZATION AND SHRINKAGE OF CAST-IRON 71 the No. 3 irons such as show a close, tough texture; this in conjunction with good scrap which shows a small crystal in the heavier fragments will answer the purpose well, especially if the pig is chosen from different brands; for it must be remembered that better results accrue from a mixing of brands than when one brand alone is used, the mixed brands being stronger than the average of brands taken separately. Steam-cylinders and all castings demanding a clean, hard face when finished must be made from very compact brands of gray iron, hardened by a plentiful admixture of scrap, such as mentioned above. For such castings always avoid using iron which shows a large percentage of graphitic carbon in the fracture with large crystals, as it is sure to give trouble on account of the heavy scum arising from it in the mould. When practicable it is best for this class of work to run the mixed iron into pigs, and remelt for the casting; this improves the tensile strength of the iron, and gives it greater density. Although much depends upon the experience and judg- ment of the founder to obtain the required degree of fineness and strength, yet it must be conceded that the strength of a casting may suffer deterioration from faulty designing with respect to the arrangement of its several parts, considered with regard to the influence its shape will have on the metal when it passes from the liquid to the solid state. As before stated, cast-iron assumes the crystalline form when solid, and it is an established fact that the crystals 72 TEE IRON-FOUNDER. arrange themselves in a certain position in all castings, the tendency being with their principal axis perpendicular to the sides of the casting, or, in other words, they lay length- wise and perpendicular to that part of the mould through which the heat passes; they are not always as regular and well defined as shown at Figs. 58 and 59, but they incline to that form, nevertheless. By referring to Fig. 60, it will be seen how the crystals arrange themselves in solids of that class; the rays indicate their position in all solids of equal dimensions. The heat passing out at a uniform rate on every side gives four distinct systems of crystals, as it were, forming a junction at lines across the corners. This point of junction must of necessity be more or less imperfect; in fact, experience proves such to be the case; consequently the part where these several systems of crystals meet will be weak always. The weakest parts in this case are indicated by the diagonals; crystallization commencing first at the outside, and the process of solidification being uniform in every direction, must result in just such an arrangement of the crj^stals as is indicated by the figure. What has been said with regard to crystals arranging themselves with their principal axis perpendicular to the sides, is verified by the solid shown at Fig. 61, a round shaft, the rays of which are seen to radiate from the centre; nor does the insertion of a core, as in ordnance, in any sense interfere with their position. (See Fig. 62.) It will be remembered it was said that rapid cooling produced the smallest crystals. Figs. 61 and 62 will serve to illustrate this part of the subject. All solids have their largest crystals in the centre, gradually diminishing in size towards the circumference, caused by the almost immediate solidification of the outer parts; the inner mass taking longer to dissipate its heat through the gradually con- gealing metal. CRYSTALLIZATION AND SHRINKAGE OF CAST-IRON. 73 It is this which causes cannon cast in the ordinary way to be spongy or porous in the bore, the only remedy for which is to bring about equal rates of cooling, by intro- ducing a current of either cold air or water into the arbor or barrel upon which the core is made; by so doing unequal crystallization is obviated, and the metal made uniformly dense all through. Cylinders for hydraulic purposes are made as shown afc Fig. 63 in preference to Fig. 64, for the simple reason that the flat surface on the bottom of the core, with a corre- sponding flat surface on the bottom of the cylinder, as seen at Fig. 64, causes an arrangement of the crystals which produces lines of weakness from the outer edge of cylinder Fig. 66. to the angle of core. This evil is prevented by adhering to the curved outline, as seen at Fig. 63. Fig. 65 will serve to explain the evil effects of abrupt changes in the outlines of castings. The thinnest part A cools first, followed by the part B, the crystallization of which taking place after J. is comparatively solid, forms a weak spot at C ; because, as before stated, the crystals pack themselves in the same direction as that which the heat takes in passing from the molten iron to the outer surface. Obeying this law, they must detach themselves more or less at these points of junction. Of course the same result occurs at D ; in fact, all castings whose outlines present these sudden changes of conformation must deteriorate in strength; for, whether we see the checks or not, it is cer- 74 TEE IRON-FOUNDER tain they exist in a greater or lesser degree. The simple remedy in this case is shown at Fig. 66, which represents a solid of the same bulk, so changed in its outline that the planes of weakness are reduced to a minimum. Figs. 67 and 68 will aid in arriving at a true estimate of the superiority of curved lines, to give the maximum amount of strength for a given area of section. They may be taken for sections of wheel-arms with mid-feather, or as columns. At Fig. 67 the crystals are seen to arrange themselves per- pendicularly to the sides and ends of the webs, giving weak lines at each of the inner angles. How changed the scene when we look at Fig. 68; by simply rounding off the outer angles, and substituting a curve for the sharp angle at the junction of the webs, we obtain a continuous figure, presenting an unbroken outline, perpendicular to which the crystals arrange themselves with comparatively no interruption whatever. In order to a clear elucidation of the laws of crystalliza- tion, and the consequent lines of weakness resulting therefrom, it will be necessary to examine into forms other than round and square. Fig. 69 is a rectangular solid, and shows an additional line of weakness, running parallel to the upper and lower surfaces, and connecting with the diagonals. It would appear that this casting is veritably split in halves along this plane of weakness, and such is really the case in a partial sense. Examine the broken castings on the scrap pile, and innumerable examples will be found to prove this assertion; for in some pieces cavities are formed in exactly such places as are indicated by these lines of weakness, revealing the last stage of crystallization in all parts of the fracture; and where this phenomenon does not occur, a careful examination of the top surface of the casting will show that the upper section has fallen down during the process of solidification, and left a correspond- CRYSTALLIZATION AND SHRINKAGE OF CAST-IRON, 75 ing concavity there. It is here seen why we attach the riser or feeding head on all such castings; the idea being to maintain a communication with these central planes of weakness, and by a constant feeding of hot iron to this particular place, counteract, in some measure at least, the tendency to hollowness caused by the shrinkage of the mass during the process of solidification. As previously stated, this tendency to fracture in irregu- larly shaped castings can be considerably modified by a judicious selection of brands of iron having the least Fig. 67. Fig. 68. Fig. 69. shrinkage. Broadly stated, gray iron shrinks the least; a perceptible increase of this quality manifesting itself all through the respective grades up to white iron, which is supposed to shrink the most. But it must be borne in mind that accepting the numbers of iron as graded at the different blast-furnaces, and basing our estimate of shrink- age on such grading, will oftener than not be found to be delusive, it being no uncommon thing to find No. 2 of one brand to shrink less than No. 1 of another. It would seem best, under such conflicting circumstances, to cast test bars of the several brands, and carefully note the shrinkage in each; such bars can also be tested for any other particular quality needed to bring the casting up to the required degree of perfection. This method enables the founder to 76 THE IRON-FOUNDER. combine the several qualities required with almost absolute certainty. Contraction is a subject which causes no small amount of anxiety to the founder, owing largely to the fact that little importance is attached to it by the designer or pattern- maker, who often insist upon having work made true to pattern, regardless of the obstacles they may have placed in the way of its accomplishment. Admitting the fact that Fig. 70. some attention should be paid to symmetry of design, yet we insist that this reason should never be allowed to usurp the place of strength and safety, as is too often the case. Many instances might be quoted where gross violations of the laws governing contraction are insisted upon, giving rise to all manner of contrivances to counteract the evil, much of which which might be saved by a slight increase or decrease in the thickness of some particular part of the casting, to insure uniform cooling of all its parts. It has often been said that if all the parts of a casting CRYSTALLIZATION AND SHRINKAGE OF CAST-IRON. 77 were made equal in thickness there would be no trouble; but this assertion can be successfully combated by most founders of ordinary experience. Take the case of a floor- ing-plate, say i inch thick and 4 feet square, carefully moulded, and cast so that no part of the casting shall deviate from the thickness specified. Does such a casting, if left to take its own course, always come out true ? Fig. 71. Hardly ever. This is only one of many instances which might be quoted to disprove such an assertion. Let us take into consideration what occurs immediately after such a plate is cast. First, the surface under and over, as well as along the edges, almost instantly chills, from contact with the cold, damp sand; especially is this the case at the outer edges, which rapidly cool and contract, and, owing to the fact that the contraction must cease as the parts become cold, the outer portions cooling first, as just explained, are subjected to a continuous strain until the whole becomes cold and contraction ceases all over. Now, if this strain were equal on both sides, the plate 78 THE IRON-FOUNDER. would remain straight; but. such is not the case; the top cools first, on account of the heat passing more rapidly through the cope than it does into the floor, leaving the under surface to contract last, which it of course does by drawing the corners down, or, as is frequently the case, breaking the plate. The lines of weakness shown in the solids are also lines of weakness in the plate, because, being the last to cool, the crystals assume larger dimensions, with a corresponding Fig. 72. diminution in density, which means a loss of strength. To counteract this tendency to warping in plates, such as we have under consideration, cooling must be urged at such parts as would be last to set, so that equal rates of con- traction may ensue. The parts which cool last in this case are indicated by the diagonals in the end section of Fig. 60; and should the plate be oblong, they will be as shown at end section of Fig. 69. By uncovering the sand from these parts immediately after pouring, taking care to keep the CRYSTALLIZATION AND SHRINKAGE OF CAST-IRON 79 outer edge well protected from the cold air, we may expect a true casting in most cases. We will now look for a remedy in this case, that will not only saye all the annoyance and trouble of cooling after the plate is cast, but will give us a casting comparatively free from internal strains. We say the outer edge cools too quick: then increase the body of metal at that part. We say likewise that the diagonals cool too slow: then reduce the body of metal at that part sufficient to counteract the evil. By adding i of an inch to the thickness at the edges, 2 mMmmmmmvmmm mmmmmmm Fig. 73. Fig. 74. inches wide, chamfered so as to lose itself gradually in the surface, as shown in section at Fig. 70, and reducing the thickness at the diagonals -f t of an inch, working this out in every direction evenly and without abruptness, as shown by the rays in plan Fig. 70, the difficulty is surmounted. Eound disks or plates may be treated similarly. Should the p]ate be required 4 feet in diameter and \ inch thick, let the edge be § inch thick, 2 inches wide all round, gradually reducing to T \ inch in the centre. The proportions given will answer in the majority of cases for all such castings as we have been describing. To insure good work of this kind, hot iron and rapid filling of the mould is indispensable. An arrangement of the gates for pouring large plates is shown at Fig. 71, which, when practicable, it is always best to adopt; for, by the 80 THE IRON-FOUNDER. time the metal, entering each gate, has reached the opposite side, much of its heat has been absorbed by the cold mould, but it here receives an impetus from the hot iron which is just entering the mould at that spot. The metal, by this method of pouring, is given a rapid circular motion, which insures the correct filling of the mould with well-mixed iron at a uniform temperature, — a desideratum in this instance; for, as before stated, difference in temperature causes variations in shrinkage. When ribs the same thickness as the plate are cast on, as shown at Fig. 72, the casting will be hollow on the plain side; the reason for which is, that the edges of the ribs set Fig. 75. and contract, whilst the metal, at their junction with the body of the plate, is in a plastic condition. These edges then act as a prop or stay, to prevent the plain side from shrinking in a straight line; it must consequently either bend or break, the latter thing occurring very frequently. If the outer edge be increased in thickness, as before directed, and the ribs made one fourth thicker than the body of the plate, this difficulty will be obviated. Long plates, as shown in section at Fig. 73, always give trouble if ribs and plate are equal in thickness; by increas- ing the thickness of the ribs one fourth, straight castings will result. Suppose the plate at Fig. 73 be J inch, then the ribs would require to be yV inch. CRYSTALLIZATION AND SHRINKAGE OF CAST-IRON. 81 Beams similar to section Fig. 74 are always hollow on the plate side if the web is made the same thickness as the plate; the remedy suggested above will insure success in this case. Fig. 75 shows a casting having one rib on each face at opposite edges; when such castings are made equal in thickness all over, the plate will be drawn convex along one edge and concave at the other. To put it another way, both ribs will be down at the ends. The remedy in this case is to increase the quantity of metal in the ribs 25 per cent, as before. Fig. 76 is the sectional elevation of a casting, large numbers of which are made of various lengths in the several architectural works, for building purposes. The tendency in such castings is to Warp hollow along the angle A. This is caused by unequal cooling; B and C cool first, and act as stays to prevent the part A, which is last to cool, from shrinking in a straight line. The edges B and G are consequently drawn round It is customary to bare these castings along the angle A as soon as cast, with the view of preventing this; but this method rarely meets the case. A slight change in the form is all that is needed to obviate this trouble. Suppose the casting to be 1 inch all through in the original, as at Fig. 76 : the alteration suggested is shown at Fig. 77 (when the casting must be moulded in the position as seen). The horizontal web is 1| inches at C, and | inch at A, the vertical web being 1 inch all through in the pattern; this web will increase some in thickness at B } being the point of greatest pressure when cast. Conse- quently we have a gradual increase of thickness extending outwards, with a corresponding decrease at the junction of the webs at A. When such castings can be moulded in the position seen at Fig. 78, the dimensions mnstbe as figured, if inch at A, and 1 T \ inches at B and C, respectively. Square columns, THE 1R0N-F0 UNDER. CRYSTALLIZATION AND SHRINKAGE OF CAST-IRON 83 with openings along one side, shown at Fig. 79, if cast say 1 inch thick all over, will in all cases be drawn hollow on the side which is opposite to the holes, if left to take their own course after being cast. The best method of bringing these columns out straight is to so proportion the thickness on all the sides as to produce equal rates of cooling. J?ig. 84 THE IRON-FOUNDER. 80 is a section of 12-inch column, with figures showing the requisite proportions when the average thickness is to he 1 inch. Sides, at AB, 1 inch; top C, I inch; bottom D, 1£ inch. Long beams of the class shown at Fig. 81 will invariably warp hollow along the deep side A, with more or less ten- dency to hollowness at plate B. The view is that of a lin- tel 12 inches wide at B, with webs A, C, 12 and 6 inches CRYSTALLIZATION AND SHRINKAGE OF CAST-IRON. 85 deep respectively, and 1 inch thick all through. To secure a straight casting, comparatively free from internal strains, the proportions marked at sectional elevation, Fig. 82, must be adhered to : plate B j- inch, web A 1 inch, and web C 1^ inches. Should the webs be equal in depth, as seen at section Fig. 83, then the webs A, C must be l-^- inches, and the plate B $ inch. All castings of the kind shown in perspective, at Fig. 84, warp round on the top edges if equal thickness is insisted upon, from causes already explained. The remedy is to follow the proportions as given at Fig. 85, f inch at the edges A, B, with a gradual reduction towards the crown at G, which must be f inch. These dimensions are given on the supposition that the casting is to average £ inch thick, and the proportions will be safe to follow in all such castings, irrespective of size. Bound columns come crooked, more or less, if the heat escapes quicker on one side than it does on the other; as for instance, when the cope contains a very limited thick- ness of sand, or from exposure of one side before contrac- tion has ceased. If these causes do not exist, and the core is set central, as at Fig. 87, these castings will come straight. Sometimes cores are purposely set in the mould as shown at Fig. 86, the idea being to give a greater body of metal at the point of least pressure; this practice is to be con- demned, inasmuch as it weakens the casting as well as causes it to become crooked. There are some practices common to most foundries which cannot be too severely criticised. Columns are often made with heavy mouldings, and bases cast on them, to save trouble and time. This should not be done, as it endangers the safety of the casting; for not unfrequently castings thus made are found to have separated at places where abrupt changes have occurred in the outline. That 86 THE moftjFOUNbm. portion of Fig. 88 marked A, which represents a section of base having this fault, will give some idea of what is Fig. 86. Fig. 87. Fig. 88. meant; the angles indicated by the arrows cannot be other than fractured, from the fact that crystallization of the CRYSTALLIZATION AND SHRINKAGE OF CAST-IRON. 87 heavy portions takes place so long a time after the thinner parts are set. The correct method is to have the body of the column run even all through, with loose mouldings and base; but when, as is often the case, the builder or architect must be accommodated at short notice, a compara- tively safe column may be produced by reducing the core Fig. 89. opposite the angles (taking care to round off the latter as seen), allowing it to gradually lose itself some distance away, as shown at base B and at moulding C. This allows the crystals to arrange themselves more uniformly in the mass, on account of the almost imperceptible change from a heavy to a lighter section of thickness. Fig. 89 is an example of the folly of designing window- sashes, etc., with all or perhaps only two of the sides of greater sectional area than the inner ribs; the latter set and contract almost instantly, pulling at the outer frame whilst in a semi-molten condition, resulting in castings 88 THE IRON-FOUNDEB. similar to the somewhat exaggerated view given. The only remedy for this is to reduce the area of the heavy parts, distributing such reduction amongst the lighter ones, until a balance is obtained and equal rates of cooling assured. PEESSUEES IN MOULDS. Cast-irok in a liquid or molten state has the power to transmit pressure to every part of the mould into which it is poured; and each part of the mould — when it is full — sustains a pressure equal to the weight of a column of cast- iron, reaching from such part to the upper surface of the running basin. Let a mould be prepared similar to the one shown at Fig. 90, page 89, which represents a plain bar 1 inch square and 12 inches long, with graduation-marks at each inch of its length. Now suppose iron is poured into this mould to the depth of one inch : it is plain that the weight of 1 cubic inch of iron is the pressure which the bottom surface of the mould must resist; and it is equally plain that the pressure on the bottom surface will be twelve times that amount when the mould is full. And because, as above stated, of the power of liquid iron to " transmit pressure in every direction," each of the four sides of the bottom inch must bear the whole pressure, as long as the iron is in a liquid state. The pressure at each graduation ascending decreases by exactly the weight of 1 cubic inch of cast-iron; thus, the pressure at each mark equals the weight of a column of cast-iron 1 inch square reaching to the surface. Let it be required to find the pressure at six inches deep. PRESSURES IN MOULDS. 89 Weight of 1 cubic inch, pound 26 Depth, in inches 6 Pressure, in pounds 1.56 This shows that the pressure at \ its depth equals a little over If pounds. It must not be thought that because we have chosen a column having one square inch for its base, that the reasoning applies only in this case : the same -iOi N/ 1 Fig. 90. Fig. 91. reasoning applies to every form or magnitude of base. Suppose the column to be 12 inches instead of 1, and 12 inches deep: the bottom surface of such a mould would have to resist a pressure equal to the weight of molten iron resting upon it, or 450 pounds ; and the pressure against each square inch of the sides would be equal to the weight of a column of iron whose base is a square inch, and whose height is equal to the depth from the upper surface to that part of the side surface it may be desired to calculate for. Let it be required to find the pressure at 6 inches deep, of the side 12 inches square. 90 THE IRON-FOUNDER. It has been shown that the pressure at 6 inches deep for 1 square inch is 1.56 pounds. Therefore, Pressure for 1 square inch, 6 inches deep 1.56 Multiplied by width of side 12 Total pressure in pounds 18.72 This gives the pressure at 6 inches deep as nearly 19 pounds, or equal to the weight of 12 columns whose bases are each 1 inch square, and whose height is 6 inches, as seen at Fig. 91. It must be understood that not only the surface of the mould, but every portion of the molten iron, sustains a pressure from the weight above it, and that this pressure is governed by the same law; in other words, every square inch of the surface of this cube is pressed by the surround- ing metal whilst in a fluid state, and the amount of press- ure which every square inch sustains is exactly the weight of the column of metal which stands above it. The fact of the liquid iron coming to a state of rest after the mould is full, proves that these forces must be equal in any direction, and that, whatever be the pressure outwards on the side of the mould, the same force is being exerted in the opposite direction; so that everyone of the 144 square inches contained in the square foot stands as it were on its own basis, exerting an equal pressure in every direction and on every side. From the foregoing the following general law is deduced: " The pressure exerted at any depth below the surface is always equal to the weight of a column of cast-iron whose height is equal to the depth, and whose base is equal to the surface over which the pressure is extended." It has been clearly demonstrated that every part of a horizontal surface, at the same depth, sustains the same pressure. I will now endeavor to show how the pressure is PRESSURES IN MOULDS. 91 exerted on the perpendicular sides of the mould in ques- tion. At Fig. 92 the side is divided into inches. Annexed to the several divisions on one of the sides is the amount of pressure in pounds exerted laterally at that particular depth from the surface when the mould is full. It is by the aid of this figure that I propose to show the method of finding the whole amount of pressure exerted on each side of the mould under consideration. This, clearly under- Fig. 92. Fig. 93. stood, will furnish a sufficient rule by which to obtain the correct sum of the pressure on the sides of any other mould, of whatever dimensions. (This figure also gives the amount of vertical pressure in pounds on the whole surface at the several depths indicated.) At lateral pressures the amount for one inch in depth is 3.12 pounds (this means, of course, across the whole side), increasing by just the weight of an additional inch down to 12 inches, where it is seen to be 37.44. Now, as this increase is seen to be uniform, one half of the depth must be the average pressure of the whole sur- face, and will be found at 6 inches. 92 THE IRON-FO UNDER To prove this,, at 6 inches deep the pressure is 18.72 pounds — exactly one half of 37.44 pounds — which repre- sents the extreme pressure at 12 inches deep. Now, take the pressure sustained at 7 inches, one below, and at 5 inches, one above, and we have 21.84 pounds and 15*6, respectively; add these together and we get 37.44 pounds, of which sum 18.72 pounds is one half. Or take the press- ure at 8 inches deep, which is 24.96 pounds, and at 4 inches — the pressure at which point is 12.48 pounds — and we obtain the same result. If each of these points sus- tained a pressure of 18.72 pounds, which is the average pressure, we should have the same total. The same reasoning will apply to all the points equally above and below the middle point, 6 inches; the pressure on each point below it exceeds the pressure at 6 inches by exactly as much as the pressure on a point equally distant above it falls short of the pressure at 6 inches, and there- fore, on account of this mutual compensation, a general average is obtained. It is clear that the total pressure on each side must be the whole 12 divisions multiplied by the amount of the average pressure, which is always found at half the depth of the liquid iron, and in this case is found at point 6 inches, at which point the pressure is 18.72 pounds. According to the above reasoning, the total pressure is the same as if this average pressure was uniformly diffused over the entire surface of the sides in contact with the liquid iron. Therefore : Number of divisions 12 Multiplied by average pressure 18.72 Total pressure on side 224. 64 Again, it appears that the total pressure exerted on the perpendicular side — when the mould is full — is just the PRESSURES IN MOULDS. 93 same as if the side was taken for a horizontal bottom, and half the depth of the liquid iron rested thereon. Thus : Side converted into a horizontal bottom 144 inches. Multiplied by half the depth 6 inches. Total cubic inches 864 Weight of 1 cubic inch 9.1 5184 1728 Total weight in pounds 224.64: Giving exactly the same results as previously shown. (I would say just here that this rule is absolute, and applies in all cases, whether the mould be solid, like the one we are discussing, or only \ inch thick; as long as the iron is in a fluid state the conditions are the same.) From these examples the following rule is deduced for calculating lateral pressure, where the mould has a flat bottom and perpendicular sides, and is simply filled open, as at Fig. 92. Find the number of square inches in one side below the upper surface of the iron in the mould, multiply this sum by the number of inches in half the depth of the liquid iron ; the product will be the number of cubic inches contained in half the depth, the weight of which is equal to the lateral pressure on that side. It matters not what form of bottom the mould may have. If it be horizontal and flat, and the sides perpen- dicular, the lateral pressure may be found by this rule, because the point of average pressure is always found at half the depth below the surface of the liquid iron. Suppose the mould to be cylindrical (as seen at Fig. 93), 12 inches diameter and 12 inches deep. The point of average pressure is at A, which is one half its depth. To find the pressure on the whole side of such a mould, we proceed as per rule. Thus ; 94 TEE IBON-FOUNDER. Circumference 37.69 inches. Multiplied by the depth 12 inches. Total surface in sq. in 452.28 Half depth in inches 6 2713.68 Weight of a cubic inch .26 1628208 542736 Weight in pounds 705.5568 It is seen that, according to the rule quoted, we have a pressure equal to 705-J- pounds on the whole side of a cylin- drical mould, 12 inches diameter and 12 inches deep, when such a mould is filled with molten iron. To prove the accuracy of this rule, we will multiply the average pressure of one square inch down the perpendicu- lar side into the total surface previously found. Thus : Total surface in sq. in 452.28 Average pressure of 1 in, 12 in. deep 1.56 271368 226140 45228 Total pressure in pounds 705.5568 This proves the lateral pressure to be the same as would be produced upon the bottom of a mould 452|- inches in magnitude, with perpendicular sides, and holding liquid iron to the depth of 6 inches. A thorough knowledge of the increase of pressure in proportion to the depth will suggest the expediency of a corresponding increase of strength in the material used for PRESSURES IN MOULDS. 95 constructing very deep moulds. The pressure at the top being inconsiderable, very little strength is needed to resist it; but as the ratio of pressure increases with the depth, a good margin of strength is indispensable at the bottom. This will admit of a gradual decrease as the upper surface is neared. It is entirely owing to ignorance upon this subject that so many failures are made through lack of strength in the arrangements for securing moulds of considerable magnitude, or else, as is too frequently the case, the opposite extreme occurs, and time and material Fig. 94. are lavished upon an undertaking sufficient for a piece of work of ten times the bulk. The illustrations, so far, have been confined to moulds with horizontal bases and perpendicular sides, but in order to explain other phases of the subject of pressures it will be necessary to change the form of the moulds, pouring them (as in the former cases) level with the upper surface, or what is usually termed cast open. Fig. 94 is the elevation of a mould whose sides are seen to slope outward. Its base is 12 inches square, and its perpendicular height is 12 inches. Fig. 95 shows another form of mould with the same dimensions for base and per- pendicular height as Fig. 94. The angle of slope is also the same, but in this figure the inclination is inward. The lateral pressure on Fig. 94 must be tne weight of liquid iron 96 THE IRON-FOUNDER resting upon it, and each point sustains a pressure equal to the weight of a column of iron immediately above it. Now the lateral pressure on Fig. 95 must be just the same as at Fig. 94, because, as already demonstrated, liquid iron presses with equal force in every direction, and conse- quently each point of the lateral surface of Fig. 95 is being pressed upward with a force equal to the weight of a col- umn of iron perpendicularly over it; therefore the rule given for ascertaining lateral pressures will apply in this case. It must be well understood that the pressure on the bottom of all these moulds shown at Figs. 94, 95, and 96 is the same, because they are all of equal area and depth. The shape of the sides, or the quantity of iron which the mould contains, does not alter the conditions, namely, " that the pressure on the bottom is equal to the weight of a column of iron the depth of the metal contained in a mould, the sides of which are perpendicular from the base." Consequently the pressure on the bottom at Fig. 96 is exactly the weight of molten iron in the mould, be- cause the sides are perpendicular to the base. But in the mould shown at Fig. 94 the pressure is less than the whole weight of liquid iron in the mould, while again at Fig. 95 it is greater. Enough has been said to prove that cast-iron, when in a liquid state, transmits pressure equally in every direction, And also that the pressure produced by the weight of liquid iron is proportionate to its depth. If the explanations already given are thoroughly understood it will not be difficult to understand why molten iron (albeit so heavy) should have the property, in common with all other liquids, of finding its level. The discussion of this property in molten iron will enable us to more clearly elucidate the principle, or law, which governs upward pressure or " lift " in covered moulds. PRESSURES IN MOULDS. 97 For the purpose of illustrating this principle, we will suppose a mould like the one shown at Fig. 96, such mould to be filled by pouring the iron down the running gate A, which communicates with the mould at B. Casting moulds in this manner is the everyday experience of most foundries; it is therefore a well-established fact that the mould can be filled by this method. Now if the pressure at B (which is equal to the weight of a column of iron the depth and magnitude of the running gate A) was not 1234567891013 Fig. 95. Fig. 96. transmitted to every square inch of molten iron in the bot- tom of the mould, it would be impossible to fill it by this means. But such being the case, the mould gradually fills until the level of the runner is reached at A. This con- clusively proves that the whole of the liquid iron in the mould is balanced by the one square inch contained in the running gate, the pressure of which is transmitted to every square inch on the bottom of the mould, and, press- ing upward as well as downward, sustains the whole mass at a level common with itself. In proving the existence of this force in an upward (as well as downward and lateral) direction, we shall undoubt- edly solve the problem of how much weight is required to resist it. In other words, we shall discover how to secure the mould safely after it has been made and put together. 98 THE IRON-FOUNDER. Fig. 97 represents the same mould as shown at Fig. 96. In this case it is covered with a cope or flask A. The running gate B is continued through the flask, and con- nects with the pouring basin C, into which the molten iron is poured, to find its way through gate B into the mould D. Now suppose the mould to be a cube of 12 inches dimensions, as at Fig. 96, and the flask combined with the runner box to be 12 inches deep, and remember- E :e Fig. 97. ing that the pressure arising from the weight of liquid iron is proportional to its depth, and that the pressure is trans- mitted in every possible direction, it follows that, because the increase of depth in the running gate is exactly double, the pressure inside the mould will be in the same ratio when the runner is full to the top of the basin. From what has been already demonstrated, it will be readily per- ceived that as soon as the liquid iron has filled the mould it at once begins to exert a pressure upward, against the cope, A, ever increasing until the running basin is full. PRESSURES IN MOULDS. 99 The amount of pressure or lift against the cope will be exactly the weight of a column of liquid iron whose mag- nitude is equal to the mould, and whose depth equals the depth of the running gate from the upper surface of the mould at E to the top of basin (7, as shown by the broken lines. To prove this, let us again look at Fig. 96, where it has been clearly shown that the running gate has the power of sustaining all the iron contained in the mould at its own level, the reasons for which have been given. Now, apply- ing the same reasoning to the question before us, we may rest assured that when the basin is full it will require as much weight to hold it there as it is capable of lifting up to its own level. This will be the case irrespective of the size of the runner or magnitude of the mould. To determine the amount of pressure arithmetically, "multiply the number of inches in depth below the top of running basin to the point at which the lift or pressure begins, by the number of square inches contained in the surface on which the pressure is exerted; the product of these numbers will be the number of solid inches of iron whose weight is equal to the pressure." Thus : Depth from top of basin (7 to joint at &.... 12 inches Total square inches of surface at E 144 Total cubic inches. 1728 Weight of a cubic inch of cast-iron .26 10368 3456 Weight needed to balance pressure 449.28 lbs., or nearly 450 pounds. Should the surface against which the upward pressure is exerted be increased to 12 instead of 1 square foot, 100 THE IRON-FOUNDEIi. the depth of runner remaining at 12 inches, the pressure would, of course, be increased 12 times, and a correspond- ing increase of weight would be required to balance it. The depth of mould below the lifting surface does not in any way affect the pressure against the cope; the pressure c s 1 1 Fig. 98. is just the same, whether the mould be one foot or one inch thick. Fig. 98 is the sectional elevation of another "kind of mould, being simply a square box one inch thick, with one open side. The inside forms a cube of 12 inches, consequently the outside dimensions are 14 inches square and 13 inches deep. It will be seen that the bottom of this box forms the upper surface of the mould, on which account the in- structions given for Fig. 97 will serve for this, if AB, Fig. 98, equals in depth CE, Fig. 97. Fig. 99 illustrates the same casting moulded in the op- posite position (the bottom forming the lower surface), and will serve to explain some very interesting and instruc- PRESSURES IN MOULDS. 101 tive facts in relation to pressures in moulds. The pressure laterally and on the bottom is not any different than would be the case if the mould was a solid block (as in the ex- amples already explained), but it is different with the cope, as the amount of pressure upwards is considerably increased; how much, I will proceed to show. I said that 7 Fig. 99. the inside formed a cube of 12 inches; now, allowing AB to be 12 inches deep, and BC to be 12 inches more, we find the full depth of pressure A O, Fig. 99, to be just twice as much as CE, Fig. 97 consequently the full press- ure on the bottom of the mould acts with equal force on the under side of the core. In other words, the core has 102 the moN-Fovmm. taken the place of the molten iron which the runner is able to sustain, and, being so much lighter than the iron, will be borne upon its surface, if there is not sufficient weight added to make up the difference, and thus restore the bal- ance. As before stated, the pressure under this core is exactly the weight of a column of iron whose magnitude equals its bottom surface, and whose height equals the depth A C. The broken lines represent the weight needed to balance the upward pressure. An addition to the upward pressure commences at D, and the pressure from this point will equal the sum of one inch thick on ull four sides of the core, multiplied into the depth AB. Thus, Fig. 99 : Total square inches of surface at G 144 Depth of A C in inches 24 576 288 Total cubic inches . 3456 Add cubic inches from D to A 624 Total cubic inches 4080 Weight of a cubic inch of cast-iron 26 24480 8160 Weight required to balance pressure. . 1060.80 lbs. This shows that the weight need to balance the whole upward pressure exerted against the cope is about 1061 pounds, minus the weight of core and cope. There are numerous contingencies in connection with this question, such as the methods of pouring, and flowing Press ures m moulds. 103 off the metal at reduced heights, etc., to dimmish the press- ure; but of these I will speak further on, confining myself at present to the absolute laws which govern pressures when the molten iron is at a state of rest. The mould shown at Fig. 100 is almost the same as Fig. 99, the only difference being that the core (which is sup- posed to be one cubic foot) is surrounded by one inch thickness of iron. These altered conditions will bring out &\— M C Fig. !00. new ideas, and will aid materially in exploding some of the false notions which cling to this subject. In the first place, it must be understood that the press- ure under the core at (7 has reached its limit, immediately the molten iron begins to cover its upper surface at E, be- cause as the iron flows over the core it acts as so much weight pressing downward, and by the time the runner is filled to the top of basin A the pressure downward is equal 104 THE IRON-FOUNDER. to the weight of a column of iron 12 inches square, and as high as the runner basin A resting on it. Such cores usu- ally rest on studs FG, and are held in position by others HI) now, the actual pressure against the top studs will in this case be the weight of a cubic foot of iron, or 450 pounds, and the pressure against the cope will be equal to the weight of a column of iron 14 inches square, the height of AB, shown by broken lines JKLM. It is evident from this example, that, to hold such cores in position, it is only necessary to provide for an upward pressure equal to the weight of the amount of molten iron they displace; also that the depth at which they may be placed from the surface of the running basin is of no consequence, so far as the upward pressure is concerned; but the general press- ure will be proportionate to the depth, as has been already explained. The class of moulds which next claim our attention are the spherical, including balls, shells, kettles, pans, etc., and the cylindrical, including cylinders, pipes, columns, shafts, etc., cast horizontally. To thoroughly understand the method of finding the amount of upward pressure on this range of work, it is important that the examples given on average pressure be clearly understood. What has been already stated with respect to average pressure is the principle, which, generalized, must lead to a rule that will answer for every variety and shape of mould. As before stated, the various parts of any surface, whatever be its form, will be subject to pressures, depending on their depths below the upper surface of the running basin; all points at the same depth suffering the same pressure. There is a certain pressure or mean of all the various pressures to which the points of the surface are subject, and whatever this pressure be, it must be such that, if diffused over the whole surface, the total amount of the pressure on that surface will not be altered. If, pBESsunm m moulds. 105 therefore, this medium pressure can be found, and the magnitude of the surface in contact with the liquid iron be known, the total pressure may immediately be obtained. To determine, therefore, the total pressure of any surface, " let the position of the centre of gravity of that surface be determined by the rules established in mechanics, and let its depth below the highest point of the liquid iron be ascertained, then multiply the number of inches in this depth by the number of square inches of surface against which this pressure is exerted; the product will express the number of solid inches of iron whose weight is equal to the total pressure." I have shown at Fig. 101 the section of a mould for a cylinder 12 inches diameter and 1 inch thick, cast horizon- tally. A careful examination of this drawing will at once reveal the method of finding the amount of upward press- ure in all such moulds. The highest point is the upper surface of the running basin A, and it is from this point that all the depths are measured. To find the pressure under the core, we must first ascertain the point of average pressure, which is thus found: Let the square CDEF be drawn around the core, and from CDEF draw lines to the centre; the point of intersection of these lines with the circle will be the point of average pressure. Lines drawn across the square at BB and B'B' give the rec- tangle GHIJ, whose weight equals the amount of press- ure under the core. To find the cope pressure, draw KLMN\ the intersec- tion of iTiV" with the outer diameter at gives the point of average pressure for the cope. A line drawn across 00' the width of the outside of the cylinder at PQ, and then vertically to the height of running basin, gives the rectangle PQRS, whose weight equals the amount of pressure under the cope. When these rectangles are ob- tained, they will in this case be found to measure 14 inches 106 THE IRON FOUNDED. by 7 inches for the cope, and 12 inches by about 8 J inches for the core. Therefore the whole pressure per foot in length would be obtained, thus: FOR COPE. Width in inches 14 Depth " . . . . : 7 Area in square inches 98 Length in inches 12 Total cubic inches 1176 Weight of a cubic inch .26 7056 2352 Total pounds pressure per foot 305.76 FOR CORE. Width in inches , 12 Depth " 8.5 Area in square inches.'. 102 Length in inches 12 Total cubic inches 1224 Weight of a cubic inch ; .26 7344 2448 Total pounds pressure per foot 318.24 Add amount for cope 305. 76 Total pressure cope and core per foot 624.00 The combined pressures per foot in length for a 12-inch cylinder, with the upper surface of the running basin 12 PRESSURES IN MOULDS. 107 inches above the centre of the mould, is thus found to be 624 pounds, and, of course, that amount of weight is needed to balance the pressure on every foot. In other words, if the mould is 10 feet long, the whole pressure would be 624 pounds multiplied by 10, equalling 6240 pounds. An important feature of this question is that, should the depth from the centre to the upper surface of the pouring basin be increased, the rectangle PQRS must be brought up to its level by adding the increased depth to R'S', as shown by the broken lines. The increase of pressure un- der the cope caused by these altered conditions would be just three sevenths of the amount previously found, and a corresponding increase of weight would be needed to bal- ance it. But these altered conditions do not affect the core, only in the general pressure all around it; for whilst additional depth creates more pressure, it must be remembered that this increase of pressure is exerted on the whole surface of the core, downwards as well as upwards; it must therefore remain stationary. To put it otherwise, the amount of weight found to be necessary for holding down the core in this case is just what would be required if the mould was filled no higher than GH, for immediately the molten iron passes this point it begins to receive, in a downward direction, the same pressure as is produced on the cope upwards, which acts as added weight for increased pressure. Consequently it will be seen that the conditions laid down for securing the core are not affected by any increase in the depth after the points GH are passed. The points of average pressure in spherical moulds are found by the same methods as shown for cylindrical moulds, by reason of which we can use Fig. 101 to demon- strate the principles involved; simply using the figures GH1J and PQRS as elevations of cylinders, instead of 108 THE IRON-FOUNDER. as rectangles. Taking the figure as representing a sphere, the cope pressure would be equal to the weight of a column of iron 14 inches diameter, reaching from points PQ to the running basin A, as before explained. Now apply the Fig. 101. same reasoning to the core (supposing the casting to be a shell), and we have the lift or upward pressure represented by the cylinder GHIJ, or as equal to the weight of a col- umn of iron 12 inches diameter and 8J inches deep. In the several figures used to illustrate this subject, it will PRESSURES IJST MOULDS. 109 be observed that the weight of cope or core has not been taken into consideration; but this may be done when it is practicable to ascertain the exact weight, and allowance made accordingly. But when the weights can only be approximated, good judgment will suggest a wide margin on the side of safety. Another item for consideration is the form of running basin used to pour the mould with. Figs. 102, 103, 104 will help to explain this part of the subject. It is very evident that if we pour a casting down a runner similar to the one Fig. 102. shown at Fig. 104, that the molten iron will enter the mould with a greater impulse than would occur if the basin shown at Fig. 102 was used, because of the accelerated force of the fall being exerted immediately down the run- ner; whilst in the case of basin at Fig. 102 this force is spent at A, giving time for the molten iron to mass itself quietly before entering the mould. If runner 104 must be used (as in some instances it must) sufficient extra weight must be added to meet the necessity. Runner 103 meets this case half-way, being a medium betwixt the two. Being assured that pressure is proportionate to the depth, and that the depth is the height of the top of the running basin above the surface against which the pressure is ex- erted, numerous ways of reducing this pressure (and there- by saving labor in weighting) will suggest themselves, and 110 THE IRON-FOUNDER. may with safety be adopted. Kisers, or flow-off gates, as large and as numerous as practicable, may be placed at con- venient parts of the mould, and the iron allowed to flow off at a lower altitude than the running basin. Suppose the height of basin to be 24 inches from the surface of press- ure, and the risers flow off at 12 inches high, or one half; all else being favorable, it would be correct to base the cal- culation on 18 inches instead of 24 inches deep (this being the average between the two), and by so doing save 25 per cent of weight. If the work in hand must have the whole pressure level with the top of running basin, make " assurance doubly Fig. 103. * Fig. 104. sure" by adding some to the depth when making the cal- culation. Thus, if the actual depth be 12 inches, call it 13 inches deep. This will give one-twelfth more weight than is needed to balance the pressure, and will be found to be a sufficient proportion of allowance in all ordinary cases. The following table will be found useful to such as have not the time or inclination to study the subject of pressure. It is only necessary to find the depth and area of lifting surface, and the weight required to balance the upward pressure wiil be found opposite these numbers. The ac- companying examples will explain the use of the table. PRESSURES IN MOULDS. Ill TABLE SHOWING THE AMOUNT OF WEIGHT NEEDED TO BAL- ANCE THE UPWARD PRESSURE OF MOLTEN IRON IN MOULDS AT GIVEN DEPTHS AND AREAS. Weight 1 Weight Weight Depth. Area. to Bal- ance Pressure. Depth Area. to Bal- ance Pressure. Depth Area. to Bal- ance Pressure. Ius. Sq. Ins Lbs. Ins. Sq. Ins Lbs. Ins. Sq. Ins. Lbs. 1 .26 3 200 156. 9 20 46.8 2 .52 3 300 234. 9 30 70.2 3 .78 3 400 312. 9 40 93.6 4 1.04 3 500 390. 9 50 117. 5 1.3 3 600 468. 9 60 140.4 6 1.56 3 700 546. 9 70 163.8 7 1.82 3 800 624. 9 80 187.2 8 2.08 3 900 702. 9 90 210.6 9 2.34 3 1000 780. 9 100 234. 10 2.6 6 1 1.E6 9 200 468. 20 5.2 6 2 3.12 9 300 702. 30 7.8 6 3 4.68 9 400 936. 40 10 4 6 4 6.24 9 500 1170. 50 13.0 6 5 7.8 9 600 1404. 60 15.6 6 6 9.36 9 700 1638. 70 18.2 6 7 10.92 9 800 1872. 80 20.8 6 8 12.48 9 900 2106. 90 23.4 6 9 14.04 9 1000 2340. 100 26. 6 10 15.6 12 1 3.12 200 52. 6 20 31.2 12 2 '6.24 300 78. 6 30 46.8 12 3 9.36 400 104. 6 40 62.4 12 4 12.48 500 130. 6 50 78. 12 5 15.6 600 156. 6 60 93.6 12 6 18.72 700 182. 6 70 109.2 12 7 21.84 800 208. 6 80 124.8 12 8 24.96 900 234. 6 90 140.4 12 9 28.08 1000 260. 6 100 156. 12 10 31.2 3 1 .78 6 200 312. 12 20 62.4 3 2 1.56 6 300 468. 12 30 93.6. 3 3 2.34 6 400 624. 12 40 124.8 3 4 3.12 6 500 780. 12 £0 156. 3 5 3.9 6 600 936. 12 60 187.2 3 6 4.68 6 700 1092. 12 70 218.4 3 7 5.46 6 800 1248. 12 80 249.6 3 8 6.24 6 900 1404. 12 90 280.8 3 9 7.02 6 1000 1560. 12 100 312. 3 10 7.8 9 1 2.34 12 200 624. 3 20 15.6 9 o 4.68 12 300 936. 3 30 23.4 9 3 7.02 12 400 1248. 3 40 31.2 9 4 9.36 12 500 1560. 3 50 39. 9 5 11.7 12 600 1872. 3 60 46.8 9 6 14.04 12 700 2184. 3 70 54.6 9 7 16.38 12 800 2496. 3 80 62.4 9 8 18.72 12 900 2808. 3 90 70.2 9 9 21.06 12 1000 3120. 3 100 78. 9 10 23.4 Note.— These weights are exclusive of cope, core, covering-plate, or whatever the pressure is exerted against. 112 THE IRON-EOUNDEB. Example 1. It is required to find the amount of lift or pressure under a flask containing a plate 6 feet long and 4 feet wide. Depth from top surface of running basin to the surface against which the pressure is exerted, 12 inches, gates and risers adding 6 inches to the width of the plate. OPEKATIOH. Length of plate in inches 72 Width of plate in inches, including gates 54 288 360 Total square inches of lifting surface 3888 Ins. Lbs. Per table for 12 inches deep 1000 = 3120 3 3 3000 = 93G0 Per table for 12 inches deep 800 = 2496 • : " . 80 = 249.6 " " " 8 = 24.96 " " " 3888 12130.56 Making 12, 130 \ pounds, or a little over six tons, needed to balance the pressure. Suppose the cope to weigh 2000 pounds: this would give a sufficient overplus; and this proportion of overplus must in all cases be allowed, espe- cially in the event of having to run up to the full head of pressure. Example 2. Eequired, the amount of weight to balance the pressure against a surface containing 1651 square inches; depth PRESSURES IN MOULDS. 113 from the top of running basin to lifting surface, 1 foot 9 inches. Per table for 12 inches deep a a ft it (C it Ins. Lbs. 1000 = 3120 600 = 1872 50 = 156 1 = 3.12 1651 = 5151.12 I us. Lbs. Per table for 9 inches deep 1000 == 2340 600 = 1404 a n a a tt 50 = 117 1 = 2.34 1651 = 3863.34 Add amt. for 12 inches deep. 5151.12 Total weight needed to balance pressure.. . . 9014.46 or a little over 4-| tons. Note. — If risers of at least five times the capacity of the runners are set to flow off at four inches below the top of the running basin, the extra weight may be dispensed with, and the cope allowed as weight in the calculation. In most cases, however, close figuring may be dispensed with by substituting another area or depth for the one in question. For instance : ' ' Supppose the pressure to be required for 975 square inches area, 6 inches deep," 1000 may be substituted for 975, and the answer obtained at once. The error, being on the side of safety, can be readily allowed. Or it might be required to find the pressure at 9 inches deep for 1.200 area. Then 600 gives 1404, or one half of the sum required. 114 THE IRON-FOUNDER. CHILLED CASTINGS. Chilled castings ought to combine the maximum of strength with a hard wearing face. To insure these condi- tions, especially in car-wheels, the tread or outer surface of the rim should be chilled to whiteness, passing into a mot- tled iron, and from that to a soft gray in the interior of the wheel. The irons used for these castings are certain brands of cold- blast charcoal, brown hematite, or specular iron ; few, if any of the pure magnetites can be used successfully for the purpose. Especially is this the case with most of the No. 1 irons, which usually contain an excess of carbon in the uncombined state. At the same time it is, we think, difficult to predeter- mine, from the chemical analysis of any pig-iron, whether it will produce good chilled castings or otherwise. It must be admitted that certain mixtures of pig-iron will answer better than others, but what these mixtures are exactly, can only be ascertained by such founders as make the manufacture of chilled castings a specialty. The succeeding article " Mixtures for Kolls," discusses the various difficulties which beset the founder when he essays to establish formulas, or mixtures which shall be considered as standard; and when, in addition to what is therein stated, we consider that a difference in the mode of work- ing in the blast-furnace may change the nature of a metal which had previously given satisfaction, so as to render it absolutely worthless, we realize the imperative necessity of constant daily tests of the mixtures in use; such tests to be made at least one day prior to the cast. There is no doubt but that the mixing of the iron for chilled work is the most important as well as the most difficult part of the business. CHILLED CASTINGS. 115 The most that can be done by the founder who is enter- ing upon this line of work is to select irons wh ch contain a considerable portion of their carbon in a combined state, and which yield a strong, tough, fine-grained, bright gray, also such as exhibit a gray mottled fracture in the pig. Spiegeleisen, in proper quantities, can be added to the mixture, if found too soft and too low in chill. Certain proportions of Bessemer-steel scrap will impart strength as well as deepen the chill. Some say that by using Bessemer steel charcoal-iron may be dispensed with altogether; but I failed to elicit confirmation of this when the question was put to an eminent specialist, who said that, after repeated trials of mixtures composed of steel scrap in varying proportions with the best brands of an- thracite pig, he was unable to produce a mixture which would meet every requirement, and consequently had con- tinued the use of charcoal-pig exclusively. Old car-wheels which have been made by a reliable firm may be mixed in proportions varying according to the grade of metal they are composed of and the depth of chill; in fact, such wheels, when the fracture shows a low percentage of mottle, with but a very thin film of chilled surface are in some instances the best mixture that can be obtained. When iron of the exact grade and quality needed cannot be obtained, recourse must be had to a judicious mixing to- gether of white irons with some of the dark-gray irons, the proportions of which can be ascertained only by practice and keen observation. There are many excellent brands of charcoal iron in use for the manufacture of chilled castings, but none of them exceed in quality or produce better results than the "Sal- isbury." This conclusion is arrived at after careful and studious experimenting on my part, backed by the opin- ions of some of the leading manufacturers in the States, 116 THE IRON-FOUNDER. MIXTURE FOR ROLLS. The question is often asked by foundrymen, " What is the best mixture for rolls V and again, "Why cannot we have a ' regular ? set of mixtures, gotten up by some one who has had large experience in this class of work ?" Go where you will, you are met by these inquiries, and (strange as it may seem) no answer comes — at least, none that is intelligible to the average moulder. Some have tried to give what purported to be the right mixture, made up of so much of "this," to so much of "that," sup- plementing the formula by saying that good rolls were made at such a place by the mixtures given. Again, you go into shops where they make a specialty of rolls, and ask for their mixtures, and naturally they shake their heads, and express by the look they give, as well as they could by a multitude of words, " Not much." Now this is very discouraging to the seeker for information; and yet it is not to be wondered at when we take into consideration the amount of labor and study which has been devoted to the subject by those engaged in the business; and it is not too much to say that even the best informed on the sub- ject are very far from perfection, inasmuch as they are constantly called upon to change their mixtures on account of the variations in the different shipments of iron. To attempt to give a formula for*uniyersal adoption by say- ing, " So much of ISTo. 2 to so much of No/ 5, and so on," is sheer nonsense, for the simple reason that when you receive a consignment of iron from the furnace which was ordered to be No. 4, you will find that no less than three or four grades of iron have been shipped to you, making it utterly impossible to follow any prescription based on the number of the iron alone. The trouble can be over- come after this manner : MIXTURE FOR ROLLS. 117 After first settling in your own mind what particular grade shall be called No. 1 and No. 6, with their inter- mediate numbers according to grade, you may then make from your own experience mixtures that will be intelligible to yourself, but would be useless to any one unacquainted with your methods of numbering. But this is not all that enters into the successful making of rolls, or anything else that requires special mixtures. If it were at all times profitable and convenient to use new iron, the business might soon be learned by adopting the method suggested above. All foundrymen of experience are aware that large quantities of scraps (from broken rolls and other castings made from charcoal iron) accumulate and must be worked up, and it is right here that the skill and judgment of the mixer is put to the test; and I know of nothing which demonstrates the impracticability of making a set of stand- ard mixtures more than the fact that whilst some of the scrap may be open-grained and very soft, other specimens will be perfectly white and brittle as glass; and yet some of our experts insist on their mixtures being correct, which tell you to put in a certain proportion of scrap. Again, it is common amongst moulders to say when a roll turns out too soft, or the opposite, " Oh, there ought to have been a little more ' car-wheel ' in that mixture," or a little less "car- wheel," as the case might be; as if car- wheels were a something on which the greatest reliance could be placed for being always one thing in point of den- sity or hardness. A little observation on these points will at once dispel this illusion, for whilst some wheels may be chilled almost 1 inch deep, others again will be found hardly touched with chill, and the iron all through as soft as lead almost. Again, I would call the attention to this fact, that full reliance cannot be placed on the productions of our best 118 THE IRON-FOUNDER. firms in this line of business. I have seen four rolls, all of the same dimensions, which came from a leading firm, no two of which were alike in density. One was almost condemned for being too hard, the softest being as much in fault the opposite way. I mention this to show that however much may have been accomplished in the way of mixtures, much still remains for the judgment of the mixer; for, as is well known, a judicious selection of scrap in large quantities will always produce the finest casting, and, if possible, new iron should never be used exclusively. Many may think that it would be easy to mix sufficient very hard grade new iron to neutralize a very soft one. This plan will never succeed. The result of such a mix- ture is always a pronounced mottle, large and unsightly; the white and dark patches seem never to have united. Such rolls last but a very short time, for as soon as they are put to use the soft parts crumble out, leaving the roll perfectly honeycombed. This proves the necessity of using iron in the mixture not too far apart in their nature and degree of density, and of choosing such grades as are the nearest to the mixture required. A good plan is to melt together your very hard and soft scrap, and run down into good-sized pigs, say 6 or 8 inches square. The reason for this is that where small pigs are made for char- coal scrap, the result is " white iron," which as a rule you do not want. All overflows from casts should be run in like manner, and covered over as soon as run. By adopt- ing this method a great saving is effected. I shall now proceed to give a few mixtures for different- sized rolls; and to make them intelligible to the reader it will be necessary to inform him what is meant by Nos. 3, 4, and 5, as the case may be. These several numbers represent the grades as arranged for my own convenience in mixing. For instance, No. 3 means a close, even-grained, clear MIXTURE FOR BOLLS. Il9 bright iron, entirely free from the slightest trace of chill. This iron, if of a good brand, will be hard to break, and when broken will show a clean fracture straight across the pig. (I would here call the reader's attention to the fact that Salisbury charcoal iron forms the basis of these mix- tures, being, in my opinion, the best iron for rolls.) By No. 4 I mean an iron very similar to the No. 3 in the centre of the pig; but about an inch from the edge all round it assumes a darker hue of a bluish cast, and much closer in grain, with a tendency to chill at all the corners. This iron will be still tougher than No. 3, but must have no trace of mottle in it. By No. 5 I mean an iron having the centre of pig the same grain as the 1 inch round the No. 4 pig, the rest being mottled, and having its surface chilled to the depth of f or ^ inch. By a faithful adherence to the descriptions of the numbers it will be easy to arrange the following mixtures, all of which I consider " standard," having used them myself with unvarying success. They are the result of a patient study of the subject, aided by an extensive series of experimentary practice. As will be seen, I give more than one mixture for the same-sized roll, which enables the mixer to regulate his mixture according to the iron he may have by him. It will also be observed that I describe the nature of the scrap used as well as the car-wheels; these are important items, and must be care- fully noted; as, for instance, by "low" car-wheel, I mean such as have not more than £ inch chill on the face; by " medium " car- wheel about -j- inch; and by " high," I mean such wheels as are chilled from f to £ inch. The scrap I also distinguish by grades in a similar manner ; and as scrap is made up of a miscellaneous lot of old iron, such as pieces of rolls, necks, etc., also such scrap as is made in the foundry, including all grades of hardness, it becomes imperative that the closest scrutiny should be made of such, assorting and grading it as directed. By "low" 120 THE IRON-FOUNDER. scrap, I mean such as shows neither chill nor mottle. " Medium" is intended for all scrap which is mottled, but only slightly chilled ; whilst ' ' high " means that which is deeply mottled, with considerable chill. By noting care- fully these particulars, the table of mixtures given below will be intelligible. These mixtures are so many pounds to the ton of 2000 lbs., and may be modified to suit circumstances, as, for instance, scrap may be substituted for wheel of the same grade, or vice versa. g V ?s 0) 2 3 , Fig. 160. The top plate at J, Fig. 159, is cut midway to expose this method in section, whilst at Fig. 160 the bar is seen resting on the piers. Enough of detail is shown in these illustrations to give a clear understanding of the whole process of moulding such a casting in loam, and renders any further explanation superfluous. As before stated, all the parts being detach- able, such as would interfere with an easy separation of the mould are, of course, to be loosened and allowed to come away with the cheeks. After marking all the joints, the ends are lifted away; then the top separates at B, Fig. 160; after which flange B, MOULDING IN LOAM, FROM A COMPLETE PATTERN. 179 Fig. 158, is lifted out, the sides taken away, and the pattern withdrawn. The portion of flange which extends past the end at K, Fig. 159, is made loose, built in the end, and drawn out after the pattern has been lifted out. The lugs shown on the ends of the foundation-plate can be utilized for bolting down the body core, and should it be thought necessary to hold down the middle, have holes in the core-iron to correspond with other holes in the Fig. 160. foundation-plate directly in line with the centre of one or more of the valve-cores, through which a bolt or bolts can be passed and thus secured. These instructions are given, not only to show how to make this particular casting, but also to lead the minds of the uninitiated in the direction for grasping the under- lying principles which govern the art of loam-moulding, which, if rightly understood, as exhibited in this example, their application to other classes of work becomes easy; for, with very slight modifications of the methods herein displayed, almost every emergency may be successfully met, 180 THE mON-FOUNDER. TO MOULD KETTLES AND PANS IN LOAM, WITH FULL INSTRUCTIONS FOR CASTING BOTTOM UP OR BOTTOM DOWN. Fig. 161 is a sectional elevation of an 8-foot kettle, If inches thick, showing the cope closed over core. In commencing a job like this, let particular attention be paid to the selection of a foundation-plate, making sure that it is strong enough to lift the core without springing. If the plate is plain, as shown at A, it should be at least 3 inches thick; but should you have to make one, let it be after the design shown at B, and 2 inches thick. The sweep first used forms the core, strikes the bottom of flange, also the seating or guide, and bearing for cope-ring. Build the core with open, coarse mud, keeping the bricks well apart to allow the air to pass freely from the surface. Use half- bricks on the upper course, crossing the joints all along, and putting in a tie-course here and there, as shown at G. After the bricks are all laid, clean them off well, and scrape down into the joints. This will help to hold the loam firmly to the bricks. Use your loam soft, rubbing it well on the bricks, and sweeping off as you go around. For the finishing or skimming coat it is best to use the same loam, sifted fine. Your loam being hard enough, take off the thickness, strip, and strike on the thickness, which is done thus: Have some old sand, at the regular green-sand temper, sifted fine; start at the bottom, ram- ming it on hard with your hand, using the sweep carefully so as not to drag down the sand. After you have struck on the thickness of sand, dampen a little and slick all over, leaving it clear of the sweep about ■£% inch, taking care to trim the corner of flange by pressing it down all around TO MOULD LOETTLES AND PANS IN LOAM. 181 with your trowel, so as to insure a sharp edge when you skin up. It is well to make sure of enough skinning loam before you commence, as there is no time to be mixing more (should you be short) after you have once commenced, on account of the old sand absorbing the water so quick and leaving the surface hard; it must therefore be finished at the first pass round, if possible. When the thickness is hard enough to work on, oil all Fig. 161. over and throw on parting sand. You now set on the cope- ring, and commence to build the cope, as shown. It will be observed that two ways of building the cope are shown, —one with building-rings, and the other all brick. By placing rings as shown at D, E, and F, and packing between them, as seen at G and H, you can bind down the mould as soon as it is closed, packing under the cross at / and , and in elevation at E. Bear- ings for the cores can be swept with core sand in each pocket to the correct height at F. It will be seen that space is MOULDING CONDENSERS, ETC., IN LOAM. 191 allowed all round the core at G, into which (when the cores are set) sand can be rammed hard ; but should this be insufficient to hold up the core, hook bolts may be used, as shown at H, the holes being cast or drilled into the casing for the purpose. I have no hesitation in saying the very best work can be done in casings, and pans from | inch to 6 inches thick can be made without a flaw, when proper care is taken. MOULDING CONDENSERS, TANKS, HOT-WELLS, CISTERNS, ETC., IN LOAM. The castings enumerated above vary considerably as to size, shape, and thickness, some being square, others ob- long, whilst again others are made in the form of an L, etc. Such work is required principally by firms whose business it is to build marine and stationary engines, and as such firms invariably have foundries of their own, it seldom finds its way into the jobbing shops. Not unfre- quently the latter firms, should they receive an order for anything in this line, will sublet it to some engine-shop, believing that such work is too difficult for them to risk their money upon. There are large numbers of loam-moulders of consider- able experience with the spindle and sweep who would hesitate to start on this class of work without some previous instruction. It is in part for their benefit that these di- rections are offered, although, as will be discovered farther on, they are eminently adapted to the student as well. By taking a square tank or hot-well, 4 feet 6 inches square, and the same in depth, and showing how to mould it, we shall master the principles which, with slight modifi- 192 THE IRON-FOUNDER. cations, will enable us to make any of the above-mentioned castings. Fig. 169 illustrates the foundation part of this job, when it is intended to cast the bottom of the casting uppermost in the mould; the frame B, from which the cope and core are to be formed, rests upon the prepared seating G. This frame is all the pattern needed for moulding such a casting as we have in hand. Fig. 107 is a sectional elevation of the mould when finished and closed together. The foundation plate A must not be less than 2 inches thick if it is made plain on both sides; but if a flange is formed all along the outer edge 3 inches deep and 1^ inches thick, the plate will answer if made 1\ inches in thickness. The latter is the best foun- dation-plate in all cases, especially when cross-ribs are added according to the strength required, MOULDING CONDENSERS, ETC., IN LOAM. 193 It will be seen that this plate is made large enough to allow a 9-inch wall being built on all sides, and in this case a 12-inch hole is left in the centre at D. (It will be well to refer to both figures, as the lettering is the same in each.) It may here be observed that it is not necessary to use a spindle and centre to mould this casting; two straight- EMl A. WT7r. " T ". ' . . ~ _TT>' edges may be set to the correct height, and the bearings swept off direct with a third one. Should there be a spindle, then a parallel sweep may be used for the purpose; in either case the directions given will serve. After the foundation-plate has been set down level, be°in by setting thereon one course of brick all over, as shown, on which a bed must be swept to form a bearing for the cope-ring E. When this has become hard enough, centre the frame and mark off its outline, then build an- other course of bricks inside the line, allowing for a thick- ness of loam with which to form a joint or guide, as seen 194 THE IRON-FOUNDER. at G, Figs. 169 and 170. The bed swept on this course of bricks forms the bottom of the mould, and it is on this bed that the frame is seen to rest at Fig. 169. When forming this guide, be sure to give the requisite taper for quick clearance. The best method of separating all such joints is to brush oil over the surface and sprinkle thereon a little parting- sand. When this is done, bed down the cope-ring, as seen at.^, Fig. 170. This ring must be strong, with the lugs made to corre- spond with those on the foundation-plate, as shown at Fig. 171. Before commencing to build the cope, brush a little oil over the frame, to prevent the loam from adhering to it ; and in laying the bricks, observe the rule to keep them half an inch back from the surface of the mould. The strickle for sweeping out the spaces will serve as a guide in build- ing. As shown at Fig. 170, the brick-work is continued as far as F, at which place a binding-ring is set on. This ring serves two purposes: it prevents the mould from splitting when it is being lifted, and also stiffens the wall sufficiently, in this case, to prevent damage from ramming. When the walls are deeper or longer than those under consideration, more of the binders are needed ; and it may be found necessary, in some cases, to still further strengthen them by bolting the upper to the lower plates, as seen at A, B, and G, Fig. 172. The remaining courses of brick over the binding-plate are set so as to leave half an inch for loam, with which to finish the walls true to the top edge of the frame. When this has been done, and the spaces swept olf as correctly as possible, the frame must be withdrawn and the cope lifted away. After replacing the frame, proceed to build the core MOULDING CONDENSERS, ETC., IN LOAM. 195 after the manner shown at Fig. 170. Form a 9-inch course along the outside and a circle at the centre, corresponding to the hole in the foundation plate, which is 12 inches, and set in halves and pieces of brick between. Leave wide spaces for fine cinders to be packed in; this forms a con- Fig. 171. tinuous vent from circumference to centre at each course of bricks, all the way up. It is best to bed all the bricks on mud, and (excepting next the casting, use no more than is necessary to give a firm set to the bricks; this, in con- junction with the cinder packing, gives solidity to the core, and enables it to withstand the pressure exerted against 196 THE IRON-FOUNDER. the sides when the mould is poured. Again, these cinders will be found serviceable when you dig out the core imme- diately after casting, which would require to be done in this case if the tank was under f inch thick. But the one under consideration being one inch in thickness, there is no danger on account of shrinkage, if the instructions are faithfully followed ; especially remembering to allow wide spaces between the bricks endways of the walls of the core. The 12-inch hole left in the middle of the core will be a great help in drying, if the hole in the centre of crown- plate be left open, which it must be, until the mould is placed in the pit for closing; it can then be filled with brickbats and cinders up to the plate at G, and then fin- ished by inserting a dried plug of loam. The crown-plate H, for a job of this kind, would require to be f inch thick, and 1 inch clearance on all sides. The prickers seen are 3 inches long. Let plenty of holes be cast in the plate to allow the gas from the upper surface to pass freely to the centre of the core. To do this effec- tively it is best to rest only 6 inches of the outside of the plate on mud or loam; this, will serve to bind the core, the rest will do of fine cinders. The connection is then made by filling more cinders amongst the prickers to the depth of an inch, and if the casting must be run on the crown, as is sometimes advisable, cover with the regular loam mix- ture, pressing in dry brickbats to absorb the moisture. In very thin bottoms it is always best to run on top, spreading the gates from the centre, as seen on covering- plate, Fig. 171. In the event of running all the iron down the sides, as at J, Fig. 170, the loam for the crown should be made very open and weak, water, in some instances, being preferable to clay-wash for making the loam with; for, should the surface be close and hard, the metal will some- times refuse to rest on it quietly, and then bubbles ensue. After striking out the top and side spaces as before di- MOULDING CONDENSERS, ETC., IN LOAM. 197 rected, and after the core has hardened well, take off the frame and finish in the ordinary way. The covering-plate for this job is shown in section at J, Fig. 170; it is also seen in position at the view of closed mould, Fig. 171. Any further explanation of this plate, other than is to be got from a study of the views men- tioned, would be superfluous. Suffice it to say, be sure to have it strong enough — in this instance not less than two inches thick. To prepare this plate, it may be either swept with the spindle or struck off to straight-edges, dry-sand facing be- ing rammed on it rather than loam, as the latter leaves a hard surface, against which the metal does not always rest kindly, as is the case when the former-mentioned material is used. Fig. 171 fully explains the closing and securing of this mould ; one of the four slings is seen in position, also one set of packings under the cross. When all four sides are packed thus, eight places are caught instead of four. By 198 THE IRON-FOUNDEn. adopting this method the plate is prevented from spring- ing. Additional props can be introduced at any other point where it may be considered advisable, either singly or by the combination shown. To carry off the gas generated in this core when the mould is poured, let a trench be dug, 12 inches wide, from the centre of the bed on which the core is to rest, to the walls of the pit. Have this trench filled with cinders or ashes, and connect with a pipe, which will reach the top of the pit, if the whole pit is to be rammed; but if curbs are used in which to ram the mould, escape for the gas may be provided for by leaving the end of the trench uncovered. There is absolutely no danger of an explosion with a core built as herein directed, and the trench prepared as above. So far we have only been moulding a plain casting; we will now inquire into the mode of procedure where branches, flanges, brackets, etc., are added. Sometimes internal flanges are required, as at K, Fig. 170. These must be made loose, and set to place when the frame has been set back on the bed to build the core. In the event of such flange not exceeding* three inches wide, a course of bricks, laid endways over it, will be all that is needed to carry the wall above; if wider than three inches, lay an iron rod alongside each brick, of a length sufficient to act as a counterbalance to the weight over the flange. In the case of a plain casting it is unnecessary to bolt down the core, but when flanges are introduced as de- scribed, an anchor of some kind is indispensable. For all ordinary cases the method shown at L will answer the pur- pose, but should the flange be required of extraordinary width, the increased pressure at that part would necessitate extra precautions to resist it, otherwise the core will rise and the casting be lost. In such a case the bottom bed must be struck wide enough for the flange, a pattern for which can be dispensed with by simply making a tem.por- Moulding conDeKsebs, etc., in loam. I9§ ary frame, as high as the thickness of flange, with which to form a bearing for the covering-plate. This covering-plate must be prepared to set over the flange when finished, and bolted securely to the foundation- plate, through holes cast to correspond with each other in both plates. W hen branches, brackets, etc., are to be cast on the tank or hot-well, the patterns of such may be secured to the frame by inserting a cross-bar on which to screw them fast, then build around in the regular way. Fig. 172 shows three branches, D, E, F, drawn for the purpose of explain- ing as many different methods of setting in the core and covering- cake. In all three it is seen that a guide-bearing for the covering-cake is prepared true to the face of flange; Fig. 173. this bearing may be a part of the pattern, or it may be swept by a strickle, kept in position by a centre pin. At D the covering-cake is first set up and made fast; the core is then to be pushed through until the end is firmly fixed into the seating prepared for it in the body core. At i?the covering-cake and core are in one piece, whilst at F the core is supposed to have been centred by chaplets or studs, and the covering-cake slipped on last. All of these methods will be found equally applicable according to the circumstances which govern the job in hand. If a branch be required on the bottom of the mould, it will be found easy of accomplishment if the method shown at G, Fig. 172, be adopted. It will be seen that the space 200 THE IRON-FOUNDER, betwixt the flange and the body of the casting is blocked out, and a core inserted to form such space. This core may be secured in many ways, but the one shown, bolting to the foundation-plate, is the safest. When branches come on the top, the method illustrated at Fig. 173 will be found the most simple. Have the hole in l°T~ Fig. 174. the covering-plate made large enough to slip over the flange of the branch easily (this obviates the breaking of the cov- ering-plate), and when this has been swept, finished and dried, let it be turned over and set on the joint of the cope before it (the cope) is lifted off the seating; the pattern for the branch in the mean time having been secured to the frame by means of the cross-bar alluded to above, and propped underneath. A few cranked irons, as seen, will serve to carry the loam and bricks, with which the wide space is filled, over which the building can be continued to MOULDING CONDENSERS, ETC., IN LOAM. 201 the top. If for any reason it should be required to turn the top plate over again, the brickwork round the branch can be secured to the plate, by using another plate made to rest thereon, with lugs A having holes cast in to corre- spond with staples B, cast in the covering-plate, and by this means binding all together with hook bolts. Before lifting off the covering-plate, let guide-marks be made, to insure the correct closing of the mould. To make this casting with the bottom down, as seen at Fig. 172, we must make an entire change in the methods of working, as will be observed if the figure is studied care- fully. i;5. In this case, when the cope or outside has been built and lifted away, the bottom of the mould must be swept off: and finished, and when this has sufficiently hardened, a bed of sand, equal to the thickness required, must be rammed over it; also, let the bottom-plate H be prepared and dried, after which it is turned over and laid central on the thick- ness. The frame is then replaced for building the core. As seen, this core is not built solid; a 9-inch wall will serve the purpose, if binding-plates are set in, as shown at Jand^ /. These binders are needed to help resist the pressure which comes against the walls when the mould is cast. 202 TM litON-FOUNDm. In larger castings it is important that greater strength be imparted to the walls. This may be done by bolting the binders together, as at iTand L; and in the case of very extended surfaces it will be necessary to prop each side to its opposite, by an arrangement of studs or joists, firmly wedged in. In some jobs it is possible to obviate very much of this bolting and staying, by building an inside course of bricks to a true circle, and filling in the corners with open brick- work and cinders, as shown in plan at Fig. 175. The lifting-staples, two of which are shown at if and N, are set to come under the holes cast in the inner lugs of the covering-plate, a plan of which plate is shown at Fig. 174. The core is to remain resting on the thickness, until the whole mould is finished and dried; the cope is then closed over the core, the covering-plate brought into position, and the core firmly bolted up to it. The whole is then to be lifted off the seating by hitching to the cope-ring, and when the sand thickness has been removed, lowered back in its place. It will be readily seen that, to make these castings in the manner treated of last, all the plates and rings must be made much stronger than is called for in the former case, because the covering-plate sustains the core, the cope-ring must lift cope, top-plate, and core, and the bottom-plate and cross must resist a pressure equal to four times the amount exerted in the former instance. TO MOULD A SORBW-PROPELLm IN LOAM. 203 TO MOULD A SCREW-PROPELLER IN LOAM. The moulder who has never seen a propeller- wheel made has, no doubt, often asked himself the question, How is it done ? In explaining the method which I believe to be the best, I shall confine myself as strictly as possible to the moulder's share of the work; for it must be understood that the pattern-maker comes in for the lion's share of the credit in making wheels, and any moulder who should be called on to try his 'prentice-hand on this job will do well to remember this, and keep on comfortable terms with him. I have chosen a three-blade wheel, 10 feet diameter, to make, as it enables me to give a better perspective view of the work as it progresses. Let the foundation-plate A, Fig. 176, be 12 feet diameter, resting on firm ground, and begin by striking the bearings B and C, Fig. 176. The sweep for striking these bearings will bring the bottom of the hub high enough to allow the blades to be built. As the hub in this case is about 24 inches diameter, a wood pattern is out of the question. Two ways are open to the moulder to form the hub: one is, to work a sweep against the spindle as the blades are being built ; the other, to build a dummy pattern on bearing 0, before commenc- ing the blades. Such a one is shown at D, Fig. 176. Now let a line be drawn all round the outside, as seen at E, and divided according to number of blades, which in this case is three. The inclined frame F is now set to line E with centre-line G at line H on bearing B. With the view of helping the beginner in this job, I would here call his attention to Fig. 177, which is a per- 204 T3B iRON-FOTTmm. spective view of the blades as they will appear when built. By so doing he will better understand the various instruc- tions he is called upon to follow. Fig. 176. As the sweep must travel on inclined frame F to give the required pitch of blade, the arms must work free on the spindle, rising and falling on the frame as needed. To accomplish this, a method is shown at Fig. 176, which TO MOULD A SCREW-PROPELLER IN LOAM. 205 is simply a cross-beam, with socket to fit the top of the spindle, with pulleys at the ends, over which a rope travels, to the ends of which the board or sweep and counterweight are attached. The sweep is plain, and must be set in line with centre of spindle. The first process is to brick high enough for thickness of blade; to do this a guide-piece I is screwed on the bottom of sweep, this being a true section of the blade from hub to outside. When all the piers are built to this, remove the piece / and build the rest, care being taken to keep the bricks on the outside of blade, and filling the inside with loam bricks made for the purpose, firmly set in soft loam. You now sweep all the blades true to inclined frame, and as soon as hard enough the form of the blade must be marked off and cut out. Before moving the inclined frame F, mark the centre-line G on joint. You can now bring the sweep-board down to the line, and mark across from centre to outside. This is the centre of blade. Fig. 177 is a perspective view of your mould at this stage, .with the three blades built. The lines A and B correspond to line on inclined frame at G, Fig. 176. The lines 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, Fig. 177, are scribed down with the sweep, and are an equal division of section of blade, as shown at Fig. 179. From the centre-line A, Fig. 177 is marked off on either side the width of blade; these beiug connected as seen at Fig. 177, gives the form desired. Fig. 179 shows thickness of blade at the several divisions, with lengths as well. To these, sections guides must be made from which to work in cutting out the blade, taking care to have the surface true and even. You must now fill in with green sand, good and hard, giving another coat of skinning loam over all to insure an even and true face. At Fig. 178 is shown a way to construct the cope. A is a plate 7 inches wide, \\ inches thick, with hole B cast to 206 THE IRON-FOUNDER. secure to plate C at B, a lug being cast at the other end at D, with hole to secure to plate E at F. Plate C, as will be seen, stands on bearings at G and H, and has bars cast on projecting towards the face of blade, on which to rest and secure other bars, which reach from plate E to centre. This plate stands perpendicular, and the bars must be cast on it to suit the forms of blade, and also to clear the hub, taking care that the top lug comes correct at B. Plate E, as will be seen, has staples cast in through which the bars are put to carry the face of mould. When the frame is firmly bolted together — on the joint, so as to secure the proper fit — it must be lifted away and clay-washed. Clean the mould, and oil and parting-sand the face ; spread on the loam, and bed down the iron. TO MOULD A SCREW-PROPELLER IN LOAM. 207 The bars must now be put in and wedged in the staples, securing the ends at the hub with clamps or wire, as is most convenient. All that remains to be done now is to fill in the spaces between the bars with bricks on end, packing them in tight with loam, and being careful not to press the ends of the bricks into the face of mould. If the iron G is carefully made to fit the hub, there is little to do but fill up the spaces with brick and loam ; but, as is often the case, the same iron must be used for a wheel of another pitch. Then irons must be used to bind the face of mould to the frame. The copes being all marked, as soon as they are hard enough, can be lifted away. Set them down at G and If, and tilt back far enough to finish. About 3 inches or 4 inches of bearing must be made all around top of hub, on which covering-plate will rest, and provision for running and feeding must be made in this plate, the risers being taken off at the highest point of each blade. It will depend on the facilities you may have for drying and lifting your mould how you will now proceed. Should your oven be too small for the large plate, you can place a sheet-iron curb around and build fires between the piers, covering the whole with plates. Another plan is to strike a bearing outside and around the seating at the hub, on which to rest separate plates to carry each blade. By this means both top and bottom of blades can be dried in the oven and set back to stakes or marks, after they are dry. In very large wheels this must be done. In closing your mould, care must be taken to keep the foundation true to the position it was built, as if there should be any warping the wheel would be untrue. The cross and slings can be used to bind down with, taking care to carry a packing from bottom lug of plate C at J. Plates may be bedded over the blades and wedged 208 THE IRON-FOUNDER. under the cross. Care must be taken whilst ramming over the blades. Propeller-wheels are made face down, in which case the Fig. 179. & 5 6 7 Fig. 178. first bed is finished off to the plain sweep at once. The position and form of blade is obtained in the same way. The sections 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 1 are made about 1 inch thick MAKING ELBOWS, BENDS, AND BRANCH-PIPES. 209 and placed on the bed, sand being packed between and shaped off by hand to the form of back of blade, and the cope built as previously directed. This plan gives a little more trouble, but it insures a perfect face on the blade, as it takes its shape from the sweep direct, without any fear of alteration from rubbing or finishing. The instructions here given to mould a screw-propeller have reference to what is called a true screw. There are other kinds of screws made, some with what is called radi- ally expanding and others with axially expanding pitch. But as the question of pitch does not concern the moulder as much as it does the draughtsman and pattern-maker, I shall not intrude the subject here. At the same time I advise every moulder engaged on this class of work to inform himself thoroughly on this subject. By so doing, it will be much easier for him to follow the instructions of the designer or draughtsman. MAKING ELBOWS, BENDS, AND BRANCH-PIPES IN LOAM. After a long experience on this class of work, and having tried many plans to make pipes in loam, I have concluded that the plan here presented is the best. We will sup- pose the pipe to be made is in the form of the one shown at Fig. 182, 24 inches diameter and 1|- inches thick. First, let your templet be as wide as the outside diameter of pipe wanted, and cast it stronger than you would if needed only for a core. Should you be going to run your pipe on the top, let there be holes cast in plate, through which your gates will pass; for, as will be seen at A, Fig. 180, your core-plate is to be the covering-plate. You must also 210 THE IRON-FOUNDER. cast holes over each flange for risers, as well as for the staples shown at B, Fig. 180. These staples will be cast in the core-iron, as shown by broken lines at B, at such places as are needed for lifting, and, as you will perceive, will pro- trude through the plate when you set on your core-iron. The core-iron here shown is the best and easiest made of any I have ever used, being readily formed by the use of a bent pricker pattern. It must be understood that in this case you need but one plate and one core-iron. Before proceeding to ram your half-core, let your plate A . 'I . I I 1,1 t ' Fig. 180. be well cleaned, and then lay off the position of flanges, and make marks on edge of plate with a chisel to guide you in setting. Bed down the core-iron, and set in the studs to support core wherever needed, provision having been made, of course, by cross-bars in the core-iron. The position of the stud is seen at A, Fig. 181. Do not, as many try to do, attempt to slick up your core with the trowel after you have swept off the sand, but, what is much better, dampen the face of core and finish off with rubbing-sticks; by so doing you will preserve your core in shape. You must now place on the half-flanges, which are made to fit the core. After squaring and secur- MAKING ELBOWS, BENDS, AND BRANCH PIPES. 211 ing them with spikes, prepare to lay on the thickness, which is done in this manner: Have a core-box 20 inches long and 6 inches wide, with good draught, the depth of the thickness of pipe. Let this frame be secured to a board. Take the toughest sand you have, moisten it well, and with this make sufficient cores to cover the core inside the flanges. By a little care and practice you will soon be able to cut and place them with- out much trouble. You must then nail them fast to core, as seen at B, Fig. 181. After cleaning away from the stud', the flanges must be taken off and the core dried suffi- ciently to stand handling, but do not over-dry it, as it must again visit the oven. Whilst the half-core is drying set down the foundation-plate C, Fig. 181, and make sure that it is strong enough to stand the handling without spring- ing. To turn over the core, clamp core and plate together and roll over on soft sand. Remove plate and suspend your core over foundation plate at the place most suitable for lifting and binding, and as much above it as will admit of a brick between it and the flanges, as seen at G, Fig. 180. Now pack up with dry brick to all the bearings, taking care to have your core level; place your chaplet from bottom-plate to stud, as shown at D, Fig. 181, and when all is firm and level you can lower off. The chaplet here men- tioned is simply a straight piece of f -inch iron, nicked at end which enters casting, which is built in and remains. By this means absolute correctness is assured in thickness when you close the mould. You have now got your half-core in position for building around, but it is best to put on the upper half. Find place for stud and set it into sweep (see E, Fig. 181). You will observe that I have shown, first, the stud, which is high enough to admit of a piece of wood 1 inch thick, 4 inches square, on which is placed a thin piece of wrought- 212 THE IRON-FOUNDER. iron, the idea being to save the trouble of releasing the stud when cast, as by the time the wrought-iron is hot enough to burn the wood the metal will be set, and all danger over of the core lifting. The wood burns away, and allows the shrinkage to take place without damage to cast- ing. A, Fig. 182, also shows position of stud. Set flanges in position, top halves as well as bottom. Commence by building behind flanges, as shown at D, Fig. 180. Build up to flanges \ inch clear of circle, rub on loam and sweep Fig. 181. off with top half of flange. You may, if you choose, extem- porize a bearing for the flange to run on, but very little practice will enable you to do without. You will observe a hole is left in the middle of brickwork for the gas to escape at. Having now got the ends of core in good shape and your studs fixed, lay (in mud) a course of half -bricks wide apart, as shown at B, Fig. 182, about 2 inches from edge of core, as seen at F, Fig. 181. Dig down to cinders in two or three places to make connection; fill in cinders, as seen for top MAKING ELBOWS, BENDS* AND BBANGH-PIPES. 213 half, packing them well down, and a course of old sand over them to within 2 inches of face, to save core-sand; ram on sufficient core-sand and sweep off. This must be carefully done, as you have only the thickness on which to rest your sweep, but by a little care you can secure a good shape. After rubbing to shape, secure the flanges in position and place on the thickness. There is no need to nail the upper half. You have now got the core and pattern in perfect shape — in every respect as good as the best wood pattern. Now oil all over, and throw on parting-sand and build up to joint, as shown in Fig. 181, leaving about \ inch for loam. At (7, Fig. 182, is shown plan of cope-ring, which must be made strong. The ring is made by laying templet on level bed and marking \\ inches clear of outside, also allowing good clearance at ends. In bedding cope-ring have it sus- pended over your mould all clean, and then lay on your loam a little higher than the half. Throw on plenty of parting-sand and bed down the ring; mark, and lift off again. You now go round with your trowel making the joint to correspond with the bottom of ring; this gives you a perfect joint. After throwing on a little more parting- sand, clay-wash inside of ring and put back. Fill in between ring and pattern, and build as shown at G, Fig. 181. I have been careful in making these drawings to show the whole plan of building. At His seen chaplet resting on stud, which reaches just high enough to admit of a flat wrought-iron plate being placed upon it. The mud of course covers this as it does the brickwork when the top plate is bedded on. The broken lines at Fig. 180 show methods of running, the top gates at flanges being the best usually. As you will see, they are set to clear the body core. You now see the use you are to make of the core- plate, and why you make provision for running, etc., when 214 TEE IRON-FOUNDER. it is made. The reason for the loose plate over the ehaplet is to save trouble when bedding on the top plate. The mud between the plates becoming hard enough to resist the pressure, saves trouble. The top ehaplet also remains where it is built, so that when the mould is closed there is no measuring or wedging to do. Mark your mould at the Fig. 182. joint at such places as are not likely to be disturbed, lift off your cope, and set up on stands high enough to work under. Lift out your core, first freeing it at prints, as well as digging out a little of the thickness all around; this prevents the joint from being lifted up. After pulling off the thickness, and trimming, a little blacking finishes ready for the oven. In closing your mould, if you are careful in setting your bottom half in pit, you will find that core and cope will come together very readily. MAKING ELBOWS, BENDS, AND BRANCH-PIPES. 215 A plan of binding is shown at Fig. 181. By hitching on to centre of beam with slings attached to bottom lugs, you can pack between it and covering-plate as seen at 7, Fig. 181. Fig. 180 is an end view of mould when closed. Fig. 181 shows section of mould cut through at chaplets, and shows how to make both halves of core. The thickness is shown nailed on bottom half, the method of building, binding, etc. Fig. 182 is plan showing bottom half resting on bear- ings, flanges set and top bearings struck off, with course of half -brick laid ready for cinders; staple is also shown as well as cope-ring. We will now consider some other methods which will best meet the case, when the order is for a sufficient number to warrant the necessary outlay for casings, etc., by which means the founder can produce castings with greater facility and at less expense. In order to give a clear exposition of the method of moulding pipes in casings, let us proceed to make a 24-inch socket-pipe, 10 feet long, and bent to 14 feet radius. The succeeding instructions will serve for flange- pipes as well. Fig. 183 is a sectional view of top and bottom halves of the casings required for moulding such a pipe. The thickness is 1 inch all through, strengthened by ribs, 2 feet apart, extending all round, from flange A to flange B, as indicated by the outer line. Lugs for lifting pur- poses are shown at G, B, E, and F ; these may be either separate or attached to the ribs, according to circum- stances. In this instance If inches is allowed for loam, which is held to the casing by the prickers shown. Let these prickers be 1^ inches at the base, and J inch at the top, for if they are made any lighter than this their life is short. They may be set in about 6 inches apart, and vent- holes cast in the same ratio. 216 THE IRON-FOUNDER It will be seen at G that provision is made for holding a stud with which to support the core; this socket is made to receive a stud 1 inch in diameter, and must be set in exact position to catch the packing H, which, as shown, extends from the surface of the core to arbor I. Provision for holding down the core is shown at J, con- Fig. 183. sisting of two clamps of wrought-iron, 1| inches square, cast in the casing — one on each side of the hole through which the stud iTis dropped. A stout bar, resting on the stud, and firmly wedged under these clamps, secures the thing at once. This stud K is seen to rest on a wrought-iron plate 4 inches square and f inch thick, and between this and the packing L is inserted a piece of wood 1 inch thick, and of the same dimensions as the plate; this wood burns away in due time, and releases the core-iron. Of course the casing is made to the form of the pipe, as seen at section MAKING ELBOWS, BENDS, AND BRANCH-PIPES. 217 of socket end, Fig. 184; and it is best to allow 6 inches extra length, as shown at A. The core, extending the same distance past the bearing, forms a space into which sand may be rammed all round after the mould is closed; and by this means make it impossible for the iron to escape at any part of the bearings. The mode of sweeping this mould is shown in detail at Figs. 184, 185, and 186. Fig. 186 represents a frame of cast-iron made to the outer dimensions of the pipe on its inside edge (only at the print ends, which must be the Fig. 184. Fig. 185. width of the core at that place), and whose outside edge corresponds to the casing at A, B, Fig. 183. This frame and a body sweep, in conjunction with the spindle attachment shown, constitutes the whole arrange- ment for forming the outside of the mould. It will greatly facilitate the operations if the casings are set one on each side of a vertical spindle, with which to sweep off the joints; and should the spindles already erected not be available, one can very readily be ex- temporized for the purpose. The joints may be rammed with dry-sand facing and swept with a straight board, after which the iron frame is placed thereon, and the mould formed. It will be seen that the spindle B, Fig. 184, works in a 218 THE IRON-FOUNDER. loose bush, which is held in its place by a set-screw C, and that it is prevented from moving endways by the collar D. The reason for having this loose bush is obvious; the centre of the spindle must be on a line with the joint of the mould, as seen in Fig. 185, and when the frame is re- versed and placed on the other half, the bush must be moved to bring the centre on a line with the joint, as in Fig. 186. the former instance. If this were not done, two frames would be required, and four holes bored instead of two. The horizontal spindle serves to form the ends, and also the bearings for the core, and, as will be plainly seen, flanges may be swept with the same facility as plain ends. The body of the pipe is formed by a sweep, made to rest on the frame as it is drawn from end to end. By using one frame for both halves an absolute fit is obtained by simply smoothing off the loam even with the outer edge of the frame in both cases, and carefully matching them when closing the mould. MAKING ELBOWS, BENDS, AND BRANGB-P1PES. 219 The mode of pouring in this case will be governed by the style of core used. Should the core be made of a material which will allow the iron to be dropped on the top, a sufficient number of holes must be cast in the casing for the purpose of forming the gates. Or, if it is thought best to make the bottom half in dry sand, and the top green, then provision can be made in the bottom casing for the insertion of the necessary gates, and se- Fig. 187. curing the runner box in which the pouring basin is to be made. Again, should an entire green-sand core be used, it will be best to provide for running in at the end by casting holes at one end of the top casing for upright runners to connect with gates cut round the bottom bearing, these again connecting with the casting in the direction of its length. Such a runner is easily made by attaching a finger-piece to the sweep, at the point where it; is intended to run the pipe, connecting it with the mould afterwards. The latter mode will be found applicable in nearly all 220 TEE IMON-FOUNnm. cases, and is by far the best method, owing to the fact that neither cope nor core offers any opposition to the free ingress of the iron. The labor of making cores for this job will be ap- preciably lessened by providing a half core-box of cast- iron in which to make them. When such a box is fur- nished, all that is needed in the way of core-iron is a stout bar, made to the curve of and central with the pipe, on which loose frames are wedged fast along its length, at a proper distance from each other, as shown in section at Fig. 183. With such a rig as this it is only required to ram about 6 inches of sand solid all round, filling the inside with coarse cinders as the ramming progresses. The top half can be swept off with a strickle, made to work on the edges of the half-box, and any little deviation from a correct half in the iron box can be rectified by adding to or reducing the strickle, as occasion requires. The utility of the method herein suggested for sweeping pipes is not by any means confined to moulding in casings. By referring to Fig. 187 it will be seen how easily it may be applied to a regularly built' mould, so prepared that an almost unlimited number of pipes may be cast therein with absolute safety, the frame and horizontal spindle being used in exactly the same manner as directed for the casing. The inner circle represents the mould, the bottom half of which is built on foundation-plate A, up to the points B, B, where another plate, which is a fac-simile of the flange on the casing, is placed and secured by bolts CC. For the top half, make the covering-plate as shown with lugs or handles E, E, set convenient for lifting and roll- ing over. Let holes be cast about every 12 inches along each side of the plate, for the purpose of securing cross- bars F, which, as shown, have flanges, with holes cast to correspond with those cast in the top plate. Bars and plate are then made one by bolts G, G } and similar plates MAKING ELBOWS, BENDS, AND BRANCH-PIPES. 221 to those at B, B are secured to these bars by bolts at H, H. The bars, having a flange along their outer edges, hold the bricks firmly in their place, while the lugs E, E, ex- tending beyond the outermost part of the mould, and set central with it, allow the cope to be rolled easily either 222 THE IRON-FOTJNDEB. one way or the other, resting on them (the lugs) through- out the whole operation of reversing, Before entering on another phase of this subject, let us revert to the matter of securing cores, and that by means other than by chaplets and studs. It is not always essen- tial that studs be resorted to as a means of securing cores, as we shall demonstrate further on. Fig. 188 is a mould view of a 48-inch elbow-pipe, whose flanges are equal distance from the centre, and at right angles to each other. The mould is supposed to have been swept, by either the frame suggested or by any of the customary methods in vogue, and the thickness laid, ready for building the core. Ordinarily, the plate A, after being swept on the underside and dried, would be turned over and laid on the thickness, and a middle stud cast on the plate would rest on another one, set to match it in the bottom of the mould. Now this, as well as all the labor in connection with the holding down of such a core as the one under consideration, can be successfully done away with, by using the bar with counterbalancing ends, shown at B, Fig. 188. In the case' under consideration this bar would rest on packings at the ends and middle of the plate, one of which is shown at O. The plate A can then be secured to the bar B by clamps, after the manner shown at E. The whole job is then con- trolled by the counterbalance; inasmuch as it is lifted by staples F, F, prevented from drooping by bearing D, and held down by securing at G. When these bars cannot be taken out whole, one end may be made separate and bolted on, as shown by broken lines at H. It will be apparent how readily this principle can be applied to a dry or green-sand core by slipping on the thin plates J, as before directed. When the radius of the bend is not too small, and the MAKING ELBOWS, BENDS, AND BRANCH-PIPES. 223 Fig. 189. 224 THE IRON-FOUNDER. pipe within limits as to length, it becomes practicable to mould and cast such on end, as the following will show. Let it be required to make a 48-inch pipe, 8 feet long, and radius of bend 34 feet. First lay down a suitable foundation-plate, as shown at A (Fig. 189), and with the spindle sweep thereon an ordinary seating a little larger than the outside edge of the socket or flange; in this case F ESS ^ Fig. (90. it is socket; but, as before stated, these instructions will serve in either case. When this has sufficiently hardened, set the guide or angle pieces B, B, with which to finish off the bed to the required angle, as seen at A, A (Fig. 190). A careful examination of the view given at Fig. 189 will reveal the whole plan of operation; CC are posts made fast to the wall against which the guides DD are screwed fast, at the same time resting on the angle-pieces BB, MAKING ELBOWS, BENDS, AND BRANCH-PIPES. 225 The top and bottom edges of these guide frames corre- spond to the angle of the ends, and the front edges to the curve of the pipe; these are placed exactly midway of the mould and form the bearings on which the strickles work Fig. 191, Fig. 192. to make the mould by. The first strickle used is shown resting against these bearings at EE. The socket or flange (which may be segments of cast- iron or wood) being placed in position, the first half of the cope must be built. The half-rings for carrying the cope 226 THE IBON-FOUNDER. are shown in section at BB (Fig. 1 90). The top halves are shown in plan at Fig. 191, and also in section at CC, Fig. 190. The arrangement for bolting and lifting these half copes will be manifest without further explanation other than a careful study of the drawings will convey. A few half- rings for binders will be necessary in both copes and core, as seen at D, E, and F, especially so when the curve is quicker. The plan view at Fig. 192 shows first half of cope built, thickness set against it and the core built up to this thick- ness at the inside half, and swept by the strickle A on the outside. If the strickles should be found too heavy for easy working, fix a rope pulley overhead and hitch on at the place marked by the crosses, and be sure to have the block pull hard against the guide; by this means the working will be better controlled. The job is now completed by adding the socket and thickness (around the core this time, of course), and build- ing the other half of the cope. It is best to place the halves together for finishing, and any bead or facing which may be called for on the top end may then be formed by a finger-piece worked round to a circular guide resting on the joint. Should the pipe require flanges at both ends, segments can be used top as well as bottom. It hardly need be said how simple a matter it will be to build in a branch at any part of this mould. When practicable, this method will be found far in ad- vance of any other for this class of work, as it saves both time and expense, and requires less skill to work it. MAKING LARGE ELBOW-PIPES ON END IN LOAM. 227 MAKING LAEGE ELBOW-PIPES ON END IN LOAM. Vekt large elbows are usually made in as short lengths as possible, and very rarely exceed a quarter of a circle, in which case they are readily made on the flat. But when, as is sometimes the case, a pipe is required, say 60 inches diam- eter and 8 feet long on one end, a much better way can be found to make it. And as the instructions for this job will serve for almost any other having a large elbow cast on, I have taken pains to show every detail of the operation. A careful study of the engravings is almost all that any intelligent moulder will require to enable him to grasp the idea. But as my object is to instruct such as have had little or no experience in this class of work, I shall take the job in detail and explain from beginning to end how to make an elbow-pipe 5 feet diameter 3 feet 6 inches and 8 feet 6 inches from centre of elbow. First. Let cope and core of long end be built and swept in the ordinary way, with sweep and spindle up to the turn shown at A, Fig. 193. The outer lines of Fig. 194 represent plan of foundation-plate and cope-ring. At B, Fig. 193, is seen the binding-ring for cope, which is cast to outside dimensions of brickwork, and extending at the front the same distance as bottom cope-ring, and wide enough to permit the guide-pieces .4, Fig. 194, to rest on it. A smooth bed of loam is struck at joint A 3 Fig. 193, on cope and core. Now let these plain parts be closed together in the pit, and as you must work around your mould, cover the mouth of pit with planks. Fill up the thickness with waste or hemp, and lay on the guide-piece A. A side and end view of this guide is shown at Figs. 195 and 196. The half -flange must be attached to this guide at its proper 228 THE IRON-FOUNDER. distance from centre, and the whole frame set to centre- lines drawn on the level bed, as shown. . The sweeps for forming the elbow will run on these guides, with stops, as shown at A, Fig. 196, and after the outside is built, as at Fig. 196, the thickness must be placed on and the core built. Figs. 193 and 196 are side and end elevation of core, and show the way to construct it. At A, Fig. 193, is seen the bottom plate, having staples cast on the upper side, to bind * ~| Fig. 193. the plate B. These staples are shown in plan, Fig. 194, marked I. Four internal lugs are cast on this plate, with staples cast downward ; these, as will be seen, are used to bind the core to foundation-plate, in which corresponding lugs must be cast. This method of securing the elbow to the body core does away with the use of chaplets, and makes the job absolutely safe as regards metal oozing through the joint. Let this plate be solidly bedded on the joint, as shown, with no loam under it; set in the hook bolts, and build up to B with an ordinary double course of brick, using the MAKING LARGE ELBOW-PIPES ON END IN LOAM. 229 reverse sweep on guide, as shown. By referring to Fig. 196, it will be seen why this brickwork is carried so high. It allows of a sufficient width of plate to carry the sides of core, which, as is seen, is built on plate B as far as plate C. It will be seen that plate B has not only holes cast in to receive bolts from plate A, but other staples are shown, which serve to secure the top plate C, and so bind the whole core together. These staples are seen in plan Fig. 194, marked 2. The long staple D and lugs E are shown in plan at Fig. 194, marked 3 and 4. Let this plate be turned over after it is made, and after filling in the cinders about half-way of the prickers, fill up the rest with loam and pieces of brick. If you are careful in making the plate to push the prickers in the right 230 THE IRON-FOimDEB. length to suit the curve, a very thin coat of loam will serve to bed down in. When this is dry enough to use, bed it into place and secure the bolts from plate A, and build, as shown, up to where plate comes on. Holes are cast in plate G to correspond with staples in plate B. This plate, with holes marked 2, is shown in plan at Fig. 194. After securing plate (7, fill in cinders among the prickers up to within 4 inches of face, and ram over this plate with good open core sand. The brickwork can be strickled off with loam in the usual manner. The reason I prefer core sand for the top is because the iron rests more quietly on sand than it does on loam. Before striking off the sand be sure and vent well down into the cinders. It is important that you should have as many holes as possible cast in these plates, to carry off the gas, and also have the brickwork as open as possible, and well cindered in every course. After finishing the core let the upper half of flange be set on true, and put on the thickness. Oil all over, and throw on some parting sand; you may then proceed to build the outside. At Figs. 195 and 196 is seen the way to build it. A, Fig. 195, being the first plate needed, staples are cast in this plate for the purpose of binding it to plate B. A plan of plate A, with staples marked 5, is seen at Fig. 194. The overhang- ing brickwork can be supported with a building-ring or plate, as shown at C, Fig. 195. Plan of plate B, with holes for bolts from A , and staples marked 7, carrying bolts to plate E, with lugs for lifting, marked 6, are seen at Fig. 194. A method of building this part is shown at Figs. 195 and 196, with top covering-plate E bolted down. After all is built, and the requisite marks made for guides, the top can be lifted away. Dig out about 2 inches down of the thickness, to save pulling up the joint, and then lift out the elbow core. The thickness being cleaned out of the bottom half, and the waste or hemp removed from MAKING LAPOE ELBOW-PIPES ON END IN LOAM. 231 around the mould, you can — after making sure of guides at the bottom seating — again separate your moulds and finish for drying. Should it be found inconvenient to handle the whole cope when the under half of the elbow is built on it, or should the mould be too long for the oven, the plain part can be divided by an extra cope-ring at any point you may choose. Fig. 195. The rest of the job is plain, each piece finding its own place in the order they were separated. After the elbow core is in place, the bolts G, Fig. 193, must be secured, as already explained, to the foundation. A little of the dry loam may be scraped out at the joint H, Fig. 193, and wet loam pushed into the space, as shown. Should there be any doubt as to the strength of building- ring B, Fig. 193, piers can be built up from cope-ring to support the front, as shown by broken lines. 232 THE IRON-FOUNDER. To gate such a casting as this, let the hottom flange be covered well by runners leading thereto, before you rise up to the main runners, which are shown by broken lines at F, Fig. 193. As many of these runners can be put in as will run the casting at a fair rate of speed until the iron reaches about the height of the plain part, or even a little below, when runners D at top flange, shown at broken line, Fig. 196, must be used. If two ladles are used to cast with, all the better : a sep- — z^zz^. Fig. 196. arate runner can be made for them ; but should only one ladle be thought necessary, let plugs covered with loam be inserted in these gates, and the runner made around them, withdrawing them in time to let in the hot iron to the top of the mould before the scum, which rising as the body fills up, reaches the elbow part. Broken lines at D, Fig. 195, show the risers. The vent can be taken from this core by dropping dry shavings to the bottom of core and running a. little molten iron down to ignite them just before casting. PART IV. DBY-SAND MOULDING. DRY-SAND MOULDING, WITH EXAMPLES FOE MAKING DIFFERENT CLASSES OF WORK. The term "dry sand" is somewhat indefinite, and fails to convey the full meaning of that which it is intended to explain. The difference between dry sand and green sand is sim- ply this, that moulds prepared by the latter method are cast at once, whilst in a green or moist condition, and the former are dried in ovens, built for the purpose, before the casting takes place. The reasons for the drying process are many, as will be shown farther on ; and whilst it must be confessed that very many castings are made in dry sand at an augmented cost, which might as readily be made in green sand, still I am persuaded that the system would be more generally adopted for a larger range if it was better understood. The extra cost of production is sometimes urged against the adoption of this method, but this cannot always be substantiated, as very many jobs, apparently insignificant, might be made with much greater facility and despatch in dry sand than could ever be attained in green sand, with the percentage of loss very much in favor of the former. 234 THE mON-FOVNDER It must also be understood that the possibilities by the dry-sand method are not confined to the production of steam-cylinders and kindred jobs, but can be made of uni- versal application. Difficulties almost insurmountable, if attempted in green sand, disappear at once when it is decided to make the job in dry sand; and large numbers of castings which, if made by the former method, would require the very best talent to produce, may be accomplished by the latter with comparative ease by inferior men. A dry-sand mould correctly prepared is a much firmer mould than could possibly be made in green sand, for which reason a greater resistance to pressure is offered by.it, thus enabling us to accomplish very deep work without detri- ment to the outline of the mould. It is because of the greater opportunities for first-class finish which dry-sand moulding offers that we recommend its adoption on all work of elegant design, when a correct reproduction of the pattern is demanded, whether the job is to be tool-finished or not. Again, a dry sand mould, having lost its moisture, is more porous, and consequently requires less labor in preparing a way out for the gases generated on the surface of the mould as the molten iron fills the space; in fact, when the mould is thoroughly dried, which ought always to be the case when best results are called for, the need for venting is re- duced to a minimum, except in such parts of the mould as are very much confined. This being admitted, there is less danger of the mould scabbing, and thus endangering the success of the work from the presence of dirt resulting therefrom. It must also be remembered that scabbing is not the only cause of dirt in green-sand moulds; for, no matter how carefully such a mould is prepared, the surface suffers in proportion to the wash of the molten iron upon it, and BUY-SANI) MOULDING. 235 gives off an amount of dirt, which goes to increase that of which we have already spoken. ' Now this, as previously intimated, cannot occur in the well-prepared dry-sand mould ; this fact alone will be suffi- cient to recommend the latter method for the production of all castings which must be clean in their upper as well as more remote parts. Another advantage which this method offers is that moulds may be poured with much hotter iron without det- riment to the surface of the casting, all the superior finish being preserved intact — a highly desirable thing in very many castings, it must be allowed. This is certainly a very great advantage, for it is well known by all practical moulders that a much better surface can be obtained on the green-sand casting if the iron is allowed to cool down to the point where it will be just able to run smoothly, and fill every part without showing faint outlines at the sharp angles; but is it not also admitted that, by cooling the iron to save the mould, such iron has in some measure lost its fluidity, thereby lessening its ability to flow together in one compact mass? Especially is this the case where there are portions of the mould of less mag- nitude than other portions, the lighter parts, in this case, having to wait, as it were, until the heavier parts fill, be- come partially or wholly congealed, and, on account of the dulness of the iron, the connection is lost at that part, and very often the casting as well, on account of it. There being no necessity to dull the iron for a dry-sand mould, the above serious error is averted. This, however, is not the only way by which hot iron may be permitted to assert its superiority over dull by adopting the dry-sand method; it must be apparent to all that dull iron has also lost its ability to throw off its im- purities. Entering the mould in a sluggish stream, or streams, it forms a convex upper surface as it rises in the 236 THE IRON FOUNDER. mould, and such impurities as appear on its surface are laid against the sides, lap on lap, as it were, whilst, on the other hand, when good hot iron is used, its fluidity being greater, the dirt rises instantly to the top, and is carried to the point prepared to receive it, leaving the casting comparatively free from impurities, as well as preserving a degree of homogeneity in the mass, only to be attained by such practice, and no other. Eight here let me say that the soundest castings are those which are poured with the hottest iron; therefore, to obtain them it is imperative that such moulds be prepared as will admit of iron being used in that condition. This, I think, is a very strong argument in favor of dry-sand moulds for all work requiring the maximum degree of strength and purity. Still another important advantage which a dry-sand mould possesses, namely, that castings may be gated, or the iron may be introduced into the mould at such places as will be most likely to secure a good clean finish, if it should be desired. This cannot always be done in green sand, except in a very limited number of cases, simply be- cause the surfaces of the green-sand mould are not as firm as they are in dry sand; consequently the first thing to de- termine, if the job is to be made in green sand, is not, "How can we best secure a clean bore or planed surface ?" so much as, "How can we best avoid scabbing of the mould ?" and nine times out of ten the gates are placed with the view of meeting the latter emergency at the ex- pense of the former. Very true, a great number of green-sand moulds may be tilted to the angle suitable for clean pouring, and even set on end for the same purpose ; but, as I said at the outset, greater skill and considerably more time is needed to ac- complish this, and the risk of losing the casting is always greater. DRY- SAND MOULDING. 237 It might be asked, if the dry-sand method is so much superior for intricate and heavy work, why is it not more generally adopted? The correct answer to such query would be, because it is not generally understood, and is underrated because of failure in some instances when it has been attempted by men who were unaccustomed to such work. For the successful accomplishment of this class of work, men must be trained to its performance, the proper ma- terial, the best tools, such as flasks, ovens, pits, etc., must be provided. When this is done, it is safe to say that, with right management, the output may be made in every sense superior to anything which could be effected in green sand. MOULDING SANDS AND CLAYS. One of the chief elements for the production of good dry- sand work is the sand used for facing the pattern with, and as some jobs — such as are rammed on end with a very limited amount of sand between the pattern and the flask — do not allow of such facing, but must be filled up alto- gether with the same sand, the whole heap in this case must partake of the nature of facing sand. This sand should possess a uniformity of grain, with sufficient cohesiveness to allow of its being packed or "rammed" into a compact mass; this does not mean that it shall be of a pasty nature; for, usually, the element which creates such a condition is something which de- tracts from its value as a good moulding sand. It is important that all sands for moulding purposes should be as free as possible from such substances as will generate gas when subjected to the great heat which is brought to bear on them, and for the same reason they must be chosen with regard to their fusibility. 236 THE IRON FOUNDER mould, and such impurities as appear on its surface are laid against the sides, lap on lap, as it were, whilst, on the other hand, when good hot iron is used, its fluidity being greater, the dirt rises instantly to the top, and is carried to the point prepared to receive it, leaving the casting comparatively free from impurities, as well as preserving a degree of homogeneity in the mass, only to be attained by such practice, and no other. Eight here let me say that the soundest castings are those which are poured with the hottest iron; therefore, to obtain them it is imperative that such moulds be prepared as will admit of iron being used in that condition. This, I think, is a very strong argument in favor of dry-sand moulds for all work requiring the maximum degree of strength and purity. Still another important advantage which a dry-sand mould possesses, namely, that castings may be gated, or the iron may be introduced into the mould at such places as will be most likely to secure a good clean finish, if it should be desired. This cannot always be done in green sand, except in a very limited number of cases, simply be- cause the surfaces of the green-sand mould are not as firm as they are in dry sand; consequently the first thing to de- termine, if the job is to be made in green sand, is not, "How can we best secure a clean bore or planed surface V so much as, "How can we best avoid scabbing of the mould ?" and nine times out of ten the gates are placed with the view of meeting the latter emergency at the ex- pense of the former. Very true, a great number of green-sand moulds may be tilted to the angle suitable for clean pouring, and even set on end for the same purpose ; but, as I said at the outset, greater skill and considerably more time is needed to ac- complish this, and the risk of losing the casting is always greater. DBY-SAND MOULDING. 237 It might be asked, if the dry-sand method is so much superior for intricate and heavy work, why is it not more generally adopted? The correct answer to such query would be, because it is not generally understood, and is underrated because of failure in some instances when it has been attempted by men who were unaccustomed to such work. For the successful accomplishment of this class of work, men must be trained to its performance, the proper ma- terial, the best tools, such as flasks, ovens, pits, etc., must be provided. When this is done, it is safe to say that, with right management, the output may be made in every sense superior to anything which could be effected in green sand. MOULDING SANDS AND CLAYS. One of the chief elements for the production of good dry- sand work is the sand used for facing the pattern with, and as some jobs — such as are rammed on end with a very limited amount of sand between the pattern and the flask — do not allow of such facing, but must be filled up alto- gether with the same sand, the whole heap in this case must partake of the nature of facing sand. This sand should possess a uniformity of grain, with sufficient cohesiveness to allow of its being packed or "rammed" into a compact mass; this does not mean that it shall be of a pasty nature; for, usually, the element which creates such a condition is something which de- tracts from its value as a good moulding sand. It is important that all sands for moulding purposes should be as free as possible from such substances as will generate gas when subjected to the great heat which is brought to bear on them, and for the same reason they must be chosen with regard to their fusibility. 238 THE IRON-FOUNDER. Very frequently it is possible to use some of the finer grades of sand, of a not very refractory nature, on thin castings, and by so doing obtain smoother work; but if such sand were to be used on heavier work, failure would be the result; success in the former instance being attrib- utable to the simple fact that the molten iron congeals rapidly, and loses its power of penetration, whilst in the latter it remains longer in a fluid state, thus giving time for the fusible substances in the sand to melt. From the above, it will be inferred that, in some in- stances at least, inferior grades of sand may be used with impunity at considerable saving of cost in manufacture, whilst again, in other instances, the selection of the most refractory kinds of sands is indispensable. It is not desirable that good moulding sand should con- tain very much of any other element than "silica," which is simply "flint-stone," or "quartz," this substance being the most refractory of any of the rocks or earths; but as found in the various sand-beds from which it is dug, it is always mixed with more or less of other matter, which im- pairs its value for foundry purposes; but it is claimed that a little " magnesia," or oxide of magnesium, together with a small percentage of "alumina," or oxide of aluminum, improves its value. The clays used for bringing the silica up to the requisite degree of consistency must be carefully selected, as all such as contain more than six per cent of "carbonate of lime" — commonly called " limestone" — should be rejected. It will be seen from the foregoing that, in making selec- tions of sands and clays for moulding purposes, it is abso- lutely necessary that some one should possess a sufficient knowledge of chemistry and geology to enable him to not only choose the right kind, but to analyze the same after its identity has been thoroughly established; otherwise we must go on in the old way, making repeated trials of differ- BEY-SAND MOULDING. 239 ent sands, etc., mixed in varying proportions, and by so doing obtain such mixtures as, at best, are only an approxi- mation to correctness. Does not this suggest to us, as moulders, the great neces- sity of a higher education, to enable us to know all of our trade ? FLASKS. Flasks for dry-sand work should always be made stronger than is usually the case for green-sand, because of the harder usage they receive. All joint edges should meet with chipping strips as thick as will separate the flanges wide enough to allow of a loam packing being pressed in before bolting together. The method of having this chipping strip extend to the outer edge of the flange, alternately, between the bolt- holes, with the view of supporting the flange against the pressure exerted by the bolt, is not a good one, as it inter- feres with the safe stopping-in of the joint; very often castings are lost on account of the metal finding its way to this spot. It is especially dangerous when the mould is to be placed on end in a confined pit. The better plan is to tie the flange to the body of the flask by at least as many brackets as there are bolt-holes, taking care to have each bracket as close to the bolt-hole as possible, after the manner shown in the flask drawn at Fig. 197. All cheek and end parts, where practicable, should have holes cast in them, for the purpose of bolting in such bars as may be required to check off separate parts of the mould; and as, very naturally, these holes weaken the sides very much, it is well to still further strengthen them by cross- flanges extending from edge to edge in as many places as it is convenient to do. 240 THE IRON-FOUNDER. The upper ends of all cheeks and sides should be made with an extra strong flange, and provision made for turning up on end and lifting the whole flask, by casting holes at suitable places for the introduction of ring-bolts, as shown JEJE '^?^},v?//^/)^//?}/?>^X~ 'X^ ??^?M^?/mM^ Fig. 197. in illustration to article on " Cylindrical Work in Top and Bottom Flasks." FACING, RAMMING, VENTING, AND FINISHING. I know that it is a common practice in some shops to use the strong green-sand facing for dry-sand work, and with some jobs it is quite practicable to do so, but when- DRY-SAND MOULDING. 241 ever it is tried on such work as " pumps" and " cylinders," I have no hesitation in saying that it is a comparative fail- ure, for the simple reason that such sands are too fine in the grain, give off too much gas, and are lacking in the one great essential — " stability." Because of its fineness, it is wanting in porosity, and must therefore be treated in much the same manner as in green sand, every part receiving its due share of surface venting, etc. All this is unnecessary when a proper mix- ture is made; therefore, to use such facing sand is an ab- solute waste of time, to say nothing of the constant danger from scabbing after all this has been done, to prevent it. Another objection to this sand is the rottenness of the surface after it has been dried; and as dry-sand moulds, such as those above mentioned, must of a necessity receive harder usage than is ordinarily the case during the opera- tion of closing, broken spots and patches are the rule, and not by any means the exception. The JSTo. 5 mixture given in article on "Core-Making," is all that can be desired for such work, there being eight parts of coarse "silica" sand to two parts of a finer grade of good moulding sand. The finer sand just serves to form a bed, as it were, for the large grains of refractory silica to rest in; but it is these coarse grains which find their way to the pattern during the operation of ramming, thus offering a firm and unyielding surface, which no amount of ordinary treatment in finishing and closing can destroy. The clay in this mixture serves to cement the mass more firmly together without deteriorating, to any appreciable extent, its porosity, whilst the flour serves a double pur- pose. First, it gives a greater degree of consistency to the whole, in the green as well as in the dry state, especially so in the latter, if the mould is dry and not burned; and sec- ond, whilst there is not enough flour in the mixture to im- pair its ability to resist pressure and heat, there is sufn- 242 THE IRON-FOUNDER. cient used to make it more easy to clean the casting after it has burned away. Such a mixture allows for the maximum amount of ram- ming, and, only in very confined parts, no venting, unless it be done with the view of helping to carry off the steam during the process of drying. Too frequently we see the same amount of time and care expended to secure hanging sand in dry-sand moulds as must be spent on green-sand. This, of course, is a sheer waste of time. A little reflection will reveal the fact that, allowing the mould to remain, whilst drying, in the same position as when finished, very few of the green-sand meth- ods of gaggers and irons are needed, simply because it re- quires considerable pounding to break it apart when once it is properly dried, and for these reasons considerable lati- tude is allowed in the choice of help for ramming up dry- sand work. The above mixture allows for the blackening and finish- ing of the mould while in the green state, and, as it is im- possible to damage this stony surface by too much sleeking with the tools, there can be no excuse for not producing the most elegant finish. For pipes, hydraulic cylinders, rams, guns, and all cast- ings rammed on end, in casings which allow for just suf- ficient sand to make a safe job, the sand must necessarily be all of one heap, composed of exactly the same ingredi- ents, minus the flour, the latter being superfluous for such work, because, the surfaces being all plain, and the distance from the casting to the outside being very short, the gases generated on the surface pass quickly away, and inasmuch as there are no sharp angles or confined parts to break the surface, such work usually skins clean if the proper black- ening is used. Of course, constant renewal is necessary to keep this sand up to the right consistency. TO MOULD A STEAM-CYLINDER IN DRY SAND. 243 TO MOULD A STEAM-CYLINDER IN DRY SAND. In order to make the subject of dry-sand moulding in- telligible to those who are not conversant with this branch of the trade, it will be necessary to take a few leading jobs, choosing such as will bring out in detail, the leading principles involved in the production of all such work. The chief object aimed at by this mode of procedure is not the mere description of how such a job is made, but rather to inculcate such principles in the mind of the reader as will enable him not only to apply them, when learned, to other jobs, but will also help him to think for himself as to how he might accomplish the same end by means perhaps widely different, but equally safe. Fig. 198 is a horizontal section, Fig. 199 side elevation, Fig. 200 cross-section, and Fig. 201 front elevation of the cylinder we propose to mould. Its chief dimensions are 30 inches diameter and 6 feet long. It will be seen that the exhaust is placed at A, Fig. 200, and that the cylinder is intended to be secured to its foun- dation by the bearers or feet B and C, which extend the whole length of the cylinder. We first determine that it shall be cast on end, with a " head " or extension, cast on the top end, to receive the sullage which always gathers in the mould as the metal is poured in. A careful inspection of Figs. 197 and 202 will enable the reader to see the whole plan of operations required to bring the mould to this advanced condition. Contrary to the generally adopted method of moulding cylinders on the side, I have, for special reasons, preferred to show how to mould this one with the steam-chest down and both bearers in the cope. This,, as will be seen, neces- 244 THE IRON-FOUNDER. sitates the use of a three-part flask, as shown at B, C, D, Fig. 197 and 202. Should it be thought desirable to carry all the sand in the cheek by the use of bars, as seen at Fig. 203, then there would be no need for the lifting-plate E\ but the latter will be found a very useful adjunct to the rig, and saves Fig. 198. Fig. 200. WM»/#»« i ' ' l Fig. 199. considerable expense and time when it can be substituted for the bars spoken of. The manner of ramming cheek and bottom flask when the plate E is used is to set the bottom half of pattern on a face-board with the steam-chest up, place the cheek over and proceed to ram, securing all overhanging sand, as in- dicated by F and G, by the insertion of irons reaching from the box inwards, as shown, All such parts as exhaust TO MOULD A STEAM-CYLINDER IN DRY SAND. 245 branches, stuffing-boxes, etc., can be more easily rammed and secured by using the plate in this case; but the bars. Lrz^zzrrz — - : ,._,.__ : Fig. 203, will be found to be indispensable in many other jobs. In making plate E it will be seen that it allows for the 246 THE IRON-FOUNDER. parting to be made at the upper edge of the steam-chest flange. This places all of the flange in the bottom flask, and will be found an important feature when setting in the steam-chest core. When the cheek is rammed and the plate firmly bedded down on the sand and bolted to the cheek, as seen at E, Fig. 197, it will be seen that the only portion of parting which requires to be made is from the edge of the plate to the edge of flange, after which the bottom flask is placed and secured, as shown at E, E, Fig. 197, and the ramming completed. After rolling over the two lower boxes and making good Fig. 203. the joint, set in position the two arbors if and H, which are made to carry that portion of sand between the joint and the under side of bearers I and I, Fig. 197. By referring to Figs. 204 and 205, it will be seen that these arbors are made so as to rest on the ends some distance past the flange of cylinder in both instances. Fig. 204 shows one end of pattern and sectional elevation of arbor set in posi- tion, and Fig. 205 is plan of the same. As will be seen, provision for lifting with the cope, and separating when the latter is lifted off, is made by casting a nut in each end. The points of separation are made at the ends by the slanting bar A, Fig. 208, and along the back, as seen at H and H, Fig. 197. TO MOULD A STEAM-CYLINDER IN DRY BAND. 247 I am aware that a block -print and core will accomplish all that the arbor does for this job, and is to be preferred in some instances; but I deem it well to introduce the arbor here, as it will be found to be a very useful device in gen- eral practice. In making patterns for such a job as this, it will be found best to have the two halves of the body separate from the Fig. 204. Fig. 205. rest of the pattern, bearers in cope, steam-chest, and all other appendages being secured to them by screws from the inside. As will be seen at F, Fig. 202, the lower end of cope and cheek are made closed edges, whilst the head end G, Fig. 202, is made open, to allow of the body core passing through a distance sufficient to form the runner basin around it, the gates being cut direct from the outer edge, as shown at G — the larger one, seen at GG, being the riser. The practice of cutting a main runner around the upper 248 THE iRON-FOXTNDm. core-seat, through which the iron passes from one large leader, and from thence into the casting at intervals all round, is not a good one, as it is more than likely that most of the iron, if not all of it, is absorbed by those near- est the leader, the dirt, of course, following in its wake. It is to obviate this bad feature of running that the method shown at Fig. 202 is advocated, because it allows of the main runner being made all round the core, and enter- ing the mould at as many places as possible, always taking care to miss such cores as connect with the body, and thus assuring a thorough breaking up of the scum as it rises during the process of pouring. How to make the body core, as shown in Fig. 202, is fully explained in article on core-making. One special feature in these barrels, however, is that the lower end of barrel may be made so as to close in the end by having a solid plate on that end, the top to be the same as shown at Fig. 123 of the article quoted. The object aimed at by this device is to secure absolute safety by making it impossible for any of the molten iron to find its way to the inside of the barrel. To secure the lower end in all other respects, it is shown that the seating is cut clear to the box end, as seen at H, Fig. 202. When closing, the body core is kept back from the box, to allow of a ramming of sand behind, which ram- ming is continued after the cope is closed over through the space I, which is left open for this purpose. To prevent the barrel from slipping when the mould is turned on end, the packings shown at J are inserted. In making the bottom flask D the bars must be arranged after the manner shown at Fig. 206, the central space to be as wide as possible, so that easy access may be had to all the vents and staples connected with the cores. At J, Fig. 197, is shown a space dug out, to allow of the exhaust flange being withdrawn, This, of course, is the TO MOULD A STEAM-CYLINDER IN DRY SAND. 249 only way of reaching this flange when the exhaust branch is made after this manner, and can only be dispensed with by the use of block cores, either rammed against the pat- tern or inserted into suitable bearings after the withdrawal of the pattern; both of which modes are objectionable, on account of the seam produced at the junction of the mould and core. When it is practicable, as in this case, the method herein described is the best. The space J is to be packed with sand after the core- XL E u Fig. 206. cake K and exhaust core L have been permanently fixed in their true positions. Cores iT and L, Fig. 202, are to be kept in the spaces shown behind them until the cheek is closed over the steam- chest core, when they can be drawn forth into the seatings prepared for them in the chest core, as seen ; and, as these cores must be held in position by packing in sand behind them, provision must be made for that purpose, either by having holes in the end of the flasks, or by cutting down to them from the joint at the most convenient place. 250 TEE IRON-FOUNDER. COKES FOE MOULDING STEAM-CYLINDERS IN DRY SAND. The subject of cores will now occupy our attention; and let me say here that too much importance cannot be at- tached to it, as too frequently we see disaster attend the using of cores which have not been intelligently made. Ordinary cores are not to be thought of for this class of work. The risk is too great : very many dry-sand as well as loam moulders refuse to use cores except those made by themselves, and unless the very best skill be employed to produce such cores, they are perfectly justified in the course they pursue. It is my purpose, in describing how to make a set of cores for this cylinder, to give rules which will meet all the requirements in the simplest possible way; and while some of them may not be new to men of a wide experience, it is safe to say that to countless others in the trade they will prove valuable information. The steam-chest as well as the ports and exhaust cores are shown in position in Figs. 197 and 202; a careful examination of the cuts will show how the chest core is made, as well as how best to secure it in its place. The grate or "core-iron" is made with prickers reaching into all the remote parts of the core, care being exercised to leave an open space opposite each of the three cores which are set on it in their respective seats; the sand between these seats is held firmly by the prickers shown. Sufficient bear- ing is left at the ends of each seating on which to rest the ports and exhaust cores, and it will improve the job very much if these bearings are made by setting in iron bear- CORES FOB MOULDING STEAM-CYLINDERS. 251 ings when the chest core is made. It will be seen, that staples are cast into the chest core-iron, with which to bolt the same firmly in its seating, as shown at Figs. 197 and 202. To make port cores have the core-box made open, as shown at Fig. 207, with end pieces with which to form that part, and a sweep to form the npper side. American Ma, Inn i.X:j££«' uij^T:;~.:3M=l - Fig. 217. and mud, as loosely built as possible, and after thoroughly drying said dummy, and preparing for separating easily, place over and around it the cage, set in the vent-rods all round, and strike up the whole in loam of a good open nature. When this core has been dried the dummy may be dug out, and the vents connected after this manner. File out a gutter opposite each of the holes indicated at A, B, C, and D in the pipes, and at the same time cutting into the vertical vents E, as seen at F, G, H, and J; into this gut- ter a greased rope must be set, and the gutter made good over it, the rope being drawn along as piece after piece of the break is mended. J A CKET- CORES FOR MO ULDINO STEAM- G TLINDERS. 259 When this has been done, and all holes, except the pipes, have been securely stopped, the core may be considered a perfect one, as far as vents are concerned. At J and K I have shown lugs cast on the ring, and afterwards tapped for lifting purposes, and at L will be seen how to make an absolutely safe connection when it is desired to bring the gas away through passages in the side, which is simply to cast a lug on the ring in correct posi- tion, and have a main vent directly at the back of the lug. Fig. 218. This lug is to be tapped so as to receive a pipe which has been threaded at both ends, the outer thread being used for securing the nozzle core to the jacket. When this is prop- erly done, a direct communication is preserved with the core-vent, and no possibility of any iron finding its way into it. Fig. 217 is a plan of the mould showing body-core A and a sectional view of the jacket-core in position. Fig. 218 is a side elevation of the mould showing the jacket-core A in position, supported by studs, as seen at AB, Fig. 219. To enable the reader to better understand the upper arrangement for setting the jacket, I have shown the form of the top end of the lower half of the flask used for this 260 THE IRON-FOUNDER. job at Fig. 220. It will be seen at i?,Fig. 21 8, that, instead of parting the mould at this end in the usual way, I have carried the pattern, block fashion, as far past the end, and full size of pattern, as will give sufficient bearing for the body-core, making the parting over the top, and leav- ing a good body of sand between the end of pattern and flask, as seen at C, Fig. 218. Fig. 221 will explain the way in which the cores are arranged that fill the block, and at the same time surround the four vent-cores of the jacket as well as the body-core, it being the end elevation of all the section cores, as they Fig. 219. Fig. 220. appear at line D, Fig. 218 ; the staples also are shown, by which the several sections are secured by hook-bolts — shown at Fig. 218— which pass through the holes marked 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, Fig. 220, and are there made fast to cross-bars, the remaining four holes being those prepared for the vent- pipes. After section E, Fig. 221, has been placed in position, as seen at E, Fig. 218, the jacket-core is set, and sections F and F put in, as seen at F, Fig. 218. This disposes of the two lower holes, and brings us up to the middle of the joint, as well as forms the seating for the body-core, which is now inserted by entering it at the opposite end, that end having been made an open one for the purpose ; sections G and G J A CKET- CORES FOR MO TJLDING STEAM- CYLINDERS. 261 are now added, as seen at G, Fig. 218, and the whole capped with section H, shown again at H, Fig. 218. A careful inspection at E, Fig. 216, will show how easy- it will be, in this case, to make the outlet for the vent se- cure. All that is needed is to have the ends of the pipes threaded, on which can be screwed connections which will reach through the end at holes J, J, J, and J, midway be- tween the figured holes, as seen at Fig. 220, also at J and J, Fig. 218. These holes must be made large enough to per- mit of sand being rammed round the pipe, thus making the whole job a very safe one. The system of studding adopted in this example will 221. Fig. 222. show how the moulder may control every chaplet and stud used in the job, and by so doing leave nothing to chance. It is best to have top studs secured after the plan shown at iT and K, Fig. 218, and again at Fig. 219, clamps being either cast in or bolted to the cross-bars for the purpose ; the end studs, shown in plan at Fig. 222, can be secured thus : Let bottom studs L and L, Fig. 218, be set back until the jacket-core is placed ; they can then be brought forward and wedged behind ; those at If and if being at the joint, can be readily adjusted, as also can the one at N ', the one shown at can be set back so as to clear the jacket- core when the cope is lowered over, when it can be pushed forward and wedged, as shown, provision being made for this by leaving a hand-hole at the point P. 262 THE IRON-FOUNDER. Another class of jackets are such as connect the outer with the inner shell by a series of ribs leugthwise with the cylinder, allowing for as many separate cores as there are ribs in the casting. Usually a small hole is allowed on the bottom of each core, with a somewhat larger one at the top, and this one can be utilized for carrying off the gas. Of course these cores must all have their own vent ; but as this can be done by passing a wire or wires from one end to the other, these cores are not very difficult to manage. It is not a very difficult job to make such cylinders in VMMM/Wfc OP aaSsazag^ \ Wi 1 I c A \ Wi 1 ■ V . r-' ' r '■ ■ > ! wftaA mMM\ Fig. 223. Fig. 224. Fig. 225. Fig. 226. dry sand. Fig. 226 shows- sectional elevation of mould, looking at the end ; Figs. 223, 224, and 225 show plans of the bottom half of mould and cores in section ; Figs. 223 and 224 show the arrangement of all the cores, when the bore is straight through. A in all the figures represents the body-core as resting on the jacket-cores marked 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 in plan, Fig. 226, equally divided on each side of port-cores, indicated by broken lines at B. When the body-core has been set, all that remains to be done is to set the cores 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11, Fig. 226, and proceed to close over the upper half of mould. It is important that all these cores should be the very best that can be produced, every precaution being taken to use none but what are perfectly sound ; the best core-iron for such a core is the one shown in section at Fig. 227, A JACKET-GORES FOR MOULDING STEAM-CYLINDERS. 26% being section of core proper, exposing vents, and B repre- senting the addition at the ends with gate or runner C. Fig. 228 shows the form of the iron as it lays in the core- box, and it is plain that with such an iron there can be no difficulty in making a reliable core. Fig. 225 shows section of bottom half of mould with the cores all set, when there is to be an internal flange cast on the cylinder, as shown in figure. The reduction of diameter of core, as shown at C, Figs. 225 and 226, necessitates the use of two half-cores to fill the space, as shown at D, D, with body-core resting in bot- tom half. American Machinist" Fig. 228. By again referring to Fig. 226 it will be seen that, when body-core C has been set upon block-core D, all that re- mains to be done is to secure the other half of block-core E in position, and proceed as before directed. In making flasks for this job, prepare for taking the gas out at the upper end of jacket-cores, by casting holes in the box end, through which to pass the vent-pipes, as shown at B and B, Fig. 223 ; also, in arranging the cope bars, let the end ones in each case be placed so that the end spaces may be left unrammed, exposing about one third of the print end of the jacket-cores, as represented by broken lines in Figs. 223, 224, and 225. This will enable you to make the whole arrangement of jacket-cores abso- lutely safe, by ramming in sand at the ends after the cope is closed. 264 THE IRON-FOUNDER MOULDING GUNS, HYDEAULIO CYLINDEKS, ETC. "Whek hydraulic cylinders, rams, shafting, pipes, guns, etc., become so ponderous and unwieldy as to make it im- practicable to mould them in top and bottom flasks, re- course is usually had to the method of casings, made to the form of the job for which they are intended, these being prepared for casting either by ramming sand in them — using a pattern to be drawn out endwise — or by " strik- ing" on the inner surface a thickness of loam, using a spindle and sweep for that purpose. As the latter method comes under the head of " loam moulding," we shall pass it over and consider only such as are made in dry sand; and as one good example taken in detail will serve to bring out most if not all of the prin- ciples involved in the production of this class of work, we will take for such an example a Eodman gun, about 16 inches bore and 16 feet long, exclusive of sinking head, which we will suppose to be about 3 feet long. To effect an equal cooling of the whole mass, when cast, a stream of cold water is introduced into the barrel, through the top at A, Fig. 229, passing downwards to near the bottom of the core-barrel through a pipe inserted for the purpose, and again rising up, filling the space between the pipe and the barrel ; escaping at B. The water is forced through at a pressure sufficient to enable it to carry off the heat as fast as it escapes from the casting, thus enabling those in charge to regulate the cool- ing of the gun, so as to preserve an even grain throughout the mass, with comparative freedom from fracture, — some- thing it is next to impossible to do by any other known method. MOULDING GUNS, EYDKAULIC CYLINDERS, ETC. 265 Fuller details of the device for introducing the water into the barrel are shown at Fig. 230. Fig. 229 is a sectional elevation of the whole mould and flasks, as it stands in the pit ready to receive the molten Fig. 229. iron ; by referring to enlarged plan of same, Fig. 231, it will be seen that the section is taken at the points A and A, thus revealing the position of the running gates, the lowest of which must be set to give a rotary motion to the molten iron. If these bottom gates are made large enough, sufficient m thb moN-FombMn. force will be given by them to keep the iron revolving round the core until it has passed the trunnions, and by this means preventing the dirt from finding a lodgment there; the upper gates augment the speed of the pouring, which perceptibly slackens as the mould fills, and also serve the purpose of keeping the iron in good condition at the top all through the cast — something very desirable when we remember how clean such a casting must be. ■ Anw.rican Machinist Fig. 230. Fig. 232 shows full-length section of mould at the trunnion side, and also aids the reader in arriving at a full knowl- edge of the whole set of flasks or casings used. As shown at Fig. 232, and again in plan at Pig. 231, the handling of these flasks is accomplished by slings which are made to fit the swivels seen. That section which contains the trunnion calls for special mention, inasmuch as the trunnion pierces the casing, which is there strengthened by forming a circular box or pocket wi£h an outer flange ; this, of course, must be cast in one piece with the casing for that section. This pocket must be true to position, with a slight taper MOULDING GUNS, HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS, ETC. 26? to receive the trunnion core when the casing is rammed ; over this a strong plate with swivel attached is bolted. This, as will readily be observed, allows of this section being handled in the same manner as the rest. No one without some knowledge of pressures and the strength of materials should attempt to prepare the ap- paratus needed for the construction of a job like this with- Fig. 231. out first consulting some one acquainted with such sub- jects. Disasters are happening every day on this account, and men ought to learn from bitter experience the neces- sity for more knowledge upon matters so important. These flasks should be ±i inches thick at the bottom and 1 inch thick at the top, with flanges and ribs corresponding to thickness of sides, and all flanges should be wide enough to allow of 1 inch of iron outside the bolt-holes. As shown, these casings are made in halves, parting at A A, Fig. 231. When made they must be bolted firmly together and turned at the ends so that they will not only 268 THE IRON-FOUNDER. fit each other true, but will also fit the face-plate shown at AA, Pig. 233. This plate is turned and prepared as shown, for the pur- pose of receiving the pattern, flask, and gate-pins of all the sections. Fig. 233 is intended to explain the manner of changing Fig. 233. a American Machinist Fig. 232. for each section; the reader will be helped very much by observing the plan view of the same at Fig. 234; on the left hand of Fig. 233 it will be seen that the pattern is set for the smallest or " head section." These patterns are cast- iron, turned to size, and fitted with bottom guides to fit face-plate, as seen at (7, which is turned to receive the same. MOULDING GUNS, HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS, ETC. 269 This being the smallest piece, the gate-pin is guided by the inside hole at D, and the flask is held in position by the shoulder at E, To form the moulds in the other flasks on the same face- plate and with equal facility and correctness, rings F and G — also turned to fit — are set on respectively, and the operation duplicated. The right-hand view shows these rings in position, and the flask for the breech set thereon and rammed; this, of course, is the largest in diameter; flask H is seen over the Fig. 235. edge of the outer ring, the gate-pin / occupying the outer hole. The bottom section of this mould may be rammed over a face-board and pattern, or struck with spindle and sweep, or any other suitable guide- way. A set of casings, got up after the design just explained, eradicates all the difficulties in obtaining a true mould, as moulds having a vertical height of thirty-five feet may be made in them, with comparatively no deviation from a straight line. The barrel for this core should be not less than one inch thick, and for obvious reasons must be perfectly sound, with grooves at intervals around the circumference; the expense of cutting these grooves may be saved if, when the barrel is made, prints be set on the pattern into which cores may be inserted along its length. Fig. 235 will give 270 THE IRON-FOUNDER. some idea of what is meant ; the form of groove shown is the least likely to damage the barrel from shrinkage. These barrels should have at least f-inch taper in their entire length. There is naturally more handling of such a core as this Fig. 236. Fig. 237. than is ordinarily the case, and, in order to facilitate this extra usage, I have shown at Figs. 236 and 237 the neces- sary preparations. At A, Fig. 230, the gland is shown which holds the down pipe in position as well as serving to make good the joints at the top. During the process of making the core we substitute the plate A, Fig. 236, for the one shown at A, Fig. 230, bolting it to the barrel after the manner shown at MOULDING GUNS, HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS, ETC. 271 Fig. 230, and for the opposite end a tapped hole is pre- pared, into which a threaded gudgeon is screwed, as shown at Fig. 237. The eyes serve to lift by, and the turned shoulders give a true motion to the barrel as it revolves on its bearings, thus insuring a true core. It will be seen at Fig. 237 that holes are cast into which irons can be wedged and bent to the form of the core at the lower end; this is better than attempting to carry the Fig. 238. loam at this point with prickers, which are almost certain to be broken off the first time it is used. The gudgeon at the lower end serves another good pur- pose, namely, that when it is desired to raise the core on end, previous to lowering it into the mould, the whole weight of the core may be sustained by it during the operation, keeping the core clear from all likelihood of damage, as well as facilitating the operation in a very great measure. When the core has been suspended the bottom gudgeon can be taken out and the hole plugged. The bracketed lugs, cast on the core-barrel, and* seen at BB, Fig. 230, serve a double purpose in this case. As may 272 THE IRON-FOUNDER. be observed, these lugs rest on the tripod C, at that point over the holes shown at plan of same at Fig. 238. This tripod must be of sufficient strength not only to sustain the weight of the core, but also to resist the pressure under the same when the mould is filled, which is far greater than its own weight, as may be ascertained by consulting article " Pressures in Moulds." To accomplish this the barrel is secured to the tripod by American Machinist Fig. 239. bolts, as shown at BB, and the tripod made fast to the top flange of casing, as seen at D, Fig. 230. I have purposely shown the leg on the left out of posi- tion, so that the whole arrangement for setting this core might be shown. It will be seen at plan, Fig. 238, that there are two holes on the ends of each leg; one of these is to bolt down with, as at D z Fig. 230, and the other, being a tapped hole, is to be used for raising or lowering the core when it is being set in position. MOULDING GUNS, HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS, ETC. 273 The terminations of the grooves in the barrel are shown at EE, Fig. 230, about twelve inches higher than the top of the casting. Whatever soft material is used for wrapping the barrel before rubbing on the loam, be sure and use no more than will barely cover the grooves, and thus keep out the loam ; for if too much of hemp, hemp rope, or hay is used, the pressure around the core will crush in the loam, the thick- ness of which in this instance should not be less than lj- inches. Some cores for hydraulic cylinders may be required as long as thirty feet. These must of necessity be made in two lengths, and this can be accomplished very readily by adopting the method shown at Fig. 239, which is a sectional view of the junction of the two core-barrels. The barrels must be made thick enough to allow of one being bored out about 18 inches deep to half its thickness at that point, and the other turned to a snug fit in the same, as shown; a keyway must be prepared to admit a tapered key, which, when driven home, will be equidistant from each side of the core, the spaces at the back A A, as well as the seam C, being afterwards made good. To close such a mould with the core made as above de- scribed, let the casings be set upon each other until as many are down as will allow the first core to stand one foot above the joint of the upper casing, indicated by lines BB; the upper length of core can then be set as previously explained, and the remaining flasks closed over. In bringing these articles to a close, I would say that it has been my earnest endeavor to introduce such jobs as would bring into operation methods which may be made of almost universal application; and whilst it would not appear that very many examples have been chosen, it will be seen, if a careful analysis is made of the whole, that such examples as were chosen embrace more of the every- 274 THE IRON-FOUNDER. day difficulties which beset the moulder than could possibly be found in the same number of any other kind or quality. It would, I know, have been easier to have selected a larger number, but the description of the methods for moulding them would have been a mere repetition, and that I have endeavored to avoid. TO MOULD CYLINDRICAL WORK IN TOP AND BOTTOM FLASKS WITH SPINDLE AND SWEEP. Whek a cylindrical casting is ordered, for which there is no pattern of the required diameter, the ordinary method is to make the job in loam, if practicable, or else lag up a pattern which is nearest to the diameter wanted; very often a new pattern is made at considerable cost, and never used afterwards. All this annoyance and loss may be easily remedied by adopting the system which I propose to explain in this article. Furthermore, I am convinced from experience that very many castings may be made in top and bottom flasks with the spindle and sweep as good, and in as short a time, as from a pattern, thus saving the cost of pattern- making altogether in many instances. Sugar-mill rolls, rolls for copper and iron, pipes, shafts, side-pipes, etc., are a few of the castings for which this method is eminently adapted, the only requisite for the successful accomplishment of which is a well-proportioned set of flasks suitably equipped. For the purpose of thoroughly explaining such a set of flasks in detail, I have selected a roll 24 inches diameter, with 12-inch necks, to mould, I am thus enabled, by aid CYLINDRICAL WORK IN TOP AND BOTTOM FLASKS. 275 of the several illustrations accompanying this article, to show more definitely than could otherwise be done what is needed in their design and construction. As will be seen, I have not attempted to fill in every detail, but have sim- ply given a general outline of the whole, with just enough of detail to make the explanation easy. Fig. 240. The best flask for moulding such work as rolls, pipes, etc., or any other plain cylindrical casting, is the one shown at Fig. 240. As seen, the sides are drawn over suf- ficiently to allow of about as much sand between the flask and the casting as there is on the back, which in this case is about 6 inches : the width at the joint must be deter- mined by the amount of room needed for the upright run- ners. By referring to B, Fig. 241, the reader will see the position of such runner as arranged for filling the mould in preparation, A common error in making flasks for this 276 THE IRON-FOUNDER. class of work is that they are not made proportionately strong at the outset, the result of which is that in a very short time they become dangerous, on account of their fractured condition, caused by the unequal expansion and contraction of the parts when in use. Let the sides of this flask be made of a uniform thickness of f inch, and have Fig. 241. the webs which connect the flanges come flush, and from 12 to 15 inches apart, as seen at A, Fig. 240, and depend upon it you will not have much trouble from breaks if ordinary care is exercised in the handling. When it is necessary to strengthen any part of a flask on account of extra duty imposed there, do not (if avoidable) try to accomplish it by adding thickness, but add webs or brackets to give the strength needed. You then attain your object without a sacrifice of proportion, CYLINDRICAL WOMK IN TOP AND BOTTOM FLASKS 211 Fig. 240 is a view of four such sides as I have been describ- ing, placed in position. The ends are purposely left off, so that a view of the inside, showing the position of the bars B and C, can be obtained. Although the handles for lifting purposes are only shown at D and E, it is suppposed that ak the sides will have them. They are of wrought-iron and need not stand out further than is required to pass the chain through for lifting and rolling over. When, as in this case, it is necessary to cast in a vertical position, the lugs F, O, H, I are used for raising the mould on end and lifting into the pit. Be sure that these lugs are well secured to the side by brackets cast on each side of the holes. The thickness between the brackets can be increased to 1£ inches, on account of the extra wear and tear of that par- ticular spot. At J is seen one of the plates which must be bolted along the back of the flasks when the bars are untrustworthy, or when the mould is so large as to make their use absolutely necessary. But with 6-inch spaces between the bars, and 6 inches of sand from the mould to the back, the using of plates is superfluous, provided the bars are made as shown at B, C, with the flange for bolt- ing to the sides continued across the back, the mould well rammed, and thoroughly dried. These remarks apply only to such moulds as we have under consideration, being not more than ten feet from top of pouring-basin to base of mould. Another common mistake in making these flask sides is to fill them with holes other than the ones required for securing to the cross-bars: these are a source of weakness, and should be avoided. If the holes for bolting the bars be made longer than their width, as shown, there will be sufficient opportunity given for the escape of steam and gas I would here say, that although I have shown all the slot holes m these views to have square corners, I favor the idea of rounding them at the ends, as they do not weaken 278 THE iRON-FomDEn. the casting so much. Let the flange along the joint be set back so as to leave about -J inch space when they come to- gether, into which mud can be packed to prevent leakage when the mould is poured. I have shown this space in Pig. 240; it will also be observed that all the bolt-holes for binding the two parts together are in close proximity to the webs. This, of course, obviates the danger of pulling away the flange when the flasks are being screwed together. It will also be seen that the bars B and C are shown solid all through. The remarks on superfluous holes in the sides apply in this case as well; the fewer the holes the longer will be the life of the bar, and the whole thing will be benefited thereby. I deem it well to state that all box- sides, for purposes such as we have been describing, should be cast under pressure; this gives them greater strength, and they are easier to handle and fit together. By referring to Fig. 241, it will be seen what kind of ends are required for such a job. This view gives an outline of as much of one half of the flask as is necessary to explain the method of rigging the ends. O is the upper end, and, like the lower one, D, must in this case be made not less than \\ inches thick. In addition to the holes for securing to the sides, as seen at C, there must be holes cast to cor- respond with those marked E, F, G, H, to be explained further on. The end D is plain along its upper surface, excepting a half hole at the centre, to allow of the spindle passing through at J, but in end C provision must be made for the runners, as seen at A and B, and also for the feed- ing-head at J. The arrangement for the spindle is simple : four fixings are made, similar to the one shown at K, the inside edges must be planed true, placed together in pairs, and bored, one to take the body of the spindle, the other a little smaller; this permits of a little being turned off at one end of the spindle to shoulder on both sides of the fixing, CYLINDRICAL WOUK IN TOP AND BOTTOM FLASKS, 279 and serves to prevent the spindle moving endwise, as shown at L. This fixing not only serves as a bearing for the spindle, but, as will be seen, forms the joint also. When one has been bolted at each end of one of the flasks, as seen at K, Fig. 241, place in the spindle and set on the other flask, pinning it in the usual manner. iTand X, Fig. 240, show two of the pin-holes, and similar ones are supposed to be on the opposite side. The other fixings can now be brought over the spindle and bolted to the upper flask, taking care to have a close fit, with no possibility of their shifting during the operation of sweeping the mould. Fig. 241 is a representation of the apparatus for sweeping the mould. The spindle M is resting on the bearings K, Fig. 242. Fig. 243. and the sweep N secured to arms and P stands vertical to the swept mould. The surface of the joint is made to the planed edge of the end fixing by using a straight-edge which rests on both ends, and must therefore be as accu- rate as the bearings themselves. I have shown the runner for this roll extending along its length to the lower neck, at which place it is best to run these castings after the manner shown in section at Fig. 242. B, Fig. 242, is that half of upright seen in Fig. 241, and con- nects with gate G, so placed that the fluid iron, on entering the mould, shall strike the outer surface. This gives it the course indicated by the arrows, and of course imparts a rapid circular motion to the iron which drives the scum and dirt to the centre, to be discharged into the feeding- head when the mould has filled. 280 TEE IRON-FOUNDER To prepare these moulds, begin by ramming the flask full of good ordinary floor-sand, not over damp; strike off the joint about -| inch below the fixings at the ends; mark off the mould to the sweep, and then cut out the sand about \ inch clear of the sweep all over; then moisten the surface with thin clay- water. It is now ready to be swept, and whatever has proved itself a good dry-sand facing for heavy work will make a good loam for this purpose, by adding water sufficient to bring it to the right consistency for working easily. Let a little, which has been made extra thin, be rubbed well over the surface before the loam is applied; this helps it to adhere to the sand. Whilst this is stiffening go through the same process with the other half, by which time the first will be hard enough to receive the finishing coat, which need not be any other than a little of the same loam thinned down with water and put through a fine riddle or sieve. For rough- ing it will be found best to push the sharp edge, and in finishing the chamfered edge, through the loam ; and should it be required to duplicate a job often, it is advisable to bind the edge of the sweep with hoop-iron. When the mould has been swept, the joint can be fin- ished off with the straight-edge, the -|-inch clearance allow- ing of just so much thin loam being struck on at that part. This gives a good even surface, much superior to anything got by sleeking with the trowel. I might here observe, that where much of this work is done, a half runner of the required size could be made and bedded in the sand when the flask is being rammed; the same in regard to wobblers, etc., as shown at Fig. 243. One half of these can be made to fit the spindle, and rammed into position before the sweeping takes place. For the benefit of such as have not had any experience in mixing blacking for such jobs, the mixture given below will be found useful: CYLINDRICAL WORK IN TOP AND BOTTOM FLASKS. 281 To 1 of best mineral, add ^ good heavy charcoal, \ of XX silver lead, £ of hard Lehigh blacking. Mix to the right consistency with clay water, just thick enough to color the hand, Whether the mould is blackened wet or dry, there should be about y 1 ^ inch of this blackening brushed or swabbed Fig. 244. all over it; but it is by far the best to blacken the mould while green. I shall not waste time and space to prove the necessity of thoroughly drying all moulds, especially of pieces that are to be bored or turned, for it must be plain to the most ignorant that the freer a mould is from steam, the greater is the chance of securing a sound casting. I do not consider rolls to be in any sense an exception to this rule; therefore, however urgent maybe the demand, I deem it an injustice to the founder to expect a sound casting if time is not allowed for drying the mould before it is poured. 982 THE TRON-FOUNDEn. Fig. 244 is a view of this mould resting on end in the pit The runner-box A and feeding-head B are shown in posi- tion. The pit has a 12-inch wall built around it, capped by a cast-iron ring two inches thick. After the two parts are placed together, and secured by bolts, as seen at O and D, ring-bolts like the one shown at E are secured in the four end lugs, a short strong chain for the purpose can be hitched to the bottom rings, and the mould raised on end ; all four can now be used, and the whole lifted clear and lowered into place in the pit. Fig. 245 is a sectional elevation of the feeding-head rest- ing on the box; it is seen to increase in diameter until it is Fig. 245. about the same size as the neck, and 12 or 15 inches deep. This needs to be done so as to have a supply of liquid iron above, to follow up the shrinkage which takes place in the mould immediately after it is cast. It is wise in some instances, as when the iron is unre- liable, or the feeding-head necessarily small at A, to use a feeding-rod, pushing it through the head and down into the body of the roll; this keeps open the communication with the supply above, and thus prevents a drawn spot at the junction of the neck with the body. The running-head as well as the feeding-head are best made in dry sand; it adds materially to their safety, besides being cleaner. To prepare this runner, have a plate, 0, made to clip the outside of the flask and the form of the runner-box; with wrought pins cast in to correspond with end holes, so that after the ring-bolts are taken out the holes will serve CYLINDRICAL WORK IN TOP AND BOTTOM FLASKS. 283 to secure the plate to the flask. The frame marked F is now placed on the plate G> and the runner raised to the level of the frame by a core made for the purpose. When this has been rammed and swept oif, it is ready to receive the running-head, which, having been rammed on a true surface, is readily rubbed down into place. Should there be no mould into which the spare iron can be poured, it is best to prepare a channel from the feeding-head to a good- sized pig in the floor, and run the whole of the iron through the mould. It is well, also, to keep the runner as much higher than the feeder as will allow of most of the iron es- caping from it through the feeder, as described, as it carries away the sullage and cold iron, and leaves a good supply of clean iron to follow up the shrinkage. The general principles laid down in this description for making a roll will serve, with some slight modifications, for anything else of a like nature, and any of the ordinary top and bottom flasks can be converted into a spindle-flask by having the ends made to suit. Flange-pipes can be swept very readily ; brackets, nozzles, etc., can be easily attached by a system of block cores to be set to the sweep when the box is being rammed. Nor is this system confined to dry-sand castings; for with a little practice as good green-sand work may be accomplished this way as from the pattern. PART V. GREEN-SAND MOULDING. PULLEYS, AND HOW TO MAKE THEM. "When" a firm contemplates making a new set of pulley patterns it is very essential that more than one system be considered. But very often such is not the case, the whole set, from the largest to the smallest, being made after the same model, only to be repented of after the expense has been incurred of making patterns which are not by any means the best for the purpose. It is also very interesting to observe how various are the methods of moulding from the same pattern, as I shall show further on. If I should enter a foundry and see a man preparing to lift the upper half of the inside of a 6-foot pulley, 12 inches deep, with gaggers and cheeks, and was informed that the pattern from which he was moulding was a straight rim with loose arms, and that this was their regular system of making such a pulley, I should at once conclude that it would be best for that firm to buy all their pulleys from the specialist, and the sooner they began to do so the better. As before stated, there are many kinds of patterns. Eor example, we have the straight rim with loose arms; — an ex- cellent plan, because of the facility with which rims of any width desired can be made from them, by simply setting the arms in position to be central after the rim has been 284 PULLEYS, AND HOW TO MAKE THEM. 285 drawn to the width required. A sectional view of such a pattern is shown at Fig. 246. Then, again, we have the pattern with the arms either cast to the rim or secured to it after it has been turned true on both faces, and good draught allowed on the inside (Fig. 247); also those made in halves, as shown at Fig. 248. Fig. 249 shows another form, being simply the top half of rim, loose from the body. We have in these selections a goodly array to choose from, and whilst, in my opinion, the one shown at Fig. 246 is the Fig. 246. Fig. 247. Fig. 248. Fig. 249. best for general purposes, we cannot afford to ostracize the rest, for, as I shall presently demonstrate, they all possess merits peculiar to them, which cannot be denied nor be dispensed with, if we would make the best of our oppor- tunities. Beginning in their order, as above described, we will proceed to analyze the several methods by which we can make pulleys from the loose arms and rim. Fig. 250 is a full view of such a pattern — 6 feet diameter, 12 inches deep. The inside is rammed up to the joint of the arms, and the lifting-plates or arbor set down thereon. It will be seen that all these plates are bound together by clamps which are cast in when the arbor is made, as also are the three lifting- staples, A, B, and 0. Unlike most arbors of this kind which I have seen, I choose to have the flat side of the plates down on the bed, as shown, because it is so much easier to make the joint. To make an arbor like this, place the arms on a true bed and mark off the clearance all 286 THE IRON-FOUNDER. around. This impression will be taken on the cope, which must be rammed on the bed. After the cope is lifted off, as many feet or guide-pins as are requisite can be set in, the the marks serving as a guide to place them. Be sure and make them large, so as to have good taper and plenty of length. Fig. 251 shows a section of plate, with foot A. The pat- tern for the plates can now be bedded to the lines on the bottom, after which the clamps and staples can be sunk in Fig. 250. ^t\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\W.NW\\\V^VWW Fig. 251. their places. Be careful to have the ends of the clamps clean and well jagged, to take a good grip of the iron, or they will soon jar loose. Another important item is to have the connecting clamps strong; otherwise it will soon be twisted out of shape. With such a rig as this, pulleys can be made very readily. Of course, I am now speaking of such as have but one set of arms. When one with double arms is to be made, the bottom set of plates must be cast separate, on account of their withdrawal when the pulley is cast. If two sets of PULLEYS, AND HOW TO MAKE THEM. 287 arm patterns are supplied, cast nuts in the loose bottom- plates to correspond with holes in the arbor-plates, through which bolts can be inserted to bind the two sets of plates together, after the top set of arms has been taken out and that portion of the mould finished. I incline to the opinion that no particular advantage accrues from the use of two sets of arms, for all that is needed to accomplish the job with one set is to cast three studs on the back of each of the bottom-plates long enough to give a sufficient body of sand over the arms. A staple Fig. 252. Fig. 253. is also needed in the centre of the plate which is to pass through a spider made to rest on the studs. A key can then be driven home between the staple and spider, and all will be secure. I have shown this arrangement in plan and eleva- tion at Figs. 252 and 253. It will be seen that the whole rig can be keyed together off the mould and used after the manner of the upper arbor. In this case the rim will have to be drawn out of the mould after the ramming has reached the height of the spider, and placed back again after the arms have been taken out, the mould finished, and the upper portion of mould set down in place. Tho 288 THE IRON-FOUNDER. keys can now be knocked out, the spider lifted away, and the mould proceeded with in the usual manner. Although the arbor just described is a good one, and has many admirers, yet all admit its liability to warp out of form, so that it would appear that there still remains room for improvement. Fig. 254 is the sketch of an arbor which can be used very readily for all sizes from 12 inches to 12 feet diameter. This arbor is perfectly rigid, and cannot possi- bly get out of order. A good way to make such an arbor Fig. 254. is to make a pattern of one half, quarter, sixth, or eighth, according to size of pulley. You then have the pattern by you ready for emergencies, whereas if they are made from rings and loose pieces the probability is that you will have a new rig to make every time. In making this arbor cut out to clear the arms (this allows of the iron coming down on the joint), and cast on good, stout feet, with plenty of taper, as directed for the plates. Before quitting the subject of moulding from a loose arm and straight-rimmed pattern, I would call attention to an ingenious way of using it in sizes from 12 inches to 30 inches diameter. Let us suppose one 30 inches diameter and 8 inches face. The first operation is to place the rim PULLEYS, AND HOW TO MAKE THEM. 289 on a face-board and set in the arms (the best method of doing this is to have a block which will not only centre the arms, but will at the same time form the joint), have a three-part flask with cheek same depth as the rim, ram up the outside, joint, and then ram the cope. When this is rolled over and the inside block taken out, the inside must be rammed a little higher than the rim and a parting made all over. The nowel in this instance must be barred as a cope, to suit the form of parting. Let the nowel be rammed and lifted off ; the rim is now to be drawn out and the nowel put back, and after securing the three parts (Fig. 255. together, roll all back again into position. The top part can now be lifted off, and there being no rim in the mould, a good lift is absolutely certain. Pulleys up to the size mentioned can be made very rapidly this way. By consult- ing Fig. 255 the reader will see the complete operation at a glance. The bottom cope or nowel has been replaced after the rim was taken out. The reason for making parting A with a rise is to help keep the core in place when it is rolled back. A few lifters laid in the core (as shown at B) on the bottom side will prevent any of the mould from falling away when it is being turned back. At Fig. 256 I have shown a method of making pulleys from patterns which have the arms either cast with or secured to the rim. The lifting-plates in this case are used 290 THE IRON-FOUNDER. separate, and must be made with a sharp edge to fit against the rim, in order to insure a good lift, as seen at A, The lifting-irons must be long enough t© stand through the bars of cope, as at B, and the best way of connecting them with the plates is to have the hole in the plate a little smaller than the iron, so that a shoulder can be forged on, to prevent them slipping through. In riveting the button underneath, leave it slack, so that the iron can be turned easily in the hole. This allows of its being twisted round to clear the bars of the cope. Pulleys can be made very Fig. 256. readily from these patterns when the flasks and lifting- plates are in good order. The handiest way of working them is to ram the inside first, make parting at arms, and bed down the plates, after which ram up to the top of the inside and loosen the pattern all round before the outside is rammed. After the cope is rammed the plates can be quickly secured to the cope by wedging under the irons put through the eyes of the lifting-irons. The figure shows an iron flask with long pins, but if wood flasks are used, a little extra care in fitting on good copes will be necessary. The pattern shown in the flask is 30 inches diameter and 8 inches deep, but the casting required is to be 12 inches PULLEYS, AND HOW TO MAKE THEM. 291 deep. Now, as this is not a loose rim, another method must be adopted to deepen the rim and have the arms in the centre when cast. In order to do this one half of the difference must be added to the 'bottom and the other to the top. The way to do this is shown in the figure. The pattern has been drawn two inches from the bottom at C, and the outside parting made two inches above the pattern at D, where a little draught has been given to the joint to save dragging up the parting. When the cope has been lifted off the pattern must be placed on the top part of mould and a strickle passed round under the edge to scrape out the sand level with the inside. This will insure a per- fectly even thickness all around, which could hardly be the case if the pattern was not used for a guide, as directed. If the flasks for this class of work are made after the man- ner shown in this figure it becomes an easy matter to part the mould at the bottom, and this enables the moulder to finish his work satisfactorily. Pulley patterns which are standard and not more than two feet diameter, nor any deeper than six inches, are best made as shown at Figs. 248 and 249. I prefer the one at Fig. 248, for the reason that both halves are equally strong and less apt to get broken. Another advantage is that there is less trouble in parting the arms. If good headway is to be made with this class of pulleys, light iron flasks are in- dispensable. PULLEY MOULDING FKOM SWEEPS AND CORES. Sometimes a pulley is ordered for which there is no pat- tern. When this occurs a very simple plan can be adopted to overcome the difficulty. Let us suppose the pulley to be of the same dimensions as the one shown at Fig. 250, 6 feet diameter, 12 inches deep. Figs. 257, 258, and 259 wills how the different stages of such a job with very little explanation. 292 THE IRON-FOUNDER. After a suitable hole has been dug in the floor in which to mould the pulley, set in two straight-edges and strike off a true bed, in the centre of which ram up a good stout steady pin, after the manner shown at A, Fig. 257. (It is supposed there is no spindle or centre where this pulley is being made.) A plate, B, is now bedded down one inch below the surface, as at C, and the joint continued to the surface of mould as at D. Although this plate is shown well up to the centre, it really does not require to come any further than the point where the cores meet each each other in the hub, thereby saving weight. The sur- Fig. 257. face over the plate is now to be swept off level with the outside and a line struck to the inside diameter of rim, to be divided into six, and each division to be drawn to the centre. Fig. 258 shows the cores made in halves joiued to- gether and set into position; it will be observed that these cores, when together, are the exact depth of the rim. All that is required now is to set sweep A, Fig. 258, and ram in between the cores; spaces B, C, and D are shown as filled in, and the sweep moved round to the next space. Before proceeding to ram in the spaces the cores can be clamped together as seen at E, Fig. 258, as many being used as are thought requisite ; observe that provision is made for run- ning in the hub,, and that the end of cores form print for centre core. After this operation is complete hitch on to PULLEYS, AND HOW TO MAKE THEM, 293 the handles shown, and lift the whole thing out of the mould, taking care to steady it out of the feet shown at E, Fig. 257. Just here I will explain why I lift out the inside. It is customary, in making pulleys from cores and sweeps, to have segment cores to make up the outside, setting them to line and ramming behind them after they are all in po- sition, but I have yet to see the casting made after this manner that was true, or anything near it; therefore, I think that the little extra labor entailed in lifting out the Fig. 258. inside is more than compensated for if we gain a correct outside by the operation. Fig. 259 is a view of the bed under the plate, with parting all round and the bottom surface on which the sweep rests. This sweep is the one used for the inside, with the braces reversed and continued to the centre-pin, which it is sup- posed to fit accurately. The view shows the sweep as having been started at A and the upper side rammed as far as B. I have shown the centre pin as standing up above the bed on which the lifting plate rested. It will be seen that in attaching the continuation of the braces, they 294 THE IRON-FOUNDm. are shouldered together at C; this allows of their easy separation before the sweep is removed, if it should be thought desirable to do so ; if the pulley was round on the face then it would be requisite to do so. To make a flange pulley by this method have a segment or flange for top and bottom, bed in the top as you go along, the bottom one to be set against the sweep and withdrawn each move that is made. When the outside is rammed and finished it will take but Fig. 259. a short time to complete the job. After the centre has been taken out and the hole made good, place back the inside and cover the rim with cores, as shown at F, Fig. 257. The centre core is seen in place at G, Fig. 257; but it must be remembered that the plug A is supposed to be out when the plate goes back, otherwise this figure may be taken as a sectional elevation of the mould when closed, cut through the centre of arm-core on one side and through the space on the other, exposing handle H. PtJLLETB, AND HOW TO MAKE THEM. 205 TO SPLIT A PULLEY. This is generally considered an unpleasant thing to do, but I think that a considerable amount of the annoyance is self-inflicted. Ordinarily too little care is taken in the preparation needed to insure success in splitting a pulley or wheel. Some of the methods adhered to have been handed down to us by our grandfathers, and we stupidly insist on their use, good or bad. Very often it occurs that a split pulley is wanted in a hurry, and along with the pat- tern comes the splitting-plates, cut out of plate iron perhaps not more than -^ inch thick. Suppose the pulley to be six Fig. 260. feet diameter, 12 inches deep, with a very heavy hub, such as shown at Fig. 260 (which is a sketch of the inside of pat- tern with splitting-lugs attached). In some foundries all that is considered necessary is to heat the plates and paint them with gas tar, but it invariably happens that when there is a considerable body of metal that the tar burns away, and the plates are fast in places on both sides, making it difficult to separate the halves; in fact, it is no uncommon occurrence to break the casting somewhere else in the effort used to split it. Such a method as this ought 296 THE IRON-FOUNDEB. to be abandoned at once. Again, at other places the split- ting-plates are treated to a thin coat of fine loam, and if the loam could be kept on them the plan would not be without some merit. But when spikes are thrust down each side to secure them, it is barely possible to keep them in good trim. However much success may attend the use of plates prepared this way, they cannot in any case be used for packing when the pulley is bolted together, being slack the amount of loam used to cover them. Some think oil will do, and others maintain that a coat of blacking will answer the purpose; but I need not waste words to prove the inadequacy of such methods to insure a good job. As before stated, Eig. 260 shows the inside of a pulley pattern with the splitting-lugs attached. The prints seen on the lugs are to receive the splitting-plates. Let pat- terns be made for these plates § inch thick, with front edge feathered. The feather edge must set into the rim a little, and as far back from the centre core as will permit of an easy split. In moulding these plates use such sand as will allow the hot iron to eat into it, so that the skin of the metal will not be exposed ; when cast, ru'b off the loose sand and spread a coat of very thin glue all over the surface, over which a little fine burnt sand can be dusted. When dried the sur- face will be very hard. A thin coat of black-lead, made with glue water, can now be brushed over them and again dried. They are now ready for use, and will stand any amount of handling. This method insures a clean split every time, and no trouble from blow-holes, from the fact that the material with which they are covered emits little if any gas when the molten iron comes against it. SQ UARE AND. RBGTANG ULAR COL UMN8. 297 TO MAKE SQUARE AND RECTANGULAR COLUMNS. It would surprise many of our first-class machinery moulders (who affect to despise the so-called housework shops) if they were to step inside one of the many foundries which make a specialty of architectural work, and see the admirable methods they have for pushing out work in short order. True, a great amount of the work done in these shops is of a very plain sort, requiring very little skill but any amount of muscle to accomplish; yet it must be conceded that some of the castings require men of superior ability to make them successfully. We need only examine critically some of our large public buildings which have their fronts mainly of cast- iron, to be convinced that something more than ordinary skill was needed to mould the massive columns and en- tablatures of which the structure is composed. The moulding of what are called square columns has always been considered a leading job in a housework shop, and the man who has uniform success in their manu- facture commands good wages. A common method of moulding these castings is to ram the core (in green sand) on an arbor or core-iron made for the purpose; this arbor is simply a beam long enough to reach through each end, with bars cast or bolted along each side to support the sand. The core-box is usually a smooth board bedded alongside the mould, with loose sides clamped firmly to- gether to the required width. When the core has been made in this, the sides are taken off, and then it can be lifted off the board and lowered into the mould. This is a rather delicate operation, and needs care to have it '298 THE lllON-PoVNDm. exactly in the centre, otherwise the casting is sure to draw over on the thick side. To obviate this, studs have in some instances to be used to press the core over in the middle after the ends are secured in the centre. Another method is to make the core in dry sand; but as this is only a makeshift at best, I will dismiss it at once, aud proceed to explain the method which seems to me the surest as well as the most simple way of making square and rectangular columns, or any other casting similar in form; for I am persuaded that a considerable saving might Fig. 261. be effected in many of our machine-shops by adopting some ready mode of working with green-sand cores. First, consider the pattern for a column 18 inches square — the one I have chosen for illustration being of such dimensions. The drawings are made isometrically and to scale, and the strictest attention has been paid to propor- tion throughout : by so doing I have been able to show all the details in actual position. Fig. 261 is a view of one end of the pattern: it is seen to be a plain block, and must be made long enough to meet all requirements; it is simply four stout boards well secured to blocks at short intervals along the inside; strong screw-plates must be let in on the under side and holes bored in the top, through BQXTARE AND EECTANGXTLAR COLUMNS. 299 which to let down the screw for drawing out the pattern, as seen at A. The arrangement for stopping-off to the required length is simple. B and C are blocks which set against stops D and E. These stops are set back at a dis- tance from F sufficient to allow the front face of blocks B and C being on a line with the mark F, such mark being the supposed length of the column required. When these blocks are drawn out they leave a true face against which to set the stopping-off cores. These cores are seen in posi- tion, and made good behind, at A and B, Fig. 262. The cores are about \\ inches thick. The one at A has the running gates on its inner edge. An upright runner about If inches square is set against the gates before ram- ming behind, to be connected with the main runner at the finish. So much for the pattern. Let us now turn our atten- tion to the mould, and begin by discarding the old method of bedding in the floor, for another which will not only give better results as to quality of work done, but quantity also. As before stated, the column chosen for the purpose of illustration is 18 inches square. By referring to Fig. 263 it will be seen that top and bottom flasks are used, pre- pared with hinges for the cope to turn in. These hinges serve a good purpose in this case, since, there being no necessity to lift the cope away to finish, you merely hitch on to the staple (not shown) in front, throw the cope back at a convenient angle for finishing, and prop up behind, leaving it resting in the hinges until ready for closing. It must be plain to any one that there is a considerable saving of both time and room by this method of handling the cope. The bottom flask is made up of loose sides and ends of the needed depth, held together by cross-bars bolted about every 2 feet along its length. As shown, it stands about 6 inches above the floor. This keeps the hinges and flange BOO TEE mON-FOUNBm. clear, and gives greater freedom to the moulder whilst working at the job. By cutting out a gap in the side of the view I am enabled to give a sectional illustration of the whole job at that particular spot. The cross-bar is seen with broken line up the sides, which indicates the flanges for bolting together. The broken line at the Fig. 262. bottom of the bar indicates a flange 4 inches wide, which answers the double purpose of stiffening the bar and supplying a surface to resist the thrust when the pressure is on the mould. The box must be made to take in the longest columns, as short ones can be moulded in it as readily as in a shorter one. As there are to be no core-prints on the pattern, it is only required to level a bed to the proper depth on which to lay the pattern, then ram up the sides and cope in the regular way, taking care to place the runners C and SQUARE AND RECTANGULAR COLUMNS. 301 D, Fig. 263, convenient for connecting with those behind the cores previously spoken of. The pattern or block being drawn, and the mould finished, we will proceed to make the core, which will be rammed in the mould with very little trouble. Figs. 262 and 264 are views of the mould at different stages of the operation of moulding the column. It is supposed, that all of the front side has been taken away, thus revealing the joint, side and bottom surfaces, with their several details, to be explained as we proceed. At Fig. 264 I have shown one of the loose patterns for the sides; it rests on the bottom of the mould. These patterns must be made of good and well-seasoned lumber, otherwise they will soon warp out of shape. They are to be the thickness of the casting required, with some draught allowed for easy drawing. The straps shown are of wrought-iron, and are sunk flush with the pattern. A toe is turned on the bottom, which grips the pattern, and they must be well secured with screws as shown. It will be seen at A, Fig. 264, that the stopping-off block has been taken out and the core previously spoken of set against the end of the pattern; but as it is not expected to cut these patterns to the length of column every time, the blocks at the opposite end remain where they are until the patterns have been taken out. The opeuing cores marked CDEFG, Fig. 262, are now to be set in their places, and the ones Handel must be set exactly in line with the front face of the blocks. All these cores are to be the thickness of the column on that side, and when in their places are to be covered with other cores made in lengths suitable for easy handling, and the width of the space between the side patterns. & I have shown these cores in position from end to end in Fig. 264. If they are carefully made and fitted snugly together there will be no fear of any sand working its way down into the mould. After spreading a little sand all along 302 THE IRON FOUNDER. the cores, set down the beam or arbor, making sure that it rests solid on them all. I have shown a portion of this arbor in position at Fig. 264; it is simply abeam cast on its flat, in open sand, and can be used for all widths over 8 inches. When smaller than this it is safer to use a wrought-iron beam with holes drilled along its length. The plate being thin, it allows of more sand round the Fig. 263. arbor, and is consequently safer. Fig. 265 will explain what I mean. If the reader will look at the cross-section of Fig. 263 he will see the disposition made of the core-arbor: the figure is purposely cut across the mould just where the stud is used for holding down the arbor; the stud is seen standing through the cope and resting on a loose packing, which is placed on the arbor a little below the surface of the core, to give extra thickness at that place. The best material for making the core is the heap or SQUARE AND RECTANGULAR COLUMNS. 303 floor sand, not over-moist, but well mixed, and shook through a coarse riddle; but should the heap be very rotten on account of a preponderance of burnt sand, then a little new may be well mixed through it. Avoid adding sea-coal by all means, as it only creates gas, and there is quite sufficient for this purpose in the old sand which is used. I might add that it is best to face the runner end Fig. 264. for a short distance with the regular facing-sand mixture, to prevent the gates from cutting the core at that spot. To vent the core I have shown a f-inch rod laid on each side of the arbor, about two thirds of the distance from the bottom; when the ramming has reached within f inch from the top, vent in the direction of the rods, as shown in Fig. 3. These long rods must be drawn before the side patterns are taken out and shorter ones pushed in at 304 THE IRON-FOUNDER. the ends, to be withdrawn after the cope is on and the ends secured. One of these vents is seen at E, Fig. 263. In ramming cores of this kind it is always best to put in a little at a time, in order to pack it solid without being unnecessarily hard. All that remains to be done after the patterns are taken out is to set in the stop-off cores A, Fig. 262, with the upright runners, and connect with the cope runners, as previously directed. I have shown in Fig. 263 a device for securing the arbor A. It projects through the ends of the flask, and is wedged under the cope at B\ but provision must be made for holding it down in the middle also. It will be seen at F that a clamp is cast in the box-bar, also in the next bar to it; but as this one has been taken away to admit of this view, it cannot be seen. The packing on the arbor must be placed so that Fig. 265. .j.] ie s {- u( j can kg j e £ d own on it after the cope is on. A flat bar can be then pushed through the slot, which must rest on the stud, and a wedge at one or both ends secures it. The column we have been considering is supposed to be a plain one on all its sides, and if panels or mouldings are added only on the top side, it makes very little difference to the moulding of the column. But often these em- bellishments are cast on one or both of the sides as well, as seen at Fig. 262. When this is the case, the best method of moulding such is as I suggest in the article on Hinged Flasks. But if a superior class of work is not desired, draw out the patterns and finish the mould, then set against the side strips of iron one-eighth or three- sixteenths thick, 6 inches wide and the full depth of the mould, from 9 to 12 inches apart, against which the pat- terns for the sides will be set (of course they will require to be as much thinner as is the thickness of the strips TO MOULD BEVEL-WHEELS. 305 used). The object of this is to prevent the patterns from rubbing against the finished mould whilst drawing them out. By having iron strips, all the trouble from warping is obviated; if care is taken to have enough of them to pre- vent the ramming from pressing too hard against the mould, and thus leaving their impression, a very fair cast- ing can be made this way. By the adoption of this method much time is saved, and risk reduced to a minimum ; also, the core being rammed in its place insures an absolutely even thickness, in conse- quence of which the result is a straight casting every time. TO MOULD BEVEL-WHEELS WITHOUT A EULL PATTERN. The spindle and centre can be used to great advantage in the production of bevel-wheels, but it requires more than ordinary care on the part of both pattern-maker and moulder to make the plan a success. But if such care be exercised there is nothing to prevent as good work being made this way as can be got from the whole pattern. I propose to show three methods of moulding a bevel- wheel by the aid of the spindle, each of which has claims for precedence, according to the form of wheel desired. To illustrate this article I have chosen an ordinary coarse- pitched wheel, about three feet in diameter, the plan and elevation of which is seen at Eigs. 266 and 267. I do not purpose going into all the primary instructions for moulding such a wheel, as I take it for granted that any moulder who may be entrusted with this class of work will know 306 THE IRON-FOUNDER. what preparations are needed to insure a good casting ; suffice it to say, that the centre, when set down in the floor, must be low enough to allow of the point of tooth marked A, Fig. 267, coming level with the floor of the shop. Care is needed in setting down the centre, as the spindle must be absolutely plumb before a start is made. I would also remind the moulder of the advisability of putting in a good cinder-bed (the use of which will be seen presently). Fig. 266. Fig. 267. As I intend these instructions to serve for castings other than wheels, I shall be particular to give the reasons "why," in all cases where it will be advantageous to do so. It has been suggested that A, Fig. 267, is the starting-point or joint ; all above this point must come into the cope, and, necessarily, all below it will be in the floor. I speak now of the outer surfaces : the form of the wheel will determine what disposition we shall make of the inner surface, or arm- cores,, — whether we shall lift them away on plates, use dry- TO MOULD BEVEL-WHEELS, 307 sand cores, or carry them in the cope. To better under- stand the several modes of procedure we will make our wheel by all the methods, beginning with the first men- tioned, viz., hfting them away on plates. Pig. 3 will ex plain the matter. Point A corresponds with A Ffr 2" and as before stated, is the joint. B is a swee p 'attached to the spindle and is intended to strike the exact form of he back of wheel; its edge is made to correspond with he top ace of elevation, Pig. 2. This bed must be made hard and true, and in order to insure accuracy let all the sweeps be made with the top edge C at exact right angles to the spmd e, so that a square resting thereon, and brought up to the spindle, will test their correctness You now have a true model of the back of the wheel which must be prepared for parting and the cope rammed' HftTnl it t n lmPOr , t !", t it6m iS *° St8ke the b0X Wel1 bef0 '-e and the in 7; ^ SU ° h PaiM aS Wil1 P rese ™ "-em and the joint from injury, while the rest of the mould is being made The portion of mould above A has been 00 tamed by sinking a model and taking its impression as you would from a pattern; but the position below A will he obtained direct from the sweep D. The lower edge of this sweep corresponds with all the surfaces below therein A The broken hues seen on this figure represent a section of the wheel cut across the centre, and will aid the under standing if carefully examined. I need not say that much precaution is needed in the preparation of thipart rf the mould, for accuracy as well as solidity. In making this sweep it is well to have the surface F which forms the bed for the teeth) made a lit ,e slack Ins admits of the segment, with which the teeth are to be formed being firmly set down in place. When the mouhi » swept mark off the arms and set on the core-box al o put back sweep B and bring it into position at joint J This will not only test the core-box, but will sweep oTthe 308 THE IRON-FOUNDER. top of the cores exact with the impression taken in the cope. At F, Fig. 268, I have shown the lifting-plate in position. By referring to Fig. 266, at A and B, it will be seen that quite a large plate can be used in this case, thus enabling the moulder to make a safe core. A method for securing these cores is shown in article " Moulding Bevel and Mitre Wheels." When the wheel is large in diameter and very deep, this Fig. 268. Fig. 269 plan is the best, as the cores fit the places from whence they were taken with absolute certainty — something which cannot be said for dry-sand cores in hardly any case. It must be remembered, also, that there is no shipping of cores in and out of the oven. Should this wheel be made with dry-sand cores, the only deviation from the instruc- tions given would be that, as soon as the bottom part of the TO MOULD BEVEL-WEEELS. 309 mould was swept, the teeth could he proceeded with at once, and the cores placed to thickness after the mould was finished. In setting in dry-sand cores it is well to have sweep B, Fig. 268, in position, so that they can be proved for depth, etc. To carry the cores in the cope, it will he necessary to change the cope-sweep, and, instead of a core-box to form the arms and hub, these must be made as patterns, in the readiest way that suggests itself to the pattern-maker. Fig. 269 will explain this method, as in Fig. 268 the broken lines show the lower surfaces of the mould; the points is still the joint, but it will be observed that the bottom edge of sweep B follows the line of thickness down the rim and along the arm. When this has been swept out, the hub and arm patterns can be set in position, as shown at C and D, Fig. 269. The ramming of this cope will not be as simple as in the former case, on account of the cores requiring to be secured to the cope by gaggers and chucks, or grates bedded on the bottom and bolted up before the cope is lifted. When lifted off, the mould can be pro- ceeded with as directed for Fig. 268. In this case cores the ' thickness of the web E, Fig. 269, and in the form of spaces A and B, Fig. 271, must be set into place after the mould is finished. For all shallow wheels, large or small, this plan is the best. We now come to the all-important part of wheel-mould- ing, to wit, the teeth ; and before entering on a description of the actual working of the methods herein suggested, it will be well to mention some of the evils we are accustomed to meet with in this line of work, such as swelled teeth, scabbed teeth, and wheels which evidence carelessness on the part of either pattern-maker or moulder, or both, from the fact of there being narrow and wide teeth all round the wheel. To make good sound teeth, sand must be used on which reliance can be placed— something which has 910 mx motf-FoVNbm. stood the test. When satisfied on this point, be sure to have it thoroughly mixed with the requisite quantity of sea-coal, and not over damp. Before commencing to ram a tooth, thrust a yent-rod through the middle of the space down into the cinder-bed below ; ram a little at a time, firmly, but not too rashly, with a rammer made of wood ; the bottom and all along the edge require special attention, otherwise soft places will be found. It is then that the Fig. 270. work of destruction begins if the tools are resorted to. Better destroy the tooth and make it over again, than to waste time in finishing and have bad teeth after all. By ramming the tooth with the vent-rod in place you are sure that all sides are equally benefited ; the wire can be with- drawn when the top is reached, and the hole plugged. This relieves all anxiety about the iron entering the vent if there should be any fin or clearance when the cope comes To secure correctness in spacing, take the time neces- on sary to do it right. If the segment should happen a little under or over, don't imagine that you can bring it all right TO MOULD BEVEL WHEELS. 311 by making a little allowance either way as you go round, only to find yourself mistaken at the last move, and, rather than destroy what is done, shave off a little, or divide the dif- ference, as the case may be ; but try it again until it is right. Fig. 270 is an isometrical view of the mould when swept as directed. The spindle is 3 inches in diameter, turned all its length. The arm is bored to fit snugly, and planed along the top side to a right angle with the bore. It is made to run loose on the spindle, and rests on a collar held in place by a set-screw. Instead of securing the segment to the arm proper, I have shown an attachment (which can be adjusted to the segment by the pattern-maker), the top inner surface of which is planed, and, as is seen, rests on the trued surface of the arm. The planed surfaces allow of an easy adjustment of the segment, without fear of alter- ing the angle to which it was originally set. This arrange- ment admits of a set-screw being fitted on the top, by which means the segment can be lifted clear of the bed (when it is being tried around for the number of teeth) much quicker and without help. The bracket, seen on the back of the segment, not only serves to secure it to the arm, but must be planed so that, when it is correct to the spirit-level, the face of the tooth will be at the angle required. When the segment is set correctly, put a bolt through the slot shown and screw fast, then lower the whole down into place and mark opposite the lines on centre of teeth all round to the starting-point. Should it be found to come a little under or over the num- ber of teeth required, increase or decrease the diameter to suit the case, but be sure you are correct before commenc- ing to ram the teeth, and take care to be exactly opposite the mark each move. The view shows three teeth rammed and the segment lifted clear of the last tooth, but it is not intended that the collar on which the arm rests shall be 312 THE IRON-FOUNDER disturbed, after it is once set, until all the teeth are made. When the teeth are finished take a segment or half -circle which fits the spindle and extends to the diameter of the core, and bed it round the spindle to form a seating in which to rest the core. Should a washer be required on the face or bottom side, similar to the one shown on the top, it can be done the same way. If proper care has been exercised on all the details of this job, it will be found, when closing the mould, that everything will find its place as surely as would haye been the case if a full pattern had been used. MOULDING BEVEL AND MITKE WHEELS. Many moulders consider the making of a bevel-wheel a simple job, but if they were made aware of the amount of time it takes to chip and trim the teeth, as also to correct other imperfections in the casting when made by the methods commonly in vogue, there is not the least doubt in my mind but that the$ would be led to say that, after all, it is not so easy and simple to make a good bevel- wheel. No matter how popular the machine-made wheel may be, there will always be a great demand for wheels made from patterns when it is clear to the manufacturer that such wheels are needed often. This being admitted, it is im- portant that the best method of moulding be adopted to secure a good casting, and at the same time inflict the least amount of damage to the pattern. As is well known, there are many ways of making a wheel from the pattern, some of which it may profit us to examine into. At the right of Fig. 271, marked A, is shown a very common method of MOULDING BEVEL AND MITRE WHEELS. BIS moulding such a wheel. The drawing represents a 6-foot bevel- wheel turned over in the bottom flask, and the top part rammed. It will be seen that wood-chucks are driven between the bars of the cope, down in between the arms, and lifters or gaggers distributed over the surface to help bring up the sand. Now it must be plain to any one that Fig. 271, Fig. 272. mischief must ensue either to mould or pattern, or both, when the separation takes place. If the pattern is held down to secure good teeth, then the arms suffer, for as a natural consequence much of the sand is dragged off the face of the mould which must be afterwards secured and made as good as the skill of the moulder can make it; but we know that although considerable time may be spent in 314 THE IRON-FOUNDER. the mending, it is never as well done as it ought to be. In some foundries they attempt to remedy this evil "by making the arms loose, and lifting them away with the cope, drawing them out when the box is turned over. And right here we have the cause of some of the extra labor in the machine-shop, for we all know that a pattern made with loose arms is unreliable. All wheel patterns should be made with the arms well secured to the rim. Again, at other foundries they partially save the arms at the expense of the teeth, by lifting the pattern with the cope, securing it with screws, and jarring it as it lifts from the teeth. But I need not say that it would require a much more elaborate arrangement than four wood stakes against the uneven sides of a box, and the uncertain guidance of a man at each stake or pin, to save the teeth from being dis- turbed. Usually, if the teeth are not actually pushed over, but more or less fractured, all that is considered necessary is to place the pattern back and go round with a hammer or mallet, and drive the pattern well down on its bed. It would certainly be ridiculous to expect a true wheel after such treatment of the mould, to say nothing of the damage done the pattern by such pounding. If, as is often the case, the teeth must be made over again, it is needless to say we may look out for chipping and trimming with a vengeance. The method which secures the best results, both as to pattern and casting, is the one shown at B, Fig. 271 and Fig. 272. The joint of the flask is so arranged as to come level with the points of the teeth, the bars in the upper half being hollowed to fit the back of the wheel. A stout face-board is needed to correspond with pattern and flask, and after the bottom half is turned over, plates (such as shown in section at B, Fig. 271, and in plan at A, Fig. 272) are bedded down in their places. The joint being made for parting all round, all that is needed is to ram the cores, SPUR-WHEEL MOULDING. 315 Securing them well with irons, after the manner shown in the drawing. Should it be considered necessary, irons of the requisite strength and shape may be cast in the plate to carry the back of core at B, Fig. 272; but where the plates are in constant use, these get broken off, and recourse must be had to the loose irons. I think the plan Fig. 272, aided by section Fig. 271, will sufficiently explain the method of binding the cores together. When these are all well rammed and the cope lifted, they can be all lifted clean from the pattern and placed down on the three feet as shown, and the pattern taken out. It will be found that, if ordinary care has been taken in the opera- tion, there remains little to do but close the mould as the pattern left it, exact, — a very desirable thing in any job. If a good loosening-plate be bolted through the hub of the wheel, there will be no necessity to strike the pat- tern throughout the whole process of moulding, so that the pattern at the finish must be as good as when it was placed on the face-board. Last but not least in the list of advantages secured by adopting this method is, that a wheel can be made very much quicker. SPUR-WHEEL MOULDING FROM A SEGMENT AND SPINDLE. No foundry should be without good facilities for mould- ing circular castings with sweeps; for if the necessary rig were always on hand numerous methods would suggest themselves to the founder, whereby much would be saved both in time and lumber in the making of many such cast- ings. 816 THE IRON-FOUNDER. Much loss is suffered by some firms because of the sup- posed cost of preparing the spindle and its adjuncts for this class of work, but I am persuaded that this supposition is purely imaginary, as I shall attempt to show. All that is needed to secure good work by this method is to have the spindle of sufficient strength to support the sweep, and resist the thrust whilst it is being forced round. Fig. 273 is a plan of the centre required, and Fig. 274 is a Fig. 273. Fig. 274. sectional elevation of the same with the spindle set in; its dimensions are as follows: Arms, 2 feet radius, 9 inches wide, 1 inch thick all through. The spindle shown is 2J inches diameter, tapered to 1£ inches along 13 inches of its length at one end, so that, the hub in the centre being 12 inches deep, 1 inch of the spindle will protrude. Have the spindle no longer than is absolutely necessary to allow of 9 inches below the casting to top of centre, and as much above the mould as will allow of the sweep being firmly attached, as shown at Fig. 275. Let the spindle be turned and tapered in the lathe, and after moulding the centre (in open sand) set it on end in the hub, pressing it down about 1 inch, taking care not to SPUR-WHEEL MOULDING. 317 have the centre reach above the taper when cast. To insure an easy withdrawal of the spindle, have a little tallow melted thin, with which to cover the taper end ; over this sprinkle a little fine parting-sand, and be careful when pour- ing the centre not to direct the stream of iron against it. Another important feature is to have the spindle at right angles with the centre. By referring to Fig. 275 it will be seen that two kinds of Fig. 275. arms are shown for securing the sweep. The one shown at A will doubtless recommend itself to most moulders on account of there being no machine work needed in its con- struction. The one at B needs boring and also fitting with a set-screw: it is less troublesome to set, but it must be remembered that it can only be placed on and taken off by passing over the top of the spindle, whilst the one at A can be released on any part of it by simply knocking out the 318 TEE IRON-FOUNDER. key. Fig. 276 shows a bushing or collar to be screwed fast to the spindle when it is thought best to turn the arms loose on the spindle, as is sometimes the case. The spur-wheel illustrated in this article is about 6 feet in diameter, 12 inches deep, 8 inches centre-core, and hub 14 inches deep, 4 inches thick; the arms have a centre-web and come flush with the rim, as shown in elevation on right hand half of Fig. 277. For such a wheel the centre must be sunk 2 feet below the floor, and to set it securely let the end of each arm rest on an iron block or weight firmly bedded down. This done, a hard bed is made level with Fig. 276 the floor and swept off, as seen at Fig. 275. The sweep and arms are now removed and a washer pattern, same diameter as the hub, and as thick as the distance the hub extends past the face (which in this case is 1 inch) is slipped over the spindle; the hole in centre of washer being made to fit the same, to insure a correct match with the cores. The cope is now rammed over the surface and staked at the corners; these stakes must be protected during the process of moulding the wheel, so that the cope when closed will be sure to rest in its original position. After the cope is lifted off and finished, a hole of the requisite dimensions must be dug and the washer again slipped over the spindle, round edge downwards, and bedded correct to depth. This can be accomplished either by marks made on the spindle, or from two points set in the joint to the cope-sweep, on which a straight-edge can rest, SPUR-WHEEL MOULDING. 319 The bottom bed can now be swept off similarly to the top, only that more care is needed to have the parts which form the casting as true as possible. I am aware that in ordinary practice all that is now required is to place the dry-sand teeth-cores in position, and set in the arm-cores, also made of dry sand; but a large experience in this class of work has convinced me that it is impossible to make a true spur- wheel by this method: for, however careful we may be to avoid it, the ugly fact still remains that no two cores are alike; consequently, the wheel must be untrue throughout its whole circumference, and is therefore untrustworthy. Spur-wheels thus made usually have short lives, and such as do not crash during the first few revolutions are broken 1 JL piecemeal, the faulty teeth snapping off from time to time, to be replaced by wrought-iron ones at considerable cost. ' Fig. 278 will explain a method which obviates the difficul- ties spoken of. The core-box A for the arms is made so that the outside shall correspond with the thickness of the rim; on this the teeth must be secured, and the best way' to effect this is to dovetail them on, so that they can be removed when not in use. After laying out the arms bed down lifting-plates shown in plan at B, Fig. 278, and in section at A, Fig. 277. The pattern can now be placed over and the cores rammed. I have shown a core ready for lift- ing away at C, Fig. 278; when the cores are all out, the way is clear for moulding the teeth. In this drawing I have pur- posely left out the spindle that I might more clearly explain 320 THE IRON-FOUNDER. the arrangement for setting the teeth. The pattern sets back a little from the spindle, but an iron guide D is let in, which fits accurately and clips the spindle. This guide has a slot-hole in it, through which a good screw secures it to the pattern. By this method the pattern can be moved in Fig. 278. or out if it should be found necessary to alter the diameter. This, of course, will be discovered when the segment has been tried all round. Be sure of a well-defined mark all round the teeth before commencing to ram, and set the segment to them accurately each move that is made, and the result will be a comparatively true wheel. The drawing shows the segment as having been rammed once and moved around; the side of tooth is set against the SPUR-WHEEL MOULDING. 321 sand at E and also to the tooth-mark at F. When the teeth are all rammed the spindle can Id© taken ont and a piece of waste thrust in the centre hole, over which sand can be rammed firmly, level with the bottom of core-print. The advantage gained by ramming the cores on the bed will be appreciated when the mould is ready for closing, as the feet will guide them to their respective places with ab- solute correctness. Another advantage is that cores and outside, being made from the same pattern, insures an exactness which cannot be expected by any other method. Should it be required to cast a shroud over the teeth on the top side, cut the cope-sweep to correspond with the form and position of the shrouding; this will leave a sand pat- tern, as it were, the imperfections of which can be made good by finishing to a short segment pattern when the cope is lifted off. But should the shrouding be needed on bottom side as well, it will then be necessary to put back the bottom sweep (after the cores are all out), fitted with a tongue which will not only form the shrouding, but will also strike out clearance sufficient to allow of the segment being withdrawn after [the teeth are rammed over it, as shown at B, Fig. 277. A good method of making the segments to be used in forming the bottom shrouding is to halve them along their length so that they fit wedge form at the ends, the top half to have its thickest edge to the front; this of course allows the upper half to slide down the incline, freeing it- self from the teeth as soon as it is touched — a desideratum to be appreciated. My meaning will be seen at once by consulting Fig. 277 at C. The space at B, Fig. 277, will of course require filling up after the teeth are all rammed; this can be accurately done by using a segment made to clear the teeth when it is drawn out. The teeth will serve as a guide to set it by, and a few holes can be bored, through which spikes can be 324 THE IRON-FOUNDER. difference (2 inches) lias been attached to the under side of the web, thus making that side of the pattern correct. After bedding in the pattern thus prepared, make the part- ing inside the arms 2 inches above the web, as seen at B. (This is simply placing as much sand over the web as there is wood under it.) This is done by using a strickle made to rest on the top of the pattern and projecting down far enough to give the correct depth of sand over the web. The parting on the outside must be level with the top of pattern, as seen at 0. After this impression has been taken in the cope, two other strickles are needed — one to work round the outside down to D (Figs. 281 and 283), which will be 4 inches deep, of course. The other is for the inside, and must reach to E (Figs. 281, 282, and 283), and will be just 4 inches deeper than the strickle first used for the inside. After this is done it will be seen that the surfaces in the cope corresponding to G and B will now rest upon D and E, the difference being the same in both instances. In other words, B will exactly fit at E, because the distance from D to E corresponds with the lift in the cope. A METHOD FOE MAKING IRREGULAR-SHAPED PIPES IN GREEN SAND. Theee is in all probability hardly a foundry in exist- ence that has not, in some part of its career, had more or less anxiety over the moulding of jobbing pipes. What is here meant by jobbing pipes are such as are called bends, elbows, tees, breeches, and all the varied forms of pipe needed for the trade. In some cases the anxiety arises from the lack of oven convenience for drying the cores; METROS FOR MAKING IRREG ULAR-SHAPED PIPES. 325 whilst others again lament the cost of making the patterns and core-boxes, which in some instances is great, causing many owners of foundries to shun the business altogether. Strange as it may seem, it is nevertheless true, that the making of these pipes in the regular system is generally 326 THE mON-FOtTNDEn. distasteful to all concerned in their manufacture. The pattern-maker detests the frequent changes which must be made with the old patterns, on account of the dirt and nails with which they are usually covered, — these elements, as we all know, being deadly foes to the keen edge of his tools, — and the moulders almost universally say they would rather make anything else than pipes. To save expense, the plan of striking the thickness on the core, and mould- ing from a dry-sand or loam pattern is often resorted to; but, on the whole, this is a very poor substitute for the pattern and core-box correctly made. Fig. 285. A very excellent method is adopted in some places where a large number of one kind of irregular pipe is required, which is, to cast the halves of the casting to be made : these are finished up and pinned together and used for the pattern, the core being made in green sand along with the mould. But such a pattern, valuable as it is for the purpose for which it was made, is utterly valueless for anything else. The method herein suggested is in reality a modification of the one last mentioned, and fully meets the require- ments of all interested, inasmuch as it can be made to answer for any and every kind of pipe required, be it circle, curve, or straight length, being simply as many half- METHOD FOR MAKING IRREGULAR-SHAPED PIPES. 327 rings or sections of the required diameter and thickness as will form the halves of the pattern from which the casting is to be moulded. These in conjunction with the half- flanges and core-prints are always ready for any order that may come along, the only thing necessary to be made being the core-iron or arbor for the green- sand core ; thereby Fig. 286. obviating all the difficulty connected with the lack of oven facilities, as well as cost of pattern making. The engravings used to illustrate this subject will serve to explain the method more readily than could be done otherwise. Fig. 284 is a perspective view of the bottom half of an elbow pattern formed by the rings, with flanges and core-prints set in position ready for ramming into the bottom box. All the preparation needed is to have a templet of rough board cut out to the form of the inside of the pipe, to which the flanges can be secured. This being laid on the face board in the right position, the rings 328 THE IRON-FOUNDER previously spoken of must be placed over the templet or guide. By referring to Fig. 285, which is a plan of elbow, with the sections or rings marked off, it will be seen that they are to be made tapering or wedge-shaped to any dimension suitable for the job, although it is well to make them as small as practicable, seeing that they must be made flat, and not to the circle or curve of the pattern ; otherwise it would mar their usefulness in the places where it is nearly or altogether straight. The first six, a, b 9 c, d, e,f, are seen Fig. 287. to be all alike, and fit, side by side, round the circle. At g and h is shown the use of odd rings, at different angles, in bringing the joints to the proper angle for taking either wedge or parallel sections, as shown at i and/. The moulder may use his own judgment as to the propriety of making parallel sections, as at h and I ; for, as will be seen by referring to the plan at g, the wedges may be reversed alternately, thus answering for the straight sections of the pipe, as well as the cu rves. There will, of course, be some portions that the rings may fail in wholly covering; but METHOD VOU MAKING IBREG ULAM-8&APM1) PIPES. 320 the ingenuity of the moulder will overcome any difficulty that may arise in that particular. The bottom flask being rammed and turned over, the templet and core-prints removed, and after the prints have Fig. 288. been prepared for parting easily, the core must be rammed and formed in the inside, over which the top halves of the flanges and the rings are to be set, thus con pleting the pattern ready for the top flask. Nothing now remains but to finish the mould in the regular way. Fig. 289. Fig. 290. I think it will be plain to any practical moulder, that when he possesses a set of rings such as I have described he can make any form of pipe wanted, of the diameter and thickness for which the rings were made. The method must commend itself particularly to firms doing a large trade in crooked pipes, constantly changing in form, to suit the several places which they must fit. Very often they are made in loam, to save cost of pattern-making— a very expensive way of moulding such castings, we must 330 T&E mON-FOUNDEn. admit — all of which can be saved by the adoption of the method herein suggested. Of course I admit there is a limit to its usefulness, but do not hesitate to state that all pipes up to 18 inches diameter, of whatever form, may be successfully made at less than half the cost of making by the present methods. One important item in the moulding of pipes by this method is the core-irons or arbors. Very often (when it could be easily avoided) the irons are made in one piece, and have Fig. 291. to be broken out, thus necessitating a new iron for each casting. There is really no need for this expense in the majority of instances, as they can be made in sections, cutting them at such places as will allow of their being drawn from the casting without having to be broken. Fig. 286 is a perspective view of the core-iron required, show- ing a plan of locking two irons together lengthwise. C is where the end of A meets B. In A is cast an iron, formed like the letter L , so that its under side will be level with the top of core-iron, as seen at D. A clamp, E, is cast in B to receive this iron, leaving space between for driving a hard-wood wedge, which will hold the two irons firmly together whilst the core is being made and handled. The wood expands* as it absorbs moisture from the damp sand, METBOB FOR MAKING IRREGULAR- SHAPED PIPES. 881 and is therefore becoming more firm all the time until cast. Then, of course, the wedge shrinks, or burns away; and gives freedom to the irons, making their withdrawal from the casting comparatively easy. Fig. 287 shows plan of core-iron for a pipe of that form. A joins B at G, and the lock is seen at D. When cast, A can be pulled straight out, and B will travel in the direc- tion of the circle. All pipes which are but segements of circles, such as Fig. 288, need only a plain iron, with suitable arrangements for handling, and are easily taken out. Fig. 289 shows an elbow with long end. This iron joins Fig. 292. Fig. 293. together at A, and the lock is as before shown. Fig. 290 is a plan of pipe often made. It will be seen that A joins B at G, making it easy to draw out each part separately. Fig. 291 shows plan of core-iron for a tee or cross-pipe. As will be observed, it requires a somewhat different arrangement to meet this case. Let the reader refer to the perspective view of this iron at Fig. 292: it will be seen at a glance that a recess is left in core-iron B to receive the reduced end of A, which passes in under the clamp and is then wedged firmly to place. It will also be seen that the wings cannot be cast on the reduced end of A, conse- 332 THE iRON-Fomsm. quently loose ones are made to be slipped on after the two irons are braced together. Fig. 293 shows the loose wing, the hole in which can be made large enough to admit of a wood wedge either under or over. These illustrations will, I think, be sufficient to give an idea of the system of core-irons needed to save the expense of making new ones every cast. MOULDING SMALL CASTINGS. Theee are many ways of moulding small work where large numbers of one kind are required. Ordinarily when one or two only are wanted of a casting, such as is seen in plan and section at Fig. 294, the pattern is placed along Fig. 294. Fig. 295. with others in a flask like the one shown at Fig. 296, taking care to joint down to the half of curve on the round edge, so that, after the impression of the top side has been taken in the cope or top part of flask, the pattern can be with- drawn, the gates to the various castings being cut with tools for the purpose. All this is proper where a different casting (or castings) are made in almost every flask; but such castings are in consequence very high in price, on MOULDING SMALL CASTINGS. 333 account of the extra time required to make them. But when a large order of one kind of casting is given, a much better method may be adopted. A good method is shown at Figs. 295 and 296, being an illustration of the match- board system, and eminently suited for this kind of work. Let Fig. 295 be turned so that the cope side is at the bottom, and it will be more readily understood. As will be seen, the match-board takes the correct form of pattern Fig. 296. Fig. 297. up to the half of curve, as seen at B. The patterns — eight in number — are made fast to this board as seen in plan at Fig. 296, the gates also being attached to board, the intention being that when the board is lifted off, all the patterns shall be drawn at once with the gates ready cut. As this work is small, a snap flask will be all that is required to mould them. To accomplish this, let the match-board be large enough to pin on the flask, the pins being long, to reach through the board and into the up- per half of flask, as seen at A, Fig. 297. Commence by 334 THE IRON-FOUNDER. setting the flask down with board between, ram the nowel, and roll over on a rough board. (Let the engraving be now reversed, so as to have cope side on top.) Set in gate-pin C, and ram the cope; after lifting off the cope, tap the corners of the match-board and draw off. Nothing remains now to be done but close the mould over eight washers, made in an incredibly short space of time. Fig. 298 shows another kind of casting, which, if moulded lol "■^-^sii^V>,;">': ; V t ; ."-iV%vJu ... .. '^v^':0l '' pi |ftS'.& ~~ *~^— -iisn ~~j.': , .": : ," : :;]?' ... . ■ .if/^Xv.-^ UJ pTj"-'. ^\--^/ ■»Lj , :.-:-.';:Vt? ; 3 LrpT^ ' 4j % " ! ft:-- v «— ■— in tiiris^j^ Kii \¥*. - ' A ::: ; j-^.-.~^ S t^Sl rjBi ~ :: ^lMi -n |- V'"''' — — C".'-; : 'i-3 '■'{• ..J, Vl ** r i F1 r ^■^■^^^Z7^f^ : ^ il Fig. 298. Fig. 299. in the ordinary way, there would be very slow progress made. A match-board in plan is shown at Fig. 299; ten patterns are arranged with gates attached. Should there be any difficulty in drawing these patterns with the match- board, they can be placed on the board loose and drawn from the sand separately. A section of such a mould is shown at Fig. 297. As will be seen, a flask is needed for such a job as this. The flask is shown, but though the pins are seen at the sides, it is intended that they shall be A METHOD OF MOULDING PIPES AND COLUMNS. 335 set in at the ends, as shown in plan, Fig. 299. Iron plates are of course secured to the edge of the flask through which the pin passes; these serve as a protection to the pin-hole. See A, Fig. 299, and B, Fig. 297. The simplicity of this arrangement is apparent, and will recommend itself to any firm which once in a while receives an order for a large number of castings of a kind similar to those described, but have made them in the ordi- nary way on account of the cost of getting up an elaborate system of match-plates. The cost is trifling compared with the advantages gained, as very inferior men can read- ily turn off treble the quantity of work they have been accustomed to by the ordinary system. A METHOD OF MOULDING PIPES AND COLUMNS. About the year 1863 I was working at the Vauxhall Foundry, Liverpool, England; this firm had on hand at that time a large order of pipes for the corporation of that place. Some of these pipes were of considerable magni- tude, and of such shape, sometimes, that the skill of the very best moulders was tasked almost to its limit to produce them successfully. Large numbers of straight lengths were being swept on end in loam, and, where practicable, patterns were made for the production of others by the ordinary methods in green sand. During this busy time I was much interested in some new arrangements which were being made for the production of straight socket-pipes 3 feet diameter and 10 feet long; but leaving the place before the plan was completed, I was 336 THE IRON-FOUNDER. unable to witness the operation. However, I learned afterwards that it worked admirably. Some five years after this a strike occurred at one of the shops in the town where I was then working, on account of one of these machines being introduced there for the mould- ing of small pipes, resulting finally, after great loss to all concerned, in its being adopted into the family of moulders employed there. Twelve years ago I was standing in the gangway of Delamater's Foundry, New York City, when I was accosted by a man who claimed to be the original inventor of the above-mentioned machine, and, for a slight consideration, offered to make us a model of the same in wood. His offer was accepted, and to work he went, borrowing tools suitable' for the occasion from the pattern-makers. Model made to suit a short length of 6-inch pipe, he at once proceeded to make the mould, which proved to be a correct demonstration of all he had said — a really creditable piece of work. The model was laid away for future consideration, and to the best of my knowledge was never brought out again, the business of the firm not being in that line. I am aware that the great and increasing demand for cast-iron pipes has necessitated the building of large plants for their exclusive manufacture upon the most approved methods; in fact, some of the methods now in vogue are simply astounding, so rapid is the output, and of such excellent quality are the castings. Yet, all this admitted, there is considerable merit in the method herein explained; as much for its suggestiveness in the application of its principles to other kinds of work as well as to the object used for illustration. See Fig. 300. The casting chosen for the purpose of explanation is a straight piece of 12-inch pipe or column. The first requi- site for this method is a table or bed-plate on which to ram A METHOD OF MOULDING PIPES AND COLUMNS. 337 the two parts of the flask, which may be made of wood or iron according as the magnitude of the job demands. These two parts must necessarily be cope or barred flasks, as they are to take the impression from the pattern, which remains 338 TEE IRON-FOUNDER. stationary on its bearings in the bed-plate. In order to accomplish this with accuracy, cams are secured to the ends of the pattern, which are to rest on adjustable bearings at each end of the bed-plate; this allows of the pattern being withdrawn before the cope is lifted off the bed-plate; a simple half turn of the pattern being sufficient to accom- plish this. If the job is a large one, suitable gearing can be secured at one end for this purpose, smaller patterns being easily revolved by a long bar inserted into holes at the end. The accompanying illustrations will enable the reader to under- stand the whole matter at a glance. A is an end elevation, and B is a plan of bed-plate with pattern C in position thereon. Lugs D and E, at both ends, must be arranged so that the cope and drag can be rammed on the one bed plate, either by inserting pins for the flask with holes and vice versa for the one with pins, or any other way which may suggest itself to the reader. I have given at F a view of the pattern raised by the cam into position for ramming; and at G the pattern is shown clear of the mould above and ready for lifting away the flask. The two sectional elevations H and / will show more clearly the working of this method; J and ./Tare the adjust- able bearings upon which the cam revolves, and when that side of the cam which is the furthest removed from the centre is resting on the bearing, the pattern is one half above and the other half below the face of the bed-plate, as seen at F and H, the opposite being the case at G and I, which shows the pattern resting on that side of the cam nearest the centre of the pattern and away from the mould. At L I have shown a section of the upper and lower halves of mould when closed over the core; M being a side elevation of flask, showing lug HF with the pin and key in position. INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING PATTERNS. 339 When the quantity of castings required will admit of such a rig being introduced, an amazing difference in the output will result, as will be readily understood when we consider that there is absolutely no finishing of the mould required. INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING PATTERNS FROM MODELS, TEMPLETS, PLASTER OASTS, CARVED BLOCKS, ETC. Almost every branch of the iron trade has its attractions, and strangers to the business are captivated when they witness for the first time the apparent wonders they see in the several departments of a well-equipped ironworks. But the foundry has claims on the unitiated far greater than all the rest combined. Mystery seems to shroud the manipulations of the moulder, and they exclaim " Won- derful ! " at every new revelation which presents itself to their astonished gaze. Of course the average moulder does not share in this almost universal admiration for his trade: he considers it more or less a humdrum life, with plenty of hard work attending it, and hopes to get out of it as soon as he can. But in almost every foundry there is to be found, a few men who really like the work, and who are never so well pleased as when some job demanding more than ordinary ability to accomplish is given them to make. I am aware that there is considerable sameness when the moulding to be done is from a pattern, and the same pattern every day; such an experience is certainly monotonous. Yet 340 THE 1RON-FOTTNDER. even this has its advantages, inasmuch as such a job allows the mind free scope for other subjects; and if full advantage be taken of this opportunity for thought, much good may come out of it after all. The subject I have chosen for this article is just such a one as must be interesting to all thinking moulders; and while I have selected but a few illustrations to work on, it will be seen that they are sufficient to explain the whole matter intelligibly, thus enabling the moulder to apply the principles to any other job of a like nature. We will first consider what can be done with the templet and strickle. Fig. 301 is the sketch of a section of top and Fig. 301. Fig. 302. bottom railing about 9 inches wide and £ inch thick all over. These are made in various lengths, some straight and others curved at one end. A few hours, at most, will serve to make such a pattern as this by the method under consider- ation, the only outlay for pattern work being the strickle and templet on which it is to travel. First consider a straight piece of pattern, say six feet long, and to the di- mensions given for Fig. 301. Let it be the top half. By referring to Fig. 302 it will be seen at a glance. Such as this can be made readily in a flask by securing parallel pieces (planed to a true surface) on the edges of the flask, as seen INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING PATTERNS. 841 at A. The strickle is shown resting on these pieces, with stop B at one end, to guide it straight. The first thing to be done is to ram the sand very hard in the flask, and strike off the form of top side of pattern; this is the line marked C on the strickle. If this is care- fully done a true and hard surface is the result. Smooth over and dust on the parting sand, taking care to have no more on than is necessary to part the cope. Let the cope be evenly rammed on this and lifted away. Before pro- ceeding to strike out the thickness the bed must be pre- pared, as in this condition it would be altogether too hard for the iron to rest on. After such preparation is made, then strike off the thickness, as shown at line marked D. I have shown a space outside the web at E. This is to aid in securing a good inner edge when the web is deep, leav- ing the outside to be made up with a piece of pattern the thickness required. All that is needed now is the right man to finish up the mould — one who has made the use of his tools a study. Such a man will turn out a pattern by this method, equal in every respect to the one made from a wooden model ; in fact, very often much superior, as there is always great difficulty in keeping such light patterns in shape. Of course blocks can be made to fit them, but this is only adding still more expense; and why incur all this unnecessary outlay when it can be avoided with better results? All that is required when the pattern is to be other than straight is to have the bearings on which the strickle works made to the required curve or angle. Sup- pose we want a curve on one end with a rise or a droop; what more simple than to cast two straight-edges in lead ? With these the problem is solved, for they can be bent to any form desired, and placed at the ends of the parallel straight-edges ; thus furnishing the working plant for mak- ing any form of rail pattern required, or any other of a similar form. 849 THE mON-FOlJNDEn. Patterns for lintels, cornices, sills, etc., are usually required to be from J inch to f inch thick. If made of wood, they are very costly and are easily broken. An excellent method for making all such patterns is shown in Fig. 303, which is a perspective view of the templets AB, and strickle C, rest- ing on the ends. The pattern intended to be made from these is a lintel, about 6 feet long, 1 foot 6 inches wide and 6 inches deep, with 10 inches rise in the arch. The design is to be as shown on the strickle. The guide-stop D can be on either side or on both. All that is required to make such a pattern is to level a bed on the floor on which to place the templet, then, after ramming in sufficient sand to form the mould, the strickle, which forms the outside of pattern to be made, must be first used, taking care to have the face true and hard. Should it be required to continue the design at each end, then guides E must be screwed on the ends of the templet, on which to work the strickle up and down. When this is done, take away the templet and finish well before the parting sand is used. Of course it requires care in placing the lifters and ramming the cope, so as not to disturb any of the sand model, but when properly done a good impression can be had. When the cope is lifted off, the templet must be replaced, and after the requisite preparations for venting, etc., have been made, proceed to ram the core, and with strickle No. 2 (which must have the required thickness allowed when made) proceed as directed for the outside. I may be pardoned for again saying that unless a first- class workman be entrusted with this kind of work, good results cannot ensue, as there are so many points to be watched, such as the even ramming, correct finish, and an eye at all times to the draught required to insure a smooth working pattern. Although I have not shown ends on the templet at Fig. 303, they can be put on when it is thought advantageous. INSTRUCTIONS FOR MARINO PATTERNS. 343 It will at once be seen that this method may be applied to a wide range of work, and that it costs comparatively nothing for pattern-making. The strickle can be made equally efficacious in producing other forms of patterns; for circles are as readily made by it as those we have been considering. Fig. 304 is an elevation of a half base for an 18-inch column, T 5 g- inch thick. By re- ferring to Fig. 305 it will be seen that such a pattern can be made on the same principle as described for the flat surfaces. The strickle A works on circular bearings i?C attached to the ends of flask D. The bearings are to be of the same diam- Fig. 303. Fig. 304. eter as the outside of ends of pattern required. The first strickle forms the outside, the impression of which is taken in the cope, after which the thickness is struck off, as before shown. But a much readier way is shown at Fig. 306 to make this pattern; the cope is there shown as the templet instead of the nowel. To do this it is necessary to have the cope barred to suit the job and rammed from the inside, making sure to have the joint good and firm. The first strickle in this case forms the surface in which the core is to be rammed, and after treating it in the same manner as before directed for parting, the nowel is rammed and both parts rolled over together. When the cope is again turned back, 344 THE IRON FOUNDER. strickle No. 2 is used to strike out the thickness, and this, of course, will be the outside of the pattern. As a rule, the latter method is the best, as it gives less trouble in ram- ming, and secures a better core with less labor. It is right to say here that when method shown at Fig. 306 is adopted, the ends must be of the same diameter as the inside of pattern. Numerous illustrations might be given to show the adaptability of this method to the production of other cir- cular patterns, but I feel sure that enough has been said to prove its adequacy; for by slight modifications of the sys- tem almost every emergency may be met successfully. We will now consider the subject of making cast patterns from models, plaster casts, and carved blocks. Fig. 307 is the sketch of a newel-post, quite a familiar object, and needs no explanation. My reasons for selecting this post is because it furnishes capital opportunities for illustrating the method of making patterns from carved blocks. This post is sup- posed to be 12 inches square at the base and cap, and 3 feet high ; such a post is usually made up of four thin slabs about i inch thick, mitred at the corners, and held together by internal fastenings. Being sold at so much apiece, it of course behooves the founder to keep them as light as possi- ble, especially as competition in their manufacture is very keen. In fact, however massive any of this class of work may seem, we may rest assured that it is just as thin as the manufacturer knew how to make it. Some of this work is really handsome, and tests the skill of the carver to pro- duce it, but carving out the face side is not the whole difficulty. If (as is sometimes attempted) the back is cut out to the desired thickness all over, the chances are that some parts will be cut through, whilst other parts will not be cut deep enough; and to avoid the former evil, it is considered best to be on the safe side, and the casting is consequently much heavier than it ought to be. All this INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING PATTERNS. 345 can be easily remedied by a very simple process. Fig. 308 is the perspective view of a slab of very plain design. It will be seen that in making such a slab from which to mould the pattern sufficient lumber must be used, either solid or built in layers, to suit the form of pattern, and high enough to leave the block firm after the deepest recesses have been cut out. The block is to be mitred on the sides its whole length, as seen at A] the line of thickness is also shown on the end at BC, and from this line let the block be well tapered at both ends. Fig. 305. We will now show how to make a cast pattern from this block i inch thick. To do so, we require two copes that are an exact fit to the same nowel. Let the block be set face up (convenient for easy moulding) in cope No. 1 in the customary way for rolling over. Ram the nowel very hard and roll over both parts together. In making the joint, be sure of a little surface past the feather-edge (for reasons to be explained further on), and be careful to have the joint at the ends exact to the thickness line; this impression must now be taken in cope No. 1, which must also be rammed extra hard. Lift off the cope and lay back on soft sand, draw out the block and proceed to lay in the thick- ness, which will be made of clay, after this manner: The best clay for the purpose is the red, smooth kind; have it dried and crushed ; then sift through a fine sieve and mix 346 TMM IRON-FOUNDER. the consistency of stiff putty. Now lay two strips \ inch thick on a smooth board as far apart as required, and roll out the clay between. All that is now needed is a knife and a little ingenuity, and the clay may be cut and laid on the hard mould with the greatest accuracy, every part of the surface being correct to thickness. It will now be seen why the bottom was to be rammed so hard the first time, and also why the joint was to be extended past the feather- edge; in the latter case the thickness can stand past the edge a little when laid on, and pared off even with the joint Fig. 306. afterwards. Now prepare for parting, and take this im- pression in cope No. 2. (This will be the top part of mould and the back of pattern. ) Should there be intricate parts in the lift, clamp the two parts together and roll them both back on a soft bed. You can now loosen the nowel and lift the sand away carefully without disturbing any of the mould in the cope. When the clay is removed you have a perfect impression. In finishing this, be careful to give good draft where it is needed. The necessity of cope No. 1 is now seen, for the joint in this is the same impress as that in cope No. 2, and nothing remains to be done but to place in the back, bring on the nowel, and ram so as to give a good, even casting. When this is turned over, cope No. 1 ends its usefulness by leaving you the joint exactly INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING PATTERNS. 347 corresponding with the impression taken in cope No. 2, so that you have an absolute fit when they are placed together, and an even thickness at every part of the pattern. Should the design be very elaborate, with many delicate edges, it will facilitate the thicknessing very much if a coat of plaster be run over the pattern instead of the hard ramming as Fig. 308. directed, thus leaving a good hard face to lay the clay to. This is best where there is very fine carving and the pattern is to be extra light, such as for ornaments, fine mouldings, and all patterns for decorative purposes. When the model covers a large space it is customary for the designer to have it cast in plaster sections to insure easy and safe shipments. To make a pattern from such sections it will (in the majority of instances) be found best to cast 348 THE IRON-FOUNDEB. the face in the cope. These sections will have no regular form on the back, as there is no particular attention paid to that part of the model, only to have sufficient body of plaster to take in the deepest recesses; it will therefore require some modifications of the previous instructions to make such patterns face side up. Let the nowel be placed on the floor and proceed to arrange the sections of model (face up) in such a manner as will be most convenient for moulding, and be sure that all the several pieces have a solid bearing, so that the ramming of the cope will not dis- turb any of them. As before, there will be copes No. 1 and No. 2 in this case. After the joint has been rammed very hard it must be formed carefully all round, and the whole face prepared for separation. Cope No. 1 will be now used, and as this will be for the mould proper, every pre- caution must be taken to secure a good face; and when rammed it must be lifted off and placed aside. Now bring on cope No. 2, and be sure to ram the face of this as hard as possible; when this is laid back on the floor the clay thickness is to be laid on accurately all over the impress of model as before shown, and after the necessary preparations for an easy separation have been made the nowel must be rammed, due precautions being taken to secure a good mould. The whole can now be rolled back and the cope lifted off carefully, so as not to disturb any of the mould under the clay. Nothing more is required but to finish cope No. 1 and the nowel, and then close The joints of course will correspond, for although the nowel-joint is the impress of cope No. 2, it must be remembered that both copes were rammed on the same joint, before the nowel was lifted to be rammed on cope No. 2. I shall be excused, I think, for so much apparent repeti- tion in these instructions, because I know that, to those who have had no experience in this class of work, there seems more or less mystery in the use of two copes; but a little INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING PATTERNS. 349 thought will overcome all this, and the whole thing appear in all its simplicity. To foundries where no pattern-makers are employed a knowledge of the methods is indispensable, as it places them (so far as this class of work is concerned) on an equal footing with the best-equipped firms. To conclude : I would say that many ingenious contriv- ances will suggest themselves to the moulder engaged on this line of work; as, for instance, a rough block with bear- ings for a strickle to work on can be struck off in plaster to any design which runs the same along its whole length; this can be used as a model and backed out with clay thickness as directed. All such patterns as are shown at Fig. 301 can be treated this way, thereby enabling the moulder to choose either the method explained at Fig. 302 or the one just con- sidered. In fact, this article is but a mere outline of what can be done by these methods; for when once entered into it will be found that scarcely any limit can be placed to its usefulness. PART VI. MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS, RECIPES, TABLES, ETC. USEFUL EULES OE MENSUKATION. Mensuration of the Circle, Cylinder, Sphere, Square, etc. (1) The areas of circles are to each other as the squares of their diameters. (2) The diameter of a circle being 1, its circumference equals 3.1416. (3) The diameter of a circle is equal to .31831 of its circumference. (4) The square of the diameter of a circle being 1, its area equals .7854. (5) The diameter of a circle multiplied by .8862, or the circumference multiplied by ,2821, equals the side of a square of equal area. (6) The sum of the diameters of two concentric circles multiplied by their difference and by ,7854 equals the area of the space or ring contained between them. (7) The sum of the thickness and internal diameter of a cylindric ring multiplied by the square of its thickness and by 2.4674 equals its solidity. (8) The circumference of a cylinder multiplied by its length or height equals its convex surface. (9) The area of the end of a cylinder multiplied by its length equals its solid contents. (10) The square of the diameter of a sphere multiplied by 3. 1416 equals its convex surface. 350 MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS, RECIPES, ETC. 351 (11) The cube of the diameter of a sphere multiplied by .5236 equals its solid coutents. (12) The height of any spherical segment or zone multi- plied by the diameter of the sphere of which it is a part and by 3.1416 equals the area of the convex surface of the seg- ment ; or, (13) The height of the segment multiplied by the circum- ference of the sphere of which it is a part equals the area. (14) The solidity of any spherical segment is equal to three times the square of the radius of its base plus the square of its height, and multiplied by its height and by .5236. (15) The solidity of a spherical zone equals the sum of the squares of the radii of its two ends and one third the square of its height multiplied by the height and by 1.5708. (16) The side of a square equals the square root of its area. (17) The diagonal of a square equals the square root of twice the square of its side. (18) The side of a square is equal to the square root of half the square of its diagonal. (19) The side of a square equal to the diagonal of a given square contains double the area of the given square. Of Tkiangles, Polygons, etc. (20) The complement of an angle is its defect from a right angle. (21) The supplement of an angle is its defect from two right angles. (22) The area of a triangle equals half the product of the base multiplied by the perpendicular height; or, (23) The area of a triangle equals half the product of the two sides and the natural sine of the contained angle. Ellipses, Cokes, etc. (24) The product of the two axes of an ellipse multiplied by .7854 equals its area. 352 THE IRON-FOUNDER. (25) The curve surface of a cone is equal to half the product of the circumference of its base multiplied by its slant side ; to which if the area of the base be added the sum is the whole surface. (26) The solidity of a cone equals one third of the prod- uct of its base multiplied by its altitude or height. (27) The squares of the diameters of the two ends of the frustum of a cone, added to the product of the two diame- ters, and that sum multiplied by its height and by .2618, equals its solidity. OAST-IKON ALLOYS. To Toughek Oast-ieok. — 10 to 15 per cent of wrought- iron scrap (stirred in) ; i of 1 per cent of copper (stirred in). WEIGHT OF CAST-IRON BALLS IN POUNDS. Dia. Weight. Dia. Weight. Dia. Weight. Dia. Weight. Dia. Weight. .137 3f 7.22 64 38 n 109 12 237 H .194 H 7.97 6| 40 9f 113 124 268 H .265 4 8.76 6f 43 94 118 13 301 If .354 H 9.61 6i 45 91 123 134 338 14 .461 4 10.51 7 47 9| 127 14 376 If .587 4f 11.47 n 50 91 132 144 418 If .732 44 12.48 % 53 10 138 15 463 11 .902 4f 13.5 n 55 101 143 154 511 2 1.09 4| 14.6 n 58 10i 148 16 562 2* 1.31 4£ 15.8 n 61 lOf 153 164 623 2i 1.56 5 17.1 7| 64 104 159 17 674 2f 1.83 H 18.4 71 67 10f 165 m 735 2* 2.13 5i 19.8 8 71 10f 171 18 799 2| 2.47 5f 21.2 81 74 101 177 184 868 2f 2.84 54 22.7 Si 77 11 183 19 940 n 3.25 5f 24.3 8f 81 111 189 194 1016 3 3.69 5f 26.0 84 85 Hi 196 20 1097 31 4.17 51 27.5 8f 88 iif 202 204 1181 3i 4.70 6 29.5 8f 92 114 209 21 1269 3f 5.26 H 31.7 81 96 iif 216 22 1459 34 5.87 6i 33.4 9 100 hi 223 23 1667 3f 6.32 6f 35.4 H 105 hi 230 24 1894 MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS, RECIPES, ETC. 353 TABLE Showing the Weight oh Pressure a Beam op Cast iron will Sustain without Destroying its Elastic Force when it is Supported at Each End and Loaded in the Middle. All the Beams are one inch thick. Length Length Length Length Length Depth in 6 feet. 7 feet. 8 feet. 9 feet. 10 feet. Inehss. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 3 1,278 1,089 954 855 765 3i 1,739 1,482 1,298 1,164 1,041 4 2,272 1,936 1,700 1,520 1,360 4i 2,875 2,450 2,146 1,924 1,721 5 3,560 3,050 2,650 2,375 2,125 6 5,112 4,356 3,816 3,420 3,060 7 6,958 5,929 5,194 4,655 4,165 8 9,088 7,144 6,784 6,080 5,440 9 9,801 8,586 7,695 6,885 10 12,100 10,600 9,500 8,500 11 12,826 11,495 10,285 12 15,264 13,680 12,240 13 16,100 14,400 14 18,600 16,700 CHAPLETS. Thicknessrof Column. Diam. of Stud, m", r,!".. r lMr.u" ,.... r ir, 1*", wir r W, 2", 2i", 2±", 2f" r 2r,2r, 2r,2r i" 3", 8J", 3J" U" 354 THE IRON-FOUNDER. WEIGHT IN POUNDS OF CIRCULAR PLATES ONE INCH THICK FROM 1 TO 103 INCHES IN DIAMETER. Dia. Weight. Dia. Weight. Dia. Weight. Dia. Weight. Dia. Weight. 1 .204 Hi 27 25 128 54 596 94 1805 tt .459 HI 29 25* 133 55 618 95 1843 2 .618 12 30 26 139 56 641 96 1882 2i 1.04 13i 31 26* 144 57 664 97 1922 2* 1.27 12* 32 27 149 58 687 98 1962 2f 1.55 12f 34 27* 156 59 711 99 2002 3 1.84 13 35 28 161 60 736 100 2043 8i 2.16 13i 36 28* 166 61 760 101 2084 3* 2.51 13* 38 29 172 62 785 102 2125 3| 2.90 13| 39 29* 178 63 811 103 2167 4 3.27 14 41 30 184 64 837 104 2208 4i 3.69 14i 42 30* 190 65 863 105 2252 4* 4.14 14* 43 31 197 66 890 106 2295 4* 4.61 14f 45 31* 203 67 917 107 2339 5 5.11 15 46 32 210 68 945 108 2382 6i 5.43 15* 48 32* 216 69 973 109 2427 6* 6.18 15* 50 33 223 70 1001 110 2472 5| 6.76 15| 51 33* 230 71 1030 111 2517 6 7.35 16 53 34 237 72 1059 112 2562 «i 7.98 16i 54 34* 244 73 1089 113 2608 6* 8.63 16* 56 35 251 74 1119 114 2655 6| 9.41 16| 58 35* 258 75 1149 115 2700 7 10.10 17 60 36 265 76 1180 116 2748 7i 10.74 17i 61 37 280 77 1211 117 2783 7i 11.49 17i 63 J38 295 78 1243 118 2834 n 12.27 17f 65 39 311 79 1275 119 2892 8 13.10 18 67 40 327 80 1307 120 2941 8i 13.85 18* 70 41 344 81 1340 121 2990 8* 14.77 19 74 42 361 82 1374 122 3040 8f 15.64 19* 78 43 378 83 1407 123 3090 9 16.55 20 82 44 396 84 1441 124 3141 9i 17.48 20* 86 45 414 85 1477 125 3191 9* 18.43 21 91 46 433 86 1510 126 3243 9* 19.42 21* 93 47 452 87 1546 127 3294 10 20.42 22 99 48 471 88 1588 128 3346 10* 21.4 22* 104 49 491 89 1618 129 8399 io* 22.5 23 109 50 511 90 1655 130 3452 10f 24 23* 113 51 532 91 1692 n 25 24 118 52 553 92 1729 Hi 26 24* 123 53 574 93 1767 MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS, RECIPES, ETC. 355 TABLE OF DIMENSIONS AND WEIGHTS OP SHORT LINKED CHAINS AND ROPES, AND PROOF OF CHAIN IN TONS. Haswell. Dia. of Chain. Inches. Weight per Fathom. Lbs. I 1 3 TtT 1 8.5 11 14 18 24 28 32 36 44 50 56 Proof Strain. Tons. Circum- ference of Rope. Inches. .75 1.5 2.5 3.5 4.5 5.25 6.5 7.75 9.25 10.75 12.5 14 24 3£ 4 4f 6* 6* 7 n 9 9£ 10 Weight of Rope per Fathom. Lbs. 1.5 2.5 3.75 5 7 8.7 10.5 12 15 17.5 19.5 22 Chains for cranes should be made of short oval links, and should not exceed one inch in diameter. The ropes of the sizes given are considered to be of equal strength with the chains, which being short-linked are made without studs. — Has- well. Templeton. Dia. of Chain. Proof Strain. Dia. of Chain. Proof Strain. Inches. Tons. Inches. Tons. T 5 * 1 T 9 6 5 I 2 # 6 Tf 3 n 8 * 4 i • n Proof Strain. Tons. Hi 13 15 18 TO MEND CASTINGS. To Mend Holes in Castings.— Sulphur in powder, 1 part; sal-ammoniac in powder, 2 parts; fine iron borings, 80 parts. Make into a thick paste and fill the holes. Note.— These ingredients can be kept separate, and mixed when required. 356 THE IRON-FOUNDER. Sulphur, 2 parts; fine black-lead, 1 part. Melt the sul- phur in an iron pan; then add the lead; stir well and pour out. When cool, break into small pieces. A suf- ficient quantity being placed on the part to be mended can be soldered with a hot iron. Cement for covering Scars or stopping Holes in Castings.— (This will resist fire or water.) — Equal parts of gum-arabic, plaster of Paris, and iron filings. A little finely pulverized white glass added to this mixture makes it still harder. Keep in a dry state, and mix with water when wanted. To Fill Holes in Castings. — Lead, 9 parts; anti- mony, 2; and bismuth, 1. Melt together and pour in. (Expands in cooling.) WEIGHT OF ONE CUBIC INCH OF DIFFERENT METALS IN POUNDS. Metal. Lbs. Brass (average) 3023 Bronze ' 306 Copper, cast .3135 Gold, pure .6965 Iron, cast 2622 Iron, wrought 282 Lead, cast 415 Steel 281 Tin, cast 263 Zinc, cast 26 Antimony 242 Bismuth 355 Manganese 289 Silver 378 Platinum 735 Cadmium 312 Potassium 031 MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS, RECIPES, ETC. 357 WEIGHT OF DIFFERENT SUBSTANCES IN POUNDS. Cubic Inch. Antimony 242 Bismuth 355 Brass 319 Bronze 314 Manganese 289 Mercury , 491 Nickel 318 Fresh water 03617 Sand 055 Coal 0452 Brick 0723 Oak 0351 Ash '.. .0305 Cork 0087 Pitch pine 024 CAPACITY OF CISTERNS FOR EACH 10 INCHES IN DEPTH. Feet Diameter. Galls. 2.... 19.5 2.5 30.6 3... 44.07 3.5 59.97 4 78.33 4.5 99.14 5... 122.4 5.5. 6.. 6.5 7.. 7.5 8.. 149 .177 ,207 .240 .276 .314 Feet Diameter. 8.5 9 9.5 10 11 12 13 14 15 20 25 30 Galls. . 354 . 397 . 442 . 490 . 593 . 705 . 828 . 960 .1102 .1959 .3060 .4407 858 THE IRON-FOUNDER. THE FRACTIONAL PARTS OF AN INCH IN DECIMALS. i = .875 f + tV = .9375 .75 t + A = .8125 .625 f + tV = .6875 .500 * + tV = .5625 .375 f + iV = .4375 .250 I + tV = .3125 .125 1 1 1 8 T^ 16 = .1875 .0625 MELTING-POINTS OF SOLIDS. Cast-iron 3477° Wrought-iron 3981° Gold 2587° Silver 1250° Steel 2501° Brass 1897° Copper 2550° Glass 2377° Platinum 3077° Lead 600° Zinc 741° Cadmium 602° Saltpetre 600° Tin ,420° Sulphur 225° Potassium 135° Antimony 951 c Bismuth ,476° STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. Tensile or breaking strength is the ability of the metal to resist a force tending to pull it apart. Elastic resistance is the tendency of the metal to return back to its original shape and dimensions. RELATIVE STIFFNESS OF MATERIALS TO RESIST A TRANSVERSE STRAIN. Ash 089 Oak 095 Beech 072 White Pine ... .1 Cast-iron .. ..1. Wrought-iron . . . ....1.3 Elm ..... .073 Yellow Pine. . . . ... .087 MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS, MECIPES, EOT. 359 WEIGHT OF CAST-IRON PIPES PER LINEAL FOOT FROM 2 INCHES TO 10 FEET CORE. The Diameter of Core is given in Inches and the weight of One Lineal Foot in Lbs. Dia. i 1 i i 1 7 8 1 n 2 5.51 8.71 12.25 16.07 20.2 25 30 35 2i 6.12 9.65 13.47 17.61 23 27 32 38 n 6.73 10.57 14.7 19.13 24 29 35 40 8* 7.35 11.47 15.92 20.67 26 32 37 43 3 .7.96 12.41 17.15 22.2 28 34 40 46 3i 8.57 13.32 18.37 24 30 36 42 49 3* 9.18 14.25 19.6 26 32 38 45 51 3| 9.8 15.15 21 27 34 40 47 54 4 10.41 16.07 23 29 35 42 50 57 4i 11.02 17 24 30 37 44 52 60 U 11.63 17.91 25 32 39 47 54 63 4f 12.25 19 26 33 41 49 57 65 5 12.86 120 26 35 43 51 59 68 5i 13.47 21 29 36 45 53 62 71 H 14.08 22 30 38 46 55 64 74 5| 14.69 '23 31 40 48 57 67 76 6 15.31 24 32 41 50 59 69 79 6i 16 25 34 43 52 62 72 82 6£ 17 26 35 44 54 64 74 85 6| 18 27 36 46 56 66 76 87 7 18 28 37 47 57 68 79 90 7£ 19 29 38 49 59 70 81 93 7i 19 29 40 50 61 72 84 96 7| 20 30 41 52 63 74 86 98 8 21 31 42 53 65 77 89 101 8i 21 32 43 55 67 79 91 104 8i 22 33 45 56 68 81 94 107 8| 23 34 46 58 70 83 96 109 9 23 35 47 i 59 72 85 99 112 9i 24 36 48 61 74 87 101 115 Oi 24 37 50 63 76 89 103 118 9f 25 38 51 64 78 92 106 120 10 26 39 52 66 80 94 108 123 10* 26 40 53 67 81 96 111 126 10| 27 40 54 69 83 98 113 129 lOf 27 41 56 70 85 100 116 131 11 28 42 57 72 87 102 118 134 360 THE IRON-FOUNDER. Dia. U If n If If 1 1 2 3 2 40 46 52 58 65 72 79 148 2i 43 49 56 62 69 76 84 155 2£ 46 53 59 66 73 81 89 162 2| 49 56 63 70 78 85 94 170 3 53 59 67 74 82 90 99 177 3ir 56 63 70 78 86 95 103 184 3£ 59 66 74 82 91 99 108 192 3f 62 70 78 86 95 104 113 199 4 65 73 81 90 99 108 118 206 4i 68 76 85 94 103 113 123 214 4£ 71 80 89 98 108 118 128 221 4| 74 83 92 102 112 122 . 133 228 5 77 86 96 106 116 127 138 236 5i 80 90 100 110 121 131 143 243 5i 83 93 103 114 125 136 148 250 5| 86 96 107 118 129 141 152 258 6 89 100 111 122 133 145 157 265 6± 92 103 114 126 138 150 162 272 6i 95 107 118 130 142 154 167 280 6f 98 110 122 134 147 159 172 287 7 102 113 125 138 151 164 177 295 1i 105 117 129 142 155 168 182 302 n 108 120 133 146 159 173 187 309 7f 111 123 136 150 163 177 192 317 8 114 127 140 154 168 182 197 324 8i 117 130 144 158 172 187 201 331 8£ 120 134 148 162 176 191 206 339 8| 123 137 151 . 166 181 196 211 346 9 126 140 155 170 185 200 216 353 9i 129 144 159 174 189 205 221 361 91 132 147 162 178 193 210 226 368 9| 135 150 166 182 198 214 231 375 10 138 154 170 186 202 219 236 383 10i 141 157 174 190 206 223 241 390 10^ 144 161 178 194 211 228 246 397 10f 147 164 181 198 215 232 250 405 11 151 167 184 202 219 237 255 412 MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS, BECIPES, ETC. WEIGHT OF CAST-IRON PIPES— Continued. mi Dia. i i f 1 n tt If 2 m 29 58 89 121 154 188 224 261 Hi 29 59 91 123 157 192 228 266 111 30 61 93 126 160 196 233 271 12 31 62 94 128 163 199 237 275 12i 32 63 96 131 166 203 241 280 m 33 64 98 133 169 206 245 285 12| 33 66 100 136 172 210 249 290 13 34 67 102 138 175 214 253 295 13i 34 68 103 140 178 217 258 299 m 35 69 105 143 181 221 262 304 13| 35 70 107 145 184 225 266 309 14 36 72 109 148 187 228 271 314 14i 37 73 111 150 190 232 275 319 14i 37 74 113 152 193 236 279 324 14f 38 75 114 155 197 239 283 329 15 38 76 116 157 200 243 288 334 15i 39 78 118 160 203 247 292 339 15i 40 79 120 162 206 250 296 344 15f 41 80 122 165 209 254 301 348 16 42 81 124 167 212 258 305 353 16J 41 83 125 170 215 261 309 358 16£ 42 84 127 172 218 265 314 363 16f 42 85 129 174 221 269 318 368 17 43 86 131 177 224 272 322 373 171 43 87 133 179 227 276 326 378 m 44 89 135 182 230 280 330 383 17f 45 90 136 184 233 283 335 388 18 46 91 138 187 236 287 339 393 18* 46 94 142 192 242 295 348 402 19 48 96 146 197 249 302 356 412 19* 49 99 149 201 255 309 365 422 20 50 101 153 206 261 317 374 432 201 51 103 157 211 267 324 382 442 21 53 106 160 216 273 331 391 451 21* 54 108 164 221 279 339 399 461 22 55 111 168 226 285 346 408 471 22£ 56 113 171 231 291 353 416 481 23 57 116 175 236 298 361 425 491 23f 59 118 179 241 304 368 434 500 24 60 121 182 246 310 375 442 510 25 62 125 190 255 322 390 459 530 26 65 130 197 265 334 405 476 549 27 67 135 204 275 345 419 494 569 28 69 140 212 285 359 434 511 589 29 72 145 219 295 371 450 528 608 30 75 150 227 304 383 464 545 628 S62 THE IRON-FOUNDER. WEIGHT OF CAST-IRON PIPES— Continued. Dia. i i 1 1 tt 1* If 2 31 79 155 234 314 394 478 562 647 32 79 160 241 324 408 493 579 667 33 82 165 249 334 420 508 597 687 34 84 170 256 344 432 522 614 706 35 87 174 263 353 445 537 631 726 36 89 179 271 363 457 552 648 745 37 92 184 278 373 469 567 665 765 38 94 189 285 383 481 581 682 785 39 97 194 293 393 494 596 699 804 40 99 199 300 402 506 611 718 824 41 102 204 308 412 518 625 734 843 42 104 209 315 422 530 640 751 863 43 106 214 322 432 543 655 768 883 44 109 219 329 442 555 669 785 902 45 111 223 337 451 567 684 802 922 46 114 228 344 461 579 699 820 941 47 116 234 352 471 592 714 837 961 48 119 238 359 481 604 728 854 981 49 121 243 366 491 616 743 871 1000 50 124 248 374 500 628 758 888 1020 51 126 253 381 510 641 772 905 1039 52 129 258 388 520 653 787 922 1059 53 131 263 396 530 665 802 940 1079 54 133 268 403 540 678 816 957 1098 55 136 272 410 549 690 831 974 1118 56 138 278 418 .559 702 846 991 1137 57 141 282 425 569 714 861 1008 1157 58 143 287 432 579 726 875 1025 1177 59 146 292 440 589 739 890 1043 1196 60 148 297 447 598 751 905 1060 1216 61 151 302 454 618 763 919 1077 1235 62 153 307 462 628 775 934 1095 1255 63 155 312 469 638 788 949 1111 1275 64 158 317 476 647 800 964 1128 1294 65 160 322 484 647 812 978 1145 1314 66 163 326 491 657 824 993 1163 1333 67 165 331 499 666 837 1008 1180 1353 68 168 336 506 677 849 1022 1197 1373 69 170 341 513 687 861 1037 1214 1392 70 173 346 521 696 873 1052 1231 1412 71 175 351 528 706 886 1066 1248 1432 72 178 356 535 716 898 1081 1266 1451 73 180 361 543 726 910 1096 1283 1471 74 182 365 550 736 922 1111 1304 1490 75 185 371 557 745 934 1125 1304 1510 76 187 375 565 755 947 1140 1317 1530 MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS, RECIPES, ETC. 863 WEIGHT OF CAST-IRON VIPK&— Continued. Dia. * i f 1 li 1* H 2 77 190 380 572 765 959 1155 1334 1549 78 192 385 579 775 971 1169 1351 1569 79 195 390 587 785 984 1184 1368 1588 80 197 395 594 794 1000 1199 1386 1608 81 200 400 601 804 1008 1213 1403 1628 82 202 405 609 814 1020 1228 1419 1647 83 204 410 616 824 1033 1243 1437 1667 84 207 415 624 834 1045 1258 1454 1686 85 209 420 631 843 1057 1272 1489 1706 86 212 424 638 853 1069 1287 1506 1726 87 214 429 646 863 1082 1302 1523 1745 88 217 434 653 873 1094 1316 1540 1765 89 219 439 660 883 1106 1329 1557 1784 90 222 444 668 892 1119 1346 1574 1804 91 224 449 675 902 1131 1360 1591 1824 92 227 454 682 912 1143 1375 1609 1843 93 229 459 690 922 1155 1390 1626 1863 94 231 464 697 932 1167 1404 1643 1882 95 234 468 704 941 1180 1419 1660 1902 96 236 473 712 951 1192 1434 1677 1922 97 239 478 719 961 1204 1449 1694 1941 98 241 483 726 971 1217 1463 1711 1961 99 244 488 734 981 1229 1478 1729 1980 100 246 493 741 990 1241 1493 1746 2000 101 249 498 748 1000 1253 1508 1763 2020 102 251 503 756 1010 1266 1522 1780 2039 103 254 508 763 1020 1278 1537 1797 2059 104 256 513 771 1030 1290 1552 1814 2078 105 258 518 778 1039 1302 1566 1832 2098 106 261 522 785 1049 1315 1581 1849 2118 107 263 527 793 1059 1327 1596 1866 2137 108 266 532 799 1069 1339 1610 1883 2157 109 268 537 807 1079 1351 1625 1900 2176 110 271 542 815 1088 1364 1640 1917 2196 111 273 547 822 1098 1376 1655 1934 2216 112 276 552 829 1108 1388 1669 1952 2235 113 278 557 837 1118 1400 1684 1969 2255 114 280 562 844 1128 1413 1699 1986 2274 115 283 567 851 1137 1425 1713 2003 2294 116 285 571 859 1147 1437 1728 2020 2314 117 288 576 866 1157 1449 1743 2036 2333 118 290 581 873 1167 1462 1757 2055 2353 119 293 586 881 1177 1474 1772 2072 2373 120 295 591 888 1187 1486 1787 2089 2392 364 THE IRON-FOUNDER WEIGHT PER LINEAL FOOT OF ROUND COLUMNS. Columns in Inches and weight of One Lineal Foot in Lbs. Dia. * # I *7 8 1 1* i* U u If If 1 ? 1 8 2 4 18 21 24 27 30 5 28 27 32 36 40 43 46 49 52 6 26 33 39 44 49 54 59 63 67 70 73 76 79 7 32 40 46 53 59 65 71 76 81 86 91 96 100 8 37 46 54 62 69 76 83 99 96 102 108 114 120 9 42 52 61 70 79 87 95 103 111 118 125 132 138 10 47 58 68 79 89 98 108 117 125 134 142 150 157 11 52 64 76 87 99 109 120 130 140 150 159 168 177 12 57 70 83 96 108 120 132 144 155 166 176 187 197 18 62 76 91 105 118 131 144 157 170 182 193 205 216 14 67 83 100 115 128 143 157 170 184 198 211 224 236 15 72 89 105 122 138 154 169 184 199 214 228 242 255 16 76 95 113 131 148 164 181 197 214 230 245 260 275 17 81 100 120 138 157 175 193 210 228 245 262 279 295 18 86 106 127 .147 167 186 206 225 243 261 279 297 314 19 91 113 135 156 177 197 218 238 258 277 296 315 334 20 96 119 142 165 187 208 230 251 272 293 314 334 353 21 101 125 149 173 197 220 242 264 287 309 330 352 373 22 106 182 157 182 206 231 255 278 302 325 348 371 393 28 111 138 164 190 216 242 267 292 317 341 365 389 412 24 116 148 171 198 226 253 279 305 331 357 382 407 432 WEIGHT OF CASTINGS FROM PATTERNS. A Pattern, weighing One Pound, made of— will weigh, when cast, in Cast-iron. Zinc. Copper Yellow Brass. Gun- metal. Mahogany, Nassau Honduras. Spanish. . . Pine, Red " White Lbs. 10.7 12.9 8.5 12.5 16.7 14.1 9 Lbs. 10.4 12.7 8.2 12.1 16.1 13.6 8.6 Lbs. 12.8 15.3 10.1 14.9 19.8 16.7 10.4 Lbs. 12.2 14.6 9.7 14.2 19 16 10.1 Lbs. 12.5 15 9.9 14.6 19.5 " Yellow Oak 16.5 10 9 MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS, RECIPES, ETC. 365 WEIGHT OF SQUARE COLUMNS. No. of Inches contained in End Section of Column. 24 28 40 44 4S 56 GO 64 Weight of One Foot in Length, One Inch Thick, in Pounds. 100 113 125 138 150 163 174 187 200 Dimensions of Columns in Inches. 6x6 7x7 8x8 9x9 ' 10x10 ' 11x11 12x12 13x13 14x14 15x15 1 16^-16 17x17 18x16 7x5 8x6 9x7 10x8 llx 9 12x10 13x11 14x12 15x13 16x14 17x15 8x4 9x5 10x6 11x7 12x 8 13x 9 14x10 15x11 16x12 17x13 18x14 19x15 9x3 10x4 11x5 12x6 13x 7 14x 8 15x 9 16x10 17x11 18x12 19x13 20x14 11x3 12x4 13x5 I4x 6 15x 7 16x 8 17x 9 18x10 19x11 20x12 21x13 13x3 14x4 15x 5 16x 6 17x 7 18x 8 19x 9 20x10 21x11 22x12 15x3 16x 4 17x 5 18x 6 19x 7 20x 8 21x 9 22x10 23x11 17x 3 18x 4 19x 5 20x 6 21x 7 22x 8 23x 9 24x10 19x 3 20x 4 21x 5 22x 6 23x 7 24x 8 25x 9 21x 3 22x 4 23x 3 23x 5 24x 4 25x 3 24x 6 25x 5 26x 4 27x 3 25x 7 26x 6 27x 5 28x 4 26x 8 27x 7 28x 6 29x 5 1 29x 3 30x 4 31x 3 No. of Inches contained in End Section of Column. SI 88 Weight of One Foot in Length, One Inch Thick, in Pounds. 225 250 263 Dimensions of Columns in Inches. 19x19 1 20x20 21x21 22x22 23x23 24x24 25x25 20x18 21x19 22x20 23x21 24x22 25x23 26x24 21x17 22x18 23x19 24x20 25x21 26x22 27x23 22x16 23x17 24x18 25x19 26x20 27x21 28x22 23x15 24x16 25x17 26x18 27x19 28x20 29x21 24x14 25x15 26x16 27x17 28x18 29x19 30x20 25x13 26x14 27x15 28x16 29x17 30x18 31x19 26x12 27x13 28x14 29x15 30x16 31x17 32x18 27x11 28x12 29x13 30x14 31x15 32x16 33x17 28x10 29x11 30x12 31x13 32x14 33x15 34x16 29x 9 30x10 31x11 32x12 33x13 34x14 35x15 30x 8 31x 9 32x10 33x11 34x12 35x13 36x14 31x 7 32x 8 33x 9 34x10 35x11 36x12 37x13 32x 6 33x 7 34x 8 35x 9 36x10 37x11 38x12 33x 5 34x 6 35x 7 36x 8 37x 9 38x10 39x11 34x 4 35x 5 36x 6 37x 7 38x 8 39x 9 40x10 35x 3 36x 4 37x 5 38x 6 39x 7 40x 8 41x 9 37x 3 38x 4 39x 5 40x 6 4lx 7 42x 8 39x 3 40x 4 41x 5 42x 6 43x 7 100 313 26x26 27x25 28x24 29x23 30x22 31x21 32x20 33x19 34x18 35x17 36x16 37x15 38x14 39x13 40x12 41x11 42x10 43x 9 44x 8 366 THE IRON-FOUNDER. WEIGHT OF SQUARE COLUMNS— Continued. No. of Inches contained in End Section of Column. 104 108 112 116 120 124 128 132 136 140 144 148 Weight of One Foot in Length, One Inch Thick, in Pounds. 325 337 350 362 375 387 400 412 425 437 450 462 Dimensions of Columns in Inches. 27x27 28x28 29x29 30x30 31x31 32x32 33x33! 34x34 35x35 36x36 37x37 38x38 28x26 29x27 30x28 31x29 32x30 33x31 34x32| 35x33 36x34 37x35 38x36 39x37 29x25 30x26 31x27 32x28 33x29 34x30 35x31 j 36x32 37x33 38x34 39x35 40x36 30x24 31x25 32x26 33x27 34x28 35x29 36x30 J 37x31 38x32 39x33 40x34 41x35 31x23 32x24 33x25 34x26 35x27 36x28 37x29 i 38x30 39x31 40x32 41x33 42x34 32x22 33x23 34x24 35x25 36x26 37x27 38x28 i 39x29 40x30 41x31 42x32 43x33 33x21 34x22 35x23 36x24 37x25 38x26 39x27! 40x28 41x29 42x30 43x31 44x32 34x20 35x21 36x22 37x23 38x24 39x25 40x26' 41x27 42x28 43x29 44x30 45x31 35x19 36x20 37x21 38x22 39x23 40x24 41x25' 42x26 43x27 44x28 45x29 46x30 36x18 37x19 38x20 39x21 40x22 41x23 42x24! 43x25 44x26 45x27 46x28 47x29 37x17 38x18 39x19 40x20 41x21 42x22 43x23: 44x24 45x25 46x26 47x27 48x28 38x16 39x17 40x18 41x19 42x20 43x21 44x22; 45x23 46x24 47x25 48x26 49x27 39x15 40x16 41x17 42x18 43x19 44x20 1 45x211 46x22 47x23 48x24 49x25 50x26 40x14 41x15 42x16 43x17 44x18 45x19 46x20 47x21 48x22 49x23 50x24 51x25 41x13 42x14 43x15 44x16 45x17 46xl8| 47xl9j 48x20 49x21 50x22 51x23 52x24 42x12 43x13 44x14 45x15 46x16 47x17! 48x18! 49x19 50x20 51x21 52x22 53x23 43x11 44x12 45x13 46x14 47x15 48x16! 49xl7| 50x18 51x19 52x20 53x21 54x22 44x10 45x11 46x12 47x13 48x14 49x15 50x16 51x17 52x18 53x19 54x20 55x21 45x 9 46x10 47x11 48x12 49x13 50x14! 51x15 52x16 53x17 54x18 55x19 56x20 46x 8 47x 9 48x10 49x11 50x12 51x13; 52x14 53x15 54x16 55x17 56x18 57x19 47x 7 48x 8 49x 9 50x10 51x11 52x12 53x13 54x14 55x15 56x16 57x17 58x18 48x 6 49x 7 50x S 51x 9 52x10 53x11 54x12 55x13 56x14 57x15 58x16 59x17 49x 5 50x 6 51x 7 52x 8 53x 9 54x10 55x11 56x12 57x13 58x14 59x15 60x16 50x 4 51x 5 52x 6 53x 7 54x 8 55x 9| 56x10 57x11 58x12 59x13 60x14 61x15 52x 4 53x 5 54x 6 55x 7 56x 8| 57x 9 58x10 59x11 60x12 61x13 62x14 54x 4 55x 5 56x 6 57x 7 58x 8 59x 9 60x10 61x11 62x12 63x13 56x 4 57x 5 58x 6 59x 7 60x 8 61x 9 62x10 63x11 64x12 58x 4 59x 5 60x 6 61x 7 62x 8 63x 9 64x10 65x11 60x 4 61x 5 62x 6 63x 7 64x 8 65x 9 66x10 62x 4 63x 5 64x 4 64x 6 65x 5 66x 4 65x 7 66x 6 67x 5 68x 4 66x 8 67x 7 68x 6 69x 5 70x 4 67x 9 68x 8 69x 7 70x 6 71x 5 72x 4 MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS, RECIPES, ETC. 367 WEIGHT OF SQUARE PLATES ONE INCH THICK. Inches Pounds Inches Pounds Inches Pounds Inches Pounce square. Weight. square. Weight. square. Weight. square. Weight. 12 37i 46 552 80 1668 114 3388 13 44 47 576 81 1711 115 3448 14 51 48 601 82 1753 116 3508 15 58* 49 626 83 1796 117 3569 16 '66i 50 652 84 1839 1*18 3630 17 75 51 678 85 1884 119 3692 18 84 52 705 86 1928 120 3754 19 95 53 732 87 1973 121 3817 20 104 54 760 88 2019 122 3880 21 115 55 789 89 2065 123 3944 22 126 56 818 90 2112 124 4009 23 138 57 847 91 2159 125 4073 24 150 58 876 92 2207 126 4139 25 163 59 907 93 2255 127 4205 26 176 60 939 94 2304 128 4271 27 190 61 970 95 2353 129 4338 28 204 62 1002 96 2403 130 4406 29 219 63 1035 97 2453 131 4474 30 235 64 1068 98 2504 132 4542 31 251 65 1101 99 2555 133 4612 32 267 66 1136 100 2607 134 4681 33 284 67 1170 101 2659 135 4751 34 301 68 1205 102 2712 136 4822 35 319 69 1241 103 2766 137 4893 36 338 70 1277 104 2820 138 4965 37 357 71 1314 105 2874 139 5037 38 376 72 1352 106 2929 140 5110 39 397 73 1389 107 2985 141 5183 40 417 74 1428 108 3041 142 5257 41 438 75 1467 109 3097 143 5331 42 459 76 1506 110 3154 144 5406 43 482 77 1546 111 3212 44 505 78 1586 112 3270 45 528 79 1627 113 3329 868 THE IRON-FOUNDER. WEIGHT OF A SUPERFICIAL SQUARE FOOT IN POUNDS FROM T V INCH TO 3 INCHES. Thick- ness. Cast- iron. Wrought- iron. Brass. .Copper. Tin. Steel. Lead. T6 2-34 2.52 2.7 2.88 2.35 2.59 3.69 i 4.68 5.04 5.4 5.76 4.71 5.18 7.38 I 9.36 10.08 10.8 11.52 9.43 10.36 14.76 | 14.04 15.12 16.2 17.28 14.14 15.55 22.14 i 18.72 20.16 21.6 23.04 18.86 20.73 29.52 £ 23.40 25.20 27.0 28.80 23.58 25.92 36.92 f 28.08 30.24 32.4 34.56 28.29 31.10 44.28 7 -g- 32.76 35.28 37.8 40.32 33.01 36.28 51.66 37.44 40.32 43.2 46.08 37.72 41.47 59.04 H 42.12 45.36 48.6 51.84 42.44 46.65 66.42 li 46.80 50.40 54.0 57.60 47.16 51.84 73.80 If 51.48 55.44 59.4 63.36 51.87 57.02 81.08 H 56.16 60.48 64.8 69.12 56.59 62.20 88.56 If 60.84 65.52 70.2 74.88 61.30 67.39 95.94 if 65.52 70.56 75.6 80.64 66.02 72.57 103.32 l 7 70.20 75.60 81.0 86.40 70.74 77.76 110.70 2 8 74.88 80.64 86.4 92.16 75.45 82.94 118.08 Si 84.24 90.72 97.2 103.68 84.88 93.31 132.84 3* 93.60 100.80 108.0 115.20 94.32 103.68 147.60 3 112.32 120.96 129.6 138.24 113.18 124.41 177.12 MICELLANEOUS ITEMS, RECIPES, ETC. 369 TABLE SHOWING THE WEIGHT OR PRESSURE A BEAM OF CAST IRON, 1 INCH IN BREADTH, WILL SUSTAIN, WITHOUT DESTROYING ITS ELASTIC FORCE, WHEN IT IS SUPPORTED AT EACH END AND LOADED IN THE MIDDLE OF ITS LENGTH, AND ALSO THE DEFLEC- TION IN THE MIDDLE WHICH THAT WEIGHT WILL PRODUCE. By Mr. Hodgkinson, Manchester, Eng. Length 6 feet. 7 feet. 8 feet. 9 feet. 10 feet. Depth Weight in lbs. Deflec. Weight Deflec. Weight in lbs. Deflec. Weight Deflec. 1 Weight Deflec. in ins. in in. in lbs. in in. in in. in lbs. in in. in lbs. mm. 3 1,278 .24 1,089 .33 954 .426 855 .54 765 .66 »i 1,739 .205 1,482 .28 1,298 .365 1,164 .46 1,041 .57 4 2,272 .18 1,936 .245 1,700 .32 1,520 .405 1,360 .5 4i 2,875 .16 2,450 .217 2,146 .284 1,924 .36 1,721 .443 5 3,560 .144 3,050 .196 2,650 .256 2,375 .32 2,125 .4 6 5,112 .12 4,356 .163 3,816 .213 3,420 .27 3,060 .33 7 6,958 .103 5,929 .14 5,194 .183 4,655 .23 4,165 .29 8 9,088 ■.09 7,744 .123 6,784 .16 6,080 .203 5,440 .25 9 9,801 .109 8,586 .142 7,695 .18 6,885 .22 10 12,100 .098 10,600 .128 9,500 .162 8,500 .2 11 12,826 .117 11,495 .15 10,285 .182 12 15,264 .107 13,680 .135 12,240 .17 13 16,100 .125 14,400 .154 14 18,600 .115 16,700 .143 12 feet. 14 feet. 16 feet. 18 feet. 20 feet. 6 2,548 .48 2,184 .65 1,912 .85 1,699 1.08 1,530 1.34 7 3,471 .41 2,975 .58 2,603 .73 2,314 .93 2,082 1.14 8 4,532^ .36 3,884 .49 3,396 .64 3,020 .81 2,720 1.00 9 5,733 .32 4,914 .44 4,302 .57 3,825 .72 3,438 .89 10 7,083 .28 6,071 .39 5,312 .51 4,722 .64 4,250 .8 11 8,570 .26 7,346 .36 6,428 .47 5,714 .59 5,142 .73 12 10,192 .24 8,736 .33 7,648 .43 6.796 .54 6,120 .67 13 11,971 .22 10,260 .31 8,978 .39 7,980 .49 7,182 .61 14 13,883 .21 11,900 .28 10,412 .36 9,255 .46 8,330 .57 15 15,937 .19 13,660 .26 11,952 .34 10,624 .43 9,562 .53 16 18,128 .18 15,536 .24 13,584 .32 12,080 .40 10,880 .5 17 20,500 .17 17,500 .23 15,353 .30 13,647 .38 12,282 .47 18 22,932 .16 19,656 .21 17,208 .28 15,700 .36 13,752 .44 Note.— This table shows the greatest weight that ever ought to be laid upon a beam for permanent load; and if there be any liability to jerks, etc., ample allowance must be made; also the weight of the beam itself must be included. INDEX A PAGE Apprentices, relating to 4 Apprentice, what age is best 6 Apprenticeship, by indenture 14 Apprenticeship, object of 18 Arbors or core-irons, , 297, 302, 327, 330 Arms and straps for spindle 150, 317 B Backing out the thickness „ 345 Balls, weight of cast-iron 352 Barrels or arbors for cores, how to make them 137, 269, 273 Basins for pouring, how they influence pressure 109 Bead smoothers „ 34 Beams, Hodgkinson's table of . . . „ 369 Beams, etc., to cast straight , 81, 84 Bearings or joints, to make safe 217, 228, 231 Bearing-studs, importance of 169 Bed, to level , 23 Bench rammer, to make , , 28 Bend-pipes on end in loam 224 Bedding-in for dry sand 172 Bedding-in to be avoided, sometimes 45 Bedding, round and square patterns 29 Bevel and mitre wheels from a pattern, to mould 312 Bevel-wheels without a full pattern „ 305 Blacking mixture ,..,..,,.,,,,...,.,, 281 371 372 INDEX. PAGE Blacking for loam- work, how to use 160, 281 Blast-furnaces, for smelting, how managed, etc 66 Block-print and core 247, 249 Buckling, causes of 31 C Cage-iron for jacket-core , 257 Calcination of iron ores, furnaces and kilns for 65 Cannon, cause of sponginess in the bore 73 Car-wheel scrap, how to grade , 115 Carriage for oven 61 Casings for dry-sand work 264, 267 Casings, improvised 185, 220 Casings for kettles and pans in loam 186 Casings for pipes in loam 215 Casings, how to prepare for lugs and brackets 190 Castings, chilled 114 Castings, clean, how to produce, . . , 235 Castings, well finished, how to obtain 46 Castings, to mend 355, 356 Cast-iron alloys 352 Cast-iron patterns made from models, casts, and carved blocks.. 344 Cast-iron, nature and properties of 63 Centre and spindle 316 Centre, how to set a, for green-sand work ... 318 Chains and ropes 355 Chaplets, table of studs and 353 Charcoal-iron , 115 Cheeks, to carry 244 Chilled castings, to mix iron for 114 Chucks 313 Chucks, may be dispensed with by using gaggers 27 Cinder-bed, use of 306, 310 Circular plates, weight of 354 Cisterns in loam, to mould 191 Cisterns, capacity of 357 Clamps, how to make them 21 Clay for moulding purposes 237, 241 Collar or bushing , 313 INDEX. 873 PAGE Columns, weights of round *..„...* 364 Columns, weights of square „ . . 365, 366 Columns with heavy bases and heads, how to prevent shrinkage cracks in , „ „ , 85 Columns, round, to keep straight. 85 Columns, square, to keep straight 81 Condensers in loam, to mould 191 Contraction, instructions relating to «....■- 76 Cooling of iron, influence of rapid and slow. 69, 72 Cope, for use on the floor 40 Cope-rings, for loam-work 153, 156, 165, 193, 213, 225 Copes, weight required on 99 Cope, to build in loam 153, 181, 194, 205, 225 Cope, to bind or stiffen a 155, 181, 194, 205, 225 Cores, anchors for. 133, 222 Cores, arbors for.. 129, 130, 131, 132, 216, 222, 262, 273, 297, 302, 330 Cores, improvised boxes for 136, 222, 327 Cores, built up with bricks and used horizontally 145, 224 Cores, how to construct barrels for difficult 143 Cores, how to blacken loam 160, 161 Cores, how to strike up loam, 139, 141, 156, 157, 222 Cores, on barrels for elbow-pipes 142 Core-sand mixtures 123 Cores for dry-sand work 250 Cores for bevel -wheels, green sand 307 Cores, wooden, stiffeners for 128 Cores, loam, on barrels 137, 228 Covering-plates, to secure bricks in 157, 168 Cross for loam-work, lifting . 155, 197 Crown-plate of core in loam, how to prepare a 196 Crystals, how formed 69 Crystallization and shrinkage of cast-iron 63 Cupola, a knowledge of, indispensable 10 Cylinder in loam, to mould 148, 164 Cylinder-mould, how to set cores in 170 Cylinder-mould, how to set steam-chest, etc 166 Cylindrical work in top and bottom flasks, to mould 274 374 INDEX, D PAGE Damper and racks for oven . . . 60 Decimal equivalents of an inch 358 Designing castings, reasons for exercising care in . . . . . . . 71, 73 Drawbacks 47 Drawbacks, arbors for. ... 246 Drawing a simple job on a levelled bed. 23 Drying loam- work with fire-kettles. .... 187 Dry -sand moulding, meaning of 233 Dry-sand, moulding guns, hydraulic cylinders, etc., in. ...... . 264 Dry-sand work, chaplets and studs for. ...... .... 255, 261 Dry-sand work, facing, ramming, venting, and finishing 240 Dry-sand work, flasks for 239, 267, 274 Dry-sand work, gates and risers for 247, 265, 275, 279, 282 Dry-sand work, green-sand facing not suitable for 240 Dry-sand work, how to repair broken parts in 255 Dry-sand work, less venting and gaggering required for 242 Dry-sand work, not necessary to cool the iron for 235 Dry-sand work, paste or any damp preparation unsafe in 254 Dry-sand work, sands and clays for 237 Dummy-block 258 - E Education, advantages of 3 Educated moulders 12 Elbows, bends, and branch-pipes in loam. 209, 224 Elbow-pipes on end in loam, to make 227 Employers, injustice of some 16 F Facing-sand, how to apply 30 Feeding castings explained 75 Finishing tools, artistic 30 Flange-smoothers 34 Flask-bars, to wedge in, iron or wood 42, 43 Elasks, different methods of handling 40, 299 Flasks, expansion and contraction of 42 INDEX. 375 PAGE Flasks, hinged. ». . 45 Flasks, in parts.... . 38, 244, 288 Flasks, interchangeable 38, 40 Flasks, jobbing, how to make 39, 40, 244 Flasks, for small work 37 Flasks made of wood 44 Flasks, made up of loose sides, ends, and bars 42 Flasks for spindle-work 274 Floor-rammer, to make 28 Flute-smoothers. ... 34 Foundry ovens, to locate, etc 52 Foundries, what we see in 9 Forge or puddling iron 68 Foundation-plate for loam- work. ....... .148, 176, 180, 183, 192, 203 Foundries, cleanliness in * 6 Fractions of an inch in decimals , 358 G Gaggers, how to make and how to use 26 Gates, arrangement of, for plates, etc 79 Gates or runners 299 Gates for cylinders in loam 158 Green-sand cores 298, 327 Green-sand moulding 284 Grooves in core-barrels, how to make 269 Gauge-stick 153 Gudgeons for core-barrels 271 Guides for loam-work 158, 193 Guns, patterns for 268 H Hinged cheeks, details of, and how to secure 48, 49, 50 Hinged cheeks, used for a panelled column 47 Hinged flasks 45, 299 Hinges, details of, very simple to apply 51, 52 Hook-bolts, use for 166, 176 Hot iron, importance of 236 Hot-well in loam, building core for 194, 198, 201 376 INDEX. PAGE Hot-well in loam, pattern for , . . . 192 Hydraulic cylinders, long cores for, 273 I Iron, cold-blast, hot-blast, different kinds of, 70 Iron ores, kinds of 64 Iron ore, methods of calcination 65 Iron ores, analysis of impurities contained in 65 Iron, to grade. 116 Iron, to mix 114 J Jacket-cores, how to make 256 Jobbing-pipes, to make 324 K Kettles and pans in loam, to mould 180 Kettles off the casing whilst hot, how to lift 189 Kish, where found and how caused 68 L Level, a good one necessary. . . : . . 23 Levelling a bed, how to do it 23 Lifters, or cleaners 33 Literature, foundry 5 Loam mixtures 125 Loam, to mould a cylinder with steam-ways, foot and end cast on 164 Loam, when it is best to make the job in 171, 172 Loam, skinning or finishing 152, 155, 181, 188, 280 Loam-moulders, how to train 171, 174 Loam-moulding, classes of 148 Loam-moulding from a complete pattern 171 Loam-moulding, how to lay bricks for. . .152, 154, 155, 180, 183, 211 Loam-moulding, principles of 147, 174 Loam-moulding, sweeps for 151, 217, 225 Loam-plate, to lay out, on the bed , 24 INDEX. 377 PAGE Loam- work, branches and brackets to build and secure in. .... . Loam-work, building rings for. 181, 184,' 194, 201 Loam- work, casings for. , ' 18fi Loam-work, covering-plates for. . . 157, 166, 167, 178, 182, 184,' 185, 197, 199, 200, 209, 220 Loam-work, crown plate for core in 196 Loam- work, curbs or tank-plates for , '. 1§\ Loam-work, fixed centres for I85 Loam-work, forming a thickness in 180 201 Loam-work, gates and risers for 182, 196, 207, 219,' 232 Loam-work, horizontal spindles for 217 Loam- work, how to dress and finish , 159 Loam-work, how to secure 161, 170, 174, 179, 181, 197 207 215 Loam- work, how to secure intricate places in 167 Loam-work, ramming up, . 162 207 Loam-work, pits for _ # ' -^ Loam-work, spindles for 149 217 Loam-work, vents under 182 189 198 232 Loam-work, to bind and lift sections of 176, 177 205 Loam-work, to dry si . 207 Loam-work, to save ramming in m 135 Loam-work, to separate joints and seatings in... ...153, 168, 180, 176, 177, 225 M Manganese in iron. a 70 Match-board. 332 Materials, analysis of , ... 2 Materials, strength of 358 Melting-points 358 Mensuration, useful rules in c 350 Metals, weight of one cubic inch of different 356 Metals, weight of a square foot of 368 Mixtures of cast-iron 70, 114 Models, templets, plaster-casts, and carved blocks, to make pat- terns from 339 Mottled iron 69 Moulder, a first-class 8 Moulders, how made 15 378 INDEX. PAGE Moulders, their right position 3 Moulders' tools, their use and their abuse. 20 Moulders should be draughtsmen , 12 Moulders, past, present, and future 1 Moulding a water-cylinder in loam 175 Moulding-boxes 37, 239, 244, 274 Moulding in dry-sand 233 Moulding small castings 332 Moulds, broken, to re-form or mend 35 Moulds, pressures in 88 N Numbers 1, 2, and 3 pig-iron, why classed as such 68 Nuts cast in loam-plates 169 O Ovens, carriage and rigging, details of 59, 62 Ovens, kinds of fuel for, and methods of firing 57 Ovens, small ones very useful 54, 61 Ovens, to locate, etc . . 52 Ovens, tracks and road-bed for 57 Ovens, where to place the furnace, arrangements for draughts, etc... ....'. 54 P Parallel straight-edges, moulders should have 23 Pattern for bevel- wheel, how to make a 314 Pattern for square column 298 Patterns made with templet and strickle 310 Pattern, weight of casting from 364 Phosphorus in iron , < 70 Pig-iron, analysis and classification of 67 Pig-iron, how produced 66 Pins and keys for flasks 38 Pins for wooden flasks . . 334 Pipes and columns, a novel method of moulding , 335 Pipes in green-sand, irregular-shaped 324 atom 379 PAGE Pipes in loam, thickness to apply on.. 211, 226 Pipes in loam without chaplets or studs 222 Pipes for vents 170, 254, 259, 261 Pipes, weight of 359-363 Pit for dry-sand work, a small * 282 Port, exhaust, and steam-chest cores, how to make 250, 251, 252 Pressures in cylindrical and spherical moulds 104, 162 Pressures in moulds, laws governing .* 88, 90 Pressure, influence which risers, or flow-gates, have on. . 113 Pressure, table showing the amount of Ill Pressures under copes and cores 99, 101 Prickers, use of, in loam-work 168, 178, 183, 196, 215, 229 Propeller-wheel, to form the hub 203 Pulley patterns, different kinds of 284 Pulleys, arbors for 285, 286, 288, 290 Pulleys, to mould 284 Pulleys, to mould double-armed 286 Pulleys, to mould, from sweeps and cores 291 Pulleys, to split 295 R Racks for cores, on the carriage and in the oven 60 Rammers, the right use of 27 Ramming loam-work in the pit 162 Ramming round and square patterns 29 Relative stiffness of materials. ....... 358 Rigging for cores 125, 222, 297, 327 Ring-bolt c 40 Risers, how to apply, dangers arising from 163, 182, 243, 282 Risers, what allowance to make for 113 Rodman gun, to mould a 264 Roll flasks, how to make 274 Rolls, how to gate 279 Rolls, mixtures for , 116 Runners and risers for pans 182, 189 Running-basin for cylinder in loam 163 Running-basins or runners 109 380 INDEX. S :page Sand for cores, mixtures, etc .121, 302 Sand for moulding 122, 237 Scabbing, what causes 31 Scrap, how to grade, for mixing 116 Screw-driver, indispensable to a moulder , 22 Screw-propeller in loam, to mould a 203 Screw-propeller, to form the blades 205 Screw-propeller, to construct the cope , 205 Screw-propeller, how to make spindle for a 204 Separating parts in loam. . .153, 168, 175, 177, 180, 193, 206, 213, 230 Shrinkage, instructions relating to 75 Silicon in iron 70 Slings for loam-work 155, 197 Small work, moulding 332 Smoothing, danger of too much , 31, 34 Snap-flask 38 Snap-flask, work for. , 333 Spiegeleisen, how produced 64 Spiegeleisen, what use to make of 115 Spindle and centre 316' Spindle-arm and sweep-straps 150, 317 Spindle attachment for moulding bevel- wheels 311 Spindles or centres for pan-casings 187 Spindle for green-sand work, how to set a 306 Splicing core-barrels , „ . . . , 273 Spur-wheel from a segment and spindle 315 Spur-wheels, how to make true , . . 319 Spur-wheels of different depths from the same pattern 322 Square, use of 24 Square and rectangular columns, to make 297 Square plates, weight of 367 Staking or guide-pieces for flasks * . . 41 Steam-cylinder in dry-sand, to mould a 243 Steam-cylinder, how to set port-core in, , 255 Steam-cylinder in dry-sand, cores for 250 Steam-cylinder, to make pattern for 247 Steam-cylinder, jacket-cores for 256 Steam-cylinder, to form a pouring basin for 247 Studs built in cores 210 INDEX. 381 PAGE Studs, safe method for securing . 211, 213, 216, 261 Studs to be avoided 174, 255 Sulphur in iron 70 Surface, how to produce an even „ 30, 35 Swab, useful if properly used 26 Sweeps for green-sand work 307, 314 Swivels 40, 42 Swivels for casings 187 T Tanks in loam, to mould 191 Technology, schools of 1, 14 Teeth of wheels, to mould 309, 320 Templet for pipe 209 Thickness, how to form a, in loam 180, 201 Thickness, how to use the clay 345 Trades'-unions as educators 14 Trammels, the moulder should have 23 Trammels, use of 25 Tripod, use of the 272 Trowel, heart and square 31 Trowels, old ones very useful 31 Trowels, square, how many required 30 U Unions, a good use for 19 V Vents, how to secure 170, 252, 261, 263 Vents in casings, how to make 186 Vent-wires, how to make them 26 Venting kettles and pans 182 Venting wheel teeth 310 W Warping, instructions relating to 76 "Water, a too free use of, to be avoided 26 Water-barrel for gun-casting , ...>.. 264 382 INDEX. PAGE Water-cylinder, how to mould a. .'.v* 175 Weakness, planes of, in castings. . ........ . . .... ... .....* . 73 Web-smoothers, or upsets. ............. 33 Wedges, how to make them. . . .22, 161 Weight of a square foot of metals 368 Weight of castings from patterns. 364 Weights of different substances 357 Weight of one cubic inch of different metals. 356 Weights of pipes, table of. 359-363 Weights of round columns, table of. 364 Weights of square columns .365, 366 Weights of square plates, table of 367 White iron 68 Window -sashes, wrong designs for 87 Wooden flasks, how to make. 44 Wooden flasks, to preserve the joints of 44 Wrench, indispensable to a moulder. 22 • •>• i ■•■■* •■■■■-> •; ili li li l jl Illillill ■ ■ .:,:--,:^..--