LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, Chap. Copyright Noo Shelf_.Ks___. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. OPINIONS OF THE GERMAN EDITION OF KOTELMANN^S SCHOOL HYGIENE (Previous to the appearance of the translation into English) " Dr. Kotelmann discusses school hygiene in 137 pages; the treatise is popular and very interesting but at the same time rigidly scientific; and he makes due use of the literature of the subject, as vs^as to be expected from the editor of the ' Zeitschrift fiir Schulgesundheitspflege '. The book is also to be strongly recommended to those of the medical profession who may desire to get their bearings quickly in this important chapter of hygiene." —Dr. H. Neumann, private docent of childrens' diseases, University of Berlin, in Literaturbeilage der Deutschen medizinischen Wochenschrift, 1895. No. 16, August 8, p. 104. " The editor has secured for this part of the Handbook as for some others the best talent, and the readers of this journal need not be told about the merits of the writer. Within a very meagre compass for so com- prehensive a subject he has succeeded in a truly masterly way in telling the reader everything essential, and in saving him from the ballast carried by larger works on school hj^giene. The first section gives a sketch of the history of school hygiene in Germany, and in it the reader will find not a few things that are heedlessly passed over by larger works. In the next section, the hygiene of the school room is discussed (including natural and artificial lighting, ventilation, cleaning, heating, and furniture). I con- sider the limitation of the work to those points which the teacher can observe and control as an exceedingly happy one, the more so since only thus could the treatment be thorough. * * * The excellence of the work comes into still greater prominence in the second part, which treats of the hygiene of pupils. The author is here in his special field of labor, where his work has for so long been crowned with marked success. Here we find sketched with superior skill one after another — the hygiene of the nervous system, the eye, the ear, the voice, and the rest of the body. In everything the author proceeds with caution, distinguishing the ideal from the real, and striving only for the possible and attainable. I would mention in this connection especially his treatment of mental fatigue, recesses, afternoon sessions, and vacations. Teachers will find here reliable informa- tion free from such exaggerations as one so often finds not only on the part of doctors but also of pedagogues who have dabbled in medicine. "The discussion of the hygiene of the eye is based upon a long and varied experience. Perhaps the evil consequences of home work with its imperfect conditions of illumination and seating might have been more strongly emphasized, and the teacher urged to make a fight against them by arranging and controlling the work. Yet even so we cannot be assured of the right result unless the doctor, especially the family doctor, is brought into connection with the school. If the matter is to be properly regulated, it must seek advice from medical science, and this book is warmly recom- mended to school men to serve this purpose," — Dr. Hermann Schiller, pro- fessor of pedagogy, and superior privy school counsellor, Giessen, in Zeit- schrift ftir Schulgesundheitspflege, 1895, No. 8, pp. 504-5. OPINIONS OF THE GERMAN EDITION OF KOTELMANN S SCHOOL HYGIENE " The eminent founder and editor of the ' Zeitschrift fiir Schulgesund- heitspflege ' (Journal for School Hygiene) has succeeded in giving us in the brief form of 137 pages a complete and critical treatise, in which every- thing essential is presented and the less important made accessible by bib- liographical references. What a vast mass of material has been utilized can be seen especially in the introductory history of school hygiene. The use of rare sources of information, remote from the doctor's province, makes it clear that the writer has enjoyed a literary as well as a medi- cal training, a fact which his well known book ' Gesundheitspflege im Mit- telalter ' (Hygiene in the Middle Ages) demonstrates beautifully. * * * We will take the liberty of expressing to the publishers the wish that they issue an edition separate from the Manual. The medical world will be as glad to receive it as the pedagogical for which it was primarily intended." —Dr. Schubert, President of the Commission for School Hygiene in Niirn- berg, Mlinchener medizinische Wochenschrift (Munich Medical Weekly,) 1895. "To Dr. Kotelmann of Hamburg was entrusted the writing of the hygienic section of the Handbook of Pedagogy for Higher Schools, which is being edited by Dr. Baumeister. A better man could not have been selected. The author of this interesting treatise is in fact not a novice. As editor of the ' Zeitschrift fiir Schulgesundheitspflege ' he has been engaged with matters of school hygiene for many years, and there is no question concerning the schools, the pupils, and their hygiene that he has not had occasion to study and to treat in a thorough-going manner in the excellent journal he is publishing. Dr. Kotelmann has realized admirably that a publication designed for teachers, to be useful, must be practical and free from the theoretical discussion that encumbers the ordinary hygienic man- uals. He has sought to limit his study to those hygienic conditions which are closely connected with the teacher and can be modified by him; and one can but admire the skill with which he has executed the difficult task he has given himself. * * * Such in brief is Dr. Kotelmann's treatise, which cannot be recommended too highly to all those who are occupied with school hygiene. "—Z>r. Combe, Professor at the University of Lausanne, medical advisor of the schools of Lausanne, in Revue medicale de la Suisse Pomande, October 20, 1895, No. 10, pp. 549-550. «« * * * On the whole, this work, which is written in a scientific and conscientious spirit, will be read with profit not only by those for whom it was designed, namely, the teachers, but by all hygienists especially occupied with school hygiene."— Z>r. Mangenot, Medical Inspector of the Schools of Paris, in Revue d' Hygiene et de Police Sanitaire, 1895. No. 8, August 20, pp. 744-746. " This book by Kotelmann is the best outline for the teacher. The book is written in an admirably concise style, and by aid of numerous tables a vast number of important facts and principles are presented." — Prof. W. H. H. Burnham, in The Pedagogical Serninary. SCHOOL HYGIENE BY V LUDWIG KOTELMANN, Ph.D., M.D. Author of a number of books on school hygiene, founder of the Zeitschnft fur Schulgesundheitspflege, practising ophtalmologist, Hamburg TRANSLATION FROM A COPY REVISED AND ENLARGED ESPE- CIALLY FOR THIS EDITION BY THE AUTHOR , JOHN A. BERGSTROM, Ph.D. Associate Professor of Psychology and Pedagogj' AND EDWARD CONRADI, M.A. Graduate Student INDIANA UNIVERSITY SYRACUSE, N. Y. C. W. BARDEEN, PUBLISHER 1899 Copyright, 1899. by C. W. Bardeen ^' J I \Vs^^ 49473 ERRATA Page 26, line 15, for 1724 read 1774. 31, " 14, Foriep " Froriep. 32, " 19, Ritschel " Eietscliel. 40, " 4, candle " lamp. 41, last line, for as read at. 43, line 23,' for h read I. 47, note for No. 10, etc., read Nos. 11-17. 55, note, 2d line, for 3677 read 367. 78, line 23, for momement read moment. 128 " 17 " contract read contact. 129 " 6 " 135 " 4 " 148 read 152. 212 " 21 " III " VI. 254 " 10 " knows read known. 256 " 7 " Motai " Motais. 310 " 12 " 35 ^ read 35. 342 " 20, 21, not should be inserted after found SECOND COPY, XSVO COPIES BfiOElVEP, *^'*»3 #»/■ ^^-e^^i^ •I^^TEODUCTION I The personality of an author and the extent of his preparation are of course always important as a ready means of estimating the value of his work, but more so in some subjects than in others. School hygiene, which may be looked upon as a concentration of the principles of architecture, sanitary engineering, psy- chology, pedagogy, and preventive medicine upon the physical conditions of school life, requires more than a superficial acquaintance with these matters, and is in fact so broad a field that, as an American exnert has said, it is more than enough in itself for a life work. The possibilities of one-sided treatment, also, are very great. It might be scholarly yet not practical, adequate in some parts but wanting in others, or comprehensive and yet without the proper balance, proportion, and connection. As a subject, school hygiene must therefore be placed high in the list of those in which personality, scholarship, and experience play a prominent part. The eminent quali- fications of our author, — who is now 60 years old and has given the major part of his life to the work, — and his masterly success .in combining comprehensiveness (1) 2 INTRODUCTION" with clearness and brevity, and scientific accuracy and moderation with an interesting, forceful, and above all practical mode of treatment are attested not only by the book itself but by the opinions of experts in school hygiene from different countries. (See pages preceding title.) Dr. Kotelmann was born in 1839 in Demmin, Prus- sia, where his father was vice-principal of the gym- nasium. This he attended till his confirmation, when he was transferred to the royal padagogium at Pusbus. After graduating here, he studied, theology at the uni- versities of Erlangen and Berlin and received the de- gree of Doctor of Philosophy on presenting a thesis on De Theologia Aristotelea. About this time he became tutor in the family of one of the nobility and spent some time in a teachers' seminary to prepare himself for his duties. In 1866 he was called to be assistant pastor and rector of the city schools in Gartz on the island of Kiigen; and two years later he was called to be teacher in the padagogium and pastor of the castle in Pusbus. Lung trouble compelled him to give up his position, and he went to Leipsic to habili- tate as decent in Oriental Languages. The death of his father cut short this enterprise. and compelled him to seek some profession with speedier financial returns. He selected that of medicine, in accordance with a preference of long standing, and SCHOOL HYGIEifE 3 went to Marburg to study. In a year he was made assistant in the physiological institute and shortly after passed the state examinations and received the title of doctor, this time presenting a thesis on The Midwives of the Ancient Hebrews, a Study from Old Testa- ment Sources. After attending clinics in his specialty, he settled in Hamburg in 1876 as an ophthalmologist, in which pro- fession he has since been engaged. Of the books and papers he has written the follow- ing may be mentioned: Die Korperverhaltnisse der Gelehrtenschiiler des Johanneums in Hamburg (1879) ; Die Yivisektionsfrage (1880); 1st die heutige Jugend der hoheren Lehranstalten mit Schularbeit uberbiirdet (1881); Zur Oesundheitspflege des MitteMters (1887) ; tJber Schulgesundheitspjlege (1895), the original of the present translation; and Zur Gesundheitspflege in den hoheren Madchenschulen (1897). In 1888, Dr. Kotelmann founded the Zeitschrift fiir Schulgesundheitspilege (Journal for School-hygiene), and remained its editor for ten years, being succeeded n 1898 by Dr. Fr. Erismann. This has been the only journal devoted exclusively to school hygiene, and it is certainly the best. II The translation is made not from the treatise as published in 1895, but from a copy revised and enlarged by the author especially for this edition. 4 INTEODUCTIOIS' The number of illustrations has been nearly doubled ; and the additions to the text, aside from alterations, con- sist partly of descriptions of the new illustrations and partly of a review of the investigations that have been made since the original was written. The latter ap- peared first as a part of the great Handbuch der Erzie- hungs-und Unterrichtslehre fiir hohere Schulen (Hand- book of the Principles of Education and Instruction for Secondary Schools), edited by Dr. A. Baumeister. Its publication here will explain the fact that it is ad- dressed especially to teachers, and the rather frequent and special reference throughout the book to the secondary schools, though important facts and compari- sons with the common schools and the universities are by no means omitted. It must not of course be supposed that the dis- cussion is limited to pupils of our high school or academy age. As is well known, pupils enter the German secondary schools at nine and might gradu- ate at eighteen, though the average age is nearly twenty. If these institutions have preparatory schools or classes for the first three years of school life, all the regular instruction young men under twenty receive could very well be obtained solely in connection with these schools, and this would correspond in amount perhaps to what a pupil here would secure from our elementary and secondary schools, with the addition of two years of college work. SCHOOL HYGIENE The age for admission to these schools was deter- mined by the age deemed adequate for beginning the study of Latin, which is about nine or ten; and the entrance requirements consist of reading, writing, knowledge of the parts of speech, the four processes in numbers up to 1,000, and Bible history, or what is taught in a common school the first three years. The preparation might be made in private, in preparatory schools or classes, or in the common schools. The difference between the various kinds of second- ary schools with which the reader will have to deal in this book is best understood from a study of their his- tory, and a comparison of the courses and privileges connected with them. In the following table the fig- ures opposite the subjects indicate the total number of periods per week devoted to them by all the grades of the school according to the programmes of 1892. Gymnasium O Beal-gymna- sium OQ' « O Superior real-school CO K O Beal-school, or superior grammar school SUBJECTS SUBJECTS SUBJECTS SUBJECTS O Eeligion 19 26 62 36 19 26 34 8 10 4 8 Religion German and hist, stories. Latin French, English Hist, and Geog. Mathematics... Natural Hist . . Physics Chem.andMin. Writing Drawing 19 28 43 31 18 28 42 12 12 6 4 16 Religion German and hist, stories.. French English Hist, and Geog. Mathematics... Natural Hist. . Physics Chem.andMin. Writing Freehand- drawing 19 34 47 25 28 47 12 13 11 6 16 Religion 13 German and hist, stories. Latin German and his- tory stories French 28 31 Greek French Hist, and Geog. Mathematics... Kat. History. . . Physics, Chem. & Mineralogy Writing English Hist, and Geog. .. Mathematics Natural History,. Science Writing Free-hand draw- ing 13 19 28 10 8 6 10 Drawing In the United States, several, or even all, these dif- 6 INTEODUCTION ferent courses may sometime be found combined in a single large institution; and the correspondence with our classical, Latin-scientific, and scientific divisions is of course evident. Besides the above subjects, two hours per week in singing for the first two classes and three hours of gym- nastics throughout are compulsory. The gymnasium, real-gymnasium, and the superior real-school have nine grades or classes, while the real-school or superior grammar school has only six. In Prussia and northern Germany generally, these are designated from the lowest to the highest by the Latin ordinals as follows : Sexta, Quinta, Quarta, Low- er Tertia, Upper Tertia, Lower Sekunda, Upper Sekun- da, Lower Prima, Upper Prima. In southern Ger- many, as in Wurtemberg and Bavaria, and in Austria and Hungary, they are numbered in the reverse order, from I to IX. If the preparatory grades are included, they will be marked VIII and VII in the first case, and I and II in the second. Russia, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Holland, England, Italy, among others, number the grades from 1 upward, and France and Belgium as well as the adjacent German states, Alsace- Lorraine and Baden, do the reverse. Graduation from these schools or the completion of a given number of grades confers certain privileges, with respect to military service, university studies, SCHOOL . HYGIEi^E 7 and official careers, and so places these schools and their pupils in a separate and superior social position, to which of course the high grade of scholarship of the teachers and the dignity of the subjects as well as tradition also contribute. The different kinds of sec- ondary schools are, however, by no means on an equality in this respect. The completion of six years of study in any one of them entitles a young man to exemption from two of the three years of compul- sory military service. In the nine grade schools one- half of the pupils leave as soon as this exemption has been secured. With respect to other privileges the gymnasium leads by enabling its graduates at once to enter upon the special preparation for any profession or any branch of the public service. The real-gym- nasium confers the same privileges except that its graduates cannot, without making up the part of the gymnasial course which they have not had, prepare themselves at the universities for theology, law, medicine, or cameralistics. The superior real-school confers only about half as many important privileges as the schools just men- tioned, though it gives the same as the real gymnasium except that it does not like the latter enable its gradu- ates to study modern languages, dentistry, veterinary surgery, or pharmacy at the universities or other pro- fessional schools, and excludes from a few careers in 8 IKTRODUCTIOJ^ the army and navy unless the applicant passes a special examination on the missing subjects. Ill The local applicability of a book on school hygiene varies with its character. In this respect there is an evident difference betwen special reports or practical directions and a scientific treatise like Kotelmann's which makes use of statistics from many different countries in establishing and illustrating the principles of the subject. If there were not an essential similar- ity in the conditions of mental activity and the aims and means of education among civilized nations, it would of course be impossible to write a book that would be directly applicable everywhere. As it is, perhaps the most important thing about the local back- ground for a treatise on the principles of school hygiene is that this shall have been sufficiently varied and ex- tensive and shall have been adequately investigated. Those who have to buy heating apparatus or school furniture will of course need to know the local con- ditions and facilities and must therefore supplement this book by the examination of equipments or cata- logues from supply companies. This would doubtless in any case be necessary, unless a very special report had been made ; and perhaps all we can ask from a general treatise is that it shall so present its princi- ples that our judgment may not err in our work. SCHOOL HYGIENE 9 There is a very important place, moreover, for exten- sive local investigations in different parts of the subject by experts, as they serve to demonstrate causes and conditions with certainty and besides, stimulate pub- lic interest and give all concerned a more practical and efficient habit of mind. The history of school hygiene affords in this respect an interesting parallel to the history of the same movement in Germany as given in chapter I. Here as there, we find first of all a recog- nition of the importance of health and strength and an advocacy of physical training to secure it, — notably so by Franklin and Jefferson in the latter half of the eighteenth century. The temporary introduction in the twenties = of German gymnastics by Beck, Follen, and Lieber, disciples of Jahn; the manual labor movement and the agitation for the study of hygiene, mainly in the thirties; the recognition of the unhygienic conditions and the proper requirements of school buildings by xllcott, Mann, and Barnard in the thirties and forties ; the revival in the fifties and sixties of gymnastics and military drill through the labors of Dio Lewis and the influence of the civil war, and the present partial recognition of them in the curriculum; and, finally, the pioneer work of Barnard, 1838, in measuring children for school seats, the later efforts to' determine the facts of growth and its conditions by Bowditch, Porter, Peckham, Boas, Bryan, West, and 10 INTRODUCTION others, the study of death rates, stuttering, and seating by Hartwell, and the examination of the senses by many investigators, — these facts by their character all indicate a development from the unstudied, partial recognition of defects and the more or less adequate agitation for their removal to the rigorous, scientific, and statistical investigation of causes and remedies. While there is thus everywhere an essential similar- ity in the principles and perhaps in the development of the science, nevertheless, there are minor variations due to differences in climate, race, and school pro- grammes. Thus, Germany, which lies approximately between the 47th and 55th parallels, is as a whole in a higher latitude than the United States, which is be- tween the 25th and 49th, if we omit the outlying pos- sessions; and it has a correspondingly lower tempera- ture in summer and shorter days in winter. Its winter temperature, however, is higher than we should expect from the latitude, being about the same as that of the middle section of the United States east and west. This is chiefly to be explained by the general prevalence there at this season of south-west- erly winds. On the Atlantic coast of North America, the corresponding winds are from the north-west, and In the central parts from the south-west or west ; while in summer in all sections mentioned the winds are south-westerly or southerly. SCHOOL HYGIENE 11 According to Young [Seventh Annual Report of the State Board of Health of Maine, p. 260-3], this differ- ence in latitude makes a northerly exposure less unde- sirable and in fact to be preferred along with the north easterly for his section of the country, while the southerly is to be positively rejected. However, on this point authorities differ, and perhaps the most im- portant thing is to recognize the advantages and disad- vantages of the different orientations and in the equip- ment of room to make due allowance for them. With respect to school programmes, an investigation in the high schools of some cities in Indiana showed that the pupils spent about 32 hours per week in school work, which is not much more than half the time spent in the corresponding grades of the Swedish schools studied by Key, and from 15 to 20 hours less than is recommended by him and other European authorities as an allowable maximum. The pres- sure is, however, far from uniform in different sections of the country; and while there are schools that rival the European in this repect there are doubtlesss others in which much more work might be done without detriment to health. Whether or not climate, hered- ity, and family training make the recommendations of the European experts for the maximum amount of work per week too high for this country, needs further investigation. The natural standard is of course, that 12 INTRODUCTION the pupil shall be able to do his work without injury to health, — that is without becoming nervous and sleepless, or having his eye-sight, digestion, or other bodily functions impaired. In conclusion the translators take pleasure in ac- knowledging their indebtedness to Dr. Kotelmann for most kindly and efficient assistance and to Mr. C. W. Bardeen for a number of additions to the bibliography and many valuable suggestions. J. A. Beegsteom. NOTES The tests of vision on page 44 may be made with the pages of this book. When it is in good light the average normal eye can read the text at a dis- tance of 45 inches. In the comparison on pages 62 and 63 between gas and kerosene, it is assumed that the twoilluminants are burning from simple broad flame burn- ers. If different kinds of burners are used, the comparison will not be the same, as will be seen in the following table fromBrockhaus's Kon. Lex., 14th ed, article Beleuchtung. The table gives the amount and cost of the illuminant, as well as the heat and waste products for a hundred candle power light for one hour. BURNERS Kerosene Small flat Large round Gas Fishtail Argand Inbandescent Siemens , Electricity Incandescent Arc Am't Cost H^O CO^ kg. cts. kg. cbm. .60 3 .80 .95 .20 1 .22 .32 cbm. . 2 9 2.14 1.14 .8 3.6 .86 .46 .15 .7 .16 .09 .35 1.6 H. P. 1 6 ..26 2.25 Traces Heat calories 7200 240O 12150 4860 900 1500 290-536 57-158 CONTENTS Pages CHAPTER I. — The History of School Hygiene IN Germany 17 CHAPTER II. — Orientation and Natural Light- ing 35 Orientation 35 ; natural illumination 38 ; Web- er's photometer 39; Weber's stereogoniometer 42; remedies for insufficient light 45. CHAPTER III. — Artificial Illumination 53 Electric lights 53 ; gas 58 ; kerosene 62. CHAPTER IV. — Ventilation and Cleaning 65 Impurities in the air 65 ; carbonic acid 66 ; dust 69; bacteria 70; measurement of impurity 73; Pettenkoffer's method 73; Smith-Lunge^method 76; Wolpert's air-tester 78; Recknagel's venti- lation guage 85 ; Castaning's window-ventilation 90; opening of windows 91; cleanliness 94; closets 100. CHAPTER v.— Heating 104 Stoves vs. central plants 104; stoves 107; hot- air furnaces 112; hot water 117; steam 119. Required temperature 121 ; Bastelmann's contact thermometer 125. CHAPTER VI. —School Furniture 128 Desks 128; " difference " 136; "distance" 141; movable desk tops 147; Vienna desk 150; (18) 14 CONTENTS Pages movable seats 155; adjustments for standing 158. Blackboards 161; easels 164; map-holders 165; crayon and erasers 168. CHAPTER VIL— The Nervous System 170 The brain 170; experiments upon fatigue of pupils 173; Mosso ergograph 178; Griesbach's aisthesiometer 185. CHAPTER VIIL— School Programmes 189 Order of subjects 189; length of periods 192; recesses 193 ; lunches 195 ; one session or two 198 ; vacations 200 ; vacation travel 203 ; dismissal for heat 207. How young should pupils be admitted 209; home work 210; music lessons 211; im- proved methods 215; examinations 216; cephalic congestions 216 ; school headaches 217 ; nosebleed 219; over-stimulated nerves 220. Outdoor sports 224; manual training 225; sleep 225. Mental diseases 228; suicide 231; epilepsy 234; St. Vitus dance 236. CHAPTER IX.— The Eye.... 239 Farsightedness 240; normal condition 244; nearsightedness 246; eye-glasses 251 ; text-books 260; penmanship 264; drawing 269; color-blind- ness 270; diseases of the eye 272. CHAPTER X.— The Ear 279 Tests of hearing 279 ; dulness often from audi- tory defects 284; adenoid vegetation 285; vio- lent noises 290; boxing the ears 292; objects in the ear 293. CHAPTER XL —The Vocal Organs 295 SCHOOL HYGIENE 15 ■ Pages How early children can sing 295; hygiene of singing 298. Correct articulation 302; stutter- ing 305. CHAPTER XII.— Curvature of the Spine 310 A product of school life 310; vertical penman- ship 315 ; weight of books carried to school 318. CHAPTER XIIL— Infectious Diseases 320 Measles 320; scarlet fever 324; diphtheria 328; whooping-cough 332; cerebro-spinal meningitis 334; mumps 335 ; small-pox and vaccination 336 ; chicken-pox 340; tuberculosis 341; typhus fever 344; influenza 346; masturbation 349. BIBLIOGRAPHY of English and American Books AND Papers on School Hygiene 353 INDEX 383 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIOXS 1. Weber's photometer 93 2. Weber's stereogoniometer 4^ 3. Hennig's daylight reflector 46 4. Hrabowski's overhead reflector , 57 5. Smith-Lunge air-tester 76 6. Recknagel's ventilation gauge 85 7. Recknagel's ventilation gauge attached 86 8. Castanig's method of window ventilation 91 9. Bastelmann's contact thermometer for electric temperatu re signal s 125 10. Bastelmann's temperature signal board 126 11. Writing class in forward position 131 12. Lateral curvature of the spine due to a desk that is too high (Esmarch) 137 16 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Pages 13. School desk of Elsaesser of Schonau at Heidel- berg \ 141 14-16. Plus — zero — minus distance 142 17. Pupil with a plus distance seat 143 18." Parow's school desk 148 19. Kunze's school desk 149 20. Schlimp's school desk 152 21. Schenk's school desk, arranged for standing.. 153 22. Schenk's school desk, arranged for sitting 153 23. Lickroth's standard school desk 155 24. Kottmann's school desk 157 25. The " Columbus " school desk 157 26. Kottmann's desk, arranged for sitting 159 27. The same, arranged for standing 159 28. Blackboard with roller frame 163 29. Easel for black-board 164 30. The same used as a map-holder 165 31. Map-holder by Lickroth — closed 166 32. The same, open 167 33. Eecording apparatus for the Mosso ergograph....l78 34. Fatigue curve, obtained with the Mosso ergo- graph 179 35. Griesbach's sesthesiometer 186 36. Boy with adenoid vegetation before the oper- ation 288 37. The same boy, after the operation 289 38. Pupil writing vertical script .....317 SCHOOL HYGIENE CHAPTEE I The History of School Hygiene in Germany Special efforts to promote the physical well-being of the school population of Germany began to be made as early as the time of the Reformation. These consisted at first of an advocacy of physical exercise. While most of the theologians of the middle ages, like Berthold of Regensburg (1272) and Geiler of Kaisersberg (1445-1510), see in the "running, tilting stone-throwing, wrestling, jumping, etc.", which were beloved by old and young, nothing but a device of the Evil One for " capturing souls with pride", and only a few like Thomas Haselbach (about 144 6) express the opinion that a man may for the sake of recreation and physical development engage in all sorts of sports, and contests maktin Luther, 1483-1546 like throwing balls through a ring or at ninepins, running races, shooting with the bow, playing ball, and so forth, Luther makes a very (17) 18 HISTORY OF SCHOOL HTGIEKE positive plea for the practice of such exercises, especially by the young. " The ancients," said he, " understood this matter yery well ; and they required that people should exer- cise and have something useful and respectable to do so that they might not fall into intemperance, debauch- ery, gluttony, drinking, and gambling. I am there- fore very fond of these two exercises and amusements, music, and tilting, together with fencing, wrestling, and similar games; the first of which drives sorrow and melancholy from the heart, and the second de- velops the different parts of the body and keeps it in health. The real purpose is, moreover, to keep people from going into drinking, lewdness, gambling, and dice-playing, as they do now at the courts and in the cities, where one can hear nothing but : ' Here you are ! Have a drink ! ' Then they gamb] e for another hundred guilders or more. This is what happens when these fine games and knightly sports are neglected." Still better known is his saying that it was well with the city on whose streets the children played and sang. In his treatise entitled, "A few precepts on the way our young people should be trained,"* Zwingli,^ too, * Quo pacto ingenui adolescentes formandi sint, prae- ceptiones pauculae. ^ Huldrici Zuinglii opera. Completa editio prima curantibus Melchiore Schulero et Jo. Schulthessio, iv, 148-158. Turici, 1841, ex officina Schulthessiana. LUTHER, ZWINGLI, CAMEEARIUS 19 recommends running, jumping, stone-throwing, fenc- ing, and wrestling, to develop the youthful body and make it skilful. Wrestling is, however, to be indulged in sparingly, since it often becomes a serious matter. He believes that swimming is an exercise of small utility, " though it may be very pleasant at times to float in the water and act like a fish." The noteworthy fact is that he is the spokesman for instruction in manual training. He wishes that all boys and young men " felt as they would if they had to acquire the right of citizenship among the ancient Massilians, who ad- mitted no one who did not understand a trade." He also warns young people against a haughty bearing, and recommends a temperate life. " Hunger is to be mitigated but not wholly destroyed by eating; " Galenus reached the age of one hundred and twenty because he never rose from the table satiated. Joachim Camerarius (1500-1574), the friend of Melanchthon, not only advises in his " Maxims for Boys " that they substitute ball-playing, running and jumping, boxing and wrestling, for the disreptutable game of dice; but in his " Dialogus de Gymnasiis " he points to the gymnastics of the ancients as a model. In fact. Humanists, like Sadolet, brought the gymnas- tics as well as other features of classical antiquity again within the circle of common interest. Camerarius praises the Greek games particularly in comparison with the rough [and [excessive sports of our German 20 HISTORY OF SCHOOL HYGIElfE forefathers, who kept up a savage feasting and drink- ing for days and nights in connection with them; whereas he would have his pupils, graded in age and strength, go through their exercises hefore meals. While gymnastics for the young was promoted in this way, we find that a " school garden " designed for the amusement and recuperation of both teachers and pupils was established as early as 1588 at the gym- nasium of Halle on the Saale. The teachers of the institution formed an association that year and contri- buted enough of their meagre salaries to found a gar- den which remained in existence for two and a half centuries. On the surrounding wall is a stone tablet on which was chiselled the names of ten teachers and the rector, Cassar, together with a Latin poem com- posed by him, in which we find among other things : " The teachers who were associated together at Halle have here constructed a garden at their common expense."* It is, however, true that at other places the health of the children was not so well cared for. In the large city school of Wismar founded in 1541, the pupils were for instance not allowed to go into the yard during recess; and they must not leave their seats without permission. On the other hand, when * Sumptibus hunc construxerunt communibus hor- tum, qui juncti Halensi tum docuere schola. HALLE, THE JESUITS 21 they brought the customary New Year's presents for the principal and vice-principal, punch, tobacco, and cards were distributed among them. They spent the whole night in revelry ; nor did they forget to sing the Landesvater *, stacking their hats on a sword and tak- ing them off again as they sang. The Jesuits have rendered particularly eminent ser- vice in the field of school hygiene. As is well-known, they were enterprising teachers, and founded not only schools for their own order, but also academies in which any young person might receive lodging, care, and instruction. In the outline of their methods known as " Ratio et imitatio studiorum societatis Jesu ", which was issued for these institutions in 1599 by the general of the Jesuits, Claudio Aquaviva, the number of daily recita- tion periods as well as the amount of work to be done by the pupils will be found to have been re- stricted in a very reasonable way. The schools and boarding houses of the Jesuits were, as a rule, hygi- enically well arranged; and the physical development of the boys was furthermore promoted by good board, daily walks, games, and long vacations. A detailed description of a school building is first to *A patriotic students' drinking song, with an accom- panying ceremony, which is referred to in the phrases succeeding Landesvater in the text. 22 HISTORY OE SCHOOL HYGIETiTE be found in the year 1649, when Joseph Fiirtenbach the younger ^ dedicated his " Grerman School-house " to the mayor and council of the holy imperial city, Ysni, in Suabia. The school room described is 48 feet long, 48 feet broad, and 10^ feet high. The respiratory pro- ducts of the pupils, which, he says, naturally rise to the ceiling, were there to be withdrawn by means of ventilators in the shape of movable windows. The room was lighted from two sides. It was heated by a large tile stove, supplied with fuel from a special store room. Four tables, each 18 feet long, 3^ feet broad, and 2|- feet high, were placed perpendicularly against the walls containing the windows. The surfaces were coated with black oil paint and divided by red lines into sixteen sections, each 2J feet long and If feet broad. Under the table were shelves for tablets and books. The benches, which were without backs, were IJ feet wide, and placed 3 feet apart. The school- room had a platform for the teacher's table and the blackboard, and a case for the school appliances. 'Next to the room was a hall, occasionally used for exhibitions. It is interesting to note that during holidays the children were given recreation and instruction in the ^ Karl Hintrager, Ein deutsches Schulhaus vor 250 Jahren. Zeitschrift fiir Schulgesundheitspfiege von L. Kotelmann, 1888, v. 142-151. Hamburg und Leipzig, Leop. Voss. FURTENBACH, COMEI^IUS 23 open air. Fiirtenbach says of this matter: "There are some ingenious German school masters, who, to furnish pastime for the older boys during vacation, take them out into the beautiful fields, to apply the arithmetic which they have learned in the school-room and to study there geometry and geography. In fact, some energetic teachers have even undertaken military constructions. For this purpose, however, it becomes necessary to have several different instruments at hand with which to apply the above named liberal arts ; and these together with the surveyor's rod, the reel, and other things belonging thereto must be carried into the field wherever and whenever they are needed." Comenius, who for a time was rector of the gymna- sium at Lissa, was an inno- vator in the whole field of l^edagogy, and not the least so in the part devoted to school hygiene. In the first place, in his " Great method of teaching everybody all the arts ",* he pointed out the John Amos cojienius, 1592-1671 nocessity of scnsc percep- tion and. the study of nature; and in so doing, made the work of the pupil easier. He asks: " Do we not like our ancestors live in the garden of nature ? Why, *Didactica magna s. omnes omnia docendi artificium. 24 HISTOEY OF SCHOOL HYGIEKE I say, shall we not instead of dead books open the liv- ing book of nature ? " He did not content himself with merely lessening the burdens of the pupil by improvements in the methods of teaching, but he advocated physical train- ing directly. He advised parents to give their chil- dren a physical culture free from all " semblance of apishness and asininity", and emphasized strengthen- ing and training the limbs as an essential part of school instruction. Thus he constantly reminded his teachers of the saying, " a sound mind in a sound body;" while Trotzendorf, as perpetual dictator, had given his pupils at Goldberg the law: "Don't bathe in cold water in summer; don't go out on the ice in the winter; and don't throw snow-balls." Comenius, also, deserves no little praise for insisting on spacious class-rooms, and suitable play-grounds adjacent to the school. " The school regulations of the Princedom of Braun- schweig-Liineburg ", written in 1737 by rector Butt- sted 1 of Osterode, contained even at that early date advice on matters of hygiene. Among the things mentioned as " unwholesome and injurious " we find: ^ Fr. Koldewey, Braunschweigische Schulordnungen von den altesten Zeiten bis zum Jahre 1828. Mit Einleitung, Anmerkungen, Glossen und Eegister. Berlin, 1886, A. Hofmann & Co. BUTTSTED, BASEDOW 25 bending the spine in sitting, as this compresses the in- testines and gives rise to numerons complaints, which are then ascribed to study ; also bringing the face too near the paper, since this produces dimness of vision, a defect quite prevalent among the learned; and, lastly, negligence in cleaning the teeth, which causes them to decay prematurely. The work of Basedow in promoting the physical training of the young was especially important. In his " Practical Philosophy for all Classes ", he refers to " many sensible physicians, especially Locke ' ' as the authority for his rules for health and strength; and he demands John Bernard Basedow, that WC aCCUStom boyS to f re- 1723-1790 quent exercise of all parts of the body, and put up with their hilarity and noise. In his " Book of Methods for Fathers, Mothers, and Peoples " (1770) he gives parents still more decided advice: " AYhen the limbs of your children have the necessary strength and flexibility, accustom them in a safe way to such movements as may be useful and which are dangerous only when they are done without training. Teach boys, for instance, to swim, to walk over narrow footbridges, to lower themselves by a rope, to ride horseback, to go up and down small elevations, 26 HISTORY OF SCHOOL HYGIEITE to jump over narrow ditches and low fences, to use the vaulting pole, to dodge thrown balls, to chase away a dog, to walk on smooth ice, etc." We learn, moreover, that his pupils, like Eousseau's Emile, are urged to take cold baths, long walks, and other means of invigoration. " We train them in rac- ing, wrestling, poising, fencing, dancing, — in short, in everything which gives strength to the nerves, agility to the limbs, keenness to the senses, and firmness, mobility, and strength to the whole body." In Basedow's " Book of Methods ", we even find manual training mentioned; and play, "activity in lightest, ethereal form," as Jean Paul puts it, is there approved and recommended. The principle enunciated in the proclamation made in 1724, entitled: " The Philanthropinum established at Dessau, a School of Humanity for Students and young Teachers," sounds quite modern, though it is something of an exaggera- tion: " As compared with the physical and moral de- velopment of man, scientific education is only a side issue and must therefore be essentially lightened, partly by the selection of better subjects for study, and partly by better methods." Nothwithstanding Herder's severe criticism of Base- dow for his manifold peculiarities and moral defects : " I would not give him calves to educate, to say nothing of children ", he nevertheless followed Base- dow's example by introducing regular gymnastics into GOETHE 27 the gymnasium at Weimar. In his fragmentary re- marks " On Gymnasia! Instruction ", he says: " The children of the lower classes are all attracted by gym- nastics. Eunning and jumping is what they like; and nothing is more unbearable than sitting still. What can we do in our restricted circumstances to keep them favorably disposed toward the school ? Nothing but give the children — a flock of birds without wings — as much physical exercise as the class work will permit." He also introduced drawing for the training of the eye and the hand. Goethe was by no means opposed to the gymnastics introduced by Guts Muths, Jahn, and others, though he regretted that politics had become mixed up with the matter. " The baby is thereby thrown out in the bath, as the saying goes. I want to see the gymnastic halls re-established, b e - JoHANN Wolfgang von Goethe , 1749-1832 cause our young people need them; especially so the students, who in their varied fields of activity lack the physical basis and therefore the necessary ability as well." The picture he gives of the young scholars of his time is not very attractive. " Nearsighted, pale, with hollow cheeks. 28 HISTORY OF SCHOOL HYGIEKE young without youth, such, are the majority, as I see them. They show no signs of sound senses, or of pleasure in sensuous beauty; the sentiments and de- lights of youth are irretrievably lost, for if a person is not young at twenty, how can he be at forty ? " From such facts we can understand why from now on physicians begin to be interested in the health of the school population and to try to place the matter on a scientific basis. As among the first of these we may name Johann Peter Frank ^ (1745-1821). In the second volume of his work: " A Complete System of Sanitary Police " (1780) there is a division " On the hygienic condition of school children and the police supervi- sion necessary in institutions of learning." J^early every feature of modern school hygiene is mentioned. In the first section, he treats of the injuries result- ing from burdening the youthful powers of mind and body too early and too severely. He urges that boy& under eight shoula not be allowed to enter a Latin school, and then only if they are especially talented. Lessons must not begin too early in the morning ; they should not last over five hours, and should be discon- tinued in extremely hot weather. In the second section, he deals with questions relat- ing to the location of the school building, and tho ^ Johann Peter Frank, System einer voUstandigen medicinischen Polizey. 2 vols. 2d ed. Mannheim,. 1780-84, C. F. Schwan. FRAN'K, LOKINSEE 29 size, illumination, heating, and cleaning of class- rooms. The desks and seats, he thinks, deserve special consideration. They must correspond to the size of the pupil, and have comfortable and not too perpen- dicular backs, if deformities of the spine are to be avoided. The author also discusses school punish- ments, home tasks, vacations, and the isolation of such pupils as suffer fxom itch, small-pox, or other conta- gious diseases. The last section is devoted to the " re-establishment and value of gymnastics in public education ". Here he recommends walks, excursions, tramps, and jour- neys, as well as different exercises and sports such as playing ball, climbing trees, walking on stilts, racing, throwing, dancing, fencing, riding, swimming, skating, and bowling. In order that pupils may be exposed to the least possible danger, he demands the establish- ment of public drill-grounds, and the employment of a special drill master. He also enumerates a long list of precautions to be observed in the different exercises and games. While the work of Frank discusses school hygiene in general, that of the medical councillor, C. J. Lorinser, ^ (1836) confines itself to narrower limits. " It views from a medical standpoint the mental and physical ^ C. J. Lorinser, Zum Schutz der Gesundheit in den Schulen. Berlin, 1836, Th. Chr. Fr. Enslin. 30 HISTORY OF SCHOOL HYGIENE training now customary in most German Gymnasia." In characterizing his contemporaries he says: "With the great transformation in the mod*e of life the body has become more tender and frail ; and it is now de- pendent upon stimuli unknown to our ancestors. The essential energy of life is lower; and in the same degree as the senses have become more mobile and the impulses more impetuous, body and mind have lost in firmness and resistance." He says further: " In order to increase this diseased condition of mind and body, or to produce it where it is not already present, no better means could have been provided than those which are at present in use in most German gymnasia. These are to be found in the mul- tiplicity of subjects, the great number of school hours, and the great number of home tasks. The first con- fuses and dulls the mind; the second retards the natural development of the body; and the third pre- vents recuperation from these effects outside of school. " Among the bodily injuries arising from the above- named evils he mentions especially defective develop- ment of the chest and lungs and the weakening of the eyesight. " Never since there have been schools," he says, " has nearsightedness been so prevalent among young people ; and the number that wear spectacles in the upper classes increases from year to year." He believes that the remedies that have been suggested, * LORINSER 31 such as walks by the pupils and better illumination, are inadequate. He adheres rather to the opinion of J. C. Jahn, as expressed in the New Year-book for Philosophy and Pedagogy : " It is a question well worth the consideration of our school men and educational theorists whether the time has not come for the simpli- fication of the courses of study and the reduction of the number of school hours in our gymnasia." Lorinser's little treatise created a great sensation. Even though it occasionally missed the mark, it was nevertheless the alarm gun which aroused slumbering minds to action. While it was partly rejected by the pedagogues G-otthold, Miitzell, Heinsius, and Kopke, it received the general approval of the physician Foriep. He sums up his opinion of the matter by saying that the consequences of overpressure can be observed among the pupils; and the cause is to be found in the haste of pupils, teachers, and parents ; and also in the increased demands by the present system of ex- aminations. Important aid was rendered by the fact that King Frederic William III took notice of the w^ork of Lorin- ser, and in a letter to v. Altenstein, the Cultus-minis- ter, expressed his sympathy with the movement. After that, means for removing the evils in question began to be considered; and on June 6, 1842, appeared the famous cabinet order by Frederick William IV, " which 32 HISTORY OF SCHOOL HYGIENE formally recognized physical exercise as an essential part of the education of man," and introduced gym- nastics as an optional subject into gymnasia, higher city schools, and teacher's seminaries. With the exception of the short period of quiescence caused by the political situation of the time, the in- terest in physical training has grown rapidly ever since ; and the field of school hygiene has been steadily ex- tended and developed by physicians, pedagogues, and architects. Instead of making general remarks about schools and school instruction, men now devote them- selves to exact investigations and the study of special problems. Thus Lang, Zwez, Varrentrapp, Eeclam, and Erisman have ascertained the requirements of sanitary school-buildings with respect to location and construction. Parow, Fahrner, Hermann, Schildbach, Kunze, and Buchner introduced the school-desk re- form; and they have lately been joined by Schenk and Lorenz. Von Pettenkoffer, Breiting, and Kitschel have tested the air in school-rooms. Attention has also been given to the personal hygiene of the pupils and the so-called school diseases. In the study of eye defects, the examination of 10,060 school children by Hermann Oohn was epoch-making; and he has recently been followed by von Arlt, Schmidt Eimpler, von Hippel, Pfliiger, and Stilling. Yon Eeichard, Weil, Bezold, and Nager have studied the BIBLIOGEAPHT 33 hearing of children. Bresgen and Kafemann have pointed out that when breathing through the nose is obstructed, weakness of memory and attention is pro- duced. To prevent the curvature of the spine so often caused by writing, Schubert and W. Meyer have advocated the introduction of vertical script. And, lastly, A. and H. Gutzmann have suggested a new method of curing stuttering, and have attained note- worthy results in this line. There is no lack of comprehensive treatises on school hygiene. Besides the older works of Guillaume, Falk, Thome, Gauster, Eiemann, and Eembold, we will mention those of Burgerstein^, Baginski,^ Bur- gerstein and JSTetolitzky, ^ and Eulenberg and Bach * . The first work of Burgerstein gives a short survey; ^ Leo Burgerstein, Die Gesundheitspflege in der Mittelschule. Hygiene des Korpers nebst beilaufigen. Bemerkungen, 1887, A Holder. 2 Ad. Baginsky, Handbuch der Schul-Hygiene. Stuttgart, 1883, Enke. ^ Leo Burgerstein und Aug. N'etolitzky, Handbuch der Schulhygiene. Mit 154 Abildungen im Text. Jena, 1895, Gustav Eischer. *H. Eulenberg und Th. Bach, Schulgesundheitslehre. Das Schulhaus und das Unterrichtswesen, vom hygien- ischen Standpunkte fiir Arzte, Lehrer, Verwaltungs- beamte und Architekten bearbeitet. 2d ed. Berlin, 1898, E. E. Heine. 34 HISTOEY OF SCHOOL HYGIEI^E the equally thorough and original Handbook by Baginski is of special value to physicians; while the work of Burgerstein and Netolitzky which was compiled jointly by an educator and a physician, and that of Eulenberg and Bach may preferably be recommended to teachers. Burgerstein and JSfetolitzky's treatise has an interna- tional character; while that of Eulenberg and Bach deals chiefly with the conditions in Prussia. CHAPTEE II The Light of the School-eoom Since we have undertaken to treat only of those facts of school hygiene which the teacher himself can observe and to some extent control, we refer the reader to the more complete works of Baginsky, Burgerstein-Xetolitzky, and Eulenberg-Bach for a dis- cnssion of buildings and sites. In these the necessary information can be obtained concerning the location and extent of the site and the different parts of the building, especially the foundation, fagade, materials, stories, corridors, and roof. The orientation^ of the schoolroom is, however, not entirely beyond the control of the teacher. Class- rooms which have an unfavorable location may be ex- changed for other rooms, such as the principal's office, the conference or faculty room, the physical or chemi- cal laboratory, the museum, the library, etc. In general, it should be the rule to have the sun shine freely into the room for several hours of the day, if possible when school is not in session. Since sunless rooms are generally damp and cold, people justly call them unhealthful. " Where the sun does ^ Paul Schubert, tJber Schulfenster und Yorhange. Mtinchener medizinische Woehenschrift, 1898, No. 14. (35) 36 THE LIGHT OF THE SCHOOL-ROOM not go, the doctor goes," says an Italian proverb. We know that on streets which run east and west, the rate of mortality is greater on the shady than on the sunny side. Besides warming and ventilating, sunlight also disinfects. Pure cultures of most pathogenic bacteria do not grow in the sunlight but soon perish. Sunny class-rooms are, therefore, to a certain degree, a hin- drance to the spread of infectious diseases through the school. A southeasterly direction of class-room windows is to be preferred. This provides for the necessary light and warmth from the sun, does not expose the win- dow front to the generally prevailing west winds, and prevents the, early and almost horizontal rays from falling into the room. In this respect it has this special advantage over the pure easterly direction that the sun reaches the room later in the day and leaves it after a shorter time. We believe that an easterly exposure is, next to the southeasterly, the most favorable, because here the sun shines into the room chiefly before instruction begins and not during the hottest part of the day. Should it be found that the'rooms are too warm by 8 o'clock, the windows must be opened, and the awnings, Venetian blinds, or curtains let down before that time. The morning sun furnishes, moreover, an excellent light for the main hours of the day and has a cheering effect on the minds of both pupils and teachers. A southerly exposure of class-rooms is more ques- 0KIE2s[TATI01sr 37 tionable, because the rooms become too warm in sum- mer. To be sure, we hear the argument that in our climate even at this time of the year the sky is often cloudy ; that the nearly perpendicular rays of the noon- day sun do not fall far into the room and are less an- noying than the horizontal light of the morning and evening sun, and that the two hottest months are mostly taken up by the summer vacation. J^everthe- less, as a matter of fact, the temperature in the south- erly rooms rises very high in spite of all protective measures against the sun, since the southern wall and the layers of air next to it both become strongly heated. A southerly exposure may be unfavorable not simply in summer but also in winter i. It would be possible only with an easily regulated heating apparatus to keep the temperature of the room constant, with the win- dows now shaded and cool and now heated by the noon- day sun. The objection raised by Varrentrapp ^ against rooms located on the west side, namely, that they are heated more intensely and lighted more uncomfortably than others, is not valid, since schools with two sessions ^ Chr. Nussbaum Zur Orientierung der Schulzim- mer. Zeitschrift fiir Schulgesundheitspflege, 1888, No. 3 p. 70-74. Id. G-iinstigste Lage der Schulzim- mer. Gesundheitsingenieur, 1894, ]^o. 16. 2 Varrentrapp, Hygienische Anforderungen an Schul- bauten. Deutsche Vierteljahrsschrift fiir offentliche Gesundheitspflege, 1869, Vol. I, Part 4, p. 469. 38 THE LIGHT OF THE SCHOOL-ROOM close at 4, and those with one, at 2 to 3 o'clock, when the sun is still comparatively high in the heavens. We would not, however, advocate a westerly direction, because as stated above, it is the side exposed to the weather. Wind and rain would often strike the win- dows, prevent their being opened in summer, and in large cities blow dust and smoke into the room. A northerly exposure is admissible for drawing-rooms, and in fact to be recommended for this purpose, be- cause north rooms, not being open to the sun, need no blinds. The light can therefore all be utilized; and it remains exceedingly uniform. If a northerly draw- ing-room is well heated and well ventilated, it is not likely to be injurious to health, notwithstanding the lack of sunlight, because pupils spend in it only a few hours per week. The natural illiimiiiation of the school-room is closely connected with its orientation. For it is evi- dent that rooms facing the northeast, have more light in the morning than those facing the southwest, while at noon the reverse is true ; and that rooms facing the south, other things being equal, receive more light than those facing the north. Sufficient daylight is of the greatest importance to the eyes, and therefore eiforts have been made for a long time to ascertain in figures the amount of light in different parts of the school-room. This was first made possible by the Photometer of NATUEAL ILLUMIKATTOK 39 Leonhard Weber ^ of Breslau. (Fig. I.) This instru- FiG. 1. LEOXHAED WEBEE'S PHOTOMETEE 1 Beschrieben im Journal fiir Grasbeleucbtung, 1885, Vol. 28, p. 267 ff. ; Compare Hugo Kriiss, Ubereinege Abanderungen des Weber-schen Photometers. Seper- atabdruck aus Schillings Journal fiir Gasbeleuchtung und Wasserversorgung, 1898. 40 THE LIGHT OF THE SCHOOL-KOOM ment, as will be seen in the illustration, consists of, (1) the pillar /), and the case E, which also serves as a base; (2) the receptacle 0, which contains a benzine candle; (3) the fixed tube A; and (4) the tube B, which is perpendicular to A and turns on an axis coin- cident with the axis ot A. In the case (7, is a little device for regulating the flame, and a small scale at- tached to a mirror. By looking through a slit oppo- site, the length of the flame, which is to be 2 cm., can be read on this scale. Along the full length of tube A is a millimeter scale. In this tube a ring holding a plate of glass-porcelain can be moved back and forth by means of a little button /; and a small index con- nected with the ring shows on its millimeter scale the distance between the glass plate and the benzine flame. The movable tube B can be turned fully 180 ° out of the position it has in the cut, where the ocular h is down ; and it can be fixed in any position by means of a set screw. In the middle of 5 is a reflection prism, one perpendicular plane of which is turned toward the middle axis of A, and the other toward the ocular h. By means of this prism the light that comes from A is reflected at an angle of 90 ° toward the eye of the ob- server. At the end of the tube B, opposite the ocular, is a square metal boK ^ to which a tube (i) can be attached to exclude light from the sides. In case the light to be measured is too strong, one or more weber's photometer 41 glass plates can be introduced into the box g from the side in order to diminish the intensity. The light that goes to the ocular from here fills the Jeft side of the field of yision. On looking into the ocular one sees to the right only the light which comes from A ; and to the left, only that which enters through the box g. If the two lights are equal in color and intensity the two parts of the field of vision merge into one with a scarcely noticeable line of divi- sion. To enable the observer to give the light to be measured the same color as the benzine-light, the ocular contains a slide with an aperture and a red and a green plate of glass, so that the photometer can at pleasure be set for white, red, or green, light. A white slate, forming a part of the outfit, is fastened to a stand and placed in that part of the school-room, where the light is to be measured. The movable tube B is directed as nearly as possible toward the centre of the slate; and the glass porcelain plate in the tube A is then shifted back and forth by means of the button /, until the left and the right sides of the field of vision become alike. The intensity of the light thus measured is computed by means of a formula given by Weber. The result gives the num- ber of " normal candles " which one would have to place at 1 m. distance from the slate in order to illuminate the same as strongly as it is illuminated by the diffuse daylight as the time of examination. 42 THE LIGHT OF THE SCHOOL-KOOM Hermann Cohn, the first investigator to try to fix upon a standard of light for the different parts of the school-room, has, after numerous measurements, reached the conclusion that the minimum light in- tensity must equal that of 10 of Weber's meter-candles, which corresponds to 20-30 ordinary normal meter- candles. The stereogoniometer ^ is another instrument pro- posed by Weber for measuring the quantity of daylight in school-rooms. In the accompanying illustration (Fig. 2), G represents the base; P, a movable plate; X, Fig. 2. LEOKHARD WEBER^S STEREOGONIOMETER a lens, which can be shifted on the rod s; B^ an arc ^ Beschreibung eines Kaumwinkelmessers von Pro- fessor Dr. L. Weber. Zeitschrift fiir Instrumenten- kunde, 1884, Part 10, pp. 343-347 ; Dingler's Poly- technisches Journal, 1886, Vol. 259, Part 1, p. 122 ff. weber's steeeogoniometer 43 divided into degrees; and H^ a holder fastened to the plate P, from which the plumb-line H E is suspended. After the instrument has been placed on the spot to be tested and the lens turned toward the window, the base is made horizontal by the aid of three leveling screws and the plumb-line H E. For this operation the plate P has to be moved so that the index m at- tached to it j)oints to the zero mark on B. The base is level when the plumb is directly over a given point in it. By shifting the lens L on the rod s an inverted image of the window sash, the roofs and steeples, as well as of that part of the sky visible at the place under investigation, is produced on a sheet of paper fastened with brass clasps on the plate P. This paper is divided by lines into 2 mm squares. If the outline of the image, which ought to be grouped as uniformly as possible around the point C, is traced with a lead pencil and the squares it covers counted, the fractions of squares being estimated, the number obtained will give the solid angle w; which represents the extent of the visible part of the sky in square degrees. The equation h = iv sin a will then be true. Here h repre- sents the light intensity, w the solid angle, a the angle of incidence shown on the graduated arc B by the in- dex 771, and IV sin a the reduced solid angle. According to Cohn, a reduced solid angle of 50 square degrees is required to give the least permissible 44 THE LIGHT OF THE SCHOOL-ROOM intensity of 10 meter candles. Gillert criticises this- method, urging on the one hand, that the brightness of the sky varies with the climate, the country, and the elevation of the sun, and, on the other hand, that the amount of light at a desk depends not only on direct skylight but also on reflected light. The reduced solid angle measures only the former, while under certain conditions the latter is predominant. Erismann found, moreover, that in four school-rooms in Moscow the average light intensity with an angle of from 10 to 20 square degrees was three or four times as great as the minimum required by Cohn; and the least intensity observed with an angle of from 5 to 10 square degrees, came up to this mark. Even when the sky was wholly invisible i>he average light intensity was still as great as that from 10 meter candles. Though we may admit that this instrument gives us in some degree a measure of the illumination, yet, for purely practical purposes, the preference must be given to a method recommended by Schmidt-Eimpler, by which the intensity of the light at a desk is ascertained by means of test types. Those of Snellen^, Cohn 2,. ^ Herm. Snellen, Optotypi ad Visum determinandum d secundum formulam V= — vr-- Edit. XI, metrico systemate. Berlin, 1892, Herm. Peters. 2 Herm. Cohn, Tafel Zur Priifung der Sehleistung' und Sehscharfe der Schulkinder, Soldaten, Seeleutey und Bahnbeambten. 5 Ed. Breslau, 1897, Priebatsch. webek's stekeogoi^iometee 45 and Albrand^ are the best. If the smaller types, which, by the normal eye can be recognized in good light at a distance of 0.5, 0.6, or 0.8 m respectively, can not be read at all at the place examined or only at ^ of the above distance, the light is insufficient. This will generally be true where no portion of the sky is visible. These dark places are usually near the wall opposite the windows or directly adjacent to the wall spaces between them. Moreover, Huth has shown in a school in Berlin that at a distance of 6-7 meters from the windows the light was reduced to a thirtieth of its original intensity ; and in cloudy weather it fell below that of one meter candle. If the light supply is insufficient in a school-room, what can be done to remedy the matter ? Sometimes we may leave dark places unused, or else exchange them for others that have more light. If this is im- possible, we must paint dirty ceilings white, and dark walls either light gray or green; but in neither case should the color be dazzling. Above all, light must be given free passage through the windows. These must be cleaned carefully, and kept free from paint; and the blinds must be raised as high as possible. A still better plan would be to fasten the blinds above so that they could not obstruct any part of the window. When the upper parts of arched or Gothic windows have draperies, as is often the case in upper grades, these must be removed, because the 'greater 1 Albrand, Sehproben, Leipzig, 1893, H. Hartung u. Sohn. 46 THE LIGHT OF THE SCHOOL-ROOM part of the light of a school-room comes through the upper panes. The removal of vines and -especially of trees which shade the windows improves the light in a school-room very much. If adjacent wings of build- ings are in the way of one another's light, it is often a very good thing to paint the outsides a light color to increase the reflection. Light can also be thrown into a dark room by means of prisms and reflectors. Forster^ in Breslau was the first to use prisms for this purpose ; but, as far as we know, they have not been used elsewhere. The day- light reflector by F. W. Hen- nig of Berlin, the use of which will be explained by the accompanying illustra- tion (Fig. 3), has proved much more satisfactory. It is composed of a somewhat wavy plate of glass coated with silver and attached to the window at an angle of about 45 °. The corrugation increases the surface of re- flection and secures a better distribution of the light. Fig. 3. F. W. HENNIG'S DAY- LIGHT REFLECTOR ^ Forster, Einige Grundbedingungen fiir gute Ta- gesbeleuchtung in den Schulsalen. Seperatabdruck aus der Deutschen Vierteljahrsschrift fiir offentliche Gesundheitspflege, 1884, Vol. 16. heknig's daylight eeflectoe 47 The layer of silver, which increases the intensity of re- flection, is given a coating of waterproof varnish to protect it from the weather. After putting np such a reflector, Perlia^ found that acuteness of vision was nearly doubled. Diamond type was read 13, and Bourgeois 19 cm. farther away. In correspondence with this, it was found photometric- ally that the amount of light was nearly twice as great. If the necessary light cannot be secured even by the introduction of reflectors, there is nothing to do but to enlarge the windows. This has often been done in the schools of Breslau. In Prussia, according to the Eoyal Technical Building Deputation, the window and floor spaces must have a ratio to each other of 1:5. In Saxony, Wiirtemberg, and Lower Austria a ratio of 1:6 is required when the building stands free ; and one of 1:4, when the light is obstructed by neighboring buildings. In enlarging the windows, care should be taken to have the apertures made rectangular, since arched or Gothic styles lessen the window surface unnecessarily. The top of the window ought to extend as nearly as possible to the ceiling ; and the lower part must be 1 to 1.25 m. above the floor, according to the size of the ^ Perlia, tJber einen Tageslicht reflektor fur Schulen. Zeitschrift fiir Schulgesundheitspflege, 1893, N^o. 10, p. 521-541 and No. 11, p. 588-610. 48 THU LIGHT OF THE SCHOOL-ROOM pupils, SO that they may not be troubled by having light fall into their eyes from below. Walls containing windows should be bevelled both on the inner and outer edges, especially at the top outside. The panes must be as large and the sashes as narrow as possible. In the Francke Institute at Halle on the Saale where the windows of ordinary size have twenty- four panes, Liebrecht ^ found that the amount of sky visible was diminished one-fourth by the many cross pieces. The illumination may, furthermore, be too strong as well as too weak. Direct sunlight should not fall on the eyes or work of the pupils, as it will irritate the retina. To prevent this, school-windows should have means of protection either on the outside or on the inside. Outside awnings have this advantage, that they can be placed according to the position of the sun, and so do not unnecessarily diminish the light in the room. They also protect the children from the heat of the sun and permit the opening of the win- dows. They are, on the other hand, expensive ; and do not last long, since they are exposed to the weather. This holds true, also, of blinds and shutters suspended outside from the top of the window frame and held away a certain distance at the bottom by iron rods. When they are drawn up they darken the school-room more than the awnings do. CUETAIITS A^B BLIiq^DS 49 ~- Roller curtains or similar arrangements on the inside of windows are, therefore, to be preferred. Fine white shirting, ecru or cr^me colored twilling, and strong white dowlas are, according to Cohn, ^ most suitable for the purpose, since other materials on the market, which are usually green or deep blue, absorb too much light. Common curtains which roll up at the top have the disadvantage not only of being usually out of order, but also of letting in light at the sides. If people, nevertheless, will have them, they must be put up so as to extend a little over the window frame. Better than these just mentioned are curtains that can be drawn up from the bottom by a crank or such as are fastened in pairs at the middle of the window and can be drawn one up one down. With the latter, it is possible to leave the upper parts of the windows, through which the brightest sky light enters, uncov- ered, as soon as the sun permits. To secure the same results, Liebrecht^ proposed to use blinds which can be moved sideways, and which ^ Herm. Cohn, Uber Fenstervorhange in Schulen. Sonderabdruck aus der Deutschen medizinischen Wochenschrift, 1894, No. 46. ^K. Liebrecht, die Lichtverhaltnisse in den Schulen der Stadt Halle a. S. Zeitschrift fiir Schulgesundheits- pflege, 1893, Xo. 10, p. 521-541 and IS'o. 11, p. 588- 610. 50 THE LIGHT OF THE SCHOOL KOOM are divided into an upper and a lower half, thus mak- ing it possible to cut off the light from any part of the room. Venetian blinds, whose slats can be set horizontally, diagonally, or perpendicularly, are not suitable for school-rooms. With the slats inclined 45°, only 0.6 to 1.5 fo of the daylight passes through them; and they are, besides too expensive, costing at least 20 marks (15.00) for each window. In addition to having the light sufficient and not too strong, it is important to see that it comes from the right direction. The windows must, therefore, be in a wall lengthwise of the room and to the left of the pupils. If the windows are in front, the light will fall directly into the pupils eyes and irritate the retina. Another inconvenience from windows so located is described by Baginsky from his own experience. He writes: " In the senior class-room in the gymnasium I attended, the light came from in front and was com- bined with a deficient lighting from the left, and I re- member distinctly how difficult it was to recognize mathematical figures and formulas on the blackboard." It would be no better to have the windows to the right of the pupils rather than in front, because in such cases the shadow of the hand with which the pupil is writ- ing falls on the paper and darkens it. Still stronger shadows, caused by the whole upper part of the body, appear when the windows are located behind the pupils. Besides, the teacher is here dazzled by the light, which FKOM 02!TE SIDE OE TWO 51 lie has to face directly. Conseqaently the light from the left is the only proper light, and hence is most commonly used in higher schools. There still remains the question, whether light might not enter the school-room from the two sides. In France, one often finds windows both to the right and to the left of the pnpils ; and eminent authorities, like Javal of Paris, favor this plan when the light from the left is insufficient. The Medical Expert Commission of Strassburg ^ take the same view. They say that with light coming in on both sides places between the windows and in the corners of the room are better lighted. The ob- jection, that with two rows of windows the shadow of the writing hand is troublesome, they hold is not valid;; since in the first place, one-half of the pupils get the greater amount of light from the left side, and, in the second place, the other half gets enough light from the left to do away with any considerable shadow which might be formed by the light coming from the right- Berlin and Eembold, ^ also, assert that the light from. ^ Arztliches Gutachten iiber das hohre Schulwesen Elsass-Lothringens. Im Auftrage des Kaiserlichen Statthalters erstattet, von einer medizinischen Sachver- standigen-kommission. Strassburg i. E., 1882. 2 Berlin und Eembold, Untersuchungen fiber den Einfluss des Schreibens auf Auge und Korperhaltung; der Schulkinder. 2 ed. Stuttgart, 1883. 52 THE LIGHT OF THE SCHOOL ROOM two sides, which, is so severely proscribed in Germany, is not at all undesirable. But the facts which they cite to substantiate their opinion, namely, that those school- rooms which had the least number of myopic children received abundant light both from the right and left, we can not admit as a demonstration, because myopia is due to many other causes besides deficient lighting. French hygienists have, themselves, repeatedly called attention to the fact that forms are recognized with great difficulty when light comes from two sides, on account of the absence of shadows. And lastly, with this arrangement the right and the left eyes are illum- inated differently, which may give rise to the develop- ment of defective refracting power. Lighting from both right and left can, therefore, be sanctioned only if sufficient light can be had in no other way. Windows both at the left and rear of the pupils should still more emphatically be prohibited except in cases of emergency. If they are, neverthe- less, in use, the light from behind ought to be checked by dulled panes, 'curtains, or similar devices. All other combinations of two-sided lighting are to be absolutely rejected. CHAPTEE III Aetificial Illumixatiox of School-rooms Daylight is undoubtedly the light most suitable for the eyes ; nevertheless, artificial illumination may some- times become necessary in school-rooms. This hap- pens most frequently in schools with two sessions in winter, when the first and last periods do not always have suflBcient naturaLlight. But even at other seasons dense mists, fogs, clouds, etc., may darken the room so that artificial illumination becomes a necessity. Boarding-schools must have it, at any rate. ^ . The electric light ranks first among the different kinds of artificial light. It is white, and resembles daylight most closely leaving colors almost unchanged; it does not contaminate the air; it involves almost no risk of fire; and it can be conveniently handled. The flicker- ing, which is so disagreeable to the eye on account of the changes in intensity, has in consequence of recent technical progress wholly disappeared in the incan- descent, and almost wholly in the arc lamps. Even the plunge into sudden darkness due to the ^ Uber die Beleuchtung in einem Alumnat. Eulen- bergs Yierteljahrsschrift, 1879, Vol. XXXI, p. 63. (53) 54 ARTIFICIAL ILLUMIKATIOK stopping of the machinery is hardly to be feared any longer; and besides a storage battery may be kept constantly in readiness. Such batteries are particularly serviceable in places like schools where a current is needed on the instant and for a short time only. The arc light has, as is well known, great intensity and must be covered by ground glass globes, alabaster shades, or something similar. It might otherwise cause inflammation and swelling of the conjunctiva, and photophobia, with spasmodic contractions of the lids and narrowing of the pupils; also, hemeralopia, and possibly amaurosis. The eyes of the pupils must even be shielded from the glowing carbon of the incande- scent lamps, which in Pfliiger's^ opinion are the best for school purposes, especially since they are more durable than is generally supposed. On the other hand, all shades absorb from J- to f of the light. ^ Besides, the arc and incadescent light, as ordinarily used, give rise to more or less prominent shadows, which also diminish the illumination consid- erably. Erismann^ found that the shadow of the head 1 E. Pfliiger, Kurzsichtigkeit und Erziehung. Aka- demische Festrede zur Eeier des Stiftungsfestes der Universitat Bern. Wiesbaden, 1887, J. F. Bergmann. 2 H. Cohn, tJber den Beleuchtungswert der Lam- penglocken. Wiesbaden, 1885. ^ Fr. Erismann, Die Schulhygiene auf der Jubilaums- ausstellung der Gesellschaft fiir Beforderung der Ar- ELECTETC LIGHT 55 of the writer reduced the light nearly a half, and that of the hand four-fifths. He accordingly made use of indirect, dispersed light, similar to ordinary daylight, as Jasper, Sautter, Lemonnier, and Schlenk^ had done before. Schlenk describes the apparatus as follows : ' ' An arc lamp of the Gramme system is hung in the middle of the room so that the focus is 3m. above the fioor. Un- der the lamp is a closed, nickel-plated sheet-iron re- flector having the form of a truncated cone 33 cm. in height, the lower circle having a diameter of 15 cm., the upper, one of 100 cm. Most of the light from the arc is caught by this reflector and thrown on the white ceiling. Many rays also strike the latter directly, and still more the upper parts of the walls which are like- wise kept bright. From here they are reflected in all directions and light up the remotest corners of the room uniformly ; and what is most important they pre- beitsamkeit in Moskau. Zeitschrift fur Schulgesund- heitspflege, 1888, ]^o. 10, p. 3677. Id., Die Ktinstliche Beleuchtung der Schulzimmer. Op. cit. 1897, No. 10, p. 529-553. Emanuel Bayr, Tiber Beleuchtungsver- suche in Schulzimmern mit direkter und indirekter Beleuchtung bei Anwendung von Gas- und Gasgliihlicht Elektrischen Gliih- und Bogenlicht Lampen. Op. cit., 1898, No. 3, p. 129-160. ^ Leo Burgerstein, Zur kiinstlichen Beleuchtung der Schulzimmer. Zeitschrift fiir Schulgesundheitspflege, 1889, No. 1, p. 18. 56 ARTIFICIAL ILLUMIKATIOK vent the formation of shadows. The source of light is in this way wholly concealed from the eyes of the pupils. How bright and pleasant such a light can be I have myself been able to observe in a school in Ham- burg, where the rooms were illuminated not by one but by several arc lamps with reflectors." A side reflector based on the same principle as the above, the patent for which is owned by the general electric company, is especially recommended by Cohn^ for rooms used in drawing lessons. Two reflectors with faces opposite are placed on the wall, so as to make a certain angle with it. The larger reflector has the shape and size of a Grerman studio window. The focus is in the middle of the smaller reflector, which is made of a variety of transparent materials. Half of the light falls on the objects to be illuminated after a single reflection from the large reflector; the other half falls on the small reflector and is partly trans- mitted, partly reflected to the larger. To a person in the room the large reflector looks like a luminous body several square meters in area with nearly uniform brightness, having only in the middle a somewhat brighter spot. The illuminating power of the centre can be changed by putting in glass slides so that the ^ H. Cohn. tJber kiinstliche Beleuchtung insbeson- dere fiir Zeichen- und Horsale. Zeitschrift fiir Schul- gesundheitspflege, 1893, No. 6, p. 336. ELECTEIC LIGHT 57 teacher can make the shadows marked or indistinct as he wishes. The instrument is made either with one or with two arc lamps, the latter having the advantage of producing a more uniform light. The strong points about the side reflector are that it gives a diffused light, which is not dazzling, but variable at will, and more evenly distributed than daylight. While the latter is a hundred times stronger at the windows than at a distance of ten meters from them; the light from the reflector shows an intensity of 11.6 meter-candles at 2 meters, and one of 1.3 meter-can- dles at 10 meters, giving only a ninefold diminution. In connection with this subject we must also give an account of Hrabowski's overhead reflector (see Fig. 4). .=^ Fig. 4. HRABOWSKI'S OVERHEAD REFLECTOR He observed that only a small amount of light radi- ates above an angle of 20 ° or below an angle of 70 ° with reference to the horizontal plane, on account of 58 ARTIFICIAL ILLUMII^ATIOJ!?" the interference of the carbons. Most of the light comes forth between 25 ° and 45 ° below this plane. Accordingly he constructed his reflector as follows : A wire frame A B E F covered with white material is at- tached to the large, white, concave top B C D E, which is firmly fixed to the lamp. An adjustable prismatic glass ring G ^suspended from this top surrounds the arc, under which is the opal glass shield L. The rays from above down to 25° (0 F, K, Z, A) strikes the conical surface A B E F directly and are reflected down ; those from 25 ° to 45 ° pass through the glass ring and are refracted toward this white mantel {HE, HP, HS, H T, H F) and then as in the previous case reflected down; those between 45° and 70° fall on the opal shield i, some passing through, others going to the reflector {R U, N V, M W) and then to the floor. The school-room receives in this way a well distributed diffused illumination; shadows are insignificant; and the dazzling arc is completely concealed. The electric light is doubtless the light of the future ; but on account of its costliness most schools will have to be satisfied with a different kind of illumination. Gras light and kerosene lamps must claim our attention. The Siemen's regenerative gas-burner has the special advantage of not contaminating the air; on the con- trary, it improves the ventilation. If it is to be used, arrangements for the foul air pipes should be made GAS 59 when the ceiling and ventilating shafts are constructed. These burners are exceedingly bright but have the dis- advantage of producing strong shadows. The gas arc-light of Butzke of Berlin and the similar Wenham light also gives an illumination suitable for schools. Both contain regenerative burners with the flame downwards. They produce a steady white light comparable with the electric light, throw no shadows helow, are regulated automatically, and have arrange- ments for carrying away the gases from the flame. In •a, school-room illuminated by 4 Butzke burners, which was examined by Eenk, the average light intensity was .9.8 meter-candles, and the diflerence between the darkest and brightest spot was only 4.6 meter-candles. With respect to the Auer incandescent gas-light, re- cent opinions difler. The burning gas is not in this the direct source of light but is used only to keep the so- called mantle, a network of cotton fibres which have been soaked in pure toriumoxide, at a constant white lieat. And this with its far greater brilliancy is the real illuminating body. One advantage of the Auer burner is that only a small amount of gas is consumed in comparison with the amount of light produced. In the physico-technical Reichsanstalt at Berlin it was ascertained that this burner with a gas consumption of 120 liters per hour produced a light of 60 normal can- dles, while the common Argand burner produced a 60 AETIFICIAL ILLUMIN^ATION light of only 20 normal candles with a gas consumptioiB of 200 liters per hour. Since the glowing network surrounds the flame on. all sides, no unconsumed gas can escape, no soot is- formed, and the air of the room remains pure. Finally,,, the incandescent burner gives a light of superior brightness, whiteness, uniformity and steadiness ; and: produces only a small amount of heat, not enough to- cause overheating. For these reasons it has beeB recommended by the Prussian cultus-minister for use- in public institutions, universities, etc. In the K. K. Theresia academy in Vienna it has been found suitable- both for the class-rooms and for rooms in the boarding house. Since its introduction, there has been a decrease^ in diseases of the respiratory organs, myopia, and cases of conjunctival catarrh. The city board of works of Vienna, however, gives us a different view of the matter. According to a re- port by this body a gradual decrease of brightness can be observed in the Auer light. Its intensity and color, especially when the light is first introduced, irritate' the retina; and the frequent explosions of the chim- neys endanger personal safety. We can say with greater certainty that the Albocar- bon gaslight is not fit for school-rooms. It is true the- flame does not flicker on account of the increase of the specific gravity of the gas through the Naphthaline; GAS 61 Tapors; and it gives a very intense and pleasant light. On the other hand, it takes a quartf^r of an hour for the flame to become bright and it must be regulated -frequently to prevent sooting; this makes it impracti- -cal for school purposes. Illumination by means of simple broad flame burners, — such as are often found, either with or without opal- escent glass globes, in halls for physical training, and in 'Corridors, is also to be rejected for school-room use. The flames flicker so much that, for this reason alone the light cannot be used for reading and writing; and, iDesides, they lack sufficient brightness. Eound burn- ers properly constructed are much to be preferred; but they must be supplied both with chimneys and with ^globes or shades. The chimneys answer a threefold purpose. They prevent the flickering so hurtful to the eye; they retard the vitiation of the air by the products of incomplete combustion; and, finally they afford a con- .siderable protection against the heat of the flame. If they have a thickness of from 2 to 3 mm. , 40 to 50 per ■cent of the heat will be kept from penetrating the .glass. The upward going rays should be reflected down up- on the pupils desks by globes and shades so as to in- -crease the illumination,. What can be^^accomplished in this way, we can learn from Cohn's measurements. 62 ARTIFICIAL ILLUMINATION According to these, a place with a light intensity of one- meter-candle may have this increased to 23, by a shade of paper; to 30, by one of opalescent glass; to 64 hj one of white japanned metal; and to 260 by a hemis- pherical reflector. With regard to the use of kerosene lamps, the objec- tion is usually made that too much care is required to keep them clean and in order; and that books and tablets are liable to be soiled by them because petrole- um vapors condense in the combustion on the cold, reservoir. Nevertheless, they have many advantages over gas- light. There is no danger of poisoning connected with them, whereas gas escaping from leaky pipes con- tains, as is well known, the dangerous carbonic oxide. They will not injure the respiratory organs, as impure illuminating gas will, which forms ammonia and sul- phuric acid during combustion. Furthermore, kerosene light does not pollute the air as much as gas light. For a hundred candle power light, petroleum gives off 800 grams of water, and gas 2140; and, what is still more important, petroleum under the same circumstances gives off 950 liters, and gas 1300 liters of carbonic acid. Eenk^ found, for instance, that the air in lecture rooms illuminated with ^ Fr. Eenk, tJber die kunstliche Beleuchtung von Horsalen. Halle, 1892. KEEOSEiq^E 63 gas, at Halle a. S., contained 2 to 3 parts per thous- and of carbonic acid, even though there were no people in the rooms, while breathable air should not contain more than 1 part per thousand. Finally, petroleum generally gives off less heat than gas. It is true both kinds of light have nearly the same number of heat rays, the former having 94 fo and the latter 92,^; but gas flames are, as a rule, larger and therefore hotter than petroleum flames. Cohn^ found that the temperature of a school-room was 25.8 C = 78.44 F, after the gas lights had been burn- ing one hour. Such a temperature will necessarily prove enervating for pupils and teachers alike. Fur- thermore, hot flames cause a rapid evaporation of the moisture in the eye, and in this way bring about a feeling of dryness in this organ. They also cause the face to become heated and red; and they produce headache, — all evils which are seldom found where petroleum light is used. Whether gas or petroleum lights be chosen, the illumination must in every case be so great, that at all places in the room diamond type can be read by a person with normal vision at a distance of 0.5 m. This is equivalent to a light intensity of at least 10 meter candles. As this is possible only for seats close under a lamp, there must be at least one lamp for every 4 pupils. ^ H. Cohn, op. cit., p. 335. 64 AKTIFICIAL ILLUMII^ATIOK The lamps must also be so distributed that all desks may have as uniform a light as possible ; though this idea can not be carried out completely, since there will always be a number of pupils who will sit in the shad- ows cast by their neighbors. Especially strong illumi- nation is required for blackboards, charts, etc. ; and the lights used for this purpose should be provided with shades, or better still, with reflectors, so that the eyes of the pupils may be protected. And, lastly, the lights must be at least 0.5 m. distant from the heads of the pupils ; otherwise the heat will cause a congestion of blood in the head, and a disa- greeable feeling of heat, especially in the forehead, the upper part of nose, and the eyelids. Eiibner believes this due not only to the high temperature but to the drying of the skin and the more uneven distribution of light and shade than is customary with sunlight. CHAPTER IV The Veis^tilatioi^ ai^d Cleaniis^g of School-eooms In the foregoing pages we have repeatedly spoken of the pollution of the air by products of combustion from artificial lighting. We are thus led to consider one of the most important topics in school hygiene. Everybody knows that atmospheric air is composed of oxygen, nitrogen, water, and carbonic acid; and that the proportion of these components, with the ex- ception of water, is subject to but very slight changes. In all tests, where and whenever made, the per cent by volume has been as follows: Oxygen 20.94, nitrogen 79.02, carbonic acid .03 to .04, with water in varying quantities. Lately the so-called precious gases argon, helium, and krypton, which were formerly counted with nitro- gen, have been discovered, and found to be constant components of the air. Argon makes 1 ^ of the atmosphere. It is not, as was first supposed, an ele- ment, but consists of the real argon, a solid, metargon, and a volatile gas, neon. Outdoor air also has traces of ammonia, and nitrous and nitric acid. But to these normal components, manifold impurities may be added particularly in large (65) 6Q VEIsTTILATIOK cities: soot, chlorine, hydrochloric acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, sulphurous, and sulphuric acid, carburetted hydrogen, and especially gases caused by putrefaction. '^^ The air in the school-room ought if possible to have the same composition as pure outdoor air ; but it varies from this in two ways, partly by the addition of foreign substances and partly by having the usual components in an abnormal proportion. The chief cause of this is excretions from the lungs and skin of teachers and pupils. " After pure atmospheric air has been through the lungs, it is, by volume, composed of 16.03^ oxygen, 79.59^ nitrogen, and 4.38^ carbonic acid; and con- tains besides much more water than before." If we compare these figures with those above on the com- position of outdoor air, we find that the oxygen has decreased by one-fifth, and that the carbonic acid has increased at least a hundredfold. To this must be added the carbonic acid excreted by the skin, although this is only a hundredth or at most an eightieth part of that excreted by the lungs. The more the carbonic acid in a room increases, the less readily will it be given off from the blood of the per- sons in it. Kespiration becomes more and more obstructed; and it would eventually cease altogether, should the proportion of carbonic acid in the air of the room increase to such an extent that diffusion could EFFECTS OF IMPURE AIR 67 no longer take place between it and the air of the lungs. On account of this interference with the respiratory processes, anaemia and sometimes the first symptoms even of lung diseases set in after repeated exposures to air charged with carbonic acid. It is often possible to see, especially in the case of young and delicate children, how a fresh, healthy appearance gradually disappears and gives place to a pale, anaemic color, — a condition traceable chiefly to the impure air of the schools. The noxiousness of the air is due not only to the increase' of carbonic acid, but far more to certain organic impurities given ofP, partly by the lungs and partly by the skin. According to Brown-Sequard and d'Arsonval, respired air nearly always contains ammonia, and small quantities of organic matter, which, if not decayed when exhaled, show a great tendency to dis- integrate even at a low temperature ; and from experi- mental evidence they conclude that these volatile-, substances are poisonous. For, on condensing vapors, from their own lungs or those of their students, they secured a fluid, which when filtered and injected under- the skin of a rabbit produces the following phenomena :. dilation of the pupils, marked retardation of respira- tion, a lowering of the temperature by from 0.5 C to- 5° C, paralytic weakness, especially in the hind legs,. 68 VEE"TILATION and an increase of the heart beats from 240 to 320 per minute. They furthermore injected some fresh fluid taken directly from the trachea of a dog into the anterior carotid artery of a rabbit. Violent convul- sions followed, the activity of the heart and lungs ceased almost entirely, and death resulted in less than a minute. Moreover, toxic products are contained not only in the exhalation of the lungs but also in the perspiration of the skin. In the case of the latter we must dis- tinguish between sweat composed of water, a little table-salt, and urea, and the so-called "perspiration insensibilis ", which more properly ought to be called " invisibilis ", because it can be detected only by the sense of smell. That the excreted organic substances which have a tendency to putrify are poisonous is shown by covering animals with varnish. Animals so covered die without exception, because they cannot get rid of the perspiratory products. People properly speak of these cases as cases of self-poisoning, since every ex- cretion has a disagreeable, paralyzing, and toxic effect on its producer. It is these decomposed organic materials which make the air of the school-room so offensive. It clings not only to the walls and furniture, but' also to the cloth- ing of both teacher and pupils, so firmly, indeed, that it can not always be removed by careful ventilation. OEGAIiriO DUST PAETICLES 69 The influence which this foul air has as soon as it is charged to a certain degree with the excretions from the lungs and the skin, is described by Schiller-Tietz^ as follows: "Children become uncomfortable, fretful, dull, irritable, and peevish, especially during the last periods. This is by no means due simply to mental fatigue ; but body and mind are so depressed by the auto-toxic products in the air that the ability to work is lessened. Mental activity relaxes as a result of a bodily weariness, which has all the symptoms of pois- oning by auto-toxic products." In assembly rooms crowded with pupils, individuals often faint, while others suffer from headache, dizziness, and nausea, — effects also traceable to impure air. In addition to these organic impurities from respira- tion and perspiration, the air in school-rooms contains also noxious organic dust particles. These readily combine with oxygen, and can therefore reduce a solution of potassium permanganate, thus depriving it of its red color. Uifelmann^ has by means of this property effected a quantitative determination of the organic matter. He does not believe that air which is filled with organic matter, especially dust particles, is ^Schiller-Tietz, Ein offenses Wort zur Frage der Zim- mer- und Schulluft. Zeitschrift fiir Schulgesundheits- pflege, 1888, ^o, 3, p. 121-132. ^Uffelmann im Archiv fiir Hygiene, 1888, Vol. VIII, Parts 2 and 3. 70 VEKTTLATIOK any longer sufficiently pure when one million parts of it require more than 12 parts of oxygen for oxidation. In such air there are generally many micro-organ- isms. Hesse ^ found that in every cubic meter of air in the school-room there were 2,000 bacteria before, 16,500 during, and 35,000 at the end of the school hours. The figures of Ignatieff ^ correspond pretty well with these. According to his observations one cbm. of air in the V gymnasium of Moscow contained on an average 16,250 microbes. A pupil would, thus, in a five-hour session inhale 44,655 germs. It is interesting to note how the number of bacteria varied during the day. In this gymnasium it was found that in two liters of air, which was allowed to flow through a glass tube lined with peptonized meat gelatine for an hour, there were 38 colonies of bacteria about 8 A. M. before instruction began; 6, about 12 M. before, and 78, after the long recess; and 8, just before the pupils left school. We see that the num- bers are smallest when the dust in the room is undis- ^W. Hesse, Uber quantitative Bestimmung der in der Luft enthaltenen Mikroorganismen. Mitteilungen aus dem Kaiserl. Gesundheitsamte, 1884, Vol. II. ^Ignatieff, Einige Daten zur Beurteilung der Schul- luft in bakteriologischer Beziehung. Arbeiten aus dem hygienischen Laboratorium der Moskauer Univer- sitat, 1888, II (russisch). BACTEEIA 71 turbed ; and that they increase considerably when it is stirred up by the movements of the pupils. The number of micro-organisms is, furthermore, dependent to a considerable extent upon the character of the school building. In institutions with artificial ventilation, Carnelley and Foggie found 18.5, and in those with only natural ventilation 27.8 germs per liter of air. Eooms which were clean and new had 85, and those which were old and dirty, 139 germs in the same quantity of air. But the most striking result was that the number of bacteria has an unquestionable relation to the age of the pupils; the younger they are, the more the microbes. With very small children there were 167; in class VI, 146; in V, 106; in IV, 76; in III, 69; in II, 68; and in I, 51 germs per liter of air. This is probably due to the fact that young children are not as cleanly as older ones. As to the different sorts of micro-organisms in the school-room, Erismann^ found many kinds of moulds such as Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavescens, Penicillium glaucum, etc. ; also numerous chromo- genic bacteria, generally Sarcina lutea or aurantiaca; then white colonies of bacteria; lastly, such as more or less quickly liquefy the gelatine. ^Fr. Erismann, Die Schulhygiene auf der Jubilaums- ausstellung der Gesellschaft fiir Beforderung der Arbeitsamkeit in Moskau. Zeitschrift fiir Schulges- undheitspflege, 1888, No. 11, p. 402. 72 VENTILATIOl^r It is true the majority of these fungi do not in a strict sense cause sickness ; but the greater their num- ber, the more probable is it that pathogenic bacteria, such as germs of tuberculosis and diptheria, will be among them. In connection with this subject one needs only make a comparison of the mountain and the sea air with that of the school-room. On the high mountains of Switzerland Freudenreich often had to examine 2 to 3 cbm. of air before he found a single bacterium. It is the same with sea-air, which is also remarkably free from micro-organisms. But even if the dust in the school-room were free from disease germs, it would, nevertheless, be injurious to the mucuous membrane of the bronchial tubes and the eyes for purely mechanical reasons. In comparison with the tender, microscopic, epithelial layers of these membranes, even small dust particles are enormous bodies which are liable to injure them with their sharp edges and corners. This is the cause of the many cases of catarrh of the bronchial tubes, throat, and larynx, found among those who teach in dusty quarters; and also of the many cases of conjunctival inflammation of the eyes found among pupils, as, for example, in the investigations by Schmidt-Eimpler in the higher insti- tutions in Hessen-Nassau. Since the air of school-rooms can be polluted in so MEASUEEMEKT OF CAEBONIC ACID 73 many ways, we need some means of measuring the de- gree of impurity. As such, it has been customary to use the quantity of carbonic acid contained in it. The organic excretions from the lungs and skin found in the air can not be used for this purpose, since analy- tical chemistry has not yet, notwithstanding its great progress, been able to give them even a qualitative, much less quantitative determination. iSTeither can the number of germs which may be found be used un- conditionally as a test of the purity of the air. The distribution of these germs in the air is too accidental and irregular, and depends in any given case on too many circumstances which cannot easily be ascertained. Carbonic acid is, therefore, the only means of meas- urement left; and it has many special advantages for the purpose. In the first place, it distributes itself with extraordinary uniformity in closed rooms. More- over, we know that the oxidizable organic substances. and carbonic acid increase in the same ratio ; and, lastly, the quantitative determination of carbonic acid pre- sents no great difficulties. The method employed is generally that of Petten- koifer. A four to six liter flask is required, the capacity of which must be determined exactly by weighing it first empty and then filled with water, and calculating its capacity from the difference of the two weights. This done, we rinse it carefully with al- 74 YE2!}^TILATI0N cohol and ether ; let it become dry ; and then close it with a tight fitting paraffine stopper, over which we draw a rubber cap. Glass stoppers cannot be recom- mended because they do not fit tightly enough; and even cork and rubber would let carbon dioxide through. Thus sealed, the flask is taken into the school-room, where the air is to be tested, and opened ; air is now forced into it by means of bellows until its contents ha\e changed at least five times. Then 100 ccm. of baryte solution, composed of 6 to 7 g. of baryte in one liter of water mixed with .5 g. of barium chloride, is poured into it. The flask is then closed tightly; and after the fluid has been shaken repeatedly to bring it in contact with the enclosed air, it is left standing for half an hour. At the end of this time all the car- bonic acid is absorbed and has separated as insoluble barium carbonate. The 100 ccm. baryte solution is now poured from the large flask into a small one ; and the barium carbonate is allowed to precipitate ; 25 ccm. of the clear solution is then mixed with 2 drops of a solution composed of 0.2 g. phenolphthalin in 10 g. of absolute alcohol. Titration is begun by letting oxalic acid, 2.8G36 g. dissolved in one liter of water, flow into it till the liquid which was colored red by the phenolphthalin assumes a yellowish color. In the same way we determine the standard solution, that is, ascertain the exact quantity of barium pettekkoffer's method 75 hydroxide in the fresh baryte solution that has not come into contact with the air in the flask. From the difference in amount of this compound in the two cases we calculate the quantity of carbonic acid ab- sorbed; and also, its ratio per thousand in the air of the school-room. The following example by Kirchner will serve as an illustration. In one case to produce a precipitation, 23.7 ccm. of the oxalic acid solution were required for 25 ccm. of the fresh baryte solution; and 19.1 ccm. were re- quired for the same quantity when it had been in con- tact with the carbonic acid of the air, giving a differ- -ence of 4.6,* or 18.4 per hundred. The capacity of the flask was 5,734 ccm., and the volume of air in it was 5,634 ccm., as it also contained 100 ccm. of baryte solution. When a reduction is made for a tempera- ture of 23° C. and a barometic pressure of 756 mm., at which the examination took place, this quantity hecomes 5,168 ccm. One ccm. of a solution com- posed of 2.8636 g. of oxalic acid in 1 liter of water corresponds to 1 mg. of CO 2 and 1 mg. of CO 2 cor- respond to 0.5 ccm. of CO 2- Hence 18.4X1 ing.= 18.4 mg. or 18.4X0.5=9.2 ccm. of carbonic acid in 5,168 ccm. of air, the contents of the flask. To find the amount of carbonic acid per thousand ccm. of air, the following proportion is used: 5,168 : 9.2= 1,000 : X. From this we get a;:=f|-f|-=:1.78 parts per thousand. 76 YEKTILATIOK Though Pettenkoffer's is the only exact method, and therefore the only one available for scientific investiga- tions, nevertheless, the far simpler and quicker mini- metric process of Smith-Lunge ^ is sufficient for purely practical purposes. The principle of this is to intro- duce known quantities of the air to be tested into a given quantity of baryte solution till it becomes'- cloudy. The more quickly this happens, the less car- bonic acid there is in the air — the more slowly, the more. The Smith-Lunge method requires a round bottle* 3.8 ccm. in diameter, and 9 cm. high, having a capac- ity of about 53 ccm. (see figure 5). Fig. 5. THE SMITH-LUNGE AIR TESTER Two tubes pass through holes in the stopper. One? (be) is straight and extends to the bottom ; the other (de) ^Georg Lunge, Zur Frage der Ventilation und Beschreibung des minimetrischen Apparates zur Bes- timmung der Kohlensaure. Zurich, 1877. SMITH-LUi^GE METHOD 77 which is bent at right angles and barely passes through the stopper, has the rubber tube (d f g h i), 20 to 30 cm. long, with the pearshaped bulb k of about 28 ccm. capacity, attached. In this rubber tube there is at (f) a longitudinal slit 1 cm. long, — which acts as a yalve. If the tube (a b) is pressed together with one hand, and the rubber bulb k with the other, the air in the latter will escape through the slit (f). The bulb now expands through its own elasticity and fills with air drawn through the bottle by means of the tube (ac), which is now left open. After the test bottle has thus been filled several times with the air to be examined, 7 ccm. of a solution of 6 g. of barium hydrate in one liter of water is poured in and the height of the fluid marked by means of a line. The bottle is now care- fully closed and shaken several times. The amount of air which thus comes in contact with the baryte solution is equal to two fillings of the bulb. With every compression and expansion the bulb draws through the bottle 28 ccm. of air, which gives up its carbonic acid to the barium hydrate. A piece of paper having a cross marked with a lead pencil is pasted on the side of the bottle to make it possible to judge more correctly of the increasing cloudiness. When the cross becomes invisible, the baryte solution is 78 VEI^TILATION sufficiently cloudy. The question now is, how many times did the bulb have to be compressed ? 4 fillings indicate 22 parts CO* in 10,000 parts of air.. 5 17.6 6 14.8 7 12.6 8 11.0 9 9.8 10 8.8 11 8.0 12 7.4 13 6.8 14 6.3 15 5.8 16 5.4 17 5.1 18 4.9 H iC " " ' Five fillings of the bulb show that there are 1.76 parts of carbonic acid to 1,000 parts of air, providing we always count the air originally in the bottle as two of these bulbfuls. The figures thus obtained give, of course, only approximate values because the determina- tion of the momement when the cross disappears de- pends too much upon individual opinion. The automatic air-tester of A. Wolpert of IN^iirnberg is still simpler but also less accurate. A glance at the scale of the apparatus is sufficient to show one whether the air in the class-room is " extremely bad ", "very bad", "bad", " still permissible ", or "pure". Ac- cording to Wolpert, air is to be considered " extremely bad" when it has more than 4 parts COg per 1,000; wolpeet's method 79 and "very bad" with 2 to 4; "bad" with 1 to 2; "still permissible" with 0,7 to 1; and " pure " with 0.5 to 0.7 parts per 1,000. The amount of carbonic acid is ascertained by means of a colored liquid upon which the carbonic acid has a bleaching effect. This liquid, which consists of a solution of soda colored red with phenolphthalin, is poured into a vessel placed on a bracket and is then protected from the air by a thin layer of mineral oil. It then drops automatically from a capillary tube at- tached to a float in the fluid upon a specially prepared white linen thread about 0.5 m. long, and colors it red, as it flows down. This red color extends uniformly down the whole length of the thread when the air is very pure, i. e. has less than 0.5 parts CO 2 per 1,000. If the air is impure the carbonic acid has a bleaching effect in proportion to amount of it present. The more carbonic acid there is in the air, the more of the thread will appear white from below upward. In reading the scale we take the highest point at which the thread is still white, i. e., the limit between pure white and faint red; but this point can not always be accurately ascertained. Whatever method may be employed, a considerable amount of carbonic acid will very often be found in the air of a school-room. This is due to the rapid metabolism and the consequently great amount of car- 80 YEIJfTILA.TIO^N' bonic acid thrown of! by young people, which is only little less than that of adults. During one school hour a boy of sixteen produces 17.4, a boy of ten 10.3, and one pupil on an average, 12 liters of carbonic acid; while we estimate 15 liters as an average for an adult in the same time. These figures, it is true, are not constant, since the production of carbonic acid depends on varying condi- tions. Besides the temperature of the air, the time of day, and the state of nutrition, we must here especially take into account the frequency and depth of respira- tion. It has been observed that the amount of car- bonic acid increased especially during the period for gymnastics and music. A thirteen year old boy, for instance, exhales 17.01 liters of carbonic acid per hour during instruction in singing — a result undoubt- edly due to the quickening and deepening of the respiration. There is still another class of circumstances which affect the quantity of carbonic acid in school-rooms. In the first place, it makes a difference whether ventila- tion takes place by an artificial system or only through the pores of the walls or the cracks of the windows and doors. On this subject we have the investigations which were made by "RietscheP in several gymnasia in ^H. Eietschel, Mitteilung tiber die Ergebnisse der Untersuchungen der Luft in verschiedenen hdhern Berliner Lerhanstalten. Berlin, 1886. H. Eietschel. Liiftung und Heizung der Schulen. Berlin, 1886. SYSTEMS OF YEXTILATION 81 Berlin. According to his report, Sexta B of the Eriederich Wilhelm gymnasium of that city has an air capacity of 155.6 chm., or 3 cbm. per pupil. It is. heated by means of a tile stove and is without any artificial means of ventilation. Doors and windows remained closed during recesses as well as during the recitation periods. Consequently a maximum amount of carbonic acid of 9.7 and an average of 5.55 parts per thousand were found at various times of the day, — an evidence of extremely impure air, as the amount of carbonic acid, according to the generally accepted view of Pettenkoffer, ought not to exceed 1 part per thousand. Sexta B of the Wilhelm gymnasium, with a capacitor of 164 cbm. and 2.83 cbm. per pupil, is heated by hot water and has Venetian blinds in its doors and win- dows for ventilation. During recesses all doors are- open. Here the maximum amount of carbonic acid, was only 4.8 parts per thousand and the average 2.55. If the ventilating apparatus [failed to work well, an^ increase of carbonic acid set in immediately. Sexta A of the Luise gymnasium has a capacity of 253.58 cbm., or 4.61 cbm. per pupil. It is heated by hot air and has a ventilating shaft into the garret, from which the air is removed by an aspirating chim- ney. With regularity in the manipulation of the sys- tem, the maximum amount of carbonic acid was 1.9., 82 VENTILATIOIS' and the average 1.45 parts per 1,000; with irregularity it rose to 2 and 1.55 parts per 1,000, respectively. The beneficial effects of ventilating flues on the air of school-rooms have also been emphasized by Gillert. ^ In schools without such flues he found that in only 5.3^ of his tests was the air good or still permissible; whereas it was of this grade in 67.7^ of the tests, where the schools were supplied with the flues. The reverse was true for extremely impure air, the figures being 36.8 io and 6.1 ^, respectively. Gillert was also able to show that the amount of car- bonic acid in a closed and occupied room is in inverse proportion to the rapidity of the currents of air out- side. In windy weather, for instance, the amount of carbonic acid in these schools in Berlin did not even reach 1 part per 1,000 during two successive recitation periods. On the other hand, on a quiet day more than 4 parts of carbonic acid per thousand were found in three rooms at the end of 4 hours; 5.63 parts in a room in the third story at the end of 4^ hours ; and 1.21 parts in another room in the third story after 5 hours of school work, although six windows had been open at the bottom all the time. Outside currents of air will naturally assist in ventilating a ^E. Gillert, Luftpriifungen auf Kohlensaure, aus- gefiihrt in Berliner Gemeindeschulen. Zeitschrift fiir Schulgesundheitspflege, 1893, No. 4, p. 185-203. OTHER COKDITIOKS 83 school-room in proportion as it is exposed and easily accessible to the wind. Moreover, differences of temperature between at- mospheric and school-room air have an effect similar to that of the wind upon the amount of carbonic acid. According to Pettenkoffer^, the amount of fresh air received by natural ventilation into an occupied room of about 73 cbm. was, with a difference of tempera- ture between inner and outer air of 20°, 95 cbm. ; with a difference of 19°, 75 cbm.; with a difference of 4°, 22 cbm. Hence, all other things being equal, the natural ventilation of a class-room, and therefore the diminution of the carbonic acid in it, is greatest dur- ing the cold and least during the warm weather. Since this change of air, as has already been said, takes place partly through the interstices of the build- ing-materials, the porosity of the latter affects the ac- cumulation of carbonic acid in the school-room. Mortar, brick, and sandstone lose their permeability as soon as they are sufiBciently saturated with water, as Pettenkoffer ^ has shown. The mechanical force of the air cannot displace it ; and hence the pores of the wall remain clogged and only regain their per- meability upon the evaporation of the moisture. This ^ Pettenkoffer, Uber den Luftwechsel in Wohnge- bauden, p. 91. 2 The same, p. 97. 84 YE2!irTiLATio:fr shows how detrimental wet walls may be with respect to the purity of the air in school-rooms, to say nothing of the fact that they promote the formation of mould. Finally, the duration of the school period affects the accumulation of carbonic acid in class-rooms. Boubnotf and Ignatieff found in the I. gymnasium of Moscow at 8 o'clock in the morning before lessons began, 1.16 parts; at the end of the first hour, 4.51 parts; at the end of the second, 5.59 parts; and at the close of the third, 6.12 parts carbonic acid per thousand. The long recess of 30 minutes, customary in Eussian gymnasia was then taken, and most of the pupils left the class-room to exercise in the corridor or the " recreation hall ". During this whole intermis- sion, a window was open. The amount of carbonic acid was consequently reduced to 2.82 parts; but it rose in the fourth hour to 4.35; and in the fifth to 5.74 parts per thousand. Entirely similar results were obtained in the V. gym- nasium and in the Komissaroff technical school. The striking thing is, not simply the great impurity of the air even before school work begins, but also the rapid- ity with which the amount of carbonic acid increases even in the first hour. During the rest of the day, the increase is not so rapid probably because the breathing of the pupils in the room has become more and more repressed. What can teachers do to improve the ventilation in their school-rooms ? In the first place they can learn eecki^agel's vektilatiok gauge 85 to use properly the ventilating arrangements that have been supplied. Large ventilating systems ought to work so as to secure a renewal of the air in a room three times every hour, in all kinds of weather. No drafts which in any way annoy the pupils should be produced either by the introduction of the pure out- side air, which should have been previously warmed in the winter, or by the removal of the impure inner air. Fig. 6. CROSS SECTION OF RECKNAGEL'S VETILATION GAUGE 86 YEKTILATIOK .««--- Fig. 7. RECKNAGEL'S VENTILATION GAUGE, ATTACHED This can be prevented by not having the velocity of the air more than 1.5 m. per second. Whether the air in the school-room is really changed three times per hour can be ascertained by means of Eecknagel's patented ventilation gauge ^ (see figs. 6 1 Karl Hintrager, Eecknagels Kontrollapparat fiir Ventilationsanlagen in Schulen. Zeitschrift fiir Schul- gesundheitspflege, 1895, No. 1, p. 18-23. EECKNAGEL'S VEKTILATIOK GAUGE 87 and 7). This consists of a support K S (fig. 6) one end of which is attached to the inlet grate D E F G (fig. 7) by a screw, while the other is shaped to hold two points. Between these the easily moyable valve F (fig. 6, cf. c, a, and b, fig. 7) is placed to receive the pressure of the incoming air. To give it any required degree of sensitiveness it has a compensating weight A G (fig. 6), which besides increasing the moment of inertia makes it possible to set the apparatus so that the valve will be blown out 45° from the perpendicular when the air is coming in with the right velocity. The slightest change in the velocity of the air is sufiicient to move the valve from this position, which is indicated by a fixed pointer. If the valve falls be- low this pointer, the velocity is too small ; if it rises above, it is too great. This is evidently true only when the cross section of the ventilating shaft has such a ratio to the size of the room that with a cur- rent of 1.5 m. per second the air is changed three times an hour. The air introduced should be as pure as possible. It should not be taken from cellars, passage-ways, small enclosures, the neighborhood of dung-pits, privies, or chimneys. In the real-gymnasium of Hamburg where the latter was the case, smoke and other products of combustion came into the rooms. Occasionally the mouth of the fresh air duct is 88 YEKTILATIOK located near the dumping place for fuel, and a great deal of coal dust and other stuff is brought into the school-room. Sometimes we find it placed not above but below the level of the ground, so that dirt and sprinkling water flow in. At other times it may be so situated as to have a grate over which people walk, the dirt from the shoes falling in. Even where every precaution has been taken, and shrubs have been planted around the inlet as a protec- tion against the dust, it is not always possible to obtain air entirely free from it. Additional means of purifica- tion will in that case have to be used, such as allowing dust to settle in a large room, or removing it by an air filter or a spray. Dust may also mix with the air further on in its passage through the pipes and flues. To prevent this, these must not only be smooth and tight, and con- structed so as to be easily cleaned; but both these and the dust-chambers must be cleaned frequently. The removal of the foul air in a school-room is usually effected by means of a flue in a partition wall near the chimney. This has two openings, one near the floor and one near the ceiling, both of which may be closed by means of dampers or doors. The flue goes up above the roof into the open air, or it ends in the garret, which in that case is provided with ventilators. The walls of the garret should be smooth and accessi- makageme:n^t of appaeatus 89 "ble to cleaning, and the cleaning should be done re- j)eatedly. With respect to the details of managing the ventilat- ing apparatus, the upper of the two dampers or doors mentioned above, namely, the one near the ceiling, is to be kept open when there is no artificial heating, as are .also the ventilators sometimes found in the opposite wall near the floor. During the heating period on the other hand the air is to be removed by the lower opening in the ventilat- ing flue. The summer ventilators in the outer wall if there be any, and the upper opening in the foul air flue in the partition wall, and the door in the jacket, where a jacketed stove is used, should now be kept tightly closed. On beginning to heat the room, all •openings are to be closed except the door in the jacket •of the stove between the air in the school-room and that in the jacket, which is to be opened. The influx of fresh air is to be regulated according to the outside temperature and the outside air currents by the proper :setting of the dampers. That all this may be done .accurately, it is advisable to have the regulations for the use of the ventilating apparatus posted in every .school-room. Where there are no special fresh and foul air flues, hinged sections of the upper parts of windows may be used for the purpose of ventilation during school- 90 VENTILATION^ hours. The window panes are in this case fixed into frames which in outside windows are hinged at the top, — in inside windows at the bottom. These outer and inner hinged sections are so connected that they open and close at the same time, and there should be a convenient device for managing them from below. The inner one also has side guards of tin to prevent the cold air from falling directly on the pupils sitting near. A glass arrangement resembling a Venetian blind,, though less effective than the above, is much used in schools. In this case, one of the upper panes consists, of horizontal glass strips 10 cm. wide which can be opened and closed like the wooden blinds. The influx of air is regulated at will by turning the strips. Among other things, they have the disadvantage of letting the air which enters sink directly to the floor and spread over it in a gradually thickening layer. I1> then becomes considerably colder there and the differ- ence in temperature between the feet and the head is decidedly increased. Castaning has lately suggested a system of window glazing which may prove useful for ventilating purposes in schools. Two panes of glass are put in parallel^ like the panes of a double window and so as to be from 8 to 10 cm. apart. The outer pane (d), as will be seen in figure 8, does not rest directly upon the lower SIMPLE APPLIANCES 91 *-« cross piece (a) but leaves an opening about 4 cm. high. ^^ The inner pane (f) which rests upon the cross piece (a) does not reach the upper cross piece (b) but leaves a slit there 4 cm. high. Outside air will now rush in as indicated by the arrows and be warmed somewhat by the in- ner panes, and will then enter the room through the upper slit. The in- ner opening should be provided with a shutter of tin, or better still of glass, so as to prevent the air from rushinsr Fig. 8. cast an- ^ ° iNG'S SYSTEM OF in during storms and extremely cold WINDOW-VENTI- ^ ^. _ t • i -, , LATiON. weather. It is also desirable to sup- port the free edges of the panes with thin iron guards to make them more secure and keep them from break- ing easily. But even if all ventilating arrangements are lacking, we can do much for the improvement of the air in school-rooms by opening windows and doors. To be sure, when the school is in session, the opening of windows is necessarily restricted. During the winter, the cold air would rush into the room and often lower the temperature too suddenly and expose pupils sitting near to the dangers of catching cold. In summer, the noise in the street is often so great that, with open windows, lessons would be much disturbed. Even the 92 YEl^rTILATION" comparatively noiseless pavements of wood or other materials often found near schools in large cities can not always prevent this evil entirely. On the other hand, all class-rooms must be ventilated at the end of every lesson, both winter and summer, by opening all doors and windows. The length of this airing should be governed by the weather; in Dresden the following rule has been proposed : DURATION OF VENTILATION Outside Temperature At Recesses At the end of forenoon or afternoon session -1-10° to -1-5° C +5° to 0° C 0° to —5° C —5° to -10° C below to —10° C 4 — 10 minutes 3—7 2—5 1—3 1 - H " 20 — 50 minutes. 20 — 35 15 — 25 10 - 15 5 — 10 With a short airing like this the walls, furniture, and floors of the school-room are but slightly cooled; and, as soon as the doors and windows are closed, the temperature of the room begins to rise, owing to the heat given off by the walls, etc. How great a reduc- tion in the amount of carbonic acid in a room may be made in this way is shown by figures from Dankwarth. In a s.chool-room which he examined the amount of carbonic acid in the morning at 10 o'clock before ven- tilation was 1.7 parts per thousand. After doors and windows had been opened, with four persons remaining in the room, he found the following amounts : AIRIS'G THE EOOM 93 At 10 o'clock min. 30 seconds. — 0.860 parts carb. acid per 1000. 1 ' 0.666 1 ' '• 30 0.665 2 " ■ 30 0.655 " " " 5 " " 0.552 " While the ventilation is going on, the pupils go into the yard or corridors, and in this way get a little exer- cise and bring fresh air back with them in their cloth- ing. The hall windows are accordingly opened during recitations and closed during recesses when the rooms are being ventilated. It is especially necessary to have prolonged ventilation of this sort between the forenoon and afternoon sessions, though it is gen- erally omitted entirely in cold weather. Accordingly, a decree of the Prussian Cultus-Minister rightly re- quires that the windows of class-rooms shall be open even at night in warm summer weather; at other times till dark, and from four in the morning. Experiments made at the Hygienic Institute of the University of Budapest testify to the success of this plan. During the summer the windows were first kept open during the day and closed at night, and then the reverse ; and in each case the temperature of the room was compared with that of the outside air. It was found that with the windows open during day time the temperature in the room was almost as high as that out doors ; whereas, when the windows were closed during the day and open at night, the temperature in 94 YEIS^TILATIOK the room was at least 7° C lower than it was out doors, the difference being especially great when the outside temperature was very high. On the other hand, if cleanliness does not prevail in the school-room and the air is constantly being pol- luted by filth, no amount of ventilation will prove sufficient. Cleanliness should extend in the first place to the pupils themselves. Xot only ought their bodies to be scrupulously clean, but also their clothes and shoes. In connection with this matter the school shower- baths introduced by the city of Gottingen deserve more attention from higher institutions of learning than they have hitherto received. For one thing they promote the cleanliness of the skin; and for another, they lead the pupils to desire clean underclothing. The school should provide ample facilities for the pupils to wash themselves. There should be scrapers and foot-mats, for cleaning their feet; and the constant use of them ought to be insisted upon, the more so since the amount of dirt brought in daily according to measurements by Meyrich^ is on an aver- age 1.4 grams. Overcoats, hats, caps, rubbers, um- brellas, all give off unpleasant vapors when they are ^ Oswald Meyrich, Die Staubpflage in der Schule und Vorschliige Zu ihrer Beseitigung. Op. cit., 1894, :N'o. 8, 9, p. 452-473. CLEAXLIis-ESS 95 wet, and ought on that account not to be taken into the school-room, but should be left in the hall, or in special cloak rooms, which had better be separated from the hall by wire netting. Pupils with diseases that infect the air demand special attention. Those with an ill-smelling discharge from the ear must be suspended until completely cured. The pestilential odor from perspiring feet sometimes defies all treatment; but even in this case we ought to insist at least on an attempt at betterment. The most effective measure against the odors from ulcer- ated, decaying teeth is the introduction of a regular care of the teeth; and the school must do its part to secure it. Cleanliness must also be maintained with respect to the school -room ^. Since dirt and dust collect mostly on the floors, the proper construction and care of these is of great importance. Too soft wood or too narrow boards must not be used. The first slivers easily and is not durable enough; it, moreover, absorbs moisture readily and dries very slowly, so that rooms with such floors when scrubbed have a smell even the next day. It also makes the good oiling which school - ^ Grundsiitze fiir die Aufrechterhaltung der Sauber- keit an den hohern Schulen im Aufsichtsbezirke des Kgl. Provinzialschulkollegiums zu Kassel. Ver- fugung vom 25. November, 1890. 96 VENTILATIOJiT room floors should receive every year or two impossible., Too narrow and lathlike flooring increases unnecessarily the number of cracks into which dust may settle. Matched floors of oak or American hard pine are prob- ably the best for schools. They must in any case be kept in order, and any cracks or seams that may arise must be closed up at once. Linoleum has lately been used in many places as a covering for school-room floors. In fact, it fulfills all the requirements that have to be made of a good floor. It is elastic, waterproof, wholly free from cracks or holes, permanent, and very durable. It has the further advantage of deadening the noise made by the feet of the children; and it can be easily and thoroughly swept and washed. As far as cleaning is concerned, all class-rooms, draw- ing-rooms, and music-halls, ought to be swept thor- oughly at least twice a week. In the case of schools- with two sessions this may best be done on the free afternoons of Wednesdays and Saturdays. Daily sweeping would be still better. To prevent the raising of dust, the floor must be- covered with plenty of wet sawdust, tanning bark, or turf powder, which should haA^e been moistened with, warm w^ater. With dry sweeping the dust cannot be- thoroughly removed even with open windows ; but is simply carried from one place to another. A short CLEAKIl^^G THE KOOMS 97 time after sweeping, the chairs, the benches, the book shelves under the pupils desks, the teacher's desk, the cases, and the tiles of the stoves are to be wiped with a moist cloth, — the iron parts of the stove should be wiped with a dry cloth. Since entries, corridors, and stairways are particu- larly exposed to dirt, two sweepings per week will not be enough for them ; but they must be swept daily with wet sawdust or the like and be scrubbed every week. The latter should also be done with class-rooms. One or two wet sweepings per week is sufficient for the assembly halls, since they are less used ; but they ought to be washed out several days before every school festival. If they have been decorated with garlands and wreaths these should be removed in eight days at the latest, since withering foliage gives out a peculiar odor and dry leaves are a good resting place for dust. Libraries, physical and natural science cabinets, and chemical laboratories do not need to be cleaned so often ; brushing them out once or twice a month in the wet way will be sufficient. The windows in every room ought always to be kept clean; and panes covered with moisture or sills wet from thawing panes should be wiped without delay. Besides this regular cleaning there ought to be a thorough general renovation at least four times a year during vacations. All walls and ceilings are then to 98 YENTILATIOK have the dust wiped off, if they have not been freshly painted or whitewashed. Oiled and parquetry floors should be cleaned with warm water, soap, and scrub- bing-rag; and unoiled floors with warm water, sand, soap, scrubbing broom, or brush. In like manner the wainscoating and furniture should be washed with warm water and soap, as should also the windows both inside and outside. Furthermore, all door knobs, mountings, lamps, gas fixtures, chandeliers^ busts, pic- tures, charts, and blackboards, as well as all heating apparatus, stoves, etc., are to be properly wiped and polished; and, lastly, the dusting or washing of the curtains or other sorts of blinds must not be neglected, though it may be necessary only once or twice a year. Special care is to be exercised in cleaning the books belonging to the teacher and the school library, the history collection, and the physical and chemical apparatus. This should be done under the direction of the librarian and the corresponding department teachers. The shelves should first be wiped with a moist cloth and then rubbed with a dry one. How detrimental dirty gymnastic halls may be to the health of the pupils has lately been brought out clearly by F. A. Schmidt.^ The increased activity of "^ F. A. Schmidt, Die Staubschadigungen beim Hallenturnen und ihre Bekampfung. Leipzig, 1890. Edward Strauch. CLEANING GYMNASTIC HALLS 99 tlie lungs and the consequent impossibility of keeping the mouth closed, cause dust particles to penetrate even into the smallest branches of the bronchia, where they either give rise to an inflamation or increase one already existing. They may even act as carriers of pathogenic bacteria and produce infectious diseases. The entrance of the germs of consumption into the most delicate alveolar parts of the lungs is especially promoted by deep breathing and therefore by gymnastics. The bringing in of dust into gymnastic halls is ac- cordingly to be prevented as much as possible. Pupils should on this account before entering put on clean gymnasium shoes in special dressing rooms. To prevent the production of dust in the exercises,, mats should be used as little as possible. Those made of cocoa fibers ought to be discarded altogether. Aside from the fact that it is easy to slip on them, and that they can not be used for high jumping, they are dust catchers of the first order. On the other hand, little dust can get into mats with leather covers on both sides, especially if the seams have been care- fully made. After having been used they should be placed so as not to bring the dusty underside of one into contact with the upper side of another. Spring boards must be repeatedly oiled or tarred. But above all gymnasium floors must be washed 100 VEKTILATIOK thoroughly at least once a week and be swept with moist sawdust or mopped once a day, i.e., after being used, special attention being given to the spaces be- tween and under the apparatus. After such cleansing, the walls are to be dusted dry, and the apparatus then wiped off with a moist cloth. It is also a very good plan to clear the air at the end of every gymnastic lesson by sprinkling with a hose or sprinkling can, the former having the preference because it enables us to reach the upper layers of air. That the miasma from closets can very greatly pollute the air is sufficiently well known. These ought therefore to be located in out-houses and connected with the main buildings by covered walks. If they are placed in the school building itself, they ought to be accessible only from the corridors, and that by means of an ante-room which is easily venti- lated. Between the closet and coridor there should be two self-closing doors. To make it possible to clean the floors more easily they should be made waterproof. The bowls must also be waterproof and had better be made of castiron or stone-ware. In places with water works, closets should be provided with the water flushing and car- riage system, and the discharge pipe should be trapped if there are no other means of preventing the gases from rising. CLEANING CLOSETS 101 In places without water works the excreta should be collected in casks that can be closed hermetically and carried away as often as possible, say once every two or ihree days. Casks ought to have overflow pipes with catch basins underneath. They should moreover be placed in special, easily accessible chambers with waterproof floors and plenty of light and air. Great care should be taken to give the discharge pipe an air- tight connection with casks. Where vaults are used for school privies, they should have a cement wall separate from the walls of the school-house and should be impervious to water. On the inside, the cracks should be filled with a coating of asphalt. To facilitate emptying they should have concave bottoms and concave corners. They must also have waterproof and fairly airtight coverings. Whatever the kind of closet in use in a school, it is absolutely necessary to keep it constantly clean, and as odorless as possible. Since experience shows that the reverse is often true, directors and teachers ought not to consider it below their dignity to inspect them repeatedly. Aside from this inspection, the scouring of the floors and the seats once or twice a week regu- larly will best promote cleanliness. This should take place daily in time of epidemics. It is also a good thing to have the closets as well lighted as possible so that filth may be more readily 102 YENTILATIOK detected. Foul-smelling gases are best removed by a ventilating flue extending from the cask room or vault to the foundation wall and then up over the gable of the roof. If it is built near a chimney or if a flame is kept burning in it, the current of air generated will promote the escape of miasma. For deodorizing or disinfecting the contents of the closets, turf powder deserves high recommendation, especially if super-phosphate in the proportion of 1 to 5 is added. The latter at the same time increases the value of the excreta for fertilizing purposes. Lime may also be used as a disinfectant when added in sufficient quantities to render the contents strongly alkaline. For this purpose 2.5 liters calcium hydrate powder mixed with four times its volume of water will suffice for 224 liters of the excrementious matter. This process has this disadvantage that it is difficult to get the lime everywhere in close contact with the refuse materials. Where deodorization and disinfection do not take place, the vaults should be emptied by means of a pump as often as possible, — at least every two or three months, provided they are not filled before. The pungent odor given ofl by urinals because of the liberation of ammonia in the decomposition of urea, should be removed by a permanent flow of water. Not only must the wet wall be isolated from CLEAKIKG CLOSETS 103 the building but the floor must be made impervious, and the discharge pipe be supplied with a trap. If it is impossible to arrange for the flow of water, the wet places should be sprinkled regularly with powdered carbolic acid, which is usually colored red to preyent poisoning. CHAPTER V The Heating of School-rooms ^ This is usually closely connected with the ventilation discussed in the preceding chapter. According as heating apparatus is designed for warming single rooms or several rooms at the same time, we may speak of separate and general heating, respectively. For the former stoves are used and for the latter large central heating plants. To settle the question whether stoves or central heat- ing plants are to be preferred, economical, technical, pedagogical, and hygienic items must be considered. As to economy the original outlay for stoves is less than that for central plants. For even the cheapest central plant, namely the hot air system, costs about 65 cts. per cbm. of the room to be heated, whereas the corresponding cost for stoves rarely exceeds 40 cts. In making this comparison we must, however, take this fact into consideration that the stoves heat only the school-rooms and offices, while central plants also h^at the stairways, corridors, ante-rooms, water-closets, etc. This diminishes the comparative economic ad- ^E. Haesecke, Die Schulheizung, ihre Mangel und deren Beseitigung. Berlin, 1893. (104) STOVES VS. OEiq^TEAL SYSTEM 105 vantage of heating by stoves. The operating expenses for stoves are also greater than those for central heat- ing plants. In 20 schools in Vienna it was found that the annual expense for fuel and janitor per 100 cbm. of space to be heated was with stoves $7.40, and with central heating plants only $6.58. From a technical point of view the disadvantages of stove-heating become still more apparent. It is well- known that schools especially those of larger cities owing to the expensiveness of building sites, are liable to suSer from lack of room. This evil is counteracted to a certain extent by using central heating plants, because these are located in otherwise almost useless rooms in the basement. On the other hand if stoves are used, they not only occupy more or less room them- selves but some floor space is also lost by shortening the neighboring seats in order not to expose individual pupils to extreme heat. Another technical objection to the stove is the in- convenience experienced in caring for it. It is evi- dent that to supply a number of places with fuel takes more trouble than to supply only one, and also that it is more burdensome to attend to more than one fire than to attend to one only. Lastly, danger of fire increases with the increase in the number of stoves, whereas the concentration of the heating apparatus into one room where it can be 106 HEATING conveniently watched not only enhances security from fire, but also makes it easier to get control of any fire that might break out. From a pedagogical stand-point it may be said that the repeated attention required by stoves especially the old style iron stoves, disturbs the work of the school. Moreover, when the temperature is either too high or too low, the janitor has to be notified and this again interrupts the recitations, while with the more recent central plants the temperature of the room can be ascertained outside and can be regulated without entering the room. In the discussion of the heating question, however, . the hygienic side is of pre-eminent importance. The ideal in this respect is to have an absolutely uniform temperature throughout the room, since it is disa- greeable to have a rapid decrease of temperature from the ceiling to the floor. In the latter case the head is exposed to a high and the feet to a low temperature, while the old Salernitan rule demands that the head be kept cool and the feet warm. With a stove, as we know, it is impossible to heat a given room uniformly in all its parts. For its effec- tiveness depends in the first place upon the radiation of heat ; and the amount of this decreases with extra- ordinary rapidity as the distance from the stove in- creases. To secure a uniform temperature even with STOYES 107 a central heating plant presents many difficnlties ; but it can nevertheless be effected more easily than with stoves. Another hygienic advantage which the central has over the separate heating method is that it brings more air into the room. A stove will serve far less satisfac- torily for this purpose, since it can be only of moderate size, if the first cost and the running expenses are not to be too great ; and it will therefore not be able to bring about the required changes of air in the room. On the other hand, with a central plant the introduc- tion of pure and the removal of impure air can be regulated in a mathematically definite way. This en- ables us to furnish the amount of air required in any given place. Accordingly, where the location and construction do not prevent it, large school-buildings ought to be pro- vided with central heating plants. In fact they are found in the public schools of most large cities, as for instance almost without exception in Berlin, Hamburg, Munich, and Frankfort a. M. The use of stoves may, however, be considered allowable in schools with only a few rooms, since the hygenic disadvantages are not so great that stoves must be absolutely forbidden. Stoves may best be placed near the middle of the long wall opposite the windows. They have been made ot clay, Eussian tiles, iron, or a mixture of 108 HEATING these materials. Tile stoves are not well adapted for school purposes because they heat up too slowly, fur- nish insufl&cient ventilation, and consume too much fuel. The same is true, although in a less degree, of combinational stoves which have an iron base and a- tile top. T^or can the iron cylinder or cannon stove — so-called, on account of its shape — be recommended for schools. The brisk fire in these stoves, it is true, draws the air from the floor of the school-room, and thus aids ven- tilation ; but as an offset, they consume a great deal of fuel and must be filled repeatedly. But regulable reservoir stoves, which have a large jacket or casing and heat the incoming air only mod- erately, may be said to be satisfactory. Of these there are many different kinds. We shall mention only the Jacobi or Meissner, the Kaiserlautern, and Wolpert and- Meidinger, reservoir stoves, the Kauffer and Keidel patented stoves, and the somewhat similar Irish and- American base burners or self-feeders. According to the test made by the hygienic institute- of Berlin, the Kauffer Parlor stove and the large^ Keidel patented stoves keep the most permanent fire. This holds true of the smaller ones of this kind only when anthracite is used. Within the wide casing of the Keidel stove, the incoming air from the outside is only moderately warmed; and a sufficient quantity — about GAS STOVES 109 -ben times as much as is furnished by the Meidinger stove, — is introduced into the room without creating drafts. These stoves have, moreover, a special device for keeping the parts in the fire from getting too hot ; and they can be managed very economically, since the size of the fire pot can be changed by movable pans. Quite recently stoves heated by gas^ have been em- ployed in institutions of learning as for instance, to name only a few large cities, in Berlin, Hamburg, Copenhagen, Munich, Frankfort a. M., Cologne, Stuttgart, Strassburg in Alsace, Karlsruhe, Freiburg in Baden, and Barmen. The disadvantages of heating with illuminating gas, according to Ostender, are, aside from the heavy running expenses, the vitiation of the air by overheated heating surfaces and filling the school-room with gas. Meidinger, however, has proved that these criticisms are not correct. But we must concede the greater expense of gas heating. For one room the expense per hour was, for in- stance, in Cologne, where gas is 2^ cts. per cbm., 4 cts; in Frankfort, a. M., and in Karlsruhe, where gas is 3 cts. per cbm., 4.8 cts. Even with the gas at 1 ct. in Karlsruhe, the expense for each room per hour is still 1.6 cts. On the other hand, the same amount of stove heat costs only 1^ cts., and hot air heat 1^ cts. ^Gustav Behnke, Die Gasofenheizung fiir Schulen. Darmstadt, 1894. Arnold Bergstrasser. 110 HEATIKG That gas heating is more expensive than stove or hot air heating is due, in the first place, to the greater cost of gas in comparison with coal or coke; and, in the second place, to the fact that the heat is but im- perfectly utilized. The amount utilized varies between 29.4 and 88.7^, but in eight out of eleven cases tested it was more than 60 fc. The expense aside, gas stoves have these advantages in their favor, namely, that they require no special fire- man, no room for fuel, no removal of slag and ashes, and that they can be attended to without the least difficulty, since they can be turned on or off at any moment, thus making the regulation of temperature in the school-room very much easier. In the higher schools of Hamburg where gas heating is used, it ac- cordingly gives complete satisfaction. Whatever sort of a stove the school may have, the teacher needs to keep a watchful eye on the following points in overseeing it : In the first place, gases from the combustion must not be allowed to escape into the room. Although many of them produce only a feeling of discomfort, others, especially carbon monoxide, are very detri- mental to health. On account of poisoning by carbon, monoxide, which escaped into a school-room from a defective stove, the pupils showed the following symp- toms up to the fourteenth day: Pain in the forehead CARE OF STOVES 111 and in the temples, heaviness in the head, dizziness, humming of the ears, weakness of memory, dullness, partly sleeplessness, partly sleepiness, pain in the breast, weakness of the legs, lessened patellar reflexes, coated tongues, nausea, diarrhea, and pallor. It is now believed by many that the red hot walls of an iron stove permit the escape of carbon monoxide. This idea was first defended by Morin. He based his conclusions on the investigations of St. Clair-Deville and Troost. Many experiments, of which we will only mention Wolffhiigel's, have shown, however, that it is impossible to demonstrate that carbon monoxide escapes into the room from good metal stoves even when they are red hot. Moreover, the fire pots of these stoves are lined with fire brick, so that they are in general not liable to get so hot. Though it is an assured fact that the gases from combustion, especially carbonic oxide, do not pene- trate the walls of iron stoves, such gases may, never- theless, under certain conditions escape from any kind of a stove. This is least to be feared when the fire is in full blast, because the great difference of tempera- ture between the inside and the outside of the stove gives rise to pressure toward the inside. In this case the gases do not rush out of the pipes, but on the contrary, air rushes into them. It is only when a stove has been neglected and allowed to develop cracks — 112 HEATING which is often the case with school stoves — that gases can escape, when the fire is well under way. The escape of gas occurs, however, very readily when the fire is being started, because the pipes are not then sufficiently warm to produce the necessary draft. At such times, especially where there are con- tractions and curves in the pipes, the gases inside may develop a greater pressure and consequently escape into the room. It is well to call the janitor's attention to the mat- ter. He must be particularly instructed not to close the dampers in the stovepipe and chimney too soon. With the draft completely closed in this way, carbonic oxide gas, which is a product of incomplete combus- tion, is formed, and escapes into the room through the door or other openings in the stove. Since even dam- pers with holes in them do not afford sufficient protec- tion against this evil, it it is better to prohibit the use of dampers altogether in schools. CeNTEAL HEATIiiTG PlAKTS These are designated steam, air, or water heating systems according as the heat conducting agent is steam, air, or water. Several of these agents may, however, be used simultaneously when we have steam- water heaters, steam-air heaters, etc. Hot Air Furnaces for the most part transmit heat from the gases in the furnace through a metal CENTEAL HEATIIS^G PLANTS 113 heating surface in contact with the air, which then be- comes the heating medinm and is conveyed in special pipes to the rooms to be heated. Where this method is used complaints from the teacher are often heard. The most general one is that the air is too dry. This dryness is, however, frequently only apparent. If dust, for instance has settled on the heating surface of the furnace or if dust laden air comes in contact with it, the dust particles are scorched ; and burnt products are produced, which irritate the mucous membranes of the throat and eyes, causing a disagreeable feeling of dryness. The temperature of the heating surface must therefore be kept low ; and the settling of dust on it must be prevented as far as possible. The first can be done by lining the fire-pot and adjacent parts with Chamotte stone ; and the latter, by not having large horizontal heating surfaces, and making those we have, smooth and not corrugated outside, to facilitate cleaning. Teachers must see to it that the cleaning be done with regularity. The air may, on the other hand, really become too dry in hot-air heating. Whether this is so or not can be determined by the relative humidity, that is, the ratio of the amount of aqueous vapor in a cubic meter of air to the maximum it might contain at this temperature. If for instance the relative humid- ity is small so that the air could still absorb a great 114 HEATIiifG deal of water before saturation, a considerable amount of moisture will be taken from the surface of the body ; and this gives rise to a peculiar feeling of discomfort. By feeling we can, however, discriminate between moist and dry air only to a limited extent, as has been shown by Voit and Forster^. One of them would without the knowledge of the other produce different degrees of humidity in the air of a room for the other to describe by his feelings. lN"either could do this, since the temperature of the room and the general condition of the body played too great a part. For this reason only limiting values, wide apart, can be given as to the proper degree of humidity in a school-room. According to Eubner there should be : For 7° C, 4—45 % of aqueous vapor. " 10° C, 10-48^ " " 15° C, 19-54,^ " " 20° C, 30-60 j^ " " 25° C, 33—62^ " With the temperature customary in school-rooms, the humidity of the air may, therefore, vary from 30 to 60 fo. The physicist of the institution ought to make hygrometric tests to ascertain whether this meas- ure is attained, especially when there are complaints ^E. Voit, Hygienische Anforderungen an Heizan- lagen in Schulhausern. Zeitschrift fiir Schulgesund- heitspfiege, 1893, No. 1, p. 5 ff. HOT AIE PUEXACES 115 that the air is too dry. If we assume that 1,000 cbm. of hot air per hour are necessary for a room of medium, size, 16 liters of water should be evaporated in the heating chamber during the same time. If there is a lack of moisture, we should ascertain whether the water tank in the heating chamber has an evaporating surface large enough to fulfill these requirements ; and if it has, whether it is always sufficiently full of water; the self -regulating stop cocks may sometimes be out of order. Another defect often found in hot-air heating is the unequal distribution of the heat in the room. In a school-room warmed by this method, the air near the ceiling had a temperature of 38° C and near the floor 13° C ; the average temperature increase vertically was 3.6° C per meter. In another room heated by the hot-air system, a thermometer hanging O.o meters from the ceiling showed at the beginning of the first hour 28° R, an- other at a man's height from the floor 10° R, and one on the floor 8° E. While the middle one gradually rose during the first hour to 12° E, and the lower one to 9-10° E, the upper one remained unchanged. This difference of temperature between the different horizontal layers of air in a school-room is first of all detrimental to the teacher. The hot air near the ceil- ing may, for instance, be brought down by currents of 116 HEATIl!^G air, and when it reaches the head of the teacher, he will stand there with a warm head and cold feet. " In such cases " says Breckling^, " I have often had a severe headache and felt a benumbing pressure over the forehead, which made profitable instruction impossible. The pupils are similarly affected, and manifest it by yawning, by inattention, and by an inclination to rest their heads on their hands." Considerable differences in temperature may be found not only in a vertical but also in a horizontal direction in rooms heated with hot air. In the first one of the two rooms mentioned above the temperature half way between the floor and ceiling varied from 14° to 21° 0; and even at the height of the pupil's seats it was not uniform. That this condition of things may injure the pupil's health needs no proof. According to what has been said, it would be well for teachers employed in schools heated by the hot air system to measure the temperature repeatedly in different parts of the room. It is true, that such differences when found can be remedied often only with great difficulty, and sometimes not at all. They are almost always due to the air being of too high a temperature as it flows in near the ceiling. If Sonke Breckling, Die Luftheizung in den Ham- burger Schulen. Zeitschrift fiir Schulgesundheits- pflege, 1891, No. 3, p. 159. HOT WATER SYSTEMS 117 this were reduced the amount of warm air would have to be increased considerably if the rooms are not to become too cold. To accomplish this we should have to increase the cross-section of the pipes in the wall; this would require a change in the building and often even a complete reconstruction of the school. We must note, finally, that the above mentioned differences of temperature, as a rule, occur only with old hot air systems, while the more recent give in this respect very satisfactory results. Hot Water Systems heat the water which serves in this case as the distributing medium in conducting pipes, which are either open or closed to the air. In the first case, the water is never heated above the boiling point (100° C) and there is no pressure in the pipes. This is called the warm water or the low- pressure system. With closed pipes, or the so-called hot water sys- tem, the temperature of the water can be raised as high as is desired. If the temperature rises to 130° C, which gives a pressure of 1^ atmosphere, it is called a medium- pressure hot water system. If it rises, on the other hand, as is the case in the old Perkins' hot water sys- tem, to about 200° C, which gives a pressure of 14 atmospheres, it is called the high-pressure hot water system. On account of the high pressure, the latter is some- what dangerous, and, therefore, unsuitable for school 118 HEATIKG purposes. The medium pressure system is somewhat better. But it is possible that even with this system the dust will be scorched, since this may happen with a temperature of from 100° — 150° C. Moreover, the high pressure may prevent the valves which regulate the heat from working satisfactorily. On the other hand, a rather uniform distribution of heat can be obtained by this system; and where a heat- ing plant is to be introduced into old school buildings, it is often the only one possible. The necessary pipes or flues in the walls would be lacking for hot-air heat- ing, whereas the small pipes of this medium pressure system can be introduced anywhere without much difficulty. Warm water systems are, however, at all points bet- ter than hot water systems. The temperature of the radiating surface is ncA'er so high that burnt products are produced by the dry distillation of scorched dust particles. Since the pipes are usually placed near the floor, the latter is especially well warmed; and the un- pleasantness of cold feet is prevented. But there are some disadvantages connected with this method of heating. Even when the circulation of the water is completely closed, the radiation of heat does not cease, and so for instance a room may be still heated when the heat is no longer desired. Furthermore, these warm water systems are very ex- STEAM — HIGH AKD LOW PRESSURE 119 pensive, and for this reason alone tliey are hardly ever put into schools in recent years. Steam lieatiug systems are coming more and more into use. These are also designated respectively as low or high-pressure systems, according to the press- ure in the pipes. High pressure steam systems are probably never installed in schools, because the use of high-pressure boilers in inhabited buildings is forbid- den on account of the danger from explosion. Low-pressure steam systems, such as those of Bechem and Post, which have a pressure of ^^ to J- of an at- mosphere, are, on the other hand, very properly com- ing more and more into use in schools. Like all other steam and water systems, they have this advantage over the hot-air heating that with them ventilation and heating are separated. One may be in operation with- out the other, or they may work together in varying degrees ; whereas the closing of the register in a hot- air system reduces the ventilation to a minimum. An- other advantage is the low temperature of the heating surface in the low pressure steam system, the utility of which has been discussed before. The heat can be regulated easily and accurately by means of valves, and can even be almost entirely shut off, since the amount of steam remaining in the radiator has but small heat- ing capacity. Finally, the large fire-pot of the low pressure sys- 120 HEATIKG tern enables us to keep the fire night and day, thus securing a uniform and thorough heating of the whole building. The agreeableness of this is especially to be attributed to the fact that the walls are never so cold as they would be otherwise. To prevent a waste of fuel with a continuous fire, the draft in the furnace and consequently the heating itself should be regulated automatically by the steam pressure in the boiler. When, for instance, the radiator on account of a high temperature in the room gives off less heat, it increases the pressure in the boiler. This increased pressure closes the furnace draft and lets in less air to the fire, which then quiets down a little. If, on the other hand, the radiation of heat is increased, the steam pressure decreases and the draft is opened and the amount of air admitted to the fire is greater. Lately the indirect low-pressure steam systems have been recommended more strongly than the direct low- pressure steam system. The board of public works of Vienna speaks of them as positively the best heating systems^ for schools at the present time. They have, instead of furnaces, low-pressure steam radiators in the air chambers, so that the warm air introduced into the school-room is not heated directly by the fire but "^Neumann, Antrag und Bericht des Stadtrates von Wien, betreffend die Heizungs und Liif tungsanlagen in den stadtischen Schulen. Wien, 1893. TEMPERATUKE MAINTAINED 121 indirectly by steam. This makes the plant cost 50 to 80^ more; but the operating expenses are considerably reduced, because low-pressure steam heaters are more durable than furnaces, which crack readily. With respect to the last point, the indirect low-pres- sure steam systems have a further advantage over the hot-air systems. With the latter, the air may be pol- luted by gases escaping from the cracks, while this is absolutely impossible with the former. According to reports from Vienna these indirect low- pressure steam systems have proved eminently satisfac- tory in the schools of that city; and will therefore in the future be used exclusively. With a good plan, proper installation, and careful operation by an experi- enced fireman, no inconveniences at all can arise from them. Whatever the heating system may be, a temperature of 16°-19° C, or 13°-lo° E, or 61°-66°F,^ should be maintained in class-rooms and drawing-rooms; while a temperature of 14°-17° C, or 11°-13° E, will suffice for the gymnasium, and one of 10° to 8° C, or 8° to 6.5° E, for closets, stairways, and corridors. Even at the desks nearest the stove, the thermometer should not be more than a few degrees above the normal tem- * The temperature required in schools in the U. S. is usually about 5° F. higher. 122 HEATIKG perature, and stoves ought to be supplied with either permanent or moyable screens to prevent them from becoming so. The former have the advantage that they can not be put away or knocked down; the latter that they make the cleaning of the room easier. If the temperature of the room is below 16° C, or 13° R, the room must be heated, irrespective of the season of the year. Since the heat takes effect only after some time, it is best, especially when the children are young and the weather is very cold, to give them some gymnastic exercises, or else allow them to run a few moments on the play-ground till the rooms become comfortable. A mistake is often made at the Christmas or Easter vacation by not beginning to heat the building one or two days before school opens. If the heating is only begun the morning of the first day it is impossible to raise the air in the now thoroughly cooled rooms to the proper temperature. The heating apparatus is, also, usually overtaxed at this time because the fireman tries to do in a few hours what it would take him at least a day to accomplish. Hot-air furnaces are es- pecially liable to be ruined in this way, and an over- heating of the fire-pot and burning out of the grate has been observed even in the case of the low-pressure steam system. Not only should the fireman be watched in these par- TEMPERATUEE TO BE COIfSTAXT 123 iicular matters, but the effort should also be made to see that he kee|)S the proper temperature in the rooms at all times. To be sure, a perfectly uniform tempera- ture cannot be obtained; for the children themselves are living stoves, which after a while heat the air in the room. In the I. gymnasium of Moscow^, which has been referred to before, the temperature at 8 A. M., before instruction began, was 16° C; at the end of the first hour, 17.7°; at the end of the second 18.3°; and at the end of the third, 19.4° C. At 11 o'clock there was a long recess, during which a window was opened. The temperature consequently fell to 15.1° C, but rose again the next hour to 18.6° C, and in the following hour even as high as 20.1° C. Nothwithstanding this, we must aim at a constant temperature in the school-room and for this purpose test it repeatedly. A thermometer should accordingly be hung up in every class-room about 1.2 to 1.6 meters above the floor, in a place where the temperature may be said to be about average. A standardized therm.o- meter had better be procured, if the expense does not have to be avoided. Otherwise a common thermome- ter will do, as its error may be determined by the ^Fr. Erismann, Die Schulhygiene auf der Jubilaums- ausstellung der Gesellschaft fiir Beforderung der Arbeitsamkeit in Moskau. Zeitschrift fiir Schulge- ;sundheitspflege, 1888, ^''o. 11, p. 101 ff. 124 HEATII^G physicist of the school by comparison with one that iss accurate. In several schools in France, the temperature is- noted every hour, and a curve of its variations con- structed upon plotting paper. This is done now and then by pupils, since they can at the same time learn, to observe. In Germany, we often find the tempera- ture at the end of every recitation recorded in the class • book ; but a curve gives a more evident picture of the-- matter than a table of figures, and is just as easily constructed. In order to maintain normal temperature in school- rooms, attempts have lately been made to assist the fire- man by means of instruments which would indicate the temperature of the rooms by some signal near the furnace. To this class of instruments belong the dis- tance thermometer of Bonnesen, and the central ap- paratus for electric temperature signals by Bastelmann and others. The former consists of a barometer tub& placed in the furnace room in the cellar; of a tin cylinder filled with absolutely dry air and placed in every room; and of a capillary lead tube, which con- nects the cylinder with the short arm of the barometer^ A change of temperature in the room causes a change- of the pressure of the air in the cylinder, which is. then communicated by the capillary tube to the fur- nace room, where the temperature of the rooms can be read on the scale of the barometer. TEMPERATURE SIGNALS 125 Bastelmann's contact apparatus for electrical tem- FiG. 9, BASTELMANN'S CONTACT THERMOMETEE FOE ELECTEIC TEMPERATURE SIGNALS 126 HEATING perature signals, on the other hand, has contact ther- mometers (figure 9) which have platinum wires melted into them in such a manuer that with a temperaturo-- of 16°, 17.5°, and 19° C the mercury touches tha wires. These thermometers are suspended in the school-room and are connected with the signal board in the furnace room by means of wires (figure 10). When the mercury rises so that it touches the platinum, wires, an electrical circuit is closed by means of pres- sure on the corresponding contact buttons (a, b, c, d, e, f, in figure 10), and this releases an indicator on the signal board. The indicators in the upper IVS5. AJ,° , r4A°, _iMA Fig. 10. BASTLEMANK'S TEMPERATUEE SIGNAL BOARD row are for the minimum temperature of 16° C; those in the middle row for 17.5°; and those in the lower row for the maximum temperature of 19° 0. The fireman needs only to press the buttons a and d to see in which rooms the temperature has reached 16° C. TEMPERATURE SIGISTALS 127 In the same way lie can learn in what room the tem- perature has reached 17.5° and 19° C by pressing the buttons b and e, and c and f , respectively. These in- struments should be tested not only when they are put up, but every now and then afterwards by the physicist of the school. CHAPTEE VI SCHOOL FURNITURE The inside furnishings of the school-room, the chief of whicli are the seats and desks, or subsellia, are no less important than the heating and ventilation. For it is clear that an incorrectly constructed school bench occupied by pupils daily four to six hours for twelve years must necessarily prove injurious to their physical development. Moreover, the school work suffers, since a seat which compels pupils to sit or stand uncomfort- ably leads to rapid fatigue. The following principles of the mechanics of sitting^ are applicable to the matter in hand. The chief re- quirement to enable a pupil to sit at all, is that the centre of gravity of the trunk, which is somewhat in front of the centrum of the ninth or tenth dorsal ver- tebra, shall be over a supporting surface. This surface is determined, in the first place, by the points of contract of the two seat bones of the pelvis with the seat. The edge of the seat bones is curved from back to front and looks from the side something 1 Hermann Meyer, Die Mechanik des Sitzens mit besonderer Beriicksichtigung der Schulbankfrage. Yir- chows Archiv, 1867, Januarheft, 38, pp. 15-30. (128) PHYSIOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES 129 like an arc of 90°. The two accordingly resemble the rockers on a rocking chair; and so touch the seat in. two points only. Now two points are not sufficient to fix the position, of a plane. A third is necessary; or else a line par- allel to the line joining the points of contract of the twe seat bones. This third point may be the place where the end of the coccyx — or rather, since this is out of the way and besides movable, — where the end of the sacrum comes into contact with its support. If a plummet be dropped from the centre of gravity of the trunk upon this triangular supporting surface, it will strike it in a point back of the connecting line of the two seat bones. This may, accordingly, be called the backward sitting position. Besides this we have the forward sitting position. In this the body rests on the two seat bones and on the line of contact of the thighs with the edge of the seat. If we imagine a perpendicular dropped from the centre of gravity of the trunk upon the plane thus determined, it will strike it in front of the connecting line of the seat bones. The trunk can not only be moved as a whole on the hip joints, but since it has inner articulations it can change shape within itself. It can therefore not only tilt forward and backward, to the left and to the right, but it can also bend so as for example to give the spinal 130 SCHOOL DESKS column a hump. To prevent the trunk from getting such curvatures and at the same time to keep it from falling backward or forward in the corresponding sit- ting positions, a great many muscles have to be ad- justed. They, however, become fatigued in time and we find in the case of tired, feeble, or sleeping persons that not only has the whole body fallen forward but the spinal column has received a certain curvature. The muscles employed in sitting upright must, there- fore be given a chance to recuperate by being relieved now and then. There is no other way of doing this than by leaning against the back of the seat in the backward sitting position ; and in the forward position by resting the arms on the top of the desk or placing the breast against its rear edge. The latter should not, however, be permitted, since the pressure on the chest will interfere with breathing, and endanger the lungs. The only thing left is to lean against the back of the chair or place the arm on the desk. That an upright position is possible in the latter case will be made evident by figure 11, the reproduction of the photograph of a writing class. From what has been said and for other reasons, the following are the requirements for a good school desk. The seat should be of such a height that the feet may be placed evenly on the floor or foot rest, while the upper and lower legs make right angles with one another. Its height must, therefore, be somewhat less than the distance from the sole of the foot to the knee. 132 SCHOOL DESKS According to Zwez,this distance is 30.7 cm. for children of six to eight; 34.9 cm. for those eight to ten; 38.5 cm. for those ten to twelve; and 40.3 cm. for those twelve to fourteen. Hence a royal decree of Saxony demands that for the above named ages the height of seats without foot-boards should be 28-29, 31-32, 34- 35, 37-38 cm., respectively; and of those with a foot- board 4-5 cm. high, 33, 36, 39, 42 cm., respectively. The width of the seat had better be about two-thirds the length of the upper leg, since a person likes to sit so as to have one-third of it extending beyond the seat. The table below is constructed in accordance with this plan. The little differences in the requirements are due on the one hand to the difficulty of ascertaining just how much of the upper leg should rest on the seat, and on the other, to the fact that the upper leg varies in length with different racial and social conditions. Co 1 ^ i WIDTH OF THE SEAT Royal regulations of Saxony Royal regulations, wilrtemberg Expert school-desk commission of Vienna The medi- cal board of Prague 5.- YR. CM. CM. CM. CM. CM. CM, CM. 6- 8 35.3 23.0 22.9 25.0 23.0-24.0 23.5 23.0 8-10 39.6 25.0 25.5 25.5-26.5 25.0-26.0 24.5 25.0 10-12 43.1 27.0 28.0 28.5-29.5 27.0-28.0 26.5 28.0 12-14 44.9 29.0 30.3 31.0-28.5 29 0-31.0 27.5 30.0 Besides having the proper width, the seat should THE SEAT — FOOT RESTS 133 have a slight inclination backward. This is best se- cured by hollowing it out in the rear. It becomes especially necessary in case the back rest arches over backward, since a pupil leaning against it would slide forward and finally off the edge of the seat if it were level. Kunze, therefore, demands a difference in height between the front and rear of the seat of 1 to 1. 7 cm. Lickroth's seats have a still greater slope from front to rear, namely, of one in eight. These seats are indeed very comfortable, but it must not be for- gotten that the inclination of the desk must increase with that of the seat. The front edge of the seat must not be angu- lar but rounded, since it would otherwise exert a pres- sure on the popliteal veins and arteries back of the knees, and thus impede the circulation in the lower leg and foot. The pressure would also affect the in- ternal and external popliteal nerves and make the leg ''go to sleep ". Foot rests on the seats are on the whole not to be advised. They limit the free movement of the pupil's feet and compel him to hold the lower legs almost always in the same position, which in the end proves tiresome. The mud on the shoe soles is also easily rubbed off on them; and finding a resting place un- derneath can be swept out only with difficulty on account of the small space. If persons will still insist 134 SCHOOL DESKS on using them, they should have them made 13-16 cm. wide, so that the whole foot can rest on them. The height from the floor must not exceed 4-5 cm. Eoot rests, such as accord with the regulations of Wiirtemberg, of more than 10 cm. height, or such as are made by Kunze of 10-25 cm., are not practicable, since the seat is unnecessarily high, and so inconven- ient to mount. If the seat is inclined strongly to the rear, the foot rest should have a similar inclination. The latter is, indeed, in this case indispensable, be- cause the knee joint would otherwise make an acute angle, thus preventing the free circulation of the blood. The back rests of school seats are of especial im- portance; and they have accordingly lately been the focus of interest. They must above all meet the re- quirement of conforming to the normal curvature of the spinal column. The latter consists, as is well known, of 7 cervical, 12 dorsal, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral, and 4 coccygeal vertebra, of which the last lumbar, the sacral, "and the coccygeal are located in the pelvis. Outside of the cervical region, which is not considered here, the spinal column presents the following physio- logical curvatures: As seen from the front the dorsal section is strongly concave, the lumbar considerably convex, and the sacral and coccygeal again concave. The back-rest must accordingly be hollowed out in the THE BACK 135 sacral and coccygeal region, arched forward in the lumbar, and backward again in the lower dorsal, as may be seen in the Vienna school desk by Schlimp (figure 18, page 148). The above requirement presupposes that the back- rest reaches up to the lower part of the shoulder-blades and is in other words a sacrum-loin and shoulder-blade support. A greater length, which would not leave the shoulder-blades exposed, is undesirable for the reason that it would interfere with the free use of the shoulders and arms. Kor should a shorter back-rest be permitted. Staffel has pointed out that the low sacral back-rests advocated by Fahrner, Hermann, Kunze, Buchner, et. ah, some of which had a height of only 6 to 7 cm., were not fully able to prevent a bent-over position in sitting. The lever with which they worked on the pelvis, namely the distance from the centre of rotation of the seat bones to the point of application of the back-rest, was in fact too short to enable them to have any consider- able effect. StaffeP accordingly demands that high sacral back- rests, or to use a better expression, loin-back-rests, be ^Staffel, Die Mechanik des Sitzens. Centralblatt fur allgemeine Gesundheitspflege, 1884, Parts 11-12. 136 SCHOOL DESKS used instead of the common kind, so that the lumbar vertebrae, as the name indicates, may also be supported. The levers referred to above are now lengthened but not adequately so, till the back-rest supports not only the sacral and lumbar but also the dorsal regions and so the whole upper part of the body. The Vienna expert school desk commission accordingly requires that back-rests shall be of the following heights : for children six to eight 34.25; eight to nine 36.25; nine to ten 39.0; ten to eleven 39.25; eleven to twelve 40.0; twelve to thirteen 42.5; and fourteen 43.5 cm. It is best for each seat to have its own back-rest. It may, however, be necessary for the sake of saving space to have the back-rest connected with the desk be- hind. In this case the rear row of seats at least will have to have their own back-rests, while those on the fronts of the first row of desks may be omitted. When we turn from the seat to consider the desk, the so-called "difference" deserves attention first of all. By this is meant the vertical distance between the rear edge of the pupil's desk and the plane of the seat. It can be ascertained by measuring the distance from the seat bones to the elbow when the arm hangs down freely. The arm is, however, raised a little in writing, so that these figures must be increased by a few centimeters according to the age of the pupils. The following table gives the details: THE " DIFFEEENCE " 137 Distance from seat bones to the elbow DIFFERENCES ^ fe '^^ Jioyal regu- lations of Saxony Boyal regu- lations of Wurtemberg Ex-pert sch'l desk com- mission of Vienna The medi- cal board of Fragile :< o 1 S CO TEAKS CM. CM. CM. C3I. CM. CM. CM. CM. 6- 8 16.4 17.5 20.0 24.0 23.Q-25.0 19.0 21.0 22.0-23.5 8-10 17.5 20.0 22.0 26.0-28.0 26.0-28.0 20.8 23.0 23.5-25.5 10-12 17.9 22.5 23.5 27.75 28.0-29.0 24.7 25.0 25.5-27.5 12-14 20.0 25.0 25.5 30.25-31.0 30.0-32.0 26.8 27.0 27.5-29.0 14-16 29.0 29.0-31.0 16-18 32.0 31.0-33.0 With the proper difference, we have the normal reading distance between the eye of the pupil and the top of the desk, namely 35 cm. On the other hand, if the desk is too high with reference to the seat, the books come too near to the eye, and myopia may be induced. Be- sides, the pupil can not in this -Fig. 12. Lateral curvature of ^^^q ^^^ J^jg glboWS OU the dcsk the spine due to too high a desk, Esmarch. without Spreading out the upper «,rms and raising his shoulders. Since this is uncom- fortable, he lets his left arm slip from the desk, keep- ing only the right one on it in writing. In this way those lateral spinal curvatures arise of which Esmarch has given us so instructive an illustration, figure 12. 138 SCHOOL DESKS Too low a desk is as bad as one too high. In this^ case the pupil has to bend his head down to get the proper reading distance. But such a position of the- head is impossible for any length of time, since the supporting neck muscles gradually get fatigued. Sa the head sinks lower and lower, and the spinal column curves out behind. The eyes and the spinal column are injured first of all, because short-sightedness and curvature of the spine develop easily. Indigestion and functional disturbances of the heart may also supervene. The anterior wall of the abdomen is thrown into a transverse fold by bending forward, and the stomach is correspondingly pushed in and its oper- ations mechanically obstructed. Moreover, the arch- ing forward of the thorax brings the ribs nearer to- gether, the spaces between them become less, and the whole thoracic cavity is consequently smaller. Finally a compression of the large blood-vessels of the neck is produced by bending it too far. All these things cooperate to cramp the heart and lungs, as is made- evident by palpitation of the heart, obstructed breath- ing, etc. The inclination of the desk varies with that of the seat. We are, it is true, accustomed to writing at our desks on horizontal surfaces, but one that slopes has this advantage that the upper and lower lines of the paper on which we write are about equally distant from the INCLIl^ATIOIS" OF TOP 139 eyes, which makes changes of accommodation unneces- sary in looking from one to the other. With a seat of moderate slope, it is customary to give the desk an inclination of one in six, as is done for instance in Elsaesser's desk. But with greater seat-slope, there must also be greater inclination of the desk. The Vienna expert school-desk commission requires an inclination of 15°; the Prague medical board one of at least 17°. The latest Lickroth desk has a seat inclination of |-, and a desk inclination of J with reference to the seat, making a total of -Z^, or more than J. A desk by Stauffer of Vienna, and a model by Schenk of Berne, possesss a still steeper inclination, namely, 30°. On such a desk the pupil will write while leaning against the back-rest, without special request. However, with a steep slope everything on the desk slides off. This evil can be remedied, to be sure, by providing a guard at the lower edge ; but this is objectionable because of the pressure it exerts on the lower arm. Since pencils, penholders, etc., roll off with only a moderate slant, some special arrangement must be made to keep them back. This can be done by either cutting a deep grove along the upper edge of the desk, or by adding a horizontal section to it. In the latter case, it is estimated that the inclined part will take up 33 -and the horizontal part 7 to 8 cm. of the breadth. 140 SCHOOL DESKS That the estimations regarding this matter differ some- what will be seen from the following table, which gives the figures for the whole width of the desk : iO o o o o o tH CO -*' to O GO VJ' "VJ 1 ^f vp '^ 1 ^^ 11 II II II II II OC 00 00 00 GO X) H-++++ ii »c o o o o o s^ CO to O ^- GO o 1 CO CO CO CO CO ^ cc o o o o o o 03 4J -M +J 4-3 -M +3 O lO o o o o ^ O T-i co' ^' iO CO "^ '^ "^ "^ "^ "^ II II II II II II 00 00 00 OC CO 00 1 ++++++ O lO o o o o ^ Oi CO LC O i> GO f^ CO CO CO CO CO CO o a^ o o o o o o o ^ 05 O tH 07 OO -*' f^ CO -*! ^ ^ ''^h^ ^ M II II II II II II ^ o 1 I 1 1 1 1 o o o o o o o'id CD ^ Tji "^j*i ■^n 1 1 1 5^-^ ?St.S o iO O iO o ?5<'«.2fc:^ 5?^ g i> ci oi id 15^ -eg 00 CO -sH^ CO ooo C3 '^ CO 00 §5 ^ 1— 1 1— i 1— 1 tH 1— 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 ^ w CO go O CQxt< CO ^ tH tH T-< 1— 1 It is of great advantage in cleaning a room to be able to raise the top of the desk perpendicularly or nearly so, though this would increase the cost of a ( ( THE ' ' DTSTAi^CE 141 desk 25 to 40 cts. The arrangement is used exten- sively in English colleges. Figure 13 will illustrate the matter. Fig. 13. SCHOOL DESK BY ELSAESSER OF SCHOXAU AT HEIDELBERG, THE TOP RAISED AND THE SEAT PUSHED BACK For keeping the body in the proper position, the horizontal distance between the rear edge of the desk and the front edge of the seat, technically called the "distance", is no less important than the difference discussed above. It must enable the pupil both to stand at his desk and to have the desk immediately in front of him when he sits down to write. In reading and writing, a perpendicular from the rear edge of the desk to the seat should cut the latter in a point as near as possible to the connecting line between the seat bones, though the desk must not be allowed to press in upon the chest of the pupil. To have a subsellium equally 142 SCHOOL DESKS well adapted for standing and sitting, it must be pos- sible to adjust the seat and desk for a " plus or better still, a " minus ' distance. " "zero". h. AC Fig. 14. PLUS DISTANCE C. Fig. 15. ZERO DISTANCE Fig. 16. MINUS DISTANCE Figure 14 gives an illustration of plus distance. If a perpendicular [d c) be dropped from the rear edge {d) of the inclined desk top {d e) upon the prolonga- tion of the seat (a 6), then {h c) will be the plus dis- tance. Zero distance is illustrated by figure 15. The perpendicular {d h) from the top of the desk merely touches the front edge (6) of the seat (a h). If we have a minus distance, as in figure 16, the perpendicu- lar {d c) cuts the plane of the seat (a h) in (c), and the minus distance equals (h c). The Prague medical board requires a plus distance of 8 cm. for the ages six to eight, 9 cm. for eight to eleven, and 10 cm. for eleven to fourteen; whereas THE " DISTAiq"CE " 143 the Vienna expert school desk commission would have 7 cm. for six to eight, 10-10.75 cm. for eight to eleven, 11 cm. for eleven to twelve, 12 cm. for twelve to thir- teen, and 13.5 for children of thirteen to fourteen. The estimates differ still more for the minus distance. Lickroth and Elsaesser make it 3 cm. and Erismann 5 cm. for the ages between six and eighteen. The Vienna expert school-desk commission proposes a minus distance not much greater, namely, 5 cm. for the ages six to eight, 5.5 cm. for eight to ten, 6 cm. for ten to twelve, 7 cm. for twelve to thirteen, and 4.5 cm. for children of fourteen. The Prague medical board pre- cribes, on the other hand, a minus distance of 10 cm. for children from six to fourteen. The chief thing is always to have a minus distance when the pupil is reading or writ- PiG. 17. PUPIL WITH . -r-, .,-. T x -n A PLUS DISTANCE '^^^S' ^ ^r With a zcro and still more SEAT with a plus distance the pupil bends forward to get near enough to his books, as is shown in figure 17. In this way all those injuries to health may arise which were described above in discussing the effects of too small a difference. A book-shelf of suitable width should be placed under the desk. It will not hold the books if it is 144 SCHOOL DESKS too narrow, and it will interfere with the knees of the pupil if it is too broad. Erismann would have its; depth 25 cm. for the ages six to nine, 30 cm. for ten to thirteen, and 35 for fourteen to eighteen. A slight slope downward of the shelf toward the front will keep the books from tumbling into the pupil's lap. The length of the single desk is estimated at from 53 to 56 cm. for the lower classes, 60 cm. for the in- termediate, and from 63 to 65 cm. for the upper. The regulations of Saxony already mentioned require a- length of 56 cm. for all school desks, thus making it possible to arrange desks for pupils of different sizes in a row one behind the other, which cannot be done so successfully if they vary in length. Lickroth also advises an average length of 50 cm., while he fixes it at 50 cm. for the ages six to eight, 53 cm. for eight to ten, 56 cm. for ten to twelve, 60 cm. for twelve to- fourteen, 63 cm. for fourteen to siKteen, and 65 cm. for sixteen to eighteen. Elsaesser similarly increases the length of the desk from 50 cm. for pupils of six to 60 cm. for those of eighteen. How many pupils a single bench should seat is still another question. A circular by the Prussian minis- ter of education prescribes the following: " In all pri- mary preparatory schools (Vorschulen) and in the twa lower classes of the secondary schools, usually 4 to 6> and at the most 8 pupils may be brought together at FOR HOW MANY PUPILS 145 one desk." But when he adds: "All the seats for one desk are in these cases to be united into a single bench, which should be provided with a simple, cer- tain, and durable device for changing the distance be- tween the seat and the desk," we must object, since with a continuous seat the pupils can stand up only together and not singly as school-work demands. The document just cited then continues more cor- rectly: "The rest of the classes in the secondary schools are to be provided with desks for from two to six pupils, each one of which is to have a separate movable seat when the desks are arranged for more than two pupils." We must furthermore keep in mind that double desks can at any time be converted into desks for four, six, etc., by merely placing them end to end. With respect to the attachment of the seats, they may be screwed down to the floor, either singly or to a common sill running along the floor under the seat supports. The latter method is not advisable, because pupils are liable to stumble over the sills, and the cleaning of the class-rooms is interfered with. It is best to arrange the desks according to height, the lower in front and the higher behind, since only in this way can the teacher have a convenient outlook over the class. The end seats should not be too near the wall, since the pupils in them would be exposed to 146 SCHOOL DESKS colds and rheumatism by the excessive loss of heat due to the cold walls. It is not practicable to describe in detail or even to mention all different kinds of school desks, the number of which is already over one hundred and fifty. We limit ourselves rather to a systematic classification of them, giving a closer description only of those which though old are yet in use, or which deserve to be rec- ommended for use in higher institutions from the stand point of modern hygiene. The first group consists of desks with a permanent zero or minus distance — such as those of Fahrner^, Buchner, Varrentrapp, Eettig^ and others. They are double-seated so that a pupil in rising can step out to the right or left. They accordingly require a great deal of room, since there must be a free space between two adjacent desks. They generally have the zero distance, since the pupils find it too difficult to get in- to a seat with minus distance. The objection has, however, been correctly urged against the zero dis- tance that it is convenient neither for sitting nor standing. x4.ll double seats with a fixed distance, whether it be zero or minus, have, moreover, still another disadvant- ^Fahrner, Das Kind und der Schultisch. 1865. ^W. Rettig, Isene Schulbank. Leipzig, 1895, Oscar Schneider. WITH FIXED DISTANCE 147 age. AVith spirited teachers and pupils, the latter sit in these seats as if in position to jump, in order to be able to rise quickly with an answer ; and they are thus either very much bent over, or they have one leg out- side of the seat, which gives rise to a distortion of the spinal column. The scientific commission for the medical affairs of Prussia therefore justly expresses itself as against double desks with fixed distances, since the demand for a variable distance is one of principal importance and only to be compared in the whole field of school hygiene with that for an adequate air space for each pupil. Where the double desks of Fahrner, Buchner, or Varrentrapp are, nevertheless, used in a class-room, the pupils must be made to change places every week so that the bent over position may not become habitual but be counteracted by its opposite. While the desks so far considered have a fixed dis- tance, those of the second group have a distance that can be changed either by moving the desk top or the seat board. The desks of Parow, Cohn, and Hermann^, among others, have movable desk tops. In the Parow desk (figure 18) the whole top is divided lengthwise into two parts, connected by hinges so that when the pupil rises, one can be folded over on the other (c d, figure 1 August Hermann, tJber die zweckmassige Einricht- ung der Schultische. Braunschweig, 1868. 148 SCHOOL DESKS 18). When the movable part (c a) is put down we have the minus distances (e b). Fig. 18. PAROW'S SCHOOL DESK The Parow desk and also the similar ones by Cohn and Hermann favor a correct position of the body not only in standing but also in sitting and writing; never- theless, they have the great inconvenience of making it necessary to remove all books and tablets even if only a single pupil has to rise, since these articles would otherwise be thrown into a heap. The turning of the desk leaf is, besides, likely to make a noise, especially when the hinges get out of order, as is often the case. Finally, the projecting brackets (f g) which support the movable leaf of the desk are likely to injure the pupils, to say nothing of the pinching of fingers in turning the leaf over. An effort has accordingly been made to improve the Parow desk by dividing the top into as many sections MOVABLE TOPS 149 as there are seats and making each one movable by itself. This makes it at best possible for the individual pupil to rise without disturbing his neighbors. But on the other hand, the many leaves still make a great noise, as has been emphatically pointed out by Bend- ziula^, and the durability of the desk has not been increased by adding to the number of hinges. In contrast with Parow, Hermann, and Cohn, Kunze^ endeavors to make the change from plus to minus distance, not by folding the leaf over, but by drawing the top of the desk back. A full view of the desk is given in figure 19. Fig. 19. KUXZE'S SCHOOL DESK ^Albert Bendziula, Zur Schnibankfrage. Berlin, 1893, L. Oehmigke. Cf. Alexander Bennstein, Die Heutige Schnibankfrage. Eine iibersichtliche Zusam- menstellung der bisher bekannten Schulbank systeme nebst Gedanken iiber die Beurteilung des Wertes derselben. 2d ed., Berlin, 1897, Buchhaandlung der deutschen Lehrerzeitung. ^C. H. Schildbach, Die Schnibankfrage und die Kunze'sche Schulbank. 2d. ed. Leipzig, 1872. 150 SCHOOL DESKS It will be seen that the top of each desk can be moved in a frame lying underneath. When the pupil wants to write, he pulls the desk top back to a minus distance of 3 cm. When he rises, the desk top is pushed forward by the upper legs to a plus distance of 8-12 cm., without especial attention on his part. Here it is held fast by a spring or bolt, which makes it pos- sible for the pupil to stand in his place without any difficulty. In contrast with this convenient plus and minus dis- tance we have the disadvantage that the drawing out of the desk top causes a disagreeable squeak. In fact, it is only when the workmanship on them has been especially good, that they move easily in the frames, and remain solidly attached to them when pulled out. As a rule they soon begin to rattle in the grooves, and the writing that has to be done on the unsteady desk is just as inconvenient as it is harmful for the eyes. In new school-rooms which have not yet become thor- oughly dry, it sometimes happens that the desk tops swell and consequently remain immovable with a strong plus or minus distance. ^Nevertheless, Kunze's desk when well made must be said to be one of the best of the older sort. The Vienna school desk, which also belongs to the second group, is noted for the correctness of its dimen- sions. The city council of Vienna appointed a com- mittee of experts consisting of physicians, architects, THE VIEITKA SCHOOL DESK 151 and teachers to bring in propositions for a school desk reform. This committee set up the following require- ments for a prize desk : 1. It must allow pupils to stand up during recita- tions. 2. It must have a continuous rest from sacrum to shoulder, conforming to the curvatue of the spinal column. 3. When the pupils are writing, the seats must have a minus distance. 4. It should make writing and free-hand drawing possible for a reclining position, that is, while the pupil leans against the back-rest. 5. The desk slope is to be as great as possible, at least 15°, but not such as to make the books slide off. 6. When the pupil is sitting, the feet should rest flat on the floor. 7. The change in distance should if possible be made by moving the desk. A table of all the measurements as well as a diagram of the desk to be constructed was added to this list of requirements. The only thing left to be done was to seeure a device for moving the desk top ; and this was done by submitting the matter to competition. The prize was awarded to Schlimp's desk, in which the top is moved backward and forward on parallelo- gram supports, as is shown by the cross section in figure 20. 152 SCHOOL DESKS Fig. 20. SCHLIMP'S SCHOOL DESK The mechanism is, however, very complicated and the desk is consequently expensive both to manufac- ture, and to keep in repair. Moreover, children fre- quently have their clothing or fingers caught, as could be demonstrated in Vienna where more than 23,000 such desks are in use. The latest school desk, by Schenk^ of Bern, illus- trated in figures 21 and 22, must be characterized as in the highest degree original. The desk-top, seat, and foot rest are movable, the first two for each pupil independently of his neighbor, while the same foot rest serves for both pupils at the same desk. The seat can be turned back so as in the first place to facilitate standing and walking between the desk and the seat, and to make it possible to clean the room without moving the seats and so save space. ^ Felix Schenk, Zur Schulbankfrage. Zeitschrift fur Schulgesundheitspflege, 1894, N. 10 p. 529 ff. MOVABLE TOPS 15a Fig. 21. SCHENK'S SCHOOL DESK ARRANGED FOR STANDING Fig. 22. SCHENK'S SCHOOL DESK ARRANGED FOR SITTING 154 SCHOOL DESKS The foot board may be turned on a longitudinal axis 180°, and can thus be placed at two different levels, the higher serving for the small, the lower for the average sized pupils, while the larger ones place their feet on the floor. The most interesting novelty in the Schenk desk is that it can be adjusted for a pupil of any size at once and without trouble. By means of the guiding rod in the back and the curved support in front, the desk is made to sink down as it is pulled toward the pupil, without losing its inclination of 15°. The ad- justment to the individual pupil takes place in this way. The pupil raises the desk-top a little at the front and draws it towards himself till his elbows touch the back-rest, when he lets it down on the box underneath, where it becomes fixed automatically. To make the back-rest and seat serve for all sizes, the former is made so high as to cover the shoulders and the latter so broad as to reach to the back of the knee of the smallest pupils. In the same seat adults would have two-thirds of the back and upper legs supported, which is well enough at least for them. The Schenk desk has unfortunately not yet been sufficiently tested to make it possible for us to speak with certainty of its practicability. We may, never- theless, make a favorable prediction for its future. The school desks now to be described have instead of movable desk-tops movable seats. MOVABLE SEATS 155 In the case of long desks with continuous benches^ ior several pupils this arrangement has the disadvant- age of not allowing a pupil to stand up in them with- out having the other pupils at the same desk rise at the same time. The preference must therefore be given to movable single seats. In this class we have the movable seats of Vogdt and Prausek^, the rotation seat of Van den Esch, the lid seat of Vogel, and the pendular seats of Kaiser, Lickroth, Elsaesser, and Kofctmann. A description will be given of only the last three, since the others are not suitable for higher grade schools. In the case of the normal school desks by Lickroth of Dresden (figure 23), the single seats consist either of a continuous board or of several narrow strips screwed to two triangular frames. Fig. 23. NORMAL SCHOOL DESK OF LICKROTH, DRESDEN ^Hippauf, Eine neue Schulbank. Ostrowo, Selbst- Tcrlag. Of. Eulenbergs Vierteljahrsschrift, Vol. 28, p. 390 ff. 2 Vincenz Prausek, tJber Schulbanke oder Schultische mit Sessel. 2 ed. Wien, 1888. 156 SCHOOL DESKS When the pupil stands up, the whole seat swings back on low centres of rotation from the pressure of the- back of the legs. It makes no noise in striking, since^ ifc falls on a padding of felt. When on the other hand the pupil seats himself, the weight of his body carries- the seat into position. Here, too, there is no noise — or pinching of fingers, since the latter cannot come in- to contact with the striking parts as they are out of reach below. ISTor can the pupils' clothing be caughty since the rear edge of the seat is several centimeters^ below the lower edge of the back-rest. It is best to have the lateral supports of the desk and seat made of iron, not wood. Iron frames facilitate the maintenance of discipline and the oversight of the cleaning by not obstructing the view; they also- make the replacing of injured wooden parts easy, and have shown themselves so durable that the factory will guarantee them for fifteen years. Cast iron is- better than wrought iron, since it does not bend or yield to pressure, while wrought iron vibrates some- what on account of its elasticity. The school desks by Elsaesser of Schonau at Heidel- berg and those by Kottmann of Ohringen in Wiirtem- berg are built on exactly the same principle as those by Lickroth. We can therefore omit the description of them, the more so, since figure 13, page 141, and figure 24 below give a suificiently clear explanation of the Elsaesser and Kottmann desks, respectively. MOVABLE SEATS 157 Fig. 24. SCHOOL DESK BY KOTTMAXX OF OHRIXGEX IX WURTEMBERG The school desk "Columbus" by Eamminger and Stetter of Tauberbischofslieim (Baden), deserves a more minute study, since it does not depend upon any other existing system but upon a peculiar innovation. Fig. 25. THE SCHOOL DESK '' COLUMBUS". RAMMINGER AND STATTER, TAUBERBISCHOFSHEIM 158 SCHOOL DESKS The special feature consists in having the individual seats divided longitudinally into two sections. Th& rear part is hinged to the supporting frame of the seat, and articulates with the front part by means of a strong hemp belt screwed on with iron bands. The^ two parts take a gable-like position when the pupil rises and become level again when he sits down, with- out being touched by the hand in either case. In the first case, we have a positive distance of ten to twelve cm., in the latter, a negative distance of two or three. The low price and the fact that the peculiar seat can be used with any kind of desk is especially noteworthy. The manufactures also supply the patented seat by itself if the other parts are to be constructed by local cabinet makers. It is true loud complaints against the system have been heard from the gymnasium at Heidel- berg; but Wallraff^ and Bendziula (see page 149) speak decidedly in its favor, and we have ourselves heard no adverse criticism on the sample "Columbus" desk placed in one of the schools in Hamburg, but rather^ that it was practical and servicable. It has in late years been repeatedly suggested that even with the proper kind of desk much sitting is ^Gustav Wallraff, Die Schulbank " Columbus" von. Ramminger & Stetter in Tauberbischofsheim (Baden);, Zeitschrift fur Schulgesundheitspflege, 1894, 'No. ly p. 22 n. ADJUSTMENTS FOE STANDING 159 liable to injure the abdominal organs and the circula- tion. Desks have accordingly been proposed which can be arranged for standing as well as sitting. These are hardly necessary for the lower and intermediate classes, since the pupils here rise when questioned, and tumble about vigorously on the play ground during recesses. They are rather to be thought of for the upper classes ; yet we must remember that long continued standing not only fatigues both mind and body but may also interfere with the lungs and heart, since it is rather natural to lean forward on the desk. One of the best of these desks is a pattern by Kott- man. Figures 26 and 27 give an illustration of it. Fig. 26. KOTTMANX'S DESK FOR SITTING AND STANDING, ARRANGED FOR SITTING Fig. 2T. .KOTTMANN'S DESK AR] RANGED FOR STANDING The change from the sitting to the standing desk is made by merely taking hold of the top and turning it 160 SCHOOL DESKS over; and the solidity of the desk is not in the least af- fected by this arrangement. The iron supports project- ing above the desk when it is arranged for sitting are, however, not so desirable, since pupils are liable to knock against them. On the whole, the most suitable desks for higher grade schools are the more recent patterns by Lickroth, Elsaesser, Kottmann, and Eamminger and Stetter, although the older desks of Kunze and Parow are permissible. Whatever the desks selected, there should be three different sizes in each room. The height of the pupil for which it is intended should be marked on each desk. For pupils are to be seated according to height, and not according to their ability in extempore Latin recitations or according to any other insignificant cir- cumstance. The seating, which is to be otherwise permanent, should be rearranged twice a year for the upper and lower, and three times a year for the inter- mediate classes, on account of the more rapid growth of the latter. It should be done preferably by the principal, other- wise by the head teacher. The necessary measure- ments can be made very quickly as follows: Two sheets of paper are fastened immediately above one another on the class-room door so that the lower will correspond in height with that of the shorter, the up- BLACKBOAKDS 161 per with that of the taller pupils. If an individual pupil is now made to stand straight with his back against the door without removing his shoes and a book is placed horizontally over his head, it only re- mains to draw a line under the lower edge of the book and write the pupil's name near it. The distance of this mark from the lower edge of the paper added to the distance of the latter from the floor gives the height of the pupil. In the assignment of seats, which then takes place, defects of sight and hearing as well as of speech should of course be taken into account, but only in so far as they cannot be cured by medical treatment. Eor instance, near-sighted pupils hardly ever find a front seat absolutely necessary, but may as well enjoy the comfort of a desk suited to their height, since with the proper glasses they can read what is written on the blackboard at greater distances. Blackboaeds Not to omit one of the important pieces of furniture of a school-room, we must now consider blackboards. These may be made of wood, slate, glass, or cloth. If made of wood, this must be hard, free from k«iots, smooth, and thoroughly dry. In case slate is used, we must see that it is black enough. Of glass blackboards, those which are black throughout are to be preferred 162 BLACKBOAEDS to those made of ordinary ground glass and painted black on the outside. Cloth blackboards are light and easily manipulated, and they help to reduce the amount of chalk dust, which is so injurious; but they must be stretched very tight to make it possible to write well and conveniently on them. To make the white letters stand out in the sharpest possible contrast with the background, the latter must be deep black, but with a dull finish, since a shining board is dazzling. After it has been washed off with a wet eraser, it should be properly dried, both for the reason last given above and because otherwise chalk marks can not be seen on it. Since the paint wears away gradually, it is well not to wait too long before putting on another coat. The slate-color made by H. Eeinhold of Hamburg can be recommended for this purpose, since it is a deep black and dries so rapidly that all the boards in a school with many rooms could be painted one day and be used the next. Eed lines, such as those for musi- cal notes, had better not be painted on the board but be inlaid with some sort of a cement to prevent them from being rubbed off. To make it possible to bring the blackboard into the best light and into the proper position with respect to the eyes of the pupil we may use a roller frame or a movable easel. Blackboards attached to the walls EOLLER FRAMES 163 are not so useful. The roller frame is usually so arranged that the blackboard can be turned on an horizontal axis. (See figure 28.) Fig. 28. BLACKBOARD WITH ROLLER FRAME This makes it possible not only to giye it any inclina- 164 BLACKBOARDS tion we please, but also to turn it over so that the other side may be used. Eoller frames sometimes haye blackboards mounted in grooves with a counterpoise, so that they can be pulled up and down. Even with easels (see figure 29) they can be placed higher and lower if the two front supports have a number of holes for wooden pegs. Fig. 29. EASEL FOR BLACKBOARD EASELS AiiTD MAP-HOLDEES 165 Fig. 30. THE SAME USED AS A MAP-HOLDER If an adjustable holder in the shape of a | is placed on top of a roller frame or an easel (see figure 30), maps and pictures may be hung on it, and a special map-holder, such as those made by Jungels, Elsaesser, and Lickroth can be omitted. Figures 31 and 32 show one of the latter both opened and closed. 166 BLACKAOARDS Pig. 31. MAP-HOLDER BY LICKROTH, CLOSED CRAYON 167 Fig. 32. MAP-HOLDEK BY LICKROTH, OPEN A good grade of purified chalk should be used in 168 BLACKBOAKDS writing on the blackboard ; and it had better be kept in a damp place when not needed. The kind gener- ally employed is the so-called Champagne chalk, which can be bought anywhere under the name of school- chalk. As regards colors, the eye prefers a pale yel- low to a dazzling white, just as we prefer to write on yellowish rather than pure white paper. The red, yellow, and green crayons often used in science work to make drawings on the board more definite, should be handled with especial care^ These colors are produced by the aid of litharge, red lead, chrome yellow, and eyen arsenic and sulphite of mercury; and since the colored chalk marks are often rubbed off with a dry eraser, there is danger of poison- ing by dust containing lead chromium, arsenic, and mercury. Poisonous chalk and even the common kind had better be used with Soennecken's chalk holder. This is a round or square nickel plated tube in which a piece of chalk is caught fast by the push- ing forward of a ring as in a crayon holder. ]^ot only can the fingers and clothing be kept clean in this way; but the chalk can be used up to the last scrap. Wet sponges or cloths are usually employed as eras- ers. The latter are cheaper, easier to clean, and do not have the offensive odor almost always attached to wet sponges. If the latter are used nevertheless, they should be large, and as fine and compact as possible. ERASERS 169 Before using a new sponge, it should be freed from sand, pressed together, and cut in two ; and erasures should be made only with the cut side of each half. Since this is more compact and durable than the sur- face, it does not disintegrate so rapidly and saves from 40 to 50 per cent in wear, to say nothing of the hygienic advantage. CHAPTEE VII The Hygiei^e of the ]N"ekyous System The purpose of the hygiene of the school-room, which we have been discussing up to this point, is in the last analysis to serve the personal hygiene of the pupil ; and to this we now turn our attention, begin- ning with the hygiene of the nervous system. The most important part of the latter is the brain, the acropolis of the human mind. It is the principal centre in the youthful organism for all the activities connected with education. The attempt has therefore been made at all times to find some measure of its capabilities. At first the assumption was made that the cubic con- tents of the skull, or what is nearly the same, the weight of the brain would serve this purpose. At any rate, the nations of Europe come first with a skull capacity of 1,580 ccm., then the Chinese with 1,510 ccm., and next the New Caledonians, Tasmanians, Negroes, Australians, and last of all the Nubians with 1,330 ccm. Too much significance must, however, not be at- tached to these figures. Men of eminent ability have not always had heavy but sometimes unusually light brains. Cuvier, Beethoven, and Byron, it is true, had massive heads with a capacity of over 1,800 ccm., (170) THE BEAIN 171 and Kant one of 1,740 ccm., but the brains of Dante and Liebig weighed less than those of many Austra- lian negroes, and Gambetta's barely reached 1,100 grams. Even in the case of the central nervous sys- tem, the body plays a part of no less importance than the soul. JSTevertheless, with respect to the weight of the brain, it will ever be a significant fact that in compari- son with the weight of the body and the other organs its weight is relatively much higher during the entire period of youth than at other times. According to EischoS it weighs 1,147 g. at six, 1,201 g. at seven, 1,286 at twelve, 1,336 g. at fourteen, and 1,414 at the age of fifteen. Hence the weight of the brain does not increase in the same proportion as the weight of the body, but becomes relatively less, attaining, how- ever, a constant relation to the latter from the eigh- teenth to the twentieth year. Since the mental capacity of a pupil can not be estimated by his cranial measurements, one of the most prominent psychiatrists, Arndt, has suggested that it varies with the amount of grey matter in the cortex of the brain. Gratiolet found that the brain of a typical Bushwoman had few convolutions, and that these were very simple and undeveloped. The brain of a Voltaire and a Beethoven, on the other hand, could be distinguished from a thousand others by its innumerable convolutions, and in the case of Gauss, Wagner found manifold divisions even in the cen- 172 THE KERVOUS SYSTEM tral gyri. Helmholtz's brain was also remarkable for the large number of convolutions, separated from each other by deep penetrating fissures. On the other hand, Hyrtl assures us that he has found an increase- in the number of convolutions, and a considerable deep- ening of the fissures even in the last stages of imbe- cility. The further theory of Arndt, that the character of the mental processes depends upon the differentiation of the nervous elements, is rather more probable. If the axis cylinder in the middle of the nerve is not sufficiently developed, or separated from its environ- ment, it will lose its function the sooner, and further- more transmit stimuli to its neighbors. The rapid exhaustion, and tendency toward all sorts of sympa- thetic sensations and movements, such as are observed in children and individuals with arrested develop- ment, is a natural consequence. The result would be- the same if the medullary sheaths of the nerves were not developed, as they are especially found not to be^ in the post mortem examination of those who in life^ suffered from different kinds of nervous diseases. These views of Arndt are, however, merely hypotheses ;. and the words of Fantoni spoken two hundred years- ago about the brain will still be applicable for many a. year: " Obscura textura, obscuriores morbi, functiones. obscurissmae." The physiological experiments upon the working capacity of children's brains rest upon a much firmer EFFECT OF STUDY • 173 "basis. The first of these were made by Sikorsky i. His results were obtained from school children, and include 1,500 dictation tests with 40,000 letters. The principal difference obseryed between the work done in the morning and that done after four to five hours of study and recitation was an increase of 33 fo in the -average number of mJ stakes. The method of Sikorsky was followed by Burgerstein^ . Be had school children twelve to thirteen years of age perform examples in addition and multiplication one after the other, in four periods of ten minutes each, separated by five minute intermissions, the examples used in each period being entirely equivalent in quantity and quality. It was found, in the first place, that the number of single additions and multiplica- ^ Sikorsky, Sur les effets de la Lassitude provoquee par les travaux intellectuels chez les enfants de 1' age scolaire. Annales d' hygiene publique, 1879, Vol. ii, p. 458. ^Leo Burgerstein, Die Arbeitskurve einer Schulst- Tinde. Zeitschrift fiir Schulgesundheitspflege, 1891, 1^0. 9, p. 543 ff. and No. 10, p. 607 f[. Marion E. Holmes, The Fatigue of a School Hour. The Peda- gogical Seminary, edited by G. Stanley Hall, 1895, Oct., Vol. iii, No. 2, p. 213-234. H. Ebbinghaus, tJber eine neue Methode Zur Priifung geistiger Fahig- teiten und ihre Anwendung bei Schulkindern. Ham- burg und Leipzig, 1897, Leop. Voss. / 174 THE N^EEVOUS SYSTEM tions increased from the first to the second period by about 4,000, from the second to the third by 3,000, and from the third to the fourth again by 4,000. The absolute increase in the amount of work done was,, therefore, least from the second to the third period. The number of errors increased correspondingly from the first to the second period by 441, from the second, to the third by 719, and from the third to the fourth, by 349 ; that is, the deterioration in the quality of the^ work was greatest from the second to the third period. Similar results are obtained by counting the number of corrections that occured. These increased from the first to the second period by 207, from the second to the third by 166, from the third to the fourth by 225. The increase in the corrections, — that is, the timely recognition of a mistake in the work, — was accordingly least from the second to the third periods. All this goes to show that in the third quarter of an hour boys of this age suffer a considerable loss in their ability to apply themselves seriously to a task upon which they have already labored at other times. It seems as if there were a relaxation of mental tension and a weakening of the power of concentration, and as if the pupil wanted to rest to enable him to begin again with renewed energy in the fourth period. The work of Laser ^ is connected with that of Bur- ^Hugo Laser, Uber geistige Ermiidung bein Schul- unterrichte. Zeitschrift fiir Schulgesundheitspflege,, 1894, No. 1, p. 2 ff. EFFECT OF STUDY 175 gerstein. He considers it self-evident that the minds of children would finally get fatigued with so much counting inside of one hour. Aside from sight reci- tations in foreign languages and similar tests, there is surely nothing so continuously monotonous in all school work as in Burgerstein's experiment. He ad- mits, himself, that a school period usually has more variety than was found in his method. Laser accord- ingly preferred to study not the fatigue from a solid hour's work, interrupted only by brief pauses; but rather that arising from the customary five hours of instruction in the morning. With this in view, he had the pupils work examples similar to those of Burgerstein at the beginning of each of the five hours, allowing, as he did, ten minutes for the exercise. He summarizes his results in the following statements : 1. The number of single additions and multiplica- tions, and so the ability to work, was least in the first hour. 2. The amount of work increases up to the third or fourth hour, but diminishes in the fourth or fifth respectively. 3. The number of errors increases up to the fourth but is less in the fifth hour. 4. The number of corrections increases up to the fifth hour. 176 THE NERYOUS SYSTEM 5. The number making no mistakes decreases from the first to the fifth hour. Hopfner^ has obtained results analogous to those of Burgerstein and Laser. His observations were taken on a class of 46 boys of the average age of nine. In order to test their fitness for promotion they were required to write about two hours from a dictation, the material for which was nineteen sentences prepared by the principal of the school. The following table shows what errors were made as the work progressed. Number of sentence Number of letters written by all the pupils Total number of errors Per cent of errors 1 21x46- 966 9 11 7 13 10 36 28 39 32 29 41 31 66 32 63 55 56 54 119 0.936 2 26x46—1196 0.924 3 19X46— 874 0.805 4 38x46—1748 0.641 5 32x46-1472 0.680 6 35x46-1610 2.232 7 30x46 — 1380 2.044 8 35x46-1610 2.418 9 26x46-1196 2.688 10 23x46—1058 2.755 11 24x46-1104 3.731 13 35x46—1610 1.922 13 14 30X46=1380 26x36—1196 4.818 2.688 15 40x46-1840 3.402 16 29x46—1334 4.125 17 26x46 — 1196 4.704 18 47x46-2162 2.592 19 40x46—1840 6 426 It will be seen that in the beginning the errors ^Ludwig Hopfner, Uber die geistige Ermiidung von Schulkindern. Inauguraldissertation. Hamburg und Leipzig, 1893, Leop. Voss. EFFECT OF STUDY 177 amount to about one per cent, and diminished steadily to six-tenths of one per cent in the fourth sentence. The increase of errors which then takes place is par- ticularly marked from the fifth to the sixth sentence. This increase continues up to the last sentence, though the numbers do not make so regular a series as at first. We find here, in the first place, a confirmation of Burgerstein's statement that there is a marked in- crease in the fatigue at the end of the first half hour, since there is a sudden jump in the per cent of error for the sixth sentence, which was written after about half an hour's work. If we omit the first four sen- tences, the per cent of error increases, moreover, with the duration of the work, being 0.9 fo at first, and 6.4: fc Sit the end. 'Not less interesting are the pedagogical psychomet- ric studies which Keller made on a boy fourteen years of age. He starts with the hypothesis that fatigue is the result of a chemical process which influences the composition of the blood. Thus it will not merely affect the organs by whose activity it was produced but also, being of a general character, the parts that have been at rest. Mental fatigue may accordingly be indicated by the muscular fatigue curve. To secure the latter, Keller made use of the Mosso Ergograph^. ^A. Mosso, Die Ermiidung. Aus dem Italienischen libersetzt von F. Glinzer. Leipzig, 1892, S. Hirzel. 178 THE NERYOUS SYSTEM This consists of two parts : a device for holding the forearm, hand, and fingers, with the exception of the middle finger, and a recording mechanism illustrated in figure 33, which marks the extent of the contrac- tions of this finger upon a slowly revolving drum cov- .ered with smoked paper. Fig. 33. RECORDING APPARATUS FOR THE MOSSO ERGOGAPH . The pillars, M and L, of the recording apparatus are mounted on a long iron plate E. They are forked at the top and hold in place two steel rods which serve as the track for the carriage. This slides on the rods right and left, hearing the metal style R with a goose quill point, which writes on the smoked paper of the drum. The carriage N has two hooks, to one of which is attached the card P, ending in a leather ring EFFECT OF STUDY 179 C; to the other, the cord 0, which goes over the wheel V, and ends in the 3 kg. weight S. The leather ring C is placed on the third joint of the pupil's middle finger and he is requested to bend his finger to the utmost and relax it, alternately, as many times as he can in time with the beats of a metronome. The weight S is moved up and down, and the carriage JST with the style E, right and left, describing as it does so a figure something like 34 below, whose upper out line is called the curve of fatigue. (\0(\ (\ Fig. 34. ERGOGRAPHIC FATIGUE CURVE If the heights of the separate contractions are meas- ured and added together into meters, the total amount of work done in kg. meters can be obtained by multi- plying this sum by the weight S, in kilograms. In this manner Keller found that mental work was at- 180 THE iN^ERVOUS SYSTEM first stimulating, not fatiguing, since after fifty minutes of study the amount of work done by the muscles of the pupil experimented upon was double what it was at first. The ability to work then begins to diminish, and a condition of fatigue shows itself very clearly in spite of a rest of more than an hour. It was also ascertained that continuous mental labor, though of only short duration, .produced a greater degree of fatigue, and that more quickly, than when the same amount of work was interrupted by short periods of rest. As was to be expected, it was also shown that the harder the mental work the more quickly does fatigue set in. In reading German the pupil required 0.3515 seconds for recognizing and naming a word, and 0.184 seconds for a syllable. The time for the similar processes with Latin was 54 ^ higher for the word, and 30 fo for the syllables. The curve of fatigue in reading Latin consequently reached its greatest height much sooner and fell off more abruptly. Singing and gymnastics appear, moreover, to be rather taxing and capable of reducing the work- ing power of the brain considerably. . Kemsies^ has, also, made investigations with the Mosso Ergograph for the same purpose as Keller. He 1 Ferdinand Kemsies, Zur Frage der Uberbiirdung unserer Schuljugend. Deutsche medizinische Woch- enschrift, 1896 und Keue Bahnen, 1897. EFFECT OF STUDY 181 used the instrument almost daily for four months in testing at all times of day the condition of a number of the pupils of the different classes of the fifth real school and one other school in Berlin. The records obtained give evidence as to the physical effects of the preceding lessons. Tests were also made on holi- days, to establish the difference in the results on these and the regular school days. Attentive and industri- ous boys were selected for the experiment, since the total effect of the school work could be expected to show itself in them. From this investigation, it became evident, in the first place, that a diminution in muscular energy — or, what means the same thing, fatigue of mind and body, — set m after only a brief period of mental labor. It disappears in one or two hours if a change is made in the work, especially if the change is from a hard to an easy subject. Severe fatigue comes on with great reg- ularity in the periods of mathematics and gymnastics, ^ while, on the other hand, recuperation seems to take place during the periods for history, geography, and nature study. Modern languages occupy, with respect ,^ to fatiguing power, a middle place. Singing and drawing, moreover, make rather great demands on those who do well in these branches. We must now discriminate between temporary de- pression and depressions of long duration, which dis- < 182 THE KERYOUS SYSTEM appear only in the time free from school work, or which last for days and weeks. The latter take place whenever the organism has lost its power of resistance, either from lack of sleep, food, or sufficient exercise in the open air, or from overwork or sickness. The re- sponsibility rests here mainly with the home ; but the school is also implicated in so far as it gives occasion for excessive effort. Without its cooperation depres- sions of such long standing would perhaps not occur, and would, at any rate, be more readily cured. Ac- cording to experiments made by Kemsies on himself, the remedies for such depression are above all sufficient food, plenty of sleep, baths, and out-door rambles. The experiments of Januschke were made with still more regard for the practical needs of school life. His conclusions, in the first place, confirm those of Burgerstein. In tabulating the results of an inci- dental mathematical exercise in Class II, a distinct retrogression in ability was observed after the first three-fourths of an hour. The twenty-nine pupils obtained in the four successive quarters of an hour 493, 576, 566, 511 results, respectively. We see that the work in the first quarter of an hour was the least, evidently on account of deficient application and con- centration ; that it increased considerably in the second, began to decrease in the third, and was distinctly less in the fourth. EFFECT OF STUDY 183 It was, furthermore, possible to show here again what different demands are made upon mental energy by different subjects. The average time which a pupil of medium ability required to learn forty lines in the following text-books was for the principles of the Catholic religion. Class I, 5Q minutes. Class II 40 minutes, Class V and YI 36 minutes; for geography 40 minutes, for secular and Biblical history 20 minutes, for zoology. Class I and V, only ten minutes. The time for learning a poem was found to be three to four times as long as that for learning a section in history with just as many words. To memorize a French voca- ble required on an average 0.8 minutes. This figure holds good up to 24 terms. Trained and gifted pupils took only half this time, while the less gifted and trained took longer. The influence of practice or habituation was also very noticeable in other respects. Twenty-four pupils, for instance, committed half or less than half of a poem, while in the same time thirteen committed more than half or all. This is to be explained by the fact that those who learned slowly required more time to concentrate their minds than those who learned rapidly. The time for memorizing the successive stanzas of a poem became gradually shorter for the former, while it re- mained about the same from the first for the latter. Associated words were naturally more readily re- 184 THE KEEVOUS SYSTEM tained than those that were disconnected. Of twelve connected and twelve disconnected words, the pupils remembered 97 and 59 per cent respectively. In the case of sentences from the text-books which were read by the pupils in order to be reproduced, it was found that those which ^were short and logically con- nected were apprehended the best ; and that associated ideas, like subject and predicate, predicate and object, attribute and substantive, were always noted and re- produced in their relation. How very important the inner organization of the material is for both appre- hension and remembering, and how seriously progress in knowledge is retarded by any gap in the same, has of course already been recognized. To determine the best method of memorizing, series of twelve unconnected words were presented to the pupils so that the first series was perceived only by ear, the second was read silently by sight from the board, the third was read aloud, and the fourth was written from hearing. In the first case, they retained 58 ^, in the second 61 ^, in the third 64 ^, and in the fourth 76 io. According to this, committing to memory is most difficult by hearing alone, easier by sight, still easier by sight and hearing, and easiest of all 'by writ- ing what is heard. Two test series were used to ascertain whether or not gymnastics would be a means of recreation from fatigue. These consisted of fifteen numbers between EFFECT OF STUDY 185 one and thirty, and were read to be memorized in class II and III, one before and one after the exercise. In Class III 3 ^^, in Class II 7 fo more was retained after the exercise. These results contradicted those of Keller and Kemsies, but are supported by the state- ment of Schiller that the pupils of the gymnasium at Giessen show they are mentally refreshed by the gym- nastics at recess. Griesbach^ has employed a new method of measur- ing mental fatigue in school children, xiccording to his observations, brain fatigue diminishes the sensibility of the skin. To determine the amount of this diminu- tion he employed the method of E. H. Weber, who placed blunted compass points on the skin and ascer- tained how near these could be moved toward one an- other and yet be felt as two distinct points. The smaller the distance between the points still felt as two, the greater the discriminative ability. Gries- bach's aesthesiometer^, of which a sketch is given in figure 35, serves the same purpose as Weber's com- passes. ^H. Griesbach, Energetik und Hygiene des ISTerven systems in der Schule. Miinchen und Leipsig, 1895, R. Oldenbourg. — Theodore A^annod, La fatigue Intel- lectuelle et son influence sur la sensibilile cutanee. These inaugurale — Geneve, 1896, Key et Malavallon. ^H. Griesbach, Ein neues Aesthesiometer. Bonn, 1897, Em. Strauss. 186 THE ]!q^ERYOUS SYSTEM ^' i^ Fig. 35. GRTESBACH'S AESTHESIOMETER Two metal tubes A and B are attached to a metal scale C in such a way that A remains stationary, and B is movable. The tubes are screwed fast to the plates D and E, which are supplied with the rings F and Gr respectively. The plate E has an opening for the scale C. The thumb and fore-finger of the right hand are placed in E and G, and the middle finger rests on the projection H. In each tube is a pointed metal shaft I and K, pushed outward by a spring. If one desires to use blunt instead of sharp points it is only necessary to push the cap L over the shafts. Small indicators in the slit at N, and at a corresponding point in the other tube, opposite A, as shown by dots, show the pressure on the points in gramms. Griesbach tested with both sharp and blunt points EFFECT OF STUDY 187 the following localities: the forehead, the zygomatic arch, the tip of the nose, the red edge of the lower lip, and the ball of the thumb of the right hand. Those subjected to the experiments were the pupils of the superior real-school, the upper classes of the gymnasium at Miilhausen, i. E. ; and also other persons, such as teachers and a superior school councillor. Records of the normal sensibility of the skin were obtained on Sundays and holidays, and those of the influence of work, after each recitation period. In the case of the pupils of the superior real-school, some records were incidentally secured after the oral and written examination for the one year's military service. One inference from this study is that the beginning of instruction in summer at 7 o'clock is not to be rec- ommended. Pupils of the middle and higher classes especially showed at this hour depressed sensitiveness. This corresponds with L. Wagner's ^ observation that the large figures which he obtained with the aesthesiometer at the beginning were succeeded by smaller ones in the course of the forenoon. The cause of this phenomenon is in all probability insufficient sleep, and the pupils from a distance who were com- ^Ludwig Wagner, Unterricht und Ermiidung. Er- miidungs'messungen an Schiilern des neuen Gymnasi- ums in Darmstadt. Berlin, 1898, Reuther und Eeichard. 188 THE NERYOUS SYSTEM pelled to rise early showed the greatest degree of fatigue. Different subjects have different powers of inducing fatigue, the ancient languages, history, and mathe- matics having the greater and more marked effects, especially if memory work is insisted upon. Wagner states that the study of mathematics caused a depres- sion a third greater than that produced by the study of religion and drawing. According to Griesbach the intermissions between lessons are often too short, since they do not suffice for the restoration of the sensitiveness of the skin to its normal degree. The least sensitiveness was often found during the afternoon recitations, the two hour recess from twelve to two not affording enough recrea- tion. Wagner, also, makes the assertion that after- noon work is particularly injurious to the brain. CHAPTER VIII DAILY PEOGEAMME The above psychological experiments give us, in the first place, a number of principles for the arrangement of the daily programme. Sikorsky and Laser found that the quality of the work deteriorated up to the fifth and fourth hours respectively; hence difiicult subjects which particularly tax the powers of abstrac- tion should be placed at the beginning. Ancient and modern languages and mathematics belong in this group. Whether it is wise to put these subjects in the very first period, must, to be sure, be considered somewhat doubtful on account of the statements of Burgerstein and Laser, in whose experiments the amount of work done was least in the first hour, that is, in the first quarter of an hour. If all the abstract studies can- not be given a place in the first hours of the day, the next best time will be that directly after the long recess. Examinations of every kind, such as those for pro- motions, are to be treated like the class of subjects just described. They also should therefore be given in the first hours of the day, and should not be massed together on the same day. (189) 190 DAILY PROGRAMME While foreign languages and mathematics bring the reasoning faculties especially into play, religion, his- tory, and the mother tongue apply more to the feel- ings and the will. Other subjects, again, like geogra- phy, when this does not consist of a dry recital of names, appeal to pupils by reason of the interesting and easily comprehensible material they present. All these subjects should be given the second place on the programme. The scientific courses which have numerous experi- ments and demonstrations and bring observation and perception prominently into play should be next. Manual training, and other arts like writing, drawing,, singing, gymnastics, etc., are to be reserved for the> last place. To be sure, teachers of gymnastics demand that exercises with apparatus should come earlier; but, when this happens, pupils are often unable to write the hour succeeding on account of the previous strain orn the muscles of the arm. It must not be forgotten that these hygienic princi- ples cannot always be put into practice. In the first place, the principal may be hindred in arranging the programme by the small number of teachers at his disposal. He must endeavor to make their hours of labor as nearly consecutive as possible, since intermedi- ate vacant periods cannot be put to much use. And,, finally, there are some subjects like singing, drawing,, ARRAI^TGEMEKT OF SUBJECTS 191 and gymnastics, for which there is but a single room ; and this cannot be used at the same time by several classes. If the daily programme is to be so arranged as to make the different mental activities of the pupils re- lieve one another, this must also be realized within each single hour. Keller has shown that continuous work in one direction is more depressing than the same amount of work when interrupted by brief peri- ods of rest. Change from one kind of mental activity to another affords the same relief as the latter. Think- ing for a long time, especially on the same topic, is very fatiguing. But if the teacher also appeals to the feelings and seeks to mould the will of his pupil she can thereby avoid producing one-sided cerebral over-pressure. '' A monotonous drill," as Schiller truly observes, " if continued for a long time, is especially dangerous, since ideas or groups of ideas soon disappear from the minds of some of the pupils if they are not stimulated by the novelty or the importance of the contents. Certain injury can only be avoided by having the fun- damental activities, perception thought, and practice exercised in suitable alternation." He goes on to explain that the proper employment of lectures, demonstrations, and conversations, is the best way to avoid that monotony which is sure to lead 192 DAILY PKOGEAMME to fatigue. The demons trational or illustrative method deserves special emphasis, since its use in the human- istic studies is not yet vs^hat it might be. To be sure, the class-rooms and corridors were never decorated so much as now with statues, pictures, and photographs of classical antiquity. A Eoman soldier in full armor or a model of Caesar's bridge across the Ehine can also now and then be found, IN'evertheless, we can say that the excellent pictures we have of the life of an- tiquity should be used much more than they are; and that archeological, historical, and geographical collec- tions for higher schools should be begun even if only on a modest scale. But, however, much the labor of learning may be lightened, pupils will nevertheless in the end experi- ence a depression in ability to work. This sets in, according to the experiments of Januschke, Hopfner, and Burgerstein after about three-fourths of an hour. The length of a lesson should not very much exceed this amount ; in fact, for the first three years it may better be less. What it means to attend to a subject for forty to fifty minutes, with complete absorption, we can know from our own experience in listening to an orator who has held us spell-bound for three-quarters of an hour. Even a person accustomed to brain work will feel in such a case somewhat tired. Pupils from six SHORT PEEIODS 193 to nine experience this brain weariness much earlier. The proposition to instruct the younger children, including those in primary preparatory schools, in half hour rather than hour periods should be carefully observed. Excellent results have been attained with this plan in Frankfurt a. M. More was done in six half hour lessons than in four full hour lessons in number work, and an equivalent amount was done in religious instruction. This plan can be carried out only when the preparatory rooms are so far away from the rest that the pupils will not disturb each other on account of the lack of correspondence in the recesses. With regard to recesses, the Elsass-Lothringer ordi- nance of 1882 required that they should in general be ten minutes long, except between the second and third ^ hours in the morning, when fifteen minutes shoald be allowed. For Hessen-Darmstadt, a decree of May 25, 1883, lays down the rule that the intermission between ^ lessons in all classes in the secondary schools shall be fifteen minutes. The Prussian medical commission advocates in its recommendation of Dec. 19, 1883, the same plan for primary preparatory schools and the lower classes of the secondary schools, while it considers a shorter time sufficient for the upper classes. By reason of this advice, the Prussian ministry of education on Nov. 10, 1884, ordered that the total time given to intermissions should be not less - 194 DAILY PROGRAMME than 40 nor more than 45 minutes, whether the school had two sessions with four hours in the morning and two in the afternoon, or a single session of five hours. On days when the forenoon work is limited to three hours, the free time must be shortened correspondingly. Finally, a ministerial decree gave the Bavarian second- ary schools, in the spring of 1891, a recess of ten min- utes after each lesson. The above figures for the duration of recesses have, however, under certain circumstances been reduced. Thus the Prussian cultus-minister has given permission for the shortening of the intermission between the two afternoon hours to the time necessary for changing classes, as a compensation for closing the schools a quarter of an hour earlier in places where this is necessary in winter on account of the absence or inadequacy of the means for artificial lighting. Although this is regrettable, the example of Baden is still more so, when it seeks to obviate the difficulties of arranging the programme for the short days of the winter months by limiting all recesses. Kraeplin^ not only rejects all such expedients, but ^Emil Kraeplin, Uber geistige Arbeit. Jena, 1894, Gust. Fischer. — Gustav Richter, Unterricht und geistige Ermiidung. Eine schulmannische Wiirdigung der Schrift E. Kraeplins " tJber geistige Arbeit.'* Halle a. S., 1895, Buchhandlung des Waisenhauses. RECESSES 195 demands that recesses, to fulfill their purpose, should not only be considerably longer than they generally are, but should follow one another at shorter intervals and increase in length throughout the school day. But as long as we do not have purely ideal and continuously attentive pupils to deal with, the programme for rest. and work proposed by Hakonson-Hansens deserves tha preference : 8.00-8.50 recitations. 8.50-9.00 rest, 10 minutes. 9.00-9.50 recitations. 9-50-10.00 rest, 10 minutes. 10.00-10.50 recitations. 10.50-11.10 long recess for lunch, 20 minutes. 11.10-12.00 recitations. 12.00-12.10 rest, 10 minutes. 12.10-1.00 rest, 10 minutes. 1.00-1.10 rest, 10 minutes. 1.10-2.00 recitations. The use made of the recess is still more important than its length. Above all it must not be employed for studying, since its primary purpose is to give the mind rest. Pupils are, nevertheless, often seen mem- orizing or preparing for the next hour at recess. This usually happens when they have not been sufficiently industrious at home. As it is as hard to study on an empty as on a full stomach, opportunity for eating lunch should also be 196 DAILY PEOGRAMME given at intermissions. The time for this should not be too short, since the pupils will otherwise eat too little, or else not masticate their food sufficiently. In the latter case, the food particles are too large for digestion, and besides are not properly mixed with saliva in chewing, and catarrh of the stomach may be produced. The arrangement in some gymnasia and real-gym- nasia for supplying the pupils in cold weather with warm milk is strongly to be recommended. This must not, however, come from consumptive cows, since it might then communicate tuberculosis. In any case, there must be a supply of drinking water, hygeni- cally unobjectionable. The disproportion between the activity of mind and body in school work can best be adjusted by movement in the open air, which at the same time has a stimulat- ing effect upon the brain. For this purpose there must be carefully arranged and well drained play grounds, covered with rather coarse gravel. They should be sprinkled with water in the summer. In all kinds of bad weather and in very high or very low temperatures, well ventilated gymnastic halls and corridors are the best substitutes for play grounds, if a part of the latter is not roofed over with glass, as is often done in France. Though we agree with Januschke and others that RECESSES 197 exercise is a means of recreation from mental labor, we are, nevertheless, not certain that gymnastics should be allowed in the intermissions. Since this ought not to be undertaken without supervision, it would encroach upon the time of the teacher of gym- nastics and the head gymnast. For the weak and nerv- ous, it is, moreover too violent recreation, and is liable to lead to headache and great agitation in the follow- ing period. On the other hand, exercises that children delight in and every kind of game should be allowed; yelling even ought not be put down too scrupulously, since it is admirable gymnastics for the lungs. In general, pupils will find the more recreation in the recesses, the more what they do or do not do has the impress of freedom and spontaneity. In discussing recesses, the question of divided or undivided school sessions must also be considered, in- asmuch as with a divided session there is more inter- mission in the school work. The question is not to be settled wholly according to the wishes of the parents, as these are likely to be very different. When a vote was taken in Frankfurt a. M. to ascertain the prefer- ences of the families interested in a number of boys' schools, 1,603 were for, and 1,268, against the single session. The matter must be looked at also from some general, hygienic, pedagogical, and didactic points of view. / 198 DAILY PEOGEAMME From the hygienic side it cannot be denied that in five or six hours of recitations in the morning even with adequate intermissions a pupil's mental receptivity will diminish; and that he is liable to be overworked. But is this diminution of ability greater in the last hours of the single session than in the two hours in the after- noon ? When a meal is eaten between twelve and one o'clock and recitations begin at two, digestion is not complete till about the close of school. As a conse- quence, the pupils are sleepy in the first and anxious to move about in the second of the two afternoon periods. If a part of one's energy has to be used for bodily functions, the stream of thought is obstructed, and mental processes take a long time in forming. On the other hand, digestion increases the temperature of the body and leads to the formation of more blood, there- by stimulating the organs of motion. The rest given by the two hours noon recess is, therefore, more than neutralized, and the last hours of the single session are to be preferred to the afternoon periods, particu- larly as Griesbach and Wagner have found that pupils show evidence of greater fatigue in the afternoon. Another advantage of the single session is that a school period from nine to two or three occupies the only time of day in the winter months from November to February when natural iliumination is favorable. From eight to nine in the morning, or three to four in the afternoon, artificial iliumination must often be WHETHER ONE SESSIOi^ OR TWO 199 used. This is not only less agreeable to the eye, but is in many schools decidedly inadequate. The fact that the pupils are saved a walk to and from school can also be given as an argument in favor of the single session. On account of the great monot- ony, these walks not only do not give recreation, but actually produce fatigue, especially since they have to be made through the wind and snow in the winter, in the hottest part of the day in summer, and at all times through the polluted air of the streets. The most important reason for the undivided morn- ing session is, however, the fact that it gives the pupils time for games, rambles, excursions, bathing, swim- ming, and boating in the summer; and skating and sleighing in the winter. In large cities, where the distances to school are con- siderable, and where the habits of life and the occupa- tions of the fathers permit having dinner late in the day, the undivided session deserves an unqualified preference, and has come generally into vogue. In small towns, on the other hand, the division into morn- ing and afternoon sessions may be allowed, since dinner is almost always eaten at noon, and the school can be reached in a short time, and a walk in the open air can be more easily obtained than in the large city. But the regulation of the Prussian minister of education should be observed in every case, namely, that both 200 DAILY PROGRAMME boys and girls' schools must have their session at the same time, since brothers and sisters would otherwise eat dinner separately. Besides the recreation periods throughout the day, we have those throughout the year, — the vacations. The length of the latter varies not only with the diiferent states of Germany but with the provinces of the same state. For example, according to Kunze's calendar for secondary schools, they amount to 81 days in Prus- sia, West Prussia, Pommerania, Saxony, the govern- ment district Kassel, Frankfurt a. M., and Homberg; 80 days in Brandenburg (including Berlin) and Schles- wig-Holstein ; 78 days in Hannover; 76 days in West- phalia, and 75 in Silesia; and 74 in Posen and the Ehine-province. As Sundays are not included in these figures, more than a quarter of the year is free from school work. A teacher in a gymnasium in Wiirtemberg estimates that of the 365 days in the year, 52 Sundays, 68 vacation days, and 63 other days are taken out from the work of instruction in the institution. That leaves 215 school days, or approximately seven-twelfths of the year. Since mental work exhausts the nervous system more than other kinds of labor, the pupils of the higher institutions need long vacations; and a school hygienist can observe such a state of affairs only with satisfaction. VACATION'S 201 Moreover, observations made by Eussian medical experts upon 9,500 pupils in 40 different institutions have shown that the influence of long vacations upon health is very favorable, since the amount of sickness in the succeeding year was less than when the vacations were shorter. There is still greater dissimilarity in the different parts of Germany with respect to the time of year when vacations come than with respect to their dura- tion. In the Protestant section of Prussia, the long vacation comes in the middle of the summer semester ^ while it comes at the end of this semester in Austria, South and West Germany, and in the Catholic gym- nasia in Prussia. The latter is hygienically the better, because the pupils have in this case a feeling of per- fect freedom since the examinations are over; while, in the other case, the final or promotion examinations are to be faced a few weeks after their return. Moreover, it is best to have a period of rest directly after the examinations. A committee of the British medical association found that immediately after an examination the number of nervous pupils rose from 10 to 13.3^; and Ignatieff ascertained in a boarding school in Moscow that 191 out of 242 pupils lost on an average 1516 grams in weight during the period of examinations. A demand has accordingly come from many places tliat the school year should in correspon- dence with the civil year be divided into two semesters,. 202 DAILY PROGEAMME beginning January and July respectively. The main vacations at the end would then come about Christmas and St. John's day (July 1). An argument for this plan is the fact that the maxi- mum summer temperature falls in the IS^orth of Ger- many not in August but in July; and, in fact, at the beginning of July. Furthermore, the great shorten- ing of the summer semester, when Easter comes late, could be avoided; and the hard winter's work could be divided evenly between the two half years. The purpose of the vacations is to give teachers and taught an opportunity for mental and bodily recupera- tion, so that they may return to their work refreshed. The Hungarian minister of education. Count Csaky, accordingly remonstrated justly against the many re- views and exercises with which the pupils of the sec- ondary schools are wont to be overburdened in vaca- tions. He would have only so much assigned for learning as will do for the regular lessons. The royal provincial school board of the province of Branden- burg takes the same stand. It ruled that there should be no special tasks for the shorter vacations. Such tasks can be given only for the summer vacation, and must be limited as much as possible. Due allowance must also be made for those who travel. On the other band, pupils of the upper and intermediate classes are to be encouraged and directed to suitable self-employ- ment, especially private reading. YACATIOX JOURNEYS 203 In these regulations, we find travel already men- tioned. Since this is particularly refreshing for both mind and body, on account of the change of impres- sions and continued stay in the open air, it is gratify- ing to note that joint vacation trips ^ by pupils are all the time becoming more frequent. Such trips have been made, among others, by the royal gymnasium at Danzig, the Falk real-gymnasium in Berlin, the Mar- tino-Oatharineum gymnasium of Brunswick, the royal Ohristianeum in Altona, and the real-gymnasium at Dortmund. The objective point has usually been the mountains of middle Germany; but there have also been longer ■excursions, as for example to the Carpathian moun- tains and to Switzerland. We know of one Prima that under the leadership of its headmaster visited the classical localities of Italy one year, and those of Oreece the next. Similarly, 100 pupils from the second German state gymnasium at Briinn with the director and ten teachers made a vacation trip to the former Eoman colony of Carnuntum on the Danube. The school authorities of Trans Caucasus Eussia seem to have been particularly active in this direction, since they 1 Theodore Bach, Wanderungen, ^urnfahrten und Schiilerreisen. 2d Ed. Leipzig, 1884. Ed. Strauch. — 0. W. Beyer, Deutsche Ferien wanderungen. Schtil- erreisen als Auschauungsgange in deutscher Landes- Tind Yolkskunde. Leipzig, 1894, G. Eeichardt. 204 DAILY PROGKAMMB carried through a seven weeks excursion to the Elborus and the Caucasus range, in which fifty pupils of the Tekaterinodar Gymnasium took part. They climbed the Vulkan Pass up to the snow limit, and crossed the mountain range. To give individual pupils an opportunity to travel, school-rooms have been fitted up in the Sudetas moun- tains, the Riesengebirge, Bohemian Switzerland, and the Jeschken, Iser and Erzgebirge, to serve in vaca- tions as modest inns for gymnasiats and real-gymnasiats who find themselves there over night. In 1893, there were 85 such school inns, which could accommodate more than 400 guests, and which were used by 5,551 young people during the summer vacation. Three years later the number of inns rose to 103, with 480' beds and 45 free places; and they entertained 6,246 people. The student inns of the G-erman and Aus- trian Alpine league, though to be sure they are in- tended only for gymnasial graduates or university students, are somewhat similar institutions. Their number at present is over 1,000; and they are dis- tributed among 401 different places, of which 157 are in Tyrol, 82 in Steiermark, 43 in Karnten, 36 in Ba- varia, 25 in Vorarlberg, 14 in Krain, 10 in Upper Austria, 6 in Lower Austria, and 1 in Kustenland. While the charges at these inns are very moderate^ nevertheless, free vacation colonies for the higher VACATION^ JOUENETS 205 schools have also been established. This moyement was begun by the Hungarian Association of secondary school teachers, by having a number of gymnasiats in groups of fifteen to twenty take a trip into the country without cost. The Ealk real-gymnasium of Berlin placed its colonists, mostly from the Secunda and Tertia, but also some from the Prima and Quarta, in a village at the foot of the Kynastgebirge. For needy gymnasium students in Vienna there is a special vaca- tion resort in Steg on the Hallstatter See. Since these colonists make a good deal of games, gymnastics, excursions, and, at times, of swimming and boating, and have besides abundant, nourishing food, the results have been excellent. In Steg, for example, the colonists gained in weight, on an average, 2.8 kg., in 1888; 3.3 kg., in 1889; and 3.6 kg., in 1890; 3.5 kg., in 1891; and 3.6 kg., in 1892. It was reported, moreover, at the International Congress for Vacation Colonies^ in Zurich that the chest girth and dynamometric pressure increased in the colonists. This corresponds with Goepel's^ statement that the ^Verhandlungen des international en Kongresses fiir Perienkolonien und verwandte Bestrebungen der Kinderhygiene in Zurich am 13 and 14 August, 1888. Hamburg und Leipzig, 1889, Leop. Voss. ^Goepel tJber die daurenden Erfolge der Ferienkolo- nien. Braunschweig, 1895, Fr. Vieweg und Sohn. 206 DAILY PROGRAMME favorable influence of vacation colonies in strengthen-^ ing the respiratory processes and healing catarrh of the lungs is not to be ignored. Finally, Wyss and Stierlin. have been able to show that a cubic millimeter of blood contained on an average 1,138,400 more corpus- cles after the stay in the country than before. . On the other hand, not every pupil can travel, or spend his time in a vacation colony. According to the Prussian Cultus-minister, only a fifth of the pupils get away from their school localities for any time at all dur- ing the vacations. Inquiries at the Dorothea muni- cipal gymnasium in Berlin have revealed the fact that about one-third of the pupils stay at home altogether, another third go away for only a, few days, and the last third spend the whole time of the vacation in travel. The school should therefore give those that stay at home every opportunity for recuperation by gymnastic games, bathing, swimming, and rambles in the woods and fields. The Falk real-gymnasium in Berlin has given a praiseworthy example in this direction. Even the ancient Greek philosopher Anaxagoras would have vacations spent in games. When the prin- cipal men of Lampsacus, where he was in exile, asked him what they could do to please him, he replied that they would do so if they would give the children every year the month in which he died, free for games. His DISMISSAL IN HOT WEATHEE 207 wish was granted. As late as tlie third century after Christ, i. e., 700 years later, the boys of Lampsacus had their vacation games in the month in which Anaxagoras died. The summer vacations come, as a rule, in the hottest part of the year. But, as there are very warm days at other times, special vacations must be given at such emergencies. High temperatures are so exceedingly exhausting for mind and body that lessons do little good; and even ^ being in the class-rooms and on the way to school may injure the health of the pupils. Most school authorities have accordingly decided • that some of the lessons may be omitted when the temperature shall have reached a certain point. The ministry of Wiirtemberg makes it 20° R = 77° F, since it ruled in 1870 that the afternoon session might be omitted if the thermometer rose in the shade to 20° R between nine and ten o'clock. In 1892, the Prussian minister of education issued a decree that, when the temperature at ten o'clock in the morning rose to 25° C=77°F in shade, instruction should not be continued ^ for more than four consecutive hours, nor children be compelled to come to school twice in a day. The rec- ommendation of the superior K. K. Sanitary Commis- sion of Vienna corresponds exactly with this. On the other hand, the government board of the Canton Zug n/ 208 DAILY PKOGEAMME requires a temperature of 27° C=:80f F, and the Superior school board of Hamburg a temperature of 22° R=81J° F before work can be suspended in the higher schools. To make it possible to determine the temperature exactly an accurate thermometer, provided with a cas- ing of wood or tin to shut off radiant heat, should be hung up in an easily accessible place on the school premises; and the curator of the physical laboratory should be entrusted with the taking of occasional readings. It is desirable to test it now and then, to see that the pupils play no pranks with it by breath- ing on it, or otherwise. Moreover, a mere outdoor record will not suffice; and the Prussian minister of education has expressly reminded the conductors of higher schools that this does not relieve them from the duty of ascertaining whether it would not be ad- visable, even if the thermometer at ten o'clock does not register 25° C, to omit a part of the school work on account of some unusual conditions of temperature such as excessive heat on the previous day, or con- tinued sultriness in the class-rooms, or the distances of the pupils from school. Thus, local conditions must also be taken into account, especially the situation of the building, the size and ventilation of the school- rooms, the number of pupils instructed simultaneously in it, etc. DISMISSAL IF HOT WEATHER 209 Some have suggested, that, when school has to be dismissed on account of heat, the pupils should be taken out for walks, or be allowed to have games on the campus, if this is large enough to permit it. This should, however, only be done when they can walk or play in the shade, and when the games are not too severe. In spite of vacations, the pupils may, nevertheless, be overburdened^. The home is often to blame for this. In the first place, many children are sent to school too young. As is well known, the sixth year is generally looked upon as the most suitable age for school work to begin. Up to the end of this year, the brain is still growing vigorously. Its increase in weight in the first seven years is 830 g., while in the next seven years is only 61 g. On the other hand, even pupils who have completed the sixth year do not always have the necessary strength of body and mind for the demands of the school. The Berlin Medical Association has accordingly sug- gested that pupils should be examined, and that those ^L. Kotelmann, 1st die heutige Jugend der hoheren Lehranstalten mit Schularbeit iiberbiirdet ? Ham- burg, 1881, C. Boysen. — Clemens l^ohl, Wie Kann die Uberbiirdung unserer Jugend auf hoheren Lehranstal- ten mit Erf ol > ^entgegengewirkt werden ? Neuwied und Leipzig, 1892, L. Heuser. 210 DAILY PROGEAMME be excluded from attending school who are distinctly behind the average in general physical development. Prominent school men have in general proposed that boys who are destined for the classical or real gymna- sium or the superior real-school should not be received before the end of the seventh year. Older pupils, as a rule, do the same amount of work as the younger in a shorter time. Another mistake sometimes made by parents is to place boys in the higher schools when their mental ability is not adequate for the work. The gymnasia of the smaller cities justly complain that they have to carry a ballast of mediocre pupils who care for nothing else in their work but to secure thereby the privilege of the single year in military service. The multipli- cation of real-schools which are without Latin, through the reform movement in Pussia, is therefore to be looked upon as a great step in advance. In this re- spect Hamburg may be taken as a model, where, be- sides two gymnasia, one real-gymnasium, and one superior real-school, we find fourteen real-schools without Latin, some public, and some private. Furthermore, the home work of pupils is often not properly arranged ; they have neither quiet nor direc- tion; and, what is worse, they are so distracted by re- cej)tions, theaters, and concerts that they fail to have the necessary concentration for the outside school tasks. Is it a marvel if they sit up late nights at their OVER-PKESSURE 211 work and can not follow the instruction given the next day? Finally, the many private lessons with which parents load their children may lead to mental over-pressure. Tutoring, or coaching, is a favorite form of such work ; but it is not only unnecessary, if the school work is properly arranged, but may even disturb and counter- act the latter. Too many music lessons, often for pupils wholly without talent, is a no less prominent evil. Nearly all the feeble, overworked, and distracted pupils in one in- stitution, where inquiry was made, practised one to two hours daily on the piano. To be sure, music cannot be counted as an alien subject, even though Kant objected to it, as being an "intrusive art"; but instruction in it should keep within reasonable limits. Especially should lessons on the piano not be given before the twelfth year, and then only to strong and talented pupils. Moreover, the school may itself be to blame for overwork on the part of the young people in its charge. Of course not every serious demand upon their mental activity must be looked upon as over-pres- sure. At a time when the struggle for existence becomes ever more severe it behooves the pupils of our higher institutions especially to keep in mind: T179 S'apeT7]<; IBpcora Oeol TrpoTrdpocdev edrj'^^av.^ * The Gods give excellence through toil. 212 DAILY PROGKAMME l^evertheless, the amount of study at home can easily become too great through excessive enthusiasm of departmental teachers, defective concentration in the course of study, the increase of materials in cer- tain subjects, and often the over-crowding of class- rooms. At the Berlin Reform Conference, the German em- peror said of the Kassel gymnasium attended by him : *'We were compelled to hand to the director every morning a card with the number of hours we had to study to prepare the lessons for the day. I will only mention the number in the Prima, on this occasion. Now, gentlemen, according to thoroughly reliable reports — in ray case they could be controlled by privy councillor Hinzpeter — 5J, 6J- to 7 hours were required for the home assignments." A very careful inquiry into the amount of home work at the superior state real-school at Teschen has also been made. Here this amounted to two to three hours daily for the four lower classes, and three to five hours for the upper classes. Many pupils of class III and most of YII studied as a rule to midnight or longer. In the latter class this can be partly explained by the fact that the pupils at the time of the investigation were approaching the final written examination and were consequently reviewing as well as carrying on the regular work. STUDY AT HOME 213 Such being the conditions, governments and com- missions appointed by them have endeavored to deter- mine the amount of work which may be required of pupils in the different classes, or, in other words, how many hours of school and home work are permissible. According to the expert commission for the second- ary schools of Elsass-Lothringen the maximum per week should be as follows: SCHOOL INSTRUCTION School and home work Age Glass Study Singing Gym- nastics Total IIom,e work 7, 8 IX, VIII 18 2 4-i- 3 ? 21-21i 6 2 23-24i 9 VII 20 4 5 23-23i 5-6 28-29i 10, 11 VI, V 24 2 2-3 28-29 8 36-37 12 13,14 IV, III 26 2 2 30 12 42 15, 16, 17, 18 II, I 30 2 2 34 12-18 46-52 In this case both the work in school and at home is taken into account; Avhile most school administrations are content to fix a special limit for the home work of the pupils of the higher institutions. In this connec- tion the following table giving the number of hours for the home tasks per week is instructive : Class (I is lowest) I 6 6 7 3-4 II III IV V VI VII VIII IX Prus&ia 9 12 7 3-4 12 12 12i 3-4 12 12 3-4 15 12 12i 6 15 18 \n 6 18 18 12^ 12-15 18 18 12i 12-18 18 Bavaria 18 Wtlrtemberg Grand D. Hessen 12i 18 In comparing the above figures, we must keep in mind that the weekly programmes of the gymnasium and real gymnasium differ somewhat in different states. 214 DAILY PROGKAMME In Bavaria the total number of hours per week for the classes I to IX, inclusive of writing, drawing, and gymnastics, is 236; in Wiirtemberg, on the other hand, for the corresponding classes II to X, it is 283, or 47 hours a week more, which explains the relatively small number of hours devoted in the middle and higher classes in the latter country to home work. The Wiirtemberg ministry for church and school affairs has, moreover, lately ordained that the home tasks, including the memorizing work, shall not require more than one hour on full school days and one and one-half hours on the half days, for the classes from I to III; and, one and one-half, and two hours, re- spectively, for class IV. The home work in the other classes is to occupy 1^ to 2 hours on full school days ; and 2|^ to 3, on the days with a free afternoon. In the case of classes V to VII the amount of work is to be kept near the lower limit of 11 hours per week. On the other hand, the ministry does not believe that the course should be made any easier for the upper classes, VIII to X, since this would interfere with the aims of the school and with the habituation to independent activity which is especially important at this age. Besides limiting the amount of home study, the authorities have also adopted other measures to pre- vent over-pressure. A ministerial enactment for the higher schools of Prussia requires that an investigation IMPEOVED METHODS 215 shall be made at the first teachers' meeting of each semester to see if the pupils are over-loaded with home work in any of the classes. Especially are com- plaints that may have come in from parents to be care- fully looked into at this meeting; and whatever may be done to adjust matters is to be entered on the records. It is also very gratifying from the hygienic stand- point that the amount of work in some subjects has been diminished. As is well known, there has been a reduction in the study of the classics in most German states in the humanistic as well as in the scientific institutions; and, as regards instruction in science, the latest Bavarian regulations prohibit entirely the use of a text-book, on the ground that the main pur- pose of this line of work is to train the eye and develop interest and pleasure in the observation of nature. The simplification of the subject matter has been accompanied by an improvement in the methods of in- struction. The reforms demand that as much effort be expended in developing interest as in communi- cating knowledge; that the memory be used less, and the judgment more; that written work be limited, and the spontaneous activity of the pupil be promoted to develop his own peculiar talents; that extempore recitations and written transpositions be not overestimated; that the younger pupils be given a preparation for the reading to be done in the 216 DAILY PROGRAMME recitation; that no lesson be assigned in the morning for the afternoon ; and that no task of any sort be set as a punishment. The fulfilment of these requirements can be counted on the more, since the pedagogical and didactic train- ing of teachers is ever growing better through the University seminaries, and the trial and practice year, which succeeds the year of theoretical study in them. Lastly, the lessening of the severity of the final examinations in accordance with the provisions of the new school programmes may be mentioned as a pro- tective measure against over-pressure. The graduates of the gymnasium have been relieved not only from writing the Latin composition, but also from using Latin in the oral examination, which has been limited to five subjects with increased privileges of substitu- tion and exemption. The oral examination of the real-gymnasiasts includes also only five branches, and pupils are allowed the same exemptions and substitu- tions as the gymnasiasts. It only remains to be hoped that the examination for promotion from Lower to Upper Secunda will either be entirely omitted or else be greatly simplified, especially since it comes directly in the period of puberty. When, nevertheless, overpressure exists, it is likely to show itself in the pupils by cephalic congestions. This is to explained by the fact that every organ in action at once receives an increased blood supply by SCHOOL HEADACHEff 217 the expansion of its arteries. Since, as we know, more blood flows through a working than a resting muscle, the same is doubtless true of the brain. We all know from experience how readily, during mental labor, the hands and feet get cold, while the head gets hot. By means of sensitive thermopiles it has been possible to show that the temperature of the head increases in proportion to the intensity of mental effort. Now a strong rush of blood to the head gives rise to headache ; and the frequent occurrence of this among the school population has been demonstrated repeat- edly. As early as 1869, Virchow called attention to the matter ; and this has since been done by Eossbach, KraSt-Ebing, Keller, Hertel, Axel Key, Hakonson- Hansen, Bresgen^, and others. Some speak of it simply as school-headaches, or " cephalalgie scolaire". Since overwork is more common in the higher than in the lower schools, this headache occurs more fre- quently in the former than in the latter. Bystroff found only 11.6 fo of 7,478 elementary pupils suffering from habitual headache ; while Gruillaume found 28. 3 ^ in the municipal college at Neufchatel, and Becker, 80.8 ^ in the prima of the gymnasium at Darmstadt. I ascer- tained, myself, that there was quite a regular increase ^Maximilian Bresgen, Die Ursachen des nerv5sen Kopfschmerzes der Schulkinder. Wien, 1894, Urban und Schwarzenberg. 218 DAILY PEOGEAMME in the ailment toward the upper classes in the Johan- neum gymnasium at Hamburg. If this may be said to point to the unwholesome influence of excessive mental strain, so also does the fact that pupils often come home with a headache, especially when the in- struction has lasted a long time. On the other hand, we must not forget that the headaches of the pupils may be caused by many other things. Charcot has called attention to the peculiar *'cephalaea adolescentium ", as he names it. Those suffering from it, have a constant headache, which pre- yents them from doing any work ; while school head- ache is recurrent with longer or shorter intervals. Sufferers from these troubles belong to nervous or gouty families and are liable to complain of palpitation of the heart, which is sometimes due to an enlarge- ment of this organ. As other aetiological factors in the production of headaches in school, may be men- tioned diseases of the brain, the nose, the throat, the ear, the teeth, and especially the functional disorders of the eye. Sometimes the retina is too sensitive, sometimes the power of accommodation is insufficient ; and again, the muscles employed in near vision become too easily fatigued. Hence, when pupils are affected with headaches, an examination of their eyes should not be neglected, since they can often be relieved by convex or prismatic glasses. When there is a rush of blood into the head, there ]S^OSEBLEED 219 is one also into the mucons membrane of the nose. That is the reason nosebleed is of such frequent occurence among pupils. According to Eulenberg, tall, slim boys, who have grown up rapidly, are most subject to the trouble. This investigator thinks he has also noticed that many kinds of school work predispose to nosebleed. Only a few statistics on the subject are at hand. .lEight per cent of the pupils at Miilhausen, and 11.3 fo of 3,564 children at Darmstadt were found to be thus afflicted. Guillaume ascertained that 77 out of 350 hoys, or 22 ^, had the nosebleed. The following table shows how these cases were dis- tributed among the different classes : Number of Nurriber tvith Per cent with Glass Age jnqnls nosebleed nosebleed Y 7-9 127 4A 34.6 IV 8-11 89 11 12.3 III 10-13 72 12 16.6 II 12-15 39 9 20.0 I 14-16 23 1 4.3 These results seem to show that nosebleed dimin- ishes in the upper classes; but the number of older pupils examined is too small for general conclusions in accordance with the principle requiring large groups of cases. In fact, in Darmstadt, Becker obtained a result directly opposite to that of Guillaume. He says that nosebleed is most frequent in the upper 220 DAILY PEOGKAMME classes of the gymnasium, and varies with the lengtk of attendance at school and the lack of fresh air. This corresponds with a statement made by Axel Key^ on the basis of a very extensive investigation. In the full graded higher institutions of Sweden, 5.5 ^' of the pupils of the lowest class were suffering from, recurring nosebleed, which increased considerably in. Class II, remained constant in Class III, and showed some diminution in Class IV, both in the Latin and scientific divisions. In the Latin division, by itself,, nosebleed increased up to 7 ^ in Class V, and then remained constant till it reached the maximum of 8.1 ^ in Class VII B. In the scientific division, the curve remained below that of the Latin division after the drop in Class IV, but reached its maximum the- same as the former in Class VII B with 6.4^. Since there is a distinct tendency toward an increase of nose- bleed in the upper classes, the influence of mental strain in its production can hardly be denied. Another consequence of over-pressure, namely nerv- ousness, is more serious than either headache or nose- bleed. Whoever will carefully observe the people about him, will hardly need a special proof that over- exertion of the nervous system is a pathological symp- ^Axel Keys Schulhygienische Untersuchungen. In deutscher Bearbeitung herausgegeben von Leo Burger- stein. Hamburg und Leipzig, 1889, Leop. Voss. OYEK-STIMULATED KERVES 221 torn of our time as well on this side as on the^ other side of the Atlantic. According to Erb, poetry has become coarsely naturalistic, and music excessively loud ; even painting does not recoil from the ugly and the horrible. Science becomes an ever more exhaust- ing occupation, the more it differentiates into special- ties. To the excitements of a profession, must be added the haste in living, the hunt for fortune, the insatiable appetite for pleasure, and the fierce politi- cal, social, and religious struggles. These things shock and injure the nervous system; and consequently not only is our fin de siecle over- stocked with nervous men and women, but the nervous diathesis is being transmitted by heredity to our de- scendants. Pupils from the higher ranks, especially, often enter school with neuropathic trouble, as has been clearly shown by Schuschny^ by his observations in the superior state real-school at Budapest. The school may itself be the cause of the over-stimu- lation of the nervous system. The whole character of the school work, the ever recurring rivalries, exam- inations, promotions, and, not the least, the many kinds of punishments, most of which fall on the same pupils, are well fitted to generate nervousness or to de- Telop such a disposition if already present. ' ' I have the ^Heinrich Schuschny, Beitrage Zur Xervositat der Schuljugend. Jena, 1895, Gust. Fischer. 222 DAILY PROGRAMME impraesion," so writes a well-known educator, "that this reckless hurry, and impatient struggle for the best- possible results often produce a pace which brings, excitement instead of composure, over-stimulation in- stead of stimulation, — in brief, nervousness, instead of safe and steady progress." As will be readily understood, these phenomena are more liable to appear in the secondary schools than in the elementary schools; and the number of nervous pupils is also greater in the former than in the latter. According to Warner, 351, or 6.5^, of 5,344 elemen- tary pupils in London had neurapathic symptoms; while according to Nesteroff^ 71, or 32^, of 216 pupils- in a gymnasium in Moscow were similarly affected. In the latter, nervous trouble increased quite rapidly and steadily from class to class. The neurasthenic pupils numbered in the prepara- tory class 8^; in class I 15 ^; in class II 22 ^; in class III 28^; in class IV 44^; in class V 27 ^; in class YI 58 ^; in class VII 64 ^; in class VIII 69 fo. It was, also, possible to show that, in correspondence with this, neurasthenia increased with the age of the pupils, especially from the fifteenth year onward. Nesteroif found that of the 588 pupils in the board- ^ W. JS^esteroff, Die Moderne Schule und die Gesund- heit. Zeitschrift fur Schulgesundheitspflege, 1890, No. 6, p. 313 ff. OVEE-STIMULATED Js^ERYES 223 ing school connected with the above mentioned gym- nasium the following per cent were nervous. =>^ <» ■■*-, > f-^ o Cb ^ 7- 8 — % U.dO% — % — i 9-10 16.59^ 16.30^ 22.76^ 24.72^ 11-12 SlASfc 23.30^ 36.48^ 30.00^ 13-14 37.25^ 32.70^ 51.92^ 40.34^ 15-16 51,52^ 44.50^ 55.00^ 53.79% 17-18 49.90^ 57.70^ 54.16^ 65.21^ 19-20 75.62^ 59.20^ 59.3"^ 5476^ 21— - % - % 77.77^ 100.00^ ^H. Schmidt-Eimpler, Die Schulknrzsichtigkeit und ihre Bekampfnng. Leipzig, 1890, Wilh. Engelmann. INCREASES WITH SCHOOL ATTENDANCE 249 Finally, statistics from Hamburg, Konigsberg, Ros- tock, and Wandsbeck may be adduced to show that short-sightedness increases with the number of years of school attendance. e i 1 S g ^. ^ 1 s? 5^ CO 4 The Johanm classical sch( Hamburg The three o gymnasia i Konigsher 1 ^ Gymnasium city grarnm school, Wan beck 1- 2 14.09^ 16.60^ 21.45^ - % 3- 4 18.^9^ 27.80^ 26.56^ 28.83^ 5- 6 36.17^ 38.30^ 35.52^ 47 67^ 7- 8 44.73^ 52 00^ 33.33^ 42.95 % 9 10 59.48^ 59.90^ 66.66^ 55.12^ 11-12 51.92^ - % 100.00^ 42 50^ 13-14 66 66^ - % - % - % We must add, furthermore, that there is an increase not only in the frequency but also in the degree of myopia in the upper classes. The following table from the three old gymnasia at Konigsberg give a clear picture of the matter: Degree of myopia Oktava Sep- tima Sexta Quinta Quarta Tertia Sekun- da Prima •3? T3 iVtV 97.00^ 3.00" 90.70^ 4.65" 4.65" n.10% 19.30" 6.00" 3.60" 81.70^ 13.40" 4.90" 58.90^ 29.90" 8.10" 2.40" 0.80" 0.80" 46.36% 26.05" 14.56" 4.22" 4.21" 4.60" 36.29^ 26.99" 14.16" 12.38' 5.31" 4.87" 19 50^ 28.80" 12.10" 15.40" 16.10" 8.10" In Octava, 97 ^ of the myopic have the very slight degree of -gV^h to -gV^h, and only 3 ^ have the some- what greater degree of ^-^Xh to ^^^h ; the higher de- gree of yV^^ ^0 ^W^ ^'^G ^0^ represented. In Prima 250 THE EYE: MYOPIA on the other hand only 19.5 ^ of the myopic had the slight degree of -^^ to -jjth-, 16.1 fo had the high degree of -f to ^; and 8.1 ^ had the highest degree of >*• Myopia varies similarly with the age of the Konigs- berg gymnasiasts: Beqree of myopia AGE 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18+ 1 1 60 25 92. 2U 73.21$^ 73.33^ 73.62^ 52.271^51.72^ 50.96^ 47.47^ 27.11^ 31.31^ 28.47^ 1 1 5.19" 12.50" 15.56" 20.88" 25.00" 31.03" 30.77" 22.22" 32.20" 24.24" 26.28" T2~T0 " 8.93" 6.67" 4.40" 11.36" 8.05" 9.62" 13.13" 19.50" 13.13" 12.40" ti 2.60" 4.44" 1.10" 3.41" 1.15" 4.81" 10.10" 6.78" 13.13" 15.33" i-i " " 3.41-' 2.30" 1.92" 5.05" 7.63" 12.12" 10.95" >i 5.36" " " 4.55" 5,75" 1.92" 2.02" 6.78" 6.06" 6.57" While 92.25 ^ of the eight year old myopes had the lightest degree of -^-^ to 2V; this was true of only 28.47^ of those eighteen years of age or over. On the other hand, there was not a single case with the highest degree of myopia, >^, among those eight years of age, while 6.59 fc of those eighteen years of age or over were thus afflicted. The table giving the variation in the degree of my- opia with the number of years of attendance at school is somewhat different : Degree of myopia _i i_ 60 25 1 1 ^4 Ts 1 1 12 ITf ' 1 1 9 « ' i 1 7 6 > i NUMBER OF YEABS AT SCHOOL 1-2 67.70^ 9.84" 7.65" 1.09" 2.73" 1.09" 3-4 59.63^ 21.74" 6.83" 5.59/ 1.24" 5.97" 5-6 53.21^ 28.90" 7.80" 5.05" 1.37" 3.67" 7-8 9 & over 41.55^ 37.05" 10.56" 9.66' 6.76" 2.42" 28.02^' 27.60" 15.52" 11. B3" 10.34" 6.89" DISADYANTAGES OP GLASSES 251 Every degree of myopia is here represented in the first school year. This can be readily explained by ihe fact that a few of the older boys have just entered :School after having been exposed to the same detri- mental influences in the private education they have had up to this time, as their comrades in the public schools. The table shows, nevertheless, very clearly that the lighter degrees of myopia diminish through- out the years of school attendance, while the inter- mediate and higher degrees increase considerably. The statement has often been made by doctors and .still oftener by educators that myopia entails no dis- comfort or inconvience, but is, on the other hand, a useful adaptation of the eye for near vision. I cannot agree with this opinion. Glasses have to be worn at .all times with the higher degrees of myopia, and also with the lighter whenever the person wants to look at objects at a distance, — which certainly cannot be said to be pleasant. Furthermore, they often fail to render service. On dusty roads, they become dirty; in great changes of temperature, moist; and in rain and snow, they partly lose their transparency from drops of water. In fact, in some cases, as for example in bathing, they cannot be used at all. In other cases, they may be forgotten and thus cause great trouble; .a soldier who loses his glasses is disarmed. Pupils with the greater degrees of myopia are, more- 252 THE eye: myopia over, limited in the choice of a profession. They can not- become sailors, or foresters, or farmers; and they are also excluded from serving their fatherland in arms. The German army regulations of September 28y 1875, count myopia as one of the defects which per- manently disable a man for service, when the far point- of the better eye is 0.15 m. or less distant even if the retinal sensitiveness is normal; this is myopia of seven diopters, or -1- to ^, according to the old method of numbering. Diminution in the acuteness of vision to one-fourth of the normal or less in the better eye, as is often the case with a high degree of myopia, is- another reason for exclusion from military service. Similarly, those with intermediate degrees of myopia, whose acuteness of vision is at the same time but J- to J of the normal, are considered fit for service only conditionally, and are assigned to the reserves. The requirements of the navy are still more severe. In Austria the legal maximum is ^-q, or 1.25 diopters of myopia. The German cabinet order of March 10, 1874, considers an acuteness of vision of J or less in- sufficient, and an acuteness of from ^ to f as adequate for the imperial navy only when it can be made nor- mal by the use of glasses. It is true, the eyesight of the myopic can generally be greatly improved by the use of suitable glasses;, nevertheless, the higher the degree of myopia, the Forg-V- -2-V, 64.93^ ^0T2h- -^, 59.13^ For^-V- --J-V 36.66^ DANGER TO YISIOI^^ 253 more rarely do they attain to normal acuteness. Thus in the classical schools at Hamburg the per cent of pupils who wore glasses and yet had normal acuteness of vision as follows: For i — 1 26.66^ For i — 1 13.33^ For iand>, 0.00^ The figures immediately below show what per cents had lost a third of their keenness of sight with the same •degrees of myopia: For gL — J5, 18.83^ Fori — i 53.33^ For 2^ — 3-L 27.95^ Fori — i 40.00,^ For tV — Tor 60.00 fo For I and >, 50.00 fo The per cent who possessed less than two-thirds of their power of sight in spite of having accurately fitted glasses was : For 3V - -2V, 16.23^ Fori 1,20.00^ ForJ^- -iV, 12.90^ Fori J, 46.06^ ForJ^- -iV, 3.33^ For i and >, 50.00 The most serious thing is, however, that the myopic, especially those in advanced stages, are continually exposed to danger. Even in the case of the inter- mediate degrees, the inner rectus muscle is liable to lose its power and so occasion a good deal of trouble. The person afflicted can use his eyes for near objects only for a short time before he has a feeling of pres- sure and tension; his tears begin to flow; and if his 254 THE eye: myopia case is a bad one, distressing light flashes make their appearance. Binocular observation of near objects is,, therefore, often wholly abandoned; and the sufferer uses — generally without being aware of the fact — only his better eye for reading and writing. The danger is naturally more pronounced, the greater the degree of myopia. The vitreous humor is easily liquefied and made turbid; and the consequence- may be not only the production of those troublesome shadows, knows as " mouches volantes ", but also in severe cases of a special kind of cataract, called in, opthalmology, the posterior polar cataract. Although this by itself is a source of much trouble to the eye, there is nevertheless a still greater danger, since, as often happens in high degrees of myopia, inflamma- tion of the choroid, hemorrhage in the retina, or the loosening of the retina, and even green cataract may set in. Sight is then either reduced to constant mini- mum or is lost completely for all time, even with the best of medical treatment. Such grave consequences naturally demand that the causes of myopia be investigated to the utmost, in. order that by avoiding them the development and progress of this disease may as far as possible be pre- vented. Among the causal factors, heredity takes a promi- nent place. As early as 1874, Dor was able to show HEREDITARY 255 that direct inheritance played a part in 25 out of 42, or in 59 ,^, of the cases of myopia in the city real school in Bern. In Eostock, Thilenius found that out of eleven families in which both parents were myopic, the sons were similarly afflicted in eight, and em- metropic in only three, — short-sightedness being thus inherited in 72.72^, or about three-fourths, of the cases. The influence of heredity was not so marked, when only one of the parents had myopia. Out of 68 near-sighted fathers, 37 had myopic, 27 emmetropic, and 4 hypermetropic sons, the per cent of hereditary cases being here 54.41 fc. This per cent becomes greater, however, when the mother is the parent that is myopic. In 37 such cases, the sons were myopic in 28, and emmetropic in only 9 ; the hereditary influence of myopia from the mother's side is thus represented by 75.67,^. Pfliiger^, also, makes heredity a powerful predispos- ing cause of myopia, xlccording to him, families in which the parents or ancestors have had the disease have 15 rD AMEEI- OAN BOOKS AND PAPEES ON SCHOOL HYGIENE As will be seen by the headings, this bibliography- is divided into sections corresponding with the chap- ters of Dr. Kotelmann's book. It is designed to be a guide to some of the most important literature in Eng- lish bearing upon the subjects under discussion. A few notes have been added on the character and con- tents of the .articles or books when this was not suffi- ciently indicated by the titles or when their importance or special features seemed to make it desirable. Books marked with a star may be purchased of the publisher of this volume. Chapter I. — History of School Htgieke, Oekeral Treatises, School Architecture. ABEL, W. Jenkinson. School hygiene, including simple directions respecting ventilation, eye-sight, infectious diseases, and first aid in injuries, for schools and families. Pp. 53. London, 1890. A brief manual of directions. ALCOTT, Wm. A. ^Essay on the construction of school-houses. Boston, 1832. Prize essay for the American Institute of Instruction. *' Its principles were dominant for a number of years, being adopted by Horace Mann, G. B. Emerson, et. al." (Hartwell.) (353) 354 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SCHOOL HYGIENE AMEEICAN Institute of Instruction. ^Lectures, discussions, etc. Vol. I. Boston, 1831. Contains a lecture on " Physical education" by Dr. John 0. WARREN^, and one " On the construction and fur- nishing of school-rooms" by W. J. ADAMS. BAGmSKY. Handbuch der Schulhygiene. Pp. 619. Berlin, 1883. The bibliographies contain some American and Eng- lish titles that would now be of historical interest. BARNARD, Henry. * School architecture. This is the most important book historically. It was written as a lecture in 1838, and first published in the Conn. Common school journal, 1842. In *1848, it appeared as a separate book of 368 pages; a *2d edition of 383 pages was published in 1849, reprinted as a *3d edition ; a * 4th edition of 429 pages in 1850 ; a * 5th edition of 464 pages in 1854, reprinted as a * 6th edition. — (See Barnard's Journal, Vol. IX, p. 487.) " Dr. Barnard was the first in any country to set up definite standards for school seats and desks on the basis of accurate measurements of children. These measurements were made as early as 1838," — (Burger- stein and N^etolitzky, Handbuch der Schulhygiene, p. 55.) American journal of education, 1855-1881. Among the most important articles for the present subject are: The condition of school buildings in the United States, 1838-1850, *Vol. IX, p. 491; physical training of teachers and pupils, by Catherine E. Beecher, in 1855, ^V^ol. II, p. 39; and the examples of school buildings in the United States. (*The analytical GENEEAL TKEATISES, ARCHITECTUKE 355 index of Barnard's Journal of education, issued by the bureau of education, Washington, D. C, 1892, pp. 107-8, gives the pages and volumes.) Eeport on school architecture and plans for graded schools, 1870. Bureau of education, Wash- ington. BELL, A. N. ^The physiological conditions and sanitary requirements of school-houses and school- life. [Prize essay, medical society. State of N. Y.] :N"ew York, 1887. BICK^ELL, A. J. * School-house and church archi- tecture. Containing 23 plates, showing 26 plans and elevations of district, village, and city school- houses. New York. BOYKIN, Jas. C. Physical training. * Eeport of com- missioner of education, 1891-92. Pp. 494-524 give a convenient history of the movement in the United States. BUDGETT, J. B. The hygiene of schools, or educa- tion mentally and physically considered. London, 1874. BURXHAM, W. H. Outlines of school hygiene. Pp. 9-71. Pedagogical seminary Vol. II, No. 1. Wor- cester, Mass., 1892. Excellent. BUREOWES, Thos. H. ^ Pennsylvania school archi- tecture, a manual of directions and plans for grading, locating, constructing, heating, ventilating, and fur- nishing common school-houses. Harrisburg. CAEPENTEE, Alfred. The principles and practice of school hygiene. With illustrations. London, 356 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SCHOOL HTGIEl^rE 1887. Jos. Hughes. Begins with school architecture, drainage, sewerage, etc. CHAD WICK, Edwin. *The sanitary construction of schools. Social science association. New York, 1871. CLARK, Hannah B. Sanitary legislation affecting schools in the United States. ^Report of commis- sioner of education, 1893-4. Pp. 1301-49. COUNCIL on education, England. ^Committee of plans of buildings (21 folio sheets). London. DRAPER, A. S. (editor). Designs for school-houses. Being the accepted plans in the competition con- ducted by the department of public instruction of the State of New York, etc. Albany, 1888. Designs for school-houses accepted by the depart- ment of public instruction of the State of New York. Albany, 1889. DUKES, Clement. * School dormitories. London health exposition, 1884. DWYER, Chas. P. *The economy of church, par- sonage, and school architecture. Buffalo, 1856. EVELETH, S. F. School-house architecture. De- signs for school-houses, with perspectives, elevations, plans, sections, details, and specifications, all drawn to working scale, with methods of heating and ven- tilation. New York. FARQUHARSON, Robert. * School hygiene and dis- eases incidental to school life. Pp. 369. London, 1895. Contents :— School buildings, school diet, school GENERAL TREATISES, ARCHITECTURE 357 work, school play, the duties of the school doctor, school diseases. Discussion of school play and diet of special interest. FEEEZE, J. E. Eeport on school-houses and the means of promoting popular education. In Vol. V. ^Eeports of the Paris exposition of 1867. Washing- ton, 1868. GAED^EE, E. C. Town and country school buildings. Isew York., 1888. HAEEIS,W. T. Preliminary report on school hygiene. Educational reyiew, pp. 1-8, June, 1899. HAETWELL, Edward H. Eeport of the director of physical training. School document 22, 1891. Boston. A contribution to the history of physical training. The report for 1895, school document ]^o. 4, Bos- ton, contains a history of the school desk reform. HODGI^S, J. George. *The school-house, its archi- tecture, external and internal arrangements; with elevations and plans for public and high school build- ings. Together with illustrated papers on the im- portance of school hygiene and ventilation, etc. Toronto, 1876. Hints and suggestions on school architecture and hygiene, with plans and illustrations. Toronto, 1886. JOHONNOT, James. ^Country school-houses, con- taining elevations, plans, and specifications, with estimates, directions to builders, suggestions as to school grounds, furniture, apparatus, etc., and a treatise on school-house architecture. ISTew York, 1859. 358 BIBLIOGEAPHY OF SCHOOL HYGIENE JOHOI^NOT, James. * School-houses. Architectural designs by S. E. Hewes. New York, 1871. KENDALL, H. C, Jr. * Designs for schools and school-houses, parochial and national. London, 1874. LINCOLN, D. F. * School and industrial hygiene. No. 12 of the American health primers. Phil., 1880. The sanitary conditions of school houses and school life. In the Lamb prize essays of the Ameri- can public health association. Pp. 63-98. Concord^ N. H. 1886. MANN, Horace. * Eeport of the secretary of the board of education on the subject of school-houses, sup- plementary to his first annual report. Boston, 1838. School-houses in Europe. In * 7th annual report. Boston, 1845". MASSACHUSETTS emergency and hygiene associa- tion. *Six lectures on school hygiene. Boston, 1885. Contents: — School hygiene, heating and ventilation, use and care of the eyes especially during school years, epidemics and disinfection, drainage, the relation of our public schools to disorders of the nervous system. * Hygiene of public schools in Massachusetts. Boston, 1879. MUKGATEO YD, J. * The arrangement and construc- tion of large middle-class schools — grammar and high schools. London health exposition, 1884. NEWSHOLME, Arthur. * School hygiene : or the laws of health in relation to school life. Pp. 150. D. C. Heath & Co., Boston, 1895. Makes use of Ameri- can sources of information, but discussions are very brief. GENERAL TREATISES, ARCHITECTURE 359 PAGET, Charles E.. ^Healthy schools. Interna- tional health exhibition handbooks. London, 1884. PHIPPS, Abner. Plans for villages and rural districts in Massachusetts with remarks on the condition of school-houses in 1872. From report to legislature in 1873 by Abner J. Phipps. Barnard's Journal, Vol. XXVII, p. 352-362. PHILBEICK, John D. ^ City school systems in the United States. Bureau of Education. Circular N'o. 1, 1885. Pp. 147-182. Washington. EEINHART, A. * Neglect of bodily development of American youth. Syracuse. EICHAEDSON, B. W. ^Learning and health. Syracuse. EOBSOI^, E. School architecture. Practical informa- tion on the planning, designing, building, and fur- nishing of school-houses. London. STOOES, M. * Health of our schools. Conn, school document, Dec, 1892. WHITFOED, W. C. Circular on plans and specifica- tions of school-houses. Madison, Wis., 1882. Ee- printed from the report of the State superintendent of public instruction. WILSON, W. Cams. >^ Helps to the building of churches, parsonage houses and schools ; containing plans, elevations, specifications, etc. London, 1842. WEIGHT, D. F. School hygiene. In report of State superintendent of public instruction, Tenn., 1884. YOUNG, A. G. Seventh annual report of the State. board of health of Maine. Pp. 83-385. Augusta, Me., 1892. 360 BIBLIOGIiAPHY OF SCHOOL HTGIEKE A good comprehensive treatise on school hygiene. Chapter II. — The Oeientatioi^ oe the Sohool- BUiLDiKG AKD Natueal Lightikg, pp. 35-52. BURN HAM. (See above page 355). Pp. 19-21, and 33-36. COHN, Hermann. Hygiene of the eye. Pp. 131-145. Simpkin, Marshall & Co., London, 1886. JAYAL, M. * Daylight in the school-room. New York. MAEBLE, A. P. * Sanitary conditions for school- houses. Lighting, pp. 50-56. Circular of informa- tion N"o. 3, 1891. Bureau of ed., Washington, D. C. YOUNG. (See above, page 359) pp. 260-279, also 363-86. He advocates strongly a northerly direction for school-room windows. Chapter III. — Artificial Illumikatioi^ of School- rooms, pp. 53-64. BURNHAM. (See above, page 355), pp. 35-6. COHN", Herman. (See above on this page), pp. 160-71. Technical journals like the Electric world and engineer, The American gas light journal, N. Y., and The progressive age, K. Y., etc., may be consulted for a description of different facilities and inventions in this field. Chapter IV. — Vektilatiois" and Cleaniitg, pp. 65-103. BILLINGS, John S. Ventilation and heating. New York, 1893. VENTILATION AND CLEANING 361 Important, especially so Chapter XVIII on school hygiene. * Information necessary to determine the merits of the heating and ventilation of a school building. N. E. A. 1882. The principles of ventilation and heating and their proper application. London, 1884. MITCHELL and BEEGY. The composition of expired air and its effects upon animal life. Smithsonian contributions to knowledge, Vol. 29. Abstract in the annual report for 1895. Gives results differing from those referred to by Dr. Kotelmann. BRIGGS, Eobert. ^Eeport on the plans for warming and ventilating the Bridgeport school-house. Phila., 1880. Hygienic construction of the Bridgeport high school building. Third annual report of the Con- necticut State board of health. Hartford, Conn., 1881. Eeprinted by Marble (see above, page 360). BUENHAM, W. H. (See above, page 355) pp. 22-33. CHAPIN". Crowded schools as promoters of disease. Pp. 296-300, Forum, May, 1894. HOLBEOOK, M. L. Bad breath in the school-room. School Bulletin, *Vol. II, p. 60, Dec. 1875. JACOB. Ventilation and Warming. Pp. 14, 124. London, 1894. " A very convenient outline." — Burnham. MAEBLE, A. P. (See above, page 360). *' Specially valuable in regard to heating and ventila- tion. ' ' — Burnham. 362 BIBLIOGEAPHY OF SCHOOL HYGIENE MEDICAL society of London and national health society. * Conferences on school hygiene and school construction, 1884. MAETIN, A. C. * The ventilation of school-houses. Boston, 1871. MORIIS^, Arthur. * Warming and ventilating occupied buildings. Washington, 1882. MOREISOK, Gilbert B. *The ventilation and warm- ing of school buildings. D. Appleton & Co., New York, 1887. PACKARD. School-room air; with directions for ex- amining it to determine the degree of its vitiation and the amount of ventilation required. * Special re- port of the bureau of education. Part II, pp. 349- 92. Washington, D. C, 1886. PENNIMAN. The criminal crowding of public schools. Forum, May, 1895, pp. 289-95. PRUDDEN. The story of bacteria. Pp. 143. Xew York, 1889. Dust and its dangers. Pp. 111. New York, 1890. SMART, Charles. The chemical examination of air as applied to questions of ventilation. *N. E. A., 1882. THORNE, R. T. Inlets for infection. Popular sci- ence monthly. Vol. XXIV, p. 73-79. WAGNER and HERBERT. Bad air and bad health. Pp. 98. Edinburg, 1894. WHITE. Ventilation. Proceedings of the tenth an- nual convention of the International association of HEATIKG, SCHOOL FUKKITURE 363 factory inspectors of North America. Toronto, Canada, 1896. WOODBEIDGE, S. H. Plans for heating and venti- lating school-houses. Pp. 315-386. Seventh annual report of the State board of health of Maine. Augusta, Me. * A method of warming and ventilating small school-houses. Illustrated. YOUXG. (See above, page 359) pp. 283-314. Also pp. 148-151 on school baths. Chapter Y. — Heati:n^g. BALDWro. Steam heating data. Pp. 365. K'ew York, 1897. " A standard authority upon the subject." — W. H. Burnham. C AEPEN"TEK, A. Heating and ventilating buildings . ■ l^ew York, 1896. "A standard handbook giving scientific principles and data." — W. H. Burnham. See also Billings, Briggs, Burnham, Marble, Morrison, Woodbridge, and Young. Op. cit. Chapter VI. — School Fur^^iture, pp. 144-169. BAENAED, Henry. (See above, page 354). BOBEICK. Hygienic requirements of school furni- ture. Pp. 51. IS^ew York, 1892. BEOWX, Buckminster. * Influence of the prevailing methods of education on young persons of both sexes. American social science association, 1879. BUEl^HAM, W. H. (See above, page 355), pp. 39-49. 364 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SCHOOL HYGIENE HAETWELL, Edward Mussey. Report of the direc- tor of physical training. School document No. 4, 1895. Boston, Mass. The most important treatise on the subject in English. SCUDDER, C. F. Investigation into one of the etiological factors in the production of lateral curva- ture of the spine. — Reasons why the seating of school children should receive very careful supervision. School document Xo. 9, 1892. Boston, Mass. SHAW. The latest improved hygienic desk. School journal, May 1, 1897. SMITH, Noble. ^Postures in school; their influence upon physical development. London, health exhibi- tion, 1884. Chapters VII, VIII. — The Hygieke of the Nery- ous System, pp. 170-238. BARDEEN, C. W. The sentimental sehoolmaster. School Bulletin, *Vol. XII, p. 128, July, 1886. Points out disastrous effects upon girls often ob- served. BARNES, Earl. Intellectual habits of Cornell stu- dents. Cornell mag., Nov., 1890. BEARD, G. M. American nervousness. Its causes and consequences. Pp. 352. New York, 1881. — — A practical treatise on nervous exhaustion. Its causes and consequences. Pp. 198. New York, 1880. Dr. Beard's work is of special importance. BERGSTROM, J. A. An experimental study of some of the conditions of mental activity. American THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 365 journal of psychology, Jan., 1894. Vol. VI., pp. 247-74. Mental activity as affected by daily rhythm, baro- metric changes, exercise, fatigue, and associational tendencies. BEIGHAM, Amariah. * Mental exertion in relation to health. Edited with a chapter on the cause and care of indigestion in literary men, by Arthur Larned . London, 1864. BEOWN, J. Crichton. Education and the nervous system. London, 1884. BURJ^HAM, W. H. (See above, page 355), pp. 9-18, and 60-65. BUXTON^, Sydney. * Overpressure in the primary schools. London, Sonnenschein & Co. CARTEE, E. B. * Overwork in schools. London, health exposition, 1884. CLAEKE, Dr. E. H. * The building of a brain. Pp. 153. Boston, 1874. * Sex in education : or a fair chance for girls. Pp. 181. Boston, 1886. " These two books are still classics." — Burnham. CLOUSTON. The growth and development of the child in body and mind. Edinburgh, 1884. The neuroses of development. Pp. 138. Olive & Boyd, Edinburgh, 1891 Important. CLOUSTON. Developmental insanities and psychoses. The delirium and night terrors of children. The insanities of puberty and adolescence. Tuke's dic- tionary of psychological medicine. Vol. IV, pp. 357- 317. 366 BIBLIOGEAPHT OF SCHOOL HYGIEKE COMFOET, Anna M. and Gr. E. * Woman's education and woman's health; chiefly in reply to " Sex in education". Syracuse, 1874. COE^ING, J. Leonard. Brain exhaustion, with some preliminary considerations on cerebral dynamics. Pp. 324. New York, 1884. Brain rest, being a disquisition on the curative properties of prolonged sleep. New York, 1885. COWLES, Edward. Neurasthenia. Shattuck lecture. Boston, 1891. The relation of fatigue to insanity: its symptoms and causation. Has many references. The mental symptoms of fatigue. Pp. 25. New York, 1893. DONALDSON, H. H. The growth of the brain. Pp. 374. Scribner's, New York, 1895. On the structure and development of the nervous system, in the American text-book of physiology. Philadelphia, 1896. The best treatises on the subject. DOWN, J. Langdon. On some mental affections of childhood and youth. Pp. 307. London, 1887. DRESSLAE, F. B. Fatigue. Pedagogical seminary, Vol. II, No. 1, pp. 102-106. DEUEY, F. M., and FOLSOM, C. F. Effects of the study for examinations on the nervous and mental conditions of female students. Psychological re- view, pp. 55-62, 1898. DUKES, Clement. Health at school considered in its mental, moral, and physical aspects. Pp. 498, XXIV, London, 1894. THE KEEYOUS SYSTEM 367 DUKES, Clement. Work and overwork. Pp. 69. London, 1893. The essentials of school diet, or the diet suitable for the growth and development of youth. Lon- don, 1891 ^ School dietaries. London health exposition, 1884. FAEIES, Eandolph. Practical training for athletics, health, and pleasure. The Outing publishing co., New York, 1899. FAYREE, Jos. *Home lessons after school hours. London health exposition, 1884. FEEXALD, W. E. The history of the treatment of the feeble-minded. Boston, 1893. FITZ. Play as a factor in development. American physical education review, Dec, 1897. FLEUEY, de. A cure for indolence. Fortnightly review, pp. 762-80, May, 1898. FOSTEE. Weariness. Nineteenth cent. , pp. 337-52, Sept., 1893. GALTON, Francis. Eemarks on replies from teach- ers to questions respecting mental fatigue. Journal of the anthropological institute, April, 1888. It will be found also nearly complete in ^ Eeport of com. of ed., 1895-6 beginning p. 1181. Important. GEEENW^OOD, Eichard. ^Over-pressure in ele- mentary schools. London health exposition, 1884. HANCOCK, John A. A preliminary study of motor ability. Pedagogical seminary. Vol. Ill, No. 1, pp. 9-29, 1894. 368 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SCHOOL HTGIEKB HAETWELL, Edward Mussey. Eeport of the direc- tor of physical training. School document No. 8, 1894. Death rate of school children in Boston, pp. 1-69. HARRIS,AY. T. * Report of the committee of fifteen. Ed. rev. March, 1895. Also in separate form hy Am. book co., N. Y., Cin., Chi. An especially valuable discussion of the causes of arrested development in different subjects. The school programme. Reports of the com. of education, Washington, D. C. Mental fatigue in school. * Report for 1894- 5, pp. 449-460 gives a summary of opinions of foreign experts. * Report for 1895-6, pp. 1174-1198 gives a summary of opinions of English and American writers. HERTEL, Axel. * Overpressure in the high schools of Denmark. London, 1885. Report of the impor- tant investigations which lead to the more extensive studies in Denmark and Sweden. See Pedagogical seminary. Vol. I, p. 245. HIGGINS, P. J. * Study physiologically considered. Popular science monthly. Vol. XXIV, p. 639-645. HODGE, C. F. A microscopical study of changes due to functional activity in nerve cells. Journal of morphology. Vol. VII, No. 2, pp. 95-168. Bos- ton, 1892. Experiments on the physiology of alcohol made under the auspices of the committee of fifty. Pop. sci. mo.. Vol. 50. Pp. 766-812. HOOSEj^James H. Report of committee on hygiene THE NEEYOUS SYSTEM 369 in education. Eecess or no recess in sckools. "^ Pro- ceedings of the X. E. A. 1885. lEELAXD. The mental afflictions of children. Idiocy, imbecility, and insanity. Pp. 442. London, 1898. JAMES, William. Talks to teachers. Henry Holt & Co. Xew York, 1899. The best and most interesting discussion of the hy- gienic aspects of normal psychology. Principles of psychology. Yol. I, pp. 80-127; and Yol II, pp. 372-382. Henry Holt & Co. Xew York. JOHXSOX, X. C. Habits of work and methods of study of high school pupils in some cities in Indiana . The School review, May, 1899. Chicago. JOHXSOX G. E. Contributions to the psychology and pedagogy of feeble-minded children. Peda- gogical seminary, Yol. Ill, pp. 246-301. 1895. Education by plays and games. Pedagogical sem- inary, Yol. II, pp. 95-133. KEILER, Alex. * What may be the dangers of ed'l overwork for both sexes, with special reference to the higher class of girls' schools, and the effects of competitive examinations. Social science association, 1880. KROHX, W. 0. Xervous diseases of school children. Child study monthly ,^Yol. I, pp. 345-368, April, 1896. LIXCOLX, D. F. The nervous system as affected by school life. In " *The health of schools ". Bos- ton, 1876. LIXDLEY, E. H. A preliminary study of some of 370 BIBLIOGRA.PHY OF SCHOOL HYGIEl^E the motor phenomena of mental effort. Am. jour- nal of psychology, July, 1896, pp. 491-517. See also Pedagogical seminary, July, 1897, pp. 41-60. LOMBARD, W. P. Some of the influences which affect the power of voluntary muscular contractions. Journal of physiology. Vol. XIII, pp. 1-58. The variations in the normal knee-jerk and their relations to the activity of the central nervous sys- tem. American journal of psychology. Vol. I, pp. 5-71. LUKEJSFS, H. T. The school fatigue question in Germany. Educational review. Vol. XV, pp. 246- 254. Mental fatigue. American physical review, pub- lished by the A. A. A. P. E., Vol. IV., N^os. 1 and 2. Cambridge, 1899. MAN^AOEINE, de. Sleep: its physiology, pathology, hygiene, and psychology. Pp. 341. New York, 1897. MAEBLE, A. P. The growth of children as related to health and ability to study. (See above, page 360) pp. 57-61. MAUDSLEY, H. *Sex in mind and in education. Syracuse, 1884. "A masterly treatment of a delicate subject." — New England Journal of Ed'n. MEECIER, Charles. The nervous system and the mind. Pp. 347. Macmillan. London, 1888. MEYER, Adolph. On the observation of mental ab- THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 371 normalities in school children. * Child study month- ly, pp. 1-12, May, 1895. MILLS, Chas. K. Over-work and sanitation in the public schools of Phil., with remarks on the influ- ences of overwork in the production of nervous diseases and insanity. Phil., 1886. MITCHELL, Weir. Wear and tear, or hints for the overworked. Pp. 76. Phil., 1887. MOORE, John M. Studies of fatigue. Yale studies, Vol. II, pp. 68-96. :N^ew Haven. O'SHEA, M. Y. Practical phases of mental fatigue. Pop. sci. mo. Pp. 511-524. August, 1899. PATRIDGE, G. E. Second breath. Pedagogical sem- inary. Pp. 372-81, April, 1897. PORTER, W. T. The physical basis of precocity and dulness. Pp. 20. Academy of science of St. Louis, Mo., 1893. RICHARDSOX, B. W. * Learning and health, Syra- cuse, 1883. ROYCE. Mental defect and disorder from the teach- er's point of view. Ed. Review. Oct., Nov., Dec, 1893. New York. REEVE, J. C. The brain and nervous system in their relations to teaching and learning. Dayton, 1878. SACHS. A treatise on the nervous diseases of chil- dren for physicians and students. Pp. 66. London, 1895. SHAW, E. R. Fatigue. ^Proceedings of the N. E. A., pp. 550-554, 1898. SHUTTLEWORTH, Geo. E. Mentally deficient chil- 372 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SCHOOL HYGIENE dren; their treatment and training. Pp. 140. H. K. Lewis, London, 1895. A good introduction; contains a bibliography, pp. 122-126. SIDGWICK. Health statistics of women students of Cambridge and Oxford, and their sisters. Pp. 99. Cambridge, 1890. STEACHA]^, John. * What is play ? Its bearing on education and training. A physical inquiry. Edin- burgh, 1877. WAENER, Fr. The study of children and their school training. Pp. XIX and 264. New York, 1897. " A convenient resume of the author's views." — Burnham. * Some points of the physical aspects of primary ed'n. Social science ass'n, 1879. *The brain of the child. The same, 1884. YOUNG. (See above, page 359) pp. 151-192. Chapters IX, X. The Hygieiste of the Eye akd Ear, pp. 239-. AGNEW, C. S. Defects of eye-sight. In "*The health of schools." Boston, 1876. ALLPORT, Frank. The eye and its care. Phila- delphia, 1894. Defective eye-sight in American children. Re- view of reviews, June, 1897. — — Tests for defective vision in school children. Educational review, New York, 1897. — Report of eye examinations in the Minneapolis THE ETE Al^D EAR 373 public schools. Journal of American medical asso- ciation, pp. 207-211, 1898. AMERICAN" society of social science. *Is the human eye gradually changing its form and becoming near- sighted under the influence of modern education ? Xew York, 1877. BURN"HAM, W. H. (See above, page 355), pp. 49-60. BRYA^, W. L. Suggestions on the study of chil- dren. Inland educator, Terre Haute, Aug. and Sept., 1895. CALHOUJST, A. M. ^ Effects of student life upon eye- sight. Pp. 29. Bureau of education, Washing- ton, 1881. CARTER, R. B. Report on the vision of children attending elementary schools in London. Pp. 16. London, 1896. CATTELL, Tests of the senses and faculties. Edu- cational review, pp. 257-65, March, 1895. New York. CHRISMAN", Oscar. The hearing of children. Ped- agogical seminary, Vol. II, pp. 391-441, 1892. Wor-- cester. Contains a good resume of investigations up to its date, and a bibliography. COHX, H. The hygiene of the eye. Pp. 236 and VII. London, 1886. * Eyes and schoolbooks. Popular science monthly. XIX., 54. DEN:N'ETT, Wm. S ^Report of examinations of the eyes of the pupils of the schools of Hyde Park, Mass., 1880. 374 BIBLTOGEAPHT OF SCHOOI HTGIElfE JACKSON, J. The theory and practice of handwrit- ing. Pp. 160. London, 1893. JAMES, John S. * Suggestions to teachers regarding visual defects of school children. School education^ Oct., 1892. JEFFEIES, B. Joy. Color-blindness, its dangers and detection. Boston, 1883. Eeport of the examination of 27,927 school chil- dren for color-blindness. Boston, 1880. LUCKEY. Comparative observations on the indirect color range of children, adults, and adults trained in color. American journal of psychology, Jan., 1895. McLean, Ward. Effects of study on the eye-sight. Popular science monthly, Nov., 1877. NOETHRUP, B. O. * Near-sightedness in schools, its causes, prevalence, and prevention. New Haven, 1877. ROYAL society of London, 1892. Report of the committee on color vision, pp. 281-396. RANDALL. The hygienic and scientific value of examinations of the eyes and ears of school children, pp. 8. Chicago, 1895. RISLEY. Weak eyes in the public schools of Phila- delphia. Philadelphia, 1881. Defective vision in school children. Educational review, pp. 348-54. April, 1892. New York. ROOSA. Defective eye-sight and the principles of its relief by glasses. Macmillan Co., 1899. VOICE AND SPEECH 375 SHAW. Vertical script and proper desks as related to education. Proceedings for the advancement of physical educa- tion. April, 1895. S^ELL. Eye-sight and school life. Pp. VIII and 70. Bristol, 1895. SOUTHARD. The modern eye, with an analysis of 1,300 errors of refraction. Pp.32. San Francisco, 1893. WOREELL. Deafness among school children. Transactions of the Indiana state medical society. Pp. 25-33. Indianapolis, 1883. YORKE-AT-LEE, Sam'l. * Defective eye-sight. Popular science monthly. Y0U:N"G. (See above, page 359.) Pp. 98-119. Chapter XI. The Hygiene of Voice and Speech. BEHNKE, E. and BROWN, L. The child's voice; its treatment with regard to after development. A. :N". Marquis & Co., Chicago, 1885. BRYAN, W. L. and HARTER, Noble. Studies in the physiology and psychology of the telegraphic language. Psychological review, Jan., 1897, pp. 27-53. New York. Studies on the telegraphic language. The ac- quisition of a hierarchy of habits. Ibid., July, 1899. Pp. 345-375. An important investigation into the causes of the long periods of apparently slight progress after the first rapid success in learning languages and other subjects. 376 BIBLIOGEAPHY OF SCHOOL HYGIENE CHATER, Thos. Scientific voice, artistic singing, and effective speaking. London, 1890. HARTWELL, E. M. Stuttering. Report of the director of physical training. School Doc, No. 8, 1894, pp. 69-97. An important statistical study. HOWARD, F. E. The child's voice in singing. Pp. 196. Werner Co., Chicago. LUKENS, H. T. Preliminary report on the learning of language. Pedagogical seminary. Vol III, No. 3. June, 1896. Worcester. MACKENZIE. The hygiene of the vocal organs. Pp. 223. London, 1886. MONROE, Lewis B. ^Manual of physical and vocal training, for the use of schools and for private in- struction. Illustrated by Hammett Billings. Phil., 1869. MULFORD. The throat of the child. Educational review. Pp. 261-72, March, 1897. New York. MYER, E. J. The voice from a practical standpoint. New York, 1886. PATTON, A. A. Responsibility of vocal teachers as voice builders. New York, 1886. Chaptees XII, XIII. Scoliosis, I^tfectious Dis- eases, a;rd Sexual Ieregulakities. BANGrOR, Me. Rules of the schoolboard respecting contagious diseases. Reprinted in * School Bulle- tin, Vol. XIII, p. 20, Oct. 1886. BARDEEN, C. R. * Infection and Immunity. Syra- cuse. IKFECTIOUS DISEASES, IREEGULAEITIES 377 BARXES, Earl. ^Studies in education, pp. 301-8, gives a bibliography by Prof. Earl Barnes of books and pamphlets intended to give sex information. Leland Stanford, Jr., univ., Palo Alto, Cal. BUCK, A. H. (editor). Reference handbook of med- ical sciences. Eight volumes. Xew York, 1885-87. BURXHAM, W. H. The study of adolescence. Pedagogical seminary, Vol. I, JSTo. 2, pp. 174 to 196. June, 1891. EATO^", Gen. John (editor). Typhoid fever in schools. ^Report of commissioner of education, 1875, p. clxiii. EITZ. A study of measurements of curvature of the spine. American orthopedic association. Pp. 3, 1897. KROH]^^, W. 0. Habitual postures of school chil- dren. ^^Child study monthly, Oct., 1895. LAN^CASTER, G. E. The psychology and pedagogy of adolesence. Pedagogical seminary. Vol. 1, ^o. 1, pp. 61-128. LUEHR. Causes and prevention of lateral curvature of the spine, and near-sightedness. Mind and body, Sept., 1894. MOSHER. Habitual postures of school children. Educational review, March, 1897. Pp. 261-72. ^ew York. MULLER, Geo. Spinal curvature and awkward devel- opment. Their causes and prevention in children. Pp. 88. London, 1894. REILLY, Charles. Contagious diseases in schools. School Bulletin, ^^ol. XIII, p. 93 (April, 1887.) 378 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SCHOOL HYGIEKE SILJESTEOM, P. A. *A momentous educational question [vaccination]. London, 1883. SMITH, Southwood. * Epidemics considered with re- lation to their common nature, and to climate and civilization. Edinboro, 1856. TISSOT, S. A. * An essay on diseases incident to lit- erary and sedentary persons. With proper rules for preventing their fatal consequences, and instructions for their cure. 2d ed. With preface and notes by I. Kirkpatrick, M. D. London, 1769. VIROHOW. *0n school room diseases. Washington bureau of education, August, 1870. YOUNG. (See above, page 359). Pp. 119-125, and 132-147. Articles for this section may be found in large num- bers in encyclopedias, medical handbooks, current medical and educational Journals, reports of boards of health, etc. AlfTHROPOMETRIC IkVESTIGATIONS Investigations into the rate of growth of boys and girls and the conditions which influence it. AMERICAN statistical association. ^Papers on anthro- pometry. Boston, 1894. Contains an important col- lection of articles by Hartwell, Boas, Porter, Hitch- cock, Enebuski, and Bowditch, with a bibliography of anthropometry in the United States. May be had from Mr. Davis R. Dewey, Mass. Inst, of Tech., for 50 cts. BOAS, Franz. Anthropological investigations in ANTHROPOMETKIC INYESTIGATIOIfS 379 schools. Pedagogical seminary, pp. 225-8, June, 1891. Science, June, 26, 1891, p. 351-2. — The growth of children. Science, Vol. XIX, pp. 256, 281-2; Vol. 20 pp. 351-2. — The limitations of the comparative method of anthropology. Science, IS". S. Vol. IV, pp. 901-8. The growth of Toronto children. *Eeport of commissioner of education for 1896-7, pp. 1541-99. BOLTOX, T. L. The growth of memory in school children. American journal of psychology. April, 1892, Vol. IV, pp. 362-380. BOWDITCH, H. P. The growth of children. Eighth annual report of the State board of health of Mass., 1877. Pp. 275-323. Reprinted in papers on anthropometry. An important pioneer investigation. The growth of children. Tenth annual report State board of health of Mass., 1879. Pp. 33-62. The growth of children studied by Galton's method of percentile grades. Twenty-second annual report of the State board of health of Mass., 1890. Pp. 479-522. BRYAX, W. L. On the development of voluntary motor ability. American journal of psychology. X^ov., 1892, pp. 125-204. BUEK, Frederick. Growth of children in height and weight. American journal of psychology. xA.pril, 1898, Vol. IX. Xo. 3. A comparative study of investigations so far made, with a descriptive bibliography. OALTOX, Prancis. On the principles and methods 380 BIBLIOGEAPHY OF SCHOOL HYGIENE of assigning marks for bodily efficiency. Nature, Oct. 31, 1889. Pp. 649-53. Useful anthropometry. Proceedings of the American association for advancement of physical education. Vol. VI, pp. 51-7, 1891. GEEElSrWOOD, J. M. Heights and weights of chil- dren. American public health association report, 1891. See also Kansas City report, 1890-1, pp. 42-56. GEOSZMA]V[X, M. P. E. "^ A working manual of child study. Syracuse. Gives in detail the method employed in the Schools of ethical culture, New York city. Syracuse, 1897. HARRIS, Wm. T. * Report on pedagogical and psy- chological observation. Syracuse. PEOKHAM, Geo. W. The growth of children. Sixth annual report of the State board of health of Wisconsin, 1881. Vol. VI, pp. 28-73. Pedagogi- cal seminary, Vol. I, p. 298. PEREZ, B. *The first three years of childhood. With an introduction by Prof. Sully. Syracuse. This is of such general interest that it is included by the American library association in the list of books to be contained in every library. PORTER, W. T. The physical basis of precocity and dulness. (See above, page 371.) On the application to individual school children of the means derived from anthropological measure- ments by the generalizing method. Quarterly publ- ANTHROPOMETKIC Il^VESTIGATIONS 381 lications of the American statistical association, Vol. 3, pp. 576-87. Boston, 1893. — The growth of St. Louis children. Transactions of the academy of science of St. Louis, Mo. April 14, 1894. The use of anthropometrical measurements in schools. Educational review, Feb., 1896. ^ew York. >i^TIEDEMANX'S record of infant life. An English version of the French translation and commentary of B. Perez, by F. Louis Soldan. Syracuse. WEST, Gerald M. Worcester school children. The growth of the body, head, and face. Science, Jan. 6, 1893. Bibliographies oe School Hygiene BUR^N'HAM, Wm. H. Bibliography of school hygiene. * Proceedings of the Xational educational association, 1898. Pp. 505-523. An excellent descriptive bibliography to which the writer is indebted for a number of titles. Especially see pp. 520-3 for list of journals and reports. BILLINGS, John S. (editor). Index medicus. Monthly record of the current medical literature of the world. Edited by Dr. John S. Billings and Dr. Eobert Fletcher, Washington, D. C. Begins 1879. MacDONALD, Arthur. Abnormal man, being essays on education and crime and related subjects, with a digest of literature and a bibliography. The latter contains a great many titles of importance to school hygiene. 382 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SCHOOL HYGIEI^E WAEEEN, Howard C, (et. al., editors). The Psycho- logical index. Macmillan & Co. New York. An annual bibliography of the literature of psychology and related subjects. This and the Index medicus may be consulted for current literature. WILSON, L. N. * Bibliography of child study. Ped- agogical seminary, April, 1898. May be obtained in separate form from J. H. Orpha, Worcester, Mass. Price 50 cts. A valuable descriptive bibliography. INDEX Page glenoid vegetations 285 a'ljustable desks 154 age of entering school 209 air, composition of 65 in the school-room 32 in ej-e-diseases ,. . 277 over-heated 290 air-tester 76 airing the room 92 albocarbon gaslight 60 Albrand 45 Altenstein 31 American hard pine 96 Anaxagoras 206 anaemia 67 aprosexia nasalis 287 Aquaviva, Claudius 21 arched ceilings 291 windows 45 archaeological collections 192 Argand burner : 59 argon 65 Aristotle 239 Arlt, von 32 army regulations 252 Arndt 171, 172 Arsouval, d' 67 artificial illumination 198 articulation 291, 302 aspirating chimney 81 assignment of desks 161 association of ideas 183 Auer's gas-light 59 -automatic regulated fire 120 regulators 124 awning for windows 48 Bach. Theodore 33, 35, 203 Page bacilli 329, 335, 348 back rests 134 backward inclination of seats 133 bacteria 70,72,288 Baginsky, Adolf 33, 35, 50 Barr, Thomas 281, 284 base burner stoves 108 Basedow, John Bernard, portrait. 25 Bastelmaun's contact thermome- ter 125 bathing 199, 206 Bayr, Emanuel 55 Becker 217, 219 Beethoven 170, 171 Begenmann 224 Behnke, Gustav 109 Bendziula, Albert 149 Berthold of Regensburg 17 bevelled windows 48 Beyer, O. W 203 Bezold, Friederich 32, 279, 281 Biermer 332 blackboard crayon 167 erasers 168 blackboards 16j kept clean 98 blinds 43, 48 blows on the temples 292 boating 199, 209 book-shelf for school-desk 143 Boubnoff 84 bowling 224 boxing the ears 292 brain, growth of ,209 the acropolis of the mind ... 170 breathing exercises 300 Breckling, SOnke 116 Breiting 32 (383) 384 SCHOOL HYGIENE Page Bresgen, Maximilian 33, 217, 285 brick walls detrimental 84 bronchial tubes 72 Brown-Sequard 67 Bruhl and Jahr 328 Buchner 32, 135 Burgerstein, Leo 33, 35, 55, 173, 189, 192, 261, 267, 339 Buttsted of Osterode 24 Butzke's arc light 59 Byron 170 Bystroff 217 calcium hydrate 102 California, university of . . . . .... .259 Camerarius, Joachim 19 cannon stoves 108 carbon monoxide 110 carbonic acid 65, 66 measured 73 oxide ^. Ill gas .'. 112 care of furnaces 122 stoves 110 Carnelly 71 cast iron 156 Castauing 90 Castaning's window ventilation. 91 cataract of the eye 254 catarrh of the bronchial tubes. . . 72 of the eye 277 central heating plants 112 cephalic congestions 216 cerebro-spinal meningitis 334 neuroses 237 Chamotte stone 113 chandeliers kept clean 98 Charcot 218 chemistry ex plosions. 291 chicken-pox 340 children's faults, science of 229 shimneys for gas 61 chin in singing 300 chorea St. Viti 237 choroid, inflammation of 254 Page class-rooms should be quiet 291 classics, study of reduced 215 cleanliness of the pupils 94 coaching 211 cocoa fibre mats 9& Cohn, Hermann 32, 42, 43, 44, . . . .49,. 54, 56, 61, 148, 246, 260, 349 cold draft 290 color 270 color-blindness 270 colored crayon 168 Columbus school desk 157 Combe 346 Comenius, John Amos 23 compass of voice 295 conjunctiva, inflammation of 273 Conrad, Max 241, 244 consonants 282 consumption 99 contamination of the air 66 continuous desks 155 seat for pupils 145 copy-books 266 corridors 196 crayon-holder 168 croup, membraneous 329 curtains 49 curvature of the spine 33, 310-319 Cuvier 170 cycling 224 daily programme 189 Dankwarth 92 Dante, 171 daylight important 38 reflector 46 decaying teeth 95 decoration of school-rooms 192 defective hearing, disadvantages. 283 deodorizing closets 102 desk frames of iron, not wood.. ..156 — width of 132 desks 128, 250, 315 Dettweiler spit-bottle 343 dictation not too rapid 269 IKDEX 385 Page diflferences in school desks 136 different sizes of desks 160 diphtheria 72, 288, 328-332 direct sunlight 48 diseases of the eye 272 disinfecting closets 102 distance between seat and desk . . 141 Dor ." 254 Dornbliith, Fr 323 double desks 145 drafts 290 drawing 269 drawing-rooms 38 dryness of air 113 dulness often from defective ears. 285 duration of ventilation 92 dust 99, 277, 290 ear, discharges from 95 hygiene of 279-294 easels for blackboards 164 for map-holders 165 easterly exposure 36 Ebbinghaus, H 173 effect of study on the brain 173 Egyptian ej'e inflammation 273 electric light 53 Elsaesser 143, 156 ■ school desk 141, 160 Ely 241 emmetropia 244-246 Emminghaus 228 Engel. Ed 295 enlarging windows 47 fepidemics 101 epilepsy 234 epileptic pupils excluded 235 Erb 221 Erismann, Fr 32, 44,54, 71, 123, 143,241 fismarch. . 137 Eulenberg, H 33, 35, 219, 231 Eustachian tubes 286, 288 examinations 189, 216 before vacation 201 Page examinations of pupils' ears 279 of pupils' eyes 277 excretions from lungS'and skin.. 69 excursions 199, 205 experiments and demonstration. 190 eye defects 32 glasses 251, 252, 264 hygiene of the 239-278 Fahrner 32, 135, 146 Falk 33 Fantoni 172 far-sightedness 240 fatigue begins early 192 comes soon 181 feet, perspiring 95 Ferdinands, George 242 Fi zia 258 floors 95 made waterproof 100 Foggie 71 follicular inflammation 275 Fonsagrive 224 foot-board 154 foot-mats 94 foot-rests 133 Forster 46, 114 Frank, Johann Peter 28 Frankel-Weichselbaum bacillus. 335 Frederick William III 13 William IV 31 Friedmann 228 Froriep 31 front light 5o Fiirtenbach, Joseph 22 Galen 239 Galenus 120 years old 19 Gambetta 171 games 18, 19, 197, 199, 205 Garbini, Adriano 297, 298, 303 gas 58 fixtures kept clean 98 stoves 109 Gauster 33 386 SCHOOL HYGIENE Page Geiler of Kaisersberg 17 Gelle 281, 283 geographical collections 192 German measles 323 script 267 type 261 Germans myopic 258 Gilbert, J. Allen 296 Giessen 185 Gillert, E 44, 82 globes for gas 61 Gnauss 171 Goepel 205 Goethe, portrait 27 Gothic windows 45, 47 Gotthold 31 Gotze, Woldemar 225 granulated eye-lids 273 Gratiolet 171 Greek vs. German games 19 Griesbach, H 185, 188, 198,227 grippe 346-349 Grimm, Jacob 267 Gruber, Max 265 Grusdeff 342 jEsthesiometer 186 guide-lines for writing 266 Guillaume 33, 217, 219, 311 Gumtz 230 Guts Muths 27 Gutzmann, Albert 308 Herbert 33, 304, 305, 306, 309 Guye 287 gymnastic games 206 halls 99, 196 gymnastics 29, 205 at recess 197 fatiguing 184 habituation 183 Hsesecke, E 104 Hagenbach 332 Hakqnson-Hansen, M. K.195, 217, 344 Hall, G. Stanley; 173 Halle gymnasium 20 Page handwriting large at first 268 Haselbach, Thomas 17 Hasse 230 hats 94 Hebrews myopic 258 height of desk 136 Heiusius 31 helium '. 65 Helmholtz. 172, 296 Heunig's daylight reflector 46 Herder 26 heredity in myopia 254 Hermann, August. ...32, 135, 147, 148 Hertel 217 Hesse, W 70 higher schools not for all 210 Hintrager, Karl 22 Hippauf 155 Hippel, A. von 32, 242, 244, 255 historical collections 192 history of school hygiene 17 Holmes, Marion E 173 Holmgren's test 271 home tasks 230 work 210 HOpfner, Ludwig 176, 192 Horstmann 241 hot air furnaces 112 air heating 81 water systems 81, 117 how many at a desk 144 Hrabowski's overhead reflector.. 57 humidity of the air 113 Huth 45 hygiene of the eye 239 hyper metropia 240-243 Hyrtl 172 idiocy in children 229 illumination, artificial 53, 260 natural 35,260 needed 63 too strong 48 Ignatieff 70, 84, 201 illegible writing 268 IKDEX 387 Page iuclinatiou of desk 138 infectious diseases. 95, 99, 276, 320-352 ink for books 260 for writing 266 inflammation of the ear 290 of the eye 273 influenza 288, 346-349 intermission at noon 198 iron cylinder stoves 108 frames 156 Jahn. J. C 27, 31 Janke, Otto 225 Januschke 182, 192, 196 Jasper 55 Javal 51 Jesuits 21 Kafemann 33 Kant 171 Kauffer parlor stove 108 Keidel patented stoves 108 Keller, C....177, 179, 185, 191, 217, 182 Kemsies, Ferdinand. 180, 182, 185, 300 kerosene 62 Key, Axel 217, 220, 227 Kirchner, M 256. 258 Klebs-Lofler bacillus 329 Klopsch 311 Koch, J. L. A 229 Robert 342 Koldewey, Fr 24 Konigstein, Leopold 265 Kopke 31 KOrner, Otto 236 K5rosi, J 320 Kotelmann, L 209, 256, 322 Kottmann's desk 156, 159, 160 desk arranged for standing. 159 Kraeplin, Emil 194 KrafEt-Ebing 217 Krug, W 276,310, 312, 313 Krtiss, Hugo 39 krypton 65 Kunze 32. 133, 134, 135. 149 Page Kunze desk 160 lamps kept clean 98 Landolt 241 Lang 32 Lange, Viktor : . . 286 Langerhans 342 larynx at puberty 301 Laser, Hugo 174, 189 laj^ers of air 115 Lemonnier 55 length of lines in books 262 — of school desk 144 Lickroth 143 desk 155, 160 map-holder 166 Liebig 171 Liebrecht, K 48, 49 light from the left 51 from two sides 51 lighting of school-room... 35, 53, 260 lime as a disinfectant 102 line-sheets for writing 266 linoleum 96 liters of water evaporated 115 Locke, John 25 loin-back-rests 135 Lorenz 32, 314 Lorinser, C. J 29 low-pressure steam sj^stems 119 lunacy 228 lunches 195 Lunge, Georg 76 Luther, Martin, portrait 17 Malling-Hansen, R 347 management of ventilators . . 89 maniacal excitement 229 manual training 225 map-holders 165 margins of books 262 masturbation 349 Mayer 313 measles 288, 320-324 mechanics of sitting 128 388 SCHOOL HYGIEKE Page Meidinger stoves 108, 109 Melanchthon, Philip 19 melancholia 229 membraneous croup 329 memorizing , 184 memory work fatiguing 188 mental alienation . .229 disease 228 Meyer, Hermann 128 W . . 33 Meynert, Theodore 231 Meyrich, Oswald 94 micro-organisms 71,72 microbes in the school-room .... 71 minus distance 142 Morin Ill Mosso, A 177 ergograph 177 Motais 256 mouches volantes 254 mountain air 72 Moure 281 mucous membranes 329 mumps 335 music lessons.- ...211 Miitzell 31 myopia 30, 246-270 Nager 32, 293 natural curvature of the spine. . .137 illumination 38,197 navy regulations 252 near-sighted pupils 161 near-sightedness 30, 246-270 nervous system 170 nervovisness 220 Nesteroff 222 Netolitzky, Aug 38, 35, 339 Neumann, H 120, 325 neuralgia 224 neurasthenia 224, 228 neurasthenic pupils 222 neuroses of the heart 224 Nicati 258 no text-book of science 215 Page Nohl, Clemens 209 noises, violent 290 northerly exposure 38 nose-bleed 219 Nussbaum, Chr 37 Ohlemann 281 onanism 349 one or two sessions a day 197 opening windows and doors 91 organic dust particles 69 excretions 73 impurities 67 organization of material 184 orientation 35 Ostender 109 over-heated air 290 pressure 31,109, 191, 211 stimulation of the nerves.. 221 overcoats 94 overhead reflector 57 overshoes 94 paper for text-books 260 for writing 266 Parow 32,311 school-desk 148, 160 pathogenic bacteria 72, 99, 288 Paulsen, E 295 pedagogical pathology 229 penmanship 264, 315 pericardial anxiety 224 Perlia.... 47,273,275 permeability of building stones . . 83 Permewan, W ...284 personal hygiene 3&" hygiene of the pupils 170 perspiration insensibilis 68 perspiring feet 95 petroleum 62 Pettenkoflfer, von 32, 83 Pettenkoffer's method 73 Pfeifer ...348 Pfliiger, E 32, 54, 255 pharyngeal tonsil 286 IKDEX 389 Page phonic method in reading 303 photometer 39 physical education 33 physiological experiments on the brain 172 pitch in singing 301 play grounds . . 196 Pliny ,.240 plus distance 142 Plutarch 239 postures, bad 319 potassium permanganate 69 Prague medical board 139, 142 Prausek, Vincenz 155 print of text-books 260 prisms for reflecting daylight 46 promotion 233 psychic epidemic 234 puberty, change of voice 301 pulling the hair ... 292 purpose of vacation 202 quick answers 304 racial problems of the eye. .... 258 rambles 199, 206 Eamminger and Stetter school desk 157, 160 reading, the voice in 302 to be limited _ 264 real-schools without Latin 210 recesses 193 Recknagel 86 Reclam 32 Reichard, von 32, 279, 280 Rembold 33 remedies for in sufficient daylight. 45 removal of foul air. 88 Renk, Fr 59,62 requirements for a good school desk 130 reservoir stoves. 108 retina, hemorrhage in. . . . 254 Rettig, W 146 Reuss, August R. von 245, 265 Page Richter, Gustav 194 Jean Paul 26 rickets 310 Rietschel, H 32, 33, 80 Rimpler . 32 Ritzmann, E 315 roller curtains 49 roller frame blackboards 162 Roman type 261 Rossbach ...217 Rousseau's Emile 26 Riibner 64 Rychna, Joseph 320 Sadolet 19 St. Clair-Deville Ill St. Vitus dance 236 Saint-Yon ..228 Salernitan rule 106 Sand, George 317 sanitary school management 32 satchels 318 scarlet fever 288, 324-328 Scheuk, Felix 32, 132, 313 school desk 153 Schildbach, C. H 32,149,311 Schiller, H 185, 191,349 Tietz 69 Schleich 241 Schlenck 55 Schlimp's desk. . 135, 151 Schmidt. F. A 32, 98 Rimpler, H 44, 72, 248, 274 school-books 260 desks 32, 128,260,315 for standing 179 requirements for. . . .' 130 diseases 32 garden : 20 headaches 216 rooms in the mountains. , . .204 societies harmful 233 study 188 Schulthess, W 315 Schubert, Paul 33, 315 390 SCHOOL HYGIENE Page Schuscliny, Heinrich 221, 281 sclerotic 257 scoliosis 310-319 scrapers 94 script 267,315 sea-air 72 seats 128, 260 back of 134 too near the wall 145 second-hand text-books 263 Seggel ..268 Sexton, Samuel 281 sexual neuroses 224 shades for electric light 54 for gas 61 Shermunski 281, 284 short-hand 269 shouting injurious 305 shutters 48 side reflectors 56 Siegert, Gustav 231 Siemen's gas burner 58 singing 291, 295-302, 305 a hygiene exercise 298 rules for 299-302 Sikorsky 173, 189 single desks 155 size of brain 170 skating 199 sketch from nature 270 slates banished 265 sleep, abundance of 225 insufficient 187 loss of 231 sleighing 199 small-pox 289, 336-340 Smith-Lunge air-tester 76 Snellen, Hermann 44 Soennecken 261 southeasterly exposure 36 southerly exposure 36 spaces between letters 262 speaking too rapidly 304 spectacles 251, 252, 264 spinal curvature 310-319 Page sponges for blackboords 168 spontaneity at recess 197 Staffel 135 standing in singing. 299 steam 119 stenography 269 Stephenson, Sidney 258 stereogoniometer 42 Stierlin 206- stigmographic drawing 269 Stilling, J 32, 255, 257 stoves 107 care of... 110 vs. central system 104 where placed 107 Strassburg Medical commission. 51 Strumpell, L 229 study in vacation 202^ Stuhlmann, A 269, 270 Sturges 23^ stuttering 33, 305. subjects of school study 180, 181, 183, 189 suicide 231 sun should shine into room 35 sunlight disinfects 36- sunless rooms unhealthful 35 sweat 68 sweeping 96 swimming 199. 205, 206 tablets 26& teeth, care of 95. temporary depression 181 temperature determined 208 for singing exercises 299^ in the school-room 121 recorded 124 test types 44 tests of ears 279^ of eyes 241 text-books 260 Thilenius 245 Thome 33 time of vacations 201 INDEX 391 Page tonsils 286 trachoma ; 273 trochlea of the eye 257 Troost Ill Trotzendorf 24 true methods of instruction 216 tuberculosis 72, 99, 341-344 turf closets 102 Turnham 228 tutoring 211 type, German 261 reading 47 size of 260 typhoid fever 844 typhus fever 288, 344-346 Ufer, Christian 228 Uflfelmann 69 umbrellas 94 undivided session in cities 199 uniform temperature 106, 123 unruled paper 267 urinals 102 use made of recess 1 95 vacations 200 in hot weather 207 vacation journeys 203 vaccination 337-340 Vannod, Theodore , , . . . 185 Varrentrapp 32, 37 Venetian blinds 50, 81, 90 ventilating flues 82, 88 windows 89 ventilation 65 guage 85 ■ of class-rooms 92, 290 vernacular, reading in 304 vertical script 33, 315 Vienna school-desk 139, 143, 150 vitreous humor 254 vocal organs 295-309 voice should be low 291, 300, 305 Voigt 338 Volt, E 114 Page Voltaire 171 vowels in reading 302 Wagner, Ludwig. 171, 177, 188, 198, 227 walks to and from school 199 Wallraff, Gustav 158 warm milk 196 water systems 118 Warner 222 Wassil jeff 298 water closets 100 in the ear 294 Weber, Leonard 39 photometer 39 stereogoniometer 42 Weil 32 Welsbach light 59 western exposure 38 whooping-cough 332-334 width of top of desk 140 Wiese 259 window blinds 45, 48 shutters 48 windows enlarged 47 for ventilation 91 Gothic 47 kept clean 97 opened at recess 84 shape of 45 Wipf, H 315 Wismar city school 20 Wolffhiigel Ill Wolpert's air-tester 78 work-shops 225 writing 264 class forward position 131 wrought iron 156 Wyss 206 yelling 291 zero distance 142, 146 Zwez 32, 132 Zwingli Ig, -THE SCHOOL BULLETIN PUBLICATIONS.- Blackboards and Blackboard Slating. 1. 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Mi-thod of Learning Danish and Norwegian. 12:135, $1.25; A't?/ 25 Lyttleton (E.) The Problem of Home Training. 31 C 12:200 1 50 MAC ALPINE (Neil). English- Gcdic and Gcelic-English Dictionary. (See also Stewart). 43 C 12:669 3 00 M'CuUy's Perforated Erasers. 63. Per doz 1 00 *Mace(\V. H.) A Working Manual of American History. 48 C 16:297... 100 McCosh C James), f Higher Education and a Common Language. 28 C 8:120 ■. 75 McKay (John S.) 100 Experiments i. 37 C 16:160 - 50 Songs from Arbor Day Manual. 60, 37 M 8:60 25 of the Liyeeum League. 60 L 4:48 20 Sonnenschein's Cycloimedia of Education. 14 C 8:562 3 75 Sornberger (S. J ) Normal Language Lessons, 41 B 16:75 50 Southwiclc (A. P.) Twenty Dime Question Book\ with full answers, notes, queries, etc. 59, 57 P 16:40. Each 10 Elementary Series 3. Physiology. 56 4. Theory and Practice. 30 6. U. S. History and Civil Gov't. 48 10. Algebra. 13. American Literature. 42 14. Grammar. 41 15. Orthography & Etymology. 36, 41 18. Arithmetic. 32 19. Physical and Political Geog. 45 20. Reading and Punctuation. 41 *The 10 in one book, C SLOO Advanced Series. 1. Physics. 56 2. General Literature. 42 5. General History. 48 7. Astronomy. 8. Mythology. 9. Rhetoric. 41 11. Botany. 12. Zoology. 16. Chemistry. 17. Geology. *Thc 10 in one book, C Si. 00 Extra numbers, edited by C. W. Bardeen. 21. Temperance Physi- ology, 56 ; 22. Book-Keeping, 56 ; 23. Letter-Writing, 41. Each.. 10' Qa'zzism. Quirks and Quibbles from Queer Quarters. P 16:25.... 25 A Quiz Book of Theory and Practice. 30. C 12:220 1 00 Spanish and English Correspondence. 43, 44 P 12:109 50 Spanish Self-Taught (See also Sai.vo). 43, 44 P 16:84 * 40 ' * t Spencer (Herbert). Education. 24, 14. C 16:331 1 00 Spinoza (Benedict de). On the Training of the Intell-^ct. 25 12:162... 100 * Standard Teachers' Library. 13 Includes all those starred. Stanley (A . P.) Life cf Thomas Arnold. 18 C 16:252 1 00 Stanton (Th.) The Woman Question in Europe. C 8:496 3 50 t State Education for the People. 15 C 8:176 1 25 Steven, (Wm.) History of tJie Edir, burgh High School. 15,28 16:590.... 2 00 Stewart (Alex). Elements of Gcelic Gramm.ar (See Macalpine). C 16:20(» 1 00 Stilwell (Lamont). Pracf'cal Question Book. C 13:400 1 50 Stone (Isaac). The Teacher's Examiner. C 12:214 75 Straight (H. II.) Aspects of Industrial Education. 29 P 8:12 15 Swedish Conversation Book (See also Lensteom). 43 C 16:142 75 Swett (John). Manned of Elocution. 36 C 12: :00 1 50 Syllabus of the Regents'' Examinations in U. S. History, for each exam- ination. 49,58P 8:4 05 TARRING (C. J.) Practical Elementary Turkish Grammar. 43 C 12:214. 2 00 * t Tate (Thos.) The Philosophy of Education. 14 C 16:400 1 50- (12) Taylor (H. L.) Union School liemrd Caro?.