J ■ < •• • • liiiiitii.jiiiEjiStvai' DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR BUREAU OF EDUCATION BULLETIN, 1919, No. 85 DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURAL INSTRUCTION IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS By H. P. BARROWS Professor o( Agricultural Elducation. Oregon State Agricultural College WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1920 viOftpi'r DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR BUREAU OF EDUCATION BULLETIN. 1919, No. 83 DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURAL INSTRUCTION IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS By H. P. BARROWS Professor o( Agrkullural Education, Oregon Stale Agricultural College WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OEFICE 1920 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY HE PROCUKED FROM TUE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. a AT 15 CENTS PER COPY V n7 •^ ^« OCT li I92Q CONTENTS. Pago. Prefatory statement 4 Chapter I. — History of agriculture in secondary scliools ."> Early development f) Secondary schools of agriculture 10 Chaiiter Il.-State aid for secondary agriculture 20 Progress in State aid 20 Jlassachusetts 22 New York 24 Pennsylvania 27 New Jersey 01 Indiana 33 Chapter III. — Agriculture as taught in some secondary schools 37 Fifth District Agricultural and Mechanical School, Monroe, Ga 37 Baltimore County Agricultural High School, Sparks, Md 42 Bristol County Agi-iculturnl Scliool, Segregansct, Mass 40 Agricultural department of Hannibal (N. Y.) High School 49 Agricultural department of Hopkins Academy, Hadley, Mass 51 Department of agriculture. State Normal School, Platteville, Wis 54 Berry School, Mount Berry, Floyd County, Ga 62 Manas.sas Industrial School for the Training of Colored Youth, IMauassas, Va G7 Chapter IV. — Federal aid for vocational agriculture 71 History of the movement 71 The Smith-Hughes Act 72 Chapter V.- — Training teachers of agriculture 78 Development of agricultural teaching 78 A work for colleges 81 Land-grant colleges and the preparation of teachers of agriculture 83 University of California, Division of Agricultural Education 85 Cornell Universitjs Department of Rural Education 87 Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas 90 Oregon State Agricultural College 92 Practical phases of training 93 Chapter VI. — Summary of study 100 Relation of secondary to collegiate agriculture 100 Problems of vocational agriculture 101 Subsidizing agricultural education 103 Bibliography of agriculture in secondary schools lOG 3 PREFATORY STATEMENT. This bulletin represents u thesis presented by the lute Hurry Percy liarrows to the faculty of Georj^e Washington University in 1910 for the (le.irree of doctor of pliilosophy. It furnishes an historic rei'ord that should be very helpful in the future de\ elopment of instruction in ajrriculture in this country. Since secondary instruction in ajj^ri- culture was developed first in the institutions that later became the c()lle<;es of agriculture, this paper covers in a masterly way the early development of collegiate agriculture. Soon after the manuscript for this bulletin was presented for i)ub- lication the author suflered a severe attack of influenza, which was followed by pneumonia and later resulted in his death at Berkeley, Calif., May H, 1020. It should be understood, therefore, that tho author was not permitted to examine the printer's proof nor to make such changes in the text as frequently suggest themselves upon read- ing the printed copy. C. I). Jakvis, Specialist in Agricultural luhication, U. aS. Bujcau of Education, Jul;/ 1',, lf)20. 4 DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURAL INSTRUCTION IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. Chapter L HISTORY OF AGRICULTURE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. EARLY DEVELOPMENT. Lines not clearly draion. — It is not easy to trace the development of aijriculture in the secondary or high schools as such, because in the earlier days of our educational history distinctions were not made be- tween elementary, secondary, and collegiate instruction as they are made now. The development of much of the agricultural instruction in the agricultural colleges should be classed as secondary agricul- ture when judged by present-d^iy standards. In establishing the land- grant colleges there was not so much the intention to establish schools of college rank as to give some direct aid to the farmers. The dis- cussions of the Morrill bill in Congress bring out the fact that many of those who voted for it did not realize that they were voting to establish colleges, just as some of the Members of Congress who voted for the Smith-Hughes Act thought they were voting to aid the ele- mentary schools. A consideration of the early development of second- ary agricidture must be of necessity a review of the general effort to improve agriculture by means of education. Agricultural societies.^ — Probably the first organized effort to im- prove agriculture was by means of agricultural societies and fairs. (ieorge AVashington and Benjamin Franklin were members of the first society for the promotion of agriculture, which was organized in Philadelphia in 1775. About the same time a similar society was or- ganized in South Carolina, which proposed, among other things, to establish the first experimental farm in the United States. In 1792 a small volume representing the transactions of the New York Society for the Promotion of Agriculture was published. This society, or- ganized in 1791, was followed by a similar organization in Connecti- cut in 1794. The establishment of fairs and exhibits was an outgrowth of the woik of the agricultural societies and the desire of men going to ex- ' See Dabiiey, C. W., Af^ricuUural education. In Monograph No. 12. Butler's Mono- graphs in Education. New Yorlc, American liook Co., 1910. Pp. 5-8. G DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURAL INSTUUCTIOX. ]HMiso in ini[)()rtin^^ improved types of farm animals from Europe, to ('xliil)it their importations. Tlie first fair was hekl in Massaehusetts in 1804. In 1809 the Coliiml)ian Agricultural Society, compo.sed mostly of farmers in ^faryland and Vir^^inia in the vicinity of the National Capital, Avas or hich is a part of the State university, at St. Anthony Park, between Miiincapolis and St. Paul. Although the buildings, equii)ment, and faculty of the agricultural college are used in the instruction of the secondary students, the school is maintained as a separate institution. Almost from the beginning the scliool has i)een successful and i)<>p- ular. It has furnished the people of Minnesota the type of education they have demanded to the extent that until very recently it has over- shadowed the college of agriculture in the same institution. Al- though Minnesota established a similar school at Crooltston in 1908 and another one at Xorris in 1910, there Iras been a demand for sec- ondary agriculture in the high schools of Minnesota unequaled in any other State. Following the lead of ^Minnesota, in 189G Nebraska organized a similar school in connection with the college of agriculture of the State university at Lincoln. Over half of the States have since organized special schools in connection with the agricultural col- leges. In some States these schools use the same eiiuipment and teaching force as the college, following the example of the first school organized in Minnesota. In other States the schools have a .separate organization in a different part of the State. Such is the case in California at the University Farm School at Davis. This school, however, serves the university proper, in giving the cour.'^es wiiich demand farm practice to students of college grade in addi- tion to giving courses of a secondary grade. I>iMri(f and county agricultural schools. — The independent schools of agricultuie established through State aid may be c-la.ssed largely as county .schools and district schools. The districts served, how- ever, vary from the congre.ssional district to an indeterminate dis- trict which means that the school may serve the State at large. Alabama was the first State to establish, a system of agricultuial schools. In 1HS9 the State provided for a school in each of the nine congressional di.strict.s. At each school a branch experiment station was established under the direction of the State College of Agriculture. Although these schools have not given coui-ses of a distinctly vocational nature, they have furnished some practical AGRICULTURE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 11 "SYork alono; with an academic ti*aiiiiii<^ to a great number of young jjeople Avho otller^yise would not have received instruction beyond the elementary school. Following the lead of her sister State, Georgia established agri- cultural schools in each of her 11 congressional districts in 190G, These schools have had much the same service as those in Alabama. Wherever they liave been in cluirge of agricultural men there has been a strong leaning toward agricultural education, but in a num- ber of cases the term " agricultural school " has been a misnomer, as practical agriculture has been subordinated to academic work. This criticism applies even more strongly to the congressional district agricultural schools established in Virginia in 1908. In most cases these schools have been very weak agricultural departments added to ordinary high schools, which until very recently have made little attempt to adapt their curricula to the needs of the rural community. In 1909 Arkansas established four agricultural schools, each to serve a district comprising approximately one-fourth of the State. These schools Avere established upon a bigger, broader basis than the schools wdiich serve a smaller district in other Southern States. Tliey have been from the beginning more nearly real agricultural schools than an}' of the special schools of agriculture in the South. They have become ambitious in the growth, hov>-ever, and at times tliere appears a rivalry betw^een these schools and the State college of agriculture. Oklahoma also established schools to serve a large dis- trict, but as these scliools have not had the support given the Arkan- sas schools, they have not prospered so well. Wisconsin led out in the county agricultural school idea in 1901, when funds Avere provided for count}- schools of agriculture and domestic economy at Wausau and JMenomonie. Since then such schools have been established in many other counties. County agri- cultural schools have later been established in several States. The following States have established schools to serve the State at large or an indeterminate district: California, New York, Ne- braska, Vermont, Colorado, and Pennsylvania. In Nebraska the State agricultural school at Curtis has definite connection with tlie State university. The State agricultural school at Fort Lewis, Colo., is also a part of the State agricultural college. In California, while the university farm school at Davis is a definite part of the State university, the California Polytechnic Scliool at San Luis Obispo is an independent State institution. Public high schools. — Although it is a relatively simple matter to trace the development of agricultural schools as such, it is very diffi- cult to secure definite and accurate information concernin"- asri- 12 DKVKLOPMKNT OK ACRICULTTItAL INSTRUCTION. culture as tau^lit in tlio onlimirv liijih schools. The instruction may vary from the a|)|)lication of courses in hotany or chemistry in the direction of agriculture, or the use of an elementary textbook for a portion of a year, to the full-fledj^ed department of a<^riculture <;ivin«; a four years' course, taUinj^ m(»re than half of the entire time of the student. In some cases these departments employ more than one teacher, have better e<|uipment and offer more coiii])]ct(' coui'ses than so-called aj^ricultural schools. One of the marke(«1. Courses. Agriculture. ....do Schools reporting. 1,553 124 1,677 Number of students. Boys. 21,702 1,767 23,469 Oiris. Total 10,,tl9 679 10,898 32,021 2,346 34,367 > Chapter IX, TrogrcBS of Agricultural Kducation, pp. 213-214, AGRICULTURE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. Report for 1915. 13 Instilulions. Courses. Schools. R'porltng. Number of students. Boys. Girls. Total. Piiljlic hi?h school.^. l'ri\alo high schools Total. Agriculture. do 4,665 25.3 61,677 2,579 39,0.'^l l,8tU 90,708 4,410 4,918 40, 802 These statistics were compiled from general data sent by the stliools to the Bureau of Education. In the spring of 1916 the bureau attempted to gather more complete and definite information concern- ing the teaching of agriculture in the public high schools and in s])ecial agricultural schools of secondary grade. The following is a brief summary of the schools reporting : ^ Ayriciilture in secondary schools, 1915-16. Number of public high schools reporting teaching agriculture 2, 17.") Established before 1901 19 Established from 1901 to 1905 83 Established from 1906 to 1910 413 Established since 1910 1, 710 Itepoi'ting teaching agriculture primarily: As informational subject 1, 521 As vocational subject 560 rvuniber of persons teaching agriculture: Male 2,007 Female .247 Number of these with any special training in agriculture, includ- ing those with full four-j'ear agricultural college courses, short- term courses, normal school agricultural courses, summer courses, etc 1, 021 Number of students of secondary grade studying agriculture : Boys 24, 743 (Jirls 16. 312 Number of schools iising school land for instructional purposes 392 Number teaching through home-project method 837 Number in which instruction consists wholly of classroom work 416 Number in which instruction consists of classroom work, with labora- tory exercises and observation on neighboring farms 1,004 Number of special secondai-y agricultural schools supported iu whole or in part by the States 68 Total cost of maintenance $766, 000 I'dtal number of teachers : JIale 276 Female '^ 140 ' from Report of Commissioner of Educatiou for the year ended June 30, 1916, pp. 237-38. 14 '(KVlil.Ol'MKNT OF AGKKILTUKAL INSTKL'tTlOX. Total mimlu-r of puijils: Elrmciitary — M!ih> cin Kt'inale -i'*^ Socoudury — Mulo ^ 3. sm I-Vuinlo -. 408 This summary docs not include special schools of a^jriculture maintained by the State colleges of agriculture on the colle<^'e cam- pus. Schools of this type are maintained Ijy the State agricultural colleges of California, Colorado, Idaho, Kansas, Mississippi, Ne- l)i-aska, ^lontana, North Carolina, North Dakota, and Washington (school of science). Agricultural courses of secondary grade are given to special students in 20 otlier State colleges of agriculture. In a publication^ which gives the final returns from this investi- gation, 2,0S1 public high schools are reported as giving instruc- tion in agriculture in 1915-16. Of these, 2.250 schools gave in- formation as to the character of the work given. Only 2,1GG of this numl)er, however, were really teaching agriculture in a serious way. To understand the nature of the agriculture taught in these s<*hools, we may consider the following facts : (1) Date of introduction: Less than 1 per cent of these schools ^ taught agriculture before 1000, and less than H per cent intro- ' duced the subject l^etween 1900 and 1005. Over 97.G per cent of the .schools introduced the subject since 1905, and 78.5 per cent since 1910. (2) Nature of instruction: The .schools were asketl to indicate v.'hether they were teaching agriculture with a vocational aim as definite preparation for farming,- as information about agricidture, or for general cultural purposes. As many of the schools reported that they were teaching agriculture for two or all three reason-?, it is evident that they did not have a distinct purpose in their in- struction. Although 25 2)er cent of the schools reported the chief aim as being vocational, the character of the work indicates that many of the teachers have little conception of the meaning of vora- tional training. The instruction in many oases was confined to classroom only, or supplemented with some laboratory work. Some teachers thought their textbook instruction was vocational, as their students lived on farms. The sunmiary of replies shows that 20 per (ent of the schools confined their in.struction to classroom work; 50 per cent supplement the classroom instruction with laboratory e.xercises and observation trips to the farms: ajid only 30 per cent combine classroom instruction and laboratory work with practical > Monahan, A. C, and Dyo, C. II. InstltuUona in tho United States siving Instruction In AKriculturc, 1015-10. Hurcnu of Kducntlon. BulIcUn. 1017, No. 31. AGRKU^LTURE IN SECONDARY SC'HOOLS. 16 farm ^vork. Three lnuidred and thirty-seven vvero using the home- project i)lan, aithoiioh in only 261 schools was the home work given supervision by the instructor in agriculture. The schools report- ing, however, did not include many of the State-aided schools which ar€ using this plan. Eighteen per cent of the schools reported school land for agricultural purposes. Of these schools 184, or about one- third of the number, had less than two acres. (3) Training of teachers: There is a close relation between the nature of the instruction and the training of the teachers. Only 15 per cent of the teachers in the 2,1GG reporting were graduates of agricultural colleges. In addition to these, 21 per cent had some training in agriculture in colleges or normal schools. In some cases this work was taken only in summer school or as short winter courses. Private high schools. — Since the time that secondary schools were first developed in this country many of tliese schools have been organized outside the city with private funds. At such of these schools as have owned farms upon which students have lived away from home there has been more or less direct relation between the instruction of the school and farm life. Definite instruction in agriculture Avas inaugurated in a few of these schools before it v\'as attempted in the public high schools. In a few cases the agricul- tural instruction has been of a vocational character from the begin- ning, as the instruction has been based largely upon the work of the farm. In placing the agTiculture of our public schools now upon a vocational basis we may learn much from these private schools Avhich have been worlring for a number of years upon problems connected with the use of land in agricultural instruction. We have learned considerable from such schools as the National Farm School, at Doylestown. Pa., the Baron de Hirsch School, at Woodbine, N. J., and the Berry School, near Rome, Ga. Where these schools have had a real vocational aim they have had a decided advantage in making their work practical, as the students are living on the school farm throughout the year. It is veiy difficult to secure accurate statistics concerning private schools and especial!}" to grade the Avork done. Although a number of private colleges and State institutions other than the Federal - aided colleges are giving courses in agriculture, in few cases is the instruction given of more than secondary grade when judged by the standards of the land-grant colleges. As the equipment and instruction for college agriculture is so expensive, fcAv colleges attempt to compete with the Federal-aided institutions in college courses. Only 18 of these colleges and 100 secondary schools reoorted the nature of the work to the Bureau of Education in If) DKVELOPMKNT OF ACItKlLTl ItAI. INSTKl'CTION. 1J>H;. Tlicso schools rcportiMl :\:.VX\ studiMils taking; roiirsi's in ajrri- culture. A iiunibcr of schools havin<; u rt'latively lart;e iiuiiiIm r of students did not report the numhcr of agricultural students. Normal hcIiooJs. — Xornial-sdiool traininjr in a*rriculture is mostly associated with elementary a«;riculture, as in most cases it is train- ings for elementary schools. Methods of teachinj^ most subjects in nornuil schools are often superior to those used in the hij^h schools. As the teaching of agriculture is not an exception to this rule, we may very well give some attention in pages to follow to normal- school instruction in this subject. At this time we shall consider briefly the develoimient of normal-school instruction in agiiculture in the United States. Many of the States have made agriculture a re(piired subject in rural schools without provitling for special training of teachers in that line. As a result, agriculture as taught in many of the ele- juentary schools was a very perfunctory perusal of a textbook which in most cases was adapted neither to the pupils nor the section in which they lived. To overcome this difliculty some States have recpiired agriculture as a subject for examination for tlie teacher's certificate, others have made special ert'ort to provide for the training of teachers, some have done both, as will be noted in tiie data following: Legislative enactment has made the teaching of agriculture a re- (piirement in all common schools, or at least in rural schools, in each of the following States: Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, (ieorgia, In- tliana, Iowa, Louisiana, Mississip})i, North Carolina, Xorth Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Texas, West Virginia, Wisconsin, and Wyoming. Agriculture is one of the subjects for examination for teachers' certificates in the following States: Alal)ama, Arkansas, California, Florida, Georgia, Idaho, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, I>ou- isiana, Michigan, Xorth Dakota (altei-native), Mississippi, Missouri, Nebraska, Xew Mexico, Xorth Carolina, Ohio, Wisconsin, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia (alternative). West Vir- ginia and Wyoming. About half the States have had printed outlines of courses in elementary agriculture, prepared either l)y the State agricultural college or the State department of public instruction. Up to the present time approximately 75 texts in elementary agricul- ture have been prepared. Hut with all the aid given teachers in .serv- ice, nothing has taken the i)lace of specific training as a part of the teacher training course. The following will indicate that some States have .sensed their hich enabled him to develop at Tnskegee a larger one. In both institutions training for agriculture and the industries predominate. At Hampton the in- structors are mostly white people, while at Tuskegee tlie teachers are of the colored race. At both institutions older students are used as assistants in the training of the younger ones. As an eiample of tho pi-actical and helpful character of the instruction given, the following account of a course in dairying at Hampton is given: 'J'he well-e(piipped dairy is run as a conmiercial creamery making the butter used at the institution from milk obtained from two large dairy hei*ds maintained by the school. There were 12 students in the class, each of wliom was given two months' practical work in the creamery, one month as assistant and one month as foreman. As it took but two men to do the work, it was arranged for a new student to enter each month, so that the dairy was always in charge of a student with one month's experience. The student entering one montli as assistant became foreman the next month when the man over him left. The plan worked well in developing initiative, re- sourcefulness, and self-confidence. The students interviewed felt competent to take charge of a small dairy when they left tlie sclmol. The students in cliarge of the dairy at the time the school was visited in IIJIT) were both Indians. There has been cxjnsiderable development in vocational agriculture in some of the Indian .schools maintained under direction of the Dkj)artnient of the Interior. Such schools as the United States Indian Industrial School at Carlisle, Pa., were given practical instruc- lit)ii in agriculture before i)ublic higli schools were making very much pn;gress in that direction. Kecently tlie Bureau of Indian Alfairs has been making an effort to reorganize and standardize the agricul- tural instruction endent apricullurul schools Normal training high school Count V do High .scl ool do I ndeierminatc district High .school Huriil high school must teach agriculture to secure general Slate aid. I I igh school , County Normal I raining high schools High .school Coniolidated schools, teacher training , High school , Count y , Indeleruiinate district County U igh school do Congressional district Initial amount to each school for mainte- nance. $3,000 > 50,0(10 4,000 4,000 10,000 10,000 12,000 12,000 2,000 2,000 40,000 (•) 2,500 1,250 40,000 800 10,000 $1,600-3,000 $900-2,000 (') («) 250 2,500 8,000 2,500 $500-700 15,000 500 2,500 $1,000-1,500 U 750 1,250 10,0(0 6,000 1,500 2T0 ■60, UK) > 25,000 > Total. > Two-thirds cost of instruction; $500 maximum. > Two-thirds .salaries. • Onc-luilf not mulntenimce. • $250 (making total of $500). • Two-thirds cast of vocational instruction. ' Total additional aid. The forpgoinf]^ tul)le docs iu»t show the j)ro«;ress that has been inaile in mutters of udministiution and in getting results in general. Due 20 STATE AID FOR SECONDARY AGRICULTURE. 21 to the lack of any organized system of agriculture for secondary schools, much money has been spent by the States without getting results in better-trained farmers. It will be noted that for the first 10 years of this period of independent State aid that all of the money Avent to the support of some form of special agricultural school; in fact until verj^ recent years many have discussed the problem of secondary agriculture as if it had to do only with these agricultural schools. Because some of the districts in which they were estab- lished had no rural high schools of a general character, and because a system of vocational training in agriculture had not been devel- ojxhI, these schools have not l)een agricultural schools in a strict sense. Their history has been in a sense similar to that of the land-grant colleges ; without restrictions as to their field and without a guide to follow, they have adapted themselves to immediate service along lines already laid down. In more recent years many of the States have turned more toward aiding existing high schools in establish- ing departments of agriculture. Money appropriated for this pur- pose has not always been spent strictly for the purpose for which it was appropriated. The chief reason for this is that States have ap- propriated the money without establishing a standard and without providing a State organization and a means of supervision and in- sj)ection so that a standard could be maintained. More recently some of the States, having profited by the experience of these other States,- have provided for a more definite system of vocational agriculture with State aid. They have not only provided money for establishing schools and for paying a part of the salaries of teacliers in agricultural departments, but they have also provided adequately for State supervision. The work has been developed toAvard a definite end, definite standards have been set, and means have been taken to see that they Avere reached. The experience of most of the States has justified the belief that State aid and super- vision is needed mostly in the teaching of vocational agriculture. In putting the work upon a vocational basis, it meant teachers with better training, hence more equipment and more expensive and bet- ter supervision of both teachers and students, all of which mean a greater outlay in money than ordinary instruction. Placing agri- culture upon a vocational basis should mean more immediate returns in the increased capacity of the student in production. Local com- munities have not felt able to bear the added burden of expense, lience the State has come to their aid. Before a national program for aiding scondary schools in vocational agriculture was outlined tliere was a definite system of vocational agriculture established in the following States: Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Indiana. As the national law giving Federal aid to vo- 22 DEMil^PMUNT OF AGRIC;ri/n'HAL INSTRUCTION. cational o<;rionlture ami the policy of the Federal board in its ud- niinistratiou have been determined to a great extent by the work in these States, we shall consider them more in detail. MASSACHUSETTS/ . In r.Ul the Commonwealth of Massachusetts passed an act gov- erning the establishment and maintenance of State-aided education in vocational agriculture as a part of its State plan for vocational education. The act provided a State fund to reimburse local boards of control for two-thirds of the salaries of instructors in high-sch(»!)l departments of agriculture and one-half the net sum expended in the maintenance of county schools of agriculture. The provision of the act made it possible for departments of agri- culture to be established in existing higii schools under the control of the regular school authorities. To avail itself of the act the city council or town meeting must j>a.ss an ordinance authorizing the school committee to establish such a department. While such a department is a part of the regular high school, it must meet a standard set by the State board of edu- cation and submit to direct supervision of the agents of that board. All advisory committee of 5 to 15 members is expected to aid in direction of the work in the local community'. The instructor em- ployed for such a department is expected to have a well-rounded training in practical agricidture, that he mjjy aid in community work among farmers and supervise farm work of the students. He must devote all of his time to agricultural work. As a rule the in- struction and supervision are rather intensive, 1 teacher not having over 2<) students. Shouhl as many as 3(J students enter tiie depart- ment two instructors would be employed. With two teachers there is opjDortunity for division of work which permits of some speciali- sation. Fifty i)er cent of the student's time in such a department is to I'c spent in vocational agriculture, the other half of the time being devoted to regular high-school subjects. To establish a county school of agriculture there nuist be in each rase a s[)ecial act of the State legislature providing for a board of trustees, bond issues to cover the first cost of the school plant, and a tax levy for yearly maintenance. The first cost is estimated at from $7r.,(M)() to $lo6,()(H), and $-i(),()00 for the first year's maintenance. Such an act must be sul)mitted to the county concerned for referen- dum vote in tlje November election. The controlling board of such .srhools consists of seven members — three county commi.ssioners serv- ing ex officio and four members appointed by the governor, all serv- * Scfl MimiiachUNoUa Board of EducnUon. Bulletin 72. Informatloii Rolatlng to tho ENtaliltiibnipnt of County AKricultnral Hcboola and ^V^icuLtoral Depnrtmeuts. Also yearly rrporlM of .Stn(o-uld<>on records from which it is able to show that the money spent by the State has yielded immediate returns in dollars and cent.s. The following tal)le Avill show the development of the work in the increase of students and the money earned : llaininiis of vocatioual at/riciiliuntl s(u(Jrican history 3 Mechanical drawing and shop- wurk 5 riant husbandry (growing clubs in the line of home project with l)lants) 5 23 TIIIRO YKAK. Iluiira. !i wook. English 3 Matiiomatlcs, including bookkeoi)- ing 5 Biology 5 Soils and fertilizers H IS FOUUTH YKAU. EnglLsh 3 Agricultural physics and agricul- tural choriiisti"y T* Animal husbandry and dairying. _ 5 Special agriculture to suit loc:il conditions: I'^ruit growing -Grape culture Market gnnlening roultry, etc IS A suggested course in ngriciiUiirc for high sdioola of agriculture. ilKHV Yh:.\R. Hours, a wi'ck. .__ 4 Engli.sh Algebra f> r.iology 5 Fa nil mechanics r> i and i 7i r.iiillry husbandry 2*J 2U KKCOND YKAR. English 3 riane geometry 5 Soils and fertilizers 51 and i 10 l-'arm cruiMi Oj 13 Tlllltn YKAK. Flours, a w«»ek. English 3 History Economics or I History 5J Animal htishandry, including i dairying Til Fruit growing 5) Foi inii Yii.vjt. 10 IS English 3 American history with civics '» t'hemislry or physics •"» Farm management 5 IS STATE AID FOR SECONDARY AGRICULTURE. 2t Methods of teaching. — The home-project phm, as operated in New York, is somewhat of a modification of the plan as developed in Massachusetts. In Massachusetts the study of agriculture grows out of the project. In one class students may have a number of different projects, hence the project study is to a great extent indi- vidual study. In New York the project grows to a greater extent out of the course. A project may l^e started in the spring and an increasing amount of time given this practical worlv imtil by the time the summer vacation begins instructor and students are putting in a large share of their time upon the home-project work. The com- missioner of education is empowered to give each school district an additional fund of $200 to extend the employment of the agricul- tural instructor through the summer months. Most of the teachers are so employed. Their chief duty in summer is to supervise the home Avork of the students, but in addition to this they render a great deal of community service to the farmers and collect material for teaching purposes during the winter months. PENNSYLVANIA. In 1911 the school code of Pennsylvania made the teaching of agriculture obligatory in all township high schools. Although much of the instruction under this requirement was perfunctory, it de- veloped a feeling that agricultural instruction could be made well worth while if established on a different Basis. The vocational education act, passed in 1913, provided State aid for departments of agriculture in high schools and for special vocational schools with agriculture and home-making dominating in the curriculum. These departments and schools are under the direct supervision of the bureau of vocational education, which is a part of the State de- partment of public instruction. In 1916-17 there were 17 voca- tional schools and 18 vocational departments in high schools. Tliere is little difference in the courses of study and method of instruction in the two types of schools. Local districts are encouraged to establish a department in connection with an existing high school. If such a school does not exist in a community which wishes the vocational work^ or the existing school can not meet the requirements, a vocational school may be established. Such a school is in reality a general high school adapted to the needs of rural life. Districts which can establish neither schools nor departments may send their jjupils to other districts for vocational training at State expense for one-half the tuition. The State reimburses local districts with voca- tional schools and departments for two-thirds the salary of the vocational teachers. 28 DKVKI.OPMKNT OF AfiRIcri/rrRAT. TN.STRU<'TION. Til j,nvinir .lid t<» l(»(!il (•(nuiminitics the State innkes it rloiir that the inonev must 1k' used s|)(»cilically for vocational odiication. It reco*;- ni/t's the fact that a«4riciihiiiT has vahie in general education, but defines vocational agriculture as follows:^ V(«-iitiaUh of I'onn».TlvanlH. I>e|nrttnetit of I'uWic InHtructlon. Vocational Dl- vIbIoii. Unl!i'tlii 1. 11tt:r VixnlloiiMt Etable plants. The more important vegetables are started in de- tail and the planning of home gardens considered. ^oils. — During the last half of the freshman year a study is made of the origin, formation, classification, and physical properties of various soils, to- gether with the relation of these to soil moisture, heat, and methods of soil management. (■cncral science. — This course introduces the pupils to the fundamental facts '»f the conunou sciences so as to give the pupils this general knowledge before Fcience work can be studied in detail in the junior and senior years. Fruit raising. — Under this head the planting, training, care, fertilization, .spraying, harvesting, and marketing of both tree fruits and small fruits are thoroughly studied. Laboratory work includes practice in grafting, mixing of spray materials, and field trips during which pruning is taught by having tlie pupils prune trees under supervision. 30 DEVELOPMENT OF AGRH'l'LTUllAI^ INSTRUCTION. iJaii-ying. — A gern'nil survey of the Uaiiy imlustry, including ii study of the si-i)aration aud luuidiint: uf milk, cilviiu riixMiiii;,' ami chuniliig, and ust- of the Ilabcock tost. Auivial husbandry. — A study of tlie liislury and cluiracterlstics of the differ- ent broods of horses, cattle, sheep, and swine. Pnictice In judRin« animals and a study of feediuR practices. I'ann crops. — A course including tlic studf of the history, production, ir.i- provoniont, cultivation, harvesting, and marketing of cereals, hay, forage, tlber, and root crops. I'orcsiry. — The relalioii of forestry tn agriculture, identitlcafion of tree char- acteristics, and uses of tiie various kinds of wood. Onxamcntal gardcnimi. — A .study of the ornamentation of home grounds, including methods of planting and the selection of planting materials. Mechanical dratcinii. — The study of methods of laying out to scale, inking, and tracing; reading of working drawings, etc. .S7(0p icork. — The use of woodworking tools is taught by having the pupils make useful articles for the home and farm. Farm bookkccpinrf. — The study and practice of double-entry bookkeeping aa applied to business transactions of the farmer. ^ Farm mechanics. — Hope splicing, knot tying, lacing belts, study of gas en- gines, and farm machinery. Fertilizers. — A study of the diiTerenl kinds of fertilizers, proper mixtures for various crops, time iind rate of application. Fann management. — I'lanning the work of the farm, study of crop rotations, layout of liclds, aud other pi"oblems, including the making of financial state- ments of farm operations. Rural law. — An elementary consideraiion of the law in its relation to the farmer. Project itork. — Each juipil is reciuired lo work out some project .such as rais- ing of .some crop, poultry, or live stock each summer on his homo farm under the supervision of his instructor. Methods of teachruf/. — The home-project plan i.s in vogue in all of the schools and departments of vocational agriculture in Pennsyl- vania. The teachers nf agriculture are known as supervisors and em- ployed for 12 months in the year with the understanding that one of the most imiwrtant jjhases of their work will be the summer super- vision of projects. The in-oject is preceded by a study of the subject in the classroom. The schools are encouraged to have classroom shops and a greenhouse equipped to give practical instruction to tho students while at school. They are not encouraged, however, to sup- ply farms or any land at the sc-hool for instruction in agriculture, as it is considered that the i)ix)joct work upon the home farm offers training under conditions more- nearly normal and that an ordinary rural coiniminity is rich in resources of educational value in training for farming and rural life. As in Ma.ssa^'hu.setts and New York, an advisory boanl may be appointed. It is significant to note that it ig advised that farmers be aj)pointed who will cooperate with tho teacher by allowing their farms, herds, and flocks to be used for teach- ing purposes. STATE AID FOR SE(;ONDARY AGRICULTURE. 31 NEW JERSEY.^ It was in 1913 also that the State of New Jersej^ established a sys- tem of State-aided vocational schools and departments. In brief the plan established is for the State to give money for the equipment and maintenance of approved vocational schools on a dollar for a dollar basis in proportion to the amount spent by the local community out of funds raised by local taxation to the amount of $10,000 annually, 1'he following is summarized from the rules of the State board of c(hication which govern the establishment of vocational schools and departments : 1. Advisory boards must 1)«^ appointed by the local boards of control, subject to the approval of the coumussioncrs of education. The advisory boards should bo made up of persons who have had actual successful experience in the occu- pations for which the school prepares. The efficiency ot vocational .schools should be measured largely by the ability of their pupils to meet the demands of the trades, industries, and occupations for which these schools give prepara- tion. Whether the schools give instruction in agriculture, home economics, or industrial subects, the A'ocational work must be such as to prepare the pupil for wage earning by participation in actual projects and processes of a very real char- acter. This requires an intimate ami practical knov.iedge of actual conditions and practices in the work as it is carried on outside the school. Only those ex- perienced as employers or employees can furnish this information. The task of establishing and maintaining these schools, on a practical basis, is so im- portant and so difficult that the instructors in the school, who must themselves have had such experience, need also the advice and assistance of these having the practical knowledge of the industry or occupation and the conditions pe- culiar to it in the locality. The advisory boards have no power except to give advice and assistance to the local school authorities in carrying on the work. The advisory board of an agricultural school or depai'tment must be made up of at least three successful farmers in the area served by the school and should represent the various agricultural activities taught. 2. A separate vocational school must be in a separate building and have a separate organization of curricula, equipment, pupils, and teachers. 3. A vocational department of another school must have a separate organi- zation of cuiTicula, pupils, and teachers as far as the vocational work is con- cerned. 4. The State board of education will not approve State aid for more than $10,000 for any district unless the applications from all districts amount to less than $80,000. "). To receive State aid in any given year, application must be made before .January 1. G. In an all-day vocational school (a) not less than one-half of the time must be given to shop or farm work ; (b) the shop must be conducted on a productive or community basis; (c) instruction must tend to become individual; (d) the shop must be carried on like the real shop outside; (e) the product must be useful; if) the school day must not be less than six or more than seven hours in length; and (g) the agricultural vocational school must have its courses arranged as a series of projects. ' SoG New Jersey Department of Public Instruction. Bulletin Ko. 1, 1913. State- aided Vocational Scliools. 32 DEVELOPMKNT OV ACRMTI/rrnAT. INSTRUCTION. 7. Tlio piuM (lino clnss must iz'wr iiisf ruction of dircft vnluo to tlio jiupll for llu' work in wliidi he Is oupif,'i'd. 8. To secure approval, the piirt-llme or ronlinuatlon work must (o) di-nl witli n sjH'fiH*' uroup of workers; (b) n«M to the technlenl knowledge and me<-hnnlnil skill of tlie workers; (r) provide eHicient instruction; nnl (d) provide a;ri(iillural «ir household arts school must give short unit courses. 10. All vocational schools nuist iirovid<' for () instruction in related subjects; and (c) instructi per annuu) f(»r each puiiil. M. Districts may transport pupils either within the district or to other dis- tricts and he reimbursed for TH per cent of the amount expended. Vocational agriculture in Atlantic County. — The provisions of the State vocational education act for agjricultural education have been taken advantajro of to the hours per day, 5 days a week, during the winter. 2. Fart time. — Students taking less than the time prescribed for full-time students, spending their time mostly on project study. Part-time classes are held mostly at night. 3. School ]m/>lls. — Students over 15 years of age enrolled in the public schools, above the seventh grade, taking not less than 3 hours per week. Work consists chiefly of elementary project study, which is taken in lieu of a like ninnber of hours of regular school work. 4. Lecture coume. — For men and women meeting once a week or oftener in the winter to discuss agricultural problems of commtinity interest, r>. Nlyht classes. — Composed of men who meet once a week or oftener studying project problems and subjects of intere.st upon their home farms. (j. Short course. — For tho.se unable to attend a full-1'ime course a detailed study of a specific subject is made for a period of 2, 4, or G we<'ks. As the work was in o])eration in li»l."> when the .school at llaiiunon- ton was visited, the aims and methods appeared to be nioic nanowly vocational than the a has establishe(l ui>proved vocational schools for the instruction of youths over 14 years of age who are engaged in regular employiucnt, in part-time cla.ss»'s, and has formally aeeepteil the jirovlslons of this section, such a boanl or Irustee Is authorized to require all yo\iths between the ages of 14 and 10 years who are regularly employed l<» attend school not less than 5 hours iK>r wtvk l)etwe«'n (he hours of s a. m. and ~> p. m. during the school term. Evening cla.<:ses in vocational agricidturo are established for stu- dents over 17 years of age who are employed in agriculture during > nppArtment of Tubllc Instructiou. Bulletin No. 0, 1914. Vocational Education in Inlii(liiig marketing) 5 I'onltry 2 2 (Seneral Jilstory (elective) Farm mechanics and engineering ■_ 2 1 Chemistry (not academic) 3 2 I'orging and Macksniithiiig 1 2 Hom»'-i)roject work (■». Iloine-projcct work must be an integral part of the course of study for each student. This work must be carefully inspected and suj)ervised by the instructor. Each pupil must make a written report of eacli project ba.sed upon a careful record. The instructor must not only sui)mit these reports to the State board upon comj)letion of the project but must also submit within three weeks of the bej^innin*; of the school term an outline of the work to be done by each stiuleiit. 'J'he following projects are suggested. Feeding swine, sheep, cattle, or poultry for market; feeding j)oultry for egg production; caring for a dairy c(»w and her products; caring for a team of horses, or a brood sow : selecting, testing, and grading seeds for farm crops; poul- try hatching, etc.; ccirn growing, gardening, canning fruits anil vege- tables; nuirketing farm pnnliicts; and snudl fruit growing. Chapter III. AGRICULTURE AS TAUGHT IN SOME SECONDARY SCHOOLS. Representative schools chosen. — The author has had abundant op- portunity to visit secondary schools for the purpose of studying their organization and methods of teaching agriculture. From a large number studied the following have been chosen not because they were the best schools visited but because they were fairly representative of the type indicated : District schools of agriculture: Fifth District Agricultural and ^Mechanical School, Monroe, Ga. ( 'ounty schools of agriculture : Agricultural High School, Sparks, JMd. ; Bristol County Agricultural School, Segreganset, Mass. I*ublic high schools : Hannibal High School, Hannibal, N. Y. ; Con- cord High School, Concord, Mass. ; Hopkins Academy, Hadley, ISIass. Normal schools : State Normal School, Platteville, AYis. Private schools for whites : Berry School, Mount Berry, Ga. Private schools for Negroes : : Manassas Industrial School for Col- ored Youth, Manassas, Va, FIFTH DISTRICT AGRICULTURAL AND MECHANICAL SCHOOL, MONROE, GA. TJie district agricultural schools of Georgia} — In 1906 the General Assembly of Georgia passed an act providing for the establishment and maintenance of an industrial and agricultural school in each of the 11 congressional districts of the State. The schools were to be definitely aiRliated with the University of Georgia as branches of the State College of Agriculture. The university became inter- ested in their supervision. A keen interest was aroused in each district, and sharp competition developed among different localities for the location of the schools. Liberal bids of land and cash were made, the total of the accepted bids amounting to approximately '■'489,000 in cash and 3,214 acres of land. Electric lights, water, and sewage disposal were furnished free to each school for five years. These schools were to be of secondary grade, intermediate between the rural elementary schools and the agricultural college. The law ' For a detailed description of these schools, see U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 191G, No. 44. The District Agricultural School of Georgia. 37 38 DEVELOPMENT 01' AGRICULTURAL INSTRUCTION. sti[)ulates that the principal shall Itc an iiitolli1,()()() in cash and 2r)() acres of land. This bid was accepted and the fifth district school located at Walker Station in "^^'alton County, al>out l\ miles north of Monroe on the Gainesville Midland Kailr^ad. .\.hhou;j:h local trains stop at "Walker, the school is locateil in open country, formin separate barns for horses, cows, and ralv<'s; a machine shod, poultry and hog houses. A new concrete sihj has boon built preliminary to building a modern daiiy barn. The farm animals include 2 Poichoron brootl mares with 2 colts, 'i\ nudes, 1 Hereford and 1 Jersey bull. \'\ dairy cows, 18 head young ♦•attle, and 75 hogs. The value of the live stock owned would ap- piv).\imate $:i,5()0. Fa?-ui nuichinc^-y to (ho \;due of $1,500 is owned. AGRICULTURE AS TAUGHT IN SOME SCHOOLS. 39 In addition to the tools and implements commonly found on southern farms, there is a small grain separator, a gasoline engine, an ensilage cutter, a hay press, manure spreader, corn shredder, and an electric motor. The gross income of the farm for 1915 was $G,600, leaving a net profit of $1,173.29. Students. — On September 28, 1916, there were 120 students, 79 of whom were boys and 41 girls. All the students live at the school except 2, who live on near-by farms, and 12 who live in Monroe. The following students are taking courses in agriculture: First year, 3G (8 of these are girls); second year, 29; third year, 13. Although the school was then filled to its capacity for students, registration Avas not restricted to residents of the fifth district. Students are registered from other parts of Georgia and from three other States. Course of study. — The course of study ^ adox3ted for the district agricultural schools of the State in 1915 is in operation as far as equipment and time will allow. The work in poultry husbandry, dairying, and farm management is not given at the present time, nor the agricultural laboratory work suggested for the first year. Students are expected to have completed the elementary school of seven grades before entrance. Boys must be 1-4 and girls 13 years of age. Standard of credit. — Although the State standard for graduation is but 14 units, most of the students are taking more nearly 17 unity of work. Five class periods of 40 minutes are equivalent to 1 unit. In laboi-atory work the periods are 80 minutes long. No credit is given for farm practice. The school year consists of 36 weeks. Methods of teaching. — The classes in agriculture visited were un- der two diiferent instructors. One of the instructors, an experienced teacher, had excellent interest, as he sought opportunity to connect the lesson of the textbook with the daily farm experience of the students. The other teacher, vrithout previous teaching experience, was called upon to take hold of a class for which he had no prepa- ration. The students dragged through a recitation period by taking turns in reading from the textbook. Although an effort is made to utilize the farm exi>erience of the students in the classroom recita- tion, there is no definite connection between the course of study and tiie planning of ih^ school farm and no definite relation between the daily classroom recitation in agriculture and the dail}^ farm labor. Cse of the school farm. — Although tlicre is a lack of definite relation between farm work and class work, the dominating aim of the school farm is to furnish practical instruction to the students. Each stu- dent is required to spend 36 hours per week in farm practice. The * For a description of the course of study with class scliedal<>, see Bareaw of Education, Bulletin, 191G, No. 44. pp. 19-28, 40 DEVELOPMKXT OF AORTrrT.TT'nAT- TNSTRIU'TION. work consists of the iv^uhir labor of tlir farm in season under the supervision of one of the instructors or the farm superintendent. In order to distribute the Avork and i)rovide for supervision, the hrst and third year students have (lass work in the forenoon and Held work in the afternoon. alternatin«5 with the second and fourth vear students. All of the farm l)uildin hours of farm work a week. A daily record is kept of all work done and the amount beyond the retjuired hours is credited upon their board ac- count at o to 10 cents per hour, accordin^^ to the nature of the work and tiie age of the student. Surplus work is given to those who are in most need of the money. Several students have been able to i)ay their way by working on tiie school farm. A number of students are retained for the summer work, receiving as wages $18 per month and their board. A fcAv students liave paid ])oard and received pay by the hour for their services. The students who remain in the summer secure some practice not to be obtained by most of them who return home. For example, the school cans a good part of its supply of certain vegetables and fruits during the summer. Although the aim of the school farm is primarily educational, it is depended upon largely to supply the dormitory and as a source of revenue, hence it can not plan its work in such a Avay and grow such crops as to secure the maximum educational value. The students may know the practice involved in cotton })ro(lu('tion, hence there may be little necessity from an educational point of view for growing cotton, but the school has soil well adapted to cotton and needs it as a cash crop. A definite rotation is maintained. The farm has shown continual improvement since the school was established, hence serves well as a general demonstration of good farming methods. The following shows the acreage of crops for 191C: 1.") acres cotton followed by rye; 15 acres wheat followed by peas; 40 acres corn (partly for silage) followed by winter oats; 35 acres oats followed by peas for hay; 5^ acres alfalfa; 50 acres pasture; and 8 acres orchard. It is interesting to note that when the question came u|) as to using the farm more specifically for educational purposes, the principal thought it could be done better with a farm of only 15 acres. Social ndminhtration. — As most of the students live at the school, the problem of directing their social life is presented. The girls and boys are kept separate for the most part, the gills living in a separate building under the direction of a matron, and the boys living in the main dormitory under the diicction of the principal and the male in.structors. All of the students take care of their own rooms. They also do most of the other janitorial services and the work of the school AGRICULTURE AS TAUGHT IN SOME SCHOOLS. 41 boarding house. For the Latter services the girls are given school credit and pay for overtime as the boys are in the case of farm work. Board and Laundry are furnished to the students at the rate of $10 per month. As no tuition is charged and but one or tAvo small fees exacted, the cost is comparatively low. As the school is located in the country, the students have little opportunity to spend money. Their entire time is under the direc- tion of the principal. From 7.20 to 4.20 they are supposed to be engaged in the classrooms or engaged in work or study, except for a brief period for dinner. Although the girls are required to dress in a neat uniform, the boys most of the time appear in the classroom and at the table in the same clothes they Avear at farm labor. The following is a schedule of the usual work day : 6 a. m.. — Arise. 6.25 a. ni. — Room and jjerson in order lor inspection. 6.30 a. m.— Breakfast. 7.50 a. m. — Chapel. 8.10 a. m. to 12.15 p. m. — School or farm work. 12.15 p. m. — Dinner. 1 to 4.20 p. m. — School or farm work. 4.20 to 6.15 p. m. — Recreation if desired. 7 p. m. — Inspection. 9.30 p. m.— Light hell. 9.45 p. m. — Retire. Saturday afternoons are frequently taken for" athletic sports. At the time of the visit there Avas a Aery lively football game in Avhich a team selected from the first and fourth years contested with a team representing the second and third years. Although this Avas strictly a school affair, there Avas no lack of interest. In the evening the students assembled for a short program, folloAved by a social hour in Avhich the bo3\s and girls joined togetlier in simple dances and harmless games. The principal directs these affairs upon the assump- tion that it is natural for boys and girls of high-school age to come together in a social way, and that there is little danger if there is proper supervision. On Sundays, Bible classes and simple services of a nonsectarian character are held for all. The problem of finding profitable, harm- less pastime for Sunday has not been completely solved, however. Local extension work. — By an arrangement Avith the State agricul- tural college, one of the instructors in agriculture is to spend one-half of his time as a farm demonstrator for Walton Count3^ The man appointed to the position had not gotten his extension Avork fully under Avay at the time of the visit. Since the school Avas first estab- lished there has been considerable extension work among the farmers. The principal of the school is a practical farmer Avho Avas reared in 4^ DEVELOPMENT OF AORICULTURAL INSTRUCTION. llii> roiintry; Iieiuc he is well qualiiicd to act as a farm advisor. The scJjool has cooperated witli the fanners in the purchase of live stock and has used its pure-bred live stock for connnunity ljieetlin() stu- dents. A granite building with five classrooms is used for gi'ade .students as well as secondary students. At the time the author first visited the school, in April, 1915, there were 99 elementary students and 77 in the high school. Two teachers took care of the grade stu- dents in two of the rooms, while ii\c teachers were employed in sec- ondary work. Although this school was established as an agricultural school, its- aim is a])])arently not to train farmers in any nai*row \ ocational .sen.se, but to give a broad training for rural life without attempting to meet college entrance requirements. The course of .study which follows might l)e adapted to the needs of any rural comnnuiity. AGRICULTURE AS TAUGHT IN SOME SCHOOLS. 43 Course of study. FIRST YEAR. Units. Agriculture 1. Arithmetic 1. EnglLsli 1. Botany 1. Manual training or domestic science . 4 History . 6 THIRD YEAR. Units. Agriculture or domestic science — 1.0 Plane geometry 1. EngUsh 1. Cliemistry 1.0 Physiology . 4 Manual training or domestic science . 6 SECOND YR.VU. Units. Agriculture 1. Algebra 1. English 1. Zoology 1. aiauual training or domestic science . 4 History . G FOURTH YEAR. Units. Agriculture or domestic science 1.0 Solid geometry and advanced al- gebra - 1.0 English_. 1. Physics 1. Gei'mau^ 1.0 Manual ti*aiuing or domestic science . G COURSES IN AGRICULTURE. First year. — Soils. Text: " Soils," by Fletcher. V/arren's " Elements of Agri- culture," used as a reference. A special laboratory manual is used. >>ccond year. — Farm crops. (Vegetables to be a part of the course next year.) Texts : " Cereals in America," and " Forage and Fiber Crops," by Hunt. Third T/cor.— Animal husbandry and dairying. Texts : " Types and Breeds of Farm Animals," by Plumb ; " Milk and Its Products," by Wing ; " Dairy Labora- tory Guide," by Ross. Fourth year. — Farm management and horticulture. Texts: "Farm Manage- ment," by Warren ; " Principles of Fruit Growing," by Bailey. COURSES IN SCIENCE. Herbarium of 50 spcci- Twcnty- Botany. — Text: "Botany for Schools," by Bailey, mens required. Zoology. — Text : Last half of course spent in economic entomology. five specimens of economic species required as a collection. Chemistry. — Text: Clark and Dennis. Pliysiology. — Text: "The Human Mechanism," by Hough and Sedgewick. Agricultural instruction. — The principal of the school also serves as instructor in agriculture and is assisted by anotlier man. Both instructors are graduates of the New York State College of Agri- culture, the assistant having just taken up the work in place of a man who had accepted a position in the United States Department of Agriculture. The principal proved to be an especially capable instructor and rural life leader, giving good evidence of earning the 1 German is elective, all other sui)jects are .required. Recitation periods are for tlie most part 50 minutes long. In all courses in agriculture and all science except pliysiolosy there is one double laboratory period per week. Occasionally flield trips reQiiire a longer period, or a whole day. I 44 DEVEI.OPMKNT OF AGRICUI.TT'RAL INSTRUCTION. relatively lar^e salary he received. 'Jhe assistant, on less than half the salary, did not g:ive evidence of liaving special aptitude for teaarns and other buildings. The instructor did not thiid< the work worth the time put upon it. He thought the time would have been better spent in making smaller buildings which would be of practical use upon tlie farm. The teacher of English believes in basing her work upon the work of the farm and other interests of the students. Some of the ]>apors re(iuired in tlie agricultural classes are corrected as to com- l)osition by the teacher of English. The students gain excellent practice in ])ublishing a paper, "The Agriculturist of Baltimore County." Practical icork in agriculture. — Although there are 8 acres of land, it was not used to any great extent as a school farm when the school was visited in 1015. The elementary students used part of the farm as a school garden. \ few fruit trees and a few small j)lats of grasses had been planted as a basis for some work in plant introduction and breeding. Tn 1017, when the .school was visited again, the principal of the school was making a special effort to j)romote potato production in the community, and about half an acre of the school land v>as used for tests of varieties and methods of treatment. The surrounding farms are used extensively for practical work. The classes in horticultuiv spray and prune the orchards on sur- louruling farms. ()ccasioperative banks. This bank Avas established i>ri- niarily to give business experience and to encourage the savings habit. The student's project, as a rule, will rcipiire a cash balance to draw upon until cash returns come in for ])roduce sold. The bank also provides a loan fund available to worthy students in financing their projects. AGRICULTUEE AS TAUGHT IN SOME SCHOOLS. 49 The extent of the students', earnings is shown in the following table; Year. Number of boys. Farm work. other work. Total earnings. 1914 24 47 69 $1,546.72 4,858.45 4,991.99 $77. 70 651.80 301. 00 $1 C21 42 1915 5 510 25 1916 Extensio7i tcork. — The cooperative agricultural extension work of the county, sustained by Federal and State funds, is under the direc- tion of the school. One member of the faculty is assigned to spend all of his time in this work as county agent. All of the instructors do more or less extension Avork in connection with the supervision of ]iome pix)jects. Considerable time is given to the supervision of the boys' and girls' agricultural clubs of the county and in helping the teachers in the elementar}?^ schools to connect the club work with the instruction in agriculture. -Farmers have been assisted in the coojDerative purchase of supplies. The following record for one year will indicate the scope of this work : Ten carloads of lime, three carloads of seed potatoes, one carload of dairy cow^s, and several car- loads of grain. The school has cooperated with local communities in holding fairs, and a number of special exhibits and meetings have been held at the school, including a county dairy conference, a Grange Geld day, a poultry day, and the county apple, corn, and potato show. AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF HANNIBAL (N. Y.) HIGH SCHOOL. Hannibal is a small village in the western part of Oswego County, N. Y., near the shore of Lake Ontario. It is in the midst of a section devoted to diversified farming and fruit growing. The principal of the school, S. R. Lockwood, who is also a farmer in the community, started a course in 1908 which he termed "academic agriculture." Although this course was of a very general and elementary nature, an effort was made to adapt it to the needs of the community. In 1911 State aid was given the school and an effort made to put the agricultural work on a vocational basis, although both boys and girls Avere taking the Avork. A year later home economics Avas added to the curriculum, leaving only boys to the attention of one teacher, Avith no other subjects. In 1914 the home-project plan was intro- duced. The school Avas visited in May, 1915, for the purpose of in- vestigating the application of this plan to NeAv York conditions. 154U70°— 20 4 50 IJLVELOPiMK.NT OF AGRICUI.Tl'RAL INSTRUCTION. Home projects. — The followinfij projects wore beinjjj worked out by the 20 students who Avcre takinfj the course in aj^riculture : 1. Fruit — One ncre mixed orclianl. 2. roultry liuproveiuent of honif flock, iiitnuliu-ini,' Uliode Island Keel iilood. 3. Poultry — Cue pair turkeys. 4. I*ouUi-j- — Sot 50 IMyinouth Rock pp:ps In Incubator. I?ot snccessful, trying It the second time. "». Fruit — Has set out one-fourtii acn* of l>eirics. (». naii-ying — Keeping a recm-d of 10 cows. 7. Poultry — Sixty-two riyniouth Kock and \\'liitc' Ix^gliorn liens. 8. Fruit — Three acres of iK'ars; one acre mixed orcliurd. n. Fruit. — Twenty-four pear trees. 10. Fruit. — Managing 4 acres of pear.s. 95 apple trees. 11. Poultry. — Sevenly-fivo to 100 Buff Orpingtons; Iniiit nt'w liouse. IL'. Poultry.— Hatched 332 White Legliorn chicks from 4."»0 etigs; had .'t02 aiay 10. 13. Potatoes. — One-half acre Irish Cobblers. 14. Fruit. — Oiie-fourth acre red raspberries, also one-fourtli acre lettu'-e and celery. 15. Poultry. — Setting hen-s and raising chicks. KL Poultry. — Setting hcus to build up flock. 17. Poultry. — Setting hens to build up Hock and caring for a fhx;k of 200. IS. Poultry.— Caring for flock of 58 hens. 19. Poultry.— Caring for flock of 55 Rhode Island Reds and White Leghorns. 20. Onions. — One-fourth acre. Visits were made to the homo of hoys having representative proj- ects. The lx)y having project No. 8 liad the management of 1 acre of ohl orchard and 3 acres of young pear trees. The orchard had been sprayed and the young orchard cidtivated, so that the trees were in good condition when judged by the standards of the district. The boy's mother spoke well of the work of the school. In |)roject No. 10 a l)oy had the management of a large part of his father's old orchard. At the time of the visit it looked as if there would not l>e much in the way of returns to give encouragement to the boy. The trees were old; they had been })lantencnt. — As the school a.spires to train teachers for high schools as well as elementary teachers, it is tie- AGKICULTURE AS TAUGHT IX SOME SCHOOLS. 55 velopino- a staff of instructors and rather extensive equipment. At the time the scliool was visited, in the summer of 1917, the depart- ment was under a director of agricultural education assisted by two instructors, one of wliom had charge of the school farm. A new iigi-icultural and manual arts building was nearing completion. This brick building, Avith two stories and a basement, should provide room for classes, laboratories, and shops for the vocational work for some 3'ears to come. The scliool farm consists of 26 acres of limestone soil typical of the section of southwestern Wisconsin in which the school is lo- cated. The farm is divided into three tracts. The first tract of 15 acres is used for demonstrating systematic rotation of crops and other modern practices in crop production. No experimental work is attempted. The second tract of 8 acres is used in a rotation of forage crops for the maintenance of live stock at the school. A third tract of nearly 3 acres contains a cottage for the farm manager, poultry houses, a small orchard, a school garden of half an acre, 1 acre for truck crops. The school garden is used by the pupils of the training school maintained in connection with the normal school. The remainder of this plot is used as an out-of-door laboratory in connection with the instruction in agriculture. The farm also fur- nished material for inside laborator}' work and classroom instruc- tion. The farm has a good team of horses and farm implements and machinery suited to a small farm in Wisconsin. A modern dairy barn is planned with the idea of maintaining one dairy cow^ for each acre of land. The product of these cows will be sold as market milk and cream in Platteville. The students will be expected to do all the w^ork. As the school is located in a dairy sec- tion, dairy husbandry is emphasized. The idea of maintaining a dair}' herd is to give practice in milk production under conditions approaching the ideal, yet wathin the reach of the farmer. Cows have not been purchased to represent the dairy breeds to be used in judging. Instead of spending money for that purpose, the school has purchased a truck fitted as a van to accommodate a class of about 20 students. In the community there are excellent dairy herds representing the four leading breeds, and pure-bred draft horses, sheep, and swine. If there is to be a lesson in breed t5^pes or prac- tice judging, it is a relatively simple matter for the teacher to take the class out to a neighboring farm. When the school was visited early in July the school garden and all the field plots Avere ill excellent shape. The farm was then being used in connection with the summer school. Courses of study. — The department of agriculture acts as a service department in giving one or more courses in elementary agriculture to each prospective teacher enrolled in the rural-.school department. 56 DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTinAI. IXSTRUCTION. In 191G-17, 50 young women received siicli instruction. The depart- ment also offers a general institute or short course of one Aveek in December and a winter course of nine weeks for young men who can not attend the regular school session. A correspondence course in agriculture is also offered. To students regularly enrolled for agriculture the department oflers three courses. The nature of these courses will be seen from the following outlines taken from the department circular : Tuo-j/car course for hiijli-achool r/raduatcs. FiK.ST Ykau. FIRST SKMKSTKK. Hours. Animal husbandry 5 Weeds 2 Cheniistry H Insect pests 2 IMant diseases 1 Farm carpentry 3 18 SKCOND SKMKSTKn. Hours. Physics 5 Horticulture 3 Psychology 5 Plant physiology 2 Blacksmithing and cement con- struction 3 IS Second Ykau. Agricultural education 5 Engtish composition 5 Farm mechanics 5 Soils 5 Teacliing 5 Agricultural bacteriology 2 Dairying .' 3 Farm arithmetic 5 Crops 5 Teaching 5 Physical training 2 27 Three-year course tor Jiif/Ji-scliool graduates. First Ykar. FIRST SKM ESTER. IlOiUS. Animal husbandry 5 ('homistry 5 Weeds 2 Insect pests 2 Plant diseases 1 Farm carpentry ^ 8 18 SECOND SEMESTER. Iloiirs^, Physics 5 Psychology 6 Plant physiology 2 Horticulture 3 Blacksmithing and cement con- struction 3 IS Second Year. Agricultural education , 5 Ktigllsh composition T) Farm mechanics 5 Soils 5 Poultry 5 Physfiography r> Crops ft Farm arithmetic S Advnnce Crops o Teaching f) 20 58 PKVLLOPMENT OF AGRICULTURAL INSTRUCTION. COURSES IN AGRICULTURE. 1. l^lciiientary ap;riculture. Tliis course is an introduction to the later diffeientiated fom-sc;, in aibition and osmosis; the outgo of plants through transpiration, guttation, and secretion; the transloca- tion of food materials; the study of food necessary for the nutri- tion of plants; the synthesis of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats; independent versus dependent plants; the tligestion and assimilation of foods; and respiration and fermentation, the two great phases of destructive metabolism in the plant. The structure of the plant will be emphasized only as it is necessary to understand iis pliysiology. 12. Horticulture. This course is designed to give the pupil a knowledge of the plan- ning, planting, and cultivation of the home vegetable garden: the care and management of small fruits and their adaptation to Wiscon- sin soils and climate; practice in the construction of hotbeds and cold frames: laboratory work in i>lanting and cultivating the school gar- den; pruning and spraying of orchards in the connnunity ; and judg- ing and scoring fruits and vegetables. 18. Agricultural education. This course has for its object a consideration of the specific purpose of agricultural instruction in its relation to the general aims of edu- cation; a discussion of tha organization of agricultural courses for high schools; the proper use of the school garden or the school farm; the unification of the interests of the school and the home through home project work, short courses in agriculture, social center work, fai'mers" institutes, and high-school fairs. This course also includes a study of the teaching process in relation to accepted sociological, biological, and jisychological principles. J 4. Soils. 'I'his course offers instruction in the origin and composition of soils; methods of measurement of their varying physical conditions; the relation of texture of different types of soils and water content to the best time for cultivation; the history of the mineral nutrient theory: the source, loss, and ways of restoration of each of the 10 essential elements, with particidar emi>hasis on the elements, nitrogen, phosplMtrus, potassium, atid calcium; the use of fertilizers; and the work of bacteria in making available the food materials to the plant. AGRICULTUEE AS TAUGHT IN SOME SCHOOLS. 61 Exporiments will be performed in the laboratory and on plats to de- termine the water-holding poAvers of different soils, the capillary movements of waters under different conditions, and the possibility and different methods of conserving soil moisture. 15. Agricultural bacteriology. In this course the students are made acquainted with the principles that underlie the science of bacteriology. Drill in the technique of bacteriological study is given to determine the structure of certain representative bacteria of characteristic groups, and to note their effects on various culture media. After this preparation students make bacteriological examinations of Avater, soil, milk, and butter. 16. Dairying. Since the major interest of the people of this communitj'^ is dairy- ing, much is made of this industry. Sanitation in the production, transportation, and distribution of milk is emphasized. Excursions are taken to inspect the equipment and methods of dairy practice, butter making and cheese manufacture. Careful determinations are made of the amount of butter fat, casein, albumen, sugar, and ash in milk. Students from farms are encouraged to improve dairy herds by enlisting the cooperation of their home folks in keeping records of daily milk production, and by making regular laboratory tests of butter fat in the milk. As soon as the dairy laboratory in the new building is available students will receive training in the pasteurization of milk and cream and the making of butter and cheese. 17. Crops. The study of crops includes a consideration of the origin, botanical characters, the leading tj^pes, and varieties of the leading crops of this region ; the preparation of the soil, planting, methods of cultiva- tion, systems of rotation, harvesting, food values for man or animals, and principles and methods of breeding. Corn and grains are judged by the methods recommended in Wisconsin. The plant and seed characters of the different crops are acquired through laboratory study. Variety tests and some of the best methods in crop produc- tion are demonstrated on the school farm. Excursions are taken to show^ the effects of soil, methods of cultivation, and rotation on the different crops. Methodic of distinction. — In connection with using the school truck an effort is made to utilize the resources of the community for teach- ing : Pruned 238 apple trees, 32 currant, 12 raspberry, and 21 goose- in dairy husbandry spent several days as an apprentice in the Platte- ville creamery as a part of his course. Some of the students gained such proficiency in this Avork that one of them was retained by the 1- 62 DEVELOPMENT OY AGRK'ULTURAI. INSTRUCTION. local civnincrv at n f^ood salary ior the .summer, while others re< ct'ivoil jrooil positions in near-by creameries, upon recomniemialioi! of the manapT. The work in horticulture was made equally a»' l)ractical. In the sprin*; of 191G the class accomplished the follow- ing:: Pruneil 238 apple trees, Ji2 currant, 12 raspberry, and 21 iro<»se berry bushes, and 19 shade trees; sprayed 150 trees; treated seed oat for smut; made the hotbeds and took char<;e of the vegetable garde on the school farm. The students have Iniilt the poultry house and a shed for the farm machiner}'. In nuiking hotbeds and farm build- ings the work is in cooperation with the department of manual train- ing, the courses of which are taken by the students in agriculture There is an organized effort made for cooperation and correlation o subjects in other lines, particularly with the science courses and i English. Local rxtc7ision work. — In addition to offering short courses and correspondence courses in agriculture, the department staff give lectures on agriculture and rural life before farmers' institutes; farmers' clubs and rural social centers. Students give assistance to the rural schools and to boys' and girls' clubs in such practical work as con.struction of hotbeds and aid teachers in giving special lessons. In addition to pruning and spraying of trees, they have tested seed and milk and have treated oats for smut and potatoes for scab. The instructors have also assisted in connnunity fairs. Results. — The results of the local extension work is that the school "• takes well " with the farmers of the community, and the demand for help is beyojid the power of the department to satisf}'. Although the department had been in operation but three years, when visited in 1917, it had trained 41 young men as teachers of agriculture. Tiie enrollment of the regular agricultural students had increased from 24 the iirst year to M. Much of the success of the department is due to its director, FrecL T. Ullrich, who although trained i)rimarily as a teacher of science has adapted and applied his scientific training to educational and agricultural problems in southwestern AVisconsin. THE BERRY SCHOOL, MOUNT BERRY. FLOYD COUNTY, GA. The history of the Uerry School, although one of the mo^t inter- esting chapters in the development cf the South, is Uk) long a story to relate at this time. The scheme grew out of an effort on tlu part of Mi.ss Martha Berry to broaden the lives of the people living near her in the mountain section of (Jeorgia. A start was nu>de with a Sunday school in a little log cabin. The sc1h)o1 proper was opened in an unpretentious way in 1!)()2. To-day the school owns over 5,(.)0( acres of land, a score of buildings with e(iuij>n:ent reaching into sev cral hundred thousand dollars, and is taking caie of several hundred AGRICULTURE AS TAUGHT IN SOME SCHOOLS. 68 farm boys and girls. The school is still a private institution incor- poratcil under the laws of Georgia. Although it has a considerable endowment, it is dependent u]Don the bequests each year for its run- ning expenses, the income from the fees and labor of the students being inadequate. Althougli the Berry School for Girls is a sepa- rate institution from the Berry School, which is for boys only, the two are on the same grounds and under the same management, hence they will be considered together. Purpose of school. — A visit to the school impresses one wath the air of industry and the lack of the aristocratic atmosphere which prevails in many of the private schools of the South. The reason for this is in the nature of the students selected and the dominating purpose of the school, which is " to develop efficient Christian man- hood by affording to worthy boys and young men of limited means from rural districts the opportunity to earn an education combining mental, moral, and industrial training." Candidates for admission must "(1) live in the country; (2) have attained the age of 16 years; (3) be financially unable to attend school elsewhere; and (4) furnish evidence of physical, mental, and moral soundness." All students are required to do at least 16 hours of w^ork a week. Stu- dents who do not take kindly to work are not allowed to remain at the school. All of the w'ork, including the erection of many of the buildings, is done by the students. A needy student may remain at the school working for pay during the summer, although students are not encouraged to remain at the school over 20 months in any one continuous period. The school affords a wonderful opportunity to young men who are willing to work, an opportunity to secure training tow^ard efficiency in workmanship and at the same time to be directed in physical, mental, and moral development which should mean much to the northwestern section of Georgia. The history of the graduates of the school will show that it has meant much not only to Georgia but also to other sections of the South in sending forth inspired leaders who know how to do things. It is interesting to note the student body and the contrast between the incoming stu- dents and those about to graduate. Wo7'h in agriculture. — Although the school gives general indus- trial training for rural life, it is more nearly an agricultural school than many of the special schools of agriculture. It is the aim of the director to make it more and more an agricultural school. In 1917, when the school w^as visited, agriculture was organized as a division coordinate with mechanics, academic subjects, and adminis- tration. Of the 5,000 acres of land owned by the school, about 60 are used as a campus, 1,000 are under cultivation, 500 used as pasture, and the remainder in woodland. All of the agricultural land is in charge 64 DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURAL INSTRUCTION. of the ilopartment of af^rioultnre. The farm is equipped witli nu)(l.| crn huildinfTi^ and machinery, iiu'liidinfjj a hothouse and an up-to-date dairy. At the time the school was visited students were woritinf^ on extensive poultry buildings. Tiie live stock consisted of 100 head of dairy stock, including calves and heifers, '200 heafl of swine, 150 sheep, 14 mules, G horses, and a flock of pmdtry. AVhile the farm is operated as a money-making venture, educa- tional values are not lost sight of. The use of student labor is not a serious problem, because two of the essential points in selecting stuilents is that they shall want to work and need to Avork. Each student is required to work approximately 16 hours a week. Addi- tional work with pay is given needy students. The pay depends upon the character of the work done. As the farming is done on an ex- tensive scale, using modern machineiy and methods, most of the farming operations afford new experience to the students, many of whom come from little " one-mule " farms in the mountains. The following account of a day's work at the school will indicate something of the manner in which the school is conducted : The active day at the Berry School begins early. At 4 o'clock the kitchen fireman arises and goes to build the fires in the ranges. A half hour later the cooks and the morning dairy squad go to tJieir work. The latter milk the cows and bring tlie milk from the barn to tlie dairy house before breakfast, which comes at C.'JO. ■ Meanwhile, the full-time farm boys, who are working one term in order t l»ay for their board and tuition the next term, have arisen, eaten breakfast, and gone to their work by G o'clock. The students arise at G o'clock and have breakfast at G.30. At 7 o'clock the real work of the school day begins, ar.d lasts until ."> o'clock in the afternoon, with intermission for chapel and dinner. Tlie school is divideti into three groups as nearly equal in size as possible. Each day two of these groups attend classes, while the third works for eight hours. A few students, however, have assigned work at other limes. From 4 until rt.SO o'clock in the afternoon is recreation period. This is the time for games, exer- cise in the gymnasium, reading, or other recreation for those not on duty. Sufiper is served at O.-SO, followed by evening iirayers. At 6.30 ou school days the eveinng study period begins, lasting i.iiil 0.05. During this time i-ach student must be in his room and studying. .\ relaxation periiKl is given from 9.05 to 9.30. At 9.30 silent time begins, and : ; 10 lights go out and every* one is in bed except the night watchman, who still ! s to make his rounds. On Saturday there is a social hour instead of the stiuly hour, and on Siiuilay chiiiH-h ser\ieariii<; on: The soil — jreneral classification, elementary coniiX)sition of plants and their sources of supply, sources of iiitroneral classitica- tion, duration of life, how they grow, feed and produce, sexuality, crosses and hybrids. (Trenenil fieM nops — lioK iciilture and jrardcn- ing; forestry; applied botany. Text used: Southern P'iehl (rojw, by J. F. Du«rg^ar, and Southei*n (iardeners' Manual, by J. S. Kewraan. Affrieulture II {anhxal hv^thnrnlry). — Ft>r sophomores in hi«fh school. I'his course is desiiifned to take ui> in detail animal life on the farm and ti'eats: The impoi-tance of the subject, breeds of horses, c»ttle, sheep, poultry, and swine. Animal type, judjiinj^, heredity, Ijreedin^;;, selection, pefli«!:i'ees, feedinjr, care, erjnipment, meat on the farm, preserving eggs, bees and honey. Text used: Beginninjxs in Animal Husbandn'. by C. S. Pluml). Ayriculture III {dairying). — For juniors in high st^hool. A practical course in this important subject treating on: The origin of domesticated cattle, the dairy type and breeds, starting a dairy herd, selection of cows and bulls, calf raising, development of the dairy heifer, management of dairy cattle, feeding for milk produc- tion. stal)les for cows, handling of manure, common ailments of cattle, milk records, testing milk, butter making, and milk as a food. Text used : Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, by C H. Eckles. Ayrlcultui^e IV {farm tnanagejnent) . — For seniors in high s<'hool. The farm as a business enterprise and as an avocation, personal char- acteristics desirable in a farmer, profits to be expected from farm- ing, cost of living on farms, some thoughts for the farm boys, types of farming, maintaining the fertility of the soil, capital, methods of renting land, farm labor, farm equ,ipment, farm layout, rotation, marketing, farm records and accounts, some successful farms. Text used : Farm ^lanagement. by C. F. Warren. Farm mechanics V (mechanics). — This course, for high-school pu|)ils, consists of a detailed study of field machinery, farm power and transmission devices: the operation, care, and maintenance of .such machinery being studied thoroughly. The following list will sei\ e as an index to the work covered : Plows, stalk cutters, har- rows, manure spreaders, fertilizer distributors, planters, mowing machines, rakes, binders, ensilage cutters, steam engines and Iwilers, gas engines and the farm tractors. Text: Farm Machines and Farm Motors, by I)avidson and Chase. Ill all of these courses a textbook sequence is not followed closely. An ellort is made to use the farm and shops as a laboratory and to use a seasonal sequence in the classroom that the classroom lesson AGRICULTURE AS TAUGHT IN SOME SCHOOLS. 67 may be correlated with farm practice. An effort is made also to correlate agriculture with other subjects, as will be seen from the description of a course given to students before they enter the regu- lar high-school courses : Country Life. — For fourth year grammar school. The aim of this roiirse is to take the everyday activities of the ixjys on the farm and make these the basis for ai'ithmetic, science, and agriculture. For exiUiiple : The institution sells a beef to a butcher in Rome. The arithmetic work for the day is based on the business operations involved in the sale of the beef and the buying of feed with part of the receipts. The beef is sold on foot at 7 cents per pound. There is first a discu.ssion as to why it does not bring 7* cents, which Is the the top of the market for this day. The good points of beef are brought into consideration.. Cotton-seed hulls, bran, and shorts have been purchased. The price of each is stated. It appears that the price of the cotton-seed hulls was much higher. The reasons are ascertained. The relative food value <->f the three feeds is discussed, as are the reasons for mixing them in the ration. Very likely the second part of the lesson for the day is devoted to gather- ing the com from a plot in which an ear-row test has been made by the boys during the summer. The corn is husked, sacked, and weighed and the result of the experiment determined. IMost of the boys in this class have studied very little arithmetic in the rural communities from which they come. The practical way in which arith- metic, agriculture, economics, and current events are blended enables the quick assimilation of what otherwise would be dry and indigestible material. No definite textbook Is used during this year, but the students are encouraged to acciuiiulate and read bulletins on the subjects discussed in class. Weekly excursions to various farm activities through the first three years of grammar school are conducted by the instructor, which serve as a basis for the more advanced work In the fourth year. THE MANASSAS INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL FOR THE TRAINING OF COLORED YOUTH. MANASSAS, VA. This institution is typical of a relatively large number of smaller schools maintained by northern philanthropists for Negroes in the South. This school is located near the historic* Bull Run battlefield, near Manassas, which is the seat of Eastern College and one of the district agricultural schools of Virginia. Although the school may be classed as a secondary school, elementary instruction is given. The following from the school circular suggests the primary purpose of the school: The aim of the school is to train for useful lives tliose boys and girls who from necessity or desire must enter as early as may be Into some self-support- ing occupation. It alms to teach Negro youth the need and importance in a clemocratic society of all kind.s of useful labor intelligently done and as far as possible to send them back to their homes efficient teachers and leaders in in- dustry and civic welfare. Through work as well as through books it aims to teach the value and dignity of work. The students at(enut whatever courfse, the iiiius Is not alone to make younjj men and women craftsmen; the aim Is to make craftsmen better men and women. Courses of study . — Students must be 14 years of a^e upon entrance. It is considered essential for the student to have the efjuivalent of clcnientary sdiool trainin^ij before enterinj^ tlie industrial courses, I hence students who have not had this preparation are required to ' take a preparatory course in the elementary subjects. Although there is fairly good equipment for woodworking and ironworking and other industrial training given in addition to blacksmithing and carpentry, this training does not enter into the agricultural course as will be seen from the following: Outline of the agricultural course. "^m [Figures indicate tlie iiiimlicr of 45-nilinito periods a week.] FIKRT YEAH. American history Arithmetic IJotany Chemistry (elementary) — Field practice Lan^'uaRC Military drill aii Military drill and atldeties 3 I'hysies 3 Supervised study H SECOND YEAR. I'ertods. Agronomy 3 Botany 2 Chemistry of soils 2 Dairy husbandry 2 Field practice 33 Grammar 5 Literature 5 Military drill and athletics 3 Poultry husbandry 2 Sujiervised study 14 FOl'KTU YEAR. Pcrloda. Conunerelal geography 2 Composition and rhetoric 5 Farm management — Land tenure. 3 Field practice 80 Geometry 3 Military drill and athletics 3 Rural economics — Sociology 3 Supervised study 22 Instruction in agriculture. — The agriculture of the classroom is supplementary to farm work. For much of the farm work wages are l)aid. Several acres of tlio farm arc turned oxer to the stuilouls to use as individual garden i)rojects. The scliool was visited two dilFerent years, each time the garden plots being in excellent condition and paying a profit to each student. To be sure, the plots were not all cared for eijiially well, and wliile the profit was small in stmie cases, all students were stimulated l»y the hope of a financial rewanl. It was interestiii Koport of the rommission on National Aid to Vocational Education. House of Koprcsuntatives. liocunicnt No. 100-1, 1014. » From Federal Board for Vocnlional Education. Bulletin, 1917, No. 1. P. 02. State- ment of policies. FEDERAL AID FOE VOCATIONAL AGRICULTURE. 73 74 DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURAL INSTBUCTION. A study of this table will 1»ring out the fact that in achlition to the $-J()o.0()0 appropriated annually for the use of the Federal hoard, there are three separate funds, viz: (1) For salaries of teachers, supervisors, and directors of agriculture; (2) for salaries of teachers of home economics and industry; and (3) for the salaries and niain- (enatice of teacher training. These funds are extended to the States on a fifty-fifty basis, i. e., each dollar of Federal funds must be niatihed by a dollar from the State or h>cal community. If the States do no more tiian match the Federal funds, there will be available after 1926 an annual appropriation of $14,3134,000, in addition to the $200,000 used by the Federal board. As a matter of fact man}'^ of the States are doing more than meeting the Fe«leral ap|>ropriation. In other words, in these States the act is working iis it was intended to do, in stimulating the States to liberality with re- gard to State aid for vocational education. It will be noted also that the funds increase year by year until the maximum for salaries of teachers is reached in 1025-20. The maximum for teacher training is reached earlier, in 1920-21. The act provides also that unless the teacher training fund is used by June 30, 1920, the other funds will not be available. These provi- sions arise out of the urgent and immediate need for teachers with special training for these lines of vocational training. The funds for teachers of agriculture are allotted to the States on the basis of the relation of the rural population of the State to the rural population of the United States, the funds for salaries of teach- ei"s of trades and industries and home economics on the basis of urban pojiulation, and the teacher training funds on the basis of total poi)u- lation. The population of some States is so small that the alloted por- tion of the total appropriation would not be worth considering, hence a special appropriation was made to bring the minimum appropria- tion for eaclf of the three funds to $r»,000 for each State. For ex- ample, the portion of the $500,000 alloted to Connecticut, in 1917-18, for salaries of teachers and sui)ervisors of agriculture was $1,104.33 based on rural population. To bring this allotment to $5,000, it was necessary to a]>propriate S3.,s35.0T from the special fund appropri- ated to guarantee the minimum allotment. Federal and State administration. — The act created a Federal Board for Vocational Education consisting of the Secretary of Agri- culture, the Secretary of Commerce, the Secretary of Labor, the United States Commissioner of Education, and three citizen mera- bois appointed by the President. One of these citizen members represents manufacturing and coinmorcial interests, and one a rep- re.sentative of labor. In addition to the admini.stration of this act, the Federal board is expected to make investigations relative to FEDEKAL AID FOR VOCATIONAL AGRICULTUKE. 75 the various aspects of vocational education involved in the act. Such in\esti<^ations may be carried on in cooperation with the various Federal departments. Any State to take advantage of the Federal funds available must accept the enactment and designate or create a State board to co- operate with the Federal board in the administration of the act within the State, Provisions are made for the Government to accept the act to designate or create temporary boards of control in States where the legislatures did not meet in 1917. ^Staie standards. — The act does not go into detail with regard to a general standard for \'ocational education, but leaves that for the Federal and State boards to work out for each State. Each State is expected to prepare a plan to submit to the Federal board showing the kinds of schools, equipment, courses of study, methods of instruction, qualifications of teachers and supervisoi-s, plans for training teachers, and plan for supervision. Although it is expected that each State will work out a plan to meet its individual needs, the act places several safeguards upon the appropriations that they- may be spent for only those phases of education for which they were intended. The standards set for vocational agriculture may be summarized briefly as follows: (1) Federal money appropriated for the teaching of vocational agri- culture can not be spent in the teaching of other subjects necessary to build a well-rounded course of training. (2) The Federal ap- propriation for the salaries of teachers, supervisors, and directors of agriculture must be spent only on salaries, equipment, and main- tenance. One-half of the salaries must be provided from State and local funds. In the case of training and local funds for teachers, however, Federal money may be spent for one-half of the main- tenance of such training. (3) Vocational agriculture must be under State supervision and control. (4) It must be of less than college grade and be designed to meet the needs of persons over 14 3^ears of age who have entered or who are preparing to enter upon the work of the farm or of the farm home. In order that the instruction may be practical the act stipulates that the schools shall provide for directed or supervised practice in agriculture, either on a farm pro- vided for by the school or other farm, for at least six months per year. (5) Although the act leaves to the State boards the minimum qualifications of teachers to be approved b}" the Federal board, it 6ti[)ulates that in the training of teachers and supervisors such train- ing shall be given only to those persons who have had adequate vocational experience or contact in the line of work for Avhich they are preparing themsehes as teachers, supervisors, or directors, or who are acquiring such experience or contact as a part of their training. 76 DKVKLOPMENT OF AGRICULTURAL INSTRUCTIOX. OPERATION OF THE SMITH-HUGHES ACT. The Federal Board for Vocational Kdxication. — Soon after July 1, 1917, when the act went into efTeot, the President appointed the three citizen members of tlio Federal Board for Vocational Educa- tional. The board was orfijani/ed as follows: David V. Houston, Secretary of Afrriculture, rliairman; William C. Kedfield, Secretary of Commerce; "William B. Wilson, Secretary of Labor; P. P. Claxton, Commissioner of Education; James P. Munroe, of Massaclnusetts, representing; manufactures and commerce; Charles A. Greathouse, of Indiana, re])resentinonsi- bility for success rested upon the teacher, and more attention has been given to securing teachers with special training. Educational anthorities have begun to realize that the place to begin efTective agrit'ultural education is in institutions for training teachers. So far it has not been possible to get young people to train for work not in operation, hence it has been impossible to establish teacher- training departments before the work was established in the schools. The two lines are developing together, but until teacher-training departments turn out a finished product the schools are in a sense piittitig up with makeshifts. 78 TEMNIISTG TEACHERS OF AGEICULTURE. 79 Attemfts to meet the demand. — Where special teachers haA^e been eiKiployed attempts have been made, as a rule, to secure graduates of agricultural colleges. Although these men may have had prac- tical as well as technical training in agi*iculture in the past, as a rule they have not had training as teachers. In very few cases have they had special training in teaching agriculture. For the most part they teach largely as they have been taught. The college training in agriculture may have been good or bad for college students, but neither the subject matter nor the method, at its best, was suited to students in secondary schools. In a large number of schools visited, the author has seen the same subject matter which the teacher liad in his college course given out to high-school students in much the same way that the teacher received it in college. The lecture method has been abused to a great extent. While textbooks have been used more extensively in recent years, t(X> often they have been books not organized as textbooks at all, or books not written for second- aiy schools. General agriculture has been taught mostly by teachers who have had little or no training in agriculture ; often by teachers of biology or other sciences. Where these teachers have had special aptitude and training as teachers some very good work has been done, but too often they have been like the teachers of aginculture without special training in pedagogy. Where they have applied the labora- tory method it has been for the most part vsdth the teclmical aims, methods, and materials of the college. However effective it might have been for training scientists, it has not gone far in the training of farmers nor in aiding boys and girls to adjust themselves to rural conditions. As a reaction against the lack of practical training given by such teachers in general courses, there has arisen a demand for agriculture to be placed upon a basis strictly vocational. In securing teachers for vocational agriculture some of the States have demanded that applicants must be first of all practical farmers. In many cases they have taken men who have had little technical training in agriculture and no special training as teachers. They have appre- ciated the need of such training, however, and have in some cases made pro\dsions for the teachers to make up their lack of training in both lines while in service. Development of departments of af^ricitltural education. — Depart- ments of agricultural education in connection with our agricultural colleges and universities have been the product of a gradual growth. In fact, there has been, up to the present time, a great range of variation in their organization and the work they have been at- tempting to do. In some cases they have been an outgrowth of i 80 DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURAL INSTRUCTION. scliools or departments of education, giving more attention to the rural scliools and the problems of teaching agriculture and other subjects. In other cases schools and colleges of agriculture have gradually given more attention to the problems of the elementary and high schools and the preparation of teachers in such sul)jectg as agriculture and nature-study. Most of the agriculture taught in the secondary as well as the elementary schools in the past has been of a general and elcniontarv nature. Some of the States have required such agricultural instruction in rural schools, and some have required certain training in agriculture on the part of teachers. The colleges and normal schools, in the past, have established cx)urses for teachers in summer sessions and correspondence courses to meet this demand. For the most part these courses have involved sub- ject matter rather than method. Some institutions have followed up this work by furnishing materials and suggestions upon teaching to teachers in service. The New York State College of Agriculture at Cornell University hns done a notal>le work along this line. For nearly 10 years it has been sending out its Kural School Leaflets, and in otlu>r ways aiding elementary teachers, before courses were de- velo})ed for training teachers for the secondary schools. lentil very recently, in the discussions of agricultural teacher-training little attempt has been made to distinguish between elementary and second- ary work. Special college courses for training teachers of agri- culture were siini)ly suggested as possibilities.^ With regular four-year courses established through the stimulus of State aid, a demand arose for teachers es]iecially trained for the secondary schools. Some of the Southern States, however, which were first to inaugurate secondary agricultural schools, have been the last to establish dei)artnients of agricultural education and to develop courses especially for teachers. Departments of agricul- tural education were established and the work first placed upon a professional basis in the following institutions: University of Min- nesota, Michigan Agricultural College, Massachusetts Agricultural College, and the University of California. Agricultural education upon a profcxs'ional hcsis. — The training lequired for the successful teaching of agriculture in secondary .-schools is such that it nuiy be considered professional. The training given especially to dexclop teaching ability should be considered a phase of professional education, whether inq^arted in a school or de- partment of education or in a school or department of agriculture. > See Crosby, D. J., Training Courses for Toachers of Afjilculturo. 11. S. Dcpnrlment of Agriculture. Yearbook, 1907. Jnckson, IC. H., Aj(rl(iilturiil TrnlnlnK Courses for Em- ployed Teachers. U. S. Dopar(ni«iil of AgrKulturc. liullotin, UU3, No. 7. TRAINING TEACHERS OF AGRICULTURE. 81 A WORK FOR COLLEGES. As a rule teachers of agriculture are required to have college train- ing for teaching agriculture in the secondary schools. Departments of agricultural education are confining their efforts more and more to training teachers of the secondary schools, leaving the training in agriculture for elementary schools largely to the normal schools and high-school teacher training classes. Departments of agricultural edu- cation are also offering courses for general leadersliip in rural life and are aiding in the training of the following groups : Superintendents and supervisors of rural schools, boys' and girls' club leaders, county agents and other extension workers, supervisors and directors of vo- cational agriculture, and secretaries for rural connnunity centers. A beginning is being made also in the special training of college teachers of agriculture. Few agricultural colleges have reached the stage where they are ready to act upon the realization that college instructors need special training as teachers. Verj' recently, how- ever, the committee on instruction in agriculture of the American Association of Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations^ has strongly recommended the improvement of methods, ending its report with the recommendation " that immediate and serious attention be given for means of improving the quality of teaching in the college course in agriculture, and as one of the means to that end it would urge the dcA^elopment of strong departments of agricultural educa- tion." Factors involved. — {a) Agricultural training. A teacher of agri- culture should have a broad general training in agriculture involving (1) scientific or technical training based on the natural sciences and their direct application to agriculture; (2) practical training and farm experience. As a result of the criticism that the training of the agricultural colleges is not sufficiently practical, more attention has recently been given to the requirements in practical agriculture both as a prerequisite to college courses in agriculture and as a part of such courses.^ {h) Professional training. Training in educa- tion should involve: (1) A general foundation in educational psy- chology, and the general principles and methods of education with particular application to the adolescent ; (2) special training in teach- ing agriculture in the secondary school; (3) opportunity for practice teaching and practical experience in leading young people and work- ing with farmers, (c) Correlated general training. Inasmuch as the teacher of agriculture is expected to be a leader in rural life, his 1 See 20th report of this committee. In P.lst Annual Report of the Association, 1017. ' See IGth and 17th reports of tlie committee on instruction in agriculture of the American Association of Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations in the 27th and 28th Reports of the Troceedings of the Assoclatiou, 1913, 1914. 154070°— 20 G > 82 DF.VELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURAL INSTRUCTION. traininij; should include: (1) Such subjects closely allieTi;i(TI(»X. (n) Agencies for niriil progress: Coiiiilry life problems, ;i«reiicie8 lor rural progress, and the best means ot" utilizing these, agencies for (lie iiuprovcment of rui'al coinmunitios. Lectures, assigned rca*lings. and reports. (b) Elements of agriculture, nature study, and school ganleii;s: Aims, material, and methods used in agricultural instruction in the elementary and gratle schools; teaching plans; educational value of the school garden; the home garden and the value of the school garden; the home garden and the value of home project work in agricultural education. Practical garden work on the campus. (c) High school farms, gardens and comnmnity work : Lectures, reports, and conferences on the utilization of land in connection with agricultural teaching; means by which the facilities of a school can be brought into intimate and helpfid relation with the agricultural interests and home life of the community su])porting the school; practice in planning and exe<'uting school farm prob- lems and demonstrations. (d) General science ami first-year agriculture: The aims and values of a general science cour.se in the high school; comparative study of typical courses and exj)Osition of the peculiar adaptations to the general science work of an elementary agricultural course in which plant study forms the basis of continuity; the equipment, nature, and amount of practical work needed in the course, includ- ing field trips and excursions. Outdoor and laboratory exercises are considered in detail. {e) Agriculture in secondary schools: Agricultuial teaching, in- cluding its history; the teaching methods to be employed, and the equipment needed. A general consideration of the educational aims and values of the work and the organizatit)n of the course is fol- lowed l)y a detailed study of materials and methods involved in the teaching of elementary agric^dture, dairying, animal hu.sbandry, horticulture, etc. Lectures, readings, and assigned practicums. (/) Rural school administration: Readings and classi-oom discus- sions of the fundamentals of rural school <^>rganization, management, and improvement. (<7) The jiractice of teaching agriculture: A five-weeks' practice course in stdected high schools of the State. Making of les.Mm i)lans, practice teaching reports and conferences with supervising teacher and instructor. Sui)ervi.sed i)ractice teaching; the observation of methods; and numagement of class and laboratory instructicMi by the local teacher. By arrangement with the department of education prop- erly prepared students may satisfy the re<|uiroments in practiio teaching for the teachers" reconinientlation by taking this course in- stead of I'!t|ii(ii(ion 'J taken without laboratory work by special i)ermission. {b) Organization of college departments of agricultural er tlu* ilcp.irliiu'iil of muiIlwIUhc in lln- bi;,'li school. Aniinig the topics dis. ^l>.s^>^l are: TRAINING TEACHERS OF AGRICULTURE. 91 The selection of subject matter suited to local conditions; asriculture in the cun-icuhun ; l!il)orator.v, field, and home exercises; visual instruction; super- vision of home projects; laljoratory and library etiuipment ; use and manage- ment of school farm, and connuunity or extension work. The laboratory period will be used for the preparation of teaching material, and for working out individual assignments coiuiected with the work. Text: Materials and Methods in High School Agriculture, by Hummel. Rural education : The priuiai-y purpose of this course is to make a study of rural education in its broad sense, witli a view of preparing teachers and ex- tension workers for more efficient service in rural comnuuiitles. Some of the topics discussed are : Changes in rural education and the rural home, to- gether with the factors effecting such changes ; the school as a connnuidty center ; other ageucies to be coordinated ; connuunity play and recreation, and the redirecteil rural school. Text : Rural I^ife and Education, by Cubbei-ly. Agricultural extension, and demonstration : This course is intended to give a survey of the whole field of extension in agriculture and home economics and to give practice that will prepare for actual field work. Among the topics discussed are: Evolution of extension in agriculture and home economics, general organization for extension, methods of extension, farm demonstration work, junior agricultural clubs, extension by experts, extension by railmads and connnercial companies, and the training of extension workers. Teaching: The purpose of this course is to give opportunity for stud-ents to get actual experience in teaching secondary agriculture under supervision. Lesson plans must be submitted by the student and approved by the critic teacher in advance of the lesson. The teaching methods and results of the student will be discussed in special conferences. Provision will be made for classes on the campus and near-tiy high schools. Application for this course must be made at least three months in advance. To other courses — agricultural instruction and agricultural ex- tension and demonstration — are modifications of courses described in the latter course. The student is expected to do some extension work as a part of the course. In addition to other work ojffered in the summer session, a rural life school is conducted for six weeks. Courses which do not involve college credit are given in agriculture, rural education, rural sociology', and rural economics. These courses include modified forms of reirii- lar college courses intended for the training of high-school teachers of agriculture. A rural life conference, including a rural pastor's conference and a rural school conference, is held for one week. During the summer of 1918, from June 3 to July 13, special courses were offered for teachers of vocational agriculture. These courses, which were arranged in conference with those in charge of the Smith-Hughes work in the State, included : Administration of high scliool agriculture; elementary crop production; and market tj'pes of horses and swine. Students. — In 1916-17 120 men enrolled for agricultural education. In 1916 there Avere 32 graduates, 10 of whom secured positions as teachers of agriculture. i 92 DEVELOPMENT OF AGRlCULTUrAL INSTRUCTION. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION: OREGON STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. Oi'f/dhi.vdh'on and scope. — The (loi)artinent of nf^ricnltural etliica- tion is a part of tlie scliool of vocatioiuil etliicatiun, ^vhich embraces also (lopartinents of education, psychology, home economics educa- tion, industrial education, and commercial education. The college is expected to confine its teacher training largely to preparingteachers of vocational subjects in the secondary schools. General training in education and ]>sychology is given, however, as a basis for the train- ing of tcacliei's of special vocational subjects. The function of tho department of agricidtural education is "to train men and women as teachers of agriculture in the colleges and secondary schools; to train extension Avorkers in agriculture; ami to develop leadership in rural life and education." Teaching facilities. — Although teachers of agriculture have had some special training for a number of years as a part of the work of the department of industrial education, the department of agri- cultural education has been but rccenth' organized and is not fully equipped. The idea in equipment is not to have elaborate equip- ment but to train teachers with such equipment and facilities as •will be within their reach in secondary schools. A combination laboratory and classroom is being equipped with such illustrative and reference material and laboratory apparatus as should be used in a department of vocational agriculture in a high school. The department of agriculture in the local high school is in charge of an instructor in agricultural education of the college. This department is used for ])ractice teaching with the instructor acting as criti(; teacher. Courses of studij. — Students i)reparing to teach agriculture in the secondary schools register in the school of agriculture, taking the prescribed work for all agricultural students in the first two years. ]n the last two years instead of specializing in some branch of agriculture the work is lai-gely prescribed to round out a more gen- eral training in agriculture and related science and to include 15 hours of i)rofessional training. This latter training includes educa- tional psychology, j^rinciples of education, vocational education, .secondary education in agriculture, and practice teaching. Facilities are alTorded for si)ecial students in agricultural educa- tion to gi-aduates of normal and agricultural courses. In addition to seminars for these studi'uts and pi-actice teaching classes, tiie fol- lowing courses are offered : {a) Secouilary education in agriculture: The principles of educa- tion as applied to the teacliing of vocational agiii-ulture in second- ary schools. Aims, methods, and materials adapted to the practical tiaining of stinlcnts o\ »'r 14 years of age are consiiUu-ed ; including tho TRAINING TEACHERS OF AGRICULTURE. 93 organization of courses, the collection and use of illustrative and ref- erence materials, and the various pluises of classroom and laboratory instruction. (b) Seminar agricultural education: A discussion of special prob- lems in the teaching of agriculture and in the administration of agricultural education Avhich will be brought out in an effort to keep in touch with the progress of this phase of education. The seminar includes also a critical review of the current literature of the subject. (c) Educational resources of the rural community: The special aim of this course is to prejiare teachers for broader social service. The rural school, the farmhouse, the country church, farmers' or- ganizations, and other agencies for rural progress will be considered with a view of Avorking toward a better correlation and a greater cooperation in effort for rural development. Special attention will be given the rural school as a communit}^ center. (d) I'^iXtension methods in agriculture: The history, organization, and methods of county agricultural agent work; lectures, assigned readings and practice in news Avriting, outlining program of work, drawing projects, chart making, conducting meetings, etc. (e) Agriculture and general science for teachers : The aims, ma- terials, and methods in general agriculture and general science wdth organization of courses for secondary schools. Special at- tention to supervision of productive projects to meet emergency needs. (/) Elementary education in agriculture: The aims, materials, and methods of prevocational and educational agriculture in the elementary schools, the relation to nature study and the boys' and girls' club work. Special attention given to school and home gardens and such projects as poultry and rabbits. The last-named course is given in the summer session and to teachers and supervisors in the elementary schools at Portland. Courses for the training of vocational teachers are also offered at Portland. Secondary education in agriculture is given as an exten- sion course in the itinerant training of teachers of agriculture in serA^ice by the head of the department wdio serves also as supervisor of agricultural education in the State. /Students.— In 191G-1T, 14 men Avere registered in the department of industrial education. In 191G there were 12 graduates, all of whom secured positions as teachers. PRACTICAL PHASES OF TRAINING. The demand to place agricidtural instruction upon a more practi- cal basis and the standardization of vocational agriculture through Federal and State control are calling for the more practical train- 94 DEVELOPMISNT OF AGRICULTURAL INSTRUC^TION". ing of teachers. The practical training as now given may be classi- Heil as follows: (1) Practice in agriiujltiire; (2) practice in teaching; and (8) ])ractice in tlie preparation and use of teaching materials. Practice in agriculture. — In most of the colleges tlie prohk'm of Ml!! king the agricultural training practical is considered a problem tor the various agricultural departments. Departments of agricul- tural education take the men with the training as they have received it in the various phases of agriculture. In some cases, however, as this training is not sulHciently practical to enable the prospective teachers to direct vocational work, the departments of agricultural education have been obliged to secure new courses of a practical nature or to bring about a reorganization of courses as given. Although most of the States have required two years of farm ex- perience for teachers of vocational agriculture, it is found necessary to supplement this and round it out in the training course to mi'et their needs as teachers. Some States are using teacher training fnnds to give practical shopwork to prospective teachers. Other States find it essential to have pix^spective teachers, directors, and super- visors of productive farm projects carry out such projects themselves in much the same manner as they will expect of their students. Con- ducting practical farm projects on the college farm has been a fea- ture of several of the emergency teacher training courseij. It is possible that it may become a permanent feature of regular courses for teachers of vocational agriculture. It seems reasonable that the prospective teacher should secure some of his practical training in agriculture in the light of a need which differs from the specialist or scientist or even from the student who returns to the farm. Fractloe in teaching. — Securing suitable practice in teaching is admitted to be one of the most difficult and exi)ensive of all forms of teacher training. It is presenting many new difficulties to depart- ments that train teachers of vocational agriculture. Some of the agricultural colleges offer vocational courses of secondary grade and in some cases students in agricultural education secure practice in teaching the students in such courses. The chief objection to such practice is that it is secured under conditions widely variant from the ordinary secondary stiiool. The students are older as a rule and the methods used in teaching them are too often the same methods used in teaching regular college students. As a rule the equipment is the same as used for college students. It is often diffi- cult to secure cooperation wherein such practice may be supervised by those trained in education instead of by those trained in some special phase of agricultun-. In some cases the students do not even get this kind of practice If they secure any practice at all it is in the nature of moot classes of their fellow students. TRAINIITG TEACHERS OF AGRICULTURE. 95 Some of the colleges depend upon local high schools to secure ])riU'tice for their students. Under some conditions this plan works well. Wliere one school is used for a large number of students, abnormal conditions arise and the plan does not work well. One of the best plans yet observed is the placing of prospective teachers in agricultural departments of rural high school as appren- tice teachers for a period of several months. As the local teacher acts as critic teacher, the plan is limited bj' the number of schools available in which teachers are in charge who are qualified to direct the work of a teacher in training. It is necessary to give the work careful general supervision, which means close cooperation between those in charge of teacher training and those in charge of the agri- cultural instruction in the schools. As the student may be called upon to give up all other tasks for a whole semester, the work must involve sufficient credit or monetarj'^ compensation to induce students to take it. In New York some compensation is given such teachers in training. It will be seen that the expense of such a plan puts limitations upon it. In the future, perhaps, it will be desirable to put limitations on teacher training and at the same time to make the work more thorough. This plan promises much for the future. Fractwe in the frcparation and use of teaching materials. — Many of the special courses in agricultural education call for laboratory work as well as practice teaching. It has been interesting to note that some of the older men in charge of the work who went into agricultural education from other lines of teaching have not known what to do with laboratory periods, while many of the men who have had actual contact with the problems of making the work practical in secondary schools have not had sufficient time for all of the prac- tical training they desire to give their students. Although the extent and nature of the work done depends much upon the equipment and organization, as well as the aims of the various departments, most of the instruction will fit into the following groups : I. Preparing illustrative and laboratory uiateriaL 1. Use of a camera. 2. Use of a stereopticon. 3. Making lantern slides. 4. (Jollecting and mounting pictures. 5. Chart making. G. Collecting and mounting insects and other small animalf 7. Collecting and mounting plants. 8. Preparing exhibits and collecting laboratory materials. II. Use of reference material. 1. Making collections of bulletins, etc. 2. Classifying and cataloging reference material. 3. Making, mounting, and indexing clippings. I 96 PKVIXOPMKNT or AOniCl'LTrRAT. INSTRUCTION. HI. « »ii,';iiiiz;ilii>ii (if sulijfit inatti-r. 1. Wdiklii;,' mit curricula und courses of study. 12. rrcpaialion iif lo.ss(»n oullint's nntl study uullines for luojects. [\. rrcpiiriuf? forms for records. 4. riaiiiiiuK practicuuis and Held Iriiis. 5. rrt'paration of survey outlines. IV. I'laiiniuK and making equipment. 1. Itrawinji plans of classroom, laboratory, sl)ops, etc. 2. I'lannin^ e(iuipment for classroom and laboratory'. 3. Makinj; siniiile equipment and teacbing devices. V. Couductiug practical exercises as adapted to secondary students. The natiiro and extent of the hi.^t-nanied. frroiip of activities de- l)end cliiefly ui)()n opportunities alForiU'd the students for suitable practical work in tlieir agricultural courses and the opportunities for carryin<^ out practicunis and field trips in connection with prac- tice teaching. In some cases, even where the students secure practice of a technical nature in connection Avith their agricultural courses, practicunis are planned and conducted in the training class as they would be handled for secondary students. Such work includes: Judging farm animals, judging farm products, testing seed, testing soil for acidity, use of the Babcock test, testing and preserving eggs, and such practical and simple exerci.ses as fit well into tlie work of a secondary school. Agcnch's for the advancement of ayiitidtural education. — Many of tlie larger educational and scientific institutions and societies have been concerned for a number of years with problems of agricultural ediuation as thej' relate to tlie general problems of education and agricidture with wliich these bodies deal. Chief among the national bodies may be mentioned the National Education Association and the American Association of Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations. Scarcely a year passes in whicli these bodies do not con- sider some phase of agriculture in the secondary schools. Regic^nal and State teachers' associations very often find time on tlieir j)ro- grams and place in their reports for consideration of problems deal- ing with teaching agriculture in the high schools. It has been only witliin the last four or live years, iiowever, that the problems of agriculture in the secondary schools have been given special con- sideration. Such special attention lias been given chiefly by the fol- lowing agencies : 1. I)ivi.sion of agricuilural instruction. United States Department of Agriculture: In 1903 the Oflice of Experiment Stations of the United States Dc|)artment of Agiiculture received an appropriation for farmer.s' institutes and agricidtural in.struction in tlie following terms: To enable tlie .S('<-relnry of Aurlc\dtiire to Investi^'ate and report upon the organization and progress of Jarmers' Institutes and agricultural schools In I TRAINING TEACHERS OF AGRICULTURE. 97 the several States and Territories and upon similar organizations In foreign countries, with special suggestions of plans and methods for malting such organizations more effective foi- the dissemination of the results of the work of the Department of Agriculture and the agricultural experiment stations, and of improved methods of agricultural practice, including the employment of labor In the city of Washington and elsewhere and all necessary expenses, $20,600. For a number of years work of a general nature, much of it propa- ganda for the development of agricultural education and farmers' institutes, was carried on by specialists in those two lines. Although the work has continued ever since with the same appropriation and the same authorization, its nature has been changed as the work to do became more specific and specialized. In 1914 a man was cm- ployed to give his entire time to the work of the secondary schools. This work is mostly along two lines: (1) Investigating the methods of organization and teaching in the schools; (2) organizing the information secured in the Department of Agriculture and the ex- periment stations for teaching purposes. Methods gleaned from the study of schools are suggested in connection with the materials organized for teaching. This material is sent out in the form of bulletins and documents. For two years the Agricultural Educa- tion Monthly served as a medium for reaching teachers of agricul- ture. Sets of lantern slides are prepared and loaned to teachers with lecture syllabi. 2 United States Bureau of Education: The Federal Bureau of Education for several j'^ears has considered aid to teachers of agricul- ture as one of its functions, but owing to limited funds it has been necessary to restrict its efforts to a few lines. A specialist in agri- cultural education has been employed for the past three years. Much of his time has been devoted to investigations concerning higher edu- cation in agriculture and the coordination of the whole program of agricultural instruction. The bureau has cooperated with the De- partment of Agriculture and other agencies in making investigations and has published a number of bulletins reporting the results of investigations and the proceedings of educational societies dealing with agriculture in secondary schools. 3. Conferences on agricultural education: Under the auspices of the Department of Agriculture and the Bureau of Education a number of regional conferences have been held, in which specific problems relating to the teaching of agriculture in secondary schools were discussed. As those attending the conferences were mostly engaged in the colleges as jjrofessors of agricultural education, or in State departments of education as supervisors of agriculture, the problems discussed pertained chiefly to training teachers and to the organization and direction of courses of study in the secondary 154070'— 20 7 98 DEVELOPMENT OF AGRiriTLTTrRAL rNSTRUCTION. Schools. The reports of these conferonres, though not published for general distribution, were made available to th. .7. Training courses for teachers of agriculture. In U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture. Yearbook, 1907. pp. 207-220. 108 DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURAL IXSTRUCnON. Jacksow, E. R, Afrricultural tralninc courses for employed teachers. T7. S. I>epaitnient of Ajrrlculture. Rullotln 7, 11»13. Jahvis, C. D. Vocat-lonnI teachers for secondary schools: What the land-frrant collegrs are doing to prepare them. U. S. Bureau of Education. Bulletin, 1917, No. 38. National Edi'cation Assocation. Preparation of teachers for lagricultural education. In its Journal of proceedings and addresses, 1908. pp. 294r-312. Peabody Com:GB. The Seaman A. Knapp School and Farm (for the Training Of Teachers). Bulletin 2, toL 1, 1913. Texas Aguicultural and Mechanical CoLijiGE. Department of Affricultural Education. Agricultural education at the Agricultural and Mechanical OoUege of Texas. Bulletin No. 1, 191S. The training of teachers for agricultural instruction. Canada Agricaltural. Gazette, 3:916-924, 1916. V. ORGANIZATION AND SUPERVISION. Fedebax Boabd foe Vocational Education. Agricultural education: Some problems in State supervision. Bulletin 2<3, 1918. Agricultural education organization and adniini.stratlon. Bulletin 18. Buttekfield, K. L. a State .«!ystem of agricultural eilucatlon. In Ma-ssachu- •setts Agricultural College. Bulletin 8, No. 2. pp. 29-47, 1916. Massachusetts Board of Education. State-aided vocational agricultural edu- cation in 1912. Bulletin 3, 1913. State-aided vocational agricultural education In 1914. Bulletin 3. 1915. State-aided vocational agricultural education in 1915. Bulletin 5, 1916. Information relative to the establishment and administration of count.v agricultural schools and agricultural departments. Bulletin 23, 1916. Michigan Aobicut-toeal CJollege. Department of Agricultural Kducation. li^orts on agriculture In tiie high .schools of Michigan. Bulletin 8, 1912; bulletin 12, 1913; bulletin 13, 1914; bulletin 15, 1915; bulletin 16. 1916. • New York (State). Education Departvicnt. Agricultural education in sec- ondary scliools. Bulletin No. 624, 191G. Schools of agriculture, mechanic art.s, and home making. Bul- letins, 1910 ; No. 543, 1913 ; No. 626, 1916. Vocational schools. Bulletin No. 566, 1914. Stkwabt, J. S. Annual report of the eleventh district agricultural school of (Georgia. Georgia State Ck)llege of Agriculture. Stimson, R. W. The MRssachu.sett8 home-product plan of vocational agricul- tural eUucatioo. U. S. Bureau of Education. Bulletin. 1914, No. & o i I m Syracuse N. Y. PAT. JAN. 2 1, 1808 -A>, ■&■.••.*■«■'"'" ••'^,''; '," ■ ;' . ^•♦■r!"' V, ■t-.^^-; '•■■>,•>