1 m mn >,>> 3> ^i::x> 2> J»^35 ' :2> :»»3:^ .->> >i>>OT il LIBRARY OF CON&RESS. ^A^^ -E^ I — ,^ I UNITED STATES OP AMERICA.^ > .Co. /> cs>:zj» a^E»> '' ' » ^> 3: 3 >:x>:> J»J>5 , >3 ^> )>T >' 3i:*i>:3>> s>:> ^C> 2>. '»":3a*>^ -^-s D) y. ^m>yyn M-'sM I>:y y >> -> >^ -> > > ^ •> ■>... • > ^ 3 1> > ^ ^ > > yy:> , >' > . USEFUL WORKS FOR THE PEOPLE....!. K. ll/IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIillllillllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllillllllllllllllllllll IMPROVEMENTS IN , AGRICULTURE, ARTS, &c. or THE UNITED STATES. BY HON. HENRY L j!,Li.& WORTH, U. 8. COMMIStlONBR OF PATENTS. TO WHICH IS ADDED A TREATISE ON RAISING SWINE, AND THI BEST METHODS OF FATTENfNe:PORK. ' ALSO, y A TREATISE ON GEOLOGY AS CCM^NECTED WITH AGRICULTURE. NEW-YORK: GREELEY & McELRATH, TRIBUNE BUILDINGS. 1843. Pl^Qf 1 7Wg[J5a'irV=[?[lV[E ©115*3^^0 p^'.^^^ «.>ii6> tWimWu' titiMWMO.lJi.iO TRIBUNE PUBLICATIONS. USEFUL BOOKS FOR THE PEOPLE. Cr MR. FARNHAM'S TRAVELS THROUGH OREGON forms No. I. of a series of useful books now in course of publication at the office of the New- York Tribune. These publications will be uniform in style, and generally in price, and the Publishers will con- fine themselves to such as are intrinsically valuable, and which they may deem calculated to disseminate important and accurate information on subjects connected with Agriculture, Mechanic Arts, History, Literature, and Science — in a word, such books as are useful and important alike to the Farmer and Mechanic as well as to the Merchant and Professional Man. No. I. OF USEFUL WORKS FOR THE PEOPIE-JDST PUBIISHED. TRAVELS IN THE GREAT WESTERN PRAIRIES, THE ANAHUAC AND ROCKY MOUNTAINS, AND OREGON TERRITORY. By Thomas J. Farnham. The above work contains a full, clear, graphic and authentic account of the Far Westj and the last chapter embraces the report of Lieutenant Wilkes to the Secretary of the Navy, on the examination of Oregon Territory by the Exploring Expedition. Price 25 cts. : Five copies for One Dollar. NO. II. OF SERIES OF THE TRIBUNE'S USEFUL BOOKS FOR THE PEOPLE. [Cr The IMPROVEMENTS IN AGRICULTURE, ARTS, &c. OF THE UNITED STATES, as set forth luminously and at length in the Report of Hon. W. H. ELLS- WORTH, Commissioner of Patents, forms No. II. of the Tribune's Series. It is one of the most valuable and instructive PubUc Documents ever pubHshed, and should be in the hands of every man in the Union. To the above work is also added a valuable TREATISE on RAISING SWINE, and the best method of fa^ttening pork, with a plan for building Styes. Also, a Treatise of great value, entitled GEOLOGY as connected with Agriculture. The price for the whole is 25 cents by the single copy — $1 for five copies. Orders, ac- companied by the cash, are solicited from Postmasters, Newsmen, Booksellers, and others. NO. III. OF THE SERIES OF USEFUL PUBLJCATIONS NOW IN PRESS. tnr DOCTOR LARDNER'S LECTURES.— The third edition of Doctor Lardner's complete Course of Lectures, delivered at Niblo's Saloon, in the City of New- York. The subjects embraced in the Lectures are : Electricity — The Sun — Galvanism — The Fixed Stars — Magnetic Needle — Latitude and Longitude — Bleaching — Tanning — Popiilar Falla- cies — Light — Falling Stars — Temporary Stars — Historical Sketch of Astronomy — Dew — Science aided by Art — Scientific Discoveries — Sound — Vibrations of the Retina — Voltajo Battery — Steam Engines of England and America. This edition of Doctor Lardner's Lectures will be introduced by a SKETCH OF THE PROGRESS OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE, BY THOMAS THOMSON, M. D., F. R. S., h. & E., &c. &c, &c., Regius Professor of Chemistry in the University of Glasgow. This splendid work, which is as elegantly written as it is lucidly arranged, embracea the following subjects : Introductory Remarks — Mathematics — Arithmetic, Geometry, Al- gebra ; — Of Observation and Experiment — Mechanics — ASTRONOMY — Optics — Hy- drostatics, &.C. — Electricity — Magnetism — Chemistry — Giving a Historical Sketch and General Summary of the principles of each of the foregoing branches of Science. Price for the whole, including Lardner's Lectures, 25 cents per single copy — PostmaBters ando tilers will receive five copies for $1. The succeeding numbers of this Series of useful Publications will be announced from time in the New- York Daily cmd Weekly Tribune. THE IMPROVEMENTS AGRICULTURE AND THE ARTS OF THE UNITED STATES, AS SET FORTH LUMINOUSLY AND AT LENGTH IN A REPORT TO THE CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES. U BY HON. yf. ¥(. "^LLS WORTH, COMMISSIONER OF PATENTS. Patent Office, January, 1843. In compliance with the law of Congress, the Commissioner of Patents has the honor to sub. mit his annual report. Five hundred and seventeen patents have been issued during the year 1842, including thirteen re-issues, m\A fifteen additional improvements to former patents, of which classified and alphabeti- cal lists arcEuinexcd, (marked B and C.) During the same period, three himdred and fifty- two patents have expired, as per list marked D. The applications for patents during the year past amount to seven hundred and sixty.one, and the number of caveats filed was two hundred and ninety-one. The receipts of the office for 1842 amount to $35,790 96, from which $8,068 95 may be de- ducted repaid on applications withdrawn, as per statement E. The ordinary expenses of the Patent Office for the past year, including payments for the hbrary and for agricultural statistics, have been $22,154 48, leaving a net balance of $5,264 20, to be credited to the patent fund, as per statement marked F. The above expenditures do not include those incurred within the last year, for the recovery of the stolen jewels. For the restoration of models, records, and drawings, under the act of March 3, 1837, $14,- 060 02 have been expended, as per statement marked G. The whole munber of pfetents issued by the United States, previous to January, 1843, was twelve thousand nine hundred and ninety-two. — The continuance of the depression of the money market, and the almost universal prostration of all busmcss, operates very disadvantagcously on the receipts of this office, as many hundred ap- plications are delayed solely from the want of funds or difficulty of remittance. The patents granted for the year, however, exceed those of the year previous by tioenty, though there have been less apphcations by eighty-six. The Digest of Patents, continued and brought down to January, 1842, has been printed, and 700 copies distributed to the respective States, and 200 copies deposited in the library, in com. pliance with the resolution of Congress directing the same. The accommodations granted during the laat year for the reception of tlie articles received through the exploring expedition, entrusted to the National Institute, must seriously thwart, if not suspend, the design of Congress in the reorgan- ization of the Patent Office, wliich enacts, section 20, act of July 4, 1836, " that it shall be the duty of the Commissioner to cause to be classified and arranged, in such rooms and galleries as may b« provided for that purpose, in suitable cases, when necessary for their preservation, and in such raaa- Improvements in Agriculture and the Arts. ner as shall be conducive to a beneficial and fa- vorable display thereof, the models, and specimens of composition and fabrics, and other manufac- tures and works of art, patented or unpatented, which has been or shall hereafter be deposited in the said office." While the annual receipts of the Patent Office above the expenditures are sufficient to carry out fully the benevolent object of the National Legis- lature, the want of room of which it is thus de- prived will be, for a time, an insurmountable ob- stacle, as all the room in the gallery could be ad- vantageously used either by the Patent Office or the National Institute. No remedy, therefore, remains, but an extension of the building, which might be done by the erection of a wing sufficiently large to accommodate the Patent Office on tlie first story. The building can also afford room for lectures by professors, should they be appointed under the Smithsonian bequest ; and may I be here permitted to observe, that a gratuitous course of lectures in the different branches of science would certainly do much to diffuse knowledge among men. I can confidently say, that the agri- cultural class look forv/ard with bright anticipa- tions to some benefit from the Smithsonian be quest, and to the time when the sons of agricul- turists, after years of toil at the plough, can at- tend a course of lectures at the scat of Govern- ment, and there leani, not only the forms of legis- lation, but acquire such a knowledge of chemistry and the arts as will enable them to analyze the different soils, and apply agricultural cliemistry to the greatest effect. Such encouragement will' indeed, stimulate them to excel in their professions while others, deemed by many more favorable; are indulged with a collegiate course of education. Little, indeed, has been done for husbandry, by the General Government ; and, since eighty per cent, of the population are more or less engaged in this pursuit, the claim on tliis most beneficent bequest will not, it is hoped, be disregarded. The Na- tional Agriculture Society, in connection the with Institute, will most cheerfvdly aid Congress in carrj^ng out their designs, for the great benefit of national industry. It is a matter of sincere congratulation, that the Patent Office has so far recovered from its great loss in 1836, by the conflagration of the building, with nil its contents. A continued correspondence with 11,000 patentees, and mitiring efforts on the part of all concerned with this bureau, has accom- plished much ; indeed, to appearance, the models are better than previous to the fire. Although something yet remains to be done, enough has been accomplished to remove the past embarrass- ment, and afford applicants the means of examina- tion as to the expediency of applying for a patent. The loss of the Ubrary, sustained by the fire, is not yet fully repaired ; and, smcethe law of 1836 makes it a duty to examine all applications for patents, with reference, also, to foreign inventions, it is absolutely necessary that the library should be extended. It is true that the library of Congress possesses some books on scientific subjects, useful lor refer- ence in the labors of this bureau, but no permis. sion isgiven to take out books from that library ; and il such liberty were granted, it would be bad economy to send an examiner to the Capitol, to look up similar cases. If applications are to be exam- ined, it will promote the despatch of public busi- ncss, protect against spurious patents, and give public satisfaction, if the Patent Office library is well supplied with necessary books. Already, Inmdreds of applicants are satisfied, by the comparatively imperfect examinations now made by referring to books on hand, not to take out a patent ; and when, in the rejection of cases, reference is made to foreign patents, there is an impatient desire to see the description of the in- vention that is to cut off the hopes of so many years of toil and labor. I would therefore most earnestly recommend an appropriation of ^1,200 from the surplus fund, to add to the Patent Office Ubrary. The annual agricultural statistics, comprising the tabular estimate of the crops for the past year, with accompanying remarks and appendix, will be found subjoined, (marked A.) The value of this dociunent to the whole coun- try, from year to year, it is believed, would justify a much larger appropriation from the Patent Of. fice fimd for this purpose. The diffusion of such infonnation may save millions to the laborious tiller of the soil, besides adding directly to his means of export many millions more. An exam- ination of tliis subjeat, and the expediency of fixing it on a more pe%nanent and advantageous basis, by the constitution of an agricultiu-al bureau, or at least an agricultural clerkship, at a moderate expense, to be di'awn from the patent fimd, is res- pectfully suggested. The additional benefit which might thus accrue to the population of our v.ddely extended country would soon be seen. A sufficient appropriation to allow a personal examination of the various parts of the coimtry by some one well qualified for such duty — similar to what has been attempted with so much success by some of the State Legislatures — would, it is beheved, realize a vast amoimt of practical good, especially to the South and West, by furnishing the data on which they might direct their pro- ducts to the best markets, for domestic sale or fo- reign export. Such, indeed, are the great benefits to result from personal observation and critical examina- tion, not only of the crops, but agricultural im- plements — such the importance of explaining the new improvements, and collecting and distributing all the acclimated seeds, which are proved to be so sio-nally productive or beneficial, that the Com- missioner of Patents has doubted whether a modi- fication of his duties, in connexion with tlie Patent Office, would not be more useful to the commu- nity. Dui-ing the last year, he embraced the op- portunity, while travelling, to examine the crops in ten States ; and though the examination was of com-se imperfect, it enabled him the better to digest the somewhat discordant materials from wliich the agricultural statistics here incor- porated were compiled. If millions can be saved to the pubhc, if the agriculturist can be encour- aged in his all-important pursuits, by the expendi- ture of a small sum from the annual surplus of the patent fund, what better destination could be given to this amount ? Would not the people heartily approve and earnestly second such an midertaking. All of which is respectfully submitted. H. L. ELLSWORTH. 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AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS. REJIARKS ON THE TABULAR ESTIMATE, iiC. The tabular view now given, presents, in a con- densed form, the results of the various crops diu-. ing the past year. To prepare it has been no easy task. The sources of information principally re- lied on have been the different agricultural socie- ties, addresses, an extensive correspondence, with personal appHcation to many throughout the whole country. To those who have thus contrib- uted to our means of knowledge, tlie public are imder no light obligations for the promptness and efficiency with which they have replied to the questions for information ; and this success makes the regret the greater that an answer could not be be obtained in every case, so as to incorporate yet further knowledge, so acquired, in tliis statistical report. The progress of each crop, however, from its seed time to its harvest, has been carefully noted, and the various causes which might affect its in- crease or decrease, taken into consideration. The aim has been, as far as possible, to exclude from the elements of wliicli the estimate was to be com- pounded every tiling which could not lay claim to reliable accuracy. Still it is evident, that m the present dcartli of means in our country for extensive statistical in- vestigation of tin; liind most neccssarj"^, an ap- proximation to tiie truth is the most tliat can be attained. This is all that has been attem})ted ; and it is Jioped that as close and accurate a view as the means at command and time for t!ie pur- pose would allow, is thus furnished. It will be re- collected that the estimate must be finally settled after the crops have been gathered in, the latest of which reach to the month of December ; so that the preparation of the whole nmst chiefly be comprised in the compass of less than two months. It is often, too, not a little difficult to reconcile conflicting statements and calculations, either of wliich, so far as it appears, are entitled to equal credit v/ith the others, and yet which give no clew as to tlie basis on which they are formed, and by the careful examination of which, they could be verified or disproved. Great vagueness likewise exists m the slight notices found in many of the agricultural journals, where something like a re- cord of the crops from month to month, usually forms a part of their columns. An effort has been made to sift out the truth, and so to weigli the evidence and compare the various results as to give at least a bird's-eye view of the whole. If any should question the correctness, or if subse- quent somces of information should show that we have been mistaken, no one, we are certain, can impute it cither to want of diligence in collecting, or to the sparing of any effort to chscriminate and to ascertain the truth. PROGRESS OF IMPROVEMENT. The progress of improvement in agriculture, though gradual, is yet steady. The importance ol' this branch of industry, is beginning to be more and more appreciated. The whole country is more or less interested in it, as it furnishes, be- sides what is consumed at home, at least three- fourths of all the exports of the United States. — The vast public domain of unsold lands, too, will be affected by this progress, and its value propor- tionably advanced. It may be well here to men- tion some of the principal sources of this improve- ment. CAUSES OF IMPROVEMENT. The geological surveys ordered and in progress, or recently completed, in many of the States, be- sides the other important benefits thereby confer, red on those States, have contributed much to ad- vance the science of husbandry. These, in connexion with the experiments of agricultm-al chemistry, by thus directing the at- tention to their analysis, are developing the natm'e of the soils and theu' adaptation and means of in- creased production, by different seeds, products, and methods of cultivation and manures, and so enable the fanner or planter to use the varieties of his land to the l)est advantage. The increasing number of agricultural periodi. cals and treatises, and their clieap and more ex- tensive circulation throughout the land, are also producing a happy effect. The farmers and plant- ers in the various sections of our country are thus brought acquainted with each other's operations and success, and also v/ith the methods of culti- vation and rearing of stock, &c., common in Eng- land and on the continent, new products and the result of their trial are noticed, and the knowledge of many useful discoveries thus extended. The prejudice against '• book farming," as it has been termed, which has so long proved a l^arrier to the adoption of valuable improvements thus suggest- ed, is gradually wearing away ; and a happy com- bmation of science and practical skill is thus se- cured, the results of which are every year becom- ing more and more apparent. Agricultural societies also exercise great influ- ence in furthering the progress of agricultural in- dustry. These are of but comparatively recent date, and their institutions and increase in num- ber and prosperity serve to mark the progress of improvemenl in agricidture ; and if still further aided by an efficient board of agriculture, like what exists in Great Britain, they vrould no doubt be yet more successful. It is only about fifty years since that board was there established, and it has proved of extensive benefit to that active empire. By means of these societies, great num. hers of the agriculturists of our country are brought together, to compare notes, as it were, to observe each other's success, and to converse on the topics coimected with tliis branch of industry. They examine the machines, implements, animals and products, offered for exhibition, and are in- duced to bestow more care and labor in the selec- tion of, their seeds and stock, in the preparation of the soil, and in their tillage and harvesting. — Every year new and valuable improvements are thus made known and introduced, by which many are essentially benefited. Premiums also encour- age to effort, and a highly salutary incentive is furnished, in the honor to be acquired of success- ful and approved farming. A similar effect, too, results from the bounties given by the different States to encourage the cultiu-c of some particu- lar product. These have never been offered with- out a new impulse being stirred, and leading to in. improvements in Agriculture and the Arts. creased attention to the pursuit. Some of the States in these respects arc far in advance of others, but almost all are beginning more to appreciate their true interest, and seeking to. extend their true prosperity. Wliile adverting to the causes of general im- provement in the agriculture of our country, it inay not also be improper to allude to the increas- cd habits of temperance and sobriety of the labo- rer, by which the condition of the farm-house and farm is so essentially benefited, and domestic hap- piness and effective strength promoted. A clear head and a vigorous frame, in combination, will ever be most successful in tillage, as in every branch of industry. The lengthening of life and the repair of health, thus secured, render many who have been but drones and mere consumers, also active and efficient producers, as well as healthful consumers. The amount added, too, in the increased skill, as well as the saving from less breakage of tools and machinery of labor, and the actual effectiveness of such laborers as have heretofore been drawn from the intemperate class, now reformed, constitute no small item of gain in this view of the subject. No little damage has been thus sustained in the " inebriate" manage- ment and cultivation of the land, which is now avoided. Were this the proper place, some most interesting deductions might be made as to the phy- sical force and efficiency thus added to the vari- ous branches of industry, and the bearing of the whole on agriculture, as a source of our national wealth. ELEMENTS OF THE ESTIMATE. The great and general elements which must be taken into consideration in forming this annual estimate are, (and this is also a stated or perma- nent cause) — 1. The annual increase of our pojmlation nat- urally, and also from emigration, and hence, con- sequently, of our laboring force. While it has usually been computed that the proportion of the whole population engaged in agriculture, or de- pending on it for a livelihood, is equal to at least 83 per cent., the last census shows that over 2,700,000, or more than one-fifth of the whole, constitute the effective force of male laborers. — This is nearly three times more than are employ- ed in manufactm-es and trade, commerce and na- vigation, taken together. In Great Britain, the proportion is also large — 9,000,000 are said to be engaged in agriculture, to 4,000,000 employed in the manufactures. A per centage, therefore, equal to one-fifth of the annual per centage of the in- crease of our population must be allowed on most, if not all, of the crops, in forming the agricultural statistics, as one of the usual natural elements of which the estimate is to be compounded. 2. The quantity of nciv land now first render- ed productive. This appUes with much force to several of the later States. The attention of the settler is at first turned to the clearing up, fencing, and putting in order his'groundg ; and thus, three or four years may often elapse before his land is made to reward his toil in large and full crops. — Such a cause has been assigned, the past year, for the greatly increased production of the wheat crop in Michigan. The same cause will probably prove, to a limited extent, a stated one for some years to come. Similar to this, too, is the resto- ration of lands either wholly or partially worn out from excessive cultivation, by enriclijng them with suitable manures. Considerable attention, and with good success, has been direct^ to this ob. ject, for the last two or three years, in the older States. Thus, many acres of land, in Virginia, have been recovered by marling. The opening, too, of new means of communi- cation, (railroads, canals, &c.,) bringing the mar- ket nearer, has induced large appropriations of land to particular crops ; nor has the expectation of the revival of the manufactures and business general- ly, by means of the encouragement of a home pohcy, been without very marked effect. 3. Yet another element of calculation deserv- ing notice is what may be called, perhaps, acci- dental or occasional — such as the failure of some particular crop the previous year, and the endea- vor to supply the deficiency by planting more seed and increased attention the next year. So the failure of an earlier crop, if known in time, may lead to the attempt to produce the larger growth of a succeeding one. It sometimes also happens that, owing to some cause affecting the growth the previous year, the seed within reach is not so productive as usual. The drain likewise on the stock that may be on hand, by a lively market, may operate in a similar manner. Some of these causes just mentioned have not, it is true, operated very extensively the past year, as the crop of the previous year was a good one, and there has been no greatly increased demand in the market for the different products ; yet, in forming our estimate, it seems no more than pro- per to keep them ever in view. The relative pro- portion of the various kinds of products used has considerable influence in determining their amount and home consumption, as more is required of some products to furnish the same nutriment than of others. Of two articles, either of which can be used to advantage at home, the producer will usually dispose of that which will command tlie highest price in the market, though this may, perhaps, force him to look for his own supply for home consumption to the inferior articles. The diversion of laborers from or to other kinds of industry, in consequence of the suspension or revival of the same, also deserves attention. Changes of this description often have a very perceivable effect in regard to some particular re- sults, as well as the general aggregate of produc- tion. 4. The operation of striking peculiarities of the season, the increase or decrease of the insect tribes that are hostile to various crops, may very properl}' be ranked under this class of accidental causes- Oiu" country, indeed, is so extensive, and ranging through so many different tempera, tures, that this variation of the growing sea.son must be expected. Yet, while this necessity ex- ists on the one hand, we seldom find, on the other, that the cold, or drought, or rainy weather, or the ravages of insects, so hurtful to different products, is miiversal. Some portion, at least, is more favored than another, and thus the sinii- lar crop escapes the injury wliieh lessens the amount of production elsewhere ; and hence wo seem most effectually secured against any of those alarming failures of entire crops wliich have Improvements in Agriculture and the Arts. caused so great distress in England and other countries, as well as are ready to take advantage of any favorable increase of our trade in these products to foreign parts. 5. There is yet another element to be regarded in forming our estimate — that which is found in the superior productiveness of the crops, arising from the influence of the weather, improved seeds, implements of husbandry, tillage, and va- rious unmentioned causes, combined. Were the improvements on seed simply to be estimated at 10 per cent, only on the crops, it is said on high authority, that this would amount in value to $20,000,000, or more. A season more than usually favorable at the time, or just after plant- ing, while the crop is in progress, or at the period of harvesting or gathering, will often add vastly to the amount of the productions. The improved culture, selection of seeds, and early attention to the rotation of crops, exhaustion, and manures, will, no doubt, preserve the new States from the results which have been so fatal to the older ones, in impairing their lands, and thus losing their adaptedness to some particular crop. All of these elements have been kept in view in the preparation of these statistics, and their com- pounded influence, as far as it might be estimated has been the rule of judgment, in connexion with the actual statements of the crops, m the various parts of the comitry. It cannot be expected that their appUcation should be brought out in detail, with reference to every product in the table, though some such reference will be often found in the review of the crops, as they will hereafter be mentioned singly. An error sometimes occurs in estimating the product of a particular crop, de- rived from the amount brought early into market, occasioned by some unusual activity in pressing it forward with the surplus stock of the year pre- vious remaining on hand, as commandmg a bet- ter sale, and enabUng the producers to realize comparatively a better profit. It is unsafe to rely at all times on such data, though they should be suitably regarded. For want of reflection on this cause, persons may often form a very incorrect esthnate ; and such seems to have been the case, in some degree, during the past year. Interested men may, likewise, sometimes so contribute to influence the market price, or the demand, that unfoimded expectations may be excited, wliich, however, are nothing more than temporary, and secin-e no lasting profit. False intelligence is given by some, either with the corrupt purpose of gain, or from sheer ignorance of the facts of the case — and this is caught up and circulated from one part of the Union to the other. Hence the necessity of closely discriminating the actual, or the probable, from the merely possible results of the numerous influences affecting the great staple products of our country. THE SE.^SON. The season, taken as a whole, lias been most propitious. Suitable alternations of warm and cold, of wet and dry, have, for the most part, rendered the weather genial in its influence on the vegetable kingdom. Yet, in a country like ours, of such vast extent, reaching through such va- rieties of clime, it cannot be supposed that all *§ rts are equally favored at every season. Por- tions of the country have suffered during the past year. In the earlier period of the seed time and germination, frosts and cold, in some of the States, affected the grain, and prevented its form- ing so full as would have been the case had the weather been more favorable. The long-continued heavy rains in the months of July and August also did great damage to the crops in Maryland, Virginia, and North Carolina ; and tobacco, wheat, maize, &,c., were much injured in con- sequence. To some extent, too, the cotton crops suffered from the same cause in parts of Missis- sippi and South Carolina ; yet m no one instance is there what can be termed the entire failure of the product. Less injury, perhaps, than usual has been experienced from blight and the ravages of insects ; and the granaries and storehouses throughout the country, almost literally groaning beneath the burden of our harvests, can testify how truly we are lapped in plenty. ■ REVIEW OF THE CROPS. A more particular review of the different crops, corresponding to that of the last year's report, will furnish a summary of such information as could be gathered, as ^to the state of agriculture in our country. It is confined to certain products, as these were the ones specified in the late census, on which the estimates were originally based. The same remarks which are made with respect to one product may sometimes apply with equal force to another, bearing the same general charac- teristics ; especially is this true as regards the va. rious species of grain, and reference may also be made to the agricultural statistics of last year's report, for some facts relating to particular crops, which are now deserving of notice. The crop of wheat was a large one. More than a third of this product, as will be seen, is raised in the Western States. Of course, tiie causes which have occasioned a decrease in some portions of the Atlantic States have but slightly affected the whole aggregate. In the Western States, more wheat was sown than in any year before. The probable reason of this was, that it commands a better price, one nearer a recompense of labor, or more immediately, than any other product of the soil ; and that the Canada market offered greater inducement for exportation than heretofore. The reports respecting this crop are quite va- rious. In the New England States it has been better than it was the year previous, though but little comparatively is raised in this section of the country. It bears, however, a very good propor- tion to the amount of population. In New Hamp- shire, the grain on the wheat crop has been esti- mated by a good judge on these subjects as high as 25 per cent. New- York is one of tlie greatest of the wheat- growing States near the Atlantic coast. In the eastern river counties, in the northern section, and in the Mohawk valley, tlie crop is pronounced to be " good," " better than the year before." In the valley of the Mohawk, heretofore the weevil has proved a destructive enemy ; the past yesr, however, the cause has been less injurious. In the central, southern, and western sections of this Improvements in Agriculture and the Arts. State, the wheat crop was comparatively Hghter than usual. In the western region, which is the great wheat-growing section, this was not so much owing to winter lulling and insects, al- though these last appeared ; but the causes of the failure assigned are the want of its stooling out properly, and shortness of head, on account of the unusual cold and wet of the months of May and June, while it was in the incipient formation of the germ. When this is the case, no after cul- ture or change of season, however favorable, can remedy the injury. It was indeed supposed, and so published, on information derived from those who formed their judgement merely by a cursory examination while passing the fields, that the crop would be a very large one, the m.ost abundant ever known ; but, when it came to the harvesting, the above-mentioned causes were found to have greatly affected it, so that the deficiency has been estimated, on good authority, equal to from 20 to 25 per cent. In New-Jersey, in quahty it is thought to have been as good as in the previous year, but the quantity is pot so great. The vast quantities raised in tlie Western States have a tendency, of course, to lessen the amount sown in the Atlantic ones — as it is impossible for these to enter into competition, at the expense of harder tillage and manuring of theii- land, with the rich and exten- sive fields beyond the Ohio river. Pennsylvania is a large wheat-growing State, and the information respecting the crop here is varied. The fly, rust, smut, and wet weather, are assigned as causes of a decrease probably equal to 20 per cent, of the whole crop. Near Philadelphia, in the counties of Chester, Dela- ware, and Lancaster, the season was favorable to this product, and less so to the propagation of the fly. It is possible, too, that the introduction and acclimation of the Mediterranean wheat in that region has had some influence in baffling those great enemies, the rust and fly. The objections formerly made there by the millers are now relin- quished, and it is found to answer their purposes as well as any other kind of wheat. Magnesia liming has proved very valuable in thio section, and much poor land has been greatly improved, and hence a surplus raised. In a part of the re- gion bordering on the Susquehanna river, the rust and smut have very seriously affected the crop, so that it was thought to have been not more than two-thirds of an average one. In the western section, especially the southwestern region, a mod. erate winter is assigned as the cause of increase to this crop of perhaps one third, though the w^et weather during a part of the season, also to some degree affected it unfavorably. In Maryland, in the eastern and central coun- ties, the crop was much afiiected by the blight and the rains which took place during the harvesting. In its first growth it appeared beautiful, but proved to be a great failure : the fly, too, was de- structive in some portions. In the upper coun- ties, however, there appears to have been more than the usual average. Virginia, wliich ranks as the third of the great wheat-growing States, called the Atlantic States, has suffered much as regards this crop durmg the past year. There is much complaint of the rust. It has been thought that the crop east of the great mountain ridge, is at least one-third less than the usual one. The long-continued and heavy rains in August, destroyed a large portion of the crops on James river, as also in other parts of eastern Virginia, as was the case too in North Carolina contiguous. The rust likewise mate- lially diminished it in portions of the western re- gion of this State. The wheat crop of Georgia is described by some as having been " hardly a fair crop," " in- ferior to that of the precedhig year," wlule others term it, on the whole, " a fair," " an average" one. From the information obtained, a judgement is formed of the wheat crop in Alabama, that it was more than the usual average one. In Mississippi there has been quite an increase, and it is judged that there is more now raised than is wanted for their own consumption. The crops in Tennessee and Kentucky were, according to the different accounts, " good," " an advance on the former years," " 20 or 25 per cent, better." Oliio is the greatest producer of all the wheat- growing States. A much larger quantity than usual was sown in many parts of the State, and the yield has been most abundant. In some parts, the increase is estimated even as high as " 50 per cent.," in others at " not less than 30," " 25," or " 20" per cent. In the Scioto valley, not so much was produced as was expected, as the filling out became checked by the warm rains, not long before it was harvested. A much larger quantity, however, was sown, and there was more raised than ever before. The late sowed, too, in particidar regions of that great State, suffered partially from the rust, and the fly also affected unfavorably portions of the crop. — This insect enemy is said to be increasing in Oliio, and threatening that beautiful wheat-growing re- gion, and serious apprehensions are expressed re- specting its future ravages, unless some means be found to check its progress. The subject is one that deserves attention. A suitable reward of- fered might possibly lead to the discovery of some means for destroying an enemy which has al- ready proved of such injury to the wheat fields of other States. The Governor of Ohio, in his late message, estimates the wheat crop of that State, for 1842, at 24,000,000 of bushels. This nearly corresponds with the one in the table formed in, dependcntly, from various sources of information, and based on the consideration of the elements heretofore described. He supposes that this crop, after deducting sufficient for the home consump- tion, AVill allow at least 14,000,000 of bushels for exportation. In Indiana and Illinois, both the cut and army worms made their appearance, and the crop was somewhat injured by them, but the aggregate of the crop was large. Here, as in Ohio and some of the other States, an increased quantity of land was devoted to this crop, and the yield was much more thari an average one. Indeed, the increase has by some been rated as high as 50 per cent. — ■ Some idea of the increase of the trade in wheat here may be formed from the fact that from Chi- cago there was shipped to Buffalo, in 1840, only 20,000 bushels; while in 1841, in the same period, not lees than 200,000 bushels of wheat were Improvements in Agriculture and the Arts. shipped. The quantity during the same period last year was doubtless much larger. For the year 1843, it is said that in the fall of 1842 one-half more seed has been put into the ground than any previous season in Illinois ; so that, if the comuig season sliould prove favorable, a still greater crop may be expected. In Missouri, also, the wheat crop was slightly affected by the array and the cut worms ; but it proved to be an unusually large one, not less, ac- cording to some estimates, than 25 per cent, bet- ter. From Arkansas, too, the accounts are equally favorable ; and the growth of the last year has been pronounced by some to have been at least double. In Michigan, likewise, which is destined to be one of the greatest wheat-growing States, there has been an unusual advance on the preceding years. The quantity which has just been brought under successful cultivation was large. The sud- den rise of price about the time of putting in the seed, and the favorable season, are also causes to which the great increase may be attributed. It is thought that there has been at least 50 per cent, more sown, and the yield from 25 to 50 per cent, larger. The surplus is great, and the nearness to the Canadas will no doubt enable many of the en- terprising farmers of Michigan to derive a hand- some profit from their labor. In the southwestern section of the State, portions of the crop were in- jured by threshing it out in wet or damp weather. The fertile sections of the Territories of Iowa and Wisconsin, also, by the increased production of last year, promise much hereafter. The wheat lands in the West are so rich in proper qualities that probably for years no injm"i- ous effects of a constant succession of this crop need be apprehended ; but in western New- York, and perhaps in some of the earlier settled sections of Ohio, there is some danger, cmd the attention of the people has been called to the subject. Liebig, the distinguished author, speaking of Virginia, says : " Harvests of wheat and tobacco were ob- tamed for a century from one and the same field, without the aid of manure ; but now, whole dis- tricts are converted into pasture land, which, without manure, produces neither wheat nor to- bacco. From every acre of this land there were removed, in the space of one hundred years, twelve hundred pounds of alkalies, in leaves, grain, and straw. It became imfruitful, therefore, be- cause it was deprived of every particle of alkali which had been reduced to a soluble state, and be- cause that which was rendered soluble again in the space of one year was not sufficient to satisfy the d-;mands of the plants. It is the greatest pos- sible mistake to suppose that the temporary di- minution of the fertility in a soil is owing to the loss of the humus. It is a mere consequence of the exhaustion of the alkalies." Tliis is high authority, though it has been questioned by some writers in the agricultural papers. It is important, therefore, that the wheat lands should be kept up by the use of manures ; they will supply those qualities of the soil which are thus exhausted. — For this purpose, a rotation of crops also is recom- mended, as it has been found (and this seems to be the true secret of the benefit of the rotation of crops) that, after wheat has been harvested from a field, some other plant will restore the alkali bo abstracted, and thus bring back the soil to its pris. tine fertility. Some products do not so far effect the soil but that by manure they may be kept up on the same field for a long time. Some also improve the soil ; others only impoverish it ; while by others, still, it is supposed to be entirely exhausted. To this latter class, among othei-s, belongs wheat. Salt- petre and nitrate of potash are mentioned in the late works of Professor Johnstone on agricultural chemistry as most valuable manures for wheat ; and he proposes various modes to ascertain which of these two is the better adapted to the purpose. With regard to wheat, also, it may be observed, on the authority of the celebrated Sprengel, pro- fessor of agriculture in Brunswick, that the best grain for bread is not the best grain for seed ; that we may increase the nutritious quality by the manure, but for seed, this highly nutritious wheat is imsuitable. " Seed corn," {i. e. wheat,) he says, " must contain the different ingredients in due pro- portions ; if any one of them be deficient, or in excess, the plant wdl be proportionably imperfect. This was the result of careful analysis of a great variety of grain grown on an equal variety of soil. Some soils always produce good seed grain, while others are found wliich seldom do it. The first are never rich in hmnus or nitrogen, but well sup- plied with lime, magnesia, potash, salt, phosphates and sulphates. Corn or wheat manured with sheep dung contams too much gluten for seed grain, wliicli, in germination, re-acts so powerfully on the starch as to overpress the conversion into sugar, (the chief nourishment of the germ,) and produce vinegar. The best seed wheat must con- tain much starch, and little gluten — thus the starch is gradually converted into sugar. Hence seed grain shoidd not be raised on very rich and higlily manured soil, for this would derange the natural proportions of gluten and starch, while the grain would be the better for bread. This may be the secret of grain and potatoes deteriorating in highly cultivated districts." The cause of the rust in wheat and other grain is exciting increased attention ; and the doctrine which seems to be now gaining advocates is, that it is owing to an excess of nourishment. Respecting the Hessian fly, Mr. W. H. Hill, in the Nashville Agriculturist, says, that for fifteen years his wheat did not feel the effects of it, while others did so in his vicinity. He sunned his wheat two days before planting, and, besides, chose large full grains, by passing it through a sieve. An in- teresting letter relating to the Mediterranean wheat, and showing that it was unaffected by the fly, may be found in Appendix, No. 1. The entire aggregate of the wheat crop of the United States was 102,317,540 bushels, being an increase of 10 per cent., or 10,674,683 bushels, on last year. The price of wheat has been affected by the quantity raised, and various other causes. Much less has been used for distillation. In the single State of New- York, there has probably been a decrease from tliis cause of 3,000,000 bushels, as there has been a failing of the manu- facture of ardent spirits of 10,000,000 gallons. The introduction of threshing machines deserves mention in this connexion. In many places these are driving out of use the flad. Persons travel about with them, and thresh out the grain for 10 Improvements in Agriculture and the Arts. from 3 to 5 cents per bushel, and they will thus thresh large quantities in a single day. The price of horse power and threshing machines is now BO reduced that the farmer, cither singly or by combination, will find his advantage in pur- chasing the same — thus reducing the expense of their threshing to one-half the cost of hiring. There is reason to believe that this crop has made no advance the past year. The attention of the public has been so successfully directed to the discontinuance of the use of malt liquor, which possesses an intoxicating qualit)', that the encouragement offered for its cultivation is be- coming less from year to year ; except in New- York, the amount raised is not large. The infor- mation gained as to its yield is also less certain than with regard to most other crops. It forms so small a portion, that it is often passed over, as not deserving notice in the general record, which, in many cases, is confined to the leading products. It is believed, however, to have been similarly affected with the other grains. The aggregate crop of the past year is estimated at 3,871,622 bushels. This species of grain Loudon considers next in importance to wheat in Great Britain. In Sweden and Lapland it is more cultivated than any other grain, on account of requiring to be so short a period in the soil — sometimes not longer tlian six weeks, and seldom more than seven and a half. In Spain and Sicily they have two crops a year on the same soil. The climate in which it delights is warm and dry ; and it is said there are instances of its being sown and ripened with- out having enjoyed a single shower of rain. In parts of Great Britain it is in considerable use as a material for bread, and, also, fattening black cattle, hogs, and poultry. As it is a tender plant, and more easily injured than wheat, it is also more expensive of cultivation. In a country like ours, where wheat is so abun dant, the inducement to raise it is comparatively small. This, as it is the hardiest of them, is a larger crop than all the other cereal grain, except maize or Indian com. It is one which, to some extent, is affected by the season, similarly with that of wheat ; though, coming into harvest later, it may not suffer to the same extent from the rains of August. The past year has been more favorable to oats than was the year previous. It will be recollected that the crop of 1841 was estimated as under an average one. In 1842 it is thought to have been above an average one. In the New- England States, where it ranks higher in amount than any other grain, it was a good crop. In New-York, which produces the greatest amoimt, it was imusually large ; a greater quantify was sown, and the yield per acre was estimated at 25, 30 or even 50 per cent, better than the year previous. The late sowed, in some cases, were injured by the rains of September ; but even with this deduction the crop was, probably, the greatest ever known. In New-Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Maryland, it is described as having been a good crop. In Virginia it was, for the most part, better •jhan an average one ; in some sections of the State, 30 per cent, more ; in some others it was destroyed by the 40 days' rain of the summer. In North Carolina, Georgia, Kentucky, the crop was " good." an " increased " one, " very fine;" 20 or 25 per cent, better than in 1841. In Tennessee, Louisiana, and Ohio, with some exceptions, the crop of oats has been estimated, by judges, at an advance on the year 1841. The same was the casc^with Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Missouri, Wisconsin, and Iowa. Arkansas and Louisiana raise but a comparatively small amount. The whole aggregate of this crop, the past year, is estimated at 150,883,617 bushels. Pennsylvania is the greatest producer of this crop ; and from various sections of the State the report is, that it has proved " a good one," " an average " one, " a full crop," " 20 per cent, bet- ter," "one-third in advance of thelast year's." In New- York, too, which ranks next in the amount raised, it seems to have been unusually large, " 20 per cent, more," in some parts of the State, than years past. In the New-England States, also, the crop was a good one. In Virginia it was subject to the same vicissitudes as the wheat crop. In Ken- tucky, where considerable quantities are raised, it was better than last year. The same was likewise the case with Ohio. The entire aggre- gate of this crop amounts to 22,762,952. BUCKWHEAT. Nearly two-thirds of this crop arc raised in the three States of New-York, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey. In New- York, the increase is thought to have been from 20 to 30 per cent. In New Jersey, though it suffered somewhat from the frost, yet it was, on the Avhole, a good crop. In Pennsylvania, it is described as having been in different parts " not so good as in 1841 ; " an " or- dinary," " a full crop," or " one-third in advance of former years." In South Carolinia, Georgia, and Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Arkan- sas, scarcely any is raised. In Ohio, it bore about the same per centagc as the other crops. The entire crop is estimated at 9,483,409 bushels. McCuUoch says, that about 10,000 quarters, or 80,000 bushels, are annually imported into Great Britain. MAIZE OR INDIAN CORN. With slight exceptions, this favorite crop seems to have been a large one the past year. Nearly every State in the Union reports a considerable gain. The notices, however, are modified, now and then, by allusion to unfavorable seasons and causes injurious to its growth. In New England it was larger than in the pre- vious year. In Maine it is described as " good," " 15 " and even " 33 " per cent, higher. In New Hampshire, " fine, matured without frost," " 10 per cent.," " 25 per cent.," and by some even as a " double crop," and the increase is attributed to the season, as respects the rain, &c. ; while in other portions of the State the early dry and cold season is said to have nearly ruined many fields, so that it was at least from 20 to 50 per cent, worse. In the other New England States, the report, on the whole, is favorable. Improvements in Agriculture and the Arts. 11 In New- York, in the river counties and in the southern and northern section, for the most part it was good, perhaps 15 per cent, better than in the year previous. In the Mohawk valley the first crop is pronounced to have been 15 per cent, better, but the second one (replanting) 10 or 15 per cent, worse. In the western section of the State, owing to the unusually wet and cold wea- ther of May and June, the crop fell off, it is thought, 50 per cent. In New Jersey, also, there seems to have been a perceptible decrease. In Pennsylvania, with few exceptions, it ap- pears to have been less than an average— in some sections one-half or one-fifth decrease — much rain in the planting season having injured it. In other parts, however, it is said to have been an increase of at least from 20 to .30 per cent, on former years. The same diversity existed in Marj'land. In some parts of the State the crop was an in- creased one, or better than in 1841. In the early part of the summer this crop suffered most se- verely on the Eastern Shore, from the army worm, and in the principal corn-growing counties of So- merset and Worcester the crop has proved an en- tire failure. These counties have heretofore been considerable exporters, furnishing more than any other two counties in the State, and they now have not enough forborne consumption. The ex- tent of the loss may be seen from the statement that where 2,000 bushels usually grow, the past year there was but 200 ; only 10 bushels instead of 800, 80 for 1,500, 50 for 600, and 150 for 1 ,800. The cause is said to have been partly the " warm winter, which failed to kill the hurtful in- sects, but mainly the result- of heavy rains," which, beginning early in June, continued six weeks. To this succeeded the grub worm. The consequence has been great suffering, and made a large section dependent on exportation. In Virginia, the corn crop was better than usual, but suffered much by the heavy rains, by which in some sections it was nearly destroyed, and in others was kept back by the dry weather. But where these causes did not exist to injure it, the yield was above an average one, and has been rated by some as high as 30 per cent, increase ; as a whole, however, this would probably be much too large. In North Carolina, likewise, the crop was much lessened by the great quantity of rain. Indeed, on some parts of the seaboard it was almost cn- tirelj' destroyed. Nearly one-third of the State was visited by successive inundations, which in- flicted vast loss on the inhabitants. From ex- porters, they must now become buyers. The city of Charleston, it is said, has usually received not less than a million of bushels from this whole region. This has been a serious calamity, and occasioned great distress. In South Carolina, the crop appears to have been better than in the previous year. The same was the case in Georgia, where it is thought to have exceeded the crop of 1841, which was a remark- able one by from 10 to 20 per cent. In Alabama and Mississippi it was large and abundant. In Louisiana, 25 per cent, better. In Tennessee and Kentucky, which are the two greatest corn grow- ing States, the crop appears to have been a good one over all these States, It is variously described in different sections, as " a fair cr®p," " about as in 1841," "very good," "fine," "excellent," " 12^ or 25 percent, better than last year." Ohio ranks next in the amount produced, and the accounts are more at variance as to the in. crease or decrease. On the whole, it would ap- pear that in the northern section of the State, though there was much more planted, yet, owing to the extreme cool and wet season, the crop was not as productive as in the previous years. Per- haps it was not more there than one-half or one- third of the usual one. In the more southern parts of the State, however, it is described as having been " as good," " better," than in the year 1841. The early part of the season here, also, was too wet and cold to afford much pro- mise ; but the weather m the season of earing and filling out proving congenial, the crop was much beyond a mediiun one. It was also good in Indiana and Illinois, both of which are large producers of corn. In Mis- ' souri and Arkansas, the increase is variously es- timated at irom 25 per cent, up even to 50 per cent. In Micliigan, owing to the low price of pork, and that some of the other products com- manded a better price, comparatively, less was planted than usual. Still the crop was a fine one. This crop was also as good, or even better, than usual, it is believed, in Wisconsin and Iowa. The whole crop of com in the United States for the past year is estimated at ;441,829,246 bushels. If the manufacture of sugar from the corn- stalk succeeds, as it promises to do, it is probable a larger quantity of corn will be planted in future. Some remarks on that manufacture may be found under the subject of sugar, below. POTATOES. It will be recollected that, ib several sections, during the year 1841, this crop suffered very greatly, and came near a failure. This year's product is much larger than the former, taken as a whole, though in some parts there has been a decrease from the average. Still, even in these cases, it is not so remarkable as in the previous year. Maine is a large producer of this crop, and per- haps more were planted last year than was the case in the year before ; but the yield, on the whole, was not greater, though the quality is said to be much superior. In New Hampshire, it is variously estimated at fi-om 10 even up to 50 per cent, increase in different parts of the State. Vermont ranks very high, in proportion to her po- pulation, as a potato-growing State ; and the crop was probably equal, if not superior, to that of the former year. In the other New England States it is described as having been from " 10 to 20 per cent, better," or, " as good as an average one." New- York stands, however, foremost of ail the States in iU production of potatoes. The eastern and southern sections seem to have yielded an in- creased product, and even an abundant one ; in the northern, it v/as an oTdinary one ; in the val- ley of the Mohawk, about the same as usual ; in the western, it was affected by the unpropitious weather, and fell off", it is thought by some, not less than 50 per cent. In New Jersey, the production was, by some , 12 Improvements in Agriculture and the Arts. considered a fair one ; by others, to liave been 20 per cent, better than in 1841. In Pennsylvania, witli sUght exceptions, it is described as being " better," " very large," " 30 per cent, advance." In the southern central re- gion, it is said to have been " not so good, by 30 jicr cent." In Maryland, in tlie upper part, large quanti- ties were raised, and the yield was a good one. In Virginia, with the exception of sweet pota- toes, there are but few raised east of the moun- tains. In the northeast part of the State it has been estimated as high as 30 or 33 per cent, in- crease. On the Ohio river, in tlic western sec- tion, the crop was hardly an average one. In South Carolina, North Carolina, and Geor- gia, where also the sweet potato is raised, the crop was an " increased one," and in some sec- tions even " abundant." The same remark ap- plies to Alabama, Mississippi and Louisiana. In Kentucky, Tennessee and Ohio, likewise, it is said to have been " a fair one," " good," " very good," " many more than the year before," " 10, 15, 25, or even 33 per cent, better than in 1841." The potato crop was also much better than usual in Indiana, Illinois and Michigan. In Florida, this product, as well as most others, owing to the season, was 25 per cent, better, thougli on account of the war, the quantity of land tilled has been small. In Wisconsin and Iowa, like as in the case of most of the other crops, a very considerable addi- tion must be made to that of the previous year. The whole number of potatoes raised in the United States during the past year is estimated at 136,883,386 bushels. Taking the States where tliis product is princi- pally gathered, it must be pronoimced to have been considerably above the average one. In several States, especially at the South and West, very little attention is paid to this crop. In New- York, which ranks the highest, the quantity of hay gath- ered was in advance of the preceding year. In the New England States, with perhaps the excep- tion of Maine, New Hampshire and Massachu- setts, also, there was a larger growth. The drought affected it somewhat, and caused it to fall short perhaps 10 or 20 per cent. The quality of the crop also was injured, even when the quan- tity was not lessened, as it was less sweet and nutritious. The same remark may also be made as to the growth in New Jersey, where the crop was increased. In Pennsylvania, which ranks second in the amount raised, the yield m some parts was abundant, and lias been estimated as high as 30 or even 75 per cent, better than in 1841. Tliis, probably, is too large, but from 15 to 20 or 25 per cent, may be nearer the truth. In the Susquehanna region, however, it is said to have fallen off greatly. In Maryland, on the whole, it might be termed a fair yield. That of Virginia, as a whole, was an average one, though in some parts of the State it was a'{30ve the usual growth. The early rains aided it in certain sections, as they did likewise in North Carolina. In Kentucky, in certain sections, as on the Cumberland river, and in the southern central ones, owing to the drought, the hay crop suffered. In other parts, as also in Tennessee, this cause did not exist, and it is pronounced to have been " excellent," " from 25 to 50 per cent, better." — Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan and Missouri, thougli devoting comparatively little attention to its production, yet seem to be making some ad- vance in the same ; and accordingly there has been some increase the past year, though doubt- less not a very material one. Some damage was experienced from the invasion of the army worm, but not enough to lessen the crop to any great amount. Though reliance is still placed on the prairie hay, yet there is a gradual improvement with respect to the introduction and cultivation of the tame grasses. The low price of grain in New Orleans will no doubt lessen the demand for pressed hay, wliich has heretofore been a consider- able article of export from the States Irordering on the Ohio river and its branches. The whole number of tons of hay raised in the United States in 1842 is estimated to have been 14,053,- 355 tons. FLAX AND HEMP. These products have been put together in the tabular estimate, as they were so in the report of last year, in consequence of being so found in the census statistics, on which the statistics of the report of 1841 were based. Less confidence can perhaps be placed on the estimates of so com- paratively small a crop, raised in moderate quan- tities, scattered over a whole State, than with re- spect to almost any of the other common crops. There has been, then, only such an attempted al- teration of last year's estimate as the general in- formation derived would seem to justify. In two States, however, with respect to hemp we can speak with more certainty — Kentucky and Missouri. It will be recollected that in the two former j'ears (viz. 1840 and 1841,) the hemp crop was quite deficient, and proved almost a failure. The past year has been much more favorable. — The crop of hemp is a large one, and it is vari- ously described, as " very fine," " the best ever ! raised," " 25 or 50 per cent, increase on the ave- rage one." The attention is still directed, and it would seem with somewhat more success, to the discovery of a process of vvater-rotting hemp ; and it is hoped that the difficulties on this subject may yet be removed. It is stated that, in conse- quence of the promise last winter of sending out a Government agent to purchase water-rotted hemp for the navy, the farmers of Kentucky and Missouri, have water-rotted 700 tons or more. — This, at the prices paid by the Government for Russian hemp, is worth $200,000. Many speci- mens, it is further stated, have been examined, and tliat it has been pronounced equal to Russia hemp. Were a suitable reward to be offered, to stimulate the ingenious, it can hardly be doubted that, by a variety of experiments, some process of preparmg it for the use of the navy, as well as the Russia hemp, might be found out. An important discovery, respecting the appli- cation of waste hemp to the purposes of paper- making, has recently been announced ; and if, when it is sufficiently tested, it proves all that it promises, it will afford an additional inducement to the culture ol' hemp. A process is said to have Improvements in Agriculture and the Arts, 13 been found out, by which hemp can be made white as snow, and that it can be used in manu- facturing the finest and whitest paper ; and a be- Uef is entertained that hemp waste, which can be furnished at two cents per pound, will ere long be sought for by paper-makcrs, to supply the place of linen rags. Hemp is beginning to be raised somewhat more in the Northern and Eastern States. This is true especially of the northern part of the State of New. York. At present, however, it is confined to the seed crop, owing to the high price of the seed. It is affirmed to be a mistake to suppose that it must be confined to alluvial lands, as has been shown by the farmers of Saratoga and Washington counties, in the State of New- York. We import hemp, or hempen articles, some years, f 9,000,000 or 10,000,000 in value. It is worth from $200 and upward per ton. When planted in drills, at a suitable distance, as it should be, and properly cultivated, hemp generally produces, it is said, from 20 to 40 bushels of seed to the acre ; and instances are not rare of its yielding from 50 to 60. The seed is generally worth from three to six dollars per bushel. When sown for the lint, it should be sown broadcast, from two to three bushels of seed to the acre, depending on the quality of the land ; and it usually produces from 700 to 1,000 weight of clean hemp to the acre. Much valuable iirformation respecting the culture and importance of this crop may be found in the files of the Kentucky Farmer for the last few years. Flax was once an article of considerable ex- port, and now may be again raised profitably for the seed. In the year 1770, tJie quantity of seed exporfcd amounted to 312,000 bushels. For twen- ty-two years previous to 1816, the aA'erage annual export was about 250,000 bushels. The reason why less attention is paid to the cultm-e of flax now is, tliat it is so exhausting a crop. By a ro- tation of crops, however this difficulty, it is pre- sumed, might be in a great measure avoided. — The smooth rich prairies of the West afford an excellent opportunity for raising flax to any ex- tent ; and, since linseed is an article wliieh bears exportation so well, many thousand acres might be cultivated to advantage, especially as the crop may be either pulled by machinery, or, if seed is the only object, it may be cut with like facility. — The aggregate amomit of flax and licmp, accor- ding to thetabiUar estimate for 1842, was 158,569 tons. This crop, except in comparatively small quan- tities, is confined to six or eight States. It forms, as it is well known, the great staple of Virginia and Maryland, besides being largely raised in Kentucky, Tennessee, and Missouri. The crop for 1841, it may be recollected, was generally considered above the average, and by some as even a large one. That of the year 18 12, on the contrary, has proved a failure. The general re- port is, that it is poor both in quantity and quality. In Maryland, however, it is said to be better in quality than it was the year previous. Wet and dry weather, at different times, lessened the aver- age amount. In Virginia, where the usual average is estima- ted by good authority at 50,000 hogsheads, it is said to be " one of the worst ever gathered," " not more than two-thirds of a crop," " light and of a bad quality ;" and the wet weather is assigned as the principal cause of the decrease. The plants were injured in the bud, by the rains. In middle Tennessee, also, the tobacco crop was " not more than two-thirds of one," while in some other parts of the State it is said to have " doub- led the usual crop," or " better in quality, though somewhat less in quantity." The low price of the previous year is, said to have induced less planting, and the growth was not so large. In the western part of the State, however, increasing attention is given to this product. There is the same diversity m tire accounts as respects Kentucky. In some parts of that State the crop was "not more than two-thirds of an average one," "not so good by 10 per cent." In others it is termed " very fair," " better than usu- al," " perhaps 10 per cent, better." It is said that there are in this State not less than 5,000,000 acres of land which would admit of the cultivation of this product, and on which it might be raised at the rate of 600 lbs. per acre. The crop of tobacco in Ohio and Indiana may be described in language very similar to that used respecting Kentucky. In Missouri, it is said to have been an improved one ; more was planted, and there was a better yield. Increasing attention likewise is paid to the cul- ture of tobacco, and with success, in Illinois and some of the New England States. The recent Information furnished in the letter of the Secretary of the Treasury, respecting the amomit of home consumption, and exports of to- bacco, with a great variety of other particulars, will enable any one to form a fair conclusion as to its importance and bearing on our trade with foreign countries. It is there stated that the whole amount supplied elsewhere than from the Unitad States is about 150,000,000 lbs.; the amount of possible consumption of American tobacco is put at not less than 1,000,000,000 lbs. ; so thai, were only one half of this quantity actually consumed, it would be four times more than our present export, and ■increase our means more than !$20,000,000 annu- ally. The quality of the different kinds of tobac- co raised in diflTcrent parts of the United States, with the different kinds of manufacture and use to which they arc particvdarly adapted, are also pointed out in various discriminating remarks. — Nearly'one-tenth of the whole population of our country are said to be engaged in the cultivation of this product, two-thirds of whom are in the four States of Virginia, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri. The whole tobacco crop for 1842 is estimated at 104,694,891 lbs. COTTON. This great staple, from all accounts, appears to have yielded a large crop. It is somewhat diffi- cult to reconcile the conflicting statements respect- ing its growth and prosperity ; but, after a careful comparison, and endeavor to arrive at the truth, the result is as above estimated. The crop for 1841 was considerably below an average one. That of 1842 is much above the former, and, by some, is thought to have been 14 Improvements in Agriculture and the Arts. equal to that of 1839, which was an unusual one. Subsequent information may, perhaps disprove particular estimates, and some may be misled by the fact that a larger quantity than usual was brought into market at an early period. It may be well, however, to mention more in detail some of the statements which have been gathered re- specting its progress. Passing over the lesser amounts, and commencing with North Carolina, tiie cotton crop is said to have been 20 per cent, better than in 1841, and the cause assigned is, the favorable weather in the early part of the fall and the season when the frost usually takes. The Crop of South Carolina, also, is said, to have been as a whole one-third better — the warm, dry weatlicr proving congenial to its growth. In oth- er parts of the State, it is said that " much of the finest cotton on the low grounds was swept off by the overflow ; others injured by the warm and dry weather ; the wet weather also injuring that which was open, so that it could not be handled well." — In Georgia, it is variously estimated at from 10 to 50 per cent, increase on the previous year. — " More was planted, and the cultivation 'was more productive ; probably the best crop ibr many years." It is also affirmed that, at five cents per jwund, this crop would be a better one than oth- ers. The crop in Alabama is also pronounced to have been " equal or 5 per cent, superior to that of 1839," though in some sections the dry weather and worm were subjects of complaint ; and in some others, too, excessively wet weather. The aggregate in Mississippi is large, " better than in 1 839, especially in the uplands ; not quite so good m the lowlands." In parts of the State it was " injured by snails or slugs," as in Panola and De Soto counties ; also, by tlie boring worm, in Wil- kinson comity; and the Southwestern Farmer, of September 30, 1842, published at Raymond, gives it as " short," and says that there was "a great quantity of rotten cotton." In the same paper, for December 23, 1842, the following opin- ion is expressed : "We should not take the sm^jlus of cotton which has arrived in New Orleans this year over that wliich had arrived at the same port on previous years as any evidence of an extraor- dinary crop. The present fall has been miusually favorable for gathermg the crop, and we beheve planters will have finished picking at least earhcr than common. Besides this, in our State much labor was turned to other products, and the little cotton raised has the more hands to pick it. An- other circumstance will make the earliest shipments the earliest part of the "crop. Cotton on the Mis. sissippi is generally trifling, too, this season, and the crop from that quarter will certainly be short. On the other hand, however, we learn that the crops of Tennessee and North Alabama are very fine. So that, taking all together we should judge that the result will show our present crop to be a fair one." In the vichiity of Vicksburg, we are told that there was " an average crop on the uplands," and that " on the alluvial bottoms of the Mississippi it has proved very abundhnt and of good quahty." In Louisiana, the cotton crop, as the Soutliwestem Farmer likewise asserts, was " much injured by the anny worm, rust, rot, boD worm, and rains ;" tliat from Opelousas to Alex- andria, including all the adjacent comitry on both sides the Boeuf, there was but littte more than half a crop, and the army worm was likewise " committing his ravages on the bayou Woekshu." On the other hand, it is estimated in other sec tions at " 20 per cent, better than usual." The next producer of this crop, in amount, is Tennes. see ; and in the southern part of the State the crop is said to have been unusually good even " 100 per cent, better" than the previous year. — In Middle Tennessee, some complaint is made of the " cotton louse." In the northern part of the State attention has been turned more to other pro- ducts. The yield in Arkansas was " greater thau ever before" — "double;" "the three counties of Sevier, Hempstead, and Lafayette, alone," it is supposed, would ship " 30,000 bales," being " 10,000 or 12,000 more than ever before in one season." In Florida, the crop is estimated to have been 25 per cent, better than the previous year. The entire aggregate of the cotton-crop for the year 1842 is 683,333,231 pounds. The present low price of cotton will probably turn off a portion of the laboring force usually thus employed to the cultivation of some other products. A planter of Alabama asserts that, by an improved process of culture, he has been en- abled to raise from 3,000 to 5,000 pounds pen- acre on land which, under the usual system, would not yield more than from 300 to 500 pounds. In one of his letters to the Editors of the Albany Cultivator, he even says that he has actually picked the enormous quantity of 5,989 poimds on an acre, and affirms that he is prepared to prove satisfactorily " that it is perfectly prac- ticable to produce the 2,000,000 bags — the cotton- crop of the United States — with one-third of the capital engaged, under the present system of cul- ture in its production." Without any dcfyiite information as to his process, no opinion can be formed of its practicability. It seems, however, incredible ; and no reliance should be placed on such prospects, until thoroughly examined and demonstrated conclusively by the test of rigid ex- periments. Although tlic experiment of raising cotton in India has partially proved a failure, on account of the hot weather, wuids, &,c., as in the Bengal district, yet in some of the trials it has fui'nished so great encouragement, that we have reason to believe it will not be abandoned. The compari- son of the cotton imported into England from India and the United States shows a steady ad- vance on the amount received from the former country. Thus, in 1841, there were received from the ITnitcd States 902,191 bales ; from In- dia 274,984 bales — being nearly equal to the en- tire consumption of cotton in the United States in 1840 and 1841, and more than one-fourth of the amount sent that 5^ear from this comitry ; being also 50,000 pounds more than in the pre- ceding year, in which the increase was at least 30,000 pounds. To show how this subject is viewed abroad, and without pretending to say how far the reasoning is justified by the assumed facts, we may here quote an extract or two from the letter of an intelligent writer from Liverpool, to his friend in Boston. He says : " When in tlie cotton-growing section of the States, I was induced to think the India effort on the part of the Government would prove a failm'e. I based this calculation upon these data Improveinents in Agriculture and the Arts. 15 that the skill, naaclimery, fertility of soil, cheap- ness of conveyance, and nearness to us, would enable the Americans to put down any compe- tition. Since my return, I have conversed with a friend from India, who resided for a long time in Charleston, and was familiar with cotton- growing, and who is now engaged in its culti- vation in the East, and, from facts furnished to me by him, I am satisfied I was wrong. " The experiment in India will succeed, and the success will be both rapid and permanent. They will not only grow the cotton, but they will manufacture it, and supply us, besides, with large quantities of the raw material. What effect, you may ask, will this have upon the States ? The first will be to drive the Americans out of the South American markets. In India, they manufacture a coarse fabric (which just suits that market) cheaper than the Americans possibly can, and consequently they will have in turn to yield. They can do a great deal more than most people, but they cannot compete with pauper-labor, or the cheap work of India, unless helped by home du- ties. The second effect must be to change the cultivation of a large number of the States en- gaged in the growth of cotton. The rich alluvial bottoms of the Mississippi may enable the planter there to cultivate cotton at four or five cents, with profit — I suppose it will ; but in Georgia and the Carolinas, if I am any judge of soil, it cannot be done. If I remember right, the average crop in those States would not be more than 300 pounds to the acre ; and if so, cotton-growing there will be a losing business." Whether or not there is the immediate danger this writer predicts, of breaking up the cotton- trade of several States, the subject is one wliich, at least, demands attention. The evil may be more remote, but it can scarcely be doubted that a serious competition is threatened from a num- ber of sources. It appears, from information from high authority, that the British manufac- turer has already begun to supply a cheaper arti- cle, made of India cotton, to the South American market, at three cents a yard cheaper, and threatens to destroy effectually that market for our countrymen. If Texas becomes established on a firm footing, and at peace, so that lier rich soil may be brought under productive cultivation, she will prove a powerful rival in raising tliis crop, and contending for the cotton-trade. The attention of the French Government like, wise is directed to means to advance the culture of tliis product in French Guiana; and the in- crease of it also in Egypt, though not indeed rapid, must be taken into consideration, in esti- mating the probabilities of competition. Eventu- ally, Africa, on the Vestem coast, may furnish cotton at a moderate price ; though tliis cannot be for many yeaxs to come. The amount of the new crop of this year imported into Boston, coast- wise, from 1st of October to 31st December, ex- ceeds the amount of the previous year, for the same period, by about 9,500 bales. The fact that Great Britain is directing her energies to extend her territory, and open for herself markets, by commercial treaties as well as by conquest, where she can, and especially that she has avowed, and stills avows, lier determination to become inde- pendent of us in respect to cotton, shoiUd teach us that she will never relinquish her purpose with- out, at least, a most severe struggle. The planter, therefore, must expect competition with the world over, wherever cotton can be produced ; and that it can be on nearly one-third of the habitable globe we have liigh authority for beUeving. While such competition continues, no great advance can be hoped for in the price of our own, especially so long as the great powers of Europe are at peace with each other. One thing, however, is certain, tliat no country can raise better cotton than the United States ; and the reduction of wages and peculiar adaptation of soil and climate, will it is believed, enable the American planter to contend successfully in competition for many years to come. The following table, taken from the Liverpool Price Current, under date of December 9, 1842, is subjoined, as showing the comparative prices of cotton from different countries, and the sections of the globe where the staple is cultivated Bales. 190 30 5,740 4,440 7,220 70 230 1,180 j 470 60 10 3,400 100 23,150 Sales of the week. Sea Island Stained , Bowed, Georgia Mobile Alabama and Tennessee New Orleans Pernambuco 6i, Parubia. Aravati and Ceara Baliia and Mario Maranham Saw, ginned, do Egyptian Peruvian Laguayra Common West India Carthagena Surat Madras Ord. to mid. d. 8i 4 4 4 H 4 ^ .6 5 H 4| 4i ^ H 3i 3i to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to d. 9i 5i 4| 5 5| 6 6| ^ &\ 5| 5i 5 4| 5 H 3f H Fair to good fair. d. 11 6 5i ^ 7 6f 6i 6 5i 6| 5i 5i 5i 4 4 d. to 13 H 5i 5i 5f 6f 6i 51 7 , sr to 1 5i to^ 5i to 44 to m to 4 to to to to to to to to to to to^ to Good to fair IL. " 17 7 5§ 5§ 6 7| to to to to to to d. 91 8 6 H 1 6|1 to — j ^ to — .AL. to. .6 t to^Ji H 6 "■" to' ?r— 4i to " 4i 4i to M;4i 4i to ^S4i 16 Improvemente in AgrieuUure and the Arts. In South Carolina and Georgia, where by far the largest portion of this crop is produced, it is said to have been a good one, equal or superior to that of the previous year. This article was form- erly exported in the fonn of what is called clean rice, but of late years a much larger quantity is taken to England in a rough state, called paddy or cargo rice. She however, relies much for that article on that which is brought from India, where vast quantities are produced. The whole aggre- gate crop for the year 1842 was, by our estimate, 94,007,484 pounds. It is evident that the fcehng with reference to this product, is settling down on a more assured basis. While some, remembering only the days of the morus multicaulis speculation, smile and turn with increduhty from its very mention, others have learned to discriminate between the solid and the imaginary, and are realizing, if not the golden dreams of past years, at least a fair profit, wliich not even the ridicule that is not always spared will easily tempt them, by abandonment of their object, to forego. The crop is increasing, not in- deed with great rapidity, but with a steadiness, and among a class of persons who have turned their attention to it, that promises to render it one of permanent interest. The inflation of specula- tion has passed away. Sober practical views arc adopted, and the calculations of those best inform- ed on the subject are sufficiently cheering to war- rant eventually, as they should now satisfy, the feelings of the most sanguine. In twelve of the States a bounty is given ; and comparison of this, from year to year, is said to leave no doubt that the product doubles, one year with another. It will be found that in every State the silk culture has increased. In New England, the attention is turning yet more towards it, and much practical skill in man- agement of the worm and modes of manufacture is continually acquired. Large crops of cocoons have been raised in the States of Ohio, Indiana, Kentucky and Tennessee. In Pennsylvania, in one small district, not less than 3,500 pounds of cocoons are said to have been raised. The manu- facture of the silk, too, at the west and elsewhere, keeps pace with its production. There will be, it is said, several thousand yards woven in Ohio, this season, (1842,) and several hundred in Indi- ana. Besides the larger establishments, there are also a large number of family macliines, making sewings and organzine, wliich last is the most pro- fitable article, as it is worth from $5. to $10 per pound in the gmn. Sound practical farmers are going into the business of silk-growing, and this will tend to give it still more permanence. It is beheved that not less than 2,000 bushels of cocoons have been produced the past season in middle and west Tennessee. At one establish- ment in Ohio, fom- dollars per bushel is paid for cocoons, and the manufacture of silk goods is said to be at the rate of one thousand dollars per month, and at a profit of 10 per cent, over all the cost. — One person is the proprietor of three large cocoon- eries, and expected to feed two millions of worms, which he calculated would yield him upwards of six thousand cocoons, worth at the then prices, in October last, two thousand dollars, but which, by his own manufacture of the same, would be worth much more to himself. A convention of silk- growers was held at Northampton, Massachsetts, in September, 1842, at which much valuable in- formation was communicated, by delegates and letters from various parts of the Union, as to the progress, method, &-c, of culture of the plant and feeding the worm. This has been imbodied and published in a small pamphlet, of which we have freely availed ourselves. The same causes which had a transient influence on the culture of silk, have proved equally unfavorable to other products ; the fi-osts and the unusual weather of August and September injured not less the crops of corn, the vines, and the grain and fruit, than the worm. — The permanent causes of soil and climate, in general, however, are thought to be as favor- able to the production of silk as to that of any other product. It can be cultivated in all the States, and there is, therefore, nothing to forbid its yet being cultivated in all parts of the Union. The mulberry tree is indigenous with us as well as in China, and tins seems to indicate that Providence has designed this country to be more or less en- gaged in this pursuit. The business, too, is one in which the aged and the feeble can be employed, and the children of many a family may thus be trained to useful industry, as well as kept from idleness and poverty, if not also from vice, crime, the prison, and a shameful death. One who has paid much attention to the subject, mentions that he is confident the business is a profitable one, and that it will sooner or later become one of the sta- pie interests. The South appears to afford pecu- liar facilities for conducting this culture, on ac- count of the climate ; and although it is now for the most part abandoned, yet there it oflfers strong inducements to that section, as an object of atten- tion, which may come in to take the place of cot- ton when the low price of that product renders it unprofitable of cultivation. The decline of the business in that region is not to be attributed to any inherent difficulties, or to the discovery that the business is impracticable or unprofitable, but to the disappointment of high-raised expectations, excited during the mania of miilticaulis specula- tion. The American raw silk, it is perfectly estab- lished, is in quality superior to the foreign article. A person for many years, as he declares, en- gaged in the weaving of silk in different estab- hshments in London, having had (as he says) for 15 years from 250 to 300 lbs. of silk, of every grade and name, passing through his hands week- ly, expresses the following opinion as to the silk, &c, of our country : " I am qualified to affirm, from various experi- ments I have tried, that the silk is superior to any I have seen, from Italy, Cliina, France, Pied- mont, or Valencia, where the worms are fed upon multicaulis, or Italian. Its brilliancy, strength, and scent, are superior. I am aware that an ex- posure to the sahne air, in the passage across the ocean, may be the cause of the loss of fragrance to imported silk ; but the brilliancy is peculiar to American silk, if reeled in a proper manner, with cleanliness. I am confident that the mammoth sulphur Invprovemenls in Agriculture and the Arts. 17 worm is the pure Fossam brown. To try this, I had about 3 lbs. of silk reeled, and enclosed it in an air-tight box for three weeks. When I took it out, it had the fragrance of the Fossam brown stronger than any that I ever smelt in England, which convinced me that the mammoth sulphur is the identical silk which is always from 5 to 8 shillings per pound higher than ordinary silk. — The mammoth wliite and the pea-nut wliite is a Novi, and superior to any I have seen in England. The yellow or orange I cannot, satisfactorily to my own mind, yet define, but am trying experi- ments in order to ascertain. I am strongly per- suaded it is a Bergam. Should this be the case, it will prove a great acquisition to manufacturers of silk velvet. Some have supposed the pea-nut white is the Piedmont, but they are [mistaken. — The Piedmont cocoon is hly white, very diminu- tive, with a sharp point." Several facts may here be mentioned, which show that the difficulties which have been vari- ously experienced in this pursuit may be obviated and removed. A method has been suggested, wliicli fm'ther operations will prove whether or not it may be rched on as a successful one, in relation to the killing of the chrysahs by means of the air pump. If it succeeds, it will be a most valuable discove- ry, as it will preserve the fibre of the cocoon from the injury to which it is exposed by tiie usual pro- cesses. At one large establishment the same ob- ject has ben effected by means of camphor ; and it is said, that when the camphor is properly ap- plied it effectually accomplishes the object, with- out inflicting the slightest injury on the silk fibre, and at the same time leaves the cocoon in the same state for reeling that it was before the chry- salis was killed. The air pump, however, should it succeed, will be even better than camphor. Another experiment relates to the retarding the hatching of eggs. This has been tried with suc- cess, and the time delayed to as late a period as was desired. It has also lately been discovered that the leaves of the mulberry can be used to advantage for the purpose of manufacturing a good paper; and thus the silk grower may profitably use his after growth of leaves. The question has been one of no httle interest among silk growers, how to cultivate the tree to the greatest advantage, so as to escape the dangers of the more cold chmates. One person, who has devoted much at- tention to this subject, gives, as the result of his experiments, his Opinion in favor of setting out the trees on dry warm land, in a state of middUng fer. tility, 4 feet by 2 feet, one root in a place ; and says that, thus managed, they are fully safe from the dangers of winter, any where between Canada and the Gulf of Mexico. It is important that they be lieaded down in the spring, as they do not thus Ibrm roots. By laying the trees, and leaving them to stand as they grow, many thousand trees are lost. He also affirms that^ after repeated trials and much reflection and observation, he has found the Chinese method of feedmg in the open places, instead of enclosed ones with an artificial tempera- ture, the best one ; and that the first third of the season is worth more than the two last thirds for feeding. It may not be improper to quote here the reasons assigned in the convention for antici- pating the regular extension of the silk busiiaess. " The regular extension of the silk business is now to be expected and anticipated. 1. It has outUved the disastrous revulsion of 1839. 2. All our agricultural journals are now friendly, and most of them are zealously engaged in promoting it. 3: The political press is every where ready to pubUsh any candid statements on the subject. 4. Unprincipled speculators in trees have all left the field, and the whole silk business has fallen into new and better hands. They did tlie cause im- mense mischief. By their operations in 1839, and especially in the wanton destruction of their trees in 1840, they practically proclaimed that mulberry trees have no intrinsic value. It has taken the regular silk growers two or three years to undo the mischief. Yet we have, in a very desirable and encouraging degree, done it. Trees are now appreciated, and some sales made at small prices. From this time the silk business cannot be extend, ed at all, without creating a corresponding demand for trees. 5. The new tariff, by placing this business on a level with other great interests of the country, gives it a passport to the confidence of business men. 6. Our manufacturers, in some cases, are now shaping their business in reference to taking up silk. Others will do the same, as the times shall seem to justify. This aids the growing of silk. 7. The amount of silk made in years past has been rapidly increasing — each year just about doubling upon the preceding year. In all the States where legislative bounties are given, we have the means of showing this increase witli great precision. The State Treasurer in Boston gave the following statement, how this matter stands in Massachusetts : 1836 $71 3711840 1,233 59 1837 198 00|l841 2,111 42 1838 350 52|1842,toOct.l..3,351 91 1839 434 621 In view of these results, secured amid all the multiplied discouragements that we have had to contend with, what may be hoped for, now that we have surmounted these discouragements, and gained public confidence. 8. Another considera- tion, calculated to urge the business forward, is found in the fact that all our present agricultural staples are now extremely depressed, and are likely to remain so. The market is completely glutted. Our farmers must take up something new, or their sufferings will be prolonged indefi- nitely. In this crisis, silk comes to their aid. In the production of this article they cannot glut the market for one whole generation, most as- suredly." Without desiring to excite undue expectations, it is a question which deserves serious considera- tion — Wliether much more may not be realized from the prosecution of this business than has hitherto been ? The little town of Mansfield, in Connecticut, by a persevering devotion to it, un- discouraged by the ill success of others, has been enabled to derive therefrom a good profit ; and it appears from the last census that, with a popu- lation of 2,276, not less than $20,000 is annually received from this business. The bounty paid in Ohio, in 1841, amounted to $2,681 76 ; m Pennsylvania, $4,418 55. In 1842, there was paid, as bounty in Ohio, $6, 699 61. The whole amount of reeled silk produced in Ohio is set down at 3,000 pounds. One person sold 300 18 Improvements in Agriculture and the Arts. pounds of reeled silk for $1,600. The whole ag' gregate of the silk crop, throughout the United States, for 1842, has been given in our tabular view as 244,124 pounds of cocoons. It may be proper here to allude to a clerical error in the tabular statement of silk for 1841, in the last year's Report, as relates to the State of Massachusetts. Owing to some mistake in transcribing and reducing the amount of cocoons from bushels to poimds, the amount was set down at 198,432 pounds, instead of 19,843, as it should have been. It was early noticed, and connected in several of the agricultural papers. The sugar crop may be divided into that which is from cane,and that from maple and other sources. The cane crop is confined almost wholly to Louis, iana ; and, from the best information we can gatlier, it is believed to have been, on the whole, as sue. cessful the past year as in the previous one, if not more so. The early frost and high winds threat- ened it, and were thought to have cut off the crop by thousands of hogsheads; the clear, cold weather, however, succeeding, prevented it from province so injurious as a milder and more moist season would liave done. Even the frozen cane turned out very well, and thus nearly realized the full amount of the planters' expectations. The capital employed in the production of sugar is said to be $52,000,000, and the average manufacture is probably more than !$80,000,000 pounds, and 4,000,000 gallons of molasses. The amount of sugar manufactured from tlie SUGAR MAPLE has also increased during the past year ; and from various accounts, in different sec. tions of our country, it promises to be an ai'ticle of much importance, and, as it can be refined equal to the best West India sugar, it may be exported. In some of the States it lias doubled. Many of them possess large resources in this re. spect. For instance, it is said that there are at least 39,000 acres of land in Michigan which abound with the maple. A m?.ple-sugar tree is considered worth, to the farmer, from two to three dollars for its sugar ; and there are, on an average, in tlie sugar-maple districts, about 30 trees to an acre, which would give at least 900,000 trees, worth $1,800,000— probably $2,000,000. By suffering a portion of these to remain, while clear- ing up their land, the farmers would be able to derive much profit from them, from year to year. In some small towns m the New England States, as many as 30 tons have been produced during the past year. Much of tliis sugar, also, is made at a season of the year when the farmer there camiot be occupied in the tillage of his ground, and the time consumed will amomit only to a few weeks each year. Maple-sugar, equal to the best Cuba sugar, is now manufactured m flat pans, and it is capable of being refined, and producing a very fine article. The beautiful sample of maple-sugar from Ver- mont, deposited in the Patent-Oflice by the Hen. S. C. Crafts, induced an mquiry into the manu- facture of the article ; and a reference to Appendix 19 cannot fail to gratify, as well as instruct, those whose curiosity or interest may lead them to in. vestigate the process. Comparatively little attention is now paid to the sugar.beet, as an article of manufacture into sugar. That it admits of being successfully used for this purpose, no one acquainted with what has been done in France and other countries on the conti- nent of Europe can doubt. The probability is, that it has not been attempted in this country on a sufficiently large scale to render it profitable. Yet large quantities of the beet-root have been raised to the acre. Tlie manufacture of beet- sugar, which has been carried out so largely in France, seems to have greatly declined for a few years past, and will, it is supposed, be broken up, in the desire to sustain her colonies. Not more than 44 manufactories are reported as in opera- tion there, in 1842 ; and the amoimt of beet-sugar deUvcred was only about one-half million pounds. Such, at least, is the account professedly derived fi-om the Report to the French Minister, and pub- lished in Paris. The whole aggregate sugar-crop for the United States in 1842, is estimated at 142,445,199 pounds. CORX.STALK SUGAR. Numerous experiments have been tried in va- rious parts of the country, the past year, with re- spect to obtaining sugar from the com-stalk. It could, indeed, hardly be expected that persons entering into it without much knowledge of the process of manufacture, and, in many cases, never having been furnished with any plan on which to conduct it, and possessing no requisite machinery, and before the diflficulties attending its granulation had been removed, would be successful in their efforts. Yet the ro^ults have every where been so satisfactory, that, though but little sugar has been made, not one person from whom we have heard expresses a doubt of its entire practicabiUf y, or the least discouragement. On the contrary, they, one and all, confidently assert that the pro- duct will yet become a great staple in our country. An excellent molasses, or sirup, has usually been obtained ; and were this the only thing secured, yet, in this point of view, it would doubtless prove a great desideratum. Mr. Webb, of Wilmmgton, Delaware, to whom the country is so particularly indebted for intro. ducing this discovery to notice, and for his per. severance in demonstrating its practicabUity, made a definite experiment on a certain amount of land, sown as he had before recommended. Speakuig of his former views, he says : " These anticipa. tions have been more and more confirmed by every succeeding step in the investigation." He says, further : " There was no deficiency in the corn ; it was entirely in our mode of treating it ; and, after all, the failure was only in crysta- lization." It appears that the com was fully ripe before the least preparation had been made for manufacturing it ; and after this, delays were occasioned by breakages, incident to new nia- cliinery, by which the progress was so hindered that a considerable part of the crop was killed by the frost before it could be ground. He goes on to observe that the greatest part of the sugar he ob- tained was from this frost-killed corn, and says : " This fact is important, as it shows the superiority of corn over the cane." In tliis point it would seem he is mistaken, according to the account above given of the cane crop of Louisiema. He further says: "We obtained 50 gallons of Birup, Improvements in Agriculture and the Arts. 19 which (being boiled to the density of sugaj) was much richer and better than the best sugar-house molasses ; part of it was sold at $1 per gallon. We also had 10 gallons of sirup evaporated in broad shallow vessels ; this crystalized readily, and made good sugar." Again : " Besides the pro- ducts above mentioned, we obtained from the acre about 40 gallons of vinegar. The fodder was equal in value to two tons of liay ; and there were 90 cart loads of stalks, after passing the mill. One-fourth of the crop was lost, in conse- quence of being prostrated by a storm late in the season, and another fourth from tiie stalk being imperfectly pressed. Considering every thing, the result is satisfactory." For further particu- lars of his process of evaporation, reference may be had to Document. No. 2. A fair review of the {ifogress of this experiment fully justifies his language : " I do not think that any manufacture ever promised better, ui the early stages of its in- troduction." In the Farmer's Cabinet for Janu- ary, 1843, a correspondent of that journal, whose opinion seems entitled to consideration, remarks : " Few persons would be apt to calculate the ex- pense attendant on even a small experiment in the making of sugar, whether from the cane, the beet, or the cornstalk ; all who know any thing about it, however, are aware of the fact, that the process, even from the first, is proverbially labo- rious, careful, and expensive." " Mr. Webb's apparatus cost him about $300. I shoidd rather add 1,000 to that sum. In my own opuiion, the cause of the failure ui the at- tempts to make sugar from the beet has arisen from the single circimistance of its never having been taken up on a, sufficiently expensive scale. Ill France, there is no difficulty or delay expe- rienced ; but tliere the machinery is equal to the labor required." The writer also refers to Mr. T. Morgan, of Louisiana, and says " that, according to his experience, the juice of the cornstalk, as stated by the saccharomctcr, is two-tenths stronger than the juice of the Louisiana sugar cane — a circumstance accounted for by the fact that the cane does not fully ripen in Louisiana, so that tlie juice is incipient." On the other hand, the com ripens perfectly, and then affords a juice properly corrected and matured, and hence defecation of it is remarkably easy. He further says : "I have been informed that Mr. Morgan was so well satisfied of the cul- tivation of the cornstalk, for the purpose of mak- ing sugar, that he, the last year, gave orders for the growth of a certain breadth on his sugar plantation, in Louisiana, the past siunmcr, so as to give him a full boiling of juice for his vacuum ■ pan, that the trial might be made on a scale suffi- cient to produce actual results, by which to calcu- late, in a pecuniary point of view, the real value of cornstalk in the manufacturing of sugar, but that his intentions were frustrated, levelled to the dust, by a storm, which prostrated the corn, and entirely ruined his prospects. Speaking of some samples of sugar manufactured by Mr. Webb, he says : " It has been objected, that the grains are not so large and fully developed ; it is only a wonder that any grains at all should be made to appear, from the manner in which the granulating process had been compelled to be carried on. Mr. Morgan, with his 10,000 gallons of liquor, at 45° would soon be able to give a better accoimt of the matter." Mr. Blake, of Indianapolis, in Indiana, also tried an experiment on a larger scale ; but not having as much previous knowledge of the pro- cess as Mr. Webb had, did not succeed in ob- taining sugar. He says he made, in all, out of about 4i acres, about 270 or 180 gallons of thick sirup ; 25 gallons of the juice made 4 gallons of this sirup; and he is well assured that he left in the ground corn one-third of the juice. His corn was planted four feet wide, and drilled one way. He planted about six acres, but a por- tion of it was prostrated by a storm, and so was not used. He found that wooden cogs and jour- nals for the mill would not answer, and recom- mends iron-bound and iron-plated, and metal cogs and journals. He had no previous knowl- edge of sugar-making, of any kind, and of course had to encounter all the difficulties of a learner. For boiling, he used common 15 gallon iron ket- tles. The great difficulty he found was in ar- riving at the graining point, in boiling. His plan was to boil the juice of the cornstalk, as soon as the scum was removed, down to a strong sirup, and then put it into a cooler, or large tub, having two or three inch holes, one in a level with the bottom, the others an inch and a half from the bottom, and let it remain to the next day, and then boil it down to the graining point. He says also, " my main object ua trying the ex- periment was to ascertain whether cornstalk con- tained saccharine sufficient to make it an object to cultivate it hereafter, as one of the great sta- ples of our State. On this point, I am satisfied that, in a few years, it will become an article of export, and of great value to the West." — " My molasses is esteemed, by all who taste it, to be superior to New-Orleans." " From experi- ments I made when I had got my mill to work well, I could grind 300 gallons of juice in about 18 hours' work, with two horses, allowing one hour for each horse at a time ; two boys could at- tend the mill with ease." " From the best estimate I can mak eof the cost per acre, in removing the ears, blading, topping and cutting, hauling grinding and boiling, &.C., it was between 12 and 15 dollars. Of course, it would have cost much less, if I had been as well organized as I could be, were I to carry on the business upon the same scale hereafter ; boys can do most of the work." He also expresses his full intention to go into the business with a view to permanency and profit. Others also, in Indiana, tried the experiment with various success, and by a communication from Mr. Plummer, of Richmond, in that State, it appears that, in all cases, the success equalled expectations as to the quantity per average acre ; but the quality was not so fine as expected, and it was supposed some added more cream of lime than was necessary. The sugar, however, proved equal to about second quality New Orleans. He also remarlis, that they found wooden rollers would not answer as well, as they were liable to cut in ridges, and thus much of the saccharine matter was lost. He further suggests, that, by planting the corn some days apart from each other, one mill might serve a number of persons, and thus the expense be lessened. The farmers 20 Improvements in Agriculture and the Arts. there, he adds, as an evidence of their confi- dence, do not expect to open their sugar trees again. The conclusion is expressed by several, that from 600 to 1,000 pounds of sugar may easily be procured from an acre. Another person speaks of obtaining half a gal. Ion of sirup from a busliel and a half of crushed stalks. Mr. Goodrich, of Terre Haute, in Indi- ana, is also stated to have produced from eight gallons of juice two gallons of molasses, pronoun- ced by competent judges equal to the best sugar- house molasses. Mr. James T. Gilford, who tried some experi- ments with the cornstalk, on examination, found that the butt of the stalk remaining in the field retained its juice and saccharine matter until the hard freezing in November caused fermentation to commence, from which time the saccharine matter was too acid. It is also said, that sugar lias been made of the water in whicli the ears of com have been boiled ; irom whence it has been inferred that the cob contains much saccharine matter. Mr. Knapp, of Waynesville, Illinois, in a communication made to the Union Agricultur- ist, for October, published at Chicago, says : " I hasten to say briefly, that I have made about six gallons of maize molasses from what was judged (not measured) a barrel of expressed juice of the stalks. I find there is no difficulty what- ever in clarifying the juice with hydrate of lime, skimming until it boils, and then straining through a flannel. An immense quantity of extractive matter in the form of a fawn-colored precipitate IS thus speedily got rid of, and the evaporation is then conducted m the same manner as in making maple sugar. There are two other mills in this neighborhood. At one of them, sixty gallons of molasses have been made from an acre. In re- gard to crystalization, I entertain no scruples, when the evaporation is conducted properly and carried to the proper points." The experiment has been also tried, it is said, in South Carohna, even to granulation, without difficulty, with per- fect success ; and confidence in its importance as a product is expressed. In the number of the Albany Cultivator for January, 1843, a correspondent writes from Ohio, and, referring to an experiment of his own, says : " The result of this experiment has led me to the following conclusions : " Ist. That Mr. Webb's statement of the amount of sugar which can be made fi-om an acre is not overrated. " 2d. That stripping the ears from the stalks is essential to the production of sugar, though not essential in the production of a much smaller quantity of excellent molasses. " 3d. That large stalks yield much more juice than small ones in proportion to their size, and tliat, consequently, the corn should be grown in drills, and not by sowing broadcast. "4th. That the principal labor in making su- gar from cornstalks consists in stripping off" the leaves, and that this is most expeditiously accom- plished before the stalks are cut. " 5th. That three quarts of juice will yield sac- charine matter equal to one pound of sugar ; or that eight gallons of juice will make one gallon of thick molasses. 11 " 6th. That the manufacture of sugar from cornstalks is an object well worthy the attention of every family who has even one acre of ground to cultivate." Such are some of the results of very imperfect experiments the first year after the announcement of the fact that sugar can be made from the corn- stalk. They were commenced and prosecuted, in most cases, with the simple view of deciding a question on which, probably, nearly all who had just learned that such a thing was asserted, were, to say the least, somewhat skeptical. They, too, had no conveniences for the manufacture ; and yet, with all these drawbacks to success, the question may be considered as fairly settled by a number of independent witnesses who need ©nly a knowledge of the process, 'and skill and ejqee- rience in conducting the trial hereafter, to insure complete success. In order to aid in this desirable object, and as so many are interested in whatever may throw Ught on the subject, Mr. Webb's ac- count, originally drawn up for the National Agri- cultural Society, will be subjoined in Document No. 3. As numerous inquiries also have been made re- specting the best process of clarification, a com- munication detaihng the mode has been obtained from Professor Mapes, of New-York, who has paid much attention to the subject, which will be found in Document No. 4. He, also, as will be perceived, expresses his conviction, from some ex- perimcnts on the cornstalk, of its entire superior- ity over the sugar cane, if the enthusiasm of those who made the fonner experiments published did not lead them into errors. The French scientific journals contain some notice of this subject, and a beUef is there ex- pressed that sugar can be manufactured from the cornstalk and from the Jig cactus found in the recent French possessions in Africa. There are some facts stated in relation to the manufacture of sugar from the cornstalk, it is thought proper to subjoin. They have been mostly derived from Porter's Treatise on the Cul- ture of the Cane. At 10° of Beaume's saccharo- meter, it is said, there are in 100 lbs. of cane juice or sirup 18 lbs. 6 oz. and 1 dr. of sugar. — This, it will be perceived, is not more, if as much, as Mr. Knapp and others obtained from the corn- stalk. The weight of water, beside what is termed the water of solution, to be evaporated to reduce the cane juice to a state of saturated solu- tion, is 70 lbs. 9 oz. 6 dr. A saturated solution of cane juice contains five parts of sugar and tlirce parts of water. This is indicated by 34° of Beaumo at the temperature of 82 Farenheit. — Seventeen ounces of lime are used for 390 gal- lons of cane juice. The greatest danger seems to be of using too large a proportion of alkali. — The highest produce of 100 gallons of cane juice for nine years average, on an acre of an estate se- lected in Jamaica, is stated to have been 122 lbs. of sugar. The experiments above cited, with re- spect to cornstalk, would show an equal, if not a greater average. It is evident, that the whole difficulty of granulation may be obviated by boil- ing immediately and quickly in not too large quantities. The paper of Professor Mapes, in the a Document, Iready referred to, will also fur- nish valuable information on this point. The Improvements in Agriculture and the Arts. 21 Southern States, who have heretofore been enga- ged in the manufacture of cane sugar, possess pe- culiar advantages in this respect, as they are al- ready provided with the requisite machinery for grinding and boiling, and can apply theii* already acquired skOl, no doubt witli great effect. Hence, we need not be surprised, if we should hereafter find them taking the lead in this business. It is a truly gratifying reflection, that, while the tem- perance reformation is so greatly lessening the consumption of corn in the manufacture of whis- key, the introduction of tliis manufacture of corn- stalksugar promises to furnish a much more prof- itable as well as salutary application. As this product was set down in the table of the last report, based on the census statistics, it has been retained. It is believed, however, that no material alteration has occurred, as there is Httle to occasion any advance, and, probably, some causes on the other hand to discourage it. The cultivation of the grape, however, is still success- fidly continued, and several indigenous species have been tried and approved. The whole wine crop for 1842 is estimated at 130,748 gallons. AGGREGATE CROP FOR 1842. The entire aggregate of the crop for 1842 thus appears to be very great. Altliough lessened in some States, yet the amount of the whole is much increased. The estimates might have been larger but the aim has been to fall short rather than ex- ceed the truth. Very many interesting deductions and comparisons might be made in reference to the individual States and the proportions of parti- cular products raised to the populatian ; but these must be left to each one to form for himself from the data furnished in the tabular estimate. The amount of breadstufls, including corn and potatoes, is 716,147,950 bushels. Tliis allows for each man, woman, and child, of our whole po- pulation nearly 39 bushels ; or, should we estimate the quantity for each mdividual according to the usual allowance in England, the surplus product would be very great. It should be recollected, also, that the mere breadstuffs and potatoes form by no means the whole amount of surplus food, as the last census shows a vast amount of other articles of this de- scription. OTHER PRODUCTS NOT EMBRACED IN THE TABLE. It may be well here, also, to allude to certain products not mentioned in the tabular estimate, which have been sometimes proposed as offering some encouragement to tlie agriculturist to engage in raising them, and thus add to the means of employing the labor which must be given to agri- culture, and which yet, owing to the vast sur- plus of the grains, &c, above the home con- sumption, seems to promise but little profit. One of these is broomcorn, which is much cul- tivated (and with success) in some towns on the Connecticut river, in Massachusetts. The amount produced on one acre varies from 800 to 1,000 lbs., besides 60 or 70 bushels of seed. The brush is said to be worth 4 or 5 cents per lb. ; in 1837, it was worth 12^ cents per lb. The seed on an acre, at 33 cents a bushel, is said to be equal to a crop of oats. In Northampton and its vicinity, not less than 1,300 acres are thus cultivated, worth, for the brush and seed, $100,000. The seed usually weighs 40 lbs. per bushel. The manufac- ture of brooms in a small town (Hadley) in Mas- sachusetts, is estimated at $160,000 ; 80,000 brooms were manufactured by one man in a year. To a limited extent, this culture of the broom- corn and its manufacture might be yet more exten- sively engaged in with advantage. The process of cultivation is similar to that of maize or Indian com. Further details are given in Appendix, No. 5. Another article towards which attention may be turned is madder, of which it is said 5,000 tons are annually imported. This, however, being a plant of three years' growth before any advantage can be obtained from it, is not likely to engage much the attention of agriculturists. The SAFFLOWER and saffron, which have, perhaps, been confounded by many persons, are other articles of the dyestuffs which have some- times been suggested as objects worthy of atten- tion. The first of these yields a rich pink dye ; but, for various reasons, it can hardly be much of an object to our fanners. Owing to its high price, the demand for saf&on is much more than for the safHowers. The rhus cotinus, or sumach, has also been re- commended. Many thousand tons of this pro- duct are annually imported from Trieste. It is a perennial plant, and it is said might yield two crops in a year ; and it is supposed that, as it bears a strong resemblance in many respects to the su- mach indigenous with us, it would succeed and be profitable. The crops of the various roots of peas, beans, &c, for animals as well as for vegetables for the table, are increasing. A new addition to these has been suggested in the hog-root, a species of the arum, and possessed of much nutritious mat- ter, of which swine especially are particulaly fond. Among other recommendations, have been mentioned its great productiveness, and that it is indigenous, being very abundant, especially in Virginia. Cranberries aboimd in vast quantities in the moist prairies in Michigan and some of the West- ern States. By means of a newly-invented rake, very simple in its construction and not expensive, 40 bushels may be gathered by one man in a day ; and a cargo of 1,500 bushels have been sent to one of the Atlantic States, from the northern part of Indiana, in a flat-boat, at one time. The price wliich this product often commands in the mar- kets of the cities along the Atlantic varies from $1 50 even up to $2 50 or $3 50 per bushel. They can be gathered at the West at an expense of not more than 50 cents per bushel. Tiie duty on them in England is not more than 2 cents per gallon by direct trade. They may also be made to produce largely by cultivation. Sir Joseph Banks is said to have raised them at the rate of 460 bushels by the acre. Ginseng is an indigenous product, and it is raised in lange quantities at the West. This is an important article of export to China, and the amount sent out to that country within the last 12 or 15 months is said to be upwards of a million of dollars in value. 2^ improvements in Agriculture and ihs Arts. To the same country, also, now becoming par- ticularly important to us by the additional facili- ties of commercial intercourse, large quantities of LEAD are also shipped ; 100,000 pigs, weighing 3,000 tons, valued at $250,000, were sent there, from the West, in the year 1842. This, besides being a western product, is so intimately connect- ed with the question of diversion from agricultur- al labor, that the mention of it in this place does not seem improper. A new method of preserving eggs, by packing them in salt with the small end downwards, and by which they have been kept perfectly good for 8 or 9 months, will, it is believed, enable the in- habitants of portions of our country where these abound to make them profitable. Tiiousands of bushels may be sent off to the Atlantic markets. Great quantities are used in France ; and as the duty on them in England is so low, (not two cents per dozen,) they might bear exportation. They have been gathered and sold at the West as low as 90 cents per bushel ; which, as a bushel con- tains 45 dozen, is but 2 cents per dozen. From present experiments, the introduction and raising of sheep on the vast prairies of the West are to be anticipated, and it would not be sm'pri- sing if there should be a great change in the terri- tory to which the consumers of wool must look for much of their raw material. Hitherto, the New England and Middle States have principally fm'- nished the market with wool. But sheep are al- ready beginning to acquire importance in the view of the farmers and planters of the West and South ; and if the importation of 1,100 merino bucks in a single year into South America produced such a change in their flocks, why may not equally as striking a result be effected in the Western and Southern States by a similar introduction there ? Millions of sheep could be sustained at little ex- pense on the belt of the oak timber land running through^ Georgia, 70 miles wide by 150 miles long. Indeed, there is scarcely one of the Southern States but would furnish some good section for the keeping of flocks on the up- lands. Planters are now also actually be- ginning to collect their flocks. The sheep- raising States ofthc North must expect com- petition. The fanner in the higher and cold- er latitudes, who has to fodder his flock for a long winter, will certainly feel the effect of this new direction of sheep husbandrj', brought, as he will be, into competition with those who enjoy the ad- vantage of an almost perennial spring. So soon as the planter ceases to be absorbed in the produc- tion of cotton, the streams of the South will be lined with mills, and various operations of ma- chinery. The Northern and Middle States can- not but see that it will do so. There are many locations south and west of the Delaware where three sheep at least can be kept as cheap as one can on the confines of the Canadas. Pasturage to almost any extent covers the prai- rie range, and grass and grain for a short winter's feed are cut and reaped by machines at a trifling expense. One gentleman, it is stated, in the vi- cinity of Buffalo, New York, having a prairie farm in Illinois of some 500 acres, purchased 2,000 sheep, which he placed upon it, under the care of two faithful shepherds. The sheep v^'ere kept without difficulty in the best of health, and the proprietor, as the first fruits of his enterprise, re- ceived 6,000 pounds of good wool worth 30 cents per pound. The transportation from Illinois to Buffalo cost about one cent per pound. These facts are mentioned, not to discourage effort but to prepare the producer of wool to meet the condition of things that must soon take place in a state of general peace and depression of price of all the staple products. By the last census, it appears that tliere are in the United States about twenty millions of sheep. It has been thought by those who have paid attention to this subject that this number is much too low ; and the supposition has been made that there are not less than thirtj'-four milhons of sheep in this whole country, of which one-fifth are in New- York. The safer estimate would probably be about twenty-five millions ; the estimated value of which, at ^2 per head, would g-ive $50,000,000. Three sheep is the general allowance per acre for winter provender and sum- mer pasture. The aggregate quantity of land nec- essary is more than 8,330000 acres ; which, at the average of $15 per acre, (perhaps ij would reach even to $20,) would be nearly $125,000,000.— The amount of wool produced at an average of 2 pounds the fleece is 50,000,000 pounds, which probably, at the lowest average price, is equal to $12,000,000. It will thus be seen that this ob- ject is one of no fit tie importance, and that, there- fore, it deserves a place while suggesting diver- sions of labor which may be anticipated. Another product connected with the clearing up of lands by new settlers is that of pot or peari, ashes. The latter of these can be prepared for the market very easily in the form of black salts, and at little expense. These arc said to find a ready sale. Potashes, also, may be produced, though it requires a somewhat larger expense of capital. Five hundred pounds of pot or pearl ashes for one acre of good timber is said to be a very safe calculation, and this sells at $25. Ev- ery 400 bushels of ashes carcfidly saved will pro- duce a ton of pot or pearl ashes, into which they can be turned in 36 hours. For some further de- tails of this subject, reference may be made to Documents Nos. 6 and 7. It appears that 2,437 casks of ashes from one port v/erc exported in 1842, valued at $48,740. The tabular statement contains no columns de- voted, as in the report for 1841, to the domestic animals, the produce of the dairy, orchard, and horticulture ; but it is evident, from all the infor- mation which has come under the notice, that these are also steadily advancing. Agriculture is yet destined to experience a great impulse from the new light which is just breaking in upon the farmer, as respects the composition of soils, ma- nures, &c. An agricultural literature is forming of a most important character ; and, by the revo- lution in the mode of publishing books, it may be expected that ere long om- farmers in the remo- test parts of the country may feel the effect of such a diffusion of combined scientific and prac- tical knowledge. Liebig, Daubeny, and John- stone's works, and others, which have recently been brought before the public, contain much in- formation on the important subjects of analysis and adaptation, and the effect of various kinds of cultivation and enriching of the soil. And here too, it may not be improper to mention another Improvements in Agriculture and the Arts. 23 work, in itself a treasmy of knowledge in agri- culture and every thing kindred to it — London's EncyclopoBdia of Agriculture. Perhaps it would not be too much to predict that, in the coui'se of years, an entire change will be wrought in the mode of applying manures. The wonderful skill of the Chinese in improving their soil, not so good as most parts of our own naturally, by which they are enabled, as It is now well ascertained, to support a population of more than 300,000,000 throughout their vast empire, is owing to their wisdom and care in adapting their manures and modes of cultivation to the peculiarities required by the soil. As they separate its enriching elements, rejecting the parts that can have no effect, they are not constantly ex- posed to a new growth of weeds, and the seeds of v\rhich are sown among the loads of compost had other manures carried out into the field. Hence a weed is a rare thing in theu fields, and as soon as it makes its appearance is easily seen and erad- icated. The time is not far distant when the am- monias, silicate of potash, phosphates, &c, which render a particular manure valuable, will be prepared and used in the form of salts, or in a liquid form, sprinkled over the soil, instead of whole loads being carted out from the barn yard and compost heap for this purpose. It needs only the diffusion of such knowledge, and the success- ful trial by some of our most intelligent and prac- tical farmers and planters, to overcome the preju- dice against changes like these, which would do so much to benefit our agriculture. As an evi- dence of this fact, it may be mentioned that many acres of worn-out lands in Virginia have been re- covered by the skill and toil of enterprising far- mers from New England and New York, so that farms under this culture in many instances have been doubled, and even tripled in value. It is gratifying also to observe that the atten- tion of the State Legislatures are more and more turned to the subject of agriculture. The State of New- York, by a law passed May 5, 1841, appropriated $8,000 per annum, for five years, for the encouragement of agriculture and household manufactures, to be divided between the county societies, which raise a certain sum of money for the same purposes. Had a longer time been permitted before the transmission of the re- port to Congress recom'se might have been had to the valuable report of the New- York State Agri. cultural Society, which is yearly required by the provisions of the State law. J.ARD OIL, ETC. The subject of the manufacture of oil from corn and LARD was introduced to the notice of the public in the report oflast year. As corn oil has hereto- fore been connected with distillation, althouo-h it is easily made and answers a good purpose, less attention bas been devoted to it. It has been sucr. gested, on good authority, that it can be gathered from the mash which is prepared for fermentation for feeding swine. If this should be confii-med by further experiments, as it would not be liable to the same objection urged against the former, the manufacture of spirituous liquors, it may here- after be carried on to a great extent. No doubt seems to be entertained of its value for burning. and all other purposes to which oil is applied but painting. Much interest has been felt in the subject of oil from lard, and the almost daily inquiries respect- ing its process of manufactm-c, &c, and its close connexion v.dth the question of disposing of our agricultural products, forms a reason for giving it a more extended consideration in these remarks. Complete success has attended the enterprise. — Several large factories for the manufactm-e of this oil have been some time in operation in Cincin- nati, and thousands of gallons are daily prepared for home consumption and exportation. It is also carried on at Cleveland, Ohio ; Chicago, Illinois ; Burlington, Iowa ; Hannibal, Missoiu-i ; and other places both in the Western and the Atlantic States. It is considered much superior to olive or sperm oil for machinery and for the manufacture of woolens, &-c. It can be furnished also at half the price, and tlierefore it will doubtless supersede that article of import. As it contains less gelatine than other oils it is found much better for comb- ing wool, for which purpose a single factory wished to contract for 10,000 gallons from one establishment. It is also undergoing trial in Eng- land ; and, if it succeeds, of which there can scarcely be a doubt, large orders for it may be ex- pected, or at least the American lard itself, which pays a less duty, will find a ready market. An order for 600 gallons, with this view, has already been received for the use of a cloth factory in Hud- dersfield, England. It has also been stated in the journals, that a gentleman is about taking out a large quantity, recently ordered from the West, for the purpose of trying it there as an article of trade, and it has lately been stated that 1G,000 bbls. have been sent from Cincinnati to England. Repeated experiments, too, have shown that for the purpose of combustion no oil is superior. It is important, in trying it with this view, to obtain a good article, manufactured from good lard, and not from the dark-burned which creates smoke and clogs the flame. For want of sufficient care in this respect, some have no doubt met with disap- pointment in their attempts to substitute this oil for sperm oil in the lamps. The follo-i\'ing are given as the relative consti- tuents of lard oil and sperm' oil, in 100 parts of either : Carbon. Hydrogen. Oxygen. Lard oil 79.03 11.422 9.548 Sperm Oil 79.05 11.6 8.9 It will thus be seen that the difference in carbon is only 3.00 ; about the same in hydrogen ; while in oxygen it is about 4.10 in favor of the lard oil. The large quantity of carbon proves that it may be rehed on as a material for giving light, as it is well ascertained that whenever carbon pre- dominates in an animal oil the article capable of a high degree of luminous power. Ex- periments have been made by Mr. Campbell Mor- fit, of Philadelphia, which may be found men- tioned in the paper furnished by him in Document No. 8. These resulted in favor of lard oil. About 60 lbs. in 100 of good lard, in tallow only 28 is oil ; and the processes of manufacture resorted to, show that it may be made a profitable business. — Large orders have already been executed at the West for this oil, to be used in the Eastern States. 84 Imjprovements in Agriculture and ihe Arii. The heat of lard oil for the blow pipe has been found to be much greater than that of sperm. — Lard itself melts at 82° of Farenhcat ; its specific gravity at 60° is 0.938. Lard crystalizes in small globules ; sperm in flakes or scales. It is soluble in boiling alcohol. The proportion is 80 gallons of lard to 1 of alcohol. The application of stearin for candles, which was also alluded to in the last year's report, promises greatly to reduce the price of that article, as will be seen by Mr. Morfit's letter, al- ready alluded to in the Document No. 8. He thinks that the price of such candles, equal to spermaceti, may be eventually reduced to 12^ cents per pound. As the capillary attraction of lard oil is not so great as that of sperm, it is recommended that the form of the' lamp should be such as to bring the bulk of the oil as near to the point of combustion as possible. It is also recommended, that the tube should be filed thinner at the top where the wick is inserted to prevent the escape of heat. Various lamps have been constructed for burning lard as well as lard oil, which have been found to answer very well. The solar astral lamp, for this purpose, affords a light unsurpassed by any other for brilliancy and quality of luminous power : and the letter of Mr. Milford, Collector of Cleveleind, Oliio, (Document No. 9,) shows that the burning of this oil has been mtroduced with entire success into the light- houses on Lake Erie. An objection has been made against lard oil, that it is not capable of be- ing preserved in a liquid state in cold weather ; but by a process similar to that by which the winter sperm is prepared, lard oil can be made which will not chill at 30° Farenheit. The importance of tliis application of lard can scarcely yet be realized. Vast quantities of the oil can be manufactured at the West. Indeed, there is hardly any assignable limit to the power of production of the article, so that, while the demand continues, the business may be conduct- ed profitably. The immense herds of swine, which can be suffered to range over the lands adapted to them, and gather their food from mast as well as the surplus of corn, wheat, potatoes, &c, on wliicli they may be sustained, admit of the manufacture being carried on to almost any extent. The proportion of lard to the whole hog is about 60 per cent., after taking out the hams and shoul- ders, or taking out the hams only ; the estimate for hogs of the best breeds, and so fed as to pro- duce the greatest quantity of fat, is 70 per cent. As the object is not in this case to make pork for food, the objection against those species of nuts, and other modes of feeding which ren- der the animal more gross and oily, is obviated ; and it has been proposed to feed out oil cake to swine, to increase the proportion of oil. An important letter, in relation to the manu- facture of lard oil, &c, will be found, together with Mr. Morfit's account, before mentioned, in the Documents Nos. 8 and 10, the necessity of the publication of which is every day becoming more and more apparent from the continual demand on the Patent Ofiice for copies of the mode of extract- ing the oil from lard. The specification of one manufacturer, who has patented his process, has also been added for the same reason, as niunerous copies arc continually requested. (Document IL) By a new process of steaming, (a very simple method, a description of which will be found in the letter of Mr. Stafford, before mentioned, in Document No. 10, (it appears that the wliole of the lard or oily matter in the hog, or of taUow in cattle, may be obtained ; while the danger of burning (common in other modes) is avoided, the consmnption of fuel lessened, and the degree of pressure required not so great as otherwise. It will be recollected that, while conducting the manufacture of lard, the other parts of the animal, as the hams and shoulders, may be turned to profit. Besides these, also, the hides may be tanned by a cheap process ; and the bones, which are worth half a cent per pound, may be calcined and made into animal carbon, for wliich they are said to be worth, in this calcined state, two and a half cents per pound. Oil is likewise made of the sunflower — 35 gal Ions to an acre. The cultivation of the castor bean continues to be carried on with increasing success for the manufacture of castor oil, wliich may also be turned into stearin and oil for burning. A single firm in St. Louis has worked up 18,500 bushels of beans in fom- months, producing 17,750 gallons of oil, and it is stated that 800 barrels have been sold at $50 the barrel. This oil, like- wise, admits of being prepared for machinery, soap, &c., and it is much more soluble in alcohol than lard. A new experiment, too, as to the intro- duction ofRAPESEED,for the same purpose, promises much success, as it is fovmd that rich ground will produce from 25 to 40 bushels to the acre. Ten quarts of oil may be obtained from a bushel of the seed. Oil cake is worth, per bushel, about the same as oats. This oil sells for from 75 cents to $1 the gallon. For further details, as to this ex- periment, reference may be made to the letter of the Postmaster at Erie, Pennsylvania — Document No. 12. A more beautiful article of lard is now also manufactured, which is of the purest white, and much harder than the ordinary kind, and which thus possesses additional advantages for exporta- tion, as it wDl bear being sent to the warmer cli- mates, and can be prepared by a rapid process which costs not over half a cent the pound. The details of this will be found in Mr. Stafford's let- ter previously referred to in Document No. 10. These various articles just mentioned, have been brouglit together, as they arc of a kindred char- acter, and constitute a branch of business which is probably destined to become a most important one in our country. It may be well, indeed, to look at this subject a little more closely, and in detail to ascertain the means we have of future produc- tion,- as this lard is one of the articles on which the duty in England and France are so low as to bear exportation. In the first place : What are the materials of manufacture at home ? The live animals can be raised at little comparative ex- pense ; and this business, as we have before said, can be carried on to almost any extent. Few persons, who have not taken the trouble of calculation, are aware of the results of an ex amination into this subject. It would be thought strange, were the assertion made, that the export of oil, pork, and lard, were a market opened to us, might be equal to that of our heaviest staples — even to that of cotton ; but it is believed that Improvements in Agriculture and the Arts. 25 it can be strictly demonstrated that not only this is true, but that it might reach in value beyond all the exports from this country the past year. The calculation is an easy one : Pork can be raised in all the States ; and wherever there exists mast and wild vegetable roots, the expense is very trifling ; for, it wUl be remarked, that, for the purpose of making oil, it is inamaterial how great is the degree of oleaginous food, which is given to swine. Beech, oak, hickory, and walnut, all fiu-nish excellent food. Corn, too, may be raised on the prairies at $3 per acre, standing in the field, where the swine arc turned in to feed; making the cost six cents per bushel — allowing (whicli is a fair estunate) 50 bushels to the acre. If any one doubt the practicability of this, it will only be necessary to consider the fact, that one mcui can attend to 40 acres, which, beginning early in the season, he can plough with horses at the rate of two acres per day, plant with the corn- planter from five to ten acres a day, ;j,nd then till it with the cultivator. At $3 per acre, the sup- position before mentioned, this would make his receipt for the three and a half or four months cmployed,$120 or $30 to$ 35 a month, for wa- ges, expenses, &c. As a further means of keep- mg the swine, rye may be sown on the ploughed sod to furnish winter food ; and by taking them off in the spring, a crop of rye may be raised, making a good sustenance for the swine — they being turned in to feed upon it standing after it is ripe. It has hkewise been found that, since the animals scatter some of the grain on the field, the same piece of ground will yield two or three sea- sons without any extra ploughing. It may also be remarked, in passing, that rye pastures are found to be excellent for wintering cattle without injury to the crop of grain, if the stock is taken off early in the spring. Such, then, are the facilities for raising swine. We can, however, carry the calculation further. The number of swme reported in the census for 1839 is over 26,300,000. There is reason to be- lieve that the number has very greatly increased in many of the Western States since hat time. — Thus, it is stated, that, in Michigan, in 1837, when the State census was taken, the number of hogs reported was 109,096 ; in 1839, by the United States census, was reported the nmnber 342,920 being an increase in only two years of 232,535, or more than 100,000 in a year. It is supposed, by a writer who appears to be well ac- quainted with the products of that State, that in 1841 there were not less than 700,000 swine in the State ; according to which ratio there would probably be now over 1,000,000. The whole number in the United States, therefore, estimated simply at an increase of five per cent, the year, would now exceed 30,000,000. Taking this, therefore, as a fair estimate, and allowing that one-hall' of them should be fatted to average 300 lbs., and for the purpose of lard they would need to weigh 300 or 400 lbs., we should have the fol- lowing results, viz : 15,000,000 hogs weighing 4,500,000,000 lbs. Deducting the two hams, which might be estimated at 20 lbs. each, allow- ing also a loss of one-third in curing, is equal to 400,000,000 lbs., and trying up the remainder, equal to 39,000,000 lbs., on wliich 60 per cent, of lard might be obtained, gives 2,340,000,000 lbs. of Icird ; and since 8 lbs. of lard equals a gallon of oil and stearin combined, tliis amounts to 292,. 500,000 gallons, which is equal to 9,285,714 bar- rels. This is more than twenty-five times the amount of sperm and whale oil annually brought into the United States, including also palm and olive oils. Allowing 40 lbs. for the two hams, as we have seen, gives 400,000,000 lbs. Estimating now the lard oil and stearin combined at 50 cents per gallon and the hams at 6 cents per lb., we have the enormous sum total of .$170,250,000. — This would probabl;^ equal over three times the export value of cotton at the ])resent low price or perhaps even the whole crop for this year ; as the whole crop for 1842, according to the best esti- mate which a careful examination enables us to make, amounts to 683,333,231 lbs., which, at 6^ cents per lb., is 44,416,650. This, too, is nearly double the whole value of our exports, as appears from the report of the Secretary of the Treasury. It is, indeed, admitted that wc have not, and probably may not for a long time, if ever, have so large a quantity of lard and hams for exporta- tion ; but the supposition is only made to show the capabilities of the country in tliis respect. There is not the slightest difficulty, were the ef- fort made, in doubling the number of swine in the United States, so that the whole surplus above the present number could be thus used for the ma- nufacture of lard and oil. Besides the ai-ticles mentioned in the case supposed above do not re- quire salt, and may be preserved with great ease, us well as allow the animals to be kUled earlier, so as to secure a full market ; and the former is a consideration of no small importance, especially in portions of the country where salt is high. It will be found more profitable at present, at the price of lard and oil abroad, to use the whole hog for this purpose, the hams and sides excepted. It should be mentioned, too, here, that in the above calculation no account has been taken of a variety of articles whicli arc worth something, and which might aid to defray the expense of the preparation of the lard and hams. Thus, as to the hides, tliey may be taken off with the hair at about the same expense as by scalding, and may be tanned at ^5 per dozen, or preserved by sprinli- ling the fresh hides, spread out smooth, with salt, laying one over another, flesh sides together, mi- til tliere are fifty or sixty together. They can then remain in this state imtd cured, and may be rolled up and transported to any market. The leather of these hides, when tanned, is used not only for saddles, collars, trunks, but also for binding books — a substitute for Russia leather — and many other pmposes. The bristles will pay ui part for preparing the hides for the market. Hides, wlien well curried, will bring, it is said, from $15 i.to $50 per dozen. Hams, too, are said to be better when cured without skins, as the gum of the skin injures the taste of the meat and retards the salting operation. It may be remarked here, also, that a demand for oil and candles from lard will, of course greatly advance the price of pork for consiunp tion, and thus, while a new staple is created, an old one is greatly improved. An increase of only one cent per pound on swine slaughtered in the United States will make an aggregate in value of at least $30,000,000. Tiiis sum would not, in- 26 Improvements in Agriculture and the Arts. deed, actually be realized in cash, as little pork, comparatively, is now sent to market, but is con- sumed by the family where it is raised. That country which produces beef andpork to most ad- vantage, and especially if wheat is also added, must excel in agricultural profits. FOREIGN MARKET. In looking at the details just given, evidently proving the unmense resources our country pos- Besses m these products, as they may properly be termed, of her soil, the question naturaUy arises : Is there any demand for them abroad ? It can be shown, it is believed, that this demand is greater than has been supposed, and that it seems likely to increase. A part of the bearings of this subject will be brought up in connexion with ano- ther portion of these remarks ; but it may be weU here to observe that from New Orleans the export of lard for the year 1841 and 1842 to foreign ports was 172,2b0 kegs, while that to the ports of the United States was over 260,000 kegs. To Cuba, whose exports to the United States have much exceeded her imports from this coun- try, as appears from the report of the commercial relations of the United States by the Secretary of State, there were shipped, during the year 1838, 5,884,028 lbs., valued at $368,146, at a duty of four cents per lb. The desire to obtain lard from abroad has induced England to admit it into her ports at less than half a cent per lb. duty when taken in American vessels, or when taken through the Canadas at less than one-eighth of one cent, per pound. The duty in France is a little more than two cents per pound, to her colonies not more than one half a cent per pound ; when sent to the Netherlands and Belgium, one mill per pound ; in Texas it is free ; in Venezuela, four cents per pound. Large quantities of the olive oil, for which lard can be substituted, are used for making soap. In Marseilles, it is stated, on good authority, that not less than 17,000 lbs. are thus used daily. IMPROVED MODE OF FENCING. While the cultivation of timber land will be hastened by the new method, heretofore described, of making pot and pearl ashes, where the pre- servation of wood is not an object of interest, an improved mode of fencing the prairies gives great facilities for converting what has been hitherto deemed almost waste land to immediate use ; and when it is considered that, as appears by an esti- mate made at the Land Office, there are in four States and two Territories, 39,000,000 of acres of prairie lands, viz : in Ilhnois 11,000,000 acres, in Indiana 5,000,000, in Missouri 9,000,000, in Ar- kansas 4,000,000, in Wisconsin and Iowa, re- stricted to surveyed lands alone, each, 5,000,000 acres, some of which arc quite remote from tim- ber, it must be matter of congratulation, espe- cially to those States, as also to the United States, still holding portions, to know that such lands can now be enclosed with one-fourth the expense of a Virginia fence. Where a section of 640 acres is enclosed, it may be done at a cost not exceeding forty cents per acre, where the labor and materials are all pm-chased. The fence now recommended is composed of a ditch and embank- ment of three feet high, or a fence three feet high on the top of the embankment. The hedge fence so much commended in Europe, will not answer for the prairies, as the weeds grow up with the hedge, and thus furnish much friel to consume the hedge in its earlier growth, or even in its more matured condition ; and this will be the case until general cultivation protects the prairie from annual fires. The ditch, too, of itself alone, is a poor defence against the effect of frost, and the attacks of cattle. A combination of the two seems to offer all the advantages of both, as the soil is drained by the ditch, and the same forms in part the fence, thus saving much timber. It requires 26,500 rails to enclose a section of land with the Virginia panel equal to 8 rails, stake and rider, whereas, it takes only 3 rails for a panel on the plan of the ditch and embankment; nor is this all, the rails on the embankment need not be over one-half the size of those in a Virginia or worm fence. The great saving will be apparent when we reflect that four panels of Virginia fence are equal in distance only to three panels of fence made straight. Three rails on the embankment are sufficient. Hence, nine rails on the latter plan are equal to forty on the former one ; and when the difference in the size are taken into con- sideration, the proportion will not be over four and a half to forty, making a saving in timber, cart- ing and hauling, Septernber is the proper season to sow wheat. The next attack of the fly on wheat commences in the spring, as soon as the weather is sufficiently warm to hatch the egg, and with us in Virginia that oc- curs about the middle of April, from which time till the middle of May (up to wliich period the ground joint of wlieat, on which the maggot sub- sists as soon as it is hatched, remains tender and full of juice) the spring injury is done. In reply to your first inquiry, I answer that I obtained from my friend, the Hon. Arnold Nau- dain, of Delaware, a specimen of the wheat, now known as the Mejliterranean wheat. I have raised five crops of it, without the least injury from the fly, and none material from rust ; and such has been the invariable result of many trials of this wheat, by individuals to whom I have dis- posed of it for seed, during the three yeai-s past. Tiic reason why this wheat escapes injury from the fall attack of the fly is, that it certainly is so constituted as to possess, and to be sustamed by, a more vigorous root tlian any otlier known wheat is ; so that while the fly in the fall destroys all other wheat known to us, root and branch, thus denuding fields more or less, according to season and other circumstances, not a root of this wheat is destroyed, owing, no doubt, to its energj'. The reason why this wheat escapes the spring attack of the fly is to be found in the same prop- erty — its energy of root — owing to which, or some other unknown cause, its growth in the spring is more rapid and vigorous than any other winter wheat ; so that, by the middle of April, it attains a hard, and sapless gronnd joint impene- trable by the then J'oung maggot, which produces the fly, and, if penetrated, furnishing no pabu- lum, (that is, sap,) hence the maggots, no matter how many, perish, without doing the least injury to the wheat. The reason why this wheat is less liable to rust than other winter wheat is, that it matures from eight to ten days earlier. I have never, till last fall, sowed this wheat eariier than the 15th of September. On the 4tli of last September I sowed five rows in diill, and at the same time I sowed in juxtaposition a drdl of beautiful and popular white wlieat. When I left home, in No- vember, the drill of white wheat was nearly de- stroyed, root and branch, while the Mediterranean wheat was entirely free from injury. And as I know, for the reasons stated above, that it is to sustain no injury m the spring, I look to this wheat to restore to us our true seed time, and thus to exempt the wheat crop from all maladies necessarily incident to any crop sowed or planted out of season. I have the honor to be, very respectfully, yours, JOHN TALIAFERRO. H. L. Ellswoth, Esq. No. 2. Wilmington, Deceniherld, 1842. Dear Sir : Your favor of the 6th instant was duly received. I am sorry I cannot give you more definite and satisfactory information in regard to our experiments ; but such as I have is at your service. The fact is, that our corn was fully ripe before the least preparation had been made toward manufacturing it ; and after this the delays and breakages incident to new machinery so hindered our progress that a considerable part of our crop was killed by the frost before it could be ground. Yet the greater part of the crystallized sugar, which I procured the present season, was made from this frost-killed corn. The product was un- doubtedly injured, but not to the extent that might have been expected. This fact is important, as it shows the superiority of corn over cane ; the latter is totally ruined by frost. The reason of Improvements in Agriculture and the Arts. 39 this difference is, that corn becomes more fully matured, and it is at the same time a much more hardy plant. For evaporation, the present season, I had two copper kettles, about two feet deep, capable of holding from 50 to 60 gallons. A charge in these kettles could not possibly be finished in less than ten or twelve hours. This long-continued appUcation of heat caused the sirup to become very dark, and deprived it entirely of the power of crystallization. Seeing this result, I procured a tin vessel (copper would have been better) about two feet long, eighteen inches wide, and six niches deep. In this, evaporation could be com- pleted in about two hours ; the sirup was hght colored, like honey,, and crystalUzed very well, though not so quickly as would be desirable. — This sirup (although so much finer in appearance, compared with that procured by the first press) is not so agreeable to the taste ; it retains, to a considerable degree, the peculiar flavor of corn- stalk. After crystallization, tljis taste is entirely con- fined to the molasses, the sugar not retviining it in any sensible degree. It appears, from my ex- periments, that this peculiar taste is owing to a certain substance, which may be either driven off or decomposed by the application of heat, if con- tinued for a sufficient length of time ; therefore, after the sugar is separated from the molasses, the latter should be boiled (with the addition of wa- ter, if necessary) until the corn taste is entirely removed. The shorter the time which is allowed to elapse, from crushing the stalks to finishing the evaporation, the greater will be the proportion of sugar in the sirup, and vice versa. Professor Mapes's 'directions on the subject are excellent, and, if adhered to, will ensure good re- sults. I do not think that any manufacture ever promised better in the early stages of its intro- duction than this has done. We have every reason for confidence and per. severance, and none at all for despondency ; time only is necessary to perfect the d-Jtails, and settle the business upon a firm foundation. A revolution in trade will then ensue, vastly important in its effects. Hoping that we may see all tliis in own time, I remain yours, respectfully, WILLIAM WEBB. H. L. Ellsworth, Esq., Washington, D. C. No. 3. Remarks on the Manufacture of Maize Sugar, by William Webb, of Wilmington, Delaware. The most profitable application of labor is a desideratum too freequently overlooked or disre- garded by those who attempt the introduction of new manufactures into a country. All calcula- tions of advantage which is to result froni the production of any article must be made with due regard to this point, or practice will prove them to be erroneous. Fully impressed with tliis truth, the most rigid examination is invited into every thing now of- fered ; so that, as far as possible, we may arrive at a correct decision respecting the real value of the proposed manufacture. In common with many others, I have felt considerable interest in the plan for extending the cultivation of sugar in temperate climates, and have made many ex- periments, first upon the beet, and recently upon maize or Indian com, in the hope of discovering some mode by which the desired end might be attained. The results from the latter plant have been ex- tremely encouraging. The manufacture of sugar from it, compared with that fi-om the beet, offers many advantages. It is more simple, and less liable to failure. The machinery is less expen- sive, and the amomit of fuel required is less by one-half. The quantity of sugar produced on a given space of ground is greater, besides being of better quality. An examination into the nature and productive powers of these two plants will show that no other results could have been rea- sonably expected. It is a well-established fact, that every variety of production found in plants is derived from the sap. It is also ascertained that the principal substance found in the sap or juice of many vegetables is sugar. Therefore, the amount of saccharine matter produced by any plant of this description may be estimated from an analysis of the fruit, seed, &c, of such plant, when ripe. The grain yielded by corn, and the seed from beet, in the second summer of its growth, are nothing more than this sap or juice elaborated by the process of vegetation, and pre- sented to our view in another form. Now, as it is contrary to the economy of nature to suppose that there should be any loss of nutri- .^ tive matter in this change of sap uito seed or grain, does it not follow that there must be the same difference in the quantity of sugar produced by the two plants as there is between the nutritive properties of beet seed and corn ? The juice of maize contains sugar, acid, and a gummy mucilaginous matter, which forms the scum. From the experiments of Gay Lussac, Thenard, Kirchoff, and others, [it is proved] that starch, sugar, and gum, arc extremely similar in composition, and may be as readily converted mto each other, by chemical processes, as they are by the operation of nature. For example : starch boiled in diluted sulphuric acid for thirty-six hours, is converted into sugar of greater weight than the starch made use of. This result goes to show that every pound of starch found in the seed of a plant has required for its production at least one pound of sugar, in the form of sap. If it be objected that this de- duction is too theoretical to be admitted, it may be answered that experiment, so far as it has gone, has fully attested its correctness. The raw juice of maize, when cultivated for sugar, marks 10° on the saccharometer ; while the average of cane juice (as I am informed) is not higher than 8°, and beet juice not over 3°. From 9| quarts (dry measure) of the former, I have obtained 4 pounds 6 ounces of sirup, con . centrated to the point suitable for crystallization. The proportion of crystallizable sug^ir appears to be larger than is obtained from cane juice in Louisiana. This is accounted for by the fact, that our climate ripens corn perfectly, while it but rarely, if ever happens, that cane is fully ma- tured. In some cases the sirup has crystalliied so completely, that less than one-sixth^ part of 40 Improvements in Agriculture and the Arts. molasses remained. This, however, only hap- pened after it had stood from one to two months. There is reason to believe, that if the plant were fully ripe, and the process of manufacture per- fectly performed, the sirup might be entirely crystallized without fonning any molasses. This perfection in the manufactme caimot, however, be attained with the ordinary apparatus. Without any other means for pressing out tlie juice than a small hand-mill, it is impossible to say how great a quantity of sugar may be pro- duced on an acre. The experiments have ceen duccted more to ascertain the saccharine quality of cornstalk than the amount a given quantity of groimd will pro- duce ; but the calculatioas made from trials on a small scale leave no room to doubt that the quan- tity of sugar will be from 800 to 1,000 pounds. This amoimt will not appear unreasonable, when it is considered that the juice of com is as rich as that of cane, and the weight of green produce at least equal. Mr. Ellsworth, in one of his publications states, as the result of actual weighing and mea- suring, that corn, sown broadcast, yielded five pounds of green stalks per square foot ; tliis is at the rate of 108^ tons to the acre. My attention was first directed to maize as a material forsugai- by observing that, in some stalks, the juice was extremely sweet, wliile in others it was weak and watery. On examina- tion, it appeared that the latter had borne large and perfect ears and gram, wliile, on the former, these were either small m size or entirely wanting. The natural conclusion from this observation was, that if the ears were taken off in tlieir embryo state, the whole quantity of saccharine matter produced by the process of vegetation would be preserved in the stalk, from which it might be ex- tracted when the plant was matured. But tlie idea occurred too late in the season to test it by experiment. A few stalks, however, were found which, from some cause, had borne no graui ; tliese were bruised with a mallet, and the juice extracted by a lever press. Some lime was then added, and |the dessication, evaporation, &c, be- ban and finished in a single vessel. By these simple means, sugar of fair quahty was produced, which was sent to the horticultural exhibition of our society in 1840. I hava since been informed, through Mr. Ells- worth, .that M. Pallas, of France, had disco- vered, in 1839, that the saccharine properties of maize were increased by merely taking off the ear in its embryo state. An experiment, liowever, wliich I instituted, to determine the value of this plaji, resulted in disappointment ; the quantity of sugar produced was not large enough to render it an object. The reasons of this failure will be suf- ficiently obvious on stating the circumstances. It was found that taking the ear off a large stalk, euch as is produced by the common mode of cul- tivation, inflicted a considerable wound upon the plant, which injured its health, and, of course, lessened its productive power. It was also foimd that the natural disposition to form grain was so strong, that several successive ears were thrown out, by which labor was increased, and the in- juries of the plant multiplied. Lastly, it ap- peared that the juice yielded from those plants contained a considerable portion of foreign sub- stance not favorable to the object in view. Yet, under all these disadvantages, from one hundred to two hundred pounds of sugar per acre may be obtained. The manifest objections detailed above sug- ggested anotlier mode of cultivation, to be em- ployed in combination with the one first proposed; it consists simply in raising a greater number of plants on the same space of ground. By tliis plan, all the unfavorable results above mentioned were obviated, a much larger quantity of sugar was produced, and of better quality. The juice produced by this mode of cultivation is remark, ably pure and agreeable to the taste. Samples of the sugar yielded by it are now in the Patent Office, witli a small hand-mill by which the stalks were cruslied. Some of the same kind was exlii- bited to oiu- agricultural society in October, 1841, accompanied with an answer to an invitation from its president, Dr. J. W. Thompson, to explain the mode of culture and process of manufacturing the sugar. The molasses, after standmg, as before mentioned, from one to two months, became filled with small crystals, which, on being di'auied, ex- hibited a peculiar kind of sugar ; the grain is small, and somewhat inferior in appearance, but still is as sweet and agreeable to tlie taste as can be desired. A small sample of this sugar I have brought for your inspection. This product, from what was thought to be molasses, is a new and miexpected discovery, and discloses an unportant fact in the investigation of tliis subject. It shows the superior degree of perfection attained by the com plant, compared with the cane, in any part of the Union. It is generally understood that the latter cannot be fully matured in any except a tro pical climate, and the proportion of molasses ob- tained from any plant is greater or less according to the immaturity or perfection of its growth. The sweetness of the cornstalk is a matter of uni- versal observation. Our forefathers, in the revo- lutionary straggle, resorted to it as a means to fur- nish a substitute for West India sugar. They ex- pressed the juice, and exerted their ingenuity in efforts to bring it to a crystallized state, but we have no account of any successful operation of the land. In fact, the bitter and nauseous pro- perties cfintauied in the joints of large stalks ren- der the whole amount of juice from them fit only to produce an inferior kind of molasses. I found, on experiment, that, by cutting out the joints, and crushing the remaining part of the stalk, su- gar might be made, but still of an inferior quality. The molasses, of which there was a large propor- tion, was bitter and disagreeable. From one to two feet of tlie lower part of these stalks was full of juice ; but the balance, as it approached the top, became dryer, and afforded but little. From the foregoing experiments we see that, in order to obtain the purest juice, and in the greatest quantity, we must adopt a mode of cultivation which will prevent the large and luxuriant growth of the stalk. As we are upon the threshold of this inquiry, many other improvements may be expected m the mode of operation ; for example, it may be that cutting off the tassel as soon as it appears on the plant, will prevent the formation of grain, and prove a preferable means for effecting that object. Improvements in Agriculture and the Arts. 41 On the whole, there appears ample encourage- ment for perseverance. Every step in the inves- tigation has increased the probabilities of suc- cess ; no evidence having been discovered why it should not succeed as well, if not better, on a large scale, than it has done on a small one. 1. In the first place, it has been satisfactorily proved, that sugar of an excellent quality, suita- ble for common use without refining, may be made from the stalks of maize. 2. That the juice of this plant, when cultivated in a certain manner, contains saccharine matter remarkably free from foreign substances. 3. The quantity of this juice (even supposing we had no other evidence about it) is sufficiently demonstrated by the great amount of nutritive graui which it produces in the natural course of vegetation. It is needless to expatiate on the vast advantages which would result from the in- troduction of this manufacture into our country. Grain is produced in the West in such over- flowing abundance that the markets become glut- ted, and inducements are offered to employ the surplus produce in distillation. This business is now becomui^ disreputable. The happy convic- tion is spreadmg rapidly, that the use of alcohol, as a beverage, instead of conducing to health and strength, is the surest means of destroymg both. Some other production, therefore, will be required, in wliich the powers of our soil may be profitably employed. This, it is hoped, will be found in the business now proposed. Instead of distilleries, converting food into poison, we may have sugar-houses, manufacturing at our doors an article in universal demand, not merely useful, but necessary, furnishing as it does one of the most simple, natural, and nutritious varieties of human sustenance fomid in the whole range of vegetable production. It is said that the general use of sugar in Eu- rope has had the effect to extinguish the scurvy and many other diseases formerly epidemical. It may be doubted whether a tropical comitry can ever furnish a great amomit of exports, except through the means of compulsory labor. It ap- pears, then, highly probable, that if the inhabi- tants of temperate coimtries wish to continue the use of sugar, they must find some means to pro- duce it themselves. The beet appears to succeed well in Europe, and the manufacture from it is extending rapidly ; but there is no hazard in mak- ing the assertion that Indian corn is far better adapted to our purpose. The following mode of cultivating the plant, and making the sugar, is the best that can now be offered. The kind of | soil best adapted to corn is so well understood, | that no directions on this point are necessary, ex- cept that it shoidd be rich — the richer the better ; i if not naturally fertile, manure must be apphed, ' either ploughed in or spread upon the siu-face, or | used both ways, according to the ability of the owner. Notliing can form a better preparation for the crop than a clover sod well turned under i and harrowed fine immediately before planting. Select for seed the largest and best ears of any variety of corn not disposed to throw up suckers j or spread out in branches ; that kind most pro- 1 ductive in the neighborhood will be generally the one best adapted to the purpose. The planting should be done with a drilling machine. One man, with a pair of horses and an instrument of this Idnd, will plant and cover, in the most per- fect manner, from ten to twelve acres in a day. The rows (if practicable, let them run north and south) two and a half feet apart, and the seed dropped sufficiently thick in the row to ensure a plant cverp two or three inches. A large harrow, made with teeth arranged so as not to injure the corn, may be used to advantage soon after it is up. The after culture is performed with a culti- vator, and here will be perceived one of the great advantages of drilling : the plants all growing in lines, perfectly regular and straiglit with each other, the horse-hoe stirs the earth and cuts up the weeds close b;^ every one, so that no hand, hoeing will be required in any part of the culti- vation. " It is part of the system of cane plant- ing in Louisiana, to raise as full a stand of cane upon the ground as possible, experience having proved tha t the most sugar is obtained from the land in this way." As far as my experience has gone, the same thing is true of corn. This point must therefore be attended to, and the deficien. cies, if any occm*, made up by timely replant- The next operation is taking off" the ears. — Many stalks will not produce any ; but, whenev- er they appear, they must be removed. It is not best to undertake tliis work too early, as, when the ears first appear, they are tender, and cannot be taken off" without breaking, which increases the trouble. Any time before the formation of grain upon them will be soon enough. Nothmg further is necessary to be done until the crop is ready to cut for gruiding. In our latitude, the cutting may commence with the earlier varieties about the middle of August. The later kinds will be ripe in Srptember, and continue in season until cut off" by the frost. The stalks should be topped and bladed while standing in the field. They are then cut, tied in bmidles, and taken to the mill. The top and blades, when properly cured, make an excellent fodder, rather better, it is believed, than any hitherto used ; and the residuum, after passing the rollers, may easi- ly be dried and used in the same Way — another advantage over the cane, which, after the juice is expressed, is usually burned. The mills should be made on the same general principle employed in constructing those intended for grinding cane. An unportant diff"erence, however, wUl be found both in the original cost and in the expense of working them. Judgmg from the comparative hardness of the cane and cornstalk, it is believed that one-fourth part of the strength necessary in the construction of a cane-mill will be amply sufficient for com, and less than one-fourth part of the power will move it with the same velocity. It may be made with three upright wooden rollers, from twenty to forty inches in length, turned so as to run true, and fitted into a strong framework, consisting of two horizontal pieces, sustained by uprights. These pieces are mortised, to admit wedges on each side the pivots of the two outside rollers, by which their distances from the middle one may be regu- lated. The power is applied to the middle roller, and the others are moved from it by means of cogs. In grinding, the stalks pass through on the right side of the middle cylinder, and come 42 Improvements in Agriculture and the Arts. in contact with a piece of framework called the dumb returner, wliich directs them backwards, so that they pass tlirough the rollers again, on the opposite side of the middle one. (See plate.) Tlie modern improved machine is made entiiely of iron, three horizontal rollers, arranged in a triangidar fonn, one above and two below ; the cane or stalk passes directly through, receiving two pressures before it escapes. (See plate.) The lower cylinders are contained in a small cistern which receives the juice. The latter machine is the most complete ; the former the least expen- sive. These mills may be moved by cattle ; but, for large operations, steam or water power is preferable. When the vertical cylinders are turned by cattle, the axis of the middle one has long levers fixed across it, extending from ten to fifteen feet from tiie centre. To render the arms firm, the axis of this roller is carried up to a con- siderable liiglit ; and oblique braces of wood, by which the oxen or horses draw, are extended from the top of the vertical axis to tiie extremi- ties of each of the arms. When horizontal cyl- inders are propelled by anhnal power, the upper roller is turned by the cogs at one end, which arc caught by cogs on a vertical shaft. It is said that, in the West Indies, the piu-est cane juice will ferment in twenty minutes after it enters the receiver. Com juice lias been kept for one hour before boiling, without any apparent injury re- sultmg ; but so much delay is not desirable, as it may be attended with bad effects. The process which lias been employed in the manufacture of maize sugar is as follows ; The juice, after coming from the mill, stood for a short time, to deposite some of its coarser inipiui- ties. It was then poured off, and passed through a flannel strainer, in order to get rid of such mat- ters as could be separated in this way. Lime water, called milk of lime, was then added, in the proportion of one or two table spoons full to the gallon. It is said by sugar manufacturers that knowledge on this point can only be acquired by experience ; but I have never failed in making sugar from employing too much or too little of the lime. A certain portion of tliis substance, however, is undoubtedly necessary, and more or less than this will be injurious ; but no precise directions can be given about it. The juice was then placed over the fire, and brought nearly to the boiling point, when it was carefully skim- med — taking care to complete this operation be- fore ebullition commenced. It was then boiled down rapidly, removing the sciun as it rose. The juice was examined, from time to time; and if there was any appearance of feculent particles, which would not rise to the surface, it was again passed through a flannel strainer. In judgeing when the sirup is sufficiently boiled, a portion was taken between tlie thumb and finger ; and if, when moderately cool, a thread half an inch long could be drawn, it was considered to be done, and poured into broad shallow vessels, to crysta- lize. In some cases, crystalization commenced in twelve hours ; in others, not till after several days ; and in no case was this process so far com- pleted as to allow the sugar to be drained in less than three weeks from the time of boding. The reason why so great a length of time was required I have not yet been able to discover. There is no doubt but that an improved process of manufacture will cause it to granulate as quickly as any other. Enough has been said to enable any one bo dis- posed to manufacture sugar from maize. As to the profits of the business, I shall make no positive assertions ; experience on the subject is yet too limited to warrant them ; and, as all the facts in relation to it are now before the public, every one interested can draw his own conclu- sions. It is said, by those acquainted with the cultivation of the cane, that that business cannot be carried on profitably on less than one hundred acres in crop ; and tliat attempts on a small scale will be certain to fail, with a great loss of time and labor. How far this may be applicable to corn remains to be seen. Some comparison between the cultivation of cane and that of com may perhaps be interesting. The cane lands in Louisiana are redeemed to agriculture by strong embankments along the river, and by numerous ditches, which extend back into the swamp to a considerable distance beyond the line of cultivation. The ground is still further divided, by smaller ditches, into lots of from one to two acres in extent. It is ex- tremely rich and productive, but the expense of draining and keeping up the embankments must be considerable ; this forms the first difference to be noted in the culture of the two plants under consideration. The best season for planting cane in Louisiana is in the fall, which is also the time of harvest, when labor is the most valuable, and the greatest exertions are required to secure the crop before it is destroyed by frost. But the most striking difference will be found in the cost of seed, and in the labor of planting. The cane is propagated by layers ; these are partly furnished from -the tops of the plants, when cut for grinding, but are principally ratoons. Of the latter, it requires the produce of one acre to plant three. The grain from one acre of com will be sufficient for planting forty acres f therefore, the difference m the expense for seed will be as one to thirteen. In planting cane, furrows are made with the plough from two and a half to three feet apart ; in these the layers are placed, in a double row, and the earth drawn over them, with hoes, to the depth of three or four inches. In the spring, before tlie plants are up, this cov- ering is partly scraped oft', so as to leave them buried from one to two inches. From this account, it is evident that no more manual labor will be required to drill fifty acres in corn, than to plant one acre in cane. The labor of cultivating the latter plant during its growth is also greater, but this may be balanced by the extra work required to take off tiie embryo ears from the corn. When cultivated in the mode recommended, the stalk of com is soft, remarkably heavy, and full of juice from bottom to top. The amount of power re- quired for grinding them must be much less than is necessary for cane, or, what is the same thing, an equal jwwer will do it with greater rapidity. The average yield of cane, in Louisiana, is one thousand poimds of sugar and forty-five gallons of molasses per acre. From the above compara- tive statement, it would appear that one-half this Improvements in Agriculture and the Arts. 43 amount of crop from corn would be equally, if not more, profitable. I will only add, in conclusion, that whether or not the sugar from the cornstalk may soon be- come an article of profitable export, its manufac- ture in the simplest form will enable every family to supply themselves with this article for common use, now become so much a necessary of life, and thus save a considerable bill of expense yearly paid for foreign sugars. Extract from Annales de la Sociefi PolytecJinique Practiqne, No. 22, for October, 1839.* .Sugar of Cor\. — There is no plant of greater general interest or utility than Indian corn. It can serve, under a great variety of different forms for the nourishment of man and the domestic an- imals, and, above all, the application of industri- ous science. In reference to its saccharine qualities, maize lias not been sufficiently appreciated. Travelers report that under the tropics the stalk of this plant is so very saccharine that the Indians suck it, as in other places they do the sugai- cane. M. Pallas, who has made a great many researches on this application of maize, lias arrived at a remark- able result : he has fomid by many experiments, both in France and more recently in Africa, that this vegetable, by a simple modification applied to its culture, is able to furnish a much more con- siderable quantity of sugar than by the ordinary method. This method consists in detaching from the plant, immediately after the foundation of the ovaries, (after the plant has tasseled,) the young ear, and to leave it to develope itself, thus deprived of its fruit. Arrived at maturity, the stalk of Indian com contains crystahzable su- gar, in quantity very often double that obtained when the plant is left to mature with the grain. In fact, by the ordinary mode of culture, the grain is nourished at the expense of the sugar in the stalk, as it absorbs a great quantity of this immediate prmciple, which, by the process of nu- trition, is converted into starch. On the other hand, if the young ears are immediately destroy- ed, the sugar intended to nourish them remains in them, where it accumulates, and the maize plant is thus converted into a true sugar cane, while the fibrous part can be manufactured into paper. The quantity of sugar is so very great in the stalk of the maize, deprived of the car, that the pith of this vegetable retains a sensible flavor of sugar, even after it has been dried, as is easily proved by examining the specimens deposited by M. Pallas in the bureau of the Academy of Sci- ence. These results are so important as to merit experiments on a grander scale, which may obtain thus for France a source of new industry in the manufacture of sugar. No. 4. Dear Sir : Your favor is duly received. You * Tfanilated at the Palent OSce, aad highly confirma- tory of Mr. Webb's essay. H. L ELLSWORTH. request to know the best method of crystalizing corn sirup, and I know of no more ready method to aiFord the information required than to detail the entire mode which should be pursued for its manufacture : 1st. To cut the cane as ripe as possible, but be- fore any acetic acid is formed ; litmus paper, touched to the fresh-cut cane, will turn red if acid. 2d. Express the juice without loss of time, as every moment after cutting will deteriorate its quality. 3d. A small quantity of clear lime water (say one quart to a hundred gallons of juice) should be added the moment it is expressed, unless the juice shows acidity wnth litmus paper ; in that case, no lime should be used, but a solution of sal soda, or soda ash, should be added, mitil it is pre- cisely neutral. 4th. When the juice is neutral free from ex- cess of acid or alkah) it should be evaporated in such an apparatus as would finish its charge in 30 minutes ; if the boiling power is too small, good crystallization cannot possibly be obtained. The whole time occupied from the cutting of the cane to finisliing its boiling should not exceed one liour. 5th. To know when the boiling is finished, place a thermometer in the kettle, and continue to evaporate until it stands at 230° Farenheit. — If, when placed to run off after cooling, it should be found too freely boiled, the next time boil to 240°, or, if too light to run off, to 238°, and so on. 6th. The kettle or boiler should be so arranged that the moment it is done its charge should be thrown into a cooler, capable of holding a num. ber of charges. The first charge should be left in the cooler, with stLrring, until the second charge is tlu'own in ; then with an oar scrape the crys- tals found on the side and bottom of the cooler loose, and gently stir the whole mass together, (the less stiiTed the better,) so continue, at the letting in of each charge, to stir gently ; and when all is in the cooler, let the whole stand un- til it cools down to 175° ; then fill out into sugar moulds of a capacity not less than 14 gallons. — When cooled in the mould sufficient, (say four- teen hours,) pull the plug out of the bottom of the [ mould, and insert a sharp point, nearly as large aa i the hole, some six inches ; withdraw the point, 1 and stand the mould on a pot to drip. 7th. If the sugar is intended to be brown, leav- ] ing it standing on the spot for a sufficient length j of time, in a temperature of 80°, will run off its 1 molasses, and leave it in a merchantable shape ; ; it will probably require twenty days. It can then I be throv/n out of the moulds, and will be fit for j use. When moulds cannot be obtained, conical I vessels of wood or metal, with a hole at the apex, I will answer equally well. The above description will be sufficient for any operator, if strictly followed ; but should any of yoiu' friends wish to make the experiment on a large scale, or to produce white instead of brown sugar at a single operation, they had better see me personally before commencing, as the kind of 44 Improvements in Agriculture and the Arts. kettle, and m?.ny other minor particulars, wUl be important. The above description, however, is fully sufficient for the use of the farmer. If the juice of cornstalks be manufactured with the ra- pidity named in the former part of this letter, no clarification will be necessary, and scum, which may rise during the boilbig, can be taken off with a skimmer ; but in the large loay both clarifica- tion and filtration would be requisite, as in large operations every part of the kettle cannot be got at to skim. Since I last saw you, I have made some experiments on the cornstalk ; and if your statements are correct as to the quantity of juice which can be obtained from the acre, then there can be no doubt of its entire superiority over the sugar cane. I fear, however, that the enthusiasm of those who made the experiments you spoke of, lias led them into errors. It is true that the juice of the cornstalk, grown with a view to sugar making, will yield a juice at 10° Beaume. I have arrangements to try the experiments fully in the coming summer, and when done will com- municate the result. I remain, sir, yours, respectfully, J. J. MAPES. Hon. H. L. Ellsworth. No. 5. Northampton, (Mass.) October 1, 1842. Dear Sir : Some time ago I intimated to you that I shoidd furnish you with an account of the cultivation of broomcorn in this region. Such an account I now enclose. Respectfully, I am Your obedient servant, WILLIAM ALLEN. Hon. H. L. Ellsworth, Commissioner of Patents, broomcorn. Of the genus sorghum (broom gr;iss) tliere arc four or five species. Sorghum sacc/niratum is the broomcorn, abimdantly cultivated in tliis country, both for the seed and for its large panicles, which are made into the brooms. The whole plant is saccharine. Attempts have been made in France to extract sugar from it, but with little success. Tlie other species arc the foUowuig : Sorghum dora, (or holcus dora,) common Indian millet, a native of the East Indies, but cultivated in the south of Europe, s. hicolor, or two-colored Indian millet, s. caffrorum, caffies Indian millet, and s. nigrum, coal-black Indian millet. Of the sorghum saccharatum, (or holcus sac- churatus,) broomcorn, there are several varieties raised in Hampsliire county, Massachusetts, in the valley of the Connecticut river, principally in the broad meadows of Northampton, Hadley, and Hatfield. The pine tree kind is regarded as the poorest kind, or the least advantageous for culti- vation ; yet, as it is the earliest, (being three weeks earlier than the large kind,) in a short season, when its seeds will ripen, while the seeds of the other kinds fail to ripen, this may prove the most profitable crop. The North river crop is ordinarily the best crop ; it is ten days earlier than the large kind, cind yields about 720 pounds of the brush per acre — the brush meaning the dried panicles, cleaned of the seed, with eight or twelve inches of the stalk. The New Jersey, or large kind, yields a thousand or eleven hundred pounds of brush per acre. The stalks and seed are large. In good seasons, this is the most profitable crop. But in the present season, (1842,) owing to an early frost, (about September 23,) much of the seed of this kind wiU fail to ripen. There is also the Shirley or black brush. Soil rich, alluvial lands are best adapted for the broomcorn, more especi- ally if warmly situated, protected by liills, ap.d well manured. Method of Planting. — The broomcorn is plant- ed in rows, about 2^ or 3 feet apart, so that a horse may pass between them with a plough, or cultivator, or harrow. The hills in each row are from 18 inches to 2 feet apart, or farther, accord- ing to the quality of the soil. The quantity of seed to be planted is estimated very differently by different farmers — some say that half a peck is enough per acre, while others plant half a bushel, and some a bushel, in order to make it sure that the land shall be well stocked. The rule with some is to cast a tea spoonful, or 30 or 40 seeds, in a liill ; the mantire at the time of planting should be put into the liill, and old manure or compost is preferred, as being most free from worms. Cultivation — The broomcorn should be ploughed and hoed three times — the last time when about three feet high, though some hoe it when it is six feet higli, and when they are concealed by it as they are toiling in the field. The number of stalks in a hill should be from seven to ten. If there are only five or six stalks, they will be larger and coarser ; if there are about eight, the brush will be finer and more valuable. In the first hoeing, the supernmnerary stalks should be pulled up. Harvesting. — As the frost kills the seed, the broomcorn is harvested at the commencement of the first frost. The long stalks are bent down at two or two and a half feet from the gromid ; and by laying those of two rows across each other obUquely, a kind of table is made by every two rows, with a passage between each table, for the convenience of harvesting. After drying for a few days, the brush is cut, leaving of the stalks from six to twelve niches. The longer it is cut, of course, the more it will weigh ; and, if tlie piu-- chaser does not object, the benefit will accrue to the farmer. However, the dry stalk weighs but httle ; if its weight is excessive, tlie purchaser sometimes requires a deduction from the weight. As it is cut, it is spread on the tables, still farther to drj'. As it is carried into the barn, some bind it in sheaves ; and this is a great convenience for the further operation of extracting the seed. Others throw the brush into the cart or wagon, mibound. Scraping. — The process of extracting the seed is called " scraping the brush." Two iron hori. zontal scrapers are prejjared — one moveable, to be elevated a little, so that a handful of brusli may be introduced between them. The upper scraper is then pressed down with one hand, and the brush drawn through with the other, the seed be- ing scraped off". This is the old metliod. ^ new- ly invented scraper is superseding the old one. It is an upright instrument, of elastic wood or steel, inserted in a bench of a convenient height for the operator. Improvements in AgricuUure and the Arts. is The form is as follows : o is a piece of wood or steel, im- moveable ; b and c are pieces which are elastic, moveable to the right and left at the top, but fastened to the central piece below. The de- gree of elasticity may be regulated by wedges in the planks d and / — wedges in the hole through which the pieces pass. 10?: 'f A quantity of brush is taken in the hand, and brought down upon the top of this instrument. — As it is forced down, and drawn towards the body, it separates the clastic sticks from the central piece, but their elasticity presses sufficiently on the brush, so that the seed is scraped off. The advantage of this scraper is, that both hands may be applied to the brush, instead of on- ly one hand, as in the other kind, and the elas- tic power of nature is substituted for the pressure of one of the hands. The instrument also seems to double the scraping surface. The instrument was invented at Hartford. I have been told it has not been patented. The following plan may therefore be useful. — The operator stands at the end A. The lower plank may rest on the barn floor, or have short legs. The upper oblique has a hole, through which the scraper passes, and down which the seed may fall. Each side of the instrument, a wedge may be inserted, to regulate its elasticity, or by some other contrivance this object may be secured. In scraping, the panicles must first be laid evenly together, and the stalks taken in the hand. If this is not done in the field, and bun- dies not formed, then must it be done with con- siderable labor at the time of scraping in the bam. Product. — A common crop is 700 to 800 pounds per acre. There have been raised 1,000 and 1,100 pounds per acre, with 80 to 100 bush- els of seed. The large kind grows eleven feet high. Value of the crop. — About the year 1836 or 1837, the brush sold for 12^ cents a pound ; and one farmer in Northampton sold liis crop standing, unharvested, at one hundred dollars per acre. — Since then, the price has been decreasing. This year it has been foiu- and five cents. At six cents, the farmer, for 800 pounds, gets $48 an acre, be- sides 60 or 70 bushels of seed, worth a third of dollar a bushel — so that he receives $70 or up- wards from an acre. Good farmers regard the seed alone as equal to a crop of oats from the same land. Some land owners have rented their land for broom com, at $25 per acre, they putting on five or six loads of manure. One farmer, who a few years ago, cultivated 50 acres in broom corn, must have had an almost uncquaUed income for a New England farmer. Quantity. — In Northampton, probably 200 acres are raised ; in Hatfield, 300 ; in Hadley, 400 ; in other towns, Whateley, Deerfield, Green- field, Easthampton, Southampton, South Hadley, Springfield, and Longmeadow, perhaps 300 or 400 acres more ; in all, in the valley of the Connecti- cut, 1,200 or 1,300 acres; the product, in brush and seed, worth $1,000,000. Manufacture of brooms. — Individuals tie up brooms with wire or twine. The expense is great- er for mateiials and labor when wire is used. The turned broom handles cost, as delivered, only one dollar a hundred — one cent each. The expense of other materials and labor in making a broom is 6 cents, or on the whole about seven cents. In a good broom, a pound and a half of brush is employed, which at the present price of 5 cents, would be 7^ cents, so that a broom made with wire costs now about 14^ cents. A manu- facturer recently went to Boston, and could get an offer of only 1 2 cents, or 12 dollars per hundred, for his brooms ; at which rate he could not afford to sell them, and chose to retain them. Brooms are made with brush weighing | of a pound, 1 pound, 1^ poimd, and 1^ poimd. The brush is whitened by the manufacturer. It is placed in a large tight box, and bleached by the fmnes of sul- phur ; but this process is said to weaken the brush. Who would think of whitening broom brush, for beauty? Thus it is that fashion descends into the vale of life, and to the humblest of concerns. Why should not the housemaid wield a beautiful broom, with wliite brush and variously interlaced wire, and polished and variously colored handle ? Miscellaneous. — A few remarks will be added, some of which were omitted in their proper pla- ces. If the stalks are cut before the seed is ripe, they are better, stronger, more durable, than if cut after the seed is ripe. In this case, the farmer would lose the value of the seed. He of course will not submit to this loss, unless it is made up to him by the increased price of the brush. The seed is used for feeding horses, cattle, and swine. It is ground and mixed with Indian meal, and is regarded as excellent food — it weighs forty pounds a bushel. Mr. Shipmanof Hadley, is the greatest manu- factiurer of brooms in the valley of the Connecti- cut. If he employs, on an average, ten hands, and each hand makes 25 brooms per day, the number made in a year would be 78,000. It is said he has made 100,000. The brush, when it is put in tlie barn, should be placed on a scaffold, so as to be exposed to a circulation of the air, that it may dry, and not mould. For all the purposes of use, a broom made with twine is equal to one made with wire ; and a man can make several more of them in a day. Mr. Shipman uses 300 or 400 pounds of large twine, at 20 to 30 cents a poimd, and 2000 pounds of small twine, at 31 cents. Perhaps he manu- factures only an eighth part of the brooms manu. factured in Hadley. 46 improvements in Agriculture and the Arts. At the price of 20 cents, the price of brooms a few years ago, the broom manufacture of Hadley would thus amount to $160,000. It is probable that the extended cultivation of the broomcorn will redtxce the profits on this product to the average profits of good farming. No. 6. Cleveland, (0.,) December 7, 1842. Dear Sir : The manufacture of pot and pearl ashes is a very important item in tlic clearing of land in a new timbered country, and is of great importance to the new settler, being obtained pre- vious to getting a crop from his land. From an. experience in the manufacture of ashes for twenty years in the northern part of Ohio, I think the manufacture of pearl ashes is best adapted to a new country. In most cases, the best economy for the farmer is to leach and boil his lye into salts, and sell them to the manufactu- rer in the form of black salts, which is simply by scttinor up leaches, putting in a loose bottom rais- ed one or one and a half inches each above the tight bottom, on this a layer of straw, fill the leach with ashes, and use hot water. Boil the lye in kettles or pans until it crystallizes dry. These black salts find a ready market with the manu- facturer of pearl ashes. House ashes are much preferable for manufac- ture of pearl ashes. In manufacturing pot ashes, lime should be used freely in tlie bottom of the leach ; and it is M'cll to put lime in the water, and boiled, to wet down the ashes in the leach. The lye is boiled in kettles, and melted in pot ash ket- tles. Cleveland affords quite an extensive market for pearl ashes and scorched salts. The pearl ashes ry superior by those who have used them. Should you deem any further information on the subject of manufacturing of importance to western settlers, please write such questions as you wish answered. Yours, very respectfully, W. A. OTIS. H. L. Ellsworth. No. 7. P^oRT Wayne, December 31, 1842. Sir : I received your letter the last mail, re- questing me to give you some information on the production of ashes, which I will according to the best of my judgement, and my experience the past season has been considerable. Your first question is. How many bushels of ashes can be gathered from one acre of good tim- ber ? Answer. From seventy.Jive to one hundred and fifty ; and every four hundred bushels of ashes caref;ully saved will produce one ton of pot ash or pearl ash. A very safe calculation is^^re hundred pounds of pot or pearl ash to one acre of good timber, that at the present time is worth twenty-five dollars. I believe that the ashes off the first crop of good timber land is the most profitable one, as times are at present. A man would want about ,^100 worth of pot ash kettles to begin with, which would be the principal expense, except his own labor. He could have a very quick return ; ashes can be turned into pot ash in thirty-six hours. Respectfully yours, H. WORK. Hon. H. L. Ellsworth. N. B. I wish you would send me the most ap- proved plan for making lard oil as early as possi- ble, and any information that I can give you at any time, I will do it with pleasure. H. W. No. 8. Kensington, Philadelphia, January 8, 1843. Sir : In answer to your enquiries upon the sub- ject of converting lard into oil, and also into con- crete forms for the manufacture of candles, I hasten to say, that, having been and still continu- ing very much engaged in chemical processes upon lard, I am not able, in the short time I can devote to the subject of your letter, to give you the ample information which is desirable, and which, if more at leisure, I could readily furnish. I however write off, curreute calamo, the result of some of my experiments in this branch of inqui- ry, which perhaps may be serviceable. The arti- cle of lard offered for sale in the market for do- mestic use, and now about to be so much in de- mand as material for the manufacture of lard oil and candles, is prepared from the adipose matter of the omentum and mesentery of the hog, by freeing it with the hand from the membraneous substance connected with it, washing with water imtil colorless, and melting with moderate heat, conlinued until the dissipation of all moisture, which i'act is known by tlie transparency of the melted matter, and the absence of crepiiacula, when small j)ortions are tlirown on burning coals. The chief source of this article is the west, from whence it is brought in kegs of from 40 to 80 pounds each ; when fine, it is perfectly white in appearance, and rather inodorous, nearly taste, less, and, at moderate temperature, of a soft con- sistence, insoluble in water, and but partially so in alcohol. When exposed to the air, it becomes rancid by the absorption of oxygen ; this rancidi- ty, engendering a liability to injurious reaction, renders it unfit, in that state, to be used in phar- macy as an ingredient of cerates and ointments, of which it forms the principal part. For this purpose, therefore, it should be kept in close ves. sels free from contact of air. Lard as well as nearly all other fixed oils and fats are composed of tlu*ee proximate principles — I two solid^ called stearin (from or'cap, tallow) I and margarin, (from /^apyapirj/j a pearl,) and one 1 liquid, of wliich there arc two varieties, called olein (from cKaiov, oil.) Stearin characterizes, for the most part, animal fats. Margarin, vegetable and olein, is almost universally present in both. The two first are es- sentially cbfferent from each other. Margarin is distinguished by its greater fusibiUty, its being more soluble in cold ethers, and the necessity of Improvements in Agriculture and the Arts. 47 evaporation to procure it from such solution, wliile the stearin drops spontaneously during refrigera- tion. Berzelius thinks these prmciples not identical in different oils, as their points of congelation and liquefaction vary according to the substance from which they are derived. Pelouze and Boudet, however, attribute the variable fusibility of the margarin and stearin of fats 'to the existence of definite combinations of margarin and stearin, respectively, with olein ; and think that each of these principles, in a state of purity, is probably the same, from whatever soui'ce obtained ; and to prove which they assert having found the same margarin in palm oil as in liuman fat. But in oils, and particularly the vegetable, their investi- gations evinced the presence of two oleins, dis- tinctive in their characters ; one more soluble in different menstrua tlian the other, and with a less proportion of hydrogen, besides other properties inherent in the one not possessed by the other, more than the mention of which would occupy too much space and time. The ultimate principles of fixed oils are car- bon, hydrogen, and oxygen ; the hydrogen being in much larger proportions than is necessary to form water. To this predominance of hydrogen is attributed the readiness with which they burn with flame ; that property procuring for them all their usefidness as means of illumination or arti- ficial light. Stearin, the first named of the constituents of oil and fatty matters, is a concrete white sub- stance, insipid and without smell, fusible at 110° Farenheit, insoluble in water and but partially so in alcohol. Margarin, present in lard and most otiicr fats, and fonning by far the greater jjortion of olive oil, is more fusible than stearin, and, as its name indicates, of a pearly appearance, possessing also other properties different from stearin, mention of which has been made above. Olein, the oily principle formerly called elain, when pure is quite colorless, and in some degree has the appearance of vegetable oil, liquid at 60° and congealing at 32° Farenheit, and, though not becoming rancid by exposure, acquires viscidity. The relative proportions of all these three principals are differ, ent in different fats. Nearly all kinds of fat, mader proper circum- stances, are capable of combination with alkali ; by which union the principles thereof arc clianged. By this reaction, they imdcrgo saponification, and are transmuted, not by the absorption of any for- eign substance, but by the union of the elements of a small portion of water into three peculiar acids, stearic, margaric, and oleic, which unite with the saUfiable base and into a peculiar sweet principle glycerin, (from yXvKv;, sweet,) which, in remaining behind, is not saponified. Of this sweet principle, there are formed about three dur- ing the saponification of every one hundred parts of lard or tallow. Hog's lard, in its natural state, Chevreul says, has not the property of combining with alkalis, but acquires it by experiencing some change in the proportion of its elements. Tliis change being induced by the action of the alkali, it follows that the bodies of the new formation must have a de- cided affinity for that species of body which has determined it. These acids, generated durijig sa- ponification by the action of the alkali, called adipose or saponic acids, are, when solid, in ap- pearance like wax, or spermaceti ; when liquid, they appear as their oils, mostly fusible at tempe- ratures below 212° Farenheit. The oleic, being generally mixed with that por- tion of margaric, which is hquid at the time and temperature of its preparation, is used sometimes as lamp oil, but mostly for tlic manufacture of soaps, while the remaining small portion of mar- garic, being of a consistence sufficient to retain it with the stearic, is allowed to remain with that body, which, when used for candles, experiences no great disadvantage by its presence. Stearic, the most important, and by far the most charac- teristic product of the saponification of lard, tal- low, and other not easily fusible fats, is the one of which, at your request, I am to speak in detail — an article, the use of which for making candles bids fair to be in this country most extensive. The consequence which tliis branch of manufacture is about to assmne, is no greater than its merits should obtain for it. Independent of all other advantages, the great reduction which it will oc- casion in the price of an article of such general and necessary use in domestic economy is alone sufficient to procure the attention which the sub- ject will and docs receive. Inferior in no degree to sperm, both as regards qualit}- and appearance, the stearin candles have the advantage of greater cheapness, as they can be made, even by Ihe English mode, hereafter given, at a cost of at least 20 per cent, less than sperm. Tiie increas- ing importance of this subject induced my atten- tion to it some eight or ten months previous ; since which period my vshole time lias been de- voted to its examination. The result of my in- vestigation is a process entirely diftercnt from all others, to be executed with so much facility, and with so little cost of time, money, and labor, that I expect to make by it candles, in appearance and quality, as perfect and good, if not better, than sperm, and whicli, when retailed, even at as low a price as 18| cenfs per pound, will afford a re- munerating profit ^o the manufactm'crs, and a profitable commisaon to the vender. I mention this price in consideration of the present rates of lard, the supply of which, owing to the unexpect- ed requisition ibr/liis purpose, is at present totally inadequate. Wien, however, this is removed by the increased supply which the producers will see it is then ii/terest to fimiish, the price of the material will b^ in a icw years much lower — this, and the improyements which by that time I shall have made in /hy mode, will, I expect, enable me to manufacture candles at a price so reduced as to entitle thep, when these superior properties arc considered, i> the substitution for the much used but unpleasa/it mould and dipped candles. I would yillingly communicate fully the man- ner of condticting the process, but, having been at a great ,Q vessel in, which the boiling is effected should be of considerable ca. pacity, holding say from ten to a hundred barrels. The length of time required for boiling will vaxj much, according to the quality of the lard ; that which is fresh may not require to be boiled for more than four or five hours, Avhilst that which has been long kept may require twelve hours ; it is of great importance to the perfecting of the separation of the stearine and elaine, that the boiling should be continued for a considerable period, as above indicated. My most important improvfment in the witliin described process consists in the employment of alcohol, which I mix with the lard in the kettle, or boiler, at the commencement of the operation. When the lard lias become sufficiently fluid, I gradually pour, and stir, into it, about one gallon of alcohol, to every eighty gallons of lard, taking care to incorporate the two as intimately as pos- sible ; and this has the effect of causing a very perfect separation of the stearine and elaine from each other by the spontaneous granulation of the former, which takes place when tlie boiled lard is allowed to cool in a state of rest. I sometimes combine camphor with the alco hoi, dissolving about one-fourth of a poimd in each gallon of alcohol wiiich not only gives an agreeable odor to the products but appears to co- operate with the alcohol to effect the object in view ; the camphor, however, is not an essential ingredient, and may be omitted. Spirit of lower proof than alcohol may be used, but not with equal benefit. After the boilmg of the lard, with the alcohol, has been continued for a sufficient length of time, the fire is withdrawn, or the supply of steam cut off, and the mass is allowed to cool sufficiently to admit of its being laded, or drawn off, into hogs heads, or other suitable coolers, where it is to be left at perfect rest until it has cooled down, and acquired the orduiary temperature of the atmos. phere ; as the cooUng proceeds, the granulation consequent upon the separation of the stearine and elame will take place and become perfect. The material is then to be put into bags, and pressed moderately, under a press of any suitable kind, wliich will cause the elaine to flow out in a great state of purity, there not being contained within it any appreciable portion of the stearine ; this pressure is to be continued until the stearine is as dry as it can be made in this way. The masses of the solid material thus obtained are to be remelted, and in this state to be poured into boxes, or pans, of a capacity of ten or twelve gallons, and allowed to form lumps, which I de. nominate blocks ; these when removed from the vessels, arc piled, or stacked, up for a week or ten days, more or less, the room containing it should be at a temperature of nearly eighty, which will cause a sweating, or oozLng, from the blocks, and they will unprove in quahty ; the blocks are then to be rolled in clothes, or put into bags and these placed between plates and submitted to very heavy pressure by means of a hydrauUc press. After this pressure it is brought again into the form of blocks, and these are to be cut up by means of revolving, or other knives, or cutters. The pieces thus obtained are to be put into bags, and sub. jected to the action of hot water, or steam, in a press until it becomes hard enough to be manu- 52 Improvements in Agriculture and the Arts. factured into candles, or put up for other purposes to which it may be desired to apply it. The manner of subjecting it to the action of heated water, or of steam, is to place the bags containing the stearine in a box, or chest, into which heated water, or steam, maybe introduced, but not to such extent as to fuse the stearine. A j follower is then to be forced against the bags i contained in the box or chest, and moderate pres- sure made upon them ; the material will now be found to have acquired all the required hardness, and to possess a -wax-like consistence, such as| would generally cause it to be mistaken for wax. j I am aware that alcohol has been used for the ' purpose of separating elaine and stearine from : each other in analytical cliemistry ; but the lard, or other fatty matter consisting of these sub. i stances, has, in this case, been dissolved in the j heated alcohol, and the whole has been suffered to cool together ; this process would be altogether inapplicable to manufacturing purposes, as the cost would exceed the value of the product. In my manufacturing process, instead of dissolving the lard in alcohol, I add a small proportionate quantity of the latter to the former, the whole of which is driven off at an earlj' period of the ebul- lition, but by its presence, or catal}i;ically, dis- poses the elaine or stearine,' to separate from each other, which they do, after long boiling and subsequent cooling. I do not, therefore, claim the use of alcohol in separating elaine and stear- ine from each other, by dissolving the fatty mat- ter in heated alcohol, and by subsequently cool- ing the solution ; but what I do claim as my in- vention, and wisii to secure by letters patent, is the within described method of effectively pro- moting their separation or by incorporating alco- hol, or highly rectified spirits, with the lard in small proportionate quantities, say one gallon, more or less, of such alcohol, or spirit, to eighty gallons of lard, and then boiling tlie mixture for Beveral hours, by which boiUng, the whole of the alcohol will be driven off, but will have left the elaine and stearine with a disposition to sepa- rate from each other, on subsequent cooling, as herein indicated and made known. JOHN H. SMITH. Witness: T. H. Patterson, H. S. Fitch. No. 12. Erie, (Pennsvlvania,) January IJ, 1843. Dear Sir : Your favor of the 1st ultimo, making inquiries in relation to the culture, use, and comparative value of rape seed in this section of coimtry, came to hand by due course of mail. From the best information I have been able to obtain, I reply to your interrogatories, as follows : 1st. Rape seed is raised in this section. 2d. Rich ground will produce from 25 to 40 bushels per acre. 3d. Ten quarts of oil may be obtained from a bushel of seed. 4th. Oil cake is worth per bushel about the same as oats. 5th. The oil is used in burning, and in the manufacture of woolen oil cloth, »fcc, and is worth from seventy-five cents to one dollar per gallon. 6th. The seed should be sown about the 25th September, three pints to the acre. The ground should be w^ell cultivated, and such as does not heave up ; harvest in June following. It should be cut with the sickle when the stock is yellow, before it becomes dead ripe, to prevent a waste of seed. Let it lie in swatiie about eight days in dry wcatlicr, until the seed becomes black and shells easily. It is then put into a wagon, with a cloth in it, to prevent a waste of the seed. Take it to a barn witli a_ tight floor, and thresh the seed ; to be spread about four inches thick, and turned every day for eight days, to prevent mould- ing. Then it is ready for the manufacture of oil. After the oil is pi-essed, it must be clarified by chemical process, the same as other oil. 7th. It will not answer for painting. 8th. The stem is of no use, except for manure. 9 th. Cake answers well for hogs, but better for sheep. Very respectfully, your obedient sei-vant, A. SCOTT, P. M. Hon. Henrv L. Ellsworth, Commissioner of Patents, Washington, D. C. No. 13. Mode of fencing and ditching, <^-c. A good embankment, three feet high, Avith a ditch, furnishing a drain for surplus water, is made with astonishing rapidity. The embank- ment affords a foundation lor a short post to hold two or three rails, which is found sufficient either to enclose or exclude cattle. The machine to make the embankment need not cost over two dollars, including labor and materials. It may be constructed by any farmer with the help of an axe and auger. It seems almost incredible that two planks 12 feet long, united at an angle of 18 or 2U degrees, can throw up dirt with such fa- cility. The wedge and inclined plane seem united, and the only difficulty is, to ascertain at what angle dirt will slide. The angle above mentioned will answer in most soils. If the angle should prove too obtuse, the brace in the rear miglit be so formed as to graduate tiic scraper as desii-ed. If the planks are extended in length, the bight of the embankment may be increased, or the dirt thrown further from the furrow, if the object is to turnpike the soil or to grade it for rails ; and it appears that the machine will greatly lessen the expense of makmg roads on lands where large roots form no obstacle to the common plough, which precedes this scraper. To expedite turning at the end of the fmTow, a bent lever, (a crooked joint will answer,) affixed about the cen- tre, will raise the machine so as to turn on a point, and much friction may be saved by tack- ing to the land side a few inches of plank at the front and rear, or by excavating the land side in the middle, if made from a sohd stick. A plough and scraper might be combined, but the same strength in two teams will be more de- sirable. When land is dear, the objection might arise that too much is wasted. 'I'his, however, wiU have no weight in the West, where land is plenty. Indeed, some in Europe have urged the benefit of sloping embankments, as they increase the surface for grazing, which is an admitted fact, the sides of a hill being greater than its base. An excavation is made on l»th sides of the embank. tmprovements in Agriculture and the Arts. 55 ment. The ditch is eighteen inches only, and the embankment eighteen inches above the common surface, making an elevation from the bottom of the ditch, perpendicularly, of three feet, and giv- ing a slope at 40 degrees, of about four feet — the slope, in some soils, must not be over 30 degrees, which will depend upon the soil. Less than this would expose the bank to crumble by the frost, and more would make the acclivity so small as to permit cattle to ascend it. Nor is the improve- ment in making the embankment alone worthy of special notice. The posts are bored with despatch by one or more augers propelled by hand or horse, power. The augers arc two and a half inches, and these, by two apertures, make a mortise of five by two and a half; but the second hole is bored so as to cut the circumference of the first, to lessen the chip between the two, which is easily removed by a chisel or hatchet. The rails are sharpened by a circular saw, by cutting one side so that when two rails are brought together, they just fit the mortise. The lap of the rails is about six inclies, and makes a neat appearance ; addi- tional strength is given by pinning the upper rail. If rails are cut twelve feet three inches, four 1 section, 640 acres, 4 miles, cost ,'i^250 00, which is per acre. h do. 320 do. 3 do. do. 187 50, do. ■} do. 160 do. 2 do. do. 125 00, do. i do. 80 do. li do. do. 93 75, do. 1-lG do. 40 do. 1 do. do. 62 50, do. 1-32 do. 20 do. 1 do. do. 46 87, do. 1-64 do. 10 do. i do. do. 35 25, do. hundred and forty panels will make a mile offence. This will determine the number of posts which are inserted in a furrow when the fence is to be made six inches deep, before the ditch is com- menced ; this will save all excavation for posts by hand ; and, when the embankment is formed, the posts will be two feet in the ground. If the team can travel twelve miles per day, this will give six passages on each side of the embankment, and completes one mile in extent in a day. I will give an estimate of fencing different quantities' of land. The size and shape of the tract materially effects the cost per acre. 2 teams, J|2 50 each, one day,- (one with plough and one with scraper).. $5 00 1,320 rails sharpened and delivered, at Mr. Robinson's estimate, two cents 26 40 440 posts, bored complete, three cents 13 60 Setting posts and puttmg in rails five days 5 00 Cost per mile ..50 00 Add for contingencies twenty-five per cent.l2 50 62 50 $0 39 58i 78 1 17 1 56 2 39 3 12i When roads or unoccupied land do not adjoin, the expenses will be reduced, since adjoining pro- prietors are bound to pay if they improve one- half the value of the fence. This estimate is made from common prairie land, which is not more tlian three miles from timber, and where the timber is good for splitting, and not over ten dollars per acre, and where the labor of mauling rails does not exceed seventy- five cents per hundred. A sketch of the ditch, fence, jails, scraper, and augers, is given. Augers, with sliding cutters, are decidedly preferable. Sec plate I, figures 1 to 9. A very simple machine for bormg posts may be seen by referring to figm-e 13, plate II. It may be constructed by an ordinary laborer. Be- tween the uprights the post to be bored is fas- tened. The auger is changed by raising the piece of scantling, which holds down the same, and rims between two pieces of scantling fas- tened at one end by a liinge of leather or iron and at the other by a pin. Tlie holes are made to ac- 1 commodate the wishes of the fence-maker, as to the number and distance of the rails. A 2^ inch auger is recommended, as this witli two holes will make a mortise 5 by 2^ inches. Any ordi- nary auger \\'\\\ answer, if a crank is affixed to the same. The simpUcity and utility of this ma- chine will recommend itself. PLATE I. Fig. 1. Fence. Fig. 2. Rails sharpened. Fig. 3. Auger with cutters. Fig. 4. Holes bored. Fig. 5. Post, ditch and embankment. Figs. 6 and 7. Views of the scraper. Figs. 8 and 9. Views of the plough. Fig 10. Surface of teli ground. PLATE II. Fig. 10. Cheap wood mill. Fig. 11. End view of iron Fig. 12. Front view of iron mill. Fig. 13. Post-boring machine. PLATE 1. Fig. 1. =1 ^ Kg-rs' X ::^. Improvements in Agriculture and the Arts. Fis. 6. Fig. 3 ^QD- flll\UII'V"'"""""""'""' Fig. 7 Fig. 5 Fig. 4. Fig. 8. PLATE II. Fis. 10. Improvements in Agriculture and the Arts. 5S Fig. 12. Fig. 13. No. 14. Lafayette, Tippecanoe Co., (Indiana,) January 20, 1843. Dear Sir : Thejplan proposed in several of your communications for ditching and fencing the Western prairies, I feel confident from experi- ment, will prove eminently successful. In tliis assertion I am sustained by the opinion of many distinguished farmers in tliis country, who have examined a " scraper" or " ditcher," modeled on the plan you recommend, and have also witiaessed its operations. A machine designed for similar purposes, but manufactured and worked at a much greater cost, has been extensively used during the past summer in the northern counties of this State, and its em- ployment, as far as I learn, has been attended with signal success. Fof ordinary purposes, your ditcher will be pre- ferable, costing as it does only two or three dollars, and requiring only a comparatively small outlay of labor. The cost of the machine above referred to, as used in the northern portion of this State, is several hundred dollars, and it is complicated in its structure. The free use of ditching machines on the prai- ries and in the construction of roads will add thousands of dollars yearly to the value of West- ern lands. Our farmers seem determined to as- certain the utility of these inventions by a thor- ough trial. With sentiments of respect yours truly, H. W. ELLSWORTH. Hon. Henry L. Eljusworth. No. 15. Plan of cheap cottages. After selecting a suitable spot of ground, as near the place of building as practicable, let a circle of ten feet or more be described. Let the loam be removed, and the clay dug up one foot thick, or, if clay is not found on the spot, let it be carted in to that depth. Any ordinary clay will answer. Tread this clay over with i cattle, and add some rftraw cut six or eight inches long. Af- ter the'elay is well tempered with working it with the cattle, the material is duly prepared for the making of brick. A mould is then formed of plank, of the size of the brick desired. In Eng- land, they are usually made 18 inches long 1 foot wide, and 9 inclies thick. I have found the more convenient size to be 1 foot long, 7 inches wide, and 5 inches thick. The mould should have a bottom. The clay is then placed in the moulds in the same manner that brick moulds are ordinarily fiUed. A wire or piece of iron hoop will answer very well for striking off the top. — One man will mould about as fast as another can carry away, two moulds being used by him. — The bricks are placed upon the level ground, where they are sufTered to dry two days, tiorning them up edgewise the second day, and then packed in a pile, protected from the rain, and left to dry 10 or 12 days, during which time the foundation of the building can be prepared. If a cellar is desi- red, this must be formed of stone or brick, one foot above the surface of the ground. For cheap buildings on the prairie, wood sills, 12 or 14 inch- es wide, may be laud on piles or stones. This will 56 Improvements in Agriculture and the Arts. form a good superstructure. Where lime and small stones abound, grout made of those mate, rials (lime and stones) will answer very well, In all cases, however, before commencing the walls for the first story, it is very desirable, as well in this case as in walls of brick, to lay a sin- gle course of slate ; this will intercept the damp- ness so often rising in the walls of brick houses. The wall is laid by placing the brick lengthwise, thus making the wall one foot thick. Ordinary clay, such as is used for clay mortar, will suffice, though a weak mortar of sand and lime, when these articles are cheap, is recommended as af- fording a more adhesive material for the plaster. The wall may safely be carried up one story, or two or three stories ; the division walls may be 7 inches, just the width of the brick. The door and window frames being inserted as the wall proceeds, the building is soon raised. The roof may be shingles or thatch. In either case, // should iirojccl over the sides of the house, and also over the ends, at least two feet, to guard the loall from vertical rains. The exterior wall is plastered with good lime mortar, and then with a second coat pebble-dashed. The inside is plas- tered without dashing. The floor may be laid with oak boards, slit, 5 or G inches wide, and laid down without jointing or planing, if they are rubbed over with a rough stone after the rooms are finished. Doors of a cheap and neat appear- ance may be made by taking two single boards of the length or width of the doors ; placing these vertically, they will fill the space. Put a wide batten on the bottom and a narrow one on the top, with strips on the side, and a strip in the middle. Tliis door will be a batten door, but pre- senting two long panels on one side and a smooth surface on the other. If a porch or verandah is wanted, it may be roofed with boards laid with light joints and covered with a thick paper dipped in tar, and then adding a good coat, after sprinkHng it with sand from a sand-box or otlier dish with small holes. Houses built in this way arc drj^, warm in win- ter, and cool in summer, and furnisii no retreat for vermin. Such houses can be made !^y common laborers, if a little carpenter's work is excepted, in a very short time, with a small outlay for ma- terials, exclusive of floors, windows, doors and roof. The question will naturally arise, Will the wall stand against the rain and frost ? I answer, they have stood well in Europe, and the Hon. Mr. Poinsett remarked to me that he had seen them in South America, after having been erected 300 years. Whoever has noticed the rapid absorp- tion of water by a brick that has been burned, will not wonder why brick walls arc damp. The burning makes the brick porous, while the un- burnt brick is less absorbent ; but it is not pro- posed to present the unbumt brick to the weather. Whoever has erected a builchng with merchant- able brick will at once perceive the large number of soft and yellow brick, partially burned, that it contains — brick that would soon yield to the mouldering influence of frost and storms. Such brick are, however, placed within, beyond the reach of rain, and always kept dry. A good cabin is made by a single room 20 feet square. A bet- ter one is 18 feet wide and 24 feet long, cutting off" 8 feet on one end for two small rooms, 98 by each. How easy could a settler erect such a cabin on the Western prairie, where clay is usually found about 15 inches below the surface, and where stone and lime are often both very cheap. The article of brick for chimneys is found to be quite an item of expense in wood-houses. In these mud houses no brick are needed, except for the top of the chimneys, the oven, and casing of the fire-place — though this last might be well dis- pensed with. A cement, to put around the chim- neys, or to fill any other crack, is easily made by a mixture of one part of sand, two of ashes, and three of clay. This soon hardens, and will re- sist the weather. A little lard or oil may be added, to make the composition still harder. Such a cottage will be as cheap as a log cabin, less expensive than pine buildings, and durable for centuries. I have tried the experiment in this city, by erecting a building 18 by 54 feel, two stories high, adopting the different sugges- tions now made. Althougii many doubted the success of the undertaking, all now admit it has been very successful, and presents a convenient and comfortable building, that appears well to public view, and offers a residence combining as many advantages as a stone, brick, or wood house presents. I will add what Loudon says in his most excellent work, the Encyclopaedia of Agri- culture, pp. 74 and 75 : " The great art in building an economical cot- tage is to employ the kind of materials and labor which are cheapest in the given locality. In al- most every part of the world- the cheapest arti- cle of which the walls can be made will be found to be the earth on which the cottage stands, and to make good walls from the earth is the principal part of the rustic or primitive builder. — Soils, with reference to building, may be divided into two classes : clays, loams, and all such soils as can neither be called gravels nor sands, and sands and gravels. The former, whether they are stiff or fi-ee, rich or poor, mixed with stones or free from stones, may be formed into walls in one of these modes, viz : in the pise manner, by lumps moulded in boxes, and by compressed blocks. Sandy and gravelly soils may always be made into excellent walls, by forming a frame of boards, leaving a space between the boards of tlie intended thickness of the wall, and filling this with gravel mixed with lime mortar, or, if this cannot be got, with mortar made of clay and straw. ^ " In all cases, when walls, cither of this class or the former, are built, the foundations should be of stone or brick, and they should be earned up at least a foot above the upper surface of tlie plat- form. " We shall here commence by giving one of the simplest modes of construction, from a work of a very excellent and highly estimable mdivid- ual, Mr. Denson, of Waterbeach, Cambridge- shire, the author of the Peasant's voice, who built his own cottage in the manner described below : " Mode of building the mud walls of cottages in Cambridgeshire. — After a laborer has dug a sufficient quantity of clay for his purpose, he works it up with straw ; he is then proaided with a frame eighteen inches in length, six deep, and Improvements in Agriculture and the Arts. 57 from nine to twelve inches in diameter. In this frame he forms his lumps, in the same man- ner that a brlckmukcr forms his bricks i they are then packed up to dry by the weather ; that done, they are fit for the use, as a substitute for bricks. On laying the foundation of a cottage, a few layers of brick are necessary, to prevent the lumps from contracting a damp from the earth. The fireplace is lined and the oven is built with bricks. I have known cottagers, where they could get the grant of a piece of ground to build on for themselves, erect a cottage of this description at a cost from ;C15 to £30. I exam- ined one that was nearly completed, of a superior order : it contained two good lower rooms and a chamber, and was neatly thatched with straw. — It is a warm, firm, and comfortable building, far superior to the one I live in ; and my opinion is, that it will last for centuries. The lumps are laid with mortar, they are then plastered, and on the outside once roughcast, which is done by throwing a mixture of water, lime, and small stones, against the walls, before the plaster is dry, which gives them a very handsome appearance. The cottage I examined, cost £33, and took nearly one thou- sand lumps to complete it. A laborer will make that number in two days. The roofs of cottages of this description are precisely the same as when built with bricks or with a wooden frame. Cow- house sheds, garden walls, and partition fence, are formed mth tlic same materials ; but in all cases the tops are covered with straw, which the thatchers perform in a very neat manner." Denson's Peasant's Voice, p. 31. No. 16. Statement of duties now payable on iinports by land or inland navigation, into the port of St. John's, L. C.,froni the United States; also, a statement of prohibited and free goods, March, 1842. Articles prohibited. — xA.rms, ammunition, or utensils of war ; gunpowder ; blubber ; base or counterfeit coin ; books, first composed or writ- ten, or printed in the United Kingdom, and re- printed in any other, imported for sale, except books not re-printed in the United Kingdom witli- in twenty years ; fish oil ; train oil ; fish, dried or salted ; fins or skins, the f)roduce of creatures living in the sea ; tea. Articles free of duty. — Beef, Iresh or salted; beans ; peas ; Indian corn ; grain of all kinds ; flour ; fish, fresh ; live stock of all kinds ; gar- den seeds ; potatoes ; pork, fresh or salted ; pack- ages, containing merchandise subject to duty. Articles subject to the duty of five per cent, ster- ling. — Ashes, pot or pearl ; bread and biscuit ; cotton ; wool ; diamonds ; flax and tow ; fruit and vegetables, green ; hemp ; hams and bacon ; hay and straw ; raw liides ; drugs ; meal ; mut- ton, fresh ; all fresh meat not herein declared to be free ; rice, rosin, tallow, shingles, staves, ve- neers, and mahogany ; wood and lumber of all descriptions ; cassia ; spirits tiu"pentine ; gum shellac ; gum copal ; varnish ; palm oil ; bitter almonds ; gums ; isinglass ; chemical oils ; red and white lead ; sago ; tamarmds. Articles subject to the duty of seven and one- half per cent., with addition of ten per cent, {ad valorem) to invoice. — Anchovies ; alabaster ; V argol ; aniseed ; amber ; almonds ; brimstone ; I bartago ; box- wood ; currants ; capers ; cascucoo ; cummin seed ; coral ; cork ; cinnabar ; dates, ev- cry stone ; fruits, preserved in sugar or brandy ; figs ; honey ; iron, in bars, unwrought ; pig iron ; juniper berries ; mccnso of frankincense ; lava and Malta stone, for building ; lentils ; medals ; marble, rough and worked ; mosaic work ; musk ; macaroni ; nuts of all kinds ; ostrich feathers ; oil of olives ; oil of almonds , orris I'oot ; ochres ; orange buds and peel ; ohves ; pitch ; pickles ; paintings; prints; pazzalona ; pumice stone; punk ; parmesan cheese ; pearls ; precious stones, except diamonds^ quicksilver ; raisins ; sausa- ges ; sponge ; tar, turpentine ; Vermillion ; ver. micelli ; whetstones ; gum ; essences of berga- mot, lemons, roses, citron, oranges, lavender, and rosemary. Articles subject to the duty of fifteen per cent, ad valorem. — All goods, wares, and merchandize, not otherwise specified in tarifl", and not herein declared to be free of duty. We mention a few of the imports paying fifteen per cent, duty: — ' combs, cheese, butter, lard, leather, allspice, pep. per, ginger, pimento, hardware, castings, clay, earthen ware, wooden ware, chairs, furniture, beds, baskets, worsted and woollen manufactures, oysters, machinery, medicines, furs and skins, jewelry, cutlery, brooms, brushes, bristles, cemary seed, &c. Articles subject to the twenty per cent, ad val- orem. — Cotton, and cotton manufactures ; glass, and glass manufactures ; sugar candy ; soap ; cigars. Articles subject to the duty of thirty per cent, ad valorem. — Books ; paper, and paper manufac tures ; clocks and watches ; leather manufactures ; linen, and hnen manufactures; musical instru. ments ; wires, of all sorts ; silk, and silk manu- factures. Articles subject to different duties. — Salt, per 280 lbs. 2s. Gd. sterling ; indigo, Gd. sterling per pound, or fifteen per cent. ; tobacco, leaf, Id. ster- ling per pound, or fifteen per cent. ; tobacco, man- ufactured, 2d. sterling per pound, or twenty per cent. ; snuft', 2d. sterling per pound, or twenty per cent. ; sugar, refined, 2d. sterling per pound, or twenty per cent.; sugar, raw, Id. sterling per pound, or 5s. sterlmg per cwt. ; coffee, green, 2d. sterling per pound, and 5s. sterling per cwt. ; cof- fee, ground, id. sterlmg per pound, and 5s. ster- ling per cwt. ; coffee, roasted, 5s. sterling per cwt., and 5 per cent. ; cocoa, 55. sterling per cwt., and 5 per cent. ; molasses, Id. sterling per gallon, and 4s. 6d. sterling per cwt. ; sirups, Id. sterling per gallon, and Is. 6d. sterling per cwt., or fifteen per cent. ; Madeira, in casks. Is. ster- ling per gallon, and £7 sterling per tun of 250 gallons. All other wines, except French, in wood, 6d. sterling per gallon, and £7 sterhng per ton ; wines, French, in wood, 6d. sterling per gallon, or 7^ per cent. ; wines, in bottle, £7 7s. sterling per ton, and 7^ per cent, and Is. sterling per dozen bottles ; brandy, Geneva, cordials, or other spirits, except rum, not sweetened, and not exceeding the strength of proof by " Sykes's hy. drometer," Is. Od. sterling per gallon, and so in proportion for any greater strength than the strengtii of proof ; rum, sweetened, 25. 7d. ster- luig per gallon ; rum, not sweetened, and not ex- 58 Improvements in Agriculture and the Arts. ceeding the strength of proof by " Sykes's hy- drometer," Is. 6d. sterling per gallon, and bo m proportion for any greater strength than the strength of proof. Bonds are allowed on all provincial duties when amounting to JE50 and upwards, with conditions for payment at 6 months from the date of such bond, if the same shall be dated on or before the Ist day of September; and if dated after tlie 1st day of September, then it becomes due on the 1st day of April next ensuing. Any information relatmg to the trade between the province and the United States, through this port, wdl be cheerfully supplied by addressing the undersigned. JASON C. PIERCE &, SON, Forwarders and Commission Merchants, Steamboat and Custom-House Agents, Saint John's, L. C. No. 17. Customs, St. Johns, L. C. December 28, 1842. f^ Sir : I have to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of 23d inst., requesting I would reply to questions therein contained relative to what changes have taken place in our provincial duties on goods imported from the United States, on wheat, flour, beef, pork, lard, &c. In reply there- to, and to enable you to have a more correct knowledge of what the duties will be after the 5th of July next than I could give you in a letter, I now beg leave to enclose you a number of Neil- son's Quebec Gazette, containing a summary of the trade act of the British possessions abroad, which goes into operation after that date. In the margin I have put down the additional duty im- posed by our provincial statutes on many of the articles, viz : — ■ On butter and cheese there is an additional duty of 5 per cent. Coffee, 2 pence per pound, if green ; roasted or burnt, 5 per cent. Coffee, 4 pence per pound, if ground. Cocoa, 5 per cent. Molasses, Is. 6d. per cwt. Sugar, umefined, 1 penny per pound ; refined 2 pence per pound. Teas, 3 pence per pound. Rum, 6 pence per gallon, hydrometer proof. Other spirits and cordials, Is. 7d. per gallon. Salt, for every barrel of 280 pounds, 2. 6d. On leaf tobacco, 1 penny per pound. Manufactured tobacco, 2 pence per poimd. Madeira wine. Is. per gallon. Other wines, 6 pence per gallon. All other articles charged with an ad valorem duty of 15 per cent., 7 per cent, and 4 per cent., an additional duty of 5 per cent. In the table of exemptions, all the articles marked >^ are subject to a duty of 5 per cent, by provincial acts. The others not marked X are entirely free. In the last session of our Provincial Parliament, an act was passed imposing a duty of 3 shillings per quarter on wheat, which act has been reserved for Her Majesty's sanction; if sanctioned, it goes into operation on the 5th July next. I cannot state positively whether American produce, after payment of duty on importation in Canada, wDl be admitted into England as Canada produce. But, from the decision of the Commis- sioners of the Customs, lately given, that hams so admitted could be imported into Great Britain as Canada hams, I should conceive it would ap- ply to all American produce. I am of the opinion the question wDl be finally settled in the next ses- sion of the Imperial Parliament. At present, teas, oil, blubber and skins, the pro- duce of fish and creatures Uving in the sea, of foreign fishing, are prohibited, but wiU be admit, ted after the 5th July next. The duties are all paid in sterling money, at the rate of 4s. 4d. to the dollar — equal to 5s. Id. Ca- nada currency, or nearly 102 cents. The imperi- al duties are levied on the amo'jnt of invoice cost in the United States, and adding thereto 10 per cent. For instance : should the amount of in- voice be jCIOO, the duty is charged on £110. The provincial duties are charged on the amount of the invoice, without the additional 10 per cent. It is supposed there will be some material changes, at the next meeting of our Provincial Legislature, in the tariff of duties imposed by them. There will, no doubt, be a reduction of the duty on tea, and an additional duty on some other articles ; however, they cannot reduce the duties imposed by the Imperial Parliament, though they have the power of adding to them. The foregoing information and explanations will only apply to tlie trade of the two countries after the 5th of July next. Messrs. Jason C. Pierce &. Son, or Mr. Isaac Coote, forwarding merchants of this place, who have prepared a tariff of duties (for the information of their correspon- dents) now in force, would, no doubt, forward them to you, on application to them ; or might obtain them from some of their friends in Burling, ton. Any information I could give you I would cheerfully do, and have the honor to be your very obedient servant, W. MACRAE, Collector. William P. Briggs, Esq. No. 18. Correspondence of the Journal of Commerce. Liverpool, September, 1842. Our new tariff being so favorable to the intro- duction of American provisions into England that we have the prospect of an extensive and steady import of various articles of produce from thence, we would tluow out, for the guidance of those who contemplate engaging in the preparation of provisions for our market, some suggestions which we conceive to be important, and a compliance with which, will operate favorably to the interests of those engaged in the trade. We are aware that the shipment of beef and pork to England this year, has turned out a very unprofitable operation, and, in consequence, many persons feel discour- aged from prosecuting the trade, having got the impression that a prejudice exists in the coimtry trade against American provisions. Such is not the case, however. It is true that those articles have been almost unsaleable in our market, but the reason is found in the fact of their entire want of adaptation to our tastes, and their general inferiority to what we liave been in the habit of receiving from Ireland and Hamburg. Of this inferiority there is sufficient evidence in Improvements in Agriculture and the Arts. 59 the fact, that while Irish pork has been selling freely at 70s. a 75s., the American has been with difficulty disposed of at a price equal to 48s., duty paid. This inferiority, as regards pork, arises princi- pally from the hogs being generally fed on beech nuts, or other wild feeding, which makes the meat soft and oily ; but it is partly owing, also, to the hurried way in which provisions have been cured and packed, (especially in tlic western country,) and to the use of an inferior salt, quite unsuitable to the purpose. We would urge strong- ly on shippers the propriety of bestowing more care on the selection and preparation of pork for ' our market in future, as a soft and inferior article is almost imsaleable with us, and the shipment of such will be certainly productive of loss to the owner. These remarks apply with equal force to beef, which has been inferior, not only in conse- quence of insufficient fattening, but also from being very roughly handled. The form, too, in which both articles have been cut, has tended to occasion this depreciation in our market ; and al- though it may not appear of sufficient conse- quence to affi3ct their value, yet, taking into con- sideration that our buyers have been accustomed to a certain cut for many years, it is reasonable that their tastes should be consulted. Of one thing we feci assured, that shippers will find it to their advantage to fall in witli the requirements of our market. We think it unnecessar}^ to give in detail the process of curing followed in Ireland, as the dif- ference in climate may require some peculiarity in the mode to be adopted in .4merica, but we furnish particulars which we consider most im- portant. Bacon is made from pigs of any size, from 160 pounds up to the heaviest weights, and in the form cither of long or short middles. In making the former, the head and hams are cut off, the remaining bone is removed, taking as little of the lean meat off with the ribs as pos- sible. The shoulder blade being taken out, the loose parts are cut off, so that no porket is left to disfigure the bacon ; the edges are squared and trimmed, all the soft and flabby fat being re- moved. Short middles are also fi-ee from bone, and differ from them only in having the shoulders taken off. Tliis cut, being most esteemed with us, always commands 2s. per cwt. advance on the price of long middles. Bacon is always cured in dry salt, and, when shipped to the Eng- lish market, is packed with fresh salt, in Russia mats or coarse linen cloth, in bales weighing from three to four cwt. each. Boxes made to fit the size of tlie middles would suit equally well, if that mode of packing is found cheaper. Hams are cut round and well trimmed, all the soft fat being taken off. Tliey are sured in dry salt also, and, after being washed and well dried, (without being smoked,) are packed in hogs- heads with the husks of oats, bran, cut straw, or any other dry material of like character, wliich will absorb the moisture produced by sweating. The shanks are cut off above the knee-joint with a saw, and not with a cleaver, as practiced now in America. Mess pork is made from hogs weighing from 160 to 2'20 lbs., and is cut in pieces as nearly as possible of 4 lbs. each. The whole hog is used, with the exception of the head, feet, and legs to the knee-joint. When packed for exportation, it is put in barrels containing fifty pieces, weighing 200 lbs. with St. Ubcs' or Turk's island salt, and in new pickle. Mess beef is made from fat cattle only, and is cut in pieces of 8 lbs. each, the whole carcass, with the exception of the head, feet, and legs, being used. It is packed with St. Ubes' or Turk's island salt, in a new pickle, in casks containing 38 pieces, weighing 300 lbs. The mode of curing both beef and pork is to pack the pieces in dry salt, in large casks or vats, which are then filled up with pickle, having just so much saltpetre in it as will give the meat a color. At the end of 24 hoius, or so soon as the salt and saltpetre have taken effect, and the blood remaining in the meat has been purged out, it is put in a new pickle, in which it remains until packed for exportation. The quality of the meat is injured by the use of i saltpetre in any pickle after the first. The casks must be perfectly water-tight, and have two iron hoops on each end. All pickle is made of such strength that an egg will float in it, and, after being allowed to settle, the scum is taken off the surface. Beef and pork have the name of the packer or shipper branded on the head of the cask, and below the name " 38 pieces prime mess beef," or " 50 pieces prime mess pork." Other qualities are put up in Ireland ; but we consider the above to be the most deserving of the attention of Ame- rican shippers. It is not required that beef and pork should un- dergo a public inspection, as we consider that the best security of their marketable character is found in the obvious interest of packers to furnish such an article as will earn a good name for their brand, and obtain the highest current rates. Fine leaf lard, if unmixed and well managed, will, we think, be a profitable article for ship, ment. It is put up in neat white kegs, contain, ing about 40 lbs. each. The lard is poured into the kegs at the head, and, so soon as it has cooled and settled down, the surface is made level, and covered with white paper, which pre- vents it from adhering to the lid when opened for inspection in our market. It is also put uji, to a considerable extent, in bladders, and shipped in hogsheads packed with bran or cut straw. It is important that the bladders should be well cleaned by scraping and the use of acids, so tliat they may be tolerably transparent. The inferior lard may be put up in packages of any size, which, when large, should be iron-hooped. We call the attention of curers in tlie United States to the fact, that while bacon and hams when dried pay a duty of 14s. per cent, if shipped in pickle they will be passed by oiur customs at the pork duty of 8s. As a set-off, however, against the 6s. per cwt. savfcd in duty, it must be recollected tliat pork cured in pickle is inferior in quality to that cured in dry salt, and will not bring an equal price ; that it is shipped in that fomi at an increased cost of packages and freight ; and that it pays a duty on a greater weight than whpn dried. We give these considerations, that shippers may decide for themselves which is the gpeferable mode of shipment. By the subjoined extract from the tariff, it wil 60 Improvements in Agriculture, and the Arts, be seen that the different duties in favor of colonial produce are so great as to give a decided advantage to Canada in the shipraerit of all pro- visions for our home consumption. Thus, in beef and pork, while foreign is subject to a duty of 8s. per cwt. colonial is admitted at 2s. ; but it is understood that, by the repeal of the 42d clause of the 3d and 4th William, cap. iv, 57, both foreign and colonial will not be admitted, for ship stores, free of duty. This feature in the bill we consider most important to America, and would call the attention of curers there to the al- tered position of trade in that particular. Lard is also adinitted on favorable terms ; and, as our demand for that article for machinery and manu- facturing purposes is very large, we would strong, ly recommend that the soft pork soould be melted down and shipped in that form. The high duty on foreign butter being retained, wUl prevent any regular trade in that article for America, except when prices are so low as to make it an object of attention for shipment as grease. Under this name it is liable to a duty of Is. and 8d. per cwt. only. In Canada, the soil appears to be very favorable for the production of tliis article ; and, under the present modified duty, it will become, we think, one of very large export. The princi- pal fault in Canadian butter at present is, that the milk is not sufficiently pressed out, and, con- sequently, when shipped on a long voyage, it becomes rancid before it can be consumed. It should be packed in casks containing from 70 to 80 pounds, which must be air-tight. Cheese has already been shipped extensively ; and, as the quantity produced is increasing every year, it is Hkely to become an item of considerable trade. This article has been sliipped, heretofore, without much judgement being exercised ui the selection or assortment of the quahties, which has prevented the returns being so satisfactory as they otherwise would have been. American cheese is, for the most part, insufficiently pressed, which gives it, when cut, a porous or honeycomb a])pearance. It is also impleasant in flavor, owing to the too free use of rennet. The removal of these faults would very much enhance its value in the Enghsh market. With respect to grain and floiu-, it will be im- derstood that the new corn bill has placed the trade on a much more safe and steady footing ; though there will always be uncertainty while the principle of the shding scale of duties is preserved. On this branch of the trade no observations are required. Besides those articles of produce mentioned, there are, no doubt, others deserving the attention of shippers ; but we consider those specified as having the most immediate importance. The general directions now given being the result of our experience while engaged for some years exclusively in the produce trade, and being suggested by om- personal inspection of provisions and of the modes of cuiing we adopted in America, will be found, we conceive, not unimportant to those entering on the business. We have expressed our belief that, under the existing tarift', a large trade in produce will arise ; but when we look at tlie rapid progress of Free Trade principles in Britain, and the urgency of the popular demand for cheap provisions, we may 1 Colonial. m 3 6 ■ 2 5 3 2 6 3 5 06 2 2 6 safely predict a much more extended trade within a few years, in consequence of the still farther modification of our Provision Laws. JOHN & CHARLES KIRKPATRICK, Produce Commission Merchants. PRESENT DUTIES. Foreign. Bacon, per cwt .£0 14 Beef, fresh and salted, per cwt .080 Butter, per cwt 1 Butter, as grease, per cwt 18 Cheese, per cwt 10 6 Hams, per cwt 14 Lard, per cwt 2 Pork,percwt 80 Tongues, per cwt 10 Five per cent, extra is payable on the amount of the above duties. No. 19. Washington, February 6, 1843. Sir : Agreeably to your request, I give a very brief description of the process used by the citizens of Vermont in the manufacture of sugar from the sap of the maple-tree. The process in the early settlement of the State was very simple, being nothing more than evaporatmg the sap in iron kettles, usually about the capacity of ten gallons each, suspended over a fire made of logs, in the open air. When the sap is evaporated in the ratio of about ten or twelve gallons into one, the product is taken from the kettles, strained through a flannel bag, which takes from the sirup the leaves, coals, &c, which get into the kettles wlide over the fire. The sirup is then put into deep vessels, where it remains for two or three days, to settle. The sirup is then carefully taken from the vessels, leaving the sediments, and re- turned to the kettles, with the addition of about a pint of skimmed milk to a kettle containing eight or nine gallons of sirup. It is then slowly heated, when most of the impurities remaining in, the sirup will rise to the surface, and may be taken off with a skhnmer. The sirup is then evaporated to the proper consistency, which is ascertained by cooling small quantities in a spoon, or in some small vessel. The product is then taken from the fire, and either stuTcd until it is cool, by wliich it becomes dry sugar, or, more commonly, it is put into a tub or trough, and left to cool, without stu-ring. Tliis is afterward dj-ained by drawing a plug from the bottom of the tub or trough, thus separating the molasses from the sugar. In the early settlement of the State, and even at the present time, in new settlements, the above has been the usual mode of making sugar. In the older settlements, buildings are erected within or near the sugar-orchards. In these buildings, large kettles are set in brick furnaces, for the purpose of evaporating the sap. In some of them, shallow pans, made of sheet-iron, about six inches in depth, and of various dimensions, are also used. These pans are also set in brick furnaces, and are believed to evaporate much faster than deep kettles of the same capacity. The common method of extracting the sap from the maple is, by boring into the tree, about two inches, with a three-quarter inch bit or auger. The sap is then conveyed into small tubs, hold- Improvements in Agriculture and the Arts. 61 ing three or four gallons each, called sap-buckets, by spiles slightly inserted into the tree. It takes about four gallons of sap to make one pound of sugar. The season for making sugar in Vermont commences between the middle of March and the first of April, as the spring is more or less forward, and lasts about three weeks. One hundred good trees will yield sap sufficient to make from ree to five hmidred weight of sugar. Very respectfully, your obedient servant, SAMUEL C. CRAFTS. Henry L. Ellsworth, Esq. Commissioner of Patents. E. Statement of receipts for paients, caveats, disclaimers, improvements, and certified copies, in the ijear 1842. Amount received for patents, caveats, &.c. Amount received for office fees Deduct, repaid on withdrawals- $35,790 96 714 67 F. Statement of expenditures and payments made from the patent fund, by H. L. Ells- worth, Commissioner, from the 1st of January to the .31s< of December, 1842, in- clusive, under the act of March 3, 1839. For salaries For contingent expenses* For library .... For temporary clerks For agricultural statistics, &c For compensation to the Chief Justice of the District of Columbia Leaving a net balance to the credit of tlie patent fund . .$16,350 GO 3,687 61 105 37 2,830 75 105 75 75 00 $36,505 63 8,086 95 28,418 68 23,154 45 5,264 20 * Expenses incurred recovering jewels not included. G. Statement of expenditures on the restoration of the Patent Office, under the act of ^d of March, 1837. For draughtsmen For examiner and register For restoring records of patents For restoring drawings For restoring models, and cases for models For freight on models For stationerv $2,400 00 1,000 00 174 06 103 00 9,763 54 462 88 156 52 14,060 02 Patent Office, January, 1843. H. L. ELLSWORTH. TABLE OF CONTENTS. Report of the operations of the Patent Of- fice for 1842 Tabular estimate of the crops for 1842..,. Remarks, &c., on tabular estimate Progress of improvement Causes of improvement Elements of the estimate The season Review of the crops Wheat Barley Oats Rye Buckwheat Maize or Indian corn Potatoes Hay ;;;;; Flax and hemp , Tobacco Cotton , Rice Silk Sugar cornstalk maple. Mr. Webb's experiments Mr. Blake's experiments. Mr. Weblj's remarks on manufac- ture Wine Aggregate of the crops Other products not embraced in the table. Broomcorn Madder Safflower and saffron Sumach Cranberries . ,.., Ginseng Sheep Eggs Pot and pearl ashes Lard oil, &c Sunflower oil Castor oil 1—2 3—4 .5 6 7 7 8 10 ih. ih. ih. ih. 11 12 ih. 13 ih. 16 ih. 18 18—21 18 19 ih. 39 21 ih. ih. ih. ih. ih. ih. ih. ih. 22 ih. ih. 23—26 24 24 Rapesced oil ....24 — 52 Amount of lard and pork that might be exported , 25 Foreign market 26 Improved move of fencing ih. Mode of constructing houses ih. Railroads ih. Future surplus 27 Comparison of exports and imports, &c.. 27 Markets at home and abroad 28 Prospect of a foreign market 29 The British tariff of certain articles 30 Cost of shipments from different ports, &c. 32 Worth of wheat exported, &c 32 Sale of tallow in Havre 33 Success of competition ...... 33 Probable modification of the corn laws.. 35 Letter of Hon. John TaliafeiTo on the Mediterranean wheat 38 Letter of Mr. Webb on cornstalk sugar.. 39 Letter of Professor Mapes on cornstalk sugar 43 Letter of W. Allen on broomcorn . 44 Letter of W. A. Otis on pot and pearl ashes 46 Letter of H. Work on pot and pearl ashes 46 Letter of Campbell Morfit on the manu- facture of oil and candles from lard, &c. 49 Letter of William Milford on lard oil for light-houses 50 Letter of J. R. Stafford on lard oil, &c... 51 Letter of A. Scott on rapeseed 52 Letter of H. W. Ellsworth on ditching and fencing 52 Letter of W. Macrea on duties in Canada, &c 58 Letter of Hon. S. C. Crafts on maple sugar 60 Mode of manufacturing elaine and stear- in from lard, patented by J. H. Smith.. 51 Mode of fencing and ditching, &.c 52 Mode of constructing cheap cottages 55 Mode of preparing provisions for the Eng- lish market 68 Statement of duties in the Canadas • 69 ON RAISING SWINE, AND THE BEST METHODS OF FATTENING PORK. FROM THE FOURTH REPORT OF THE AGRICULTURE OF MASSACHUSETTS. BY HENRY COLMAN, Oommlssioner for the Agricultural Survey of Msuisachusetts. Swine form a considerable portion of of the live stock of Middlesex county. Though Middle- sex is not a hog-raising county, yet such is the number of swinish emigrants into it, and the respectability of the condition to which they are advanced after their arrival, that I might be liable to the charge of some Jewish prejudice if I passed them over in silence. Some years since, at a Brighton Cattle Show, an accomplished scholar, then a professor of Harvard University, and af- terwards Governor of Massachusetts, whose wit was always racy, and when let out, sparlded and bubbled like a soda fountain, in toasting the farmers of Massachusetts and the literati of her college, expressed a wish that their pejis might equally do them honor. Without disparagement to the other side of tlie house, this wish I may say, in respect to the fanners of Middlesex, seems accomplished. .Large nmnbersof swine, are brought into this county for sale. These come mainly from the state of New-York. Until within a few years, a breed, known as the Grass-fed hogs, constituted the principal stock. This was a hog, raised with little otlier feed than clover pasturage for the first six months, of a white color with black patches sprinkled over him, long and well fomaed of good thrift, and who, with good keeping, at eighteen months old, was easily brought to 400 and 500 pounds weight. Within the last few years the Berkshire hog has been introduced. His symme- try, thrift, cleanliness, fineness of bone, his ex- cellent shoulders and hams, and, above all, his good humor and his marked deficiency in the or. gan of tune, secured universal favor. In my vis- its among the farmers since the introduction of this race, I have been amused with their enthusi- asm for their swine, resembhng that of parson Trulliber, in Fielding's History of Joseph An- drews ; and in finding them, I liad almost said, more proud of their Berkshire pigs at their troughs, than of their chubby and rosy-cheeked children round theh supper-tables. I am a great admirer of the Berkshire swine, but I could never sympa- thize in these preferences ; and my respect for human nature has considerably increased since the progress of the blessed Temperance reforma- tion, and since men are now seldom seen as for- merly with all rationality extinguished, and even their animal natme outraged and degraded. We have been compelled, however, in this as in many other cases, to witness the capriciousness of public favor ; and to adopt, with tlie variation oT only a letter, the familiar proverb, and say in this case, that " every hog must have Iris day." The popularity of the Berkshire swine is on the wane. It is objected to them by many farmers that tliey are not large enough, though they are easily made to reach, at fourteen months old, 300 or 350 lbs. ; and further, that they do not cut up well ; and that the fat on their backs and sides is not thick enough, especially for packing down for fishermen, who would be glad to have their pork all fat, and whom I have seen spread their uncooked salted fat pork, as landsmen spread butter, on theic bread. The former objection is not made by all per- sons, as many would prefer for their tables the pork of a hog weighing 300 lbs. to that of hogs weighing 600 lbs., of which I have seen many m our market. With respect to the latter objection, I was half disposed at first to consider it a mere caprice, but that E. Phinney, of Lexington, a farmer in this matter " not unknown to fame," — and another most respectable farmer of Franklin comity, admit that there is some tnith in it ; and they, as well as many others, prefer a cross to the pure blood. The impression is becoming general, and the butchers in Quincy market are unani- mous in their unfavorable opinion of the Berk- shire hogs. They admit that their hams and shoulders are good for bacon ; but their backs, where they most require it, have no depth of fat- ness, and they are therefore unsuitable for salt- ing. They are good breeders and nurses. They may be kept, therefore, to much advantage where the object is to raise roasting pigs for the market. Tliis is sometimes quite profitable where a sow has two htters a year. A roast pig, only wean- ed by the knife, has from time immemorial been deemed a most luxurious dish. So it is likely to continue to be. Charles Lamb says that the Chinese never knew the lusciousness of a roasted pig until an accidental fire occurred which de- stroyed a pig.stye with its inhabitants. In pul- ling the bodies of these poor creatm'es burnt to a crisp from the fire, some of the skin or flesh ad- hered to the fingers of the Chinese, and in putting their hands by chance to their mouths, they for the first time in their lives inhaled the odor and 64 On Raising Swine, and tasted the deliciousness of the roasted skin. After that, the accidental burning of pig-styes became so common that the civil authorities were com- pelled to interpose. It is but just, however, to the Berkshires to say, that the unfavorable impression in regard to them, though general, is not universal. An intelligent and very exact farmer at Braintrec, B. V. French, has found them to answer his expectations. Upon recently killing a number, he was well satisfied with their appearance, and is of opinion that much of the prejudice which exists against them belongs properly to the impure but not to the genuine race. The introduction of the Chinese hogs into this country and into England seems to have been the foundation of all the extraordinary improve- ments which have taken place in this race of ani- mals — improvements which, within less than half a century, have doubtless enriched the State of Massachusetts many hundreds of thousands of dollars, and the comitry by millions. Tlie effects | of this cross with other swine have been to give fineness of bone, plumpness and fnJness of form, extraordinary thriftness, and quietness of de- meanor. The old race of hogs, seemed to be of the wolf species in temper as well as condition, and were the personification of ughness and ra- pacity. The first introduction of one of tliese animals into a secluded part of Scotland, witliin the last century, is matter of comparatively modem history. Having got loose from liis stye, he appeared to the terrified imaginations of these simple people as the archfiend himself, and crowds hovered together through fear — the parish school- master being at their head with an open bible, to endeavor to lay this evil spirit ! The animal now, in his improved condition, is regarded as one of tlie farmer's best friends ; he eats what nothing else will eat ; he is a general scavenger, and an excellent composter of manure. His own manure is one of tiie most enriching substances which can be supplied to the soil, though not one of the most lastmg in its effects ; and his flesh is the most frequent dish upon the farmer's table. This county may boast of great improvements in their swine. A Mr. Mackay, of Boston, owning a farm in Weston, obtained from abroad, some years since, a valuable hog, whose natural good quali- ties by good management he greatly improved. Some of this breed of swine have been most re- markable for thrift and weight. Besides this, a hog called the Mocho hog, long, round and thrifty, whose pedigree is not known, has been introduced here. Some of the best hogs which I have seen have been from an admixture of these three bloods. Mr. Phinney emphatically approves this cross ; and the weight of his swine when killed, of some of which I subjoin an account, establishes the soundness of his judgement. In 1840, Mr. Phinney sent the following hogs to market : Feb. 17. 1 weighed 763 lbs. Mos. 591 476 430 475 465 430 464 20 15 15 12 12 12 12 12 Ffb. 6. Feb. 15. 1 weighed 407 lbs. 1 weighed 469 lbs. 2 414 " 2 " 367 " 3 413 «' 3 " 362 " 4 305 •' 4 » 331 * 5 364 « 6 366 " In 1841, the subjoined is a list of fifteen Berk- shire and Mackay hogs from the same farm. Febrvary 22, 1841. 1 weighed 738 lbs. 1 weighed 528 lbs. 2 « 655 " 2 " 523 « 3 " 579 " 3 " 517 " 4 " 574 " 4 " 503 " 5 " 556 " 5 " 501 " 1 weighed 487 lbs. 2 '" 480 " 3 " 476 " 4 " 441 " 5 " 400 " The grass-fed hogs, whicli I have before men- tioned, are regaining tlieu- popularity. They have been, to a degree, crossed and intermixed with various valuable breeds jn the interior, and are now prefeiTcd to all others in the Brighton mar- ket. With good care and keeping, at fifteen and eighteen months old they are easily carried to 500 and 600 lbs. Of four, fatted by Stephen Morse, of Marl- borough, the current season, the weight was as follows : 539 lbs., 530, 506, 459— averaging 508^ lbs. each. These hogs were put into the stye in September, 1840, weighing "between 70 and 80 lbs. each, and were killed in October, 1841. They were kept mainly upon boiled potatoes the first winter, and since that, upon the slops of the dairy, skim milk, butter milk, whey and Indian meal. Some of the best hogs which I have ever seen have been fatted at the slaughtering establishment of Jesse Bird, in Watertown. He keeps his swine about six months. He purchases the grass breed above mentioned, preferring hogs with a small head, round and full body though not deep belly, and with full shoulders and broad backs. Thc}' are taken in, weighing from 170 to 200 lbs., kept in the slaughter-yard for a time, and, previous to killing, are fed upon potatoes and Indian meal cooked, and are brought to weigh from 450 to 600 lbs. At the slaughtering estabhshments in the vicini- ty of the capital, large amounts of pork are sup- ported and fatted upon tlie offal. Sometimes this is cooked for the s\^^ne ; in other cases, it is given in its raw state, so that without any troublesome change in the way of preparation, the hogs eat the cattle and then men eat the hogs. It is easy, but not agreeable to imagine in such cases what the pork may be. The richness of animal food be- comes thus a little too much concentrated even for the epicurian palate ; and few persons knowingly would have the courage to touch such food when coming directly from the slaugliter-yard, except- ing some, who are cannibals by nature, and by some accident have been misplaced in a civilized country. It answers very well for shipping pork, for no questions of taste are ever held over a bar- rel of provisi6n either on a slave plantation or at sea. It is ascertained, however, that in fatting the hest methods of Fattening Porh. 65 swine, some portion of animal food and pot liquor is highly conducive to thrift. In the best estab- lishments, the hogs some time before being Blaughtered, are put upon vegetable food, potatoes, Indian meal, &c, so that the rankness of the pork is taken away. E. Phinney's swine estabhshed at Lexington, is among the most extensive in the county. His number of fattening swine averages about 100, with fifty store hogs, and they are killed in Feb- ruary and March, whexi from 10 to 18 months old, being of the fall and winter litters of the previous year. His pens are well arranged ; sel- dom occupied by more than three or four in a pen. They have a manui'e-yard attached to each pen, into which bog-mud and litter are thrown for their manufacture and compounding, and they have always a dry and comfortable bed. They are fed regularly tliree times a day. I shall subjoin an account given by himself of his mode of manage- ment, which the farmers will read with interest ; and shall annex at the end, a sketch of his styes or barracks. " An inquiry is often made as to the best time of killing, or at what age it is most profitable to slaughter them. On a large farm where much green herbage is produced, and where the value of the manure is taken into the account, the pigs killed at the age of 15 or 16 months, give the greatest profit. When it is intended to kill them at this age, they may be kept on more ordinary and cheaper food for the first 10 or 12 months, or till within four or five months of the time of kill- ing. The manure they make and the extra weight of pork more than pay the expense in- curred in keeping them the longer time ; but the spring pigs, which are to be killed the ensuing winter and spring, must be kept upon the best of food from the time they are taken from tlie sow until they are slaughtered. " The older class of pigs, for the first ten or 12 months, are kept principally upon brewers' grains, with a small quantity of Indian or barley meal, or rice, ruta-baga, sugar-beet, &,c, and in the sea- son of clover, peas, oats, cornstalks, weeds, &c, they are cut green and thrown into the pens ; the next four or five months befoi-e killing they have as much Indian meal, barley meal or rice, with an equal quantity of potatoes, apples or pumpkins, as they will eat, the whole being well cooked and salied, and given to them about blood warm. Dm'ing the season of fattening, an ear or two of hard corn is every day given to each pig. This small quantity they will digest well, and of course there is no waste. Slielled corn, soaked in water made as salt as the water of the ocean for 48 hoiu-s, with a quart of wood ashes added to each bushel and given to them occasionally in small quantities, greatly promotes their health and growth. Their health and appetite is also greatly promoted by throwing a handful of charcoal once or twice a week into each of their pens. Their principal food should, however, be cooked thor. oughly and nicely. From long practice and re- peated experiments, I am convinced that two dol- lars' worth of material well cooked, will make as much pork as three dollars' worth of the same ma- terial given in a raw state. " Pigs when first taken from the sow should be Veated with great care, to prevent them from scouring and becoming stinted ; when either of these happen, it will require many days and some, times weeks to put them again into a healthy, growing condition. When first deprived of the maternal food, a little new or skim milk, boiled and slightly salted and given to tliem often and in small quantities, will prevent scouring and great, ly promote their growth. If intended for killing at the age of 9 or 10 months, they should be full fed all the time and kept as fat as possible. If, on the other hand, they are intended for killing at the age of 15 or 18 months, they should not be full-fed, nor be made very fat for the first 10 or 12 months. " To satisfy myself of the benefit of this course, I took six of my best pigs, eight weeks old, all of the same litter, and shut them in two pens, three in each. Three of these I fed very high and kept them as fat all the time as they could be made. — The other three were fed sparingly, upon coarse food, but kept in a healthy, growing condition, till within four or five months of the time of kill- ing, when they were fed as high as the others. — They were all slaughtered at the same time, being then 16 months old. At tlie age of 9 months the full-fed pigs were much the heaviest, but at the time of killing, the pigs fed sparmgly for the first 10 or 12 months weighed, upon an average, fifty pounds each more tlian the others. Besides this additional weight of pork, the three " lean kine" added much more than the others to luy raanme heap. These results would seem very obvious to any one who has noticed the habits of the animal. In consequence of short feeding, they were much more active and industrious in the manufacture of compost, and this activity at the same time caused the muscles to enlarge and the frame to spread, while the very fat pigs became inactive, and like indolent bipeds, they neither worked for their own benefit nor for that of others. " For the purpose of increasing my manure heap, my pens are kept constantly supplied with peat or swamp mud, about three hundi-ed loads of which are annually thrown into my styes.— This, with the manure from my horse stable, which is daily thrown in, and the weeds and coarse herbage which are gathered from the farm, gave me about 500 cart loads of manure in a year. " On regular and systematic feeding and clean and dry bedding, the success of raising and fat. tening swine very much depends. A faithful feeder, also, who has some skill and taste, and withal a Httle pride of vocation, is indispensa- ble." Of all articles ever given to fatting swine, In- dian meal is, without doubt, the most nutritious. Mr. Phinney, it seems, has by actual tiial, set. tied a much vexed question, whether hogs should be forced by full feeding when yoimg, or at first be only kept well in a growing state. He found it better, when designed to be kept more than a year, to let the young animal, by sufiicient but not excessive feeding, have time to develop him- self and acquire a natural size, rather than, by filling him to repletion, to bring on a premature state of fatness, which seemed to check the growth. To young pigs, milk, whey and butter-milk are the best of all feed ; but where cows are kept for the purpose of supplying the market with milk, 66 On, Raising Swine, and the pigs will be of course regarded as very poor customers. " The milkman will not call." The estaWishment of J. P. Gushing, Water. town, for keeping and fatting swine, is upon a large scale, and is exceedingly well contrived for his situation. It consists of a long one-story building, with separate pens on one side extend- ing the whole length, each designed for four swine, v\ath an opan yard and a lodging and eat- ing room to each, besides some lying-in apart, ments.* A commodious passage-way runs the whole length of it, with the troughs projecting into the passageway, and a shutter for the troughs so contrived that the trough is easily cleaned at any time, and the food of the hogs is placed before them without admitting that which, in the usual slovenly mode of feeding, is but too common, an uncivil interference on their part before all is ready. Some contrivance as effectual as this for another class of animals would be quite useful at some of our public hotels and steamboats, and save us from the severe remarks of those foreign travelers who have little sympathy with our cus. tomary despatch of business, and seem to look upon us as a nation of fire-eaters. The cooking apparatus is at one end. Had economy of room and ease of feeding been stu- died, the building might have been double the width, with pens on each side. In England, they are sometimes made circular with the cook, ing apparatus in the centre and the feedintr troughs all within the circle ; but in such cases there must be much waste of room. Mr. Cush- ing'B barracks are lengthwise of his cattle-yard, so that the manure from the pens of his swine is thrown immediately into the yard, and any litter or muck easily supplied in the same way. His store hogs, too, at pleasure may be turned into the cattle-yard with the advice given in ^Esop's fable by the dying father to his sons, " that there is a treasure buried in the field which they would find by digging for ft." The swine however do not much need the advice. They are natural philosophers, and go bj' instinct into deep investi- gations. Some of them should always be kept in barn-yards and cellars. They are of great use in turning up and mixing the manure ; and in yards where^ cattle are fed upon grain, and the sweepings of the bam floors are thrown out, they take care that nothing is lost. I have known a considerable number of store hogs kept in a thrifty condition upon that only which they obtained in a yard where a proportional number of beef cat. tie were stall-fed. The philosophy of reciprocal uses, which is apparent in every department of nature, though it frequently presents itself in a form offensive to a fastidious taste, is to a reflect. ing mind always instructive on the wonderful economy of the divine providence. The question of profit in keeping and fattening swine has been much discussed, and so much de. pends on circumstances of age, breed, food, length of time kept, and price in the market, that ' The lenprtb of this building, including- ihe cooking place, is 252 feet, width 12 fret, asd hig;iit the same. There- are twenty pens, each 12 feet by 8, and a yard of 12 feet attached to each pen. The number of hogs that can be ac- commodated depends upon their sizes— from three to six, say an average of four «f SOO weight each. Tkere were fatted fifty-two hogs last season, weighing, dressed, 16,- 373 lbs. the question must remain open. Mr. Phinney gives it as his opinion that with Indian corn at one dollar per bushel and potatoes at 33 cents, and price of pork 12 cents, they may be fatted to a profit. In his experience, he says, four quarts of Indian or barley meal with an equal quantity of apples, pumpkins, potatoes or roots cooked, will give two pounds of pork. A small example of fatting swine in Medway, Norfolk county, which came under my notice, seems worth recording, because an exact account of their cost was kept. The owner was a me- chanic and bought every article of their feed, not even keeping a cow. His two hogs when killed weighed, one 420 lbs. — one 382 lbs., and pork was then worth 12 cents per lb. Value when dressed, $96 24. They were killed at 14 months old. They were bought in November and killed in the December of the next year. The}' were kept in the stye the whole time ; were fed three times a day with weeds, corn, and potatoes. The potatoes were boiled and the Indian meal mixed with them into a mash. They were fed exclusive, ly on com one week before being killed. They did as well in winter as in summer. Salt was fre- quently given to them in their swill. The price of corn bought for them was 117 cts. to 136 cents, or an average of 130 cents per bushel- Potatoes were 30 cents per bushel. The whole cost of the hogs when fatted was $62, including the price of purchase, or 7.8 cents per lb. I shall here subjoin some careful experiments made by myself a few years since in relation to this subject. They were given to some portion of the public at the time, in another form ; but they may here reach many by whom they have not been seen, and to whom they may be interesting. ExpEiiiME.xT 1. Two hogs about one year old ; one of them a barrow in very good condition ; the other a barrow recently gelded and in ordinary con. dition, were put up to be fed exclusively upon In- dian hasty pudding or Indian meal boiled with water. We began feeding them the 1st of March, 1831, and weighed them again on the 19th of the same month. In the eighteen days they con- sumed six bushels of Indian meal. They were offered cold water to drink but did not incline to take any. The result — No. 1 weighed on 1st March, 233 lbs. 19th " 269 Gain 36 No. 2 (recently gelded,) weighed on let March 190 " 19th March 247 Gain 57 The gain of the two was 93 lbs. in 18 days. — The quantity of meal consumed by them was 10 quarts per day to the two. We allow 30 quarts to a bushel, deducting two for grinding. The price of com at the time was 70 cents per bushel. The expense of the increase weight is 4.5 cents • per lb. March 21, 1831. Klled the hog mentioned first in the foregoing experiment. Live weight 273 lbs. Weight when dressed 215 lbs. Loss in offal, loose fat included, 58 lbs. or a little more than one fifth. the best methods of Fattening PorJc. 67 Experiment 2. — No. 2, mentioned above weighed On 23d March 253 lbs. On 30th April 312 In 38 days, gain 59 lbs. No. 3, a shoat purchased from a drove, weighed on 28Ui March 1 00 lbs. Do. on 30th April 151 Gain in 33 days 51 lbs. This is a fraction over 1 lb. 8 oz. per day each, nearly 1 lb. 9 oz. In tiiis case their food was exclusively boiled potatoes mashed with Indian meal. The exact amount consumed not ascertained, but fed as fi-eely as they would bear. Experiment 3. The two last-named hogs v/ere for tire next 20 days put upon Indian hasty pudding exclusively, with the following result : No. 2 weighed on 30th April 312 lbs. 20th May 382 Gainm20 days 70 lbs. No. 3. weighed on 30th April 151 20th May 185 Gain in 20 days 34 lbs. The two in the above named 20 daj's, con- sumed four and one-half bushels of meal, cooked as above. Meal 78 cents per bushel. Gain of the two, 104 lbs. in 20 days. Experiment 4. Sundry swine purchased from a drove, and fed with meal and potatoes, washed and mashed — 28th March, 1831, 19th May, 1831, No. 1, weigh 97 lb. 165 lb., gain 52 day?, 68 lb. 2, " 134 182 " " 48 3, " 100 186 " " 86 The two following, raised on the farm, and fed as above — 25th April, 1831, 19th May, 1831, No. 4, weighed 151 lb. 206 lb., gain 24 days, 55 lb. 5, " 140 165 " " 25 Experiment 5. In this case it was not m- tended to force their tlirift, but to keep the swine in an improving condition. They were shoats of the last autumn, and were of a good breed. Tuesday, 3d April, 1833. Put up four shoats, and began feeding them with Indian hasty pud- ding. 3d April, 22d April, 25th June, No. 1, 1761b. 202 lb. gain 25 264 lb. gain 62 2, 119 153 " 34 226 " 73 3, 150 170 " 20 .218 " 48 [Total, 183 pounds. 4, 121 145 " 24 killed 30th May. From 3d April, to 22d April the above swine consumed seven bushels and one peck of Indian meal. From 22d April, to 25th June, seven bushels of Indian meal, cooked as above. One of the above. No. 4, was killed on 30th May ; being absent, the live weight was not as- certained. On the 25th June, the three remaining hogs were weighed, and in the 63 days from 22d April to 25tli June, they had gained in that time 183 lbs. as above. After 30th May, when one of them was killed, one peck of meal made into hasty pudding with a small allowance of the waste of the kitchen for a part of that time, lasted them three days, that is 22-25 or less than a quart, say J of a quart per day to each. At first we employed half a bushel of Indian meal to make a kettle of hasty pudding ; but we soon found that a peck of meal by being boiled sufficiently would make the same kettle nearly full of hasty pudding and of sufficient consistency. The kettle was a common-sized five-pail kettle, set in brick work in tlie house ; and it was re- markable that the peck of meal produced nearly the same quantity of pudding, that we obtained from the half bushel, which showed the importance of inducing the' meal to take up all the water it covdd be made to absorb. The price of Indian corn was at that time 75 cents per bushel — 30 quarts of meal to a bushel deducting the toll. The amount of meal con- sumed in the whole time from 3d April to 25th June was 14^ bushels — the cost $10 69 — the total gain, making no allowance for the gain of No. 4, from 22d April to 30th May, which was not as- certained, was 287 lbs. The gain of No. 1, 2 and 3, from 22d April to 25th June was 183 lbs. in 63 days ; and allowing one peck to serve the three hogs for three days, required b\ bushels, the cost of which was $3 94. The live weight could not be estimated at less than 4 cents per lb. when pork was at market 6 cents. The value of the 183 lbs. therefore was equal to $7 32, or at 5 cents to $9 15 cents. The gain of the swine for the first 19 days, from 3d to 22d April, was No. 1, 26 lbs. or 1.368 per day. " 2, 34 " or 1.789 " « 3, 20 " or 1.052 " « 4, 24 " or. 1263 " The gain from 22d April to 25th June, 63 days, was No. 1, 62 lbs. or 0.984 per day. " 2, 73 " or 1.158 " " 3, 48 " or 0.761 « The difference of daily gain in the two periods was attributable to the diminished quantity of meal. The question then arises, whether the first mode of feeding was as economical as the second. In the first 19 days, 7 bs. 1 peck consumed, gave 104 lbs. gain. In the next 63 days, 5 bs. 1 peck consumed, gave 183 lbs. gain. Had the first gain been in proportion to the second gain in reference to the meal consumed, the 1\ bushels wliich gave 104 lbs. should have given 252 5-7 lbs. This great disparity can be explained only in tlie more economical prepara- tion of the meal, by which a peck, taking up as much water as it would contain, gave a kettle nearly full of pudding, when half a bushel of meal, imperfectly prepared, gave little more. This seems to demonstrate the great advantage of cooked food, both as it respects its increase of bulk and the improvement of its nutritive properties. — Whether it would apply to those substances, whose bulk is not increased by cooking, equally as to Indian meal and the Uke, is a matter which ex- perunents only can determine. Such are some few trials in reference to the feeding and fattening of swine, which I have made, or information of which I have obtained fi'om other sources, which may at least lead the in- 68 On Raising Swine, and quisitive farmer to further experiments and in- quiries, on a subject of great importance to his interest. The inferences to be made from them I shall leave to others. The results, as will be observed, are not uniform. The thrift of animals must depend on various other circumstances be- sides the kinds or the quantity of food given them. Much depends on the breed, as every farmer knows ; much on the health of the animal ; some- thing on the season of the year. I failed in at- tempting to fatten several swine in one case, though they were carefully attended and various kinds of feed were tried, and the failure was totally inexplicable until they were slaughtered, when the intestines were found corroded with worms, resembling those found in the human stomach, and this, I have no doubt, prevented their thrift. The same fact has occurred in another instaiice, and with the same result. I failed in attempting to fatten some other swine, who had been driven a considerable distance and exposed, probably not even half fed on the road, to severe cold and storms. Some of them were frost-bitten in their limbs ; and though attended and fed in the most careful manner they made no progress for months. In an experiment recently made, of giving swine raw meal mixed with water, I have found a falling off in their gain of nearly one half, compared with giving their food cooked, such as boiled potatoes and carrots, mixed with meal while hot ; the result being, in a stye containing a number of swine, as 279 to 500. In respect to confinement or freedom, various opinions are entertained. The Shakers at Canterbury, N. H., deem it indispensable to the thriving of tlieir swine that they should have access to water to wallow or wash themselves in ; and that they by no means do so well without it. On this point I have had no trial further than to satisfy myself that fatting hogs are sometimes uijured by being suffered to root in the earth. With respect to the age at whicli it is advan- tageous to put up swine to fatten, I have only to remark, that it is with swine as with other ani- mals, there are some breeds which come much sooner to maturity than others. A successful farmer in Saratoga count}', N. Y., says tliat March pigs, killed about Christmas, are the most profitable for pork. Four pigs, of wliat is called the grass breed, were slaughtered at Greenfield, N. Y., which weighed 348 lbs. 318 lbs. 310 lbs. and 306 lbs. at nine months and seventeen days old. On this point, I present a letter with which I was honored by the late John Lowell, whose au- thority in the agricultural community is justly estimated. " Dear Sir, — " I have been prevented answermg your inqui- ries as to my experience in raising old or young pigs. I may say that I have fully and clearly ascertained, from a trial of twenty years, that young pigs of from 25 to 30 lbs. will give nearly double, in some remarkable cases three times, as many lbs. as shoats of six months weigliing from 100 to 150. I have taken two pigs of 100 lbs. each, age six months, and never was able between May and November, to get them above 180, rarely above 170. I have taken three pigs, of about 30 lbs. each, and on the same food which I gave to the two, they would weigh from 170 to 180 each in the same period ; — nay I have taken pigs of 200, and never could get them to weigh more than 300 in 7 months, on my food. The way I ascertain the quantity of food is, that I never give any tiling but the produce of my dairy, and the refuse of the garden, peaches, apples, and cabbage, which are uniform generally. 3 pigs of 90 wt. or 30 wt. each, will give, ordinarily 510 lbs. less original wt. 90 often not iHore than 60. gain 420 lbs. 2 pigs of 100 wt. each, will give, ordi- narily 340 lbs. less original wt. 200 gain 140 lbs. " But the 3 pigs of 90 will not consume for the first three months half so much as the two of 100 each, and I have kept a fourth and sold it in Au- gust for quarter pork. " There is nothing new or rema.ikable in these facts. It is the law of the whole animal crea- tion. It is tmc of the calf and man. The child of 7 lbs. quadruples its weight in 12 months ; and the calf of 60 wt. if fine and well fed, will weigh 600 wt. at the end of the year, and (if a female) will not double the last weight at any age. " P. S. It should be remarked that the weight at purchase is live weight, and at sale dead or net weight, because in truth, to the owner this is the true mode of considering the subject. No doubt my sort of food is peculiarly favorable to young animals, it consisting in very liberal allowance of milk. If the older pigs were at once put on In- dian meal, they would attain to 250 lbs. at a year old, but the cost of the meal, at 70 cents per bush- el, would amount to 9 dollars, and if the first cost, 5 dollars 50 cents, be added, and the pig sold at 6 cents, there would be but 2 dollars gam on 2 pigs of 100 lbs. each ; while 3 small pigs, without meal, fed on milk, would give 24 dollars in the same time. I do not mean to give minute de- tails but general views. As an important quali- fication of the foregoing statement, it should be added that shoats of six months, bought out of droves, have usudly been stinted in tlieir growth, and animals, like trees, recover slowly after a check. I presume if shoats were taken from a careful and liberal owner, the difference would be less. But as a general law it may be safely af- firmed, that weight for weight at the purchase, the younger the animal the greater the positive, and the far greater the net gain. At least such is my own experience and beUef." The preceding facts and experiments encour- "age the belief that hogs may be raised and fat- tened by the farmer to advantage, where corn is worth 70 cents per bushel, and his pork will bnng him 6 cents per pound. Success must greatly depend on skill, care, selection, and good man- agement. The best swine that I have ever found have been in dairy countries, for there cannot be a doubt that milk and whey for every animal are among the most nutritious of ahments. Indian meal probably ranks next, though many farmers prefer a mixture of provender, such as corn, oat rye, or barley ; but I believe in all cases cook the best methods of Fattening Pork. 69 food will have a decided advantage over that which is given in a raw state : an advantage more than equivalent to the labor and expense of its preparation. Potatoes are a valuable article of food, but the pork is not so good as that fattened upon corn. Carrots are more nutritious than po- tatoes. Com given in a raw state or on the ear is a most wasteful management. Swine ought to be kept on every farm in suffi- cient numbers to consume all the ofFal and waste of the dairy and kitchen. If beyond this, a breed can be obtained, which will arrive at early matu- rity, and which can be advantageously grass-fed or kept at a small expense and in an improving condition through the summer ; and being put up to fatten early in autumn and forced as much as possible so as to be sent to market early in the winter, the farmer will ordinarily find a fair pro- fit in tiiis branch of husbandry. A great advan- tage is found in the keeping of swine from the valuable returns of manure botli in quantity and quality, which are obtained from them, where care is taken to supply them with raw materials for the munufacture. Too much care cannot be bestowed in the selection of tlie breed and the general health of the animal when put up to feed ; and it is strongly recommended to every careful fanner occasionally to weigh the animal and mea- sure the feed, that he may ascertain seasonably on which side the balance of debt or credit is likely to fall. Nothing is more prejudicial to good hus- bandry than mere guesses and random conjectures, though the result of our operations may not meet either our wishes or expectations, an intelligent mind will be always anxious as far as practicable to know precisely how far they correspond with or disappoint them. The profit of fatting pork with us has become much more questionable since such vast amounts of salted pork and hams are brought into our mar- kets from Ohio and the far Western States, through the great and constantly increasing facilities of f^ransportation. PLAN OF MR. PHINNEY This must essentially affect our markets. But it is to be considered that to a certain extent our own pork here will always be preferred ; and that fresh pork, the lean pieces, will always be wanted in our market, with which the Western pork can- not at present come into competition, though af- ter the experience of the last five years, it might be almost rashness to say that our markets may not yet be supplied with roasting pigs emd fresh spare-ribs from Cincinnati. Then again there is on every farm a certain amount of refuse and of- fal, which may be profitably given to hogs, jind would otherwise be lost. There is another circum- stance, which* must go to the credit of ourswine Manure in Middlesex county is every where valued at least 4 doUars per cord on the farm. — A hog duly supplied with the raw material, for a hog cannot, more than an Israelite, make bricks without straw, will make three cords of valuable manure in a year. A sow well kept Ukewise. may raise a litter of pigs, and may be fitted for market m the same year. These circumstances may en- courage us to think that, in spite of Western com- petition, a certain amount of pork may be profita- bly fatted among us every year. It is compara- tively a recent discovery that apples are as good for fatting swine as potatoes. This opinion has been expressed to me by many farmers inthis county. Apples may be cultivated to an indefi- nite extent and at a small expense. We may easi- ly avail ourselves of this advantage. The opin- ion of many of these farmers is, that they are better given raw than cooked. This point will, I hope, be made matter of experiment. The fatten- ing of hogs, however, is subject to so many con- tingencies, that under present circumstances, ex- cepting where extraordinary supplies of food are easily obtained, upon a large scale it can be safely imdertaken only with extreme caution and care. Many, who have imdertaken it, have been unsuc- cessful. S HOG STYE.— End View. AN END VIEW. The roof covers the passage-way and eating and sleeping apartments on each side, and is made sufficiently high to enable the feeder to pass between the pens. The floors of the eating and sleeping apartments are made perfectly tight ; the floor of the promenade in the upper story is laid with narrow planks, placed about one inch apart, so that whatever is dropped by the pigs falls through on the compost beneath. The promenade 70 On Raising Swine. of the lower story has no floor. The only passage Dwilding, the floor of the passageVay in the for naRSincr thp nio*R ont. nnrl in. is hv a RliHp_i^nr»r ! ^\«to»- ct/M'^r ia nt-i n Imrol tutWVi *Ua T^ifnv.il o.-.>.P»^^ for passing the pigs out and in, is by a slide-door between each dormitory and the main passage-way. The pen being on ground which is a little higher at the end where the boilers are placed than at the orher, the floor of the boiler-room is on a level with the passage-way of the upper story, where the pigs kept in this part of the building are taken in and out. At the other end of the ower story is on a level with the natural surface of the ground, and by a door at that end of the passage-way, the hogs are taken in and out. You will perceive that a pen 100 feet long and 34 wide, with three in a pen, will furnish ample accommodations for 120 hogs. A passage-way for the feeder is made from the cooking-room to the passage-way in the lower story. PLAN OF THE FLOOR OF THE UPPER STORY. == - — 5S- 1 nil nn 1 = nil 1 = 1 1 1 = nz; 1 i i i 1 nil nn = ! ! . i II n 1 i nil nil: = i i = — Dormitory b feel square. ^ 1 1 , nil fromenaae iv ii. squaie. 1 iin Kalinp apart- ment, 5 feet square. The foregoing is a rough plan, wliich may give an idea of the manner in which my hcgs are kept. It is intended for the plan of the upper story on one end. The lower slory corresponds witli the upper, except that the promenade is extended out six feet from the line of the upper outside promenade line. GEOLOGY AS CONNECTED WITH AGRICULTURE. BY WILLIS GAYLORD, ONONDAGA COUNTY, N. Y, hit No ONE who Is familiar with the history of ag- riculture, who remembers what its condition was fifty years since, and is acquainted with its pre- sent state, can hesitate in admitting the rapid ad- vances made in the practice of cultivation, or deny that very much of this success is owing to the appUcation of the sciences to the art of agri- culture. Processes fomierly considered difficult and mysterious are now familiar to all ; effects have in many important instances been traced to their causes ; and results have been obtained by carrying out in experiment the deductions of sci- ence, which have been of the greatest benefit to tiie farmer. Thus the application of botany to the aid of the cultivator by such men as De Can- dolle, Macaine, Loudon, Lindley, and Liebig, has showni the necessity and advantages of rotation ; the mode by which nature effects improvements in plants and fruits, and enables us to imitate, or in many cases to improve upon her ; and in va- rious other ways contributes to tlie comfort and the prosperity of the farmer. Chemistry, too, has rendered the most essential aid to the pro- gress of skilfully conducted, and successful agri- culture. By developing in a considerable degree the constituent of the most valuable plants, and teaching us the character of the soils we culti- vate, it has enabled us to supply tiie ingredients that are wanting, or to correct any existing in the earth which are injurious. In the hands of Four- croy, Davy, Chaptal, Faraday, Liebig and others, chemistry has been, and promises stiil more to be, one of the most efficient aids of the farmer. It has taught the essential elements of plants ; it has shown the most profitable and successful methods of preparing various new manures and composts ; and more than all, it has given us glimpses of the great pervading agent in all growth, nutrition, vegetable and animal organi- zation, and promises to admit us still farther into that mysterious temple, where in silence and darkness the germs of animal and vegetable life first find existence, and the means of its contin- uance. Geology, the most modern of the sci- ences, which has sprung into being, and assumed form and method within the memory of many now living, has not been backward in offering its contributions in aid of the tiller of the soil. For- merly the earth was looked upon as a mere mass of inert matter ; capable of touching nothing, and from which man had nothing to learn. That time is past ! The earth is proved to be a volume full of the most important readings ; a chronicle in which the events of illimitable ages are re- corded ; pages in which new proofs of wisdom and design are clearly manifest, and by which ev- ery observer is most eloquently invited to " look up through nature, up to nature's God." The crust of the earth, that part called its surface, and which is exposed to our notice, bears every where the most conclusive marks of change. — Examination of it proves that changes requirmg long periods of time for their completion ; changes involving the extermination as well as the creation of numerous races of animals and plants ; chan- ges which have* affected the nature of the earth in all succeeding times, and still exert the most powerful influence on the social condition of man, have followed each other, until the earth had be- come fit for man's residence and the six days' work of the Almighty was crowned by his crea- tion. To the lover of nature, the dust upon which he treads, has assumed a new value in consequence of the discoveries of geology. He sees that it has once literally lived ; that the flint of om' mountains, the red clays of our sea shores, the vast deposits in many of our swamps and bogs, as well as the myriad coral isles of the blue Pacific, are but the remains of the puny tribes who have done so much to change, and render habitable the face of our globe. He recognizes the great truth that Ufe is a series of combined existences from the simplest infusoria to man, in which the decay of the one, has formed the step for the sujjerior and more perfect organization of the next. Geology has shown that each step in the series is distinct ; that species of plants or animals never pass into each other ; that success- ive acts of creative power were exeiled as the earth became adapted for higher and more com- plicated organizations ; and that consequently there was a time when each species of plant and animal had a beginning, and the termination as well as the beginning of many, is marked with a distinctness not to be mistaken. The doctrines of eternal succession, or the formation of later species by successive developments of the ear- lier, to which some philosophers have fondly clung, are proved by geology to be inadmissible. It has been the custom with many to underrate the importance of geological studies, as though they led to no practical results, notwithstanding Sir J. F. Herschel has said " that next to astrono- my, there was no science the pursuit of which promised more utility, or led to more exalted views of God and nature." Geology in fact, does for time, what astronomy has done for space ; it carries us where all our methods of com- putation are lost, and we are lost in the infinite. — But it is not with the theoretical part of geology we have at present to do ; our business is with the earth as it is, and our object is to point out the manner in wliich the changes that have passed over the earth's surface have rendered it not only fit for the residence of man, but under the direc- tion of intelligence, of being vastly more pro- ductive than at present. To understand the relation which geology bears to agriculture, and the way in wliich it can be made subservient to its promotion, it is necessary to glance at some of the revelations which the science has made in regard to the structure and 72 Geology as connected with Agriculture. present condition of our globe. In tlie classifica- tion of the several strata of rocks that compose the crust of the earth, different writers on the subject have adopted different names for the suc- cessive masses ; but we ihall adopt the one which is most generally used, though less scientific than some of the other proposed nomenclatures, as un- derstood by all, and based on reasons derived from the strata themselves, and obvious to every ob- server. Rocks fi-om the lowest known, to those of the latest formation, are obviously divided into the stratified and the unstratified ; but for the ad- vantages of science, and the convenience of refer- ence, these have been subdivided into the Pri- mary, Transition, Secondary, Tertiary, Dilu- vium and Alluvium ; this enumeration beginning with the lowest or earliest rocks, and ending with the surface covering or soil. We much question, however, the necessity or propriety of separating the transition and secondary rocks, as there are many thmgs common to both ; and writers on geology are by no means agreed as to the point in the series where the separation should be made. The primary rocks, still beginning in the lowest part of the series, are granite, gneiss, mica slate, primary limestone, talcose slate, hornblende slate, quartz rocks, and clay slate. By some, all these rocks above the granite are termed metamorphic rocks, as they all, in some places, exhibit traces of stratification, while in others they appear destitute of this structure ; a difference supposed to be the result of partial fusion, great pressure, or both. — The lowest, granite, has always the same con- stitucnts, (quartz, felspar and mica,) is obviously crystaline in all its parts, and formed by the gradual cooling of a mass in a state of fusion. — In these rocks, the result of chemical and me- chanical agents alone are seen. Organic life ap. pears not to liave existed, at least no traces of or. ganization are now remaining. It is from these rocks that all the strata have been formed by de- composition and deposition, and consequently in tlieir essential mineral characters must partake more or less of the parent rocks. Tlic limestones of this group are usually crystaline, sometimes called saccharine, from their resemblance to coarse grained loaf sugar, and furnishing the most pui'e and beautiful marbles. That it has in many in- stances midergone fusion, is perfectly evident from its position and appearance in connection with other primary rocks, of which Prof. Emmons's Geological Report of St. Lawrence county in this State, exhibits some striking instances. A line drawn from Ogdensburgh soutli through tiie valley of the Black river, the Little Falls of the Mohawk, to the Delaware, where it touches the line of Pennsylvania, would divide tliis State in- to two great sections, the east of which would belong as a whole to the primary formation, while west of that line not a trace of that formation exists, except in the erratic blocks or boulders scattered over the surface. Above the primary group appears the transition, and here we enter upon a series in which the re- mains of organic life, low indeed in the scale, but still fife, becomes associated with the mineral or earthy constituents, of which tlie strata are com. posed. Those geological writers that separate tlie transition series from the secondary, usually draw the line between the transition limestones or the Silurian system of rocks, and the old red sand- stone : but Prof. Buckland says, " It is most con- venient to include in the transition series, all kinds of stratified rocks, from the earliest slates in which we find traces of animal or vegetable remains, to the termination of the great coal for- mation :" and the Palfeontologieal chart prefixed to Prof. Hitchcock's Elementary Geology, shows that in many respects the whole of the transition and secondary series might, with propriety, be classed together. The principal difference will be found in the fact, that the animal remains in earlier rocks of the transition, though nearly al- lied in genera, will be found of different species in the more recent portions of that and the secondary groups. To the vegetation, rank and luxuriant of this period of time, are we indebted for the immense beds of coal which are now contributing so much to the comfort and prosperity of man ; and in these beds, and their associated rocks, we"; trace the characters that marked their species, and their peculiarities. The plants, trees, &.c, were such as are now tropical, and their magnitude, foliage, and numbers, demonstrate that the condi- tions of their growth in respect to heat, moisture, soil, &c, were of the most favorable, or rather forcing kind. In this earliest state of animal ex- istence, we find the Verterbrata, Mollusca, Arti- culata and Radiata, though ah are of the simplest forms ; for instance of the first only fishes ; of the second, many genera or families, such as the Or. thoceratic, Producta, Nautilus, Terebratulee, and others, some of which are extinct, while others have continued through all the formations ; of the third, the Trilobites, a family now extinct ; and of the fourth, there are abundant traces, of which the Crinoidea or lily shaped animals, affords spe- cimens of great beauty. If we include in a sin- gle series both the transition and secondary, the rocks in the ascending order will be the Cambrian or graywacke system, or older fossiliferous rocks ; the Silurian system., or graywacke slate and tran- sition limestones ; old red sandstone ; carbonifer- ous limestones ; coal formation ; new red sand- stone ; lias ; oolitic system ; green sand, and chalk. According to this classification, that part of this State, west of the line described above, would embrace all the rocks from the upper lim- its of the primary, to the lower series of the great coal formation, this series not being fairly reached until the State of Pennsylvania is entered. Next succeeding the transition and secondary rocks, is the tertiary formation, in which the strata have been alternately deposited by bodies of salt and fresh water, as it proved by their organic re- mains. What are termed the marine strata, have their fossiliferous remains exclusively such as are found in the sea, and the fresh water strata show remains peculiar to fresh water. Indeed, in both cases, the fossil ''animals are such as are now found in the seas and lakes of the globe, in far the greatest number of instances, thus proving that the changes which have caused these formations, are comparatively recent, and bringing both the animal and vegetable remains nearer to ©ur own times and existing species, than in the strata that have preceded them. The tertiary series has ex- cited a very great influence on the surface, in fit- ting it for the residence and support of man. Geology as cormected with Agriculture. 73 Nearly all that part of the middle or southern States, lying between the first ranges of hills and the sea coast, belongs to the tertiary. It embraces the rich marls and green sands, which, in New- Jersey and other places, have proved such effi- cient fertihzers of the soil. This green sand is found in various countries, and as some doubts hove been entertained as to the principle most active in its aid to vegetation, we copy from Professor Hitchcock's Elementary Geology the analysis of specimens from different countries. Silica Protoxide of Iron Alumina Water Potassa Lime Magnesia Manoranese French green sand, by M. Berthier. 50.0 21.0 7.0 11.0 10.9 English sand, by Prof. Turner. Massachusetts sand, by Dr. L. S. Dana. 48.5 22.0 17.0 7.0 traces. 3.8 traces, loss. 56.700 20.100 13.520 7.000 1.624 1.176 0.080 New Jersey sand, by Professor H. D* Rogers. 49.27 24.67 7.71 5.91 9.99 5.08 Potassa has been claimed as the sole fertilizing ingredient in this tertiary deposit ; but, if such is tlie case, the sand of England and Massachusetts should be worthless. It is probable the oxide of iron, lime, and alumina assist the action, and are beneficial without the alkali, although that would seem to be the most powerful agent in the deposit. " Throughout all this period," sa3'S Dr. Buckland, there seems to hitVe been a continually increasing provision for the diffusion of animal life, and we have certain evidence of the character and num- bers of the creatures that were permitted to enjoy it, in the multitude of shells and bones preserved in the strata of the tertiary formation. The formation which succeeds the tertiary, is called diluvium, a word which implies that it has resulted from a deluge or deluges, but there is no good evidence that such is the fact. This depos- it has received various names, such as diluvium, erratic rock, group, boulder formation, and more lately, drift, which latter term expresses its char- acter, as it generally exists, better than any oth- j cr. Of this great mass, which covers most of ; the surface of the habitable globe. Prof. Hitchcock j remarks, " That it is composed-of sand and grav- j el, of different degrees of comminution, mixed j together in just the manner that violent currents of I water would do it. This gravel is not often de- | rived from the rocks beneath it, but from those at [ the distance of several miles, and in this country, i usually from ledges which lie in a northwesterly direction. The surface of this gravel is often scooped out into deep basin-shaped depressions, and raised into corresporvding elevations, the dif- ference of level being from 20 or 30, to 100 or 200 feet." Where the decomposed rocks which have formed diluvium, belong to the clay, slates or shales, so much clay will be mixed with the mass of coarse gravel and sand, as to render it very compact and hard. Of this natm'e is the crag of the English geologists, and the hard pan of our farmers ; the character of which, it will be seen at once, must be determined by the na- ture of the strata from which the mass is derived, and the proportion the several constituents bear to each other. In examining deposits of alluvi- imi, the coarse pebbles and gravel will usually be found at the bottom, then clay, and at the sur- face, sand. If the clay is absent in drift to any considerable extent, the mass will of consequence be very porous and dry ; if clay is in too great abimdance, it is retentive of water, and, as a natural result, wet. There is still another group, or stratified depos- it, which is the result of causes now in action, and which materially modifies the surface of the earth , this is called alluvium. Modern geoloodsts place the following among alluvial deposits, or classify them as belonging to this group. Soil, sand, peat, marl, tufa or travertm, coral reefs, si- liceous sinter, siliceous marl, or the skeletons of infusoria, bitumen, sulphate of lime, hydrate of iron, hydrate of manganese, chloride of sodium, geic compounds, sandstones, conglomerates, &c. From this enumeration it will be seen that alluvi- um in some form, acts a most important part, and should be well understood by those who would determine the condition, geological character, and quality, of soils. Alluvium is most frequently un- derstood to mean only those depositions made by rivers, of rich friable earth ; such as the banks of the Lower Mississippi, Po, Nile and Ganges, or in a more limited degree, by most small rivers on which what are called interval lands are found. It will be seen, that used as a geological term, its mean- ing is much more comprehensive. As all soils are made from the disintegration and decomposition of the rocks into earth, and then united with decayed organic matter, either animal or vegetable, a knowledge of the primitive materials from which the several stratified series of rocks are formed, will much assist in deter- mining the character of the soils above them, or originating from thein. Chemists have detected some fifty-three or four simple substances in ths earth, or substances as yet incapable of further division, but there are of these only sixteen that are of any considerable account in the formation of the crust of the globe ; and nearly all of these enter into the combinations in which they exist, not in their simple state, but as binary compounds. The following will show the names of the sixteen simple substances that we have said constitute tlia greater part of the globe. 1, Metalloids or the bases of the Earths and Alkalies. 1. Silicium. 4. Sodium. 2. Aluminium. 5. Magnesium. 3. Potassiimi. 6. Calcium. 74 Geology as eonnected with Agriculture. 1. 1. Silica. 2. Alumina. 3. Lime. 4. Magnesia. 5. Potassa. 2. Metals Proper. 1. Iron. 2. Manganese. 3, Non-metallic Substances. Oxygen. 5. Sulphur. 2. Hydrogen. 6. Chlorine. 3. Nitrogen. 7. Fluorine. 4. Carbon. 8. Phosphorus. The followuig are the binary compounds that constitute nearly all the accessible parts of the globe :■ ' •■■ 6. Soda. 7. Oxide of Iron. 8. Oxide of Manganese. 9. Water. 10. Carbonic acid.* These compounds are termed binary, because they are composed of two of the simple substances ; indeed it requires the utmost skill of the chemist to exhibit the base of these compomids in the se- parate state. This silica is composed of 52 parts of silicium, and 48 of oxygen ; alumina of .53 parts aluminium, and 47 of oxygen ; and the other compounds in a similar manner. Thus it will be seen that oxygen constitutes nearly one- half of the ponderable matter of the globe. It has also been estimated that its crust contains 45 per cent, of silica ; 10 per cent, of alumina ; 15 per cent, of carbonate of lime ; 3 per cent, of oxide of iron ; some of the unstratified rocks, such as fels- par, contain from 10 to 14 per cent, of potassa, and the stratified rocks contain it in considerable quantities ; while some basalts contain (i per cent, of soda, and this compound enters extensively into the composition of the ocean. The other com- pomids are diffused more or less extensively, and though in small proportions, contribute essentially to the quantities of the earths, and their formation into soils. In the following table No. 1, is shown the pro- portion of the metahc base to the oxygen in some of the most important rocks ; and in table No. 2, the amount of silica and alumina in the predomi- nant rocks of the primitive class ; 100 parts of rock in each case being employed. t No. 1. Granite, Basalt, Gneiss, Clay slate,. Sandstone,.. Limestone,. Base. I Oxygen. 52 1 57 I 52 54 49 to 53 52, 48 43 47 46 47 to 51 48 No. 2. Granite, Greenstone, Basalt, Compact felspar,.. Gneiss, Mica slate, Hornblende Rock Talcose slate,.. Silica. 60.40 54.86 52.00 55.50 70.96 67.50 54.86 78.15 Alumina. 12.34 16.56 14.12 21.00 15.20 14.26 15.56 13.20 * Those who wisk to investigate this subject further are referred to the Geological works of Lyell, Hitchcock and Bakewell. t For the groundwork of these tables see Phillips and De la Beches' works on Geology, and Hitchcock's excellent Elementary volume on the same subject. These tables will show in what manner, and from what sources the soil derives the respective proportions of its principal earthly ingredients; and where soils can, as thej' may in very many instances, be traced to the rocks fonning them, the peculiar characters and qualities belonging to it may be determined with much certainty. — Eight or nine simple minerals only, constitute the great mass of all rocks. Quartz, felspar, mica, hornblende, carbonate of lime, talc, augite, and serpentine. Other minerals sometimes exist, as gypsum, common salt, coal, bitmncn, pyrites, oxide of iron, &c, &c, which though fomid in small quantities, are not without their effect in modifying soils, so as to materially affect their productiveness. It will be found that far the greater part of the population of the globe inhabit those parts covered with the transition, secondary, and tertiary for- mations, or matter on the soil that has been pro- duced from the disintegration and decomposition of these rocks. In the language of Professor Buckland, " The process is obvious, whereby even sohd rocks are converted into soil fit for the main- tenance of vegetation, by simple exposure to at. mospheric agency ; the dismtegration produced by the vicissitudes of heat and cold, moisture and dryness, reduces the surface of ahnost any strata - to a comminuted state of soil, or mould, the ferti- lity of wliich is usually in proportion to the com- pomid nature of its ingredients." But whatever may be the character of the rock, examination shows that when sufficiently disintegrated, and combined with the proper quantity of decayed animal or vegetable matter, fertility to some extent will be induced. Sand, clay and lime, are the three principal in- gredients of all soils, and on the proper propor- tions, and intermixture of these, the quaUties of all cultivated lands may be said to be depending. Either of them alone, and in a state of purity, is comparatively barren ; but when the mixtirre is effected as by the addition of clay to sand, ferti- hty is ensured. The more thoroughly this com- minution and intermixture has taken place, the better will be the soil produced, as from the pro- portion in the primitive rocks of the globe, which the three principal earths bear to each other, it is clear a full mixture of those derived from them will give most usually the proportions necessary for productiveness. It is one of the most beauti- ful illustrations of design in the order of nature, that wliile the granitic or primitive rocks on their first disintegration are less favorable to cultivation and production than those from later formations, they are for the most part confined to mountains or moiuitain districts ; while the lower, level, more temperate, and easily cultivated regions are com- posed of the dismtegrated masses constituting diluvimii ajid alluvium. There is no conceivable way in which the thorough mixture of the earths, so requisite to fertility, could have been accom- plished so effectually as by the breaking up, and grinding down, which is the result of repeated dis- integrations and depositions. On these previous processes of nature, the whole tillage of the soil is suspended ; and without them there could have been no agriculture. The masses of fossiUferous rocks, embracing the whole series from the lower transition to the Geology as connected with Agriculture. ys upper tertiary, have had their thickness variously estimated by geologists. Tlie principal sources of diifcrencc lie in the lower transition, while all above present a remarkable miiformity. Prof. Philhps's estimate oftlic thicliness of these fossili- ferous rocks, is the lowest, being about 34,000 feet or more than six miles ; while the greatest is that of Dr. Smith, which is 142,800 feet or not far from 27 miles. In these, we trace the progress of organized life, from the simplest and half vital- ized {X)lypi and coldblooded animals, and the marine plants or fucoids, up by regular or scarcely interrupted gradations, and the successive devel- opments of higher and more complicated organ- izations, till the earth had been fitted for the abode of man ; and the last and crowning act of creative energy placed him upon it, as master of the whole. From the deptlis of these series of rocks, entombed for countless ages, v.'e draw forth remains which the skill of a Cuvier has placed bone to bone, and exhibited forms so dissimilar to those now existing on tlie earth, that nothing save their veritable skeletons before us, would induce a belief in the possibility of such organization. " The peculiar feature in the population of the whole series of secondary strata," says Prof. Buckland, "was the prevalence of numerous, and gigantic forms of saurian reptiles. 3Iany of these were exclusively marine, otliers amphibious : others wcmc terrestrial, ranging in savannas and jimgles, clothed v/itli a tropical vegetation, or basking on the margin of estuaries, lakes and rivers. Even the air was tenanted by flying lizards, imder the dragon foiin ofPterodactyles. The earth was at that time, it is probable, too, much covered with water, and those portions of land which had emerged above the surface, were too fsequently agitated by earth- quakes, inundations, and atniosj)hcric irregulari- ties, to be extensively occupied by any higher or- der of quadrupeds than reptiles." Tliese perished plants had produced those beds of coal, which we axe now using ; and these uncouth reptiles have elaborated many of those substances, which in the soils formed from the decomposition of their en- closing strata, constitute no trifling element in their fertility. Of the thickness of the unstratified rocks, we of course have no possible means of deciding. — That it is very great, there can be no doubt ; and this is proved by the examination in many places of the masses of primary rock, and their inclina- tion to the horizon. Thus, Professor Pallas, notices in the peninsula of Tauris, an unbroken series of primary strata, which, after making al- lowance for their inclination, would give a per- pendicular thickness of more than 68 miles ; and according to Prof. Hitchcock, the railroad from Boston to Albany, in passing from Wcstfield to Pittsfield, is carried over strata of primary rocks, nearly perpendicular, for at least 20 miles. If, as is now generally supposed, the interior of the globe is in a state of fusion, or scmifusion, it is probable this crystalized crust extends from the surface to the point of fusion ; and although in penetrating the earth, the increase of temperature is such as to justify the opinion that an intense heat must exist in the interior of our planet, the different action of heat when under great pres- sure, and when free, docs not enable us to decide positively the present thickness of the earth's crust. Reasoning from different data, or difl^er- ent series of experiments, philosophers have vari- ously estimated the thickness of this crystalized mass, from 150 to 2.50 miles in thickness. The processes by which soils are formed, suita- ble for the purposes of agricultiu-e, would appear something like the following. All the earths must have been derived from the disintegration and dc. composition of the primary or crystaUzed rocks. They could have had no other origin. Deposited in the waters of the earliest seas, the abode of the first created animals and plants, the successive layers and strata of the lower transition, or fossili- ferous rocks were deposited. That there should have been a state of great quietude existuig in the elements at this period, is evident from the perfect state or condition of the organized remains of this series, proving that they lived and died without experiencing those great convulsions which mark a later period of deposit. The regu- larity of the strata is further evidence of this fact. When these strata were, by some convulsions of the earth, lifted from the seas in which they were deposited, a new series of disintegration com- menced, of which the transition, rather than the primary, were the subjects. Now the secondary and the carboniferous strata were deposited, and that too, it would seem in great degree under the same conditions of quiet watejs as in the former case. Succecduig revolutions broke up the new formed rocks, and exposed both them, and the older ones, to fresh disintegration and deposi- tion. In this way, the tertiary and upper rocks were produced, abounding in proofs of organic hfe ; but frequently in such conditions as to show that the changes to which the earth was subject, were sudden and violent. The action of currents, glacial action, and the influence of atmospheric causes now appear, in the masses of drift, diluvial matter, boulders, &c, v.liich cover the whole sur- face of the earth, with few exceptions ; and ex- hibit the most abundant evidence, that organiza- tion in plants and animals, had reached a point rendering the globe a fit residence for man, and on which wc now find him, the last created, and most largely endowed resident. That the earths vvliich constitute the basis of soils, and form the groundwork of agriculture, were derived from the original primary rocks, is so apparent that no one seriously thinks of con- troverting the fact. The repeated chanofes and disintegration, large masses of them have been subjected to since that time, have so mingled the original constituents, as to destroy, in a great degree, their original character, while at the same time they are much better fitted for the purposes of the agriculturist, than they could otherwise have been. There is one great error, hov/ever, into wliich geological writers have fre- quently fallen ; and that is, while the formation of soils is achnitted to be owing to the disinteirra- tion of rocks, they are supposed invariably to re- semble the strata lying immediately under them. In some few instances, this may possibly be the case, but they arc so rare, and produce so little in- fluence on the agricultural character of a country, that they are hardly worth taking into account. On the contrary, the course of the currents, or the action of those causes that have produced and deposited the drift or diluvial covering of the 76 Geology as connected with Agriculture. globe, must be taken into consideration, if cor- rect results would be arrived at ; since on these the fitness or unfitness of a soil for culture is mainly depending^. The direction of that action which has produced the drift on this continent, and fashioned its sur- face, whether we suppose it to have been diluvial currents, or the movements of glaciers, is so clear, that no room for doubt is remaining. Pebbles, boulders, or masses of rock, since the geological structure of the country has been mvestigated, can be readily traced to their original beds, no matter where Ibimd, and the course in which they have moved since their first breaking up, is also the course of the action to which their removal is owing. Throughout the whole American conti- nent, from Nova Scotia to the Rocky Mountains, this action has been from the north to the south, with occasional slight deflections owing to local causes. This is proved by the boulders, which not only are found invariably to the south of tlie places from which they v.^ere derived, but are larger and more numerous near their original location, than farther from it. Thus, the whole of the vast transition formation which reaches from the Little-fulls of the Mohawk in tliis State to the Rocky Mountains, embracing the valley of the great lakes of the St. Lawrence, and the upper valley of the Mississippi and its tributary branches is covered with boulders from the primitive rocks to the north of the territory named. Thus, Mr. Catlin found at the famed Red Pipe stone quarrj', beyond the Mississippi river, granite rocks of 25 feet in diameter, that must have drifted several hundred miles from the north ; and boulders arc seen on the banks of the Ohio, derived from the primitive ranges north of the lakes, and which, therefore, must have traversed at least 500 miles. The same facts, according to Lyell, Greenough, and De la Beche, occm" on the continent of Em'ope, proving the existence of a similar action, whatever that might have been. It is to this action, that the polished and grooved rocks of such large sections of our country are owing, showing existing forces sufficient to round or grind down the hardest masses. This action has excavated the beds of the great lakes, as well as the parallel valleys and smaller lakes of Western New- York, and sjnead the diluvial matter, so formed, over districts farther south. This will be evident to aO who have examined the country with a view to its agricultural character as de- pending on its formation. In crossing the State ti-om north to south, a variety of rock formations are passed, or rather ascended, sandstones, lime- stones, shales, &c, in various alterations, yet not a particle of these are foimd north of the beds where they originated, but the drift is invariably to the south. This fact has had a vast mfluencc on the agricultural character and capability of the west, materially determining the nature of the soil, and its productions. The intimate intermixture which the changes before spoken of have produced on the quality of soils, is one great cause of the power of producmg vegetation which exists in most masses of earth to a considerable distance below the surface. At the period of the formatiom of drift, plants and animals had long existed on the earth, and the efSecte of their deposition and decomposition has pervaded the whole mass. Soils made from the sedimentary rocks, are with few exceptions more fruitful than those from the primary ones. There is not, however, in all cases the same fertility, or power of producing vegetation, in the earths. In some cases it exists only on the surface or very near it ; in others, earth thrown from a depth of ten or twenty feet will be as productive as surface earth. If the upper deposites are porous, it is uniformly found that the elements of fertility will be deep, thus sliowing that the ingredients that render ths soil fertile, such as humus or vegetable maniu"es, or salts, are carried downwards througli the diluvium by infiltration. This will account in part for the different effects which earths taken at the same depths below the surface, as in dig- ging wells, ditches, &c, in different places will produce. In some places the character of the deposite is such that the fertilizing matter pro- duced in a succession of ages, has made no im- pression, but either remains on the surface in the shape of muck, or has been carried off by the ac- tion of the elements ; dense pan is of this descrip- tion. If thrown upon the surface of cultivated lands it remains unfertile for a year or two, until by the action of the elements, by aeration and disintegration, the unfavorable qualities are miti- gated or changed. In other places the earth thrown out and spread on the surface, possesses so largely the essential elements of fertility, that it serves as a top dressing of manure, and adds largely to the crops grown. The western States are examples of tliis depth of fertile soil, and instances else, where may be adduced. AVhere such soils lie on a limestone basis, the common impression is that the depth, whatever it may be, is owing to the disintegration of the lime rock. This is errone- ous, as such soils in many cases do not contain more lime than others, and the fertility to such dejjths is owing to then mechanical composition, their dryness, and consequent vvarmth. Some very compact clays are found to serve well as a top dressing on soils, but then- efficiency will, in nearly every case, be found on examination to be depending on the lime they contain, thus making them a marl. Wliere this is not the case, if spread over porous sands the efibct is excellent. The fine farm formerly owned by Judge Buel, near Albany, is an example of this, and shows that where the mechanical mixture of the earth is not of the proper kind for fertility it may be corrected, and the mass rendered productive in the highest degree. Tlie sand plains between Albany and Sche- nectady are geologically constituted on the surface, of light drifting sands to the depth of thirty to fifty feet ; this rests on clay from seventy to one hun- dred and twenty feet in thickness ; and this on the common rock of the region. To correct the sandy character of the soil, wliich had hitherto been deemed almost hopeless. Judge Buel trans- ported from the clay hills of Albany a quantity of that material (which in addition to the clay is rich in Hme) as a dressing for liis sands, and thus secured the tenacity requisite for the retention of moisture, and the proper action of manures. It may be remarked here as a geological fact of much interest to the fanner, that where the sur- face is a sand, the underlying strata is a clay, such as when mixed with the upper strata or soil, will make an excellent one for tUlage and cropping. Geology as connected with Agriculture. 77 Tliat the soils now existing could not have been formed from the rocks immediately below them, is evident from the fact that a large portion of the transition rocks of this State have their upper surface now smooth and polished, exhibiting no marks of decomposition, but only of abrasion. This is not the case with the limestone and harder rocks only, such as those of Rochester and Lock- port, but large tracts of the Marcellus shales, one of the softest and most easily decomposed rocks in tlie series, presents a similar appearance. We have seen this highly smoothed and grooved or striated surface on the high lulls in the south part of Onondaga county, eight or nine hundred feet above the level of the Erie Canal, and pol- i&hed boulders of the same rock are frequently seen in or on the drift to the south of thek original j)osition. This movement of the diluvium or drift to the south, explains the cause why clay soil is sometimes found on sandstone rocks, sandy soils on the limestone strata, or a strong limestone soil on the shales. It also explains the reason why the character of soils in tlie same neighbor- hood or town should sometimes differ so widely, these things depending on the action of the cur- rents, their freedom or obstruction. Thus, for in- stance, we know a town lying above, or to the south of the great range of mountain or crinoidal limestone that traverses the State from east to west, or from the Helderberg to Buffalo. The western half of the northern front of that town shows a gradual descent to the limestone strata, interposing no obstacle to currents or the transpor- tation of drift ; while a deep valley of some two miles in width, and showing a south boundary of some six hundred feet elevation, cuts ofT the east- ern half of the town from the same strata. The result is as well marked in the character of the soil, and its adaption to particular crops, as in the timber and natural growth of the two sections. The west half, or that which presented no ob- stacle to the transportation of drift, was covered with oak and chesnut. On the shale rock, which forms the substratum of the whole town, Umestone boulders are so plentiful that they arc collected and burned for lime ; the soil is a fertile loam, shallow, but producing large crops of excellent wheat; in short, it exhibits all those characteris- tics which mark the soils lying immediately south of the limestone series of rocks in other parts of the district. The east half of the town, on the contrary, that part where the diluvial action was obstructed by the deep valley alluded to, though of the same elevation as the other, has a widely different constituted soil from the west. The timber is beech and maple, the subsoil a dense clay hardpan, no limestones or but very few arc found, the surface soil is a muck instead of loam, and the culture of wheat is much less profitable or certain than on the western half. It is excellent for grass or for spring grain, but the quantity of clay in soil produces the same effect that it does on lands still further removed from the effect of the limestone series, and renders wheat very liable to be frozen out diu-ing the winter. The drift which should have been spread over the cast part of that town, isnovv- lying piled in large masses cov- ering hundreds of acres, and from one to two hundred feet in bight, in the valley below, evi- dently deposjtvd by the cddicL;, or deflexions of the currents, wliich the mountain front of the town to the north of this place caused. Nor is this a solitary instance of the influence which opposing obstacles have had in the distribution of drift, and thereby determining in no mconsiderable dc gree the agricultural nature of soil. It is to the proper mixtm-e of a few of the earths already named, and the combination with those of humus, or decomposed animal and vege- table matter, that fertility is owmg. A variety of experuncnts have been made by different men, to form artificial soils, or by differently compomid- ing the earths, ascertain that mixture the best suited to vegetation. Tlie experiments of Tillet resulted as follows : the most fertile mixture he could produce was composed of three-eighths clay, three-eighths finely pulverized limestone, and two-eighths of sand. I'hese reduced to their elements gave of coarse sand 25 parts, silica 21 parts, alumina 16.5 parts, carbonate of hme 37.5 pai-ts. The quantity and lund of vegetable mat- ter incorporated is not stated. It is certain that the most careful examination of arable sods does not give any thing like the quantity of carbonate of lime used by Tillet ; and it is therefore right to infer that the proportion of lime was far greater than is necessary, when combhicd as we find it in the soil, to promote the highest fcrtiUty. A knowledge of the constituent parts of soils will show how they are geologically as well as practi- cally combined to be suitable for cultivation ; for if, owing to geological position, any single ingre- dient is in too great proportion, such soil will fail in some essential respects. We shall therefore present an analysis of soils from different parts of the world, to show that the necessary and general elements of fertihty are every where the same. An analysis by Chaptal, of some fertile alluvi- on on the Loire, gave in ] 00 parts : Siliceous gravel 32 SUica 10 Calcareous gravel 11 Carbonate of lime 19 Alumina 21 Vegetable matter 7 Davy, in his Agricultural Chemistry, page''162, gives an analysis of a fine wheat soil, Middlesex, England : Carbonate of lime 28 Silica 32 Alumina 29 Animal or vegetable matter 11 The following is the analysis of a soil on the farm of E. Phinney, Esq., Massachusetts, culti- vated for more than 100 years, made by Dr. Jack- son. By comparing that soil with others on the same farm in a native state, it contains more sol- uble humus, and has consequently been improved by culture, a state which should always be the re- suit of farming or tilling of a soil. Vegetable matter, 8.9 Insoluble silicates, 81 .2 Peroxide of iron, 4.3 Alumina, 4.0 Phosphate of lime, 1.0 A specimen of the rich alluvion of the Nile was analyzed by B. Silliman, Jr. and gave the following result : 78 Geology as connected with Agriculture. Veffetable matter, 6.90 Sillx, 47.39 Alumina, 32 . 10 Peroxide of iron , 11.20 PJiospliatc and crcnatc of lime 2 . 02 Dr. Jackson analyzed a specimen from the bank of tliQ MiBsiseii)pi, 100 miles above New- Orleans, and obtained these results : Water absorption, 3.9 Vegetable matter, 3.6 Peroxide of iron and alumina, 7.0 Carb. phos. and crenate of lime, 2.8 Insoluble silicates, 8] .4 The same gentleman also analyzed a very rich soil from Batavia, in the East Indies. Tlie ve- getable matter in this, makes it resemble the muck soils of some part of the west. Water of absorption, 7.8 Vegetable matter, 24 . 9 Peroxide of iron, 7.9 Alumina, 14.8 Phosphate and crenate of lime, 2.0 Magnesia, 0.3 Insoluble silicates, 43 . A specimen of the best river alluvion from the Hudson, near Troy, analyzed by Prof. Eaton, gave the following : Silex, (including small stones and pebbles,) ...75 Alumina, 7 Carbonate of Hme, 3 Animal and vegetable matter, 11 Soluble salts, 1 Water of absorption, 3 The follov/ing is an analysis by Prof. Hitch- cock of 5 specimens of soils from the western states. Under the heads of soluble and insoluble geine, will be found the animal and vegetable matter of these soils. Rushville, Illmois,... Sangamon, do Lazelle, do Peoria, do .. Sciota Valle y, Ohio, ■ a; 7.4 4.9 7.6 3.1 4.5 5.6 13.8 4.8 6.7 -f2 3.4 1.2 1.4 3.5 2.1 0.6 0.4 0.4 1.0 0.9 1.5 1.3 3.3 84.6 86.6 73.5 87.6 83.5 0.3 6.3 8.5 5.8 5.3 The soil from Lazelle had never been cropped, wliile that from the Sciota had produced corn 14 years successively, without manm-e. The following analysis was made by Dr. Lap- ham, civil engineer, of the soil from a part of liis father's farm, on a branch of Mad river, Ohio, wliich by constant croppmg, without regard to rotation, had been so reduced as to be unfit for wheat. Water of absorption, 6 Organic matter, 3 Siliceous matter, °" Alumina, ° Peroxide of iron, ^ An examination of these several analyses will show that siUca, lime and sand are present, as the principal earths in all soils; that the fertility is greatly depending on the amount of vegetable matter ; and that where either of the earths is in excess, or wanting comparativeness, barrenness ;s the result. Chaptal fomid that when the clay in a soil exceeded 50 per cent, it was imfit for culti- vation, and that all over 20 per cent, niight be considered rather injurious than otherwise. On the contrary, most fertile soils contain from 60 to 80 per cent, of silica, unless in cases where it is replaced by calcareous gravel. Some soils which had been abandoned on account of the amount of sand they contained, have been rendered fer- tile by placing on them small quantities of clay ; proving that where other circumstances are favor- able, a small amoimt of claj' will give the re- quired tenacity, prevent the too rapid descent of manures, and secure the proper suppl}"^ of moist- ure. Soils that contain too much alumina are very heavy and retentive, and are apt to be wet i and cold. AVhere there is a large supply of hme gravel, as in the soil analyzed by Davy, a larger per cent, of clay is admissible, and frequently proves one of the best in the world for Avheat, as is proved by the analysis, and crops of some of our best wheat districts. The absence of either of these essential earths will prevent fertility, as tlic want of lime in that of Mr. Lapham pre- vented the growth of wheat ; a result to have been expected from the arialj'sis of other non- wheat jjroducing soils. If soils were uniformly produced by the disinte- gration of the subsoil strata, those on limestone would be the richest in that element of fertility. Such, however, is not the case ; and strange as it may seem, there are some soils lying on limestone rocks which do not contain the least appreciable quality of that article. This may easily be ac- counted for by the fact that in the transportation of diluvium we have described, that which now rests on the limestone came from strata that con- tained little or no lime. Sand is so much more generally diffused in all rocks than in the otjier earths, that it is scarcely possible to find a soil where if is not present, and some of the most fer. tile districts arc those where the sand has been ce- mented by lime, making, wlien broken up, cal- careous sand. The State of New-York fujnishcs examples of all kinds of soils ; those produced from every va- riety of formation, and of almost every shade of intermixture. The lower counties on the Hud- son river, and the territory between Lake Cham- plain and the Black river, now mostly a wilder- ness, are examples of primitive formations to a great extent. The soil of the river counties, a Geology as eonnecled with Agriculture. 79 though formed in a great measure of greinltc, gravel and sand, has been so incorporated with me drift from tlie transition series, that the mix- tuit makes one of the most fertile soils, when properly manured and cultivated. Morton, in his excellent work on soils, remarks that those kinds of granite rocks which contain large quan- tities of felspar, are from the potash they contain, liable to decomposition when exposed to atmos- pheric agencies ; and when mixed with the quartz of the granite, the clay of the felspar, and well manured with calcareous matter, sea shells, lime, &.C, form soils most productive of wheat and bar- Prof. Hitchcock, in his Economical Geology of Massachusetts, says, that " the compact fel- spar that forms the basis of porphyry, frequently contains an unusually large proportion of alumi- na, frequently from 15 to 30 per cent. And al. though this is the hardest of the rocks around Boston, in many places it decomposes rapidly, and the resulting soil admits of high cultivation, as at Medford and Lynn." The condition of our primitive districts proves in a great degree the correctness of these opinions. The agricultural settlements bordering on the great granitic forma- tion north of Montgomery and Saratoga coun- ties, and west ©f Champlain, have proved that their soils, evidently the result of the decomposi- tion of granite or felspathic rocks, require noth- ing but the liming and manuring spoken of by Morton, to render them most fertile ; and the liigh state of cultivation in some of the river counties is proof of what such soils ai'e capable in the hands of the skilful farmer. Soils of this class in all countries have been found very durable, a fact which Liebig explains from the abundance of potash contained in the felspar, and which is given out by gradual decomposition. SoUs from the gneiss rocks are usually of an inferior quality to the granitic ones, from the felspar being fre- quently in a less proportion, and consequently the clay and potash of that mineral being wanting. Where the gneiss contains abundance of felspar, the soil has no perceptible difference from the best granite ones, and when treated in the same man- ner will be equally productive. Some of the best root soils in the world are from this rock, for in- stance the celebrated carrot and parsnip sods of Guernsey and Alderney ; where the latter root is produced in greater perfection than any where else. The great transition formation of western New- York furnishes examples of all the soils which such rocks can produce, from the coarsest peb- bles to the most compact clay ; soils in which comminuted limestone forms a large proportion, and that which is destitute of this element ; soils varying from the lightest sands to the heaviest clays. On these the agricidtiu'ist finds soils adapted to every product, and capable of every modification and course of culture. There can be no question but that a natural difference exists in the soils of this formation, and the line is very distinctly marked in many respects by the water shed that separates the streams of the lakes from those of the Susquehannah and Ohio. It will be found that the soils on the northern or lake slope are much better adapted to the production of corn, wheat, clover, &c, than those on the southern one, or rather on that part watered by the streams that flow southwardly ; and there can be no doubt that this difference is caused by the geological structure of the two sections. On the northern slope, in the course of thirty miles, no less than three distinct deposits of lime rock are found, two of them of great thickness, besides several minor deposits. Indeed, the whole mass, sandstones and shales, contain so much lime as to effervesce freely with acids. I'he first of these is the depos- it which forms the falls of Niagara, in which the quarries of Lockport are found, whicli causes the falls of the Genesee at Rochester, and crosses in its course eastward the Oswego river at Fulton. The second deposit is the one which may be traced from Black Rock througli the counties of Genesee, Livingston, Ontairo, Seneca, Cayuga, Onondaga, Madison, &c. This mass is of great thickness, and has produced the greatest effects on the agricultural character of the soils in these comities. The Oriskany sandstone strata, which lies between this deposit and the gypseous one^ is made of coarse sand cemented by lime, and when mixed with the marly or gypseous clays from the shales lower m the series, or to the north, gives an excellent soil, wherever its influence is felt from Oneida to Ontario. The upper deposit of limestone is the one called the Tully limestone, and is of limited extent and thickness, compared with the others. This deposit extends from the vicmity of Cazcnovia westward across the coun- ties of Onondaga, Cayuga, and part of Tomp- kins and Seneca. The mass called by the State Geologists, IMai'cellus shales, some seven or eiglit hundred feet in thickness, lies between the Tully limestone and tiie Onondaga or crinoidal lime- stones. From the Tully Imiestone deposit there is not another till the carboniferous deposits of Pennsylvania are reached, leaving a district of some forty miles in width destitute of this rock. The rock strata of this transition district of New- York furnishes in the red shale that lies between the gypseous formation and the Rochester series of lime rock, and in which the lead of the Onon- daga and Oneida lakes are mostly excavated, a curious instance of the manner in which a depos- it will run out, allowing the strata above and be- low to come in contact, while at another they are widely separated. Thus this red shale depos- it, which, from Oneida to Onondaga or Cayuga, is not less than three or four hundred feet in thick- ness, disappears to the west, and at the Genesee river and the Niagara, allows the gypseous shales to rest immediately upon the Lockport or Roches- ter limestones. The result is, that the beds of reddish clay, which are so common in the coun- ties east of Ontario, and which have been pro- duced from the decomposition of the red shale strata, are not known at the west, where the stra- ta has disappeared. No one who is acquainted with the character of the soil, and their agricultural capabilities, in these two sections of western New- York, that is, the northern and southern, will hesitate to ascribe the difference to their different geological origin. The influence of the lime deposits on the lake slope is too obvious to be mistaken ; and the con- sequence of its absence on the part watered by the streams flowing south is equally certain. The vegetation is in some respects dissimilar, and the 80 Geologi/ as connected with Agriculture. agricultural products are to a considerable extent, distinct. In short, there are few districts in any conntry where the influence of geological strata on the soil and its agi'iculture is more marked, or can be studied to better advantage, than in wes. tern New- York. A knowledge of tlie geological character of soils, and the position of the strata from which they are derived is of great consequence to the farmer. By this he can in a great measure de- termine their capabilities, their essential elements, and the changes it is necessary thej' should un- dergo m order to the greatest fertility. The stra- ta and the sub-strata, the diluvial deposits, the course of the currents from which they were de- rived, the mechanical constitution and condition, with their different degrees of porosity or tenaci- ty, are all to be geologically considered. There are, it is well known, some soils called hungry, or which absorb all the manures and other substan- ces put upon them by the farmer with such ra- pidity and so little effect that their cultivation with profit niay be considered as almost hopeless. To the superficial observer sucli soils do not greatly differ in appearance from another class of soUs which constitute one of the most valuable and productive. To the geological character of the strata from wliich these soils are derived this dif- ference is to be traced. Siliceous gravel or sand from roclis loosely cemented will, when deposited, offer little resistance to filtration, and do not retain water sufficient for the ordinary purposes of veg- etation. When this gravel or sand is from strata of which alumina is the principal cement, the de- posit will, while it retains all the necessary friabil- ity for easy working, also be retentive of moisture sufficient for plants, and yet not be liable to injury from stagnant water. Where the soil is derived from clay diales, it will be too retentive and com- pact, be heavy and hard to work, and subject to injuries from stagnant water either on or below the surface. There is no operation in the preparation of land for tillage, to which modem agriculture is more indebted than to the system of thorough draining ; that which takes off not only the surface waters, but those which coming from below, follow the course of the strata, and render large tracts worth- less and unproductive. No manure can produce its proper effect on soil saturated with moisture. Lime does no good unless the soil is in a dry con- dition, and it produces the most effect when laid on in the driest part of the season ; and every farmer who uses gypsum, knows that precisely such is the case with the use of that invaluable mineral. The English farmer finds that bone dust is powerless on wet soils, and our own experience abundantly proves, that barn-yard manures are much more efficient on moist soils, after draining, than before. But to drabi land proj)erly and ef- ectually, to be certain of making no useless ex- penditure of money and labor, the geological con- dition of the farm or field must first be ascer- tained. It is not enough to ascertain which way the water will run when the drains are dug, but the dip and formation of the water producing strata must also be determined. The first may be done by the eye, or by the spirit level ; but the last will require examination of the inclination, and position of the impervious subsoil, and nature of the springs, by attention to the position of the strata, its outcrop, and by using the auger freely. From a want of attention to these things, many farmers fail in their efforts at draining, and ex- pend much money most unprofitably. An ordi- nary knowledge of the principles of geology, and their application, would prevent this, and ensure all the benefits which skilful thorough draining is sure to give. Geology, then, is not that useless, barren sci- ence, which many who have paid little attention to it, imagine it to be. There are few of the na- tural .'sciences, less speculative, or which have more direct, and important practical bearings. To the agriculturist, a knowledge of the facts it af- fords, is particularly valuable, leading him to practical results in many of his operations, of the first consequence. It teaches the origin, me- chanical composition, and qualities of soils, and shows in what respects they may be improved or amended, by the addition of those essential earths, in which they are naturally deficient. 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A Pamphlet containing all the Testimony, Documents, Narratives and Particu- lars of the Tragedy on board the United States Brig Somcrs, with tlie Portrait of Commander Mackenzie, a facsimile of Spencer's Greek ProgKunme, an accurate Drawing of the Somers as she sits on the water, with interior views, descriptions, &c. Pricp 12i cents. Postmasters remitting $1 will receive twelve copies. ELEMENTS OF NaWrAL PHILOSOPHY. Embracmg the General Principles of Mechanics, Hydrostatics, Hydraulics, Pneu- matics, Acoustics, Optics, Electricity, Galvanism, Magnetism, and Astronomy. Illustrated by several hundred engravings. Designed for young persons, as well as for the use of Schools and Academies. By LEONARD D. GALE, Professor of Geology and Mineralogy m the University of the City of New-York, and Lee- turer on Chemistry and Natural Philosophy. For sale at the Tribune Office, Price 50 cents. BEAUTIES OF REvTjOHN WESLEY, M. A. Containing the most interesting passages, selected from his whole works, with a IMEMOIR of HIS LIFE, and the particulars of his WiU. Price 18| cents. SPEECHES oYhENRY CLAY. The Speech of HENRY CLAY, dehvered at Lexington, Ky., June 9, 1842, with the Address of Chief Justice Robertson. Also Mr. CLAY'S FAREWELL SPEECH in tlic Senate of the United States, for sale at the Tribune Office. Pamphlet price 6^ cents — 50 cents per dozen. ALMANAC^FOR 1844. A great variety of Almanacs — Temperance, Farmers, Scientific, &c. adapted to all the States, will be for sale by the thousand at the office of the New- York Tribune, during the Summer and Autumn of the present year. Booksellers wishing their own imprints on the title, and ordering them in quantities, will be supplied at unusually low prices. Terms invariably cash. CC C re . cc cv <■ c c c c c cc << cc C C <. 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