•"^, '"VJBH^c. A. K'-'\ LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. Chaytfci^fl Copyright No... bfiillJCJ.^./.. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. GEORGE WASHINGTON. History of Our Country A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS BY OSGAR H.- COOPER, LL.D. Superintendent of Schools, Galveston, Texas, and Ex-Siiperintendent of Public Instruction for the State of Texas HARRY F. ESTILL Professor in the Sam Houston State Norinal Institute Huntsville, Texas LEONARD LEMMON Superintendent of Schools, Sherman, Texas TKXAS KDITION BOSTON, U.S.A. .>^"om!Jc^;'*^^ GINN & COMPANY, PUBLISHERS '^ of Copi 1898 \;',V?/V/ wVx'** 2nf' CnpY {VK, ^898. WO COPIfS RFCElVfn, SI 81 Copyright, 1895, bv GINN & COMPANY Copyright, 1898, bv OSCAR H. COOPER HARRY K. ESTILL LEONARD LKMMON ALL RIGHTS RESBRVBD PREFACE. This " History of Our Country " has been prepared in the "belief that there is need of a text-book on the history of the United States which would present fairly and impartially all sections of the Union. The authors have endeavored to divest the narrative of all bias for or against the North or the South, the East or the West. The strife for sectional or partisan supremacy has often transcended the bounds of true patriotism, but it is believed that such strife has been inevitable, and that in the long run it has made our country stronger and richer in the nobler elements of national life. Love of country is greater than the love of party, and loyalty to the state is a permanent and indestructible element in loyalty to the nation. Our country is " an indestructible union of indestructible states." Our history should be so taught that the next gen- eration will cherish the patriotism which conserves the rights of the states, and honor the patriotism which guards the suprem- acy of the Federal Union. If this book shall prove to be helpful to the great army of earnest and faithful teachers in making the story of our country's life, growth, and progress more real and interesting to their pupils, the hope of the authors will be amply fulfilled. Oscar H. Cooper. Galveston, Texas, April 25, 1895. SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER. In each lesson, the story of the text should in some way be connected with the every-day life and experience of the pupil. The outline and most of the events of our country's history may be readily grasped by minds of moderate maturity and experience ; but in the life of an enlightened people like our own, there are necessarily subjects whose thorough comprehension requires considerable information and mental development. The wise teacher will note the intellectual strength of his class in relation to the deep places of the subject. Local surroundings, peculiarities of individual pupils will suggest plans to connect the known with the unknown, the present with the past, the near-at-hand with the far-away. An event or question beyond the mental horizon of an immature class should be touched upon lightly, or deferred for later study. Each historical event should be associated in the learner's mind with other events. Isolated facts are soon forgotten. In the beginning of each recitation, call up the past events with which the lesson of the day is directly connected. Certain pupils may be appointed to investigate and report to the class special lines of review ; as Relation of France to American History, Important American Inventions, Outline of Tariff Legislation, etc., etc. Whenever practicable, present the story objectively or pictorially. The learner never gets too mature to be profited by the occasional use of simple devices that appeal to the sense of sight. The charts on pages 50 and 108 will suggest plans that may be worked out by teacher and class, and used to great advantage in reviews. It is needless to say that portraits, pictures, and historic relics have their value in this connection. Maps are as indispensable to the teaching of history as of geography. While it is believed that the rich supply of maps in the " History of Our Country " is ample for the preparation of the lesson, yet for the recitation wall-maps are necessary. The question of expense need not enter here. A large map drawn on the blackboard in colored crayon by one of the pupils will answer all the purposes of the manufactured map, and possess the added interest of being "home-made." VI SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER. There should be a constant and earnest effort to awaken a spirit of historical investigation. Mere memory-training is the unpardonable sin of the history teacher. The "Thought Questions" in the te.xt are an effort to lead the pupil to think for himself. It is hoped that they will suggest other and better means by which the imagination, the judgment, the reason, and the moral faculties of the pupils will be called into healthy exercise. Within the reach of every class there should be at least a few standard works of history and biography, by means of which the pupil's small store of knowledge may be increased, and the spirit of investigation encouraged. The Topical Analyses will be found helpful to those teachers who prefer questions on the text to the topical method of recitation. They may be used to advantage in blackboard work ; one pupil being required to write the topic headings of the lesson, another to add the topical analyses, others to e.\pand into a written narrative. They will afford, moreover, a convenient basis for reviews. Pupils may be referred to the Index for the pronunciation of difficult names. H. F. E. Note i. — The following is suggested as an inexpensive but valuable reference library : From Riverside Literature .Series, 15 cents each, Houghton, MifBin & Co., Boston. — Longfellow's Evangeline : Courtship of Miles St.indish ; Song of Hiawatha (two parts) ; Holmes's Grandmother's Story and other Poems ; Hawthorne's Grandfather's Cliair (three parts') ; Hawthorne's Biographical .Stories. From Old South Leaflets, 5 cents each, D. C. Heath & Co., Boston. — Voyages to Vin- land, from the Saga of Eric the Red ; Marco Polo's Account of Japan and Java ; Americus Vesputius's Account of his First Voyage ; Charter of Massachusetts Bay Colony. Irving's Columbus, John Alden, N. V. ; Fiske's Irving's Washington, Macy's Civil Government, Ginn & Co., Boston ; Parkman's The Jesuits in North America, and La Salle and the I)iscover>' of the Great West, Little, Brown & Co., Boston; Drake's Making of New England, and Making of the Great West, Scribner's Sons, N. V. ; Cooke's Virginia, and My L.ady Pocahont-is, Houghton, Mifflin & Co. ; Curry's The South in Relation to the Constitution and Union, Putnam's Sons, N. V. ; Higginson's Larger History of the U. S., Harpers, N. Y. ; A. H. .Stephen's larger Histor)' of U. S., National Pub. Co., Phila. Note 2. — For the preparation of the original drawings of many of the maps in this book, acknowledgment is made to Mr. Alois Morkovsky, of Pralia, Texas. CONTENTS. INTRODUCTORY. ^ Page America 400 Years Ago i PERIOD OF DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION. Three Great Voyagers ....... 13 Explorations and Settlements ...... 29 THE COLONIAL PERIOD. Founding and Development of the English Colonies 53 Downfall of the French Power in America . . .110 Life in the Colonies 124 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. War of the Revolution 152 The Confederation 211 THE UNION OF THE STATES. - DEVELOPMENT, DIVISION. Period of Development 225 Growth of Sectional Antagonism 282 THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 355 THE STATES REUNITED. The Reconstruction Period 416 Recent Events 435 APPENDIX. A. Outline of American Literature .... B. Biographical Sketches xx: C. Constitution of the United States . . . xxxv: Index Ivii Vlll CONTENTS. LIST OF FULL AND DOUBLE-PAGE MAPS. Page Indian Tribes of United States (colored) . . 3 Route ok Norse Voyagers ..... • '4 Six Important Voyages 24 Revolution in the New England States ^ . .165 British Campaign against Philadelphia . 1S5 United States at Close ok Revolution (colored) . .211 The Northwest Territory (colored) 213 The Territory of Louisiana (colored) 244 The United States in 1861 (colored) 360 Territorial Growth ok United States (colored) . . . 424 The United States at the Present Time (colored) . 448 FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS. George Washington Frontispiece Washington Crossing the Delaware 179 Benjamin Franklin 218 Flags ok the United States 225 Tho.mas Jekkerson 241 Henry Clay 268 John C. Calhoun 285 Daniel Webster 286 Sam Houston 303 Jefferson Davis 346 Abraham Lincoln 355 P'lags of Confederate States ov America .... 359 U. S. Grant 36S Robert E. Lee 377 Stonewall Jackson 3S3 Liberty Enlightening the World 446 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. INTRODUCTORY. AMERICA 400 YEARS AGO. I. The North American Continent. — Four hundred years ago the eastern part of the North American continent, from Ancient Cliff-Dwellings. Hudson's Bay to the Gulf of Mexico, was a vast forest, broken here and there by small clearings which the savage natives had 2 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. made by "girdling" the trees. Beyond the Missi.ssippi were uncultivated prairies, upon which herds of deer and buffalo roamed unmolested. Still farther westward the peaks of the Rocky Mountains looked down upon a solitude undisturbed by human beings, save that here and there strange villages of "cliff-dwellers" hung upon the canon sides. On the Pacific slope lay fertile valleys untouched by the hand of man. Yet the physical features of this continent fitted it for rapid settlement, and destined it to be the home of a great people. The Atlantic coast, indented with numerous harbors, formed the doorway to the civilization of the Old World. Many wide and deep rivers, such as the St. Lawrence, Hudson, Potomac, and James, opened the way from the coast to the interior. Diversified climate, fertile soil, and the boundless natural resources of the country, made a noble land, "fitted to call forth and reward the energies of man." 2. The First Americans The European explorers of America found the continent already inhabited by a large number of human beings. In some parts of the country these natives had made progress towards civilization. In Central America there are ruins of what were once beautiful cities. The Peruvians of South America and the Aztecs of MexicQ invented a system of writ- ing, cultivated the .soil, built good roads, and showed much skill in architecture. They were expert potters and workers in metals. The Pueblo tribes in New Mexico and Arizona built houses of sun-dried brick on high plateaus and in the cliffs of canons. They also made cloth and pottery. Pueblo Dwellings, N. M. AMERICA 400 YEARS AGO. The inhabitants of the greater part of the continent, how- ever, were savages. These bore the general name of Indians, a name given them by the early explorers, who believed the new continent to be a part of India. The Indians were divided into wandering tribes, whose territories were marked by no fixed boundaries. 3. Classification of Indian Tribes. — The Indians east of the Mississippi were divided into three great families of tribes, — the Iroquois, the Algon- quins, and the Mobilians. The Iroquois, or Five Nations, were located in the territory of the pres- ent State of New York. Various tribes of the Algonquins occupied New England and the country as far south as North Carolina. The Mobilians, including the Creeks, Cherokees, and other smaller tribes, were found in the south. West of the Mississippi the Dakotas, Sioux, Comanches, and Apaches were the most formidable. The various tribes differed among themselves in language, manners, and customs, but they had many characteristics in com- mon. 4. Personal Appearance. — The North American Indian was called the " red man," because of his reddish brown, or copper color. He had high cheek bones, small black eyes, coarse black hair, and little or no beard. His figure was straight, slender, and of moderate height. His An Indian Warrior. 4 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY, clothing was scanty, — a deerskin over his shoulders, a strip of the same material around his waist, and in winter a pair of leggings to shield him from the cold. His feet were protected by " moccasins '" made of soft buckskin and trimmed with beads or shells. He often tattooed himself. With colored clay he painted fantastic figures on his body. He adorned his head with feathers, while from his belt or around his neck hung eagles' claws and other trophies of the chase. 'j. Home Life. — The tribes were constantly migrating from one part of the country to another, and rarely had any perma- nent place of abode. Impelled by the desire for society, and for protection against their enemies, the members of the same tribe lived together in groups of huts, or villages. These huts were called " wig- wams." They were tempo- rary structures, made usually by tying together the tops of saplings or poles arranged in a circle and then covering this framework with bark or with skins of animals. An open- ing was left in the top of the wigwam for the smoke to escape. They had no furniture, save mats for beds, and a few rude cooking vessels of stone or baked clay. All the hard work was done by the women of the tribe ; they cleared the small patches, cultivated the soil, and raised the scanty crops of corn, beans, melons, and tobacco which the tribe consumed. The men spent most of their time hunting, fishing, or on the "war path." When not so engaged they were smoking and talking around the campfire, sleeping away the long, idle days. Wigv AMERICA 400 YEARS AGO. 5 gambling/ or playing such games as football, quoits, etc. The children wandered about in savage freedom, uncared for, and untaught, save in wrestling, fishing, and forest arts. The Indian had no domestic animals, except a sort of wolfish dog that accompanied its master on the chase. 6. Social Distinctions; the ''Totem." — There were no grades of society among the Indians. One warrior was as good as another, and around the council-fires all had the right to be heard. Deference was shown to old men, wise men, orators, and heads of clans. A peculiar social institution called the "totem" existed among most of the tribes. Tribes were divided into clans. Each clan had its peculiar emblem, called the "totem," consisting of some bird, beast, or reptile, whose figure was often tattooed on the bodies of the members of the clan. Each clan was named from its " totem," as the clan of the Wolf, or Bear, or Hawk. Members of the same clan were kinsmen, and so were forbidden to intermarry. Membership in the clan descended through the mother; that is, the children belonged to the clan and bore the "totem" of their mother. Indians having the same " totem," although widely separated Indian Gravestone showing the Totenn of. the Turtle. 1 "Most Indians were desperate gamblers, staking their all, — ornaments, cloth- ing, canoe, pipes, weapons, wives. A favorite game among the Hurons and Iroquois was played with plum stones or wooden chips, black on one side and white on the other. They were tossed up in a wooden bowl by striking it sharply on the ground, and the players betted on the black and white. Sometimes a village chal- lenged a neighboring village. The parties stood facing each other, while two champion players struck the bowl on the ground between them. The bets ran high. A French missionary relates that once in midwinter, with the snow nearly three feet deep, the men of a village returned from a gambling visit bereft of their leggings and barefoot, yet in excellent humor." — Parkman. 6 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. and speaking different dialects, were bound to relieve each other's distresses whenever occasion demanded. 7. Government. — The Indian knew little of the restraints of law and government. Each tribe had its sachem, or peace chief. The power of the sachem was advisory. There was no fixed provision for the punishment of crime. When a dispute arose the Indian relied on his own strength to maintain his rights. If he failed in this he applied for protection to his chief, who sometimes inflicted punishment with his own hands. When a murder was committed the relatives of the slain man were expected to avenge his death, or at least to secure from the murderers payment of a sum fixed by custom as the price of a life. In time of war the fighting men submitted to the leadership of some warrior whose courage and reputation gave him prece- dence. This war chief was sometimes also the sachem, but often a different person. 8. Religion. — With no Bible, no priests, no temples, and but vague notions of God, there could be little definiteness or system about the Indian's religious belief. To him every plant, every animal, every stream and lake had its " Manitou," or incarnate spirit, endowed with mysterious power. The bones of the beaver were treated with tenderness and carefully kept from the dogs, lest the spirit of the dead beaver should take offense. In every tribe there was a " medicine man," who, by arts of magic, professed to cure sickness, drive away evil spirits, and regulate the weather. Their dances had a certain religious significance. The first missionaries found no word in any Indian language to express our idea of God. The Indian's notion of the one Great Spirit is thought to have been obtained from the white settlers. He believed in a future life, but in the Indian hereafter moral good was not re- warded, nor was moral evil punished. Courage and skill, AMERICA 400 YEARS AGO. 7 even in a thief or murderer, secured admission to the " Happy Hunting Grounds"; while the cowardly, the stupid, and the weak were doomed to eat serpents and ashes, in gloomy regions of shade. 9. Indian Wars. — The roving and jealous nature of the Indians, and consequent disputes over the possession of favorite hunting grounds, led to constant warfare among the tribes. So universal and so bitter were these tribal antagonisms, that combinations of tribes, even for defense against a common enemy, were extremely rare. Occasionally a chief of powerful personal influence was enabled to form a widespread "con- spiracy " against the white settlers, and thereby sweep whole settlements to destruction. But with the death or defeat of the leader, the league soon fell to pieces. The tomahawk (a rude stone hatchet), the scalping knife, and the bow and arrow were the Indian weapons of warfare until guns were procured from the whites. Night at- tacks, surprises, and ambuscades were their favorite Tomahawk. tactics. The Indians never fought a pitched battle in open field. 10. Treatment of Captives. — Prisoners taken in war were treated with horrible cruelty. The unfortunate captive was often compelled to "run the gauntlet" between two long lines of his enemies, each of whom struck him with a club or knife as he went by. His tortures were frequently ended by death at the stake. The scalp of the victim was always taken By his slayers, and the reputation and influence of a warrior were determined by the number of these bloody trophies suspended from his belt. After the coming of the whites the Indians frequently spared the lives of captives in order to demand a ransom from their friends. Sometimes a prisoner who happened to be fancied by 8 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. one of his captors was "adopted," with elaborate ceremonies. The captive's Hfe was then spared, and he became a member of the tribe of his conquerors. Instances are recorded of white captives, who, after years spent among the savages as adopted members of the tribe, became so attached to their associates that they refused all entreaties of their white relatives to return to civilized life. 1 1 . Relations with White Settlers. — The first European explorers of North America were received with honor by the natives, and treated as superior beings. More than once a white settlement was saved from starvation by the kindness of the Wampum, or Indian Money, made of Strings of Shells or Beads. Indians in freely sharing their supply of food. As a rule, the first settlers were careful to purchase land from the savages upon terms satisfactory to the latter. The Indians readily sold their lands at what appear to us ridiculously low prices. A blanket, a kettle, a knife, a hatchet, a few trinkets were sufficient to purchase hundreds of fertile acres. But we must remember that one of these simple household articles might transform the whole life of a savage. To him, a kettle was a complete set of kitchen furniture; a blanket was an entire wardrobe. Moreover, in his sale of lands the Indian seemed to have an imperfect idea of absolute surrender of the soil. He supposed he was granting merely the right of joint occupancy. The fi.xed boundaries and palisaded enclosures of the lands sold to the whites in time aroused the indignation of AMERICA 400 YEARS AGO. 9 the red man, as he realized that his home was gone from him forever. It cannot be denied that in many of their land deal- ings with the Indians, the unscrupulous action of the white settlers was a disgrace to Christianity and civilization. The Europeans quarreled with each other over rival titles to the soil, totally ignoring the claims of the Indians. It has been said that the only landed right recognized as belonging to the savages was that of giving up territory. In most of the English colonies efforts were made to Christianize the savages. Whether from hatred of the white man or from the animal nature of the Indian, these efforts met with poor success. In the conflict between European nations on American soil, the Indian tribes were frequently secured as allies by one side or the other. Yet their aid, while valuable, was always un- reliable.-^ 12. Character. — In their own wigwams and at their festi- vals, the Indians were often talkative and sociable. But on most public occasions and in the presence of strangers, they were haughty and reserved. They prided themselves on their self-control. Surprise, anger, grief, joy, bodily pain, were ex- perienced without the slightest outward sign. A wild love of liberty and utter intolerance of control lay at the basis of their character. Courage, hospitality, and loyalty to friends were their redeeming traits. At the same time, they were cunning, sly, and suspicious. Their worst trait was the spirit 1 The governor of Virginia, in a letter to an English general during the French and Indian War, wrote: " I think we have secured the Six Nations to our interest. They are a very awkward, dirty sett of People, yet absolutely necessary to attack the enemy's Indians. They are naturally inclined to drink. It will be a prudent step to restrain them with moderation." The French commander, Dieskau, about the same time thus expressed himself about his savage allies : " They drive us crazy from morning till night. One needs the patience of an angel to get on with these devils, and yet one must always force himself to seem pleased with them." lO inSTOKY OF OUR COUNTRY. of revenge and cruelty, which made them delight in slaughter and in torturing their enemies. That the Indian made so little progress in civilization, is due partly to the extreme pride of his nature, which acknowledged no superior, and partly to his superstitious imagination, which made him accept fanciful explanations of the phenomena of nature instead of cultivating his power of reason in their investigation. " If the wind blew violently, it was because the water lizard, which makes the wind, had crawled out of his pool ; if the lightning was frequent, it was because the young of the thunder bird were restless in their nest." No race ever offered greater obstacles to its own improvement. 13. The Modern Indians. — For two hundred years after the first permanent settlement in our country, Indian wars were a source of terror to the settlers, and influenced to a great extent the history of our people. Gradually, however, the Indians have been driven west of the Mississippi, and have passed under the complete control of the United States government. The total number in the United States to-day is about three hundred thousand. They are found chiefly in the Indian Territory and certain reservations in the western states. Several million dollars are spent every year by the United States government for their support. The best way to care for and control the Indians is a problem still unsolved, A few tribes have become civilized and Christianized, but the majority still retain their roving disposition and thriftless habits. The presence of troops is constantly required to quell disturbances that arise among them. 14. The Mounds of the Mississippi Valley. — At various places in the Mississippi Valley arc found immense mounds of earth of peculiar shape, which were evidently constructed many centuries ago. Some of these mounds seem to have been intended for works of defense, others for burial places or AMERICA 400 YEARS AGO. II for religious purposes. The great amount of labor required to build such immense earthworks, together with the stone imple- ments, utensils of pottery, and ornaments of copper they have been found to contain, seem to indicate that they were con- Section of Mound, Kanawha, W. Va. structed by a different race of people from the Indians. It is supposed that the Mound Builders occupied the country be- fore the Indians, and possessed some degree of civilization; but the problem of the origin of these mounds has not yet been solved. 15. Summary. — Let the student write in the form of a composition on "The North American Indians," a summary of what he considers the most important points mentioned in this chapter. He should first read carefully the entire chapter, then consult other sources of information. The com- position may embrace such topics as the origin, classification, appearance, manner of life, character, influence, and destiny of the Indian. To the Teacher. — Encourage the pupil to bring into his work " outside information," and to express his own views. A profitable lesson-period may be spent in the reading and discussion of these compositions, sup- plemented by the reading of selections from Longfellow's " Hiawatha," Cooper's " Last of the Mohicans," and Leland's " Algonquin Legends of New England." 16. Thought Questions. — Mention the names of some famous Indians, and tell what you can about them. What tribes once inhabited the state in which you live ? Why did the white settlers prefer African slaves to Indian slaves ? Mention some Indian names found in the geography of our country; some common words borrowed from the Indian language; some products of the soil which the Indians taught the white settlers to use. If this continent had never been discovered by white men, would the con- dition of its native inhabitants to-day be better or worse than it actually is ? Give reasons. 12 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. Topical Analysis (America Four Hundred Years Ago). I. Physical Features. First Americans. < Eastern part : forest, small clearings. Beyond the Mississippi, wild prairies. Pacific slope, mountains, fertile valleys. Harbors, rivers, climate, soil fitted it for dense population. The Peruvians of S. A. ■i ,, , ., . , , . .,. „„ . , ,, . / Exhibited rude civili- 1 lie Aztecs of Mexico. ; Pueblo tribes in Southwest. ) Savages called Indians inhabited most of conti- nent. Iroquois — New York. Algonquins — New Eng. to S. C. Classification of Indian Tribes. East of Miss. R. West of Miss. R. Personal Appearance Wigwams Home Life. ., .... (Creeks, Mobihans \ ^,, (Lherokees, etc. Dakotas. Sioux. Comanches. Apaches. South. Totem Government rs. 1 w Religion. Indian Wars. •3- 14. Occupation of women. Occupation of men. Condition of children. Its significance. Sachem. War Chief. Manitou. Medicine Man. Happy Hunting Grounds. — Tribal Antagonisms ; Weapons. f Running the gauntlet. Treatment of Captives. < Scalping. [ Adoption of captives. Relations with f Friendly at first. Whites. I Hecame hostile through encroachments of whites. Character of Indians. — Their good traits; their bad traits. f West of Miss. R., Ind. Ter., and other reservations. Modern Indians. < Numl)er: about 300,000. [ .Supported chiefly by U. S. Government. Mound Builders. PERIOD OF DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION. THREE GREAT VOYAGERS. I. Leif Ericson. 17. The Northmen. — Northmen, or Norsemen, is a name applied to the inhabitants of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark. In the earliest times these people were noted as bold sailors and fierce warriors. Two branches of this great family — the Danes and the Normans — between the eighth and the eleventh centuries overran England, and conquered that part of France called Normandy. These Northmen and their kinsfolk, the Saxons, were the founders of the English nation. Most Ameri- cans, as descendants of the English, have some of the old Norse blood in their veins. 18. The Voyage of Leif Ericson — The island of Iceland was settled by the Northmen at an early day. From Iceland ^- Norse Ship of Tenth Century. these Norsemen made their way to Greenland, and established a few settlements in that frozen country. In about the year 14 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. ^ 51 a o »,vO) looo, Leif Ericson, a native of Iceland, sailed from (Greenland with thirty-five men in search of a land which a fellow-country- THREE GREAT VOYAGERS. I 5 man, Bjarni, claimed to have seen from his ship some years before. Sailing to the southwest, Ericson came in sight of the bleak shores of Labrador. He coasted toward the south, prob- ably as far as Massachusetts. Finding the climate mild and the country inviting, he landed and spent the winter. From the quantity of grapes which he found, he named the country Vinland. 19. Result of Leif Ericson's Visit. — Leif Ericson's discov- ery attracted but little attention among his people. Several voyages were made to the region he had visited, but no perma- nent settlement was effected. The Northmen probably regarded Greenland as a part of Norway, and Vinland as an adjacent island. After a while the settlements in Greenland perished and were forgotten. Except to a few Northmen, Ericson's great voyage was not known and had no effect upon the civilized world. Measured by its results, Leif Ericson's visit to America had no historic importance. 20. The Norse Sagas. — Authority for the account of Leif Ericson's voyage is found chiefly in the " Norse Sagas." The Norse Ruins m Greenland Sagas are rude stories, half poems, in which the family histories of that early time were preserved. They were at first memo- rized and thus handed down from father to son , in later years i6 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. they were committed to writing. Like the ballad literature of early England, they often contained, with much exaggeration, a solid basis of truth. The unquestioned fact that flourishing settlements of Northmen existed in Greenland, the nearness of Greenland to the continent of America, and the well-known adventurous spirit of the Norse sailors, all serve to confirm the record of the Sagas. II. C'HRISTOl'HER COLUMRUS. 21. The Times in Which He Lived. — ^The early part of the fifteenth century belongs to thg period known as the " Dark Routes of Trade between India and Cities of Southern Europe. Ages " of the world. Everywhere the common people were oppressed by the nobles, and governments exercised little re- straint upon the rich and powerful. In southern Europe some enlightenment was found, but in most lands dense ignorance prevailed. There were few schools and no printed books. THREE GREAT VOYAGERS. 17 The maps of that time show that the shape and extent of the great continents of Africa and Asia were unknown, as was the extent of the seas. It was commonly believed that the earth was flat. A few learned men had advanced the theory that its shape was that of a sphere, but the suggestion was generally looked upon as absurd. The Mediterranean Sea was the great Columbus. highway of commerce, and few ships ventured to sail beyond its waters. About the middle of the century printing was in- vented, and the compass came into general use. As books became plentiful and cheap, the world began to awaken from its long sleep of ignorance. Marco Polo, an Italian, published an account of his travels in India and China. His book was widely read, and directed the attention of merchants and trad- ers to those distant lands. A profitable commerce had already 1 8 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. sprung up between India and the cities of southern Flurope, but goods had to be carried part of the journey overland, and this was expensive, troublesome, and even dangerous. The great question of the time was, " Is there a Vv'ater-route to India ? " 22. His Home. — Four hundred years ago Genoa was one of the richest cities on the Mediterranean coast. Situated on the northwest shore of Italy, hemmed in to the sea by mountains, her people devoted themselves to commerce, and sailed their ships to distant lands. In this city Christopher Columbus was born. To a young man of Genoa the sea was the only road to fame and fortune, and so Columbus at fourteen years of age became a sailor. He not only visited the principal places on the Mediterranean, but sailed out into the Atlantic, and coasted along the western shores of Europe. 23. His Plan and How He Came to Form It Columbus was attracted to Portugal by the fame of her sailors and geog- Thi« Map shows how Columbus (not knowing that America lay in the way) hoped to reach Asia and the East Indies by sailing West. raphers. In the intervals between his voyages, he earned a living in that country by making maps and charts. His trav- els and studies convinced him that the earth was round, and THREE GREAT VOYAGERS. 19 that the great problem of a water-route to India could be solved by sailing west. He determined to risk his life on the unknown ocean, and prove by actual experiment what learned men before him had advanced as mere theory. There were two errors in his calculations that made the proposed voyage seem shorter and less dangerous than it actually was. He underestimated by several thousand miles the distance around the earth ; and he overestimated the size of Asia, making it extend too far to the east. Thus he thought that a voyage of about three thou- sand miles would bring him to India. We know now that this was about the distance to the then undiscovered continent of America, while India was more than three times as far as Columbus supposed. 24. His Disappointments. — But Columbus was too poor to hire a ship and to employ sailors for so long a voyage. He applied for aid first to the government of his native city, Genoa. Failing there, he next made application to the king of Portugal, a monarch whose sailors were then ex- ploring the western coast of Africa, to see how far that continent extended, and to find out if India could be reached in that way. King John submitted the plan of Columbus to a council of learned men. They declared it absurd. Not disheartened, Columbus decided to appeal to King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, sovereigns of the newly-united kingdoms of Arragon and Castile in Spain. These monarchs were in the midst of a Queen Isabella. 20 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. war with the Moors on their southern border, and had no time for the enterprise. They listened to Columbus with politeness, but put off giving him a final answer. For five years he waited and hoped. At last, concluding that nothing could be accom- plished in Spain, he started to leave the country. 25. Queen Isabella's Aid. — Before Columbus reached the Spanish frontier, Queen Isabella had been induced to give him another hearing. He hastened back, and with all his eloquence presented to the queen the arguments in support of his theory, picturing the glory and wealth which the success of the under- taking would bring to Spain. The noble and sympathetic heart of Isabella was touched by his appeal. It is said she even offered to pledge her jewels in order to raise the money to buy and equip vessels for the voyage. 26. The Voyage. — Three small sailing-vessels were pro- cured, the largest, called the Santa Maria, probably not more than 63 feet long and 20 feet broad. On Friday, August 3d, 1492, the little fleet set sail from the har- bor of Palos, Spain, amid the tears and prayers of friends on shore, who never expected to see their loved ones again. Colum- bus first sailed southwest and stopped at one of the Canary Islands.^ Then he struck boldly out towards the west on the un- known ocean. Weeks passed, and no land was seen. The trade- winds bore them steadily onward. caravci of F,ft th Century. '^'hc sallors iu alarm began to 1 On the maps of Columbus, Cipango (Japan), a supposed outlying island of India, was due west of the Canary Islands. 'i^ THREE GREAT VOYAGERS. 21 ask, " How can we ever return in the face of this changeless wind ? " And then the compass began to vary, the needle no longer pointing toward the North Star. The frightened men threatened to turn back. But the courage of Columbus never faltered. By artifices, bribes, and threats he prevailed upon the sailors to continue on their course. 27. Discovery of America. — At last a carved stick and limbs of trees were seen floating on the water. The king and queen had promised a large sum of money to the sailor who should first discover land. Columbus added the offer of a vel- Map of Columbus's Route on his great Voyage across the Ocean. vet coat. At two o'clock one morning, as Columbus was anx- iously looking out from his ship, he saw far away in the dis- tance a light moving to and fro, like a torch carried by some one on shore. To the great joy of all, when daylight came, land was seen — Friday, October 12th, 1492. 28. The New Land. — The land proved to be one of the Bahama Islands, possibly that now known as Guanahani, or Cat Island. Columbus named it San Salvador (Holy Saviour). He landed and took possession of the country in the name of the king and queen of Spain. Believing that he had reached islands near the coast of India, he called the natives who came crowding around him Indians. Several months were spent in coasting among the West India Islands. At last he set out on 22 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. his return, carrying with him specimens of the strange plants and savage men of the hinds he had visited. 29. His Return. — Columbus's return voyage was a stormy one. He lost one of his vessels and became separated from the other. Fearing that his ship might be wrecked and the news of his discovery forever lost, he wrote a full account of his voyage and sealed it in a water-tight cask, hoping that if his vessel sank this cask might float to land and tell the story of his great achievement. Finally, after an absence of nearly eight months, his two storm-beaten vessels reached once more the little harbor of Palos. The report that Columbus had re- turned alive and successful quickly spread and caused great enthusiasm. The king and queen received him with distin- guished honor, and everywhere windows and balconies were thronged with people eager to catch a glimpse of the great dis- coverer. 30. Other Voyages. — -Columbus made three other voyages. He established a settlement on the Island of Hayti, and ex- plored most of the West India group. In 1498 he discovered the mainland of South America, near the mouth of the Orinoco River. He never realized, however, that he had found a new continent, and died believing that he had reached India and its outlying islands. 31. Last Days of Columbus. — According to agreement with Ferdinand and Isabella, Columbus was made governor of the lands he discovered. His Spanish colonists, however, were many of them wicked, lawless men. They hated Columbus be- cause he was an Italian, and they defied his authority. Finally they succeeded in having him removed from his office, and he was sent back to Spain in chains. Although he was soon set at liberty, yet his powerful friends deserted him. The good Queen Isabella died, and he was allowed to pass his last days THREE GREAT VOYAGERS. 23 a poor man, unknown and forgotten. He was buried at Valla- dolid, Spain ; afterward his bones were removed, and they now rest in the Cathedral at Havana, Cuba. 32. Results of Columbus's Discovery. — It was years after the death of Columbus before people ceased to believe that the new lands were a part of India. Yet to Christopher Columbus justly belongs the glory of discovering the " New World." By his genius, courage, and perseverance he conquered the terrors of the unknown sea and gave to civilization a continent. The recently invented art of printing spread the news of his voy- ages. Sailors from all lands steered their ships toward the West, anxious to win fame and wealth by some new discovery. Spain, following up the advantage Columbus had given her, hastened to take possession of the new country, and soon became the richest nation in the world. Intelligent men everywhere began to ask themselves whether other beliefs of their time were not as false as had been that of the shape of the earth. They determined to investigate for themselves the right and justice of long-established customs. The result was a mighty impetus to the liberty, Christianity, and enlightenment of mankind. III. John Cabot. 33. His Plan. — John Cabot was an Italian sailor living in Bristol, on the coast of England. Having heard that Columbus had succeeded in reaching India, he concluded from a study of his maps that a shorter route to that coveted land could be found by sailing to the northwest, instead of to the southwest, as Columbus had done. He obtained from King Henry VII., of England, permission to sail under the English flag, and to take possession of any lands hitherto unseen by Christian peo- ple. The voyage was to be "at his own proper cost and charge." He was to have exclusive control of the commerce & fLx^"^^ > C ri V, 'f;:.,,' ^«G? "^ i ri> •n r^""^ r* "^ o ill ^\yrh: THREE GREAT VOYAGERS. 25 with the countries he might discover, and was to pay to the king one-fifth of all the profits. 34. His Voyage and Discovery In 1497, John Cabot set sail from Bristol with one small vessel and eighteen persons. His little ship crossed the ocean in safety, and reached the coast of Labrador. Cabot landed, and erecting a cross with two flags, — one of England, the other of Venice, his native city, — claimed the country for the English king. This was the first discovery of the mainland of America, and was more than a year before Columbus reached the shores of South America. Cabot sailed along the icy and barren coast until his provisions gave out, and then returned to England. (See map, p. 24.) 35. The News in England — The news that Cabot had reached India and the territories of the "Great Cham" caused excitement in England. He was treated with honor, and was known as the "Great Admiral." The king presented him with a small sum of money, and promised him an annual pen- sion. Although he had found no gold nor seen any human beings, yet he believed that the famous Island of Cipango (Japan), described by Marco Polo as rich in gold and precious jewels, lay near the land he had reached. So he found no trouble in obtaining permission to make a second voyage. 36. Sebastian Cabot's Explorations. — It is probable that John Cabot died before preparations for his second voyage were completed. His son, Sebastian, took charge of the expedition, and with six ships and three hundred men set sail on the track of the former voyage. Reaching the shores of Labrador, he coasted toward the north, hoping to find a western passage around the land. At last his course was stopped by floating ice. Turning his ships, he followed the coast toward the south, as far, perhaps, as North Carolina. He landed in several places, and found the country inhabited by Indians. His fleet 26 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. returned to England after an absence of six months.^ Sebas- tian Cabot, like his father, believed that he had explored the coast of Asia. 37. Result of the Discoveries of the Cabots. — John Cabot first reached the mainland of America, and discovered what was for a hundred years the shortest route known across the Atlantic (§ 68). After his voyage sailors were no longer afraid to leave the southwesterly track of Columbus, but struck out boldly into every part of the ocean. On the discovery of John Cabot and the explorations of his son, Sebastian, were based the claims of England to the continent of North America. The English were slow to take possession of the new country, allowing more than a hundred years to pass before a perma- nent settlement was made. Yet their title to the soil thus acquired was not forgotten. When we remember that in later years England outstripped all other nations in the struggle for ownership of North America, and that now Englishmen, or their descendants, control the continent from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean, we can better realize the great importance of the discoveries of the Cabots. 38. Summary. — I.eif Uricson, a Norseman, in about the year 1000 sailed from Iceland to Greenland, and thence to the continent of America, landing probably on the coast of Massachusetts. No permanent occupancy of the country followed. His voyage was known only by his own country- men, and was soon forgotten by them. Centuries afterward vague and imperfect accounts of Leif Ericson's visit were found in the Norse Sagas. Christopher Columbus, an Italian sailor, believing in the unproved theory of the roundness of the earth, sailed from .Spain under the authority of the 1 Afterward Sebastian Cabot entered the service of King Ferdinand of Spain, and was made Pilot Major of the Kingdom. In his old age he returned to England and was granted a literal pension by King Edward VI. UnUke Columbus, the Cabots wrote no account of their voyages, and we have to depend upon uncertain reports of conversations with Sebastian Cabot. Even the burial places of these great mariners, who gave to England a continent, are unknown. THREE GREAT VOYAGERS. 27 Spanish king and queen to find a westerly route to India. He reached one of the Bahama Islands on October 12, 1492. On a subsequent voyage, six years later (149S), he discovered the continent of South America, but died believing that he had reached the coast of Asia. His voyages were the means of revealing the American continent to the civilized world. JoIdi Cabot, an Italian seaman, sailing from England under the authority of the king, first discovered the mainland of America in 1497. His son, Sebastian, explored the coast from Labrador to Chesapeake Bay. On their discoveries and explorations the English claim to North America was based. 39. Thought Questions. — Find on the map the home of the Northmen; give two reasons, from the situation of their country and its climate, why the Northmen were great sailors. Measure, by a scale of miles, the dis- tance from Norway to Iceland ; from Iceland to Greenland ; from Green- land to Labrador. To what nation does Greenland now belong ? Did Leif Ericson's voyage or that of Columbus require the greater heroism ? Ex- plain why. How do you account for the slight effect produced in the Old World by the discoveries of the Northmen .'' If the art of printing had been in use in the year 1000, what might have been the result.'' Debate : Resolved that Leif Ericson rather than Columbus should be called the dis- coverer of America. Show how Marco Polo's description of the wealth of India hastened the discovery of America. Which of the great discov- erers were Italian? Why were they not employed by their own govern- ment? How did the United States celebrate the 400th anniversary of Columbus's discovery ? Copy and fill out the following tabular statement ; write as many " Re- sults " as you can, and underline the most important : The Three Great Voyagers. Name. Native Country. Government (if any) authorizing voyage. Date of Discovery. Land Dis- covered. Results. Leif Ericson Christopher Columbus John Cabot 28 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. Topical Analysis (The Great Voyagers). Home. 17. His People. , . , . ' Achievements. ' Object. Equipment. Route. Discovery. Upon his own country. Upon civilized world. 20. Norse Sagas. Ignorance of geography. Revival of learning. Water-route to India. i8. Voyage. " 19. Results 21. Condition of his Time. f City of Cienoa. 22. His Home.-^ „ , ,., (^ Larly life. ^, f His belief. 2-}. His Plan. ■{ „ ... , , ^• •^ [ Errors in his calculations. C His native city. . <| King John of Portugal. " ' [ Ferdinand and Isabella of Spam. 25. Success. Queen Isabella's aid. f Equipment ; start. 26. The Voyage. < Course. [ Discouragements. f Land sighted. 27. 28. Discovery. ■{ r., . , ' (^ Claim made. f Stormy weather. 29. The Return. < ^ ' . y^^. ■^ I Reception in Spain. 30. Three Other f Settlement on Hayti. Voyages. \ South America discovered. 31. Last Days. His poverty; his grave. ( A new world revealed. 32. Results. I Enlightenment of mankind hastened. r Nativity and home. 33. John Cabot. I (^.o„,,ijion3 ^f his voyage. [ Equipment. 34. His Voyage. | j ^^^, discovered. 36. Sebastian Cabot. Voyage and explorations. ( Shorter route across Atlantic. 37. Results. I j^^.^ ^j England's claim. EXPLORATIONS AND SETTLEMENTS. 29 EXPLORATIONS AND SETTLEMENTS. The Name of the Continent. 40. Some years after Columbus' discovery, Amerigo Vespucci (called in Latin, Americus Vesputius), an Italian navigator, employed first by Spain, afterward by Portugal, made several voyages to the New World. While in the service of Portugal, in 1 501, Vespucci explored the coast of Brazil far enough to discover that that country was not part of India, as the northern lands visited by Columbus and the Cabots were still supposed to be. His explorations proved the existence of a new continent in the southern hemisphere. The news created almost as great an impression in the Old World as had Colum- bus' supposed discovery of a western route to Asia. Miiller, a German printer, who published Vespucci's description of this new southern continent, suggested that the country be called "Terra Americi," the Land of Americus. The suggestion was seized upon by geographers, and the name America, first re- stricted to South America, was afterward applied to the entire continent. Spanish Explorations. 41. Spain's Advantage. — The discoveries of Columbus were magnificent triumphs for Spain, and gave her an ad- vantage over the other nations of Europe in the race of dis- covery and exploration that now followed. Portugal was Spain's greatest rival on the seas. To prevent the two nations from quarreling over the new lands in the west, the Pope issued a decree fixing a dividing line between their pos- sessions. He selected a meridian 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands, and declared that all heathen lands west of this meridian should belong to Spain ; all east of it, to 30 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. Portugal. (See, from map, page 24, how this decision was an- other point in Spain's favor.) Every bold Spanish captain was now eager to win wealth and distinction by the conquest of new countries for his sovereign. Inspired by the heroic example of Columbus, they despised the fears that so recently Spanish Explorations. chilled the bravest hearts. Not strange seas, nor trackless forests, nor hostile savages could check these daring explorers. 42. Florida Discovered. — Ponce de Leon had accom- panied Columbus on his second voyage, and was afterward made governor of one of the West India Islands. Having been deposed from his office, the old man brooded over his dis- grace, and longed for the strength and glory of his younger days. The Indians had told him that in ihe distant lands across the sea was a spring that could make forever young those who bathed in its waters. De Leon believed the story, and at his own expense fitted out an expedition to search for the wonderful fountain. On Easter Sunday, 15 12, he came in EXPLORATIONS AND SETTLEMENTS. 3 1 sight of land, which he named Florida, from the Spanish Pasciia Florida (Flowery Easter). Years afterward he returned to establish a colony. His men were attacked so fiercely by the Indians that they had to hurry to their ships, and Ponce de Leon was mortally wounded by an arrow. Sad that the old man should receive his death wound in the beautiful land where he had expected to gain im- mortal youth ! 43. The Pacific Ocean. — Balboa, another Spanish explorer, sailed to the Isthmus of Panama, and heard from the Indians of a great sea which lay beyond the lands he had touched. With a small band of soldiers, he boldly set out through forests and across mountains toward the interior of the country. At last, from the top of a mountain peak, he caught sight of the blue waves of a great ocean. Reaching the shore, Balboa waded into the water, and waving his sword above his head, claimed for the king of Spain the ocean and all the lands it touched (15 13). His discovery proved North America to be a separate continent, and not a part of Asia.-^ 44. The World Circumnavigated. — Seven years later (1520), Magellan, a Portuguese sailor in the service of Spain, coasting along the southern part of South America, passed through the straits that bear his name, and sailed upon the ocean which Balboa had discovered. Magellan gave the name Facific to the great ocean because he found it so peaceful dur- ing his voyage. Landing on the western coast of South America, he was killed in a battle with the Indians. His men, continuing the voyage, crossed the Pacific and Indian Oceans, rounded the Cape of Good Hope, and reached Spain in safety. This was the first circumnavigation of the globe. The question of the shape of the earth was thus settled forever, 1 As to South America see § 40. 32 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. and a western route to India was found at last. (See map, page 24.) 45. Conquest of Florida. — Ferdinand de Soto had been a soldier under Pizarro in the Spanish conquest of Peru. Re- turning to Spain, he was ambitious to rival the e.xploits of his former leader. The name of Florida was at that time given to the whole of the southern part of what is now the United De Soto's Expedition, 1539-1542. (The outlines and names of States arc given convenience in tracing De Soto's cours States. De Soto determined to explore this vast region in the hope of finding gold. Landing on the western coast of the peninsula of Florida, he sent his ships back, and with 600 men, started through the forests and swamps toward the north. His men were dressed in gay uniforms and mounted on fine horses. They were supplied with every kind of weapon then known, and besides took with them bloodhounds to use against the Indians and chains to bind their captives. For three years De Soto's band wandered through the present states of Florida, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi, in the EXPLORATIONS AND SETTLEMENTS. 33 vain search for gold — their numbers constantly diminishing from attacks of the Indians and from wasting sickness. 46. Discovery of the Mississippi. — At last, in 1541, De Soto came in sight of the Mississippi River near where the city of Memphis now stands. For the first time the upper course of the great " Father of Waters " was seen by a white man.' Exposure and repeated disappointments, however, had broken the health and spirits of the adventurous Spaniard, and he died the next year. The Indians had feared De Soto, and to con- ceal his death from them, his body was buried at midnight in the mighty river he had discovered. His men wandered, and probably entered the present State of Texas ; then returning to the river, they floated down to the Gulf, finally reaching the Spanish settlements in Mexico. 47. Explorations in the West. — While Magellan was mak- ing his famous voyage around the world, Mexico with its rich mines and ancient civilization (§ 2) was being conquered by the Spanish general, Cortez. From Mexico expeditions were sent out to explore the country to the north. Coronado was the most prominent explorer of this region. California was visited and the Pacific coast explored as far north as Oregon. 48. Texas was traversed from the Gulf of Mexico to its northwestern boundary in 1528 by Cabeza de Vaca and three companions, the sole survivors of an unsuccessful attempt to explore Florida. Having lost their ships off the Florida coast, they built a few rude boats and coasted along the shores of the Gulf of Mexico until they reached Texas. They landed some- v/here near Galveston Island and passed through the country northwest as far as the Rio Grande River. Proceeding to- 1 Recent investigations indicate that the mouth of the Mississippi was entered in 1 5 19 by Alvarez de Pineda, an explorer of the Gulf coast. 34 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. ward the Pacific coast, they were met by some Spanish soldiers who escorted them to the city of Mexico. 49. The First Permanent Settlement. — Pedro Henendez, hearing that a company of Huguenots, or French Protestants, had formed a settlement on the St. Johns River in Florida, resolved to expel the intruders and colonize the country for the king of Spain. He set sail with a large fleet and over two thousand people. Landing on the northeast coast of Florida, he laid the foundation of a town which he called St. Augustine. This was in the year 1565, and is important, as it marks the first per- manent European settlement within the present limits of the United States. Some of the old stone 15!;^ houses built by M e n e n d e z' men over three hundred years ago are still standing. Pushing through the woods with a band of soldiers, Menendez surprised the French fort and put to death the help- less garrison. Above the mangled corpses this inscription was placed : " Not as to Frenchmen, but as to heretics." When the news of the massacre reached France, a brave Frenchman named Gourges resolved to avenge the deed. He sold his property, purchased ships, and with one hundred and fifty men sailed secretly to Florida. A Spanish fort near the ruins of the former French settlement was surprised and taken, and Old Spanish Gateway at St. Augustine. (Called the " City Gate.") EXPLORATIONS AND SETTLEMENTS. 35 its garrison hung from the surrounding trees with this inscrip- tion above them: " Not as to Spaniards, but as to murderers." Gourges did not have enough men to warrant an attack on St. Augustine, so he sailed back to France. 50. Other Settlements. — Before the close of the sixteenth century other Spanish settlements were made at Ysleta,^ on the Rio Grande, near El Paso, Texas, and at Santa Fe, New Mex- ico. The gold mines of Mexico and Peru now became so attractive to the Spaniards that they made little effort afterward to extend their explorations or settlements, 51. Extent of Spanish Claims. — By virtue of the discov- eries of Columbus and the grant of the Pope, Spain made a general claim to the whole of the continent of America, save Brazil, which she conceded to Portugal (§ 41). A more definite claim was made to the region then known as Florida (embra- cing all the southern part of the United States) and to the Pacific coast. The Spanish explorers, De Leon, De Soto, Coronado, and others, had traversed this territory and had established, as they claimed, the right of Spain to its owner- ship. The period of Spanish explorations in North America covered about a hundred years, from 1492 to the close of the next century. French Explorations. 52. The Newfoundland Fisheries. — When the Cabots re- turned from their great voyages of discovery, they reported that the northern shores they had visited swarmed with fish to such an extent as sometimes to stay the speed of their ships. The men of Brittany, in France, were hardy sailors and great fisher- 1 There is some ground for the claim that the settlement at Ysleta was made before that at St. Augustine. 36 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. men, and in a few years after the news of Cabot's voyage reached France the banks of Newfoundland began to be fre- quented by French fishing-vessels. Cape Breton Island was named in honor of the home of these fishermen. The fisheries and the fur trade with the Indians proved so profitable that the attention of the French people was directed to this part of America, and the way was paved for the French occupa- tion of Canada. 53- The At- lantic Coast Twenty-seven years after Ca- bot's discovery of the continent, nearly the same extent of coast from Nova Sco- tia to Chesa- peake Bay was explored by Ver- azzani, an Italian in the French service (1524). Verazzani claimed the country for the French king, and named it New France, ignoring the claims of England. French Expforations and Settlements. EXPLORATIONS AND SETTLEMENTS. 3/ 54. The St. Lawrence River — Cartier, a native French- man, on the day known to the Catholics as St. Lawrence Day, • entered a gulf which he called the Gulf of St. Lawrence (1535). He ascended the stream now known as the St. Law- rence River, and took possession of the country for the king of France. On a subsequent voyage he made an unsuccessful attempt to fovmd a colony. Many years afterward the land which Cartier then claimed for his king became the great French stronghold in America. 55. Attempts at Settlement in the South. — The French Huguenots made two unsuccessful attempts to plant colonies : one in South Carolina, the other in Florida. The settlers called the first settlement Carolina in honor of the French King Charles, or Carolus IX. When their provisions were exhausted, they abandoned their fort and sailed back to France. The Florida colony on the St. Johns River was attacked by the Spaniards under Menendez (§ 49), and all the settlers were massacred. 56. The First Permanent Settlement — Civil wars between Protestants and Catholics so distracted the people of France that it was more than fifty years after Cartier's unsuccessful colony on the St. Lawrence before another attempt was made to establish a French settlement in this region. In 1605, De Monts received from the French king, for the purpose of fur trade, a grant of land lying between the fortieth and forty- sixth parallels (from New Jersey to Nova Scotia). He estab- lished a colony at Port Royal (now Annapolis), Nova Scotia. This was the first permanent French settlement in America. A more important settlement was made three years later (1608) by Champlain at Quebec. The founding of Quebec marks the beginning of French occupancy of Canada. The settlement soon became a city, and was the capital of the French possessions in America. 38 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 57. The Great Lakes. — The French fur traders and trap- pers gradually ascended the St. Lawrence. Keeping on good terms with the Indians, they pushed along the shores of the Great Lakes, until a line of trading-posts was established from the St. Lawrence to Lake Superior. To the heroism of the missionaries of the Roman Catholic Church, the conquest of the vast lake region for France is largely due. Their patient en- durance and their self-devotion won the respect and afifection of the Indians, and gave to the French an influence over the savage tribes that was possessed by no other people. 58. The Mississippi Valley. — It was more than a hundred years after I)e Soto's discovery of the Mis- sissippi before the mighty river was again visited by a white man. The upper course of the stream was finally reached by PVench missionaries and traders from the Great Lakes. In 1682, La Salle, an explorer of the Great Lake region, resolved to sail down the Mississippi to its mouth, hoping to discover, by means of the great river, a passage across the continent to India ; or, in any event, to establish a fort at the mouth of the river, thus securing con- trol of its commerce as well as possession of the country for his king. Floating down the river with a few companions, he reached the broad bosom of the Gulf of Mexico. La Salle was impressed with the importance of his achievement, as with solemn ceremonies he claimed for the crown of France all the La Salle. EXPLORATIONS AND SETTLEMENTS. 39 country drained by the great river and its tributaries. He named the vast region Louisiana, in honor of Louis XIV. La Salle resolved to plant a French colony at the mouth of the Mississippi. Returning to France, he told his story to the King. Four ships were given him, with men and supplies, to establish the settlement he desired. Sailing back by way of Florida, he missed the mouth of the Mississippi, and landed at Matagorda Bay, on the coast of Texas (1685). After several vain attempts to reach the Mississippi by land. La Salle was assassinated by one of his own men. A settlement made by his followers on the Texas coast perished. The mouth of the Mississippi was again visited in 1699 by Iberville, who made a settlement at Biloxi, in the present State of Mississippi, afterwards removing it to Mobile. New Orleans was founded in 17 18. 59. Extent of French Claims. — After the failure of the French settlements in South Carolina and Florida, the French claim to the Atlantic coast south of the Penobscot River, based on Verazzani's explorations, was abandoned to other nations. The explorations of Cartier, De Monts, Champlain, La Salle, and the French missionaries and traders gave to France pos- session of a vast crescent-shaped region from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to Lake Superior, thence down the Mississippi Val- ley, from the source of the river to its mouth. The French continued their explorations in this territory until their posses- sions in America were wrested from them by the English in 1763 (§ 202). English Explorations. 60. Indifference of the English. — After the discoveries of the Cabots the English lagged behind the Spanish and French in the exploration of the New World. They were disappointed at the failure to find the gold, silks, and spices of India. More- 40 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. over, the Catholic sovereigns of England hesitated to set aside the Pope's decree giving the new continent to Spain. Until the reign of Queen Elizabeth, nearly a hundred years after the Cabots' great voyages, no other noteworthy attempt at explora- tion of the western continent was made by the English. 6i. Description of the Florida Coast. — Sir John Hawkins was an English sailor and slave-trader, who was knighted by Queen Elizabeth as a reward for his services in a great naval battle with the Spaniards. On one of his slave-trading expedi- tions he sailed along the whole coast of Florida. This was in the same year as the founding of St. Augustine. Delighted, as Ponce de Leon had been, with the beauty of the country, he wrote a full and careful description of it, and took back with him samples of tobacco, potatoes, and other products of the soil. This was the first account of Florida by an Englishman.^ Hawkins hoped to draw the attention of his countrymen to this beautiful region, that English colonies might be planted there. Attempting to reach Florida on a subsequent voyage, he was driven by storm to the Mexican coast, where he was attacked by a Spanish fleet, and all but two of his ships were captured or destroyed. 62. Sir Francis Drake and the Pacific Coast. — Sir Francis Drake had served under Sir John Hawkins, and was commander of one of the two ships that barely escaped the Spaniards on the coast of Mexico. From that day he swore vengeance on the subjects of Spain. Setting sail from Eng- land with two vessels, Drake attacked one Spanish settlement after another. He landed on the Isthmus of Panama, and lln Hawkins's narrative appears the following quaint mention of the use of to- bacco: "The Floridians, when they travel, have a kinde of lierlx; dryed, which, with a cane and an earthen cup in the end, with fire, and the dryed herbs put together, do suckc thro the cane the smoke thereof, which smoke satisfyeth their hunger, and therewith they live four or five days without meat or drink." EXPLORATIONS AND SETTLEMENTS, 41 from near the spot where Balboa made his great discovery, caught sight of the Pacific Ocean. Falling on his knees, he prayed that he might at some time sail a ship on that sea. On his next voyage, with a larger fleet, Drake sailed through the Straits of Magellan and out into the Pacific Ocean. L%^ a^y^ English Explorations. Many Spanish ships loaded with treasures from the mines of Peru fell into his hands. ^ Coasting toward the north as far as California, he entered a " convenient and fit harbor " (probably San Francisco Bay). He found the natives very friendly. They insisted on crowning Drake as their king, and he modestly accepted the honor for the queen of England, naming the 1 One treasure-ship alone, captured by Drake, was valued by the Spaniards at three million dollars. The memory of the English " Dragon," as he was called, was detested by the Spaniards for centuries afterward. 42 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. country New Albion. He returned to England by way of the Cape of Good Hope, and reached his home in September, 1580. On this long and perilous voyage Drake had inflicted untold injury on his enemies, the Spaniards, had planted the English flag in regions before une.xplored, and had made the second circumnavigation of the globe. 63. The Old Problem. — The hope of finding a western route from England to India had not been abandoned. Vespucci, Balboa, and Magellan had proved that America was not a part of Asia. Yet it was for a long time afterward be- lieved that the New World was a group of large islands, and that a passage could be found through them to the Pacific. A Portuguese sailor, Da Gama, at the close of the fifteenth cen- tury had rounded the southern extremity of Africa and dis- covered for his nation a route to India in that way. (See map, p. 24,) Magellan, sailing under the Spanish flag, passed around Cape Horn, and thus opened up to the Spaniards a passage to the coveted land. Ineffectual attempts were made by the English to find a northeast passage around the northern coast of Europe. 64. The Northwest Passage. — In the efforts to find a pas- sage to India around the northern extremity of America, the English took the lead. Martin Frobisher made three expe- ditions with the twofold purpose of finding a northwest passage and of searching for gold. He discovered the bay now known as Frobisher's Bay and brought back to England more than thirteen hundred tons of yellowish ore, which proved to be of little value (1576). Captain John Davis sailed into the strait which now bears his name, but was compelled by the severe weather to return to England (1585). Henry Hudson entered the great bay whose name now pre- serves his memory (16 10). For eight months his ship was EXPLORATIONS AND SETTLEMENTS. 43 locked in by ice. A mutiny then occurred, and Hudson with a few companions was set adrift in an open boat and never heard of afterward.^ William Baffin, with a crew of seventeen men, coasted along the western shore of Greenland, and (in i6i6) entered the great sea since known as Baffin's Bay. (In 1850 the English Captain McClure discovered a "north- west passage " ; the ice, however, makes it useless.) 65. First Attempt at Colonization. — Sir Humphrey Gilbert was the first Englishman to secure a charter-^ for colonizing the New World. He made two unsuccessful expeditions with this purpose, the first in 1578. On his second voyage, five years later, he took possession of Newfoundland, but, meeting with disaster, started homeward without making a settlement. The ship in which he sailed went down in a storm with all on board. He had refused to return in a larger vessel, remarking to the captain, " It is as near to Heaven by sea as by land." 66. Second Attempt at Colonization. was a favorite of Queen Elizabeth. He obtained a charter for colonizing all the country between the parallels of thirty-five and forty-five degrees (from South Carolina to Nova Scotia), and fitted out two ships for an explor- ing expedition to find a suit- able location. The queen positively forbade him to join the expedition himself, as she was unwillins: for her favorite Sir Walter Raleigh Raleigh. 1 While in the employ of the Dutch the previous year Hudson had discovered the river now known as Hudson River (§ 72). 44 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. to risk his life in " dangerous sea-fights." His vessel landed at Roanoke Island on the coast of North Carolina (1584). The men were charmed with the magnificent trees, the abundant grapes, and the fertility of the soil. They carried back glow- ing accounts of the adaptability of the country for settlement. 67. Settlements on Roanoke Island. — The country was named Virginia, in honor of Elizabeth, the Virgin Queen. Be- fore the close of the century Raleigh made two attempts to establish a settlement. The first colony remained a year on Roanoke Island and then, provisions giving out, returned to England in one of the ships of Sir Francis Drake, who hap- pened to be coasting that way. The second expedition set sail for Chesapeake Bay, but also landed on Roanoke Island (1587). No communication was had with England by the little colony for three years. Finally, when relief was sent to them, the settlement was in ruins and no traces of the colonists could be found save the word CROATOAN* carved on a tree near by. Whether they had been murdered by the Indians or had wandered into the wilderness to starve is not known Raleigh, having spent a large fortune in these unsuccessful enterprises, was compelled to abandon the colonization of Virginia. He wrote to a friend, however, " I shall yet live to see it an English nation." Although his efforts at coloniza- tion were failures, yet he had drawn the attention of his countrymen to Virginia as a region adapted to settlement. The founding of the first permanent English settlement in America, twenty years later, was partly the result of his labors," 1 Croatoan was the name of a small island a few miles distant. It is possible that the colonists perished in an attempt to remove to this island. 2 From his returned colonists Raleigh learned tiie use of tobacco, and introduced it at the English court. The custom of smoking or "drinking" tobacco, as it was called, soon became general in England. Raleigh also planted some specimens of the potato on his Irish estates, and thus brought this important article of food into general use. See § 61, footnote. EXPLORATIONS AND SETTLEMENTS. 45 68. Third Attempt at Colonization Bartholomew Gos- nold in 1602 sailed from England in a small ship with twenty- three persons, eleven of whom expected to remain and establish a colony. He took the most direct course across the Atlantic — between the northern route of the Cabots and the southern pathway of the Spaniards — thereby shortening the distance a thousand miles (§ 37). Coasting along the shores of New England, he loaded his ship with sassafras and cedar. A quarrel arose among his men, and all idea of a settlement was abandoned. Returning to England, his cargo was seized by Sir Walter Raleigh, because the expedition had been undertaken without his consent and in violation of his "patent " or grant to Virginia (§ 66). 69. First Permanent English Settlement. — A commercial company, known as the "London Company," obtained from King James I. a grant to the region embraced in Raleigh's former patent. In 1607, a settlement was founded by this company at Jamestown, on the banks of the James River, in Virginia. This was the first permanent Enghsh settlement in America. (For full account see §§ 80-82.) 70. Extent of English Claims. — The discoveries of the Cabots and the subsequent explorations of English sailors gave England a claim to the eastern coast of North America from Labrador to Florida. The western boundary of this territory was not defined. The English claim extended in- definitely, and was limited only by the extent of the continent. Queen Elizabeth made no attempt to establish her title to the Pacific coast based on the explorations of Sir Francis Drake. The period of English exploration begins with Hawkins and Drake, in the last part of the sixteenth century. English ex- plorations and settlements in the eastern part of the present limits of the United States went hand in hand, and continued to near the middle of the eighteenth century. 46 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. Explorations of the Dutch. 71. Holland in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. — It was more than a hundred years after the discovery of America when the Dutch began their explorations in the New World. In the beginning of the seventeenth century the long and bloody struggle to free Holland from Spanish tyranny came to a close, and the independence of the Netherlands was es- tablished. In an age of bigotry and perse- cution, Holland estab- lished religious free- dom in her borders and became a refuge for the oppressed of other lands. Enter- ing upon a career of prosperity, she now Dutch Explorations. becamc onc of the richest nations in the world. The genius and bravery of her naval captains gave her fleets the command of the ocean. Half the commerce of Europe was carried in her ships. Her great trading companies began to extend their operations around the globe. 72. The Hudson River. — Sir Henry Hudson,' an English- man, after making two voyages in a vain search for a north- east passage to the Pacific Ocean, left the service of his coun- trymen and entered the employ of a Dutch trading company. 1 The same Hudson who afterward discovered Hudson's Bay, and perished in its waters (§ 64). EXPLORATIONS AND SETTLEMENTS. 47 In the Dutch ship " Half Moon," he started on the track of his former voyages, with the same purpose in view. Stopped by the ice off the northern coast of Norway, he turned toward the west, hoping to find the looked-for passage in that direction. In 1609, he entered New York Bay, and sailed up the waters of the majestic river which now bears his name. Arriving at the present site of Albany, and seeing no prospect of reaching the western ocean, he returned. 73. Subsequent Explorations and Settlement.— Dutch sail- ors explored the coast from Delaware Bay to Cape Cod. Trading-posts were established, and a profitable fur trade with the Indians was begun. In 1623 thirty Dutch fami- lies, sent over by the Dutch West India Company, established themselves on Manhattan Island, the present site of New York City. The settlement was named New Amsterdam, and became the capital of the Dutch colony. About the same time a settle- ment was made at Fort Orange (Albany). The Dutch continued to establish trading-posts in the present limits of New York, Connecticut, and New Jersey. 74. Extent of Dutch Claims. — The Dutch claimed the valley of the Hudson River, and the country explored by them from Delaware Bay to Cape Cod. In honor of the mother country, they named this region New Netherland. The period of Dutch exploration and settlement, beginning with Henry Hudson, 1609, continued for about fifty-five years, when the territory controlled by this people was surrendered to the English (§ 168). The Swedes in America. 75. Settlement. — Sweden, the home of the ancient North- men, had but a small share in the colonization of the country that her daring sailors had visited so many centuries before. 48 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY, The Swedish King, Gustavus Adolphus, the ablest monarch of his time, reaHzed the commercial advantage to be derived from a Swedish settlement in the New VV^orld, and resolved to estab- lish a colony in America. The brave king was killed in bat- tle, but his plan of a Swedish settlement was carried out. In 1638, a settlement was made in the present State of Delaware, near the site of Wilmington, and was called Christiana, in honor of the infant queen, daughter of Gustavus Adolphus. 76. Extent of Swedish Claims. — The Swedes explored the country from the southern cape of Delaware Bay to the falls of the Delaware River, where Trenton now stands. This region, embracing the present State of Delaware and the southern half of New Jersey, was claimed by them, and was called New Sweden, The period of Swedish exploration and settlement was brief, covering about seventeen years. The territory of the Swedes then passed into the hands of the Dutch of New York (§ 167). 77, Summary. — A German printer suggested the name America, in honor of Amcrijio Vespucci, who had visited and described the coast of Brazil. The name was first restricted to South America, North America being considered part of India. Within the present limits of the United States, five European nations explored and made claim to territory. Of these the Spaniards took the lead. Their explorations, beginning with the voyage of Columbus, ex- tended over a period of about a hundred years, and were devoted to the search for gold rather than the founding of colonies. Hy men in the service of Spain the Pacific Ocean was discovered, the world was first Swedish Explorations. EXPLORATIONS AND SETTLEMENTS. 49 circumnavigated, the southern and western portions of the United States were explored and conquered, and the first permanent settlement, St. Au- gustine (1565), was made. The F7-e7tch explored a portion of the Atlantic coast, and made ineffec- tual attempts to plant colonies in South Carolina and Florida. French missionaries and traders explored and secured control of the St. Lawrence, European Claims, 1650. the Great Lake region, and the Mississippi Valley. Their first permanent settlements were made at Port Royal, N. S. (1605), and at Quebec (1608). For over two hundred years their explorations within the present limits of the United States continued. The first to discover the mainland of America, the English claimed the continent from Labrador to Florida. By an Englishman the second circumnavigation of the globe was made, and the coast of California was 50 niSTORV OF OUR COUNTRY, visited. English ships explored the northern shores of North America in the effort to find a northwest passage to India. Two unsuccessful efforts were made to form an English settlement on Roanoke Island, N. C. The first permanent English settlement was made at Jamestown (1607). Eng- land, beginning her active explorations many years later than Spain or CI 1550 1575 I .... IT) 5 J ^? I ' H •ECTED ■ Wf idCO AND GOLD VINES PERU OF 1 1 Ik '■' ■ ■ . * E N t\Z H 5 i TRADERS ^ J GREAT LA AND MISSIONA CES AND MISSIS lES ALONG ,-,IPPl VALLEY £ E N G . a 5 a: l-%\ 2 At H TLEMENTS EX 3NQ ATLANTIC ENDED COAfT 1 1 1° * U T C [SWEOI is' Chart of Discoveries and LApioratiuns. France, continued them through her colonists nearly two centuries, or until the independence of the United States was won. The Dutch explored and claimed the valley of the Hudson, and the coast from Cape Cod to Delaware Hay. Their explorations in this region con- tinued about fifty years, until the English conquered it from them. They established their first settlement on Manhattan Island, the present site of New ^■ork City (1623). The Swi'dis made a settlement at Fort Christiana, at the mouth of the Delaware River (1638). They claimed the present State of Delaware and the southern part of New Jersey, but were overcome by the Dutch of New York seventeen years after their first settlement. EXPLORATIONS AND SETTLEMENTS. 5 I 78. Thought Questions. — How do you account for Spain's outstripping other nations in the exploration of the New World ? Has Spain any posses- sions in America to-day.'' Mention some European nations that took no part in the colonization of America. What motives chiefly influenced the Spanish explorers.' The French.? The English.' The Dutch.' The Swedes .' Which nation was especially successful in its dealings with the Indians ? Can you explain why .' What nation was first to prove that the New World was not part of India.' How was this done.' What can you say of the power of the Pope at that time .' What discoveries were the result of an effort to find a passage to India ? In what instance did reli- gious bigotry lead to a settlement .' What discoveries and explorations were made by Italians .' What memorial of Sir Walter Raleigh remains in our geographical names ? What were the causes of the failure of the first attempts at settlement by the English ? Show how the European claims overlapped each other. Copy on blackboard the chart of discoveries and explorations. Topical Analysis (Explorations and Settlements). Explorations. Name of cont Discoveries of Columbus. Decree of th( Purpose of voyage. 41. Spain's Advantages. , ^ r ., ,1 ' Decree of the Pope 42. Ponce de Leon. ^ .^. , ^ ^ [^ Discovery and fate „ ,, f Discovery. 43. Balboa. I ^j^.^ 44. Magellan. {^2" AMERICUS VESPUTIUS: 40. > ^, , . ' Name of continent. to o H 2 r Conquest of Florida, fc ■{ 45, 46. De Soto, -j Discovery of Mississippi. [ Fate. ^ . „ , , r Mexico. 47. Cortez, Coronado, etc. -i _ ,.^ ' 1^ California. 48. De Vaca : Journey through Texas. r Purpose of voyage. 49. Menendez. ■< Settlement. [ Conflict with Huguenots. 50. Other Settlements. 51. Territory Claimed. 52 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. Coasts frequented. Results. Coast explored. 52. Fishermen. , ,, ' Results. Verazzani. , ^, . Claim. 54. Cartier : River discovered. „ ^ ( Settlement in South Carolina. 55. Huguenots.^ ... .,.,.. (^ Settlement m rlonda. First permanent settlement. 56. De Monts and Cartier. , ^, , ' (Quebec founded. _, , , „• • f Recion claimed for F" ranee. 57- Traders and Missionaries. < ,, . , . . (^ Heroism of missionaries. c 11 f Discovery of mouth of Mississippi. l^ Attempt to plant settlement. 59. Territory Claimed. 60. Indifference of English : Causes. 61. Hawkins: Description of Florida coast. {Hatred of Spanish. I'acific coast visited. Circumnavigation of globe. r Success of Portugal. 63. Water Route to India, -j Success of Spain. 1 Atteni|)ts of English. 64. Efforts to find a Northwest Passage. ^■,, . r Secures charter. 65. Gilbert. < , [ Attempts at settlement. {Charter. Voyage of exploration. Attempts at settlement. ^,1 ^ , , r Route. 6S. Gosnold. -i . ( Attempt at settlement. , , ^ f Grant obtained. ()(). London Company. < „. (^ First permanent settlement. 70. Territory Claimed. 71. Holland in i6th and 17th Centuries. f I'urpose of voyage. DUTCH. : "' Hudson. ^ ,.5,.^.^ (Uscovered. 73. West India Company : Settlement. I 74. Territory Claimed. <5WTmT/^T^/-^T A ^ , ■{ Cjovernment or the 1 rustees. GEORGIA Colony. | . , , \ [^ A royal colony. {ro?t/nuu'd). J ^ J Preaching of the Wesleys and Whitfield. 122. Troubles with the J Invasions from Florida. Spaniards. 1^ Fla. surrendered to England. the new ewglaot) colonies. Massachusetts. Within the present limits of Massachusetts there were once two colonies, known as the Plymouth Colony and the Massa- chusetts Bay Colony. /. PLYIMOUTH COLONY. 125. Religious Classes in England. — At the beginning of the seventeenth century the people of England were divided according to religious belief into two great classes : the Roman Catholics, who in times past had controlled the government, but now were comparatively few in number and were oppressed by unjust laws ; and the Protestants (so called originally because they protested against some of the beliefs and practices of the Catholics), who were now the ruling class. But the Protestants were themselves divided. The great majority of them, includ- ing most of the rich and the nobility, were members of the Church of England, whose ministers were appointed and sup- ported by the government. Among the Protestants, however, there were many who objected to certain forms and observ- ances of the English Church. Those who carried their opposition so far as to establish separate churches were called Separatists, while those who preferred to remain in the English Church but wished to see it changed in some forms and doctrines ("purified" as they said) were known as Puritans. 8o HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. Draw on blackboard : — CATHOIJCS (few and oppressed). English Church of People' England (great majority of people). PROTES- , TANTS Puritans (or Dissenters Conformists). (or Puritans) Separatists (or Non-Con- *" formists) Presbyterians, Independents, Quakers, etc. 126. The Founders of the Plymouth Colony. — In the next year after Jamestown was founded, a little congregation of Separatists, unwilling to give up their religious belief and un- able longer-to endure the persecutions to which they were sub- jected, fled from England and sought a home in Holland (§ 71). Here they remained for a number of years un- disturbed. But they were still Englishmen, and it grieved them to see their children, by intermarriage with the Dutch, gradually forget their language and religion, and become ab- sorbed in a foreign nation. Their thoughts turned to .America. In the wilds of the New World they hoped to find a refuge, where, free from alien influences, they could worship God as they chose. 127. Difficulties in the Way. — These exiled Englishmen decided on the northern part of the vast region then called Virginia as the best place for their new home. 15ut two great THE ENGLISH COLONIES. 8 1 difficulties were in the way of the undertaking ; the permission of the English authorities to make a settlement in their Ameri- can possessions had to be secured, and means had to be pro- vided to pay the expenses of the enterprise. The London Company was favorable, but the king hesitated to promise them freedom of religion. At last they secured a " patent " ^ from the Company with only the indirect assurance from the king " that he would connive at them and not molest them, provided they carried themselves peaceably." London mer- chants agreed to furnish the means, on condition that for seven years the proceeds of all labor should go to a common fund, and at the close of that period there should be an equal divi- sion of houses, lands, and goods between the merchants and colonists. 128. The Voyage to America. — Under William Brewster, an elder of their church, a large part of this Separatist congre- gation set sail from Holland in a small ship called the Speed- well. They sailed first to England, where they found a larger vessel, the Mayflower, hired for their use. Here a number of friends joined them. The two ships started out on their west- ern voyage together, but the Speedwell was soon foun"^ to be too leaky to proceed, and returned to England. The May- flower continued on her course alone, and after a voyage of nine weeks, in November, 1620, came in sight of the shores of Cape Cod. 129. Settlement of Plymouth. — The " Pilgrims," as these wanderers were called, intended to settle near the mouth of the Hudson, the northern limit of the Virginia Company, but • 1 Plymouth, unlike her neighboring colonies, never had a charter from the King. Her attempts to secure one were defeated by religious opposition in England, and jealousy of adjoining colonies in America. The company called "the Governor and Council of Plymouth " had a charter giving them the powers of government. This company granted a '' patent " to the colonists and their friends which allowed them only the rights to settle and trade. 82 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. Z) ^Boston 1630 stormy weather and the opposition of the ship's crew forced tliem to make a landing on tlie coast which they first reached. Several weeks were spent in exploring the shores of Cape Cod Bay in search of a suitable place for settlement. Finally a small harbor, known on Cap- tain John Smith's map as Ply- mouth, was chosen. Here they found " divers cornfields and little running brooks, a place very good for settle- ment." It was December 21, 1620, when the landing was made and the settlement beerun. ■2, ^ T. 1620 ""'' C.ipc CnJ 130. Government. -linding themselves outside the limits of the Virginia Comi)any, whose grant they held, tiie colonists, before landing, drew up and signed the following paper as a basis of their gcncrnmcnt: " Jii the name of i?ioti, anirn : IPc, vuliofc names arc imbrr vonttni, the lo?aH fubiects ot our Dieab folieianjne llovD, i\u\Q 3aines . . . ha\ieiiig iin&eitalun for ne (jlorie of *!3oO aiiD atHiaiiceiiuiite of uc >Chnf!ian faith, aiib honour of ou: I^iuq auD couiurie. a Uoiiaoe to plant ne firfl colonic ui nc .p.ortliernc paitB of Oirijiuia. Doc fotcnniln anb niutualn ni nc preicncc of «i3oD Ani) one of another, colienant ... to enactc, connitutc, anD frame furh lufl and equall laiues ... as fhall be thought mofl nu-etc i\nt} ronlienicnt for nc oenerall ^ooii of 9c «Colonic, unto xuhicb ujc pronufe all Due fubmiiTion anD obcDiencc." J(jhn Carver was chosen governor for the first year. 131. Early Years. - There were one hundred and two per- sons in the company that disembarked from the Mayflower. This number included eighteen men accompanied by their THE ENGLISH COLONIES. 83 wives, sixteen single men, twenty boys, eight girls, three maid- servants, and nineteen men-servants or hired workmen. They built log houses, using oiled paper for window-glass. The winter which soon set in was bitter cold, and half of the colo- nists died before it was over. Yet when the Mayflower sailed back to England in the spring, not one of the survivors re- turned. During the first four years the colonists often suffered from hunger, their chief dependence for food during this period being corn purchased from the Indians, together with clams and fish. 132. Development of Plymouth Colony. — The next year after the settlement additional colonists arrived, and by 1630 the number had increased to three hundred. The first ship- load of immigrants brought a patent from the " President and Council of New England," — a new corporation that had taken the place of the old Plymouth Company. The plan of putting all earnings in a common stock proved as unsatisfactory here as it was in Virginia, and was soon abandoned. The London partners in the "patent," failing to receive the large profits they expected, sold out their shares to the colonists. Although they were still subject to the new Plymouth Company, they became, by this change, more independent of England than before, and were able to dictate what sort of immigrants should be admitted. Governor Carver having died the first winter, William Bradford was chosen governor. With the exception of five years when he declined to serve, Bradford was reelected every year until his death, thirty-six years later. 133. Captain Standish and the Indians. — Learning of an Indian plot against the neighboring settlement of Weymouth, Captain Miles Standish with eight men was sent to investigate the matter. Standish was " a man of very little stature, yet of a very hot and angry temper." Finding himself one day in the 84 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. same cabin with the hostile chief and several of his braves, he gave a signal to his men to close the door. Then snatching a knife from one of the Indians, a desperate conHict followed, in which the chief con- spirator and two other Indians in the room were killed, and one was taken prisoner. This bold act of Cai> tain Standish alarmed the savages and their plot was broken up. Afterward a treaty of peace was made with Massasoit, chief of the nearest Indian tril)c, which lasted fifty-four years. 134. Union with Massachusetts Bay Colony. — After a separate existence of seventy years, the Plymouth Colony, in 1 69 1, was united to the neighboring more populous and wealthy colony of Massachusetts Bay. In the new charter the name Massachusetts was applied to the colonies thus united. The Miles Standish House, Duxbury, Mass. //. AfASSACl/USirrTS IhAV COLONV. 135. Settlement. - In 1628, six prominent English Puri- tans obtained from the Council for New England a grant of land extending from three miles north of the Merrimac to three miles south of the Charles. This "patent" embraced a strip of land about sixty miles wide, extending westward to the Pacific Ocean, which was then thought to be not much farther distant than the Hudson River. John Endicott, one of the six " patentees," with about one hundred colonists, made a settlement the same year at Salem, on the Massachu- setts coast. THE ENGLISH COLONIES. 85 136. The Charter. — ^ The next year the proprietors of this grant obtained a charter from King Charles. The object of the leaders was to establish in America a refuge from the oppression to which the Puritans were subjected in Eng- land. Yet it was thought best to say nothing about reli- gion in the charter, and the enterprise was apparently for trading purposes. The stockholders were allowed to elect annually a governor, deputy-governor, and eighteen assistants. Endicott acted as first governor. Soon the entire company moved to Massachusetts, bringing their charter with them. This was a bold and popular move, as it gave the people in the colony as members of the company a right to govern themselves. 137. Growth of the Colony, — New immigrants came in rapidly, and the colony of Massachusetts Bay soon surpassed its neighbor Plymouth both in wealth and population. Besides Salem, six other towns were established, of which Boston, founded in 1630 by Governor Winthrop, was the most impor- tant and became the seat of government. The colonists were originally Puritans, not Separatists, and as such adhered to the Church of England. But their independent position in civil matters and the influence of the Plymouth settlers led them to establish a separate church government. S6 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 138. Religious Disturbances. — The settlers of Massachu- setts had hr.u cd the hanlships and dangers of the New World in order to enjoy undisturbed their own religion. They made church membership a qualification for voting, and refused to allow members of any other faith than their own to gain a foot- hold in the colony. Roger Williams, a talented young Separatist minister, gave them a good deal of trouble by his peculiar beliefs and the eloquence with which he advocated them. He opposed enforced attendance on church, and claimed that the government should not interfere with matters of religious belief. He was ordered to return to Eng- land, but fleeing south- ward he took refuge among the Indians and founded the colony of Rhode Is- land. Mrs. Anne Hutchinson delivered public lectures in the colony, in which she urged, among other doctrines, that not an upright life, but a ilirect inward revelation proved a person to be saved, and that any one "justified" and "sanctified" was absolutely free from sin. Her teachings caused great excitement and gained many adherents. They were looked upon by the stern Puritans as dangerous to public morals, and she was banished from the colonv.' The Church in which Roger Williams Preached in Salem. It is still standing. 139. The First Slave Ship. - The first American slave ship was built at Marl)lehead, Massachusetts, in 1636. It was used 1 Mrs. Ilutchinson was kindly received in Rhode Island by Roger Williams Afterwards, having removed to New York, she was killed in an Indian massacre. THE ENGLISH COLONIES. 8/ for transporting to this country slaves captured on the coast of Africa. Two years later this ship brought her first cargo of negro slaves into Massachusetts. This was the beginning of an extensive and profitable trade by which slaves were carried in New England ships to all the English colonies. 140. Indian Troubles. — Massachusetts, in common with her sister colonies, was engaged in two bloody Indian wars, the Pequod War and King Philip's War. These are described later (§§ 156-160). 141. The Witchcraft Craze. — The stern religious life of the Puritans and the intensity of their convictions led to a ready acceptance of the supernatural. In the latter part of the seventeenth century belief in witchcraft, which had long been accepted in the Old World, reached a climax of fanati- cism in New England, and hurried the people into deeds of cruelty and bloodshed. In 1684, Rev. Increase Mather pub- lished a book called "A Record of Illustrious Providences," containing an account of the cases of witchcraft that had al- ready occurred and describing the characteristics of the " devil- try •■' of the witches. A few years later the children of John Goodwin of Boston claimed to have been bewitched by an Irish servant-woman, against whom one of them had a spite. Among other symptoms, they barked like dogs, mewed like cats, and were struck dumb at the sight of the Shorter Cate- chism. The so-called witch was tried, convicted, and hanged. At Salem, Massachusetts, in 1692, a witchcraft craze seized the people. Twenty persons were executed as witches, hundreds were imprisoned, and a reign of terror prevailed. Rev. Increase Mather, then President of Harvard College, was a leading spirit in the prosecutions. He was heartily supported by the governor and highest judges of the colony. At last the people returned to their senses, and, after a few years had passed, 88 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. Massachusetts appointed a fast-day for the "errors into which magistrates and people had been led by Satan and his instru- ments." 142. Period of Oppression. — In 1678, the lawyers of King James II. declared that the charter of Massachusetts had been forfeited by the failure of her government to enforce the navigation laws of England. Petitions and remonstrances of the colonists were of no avail. A few years later (16S4) the charter was declared to be null and void. The colony was left absolutely subject to the king, and the people were deprived of all their political rights. Sir Edmund Andros was appointed governor of New England. This tyrant levied taxes on his own authority, and declared that all lands belonged to the crown ; the colonists could establish their title only by paying fees to the royal officials. This despotic government continued until the news of the overthrow of King James reached Massa- chusetts. The people then rose against their rulers, put Andros in jail, and reestablished their old government. 143. Plymouth Joined to Massachusetts Bay. — As before related, the colonies of Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay were united in one colony in 1691. The province of Maine and the territory of Nova Scotia were included in the new colony, thenceforth known as Massachusetts. The new charter of 1692 provided that the governor should be appointed by the king, and all acts of the legislature were to be sent to England for approval. The religious qualification for voters was no longer continued, but a property fjualification was required. 144. Summary. — A congregation of English Separatists, to escape persecution in their native land, fled to Holland. I )issatisfied there, they resolved to settle in America. They obtained a patent from the London Company, and sailing by way of Plymouth, Kngland, landed in 1620 on the Massachusetts coast. They named their settlement Plymouth. Poinding themselves outside the territory of the London Company, they obtained a THE ENGLISH COLONIES. 89 patent from the Council for New England (successors to the Plymouth Company). John Carver was chosen as their first governor, and Miles Standish was their leader against the Indians. Eight years later John Endicott and other prominent English Puritans obtained from the Council for New England a grant of territory lying north of Plymouth. Settlements were made at Salem, Boston, and other places. Endicott obtained from the king a charter designating his colony the Massachusetts Bay Colony, and giving to himself and his associates the powers of government. The " stockholders " having all moved to Mas- sachusetts, the colony became a self-governing commonwealth. Roger Williams and Mrs. Hutchinson were banished on account of their religious teachings. Two Indian wars caused great loss of life and property. Dur- ing the "witchcraft craze" many innocent persons were imprisoned and put to death. In 1678 the king annulled the charter of Massachusetts Bay Colony, and for five years the people were under the despotic rule of Gov- ernor Andros. In 1691 Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay were united in one colony, known as Massachusetts. The population and wealth of Massachusetts gave her a preeminence among the Northern colonies corresponding to that of Virginia in the South. Connecticut. 145. Settlement. — The Dutch settlers of New York and the Plymouth colonists both established trading posts on the Connecticut River Watcrtown •, •/!- 1 V:„s^: Bfookfi^d S * ■s- *- at an early date ; but the real found- ers of the Connecti- cut colony came from Massachu- setts. In 1635 John Winthrop, the younger, built Fort Saybrook at the mouth of the Connecticut River. The next year Hartford was founded by Thomas Hooker, a Puritan minister, who had marched through the woods from Massachusetts with his entire 90 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. congregation. John JJavenport, another minister, with a com- pany of immigrants, settled New Haven. 146. Union of the Settlements. — Around the towns of Hartford and New Haven as centers, numerous settlements sprang up. For a while there were three colonies, Saybrook, Connecticut, and New Haven. In a few years these were re- duced to two by the union of the Saybrook and Connecticut colonies. The Connecticut colony was conspicuous for the liberal and democratic government established by its people. The New Haven colony was less tolerant in religious matters. After a separate existence of about thirty years the New Haven colony was absorbed by Connecticut. The three original col- onies were thus reduced to one. 147. The Charter. — The charter of Connecticut, which was obtained through the efforts of Winthrop, gave a great deal of liberty to the people, allow- ing them to elect all their officers. Consequently they prized it highly, and when the Eng- lish government demanded the surrender of their charter, they put off compliance until Andros with a large escort came to Hartford to enforce the king's order. Andros held a conference m the evening with the governor and council of the colony. Tradition says that the lights in the room were suddenly extinguished, The Charter Oi THE ENGLISH COLONIES. QI and the charter was hidden in a hollow oak-tree. Andros, however, took control of affairs, and for a few years the charter government was overthrown. With the downfall of Andros (§ 162) the old charter (or a duplicate) was brought from its concealment, the government under it was reorganized, and continued in force until the Revolution. 148. Summary. — The first settlers of Connecticut came from Massa- chusetts. Settlements were formed at Hartford by Thomas Hooker, and at New Haven by John Davenport. For a time three colonies existed, the Connecticut colony, the New Haven colony, and the Saybrook colony. F"inally these were combined into the Connecticut colony. The charter of Connecticut was liberal in its provisions, and was much prized l:)y the peo- ple. During the period of Andros's rule over New England the charter gevernment of Connecticut was overthrown, but was restored with the downfall of James H. Rhode Island. 149. Settlement. — When Roger Williams was driven from Massachusetts (§ 138), he fled southward through the woods, and with a few followers established a settlement which he called Providence at the head of Narragansett Bay (1636). The following year a party of Mrs. Anne Hutchinson's follow- ers made a settlement on an island in the bay, afterward known as Rhode Island. These settlements and others near them were subsequently united under the name of "The Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations." 150. Government. — Roger Williams declared that in his colony no one should ever be disturbed on account of his reli- gious belief. The settlers were chiefly refugees from other colonies. They were independent thinkers in politics as well as in religion, and they did not get along peaceably together. For twenty-seven years there were quarrels between the differ- ent settlements with only a weak government over them. Finally a charter was secured M'hich united the different settle- 92 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. ments, granted entire religious freedom, and allowed the people to elect their own officers. 151. Separate Position. — Rhode Island was the first col- ony to establish the great principle of complete religious free- dom.' Because of her independent position in religion, as well as on account of her unsettled government, Rhode Island was viewed with suspicion and dislike by the other New Eng- land colonies, and was not allowed to join the New England Confederation (§ 157). 152. Summary. — Rhode Island was founded by Roger Williams, who, when banished from Massachusetts, established the first settlement at Providence in 1636. The next year a party of Mrs. Hutchinson's followers settled " Rhode Island," in Narragansett Bay. Roger Williams enforced the great principle of religious freedom, and his colony became a refuge for the oppressed. The go%ernment of Rhode Island was at first turbulent and unsettled. Finally a charter was obtained uniting the different settle- ments. After this better order prevailed. 153. in the New Hampshire. Some of those who suffered from religious persecution older New England colonies, went to New lianipshire, where settlements had been made as early as 1623. The population in this colony increased very slowly, owing to confusion in land titles and disputes about government. It was too weak for independence and was several times united to Massachusetts ; it linally be- came a separate colony in 1741. New Hampshire had no charter, but was silbject directly to the king. Vermont was claimed as part of her territory. 1 Maryland gave equal freedom to all Christians. THE ENGLISH COLONIES. 93 154. Summary. — New Hampshire was settled by immigrants from other New England colonies. Its growth was slow. In 1741 it became a separate colony, subject directly to the king. New England as a Whole. 155. Close Relation of the Colonies. — The region em- braced by the colonies of Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, and New Hampshire was first called " New England " by Captain John Smith, on a map of his explorations. The " Council for New England," to whom the land was granted in 1620, adopted the name in their title. The early history of these colonies is in many respects similar. We have seen that Massachusetts was the parent colony of all the others. The character, occupation, and religion of the settlers, their mode of local government, their dangers, and their interests, were much the same. The following topics relate to events which to some extent affected all these colonies. 156. The Pequod War. — The Pequods, one of the strongest and fiercest Indian tribes of New England, came in contact with the settlers in the Connecticut valley, soon after the first settlements were made in that region. They tried to get the help of the powerful Narragansetts of Rhode Island, but through the influence of Roger Williams, the Narragansetts refused aid. The weak Connecticut people, in their distress, appealed to Massachusetts. A little army of five hundred men was raised by the two colonies. Under Captain John Mason, they attacked the leading Pequod village on the Mystic River in Connecticut. The Indians were completely routed, and seven hundred, including women and children, were slain, and two hundred taken prisoners. The captives were sold as slaves, and the great tribe of Pequods was extinguished. 94 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 157. The New England Confederation. - The Pequod War taught the colonics tlie advantage of union in time of danger. In 1C43, Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven determined upon a permanent Confederation to be known as "The United Colonies of New England."^ The object of the Confederation was to gain better protection against foreign and domestic enemies. Each colony was left perfectly free to manage its own internal affairs, while exter- nal matters pertaining to the good of all were entrusted to eight commissioners, two chosen by each colony. This is im- portant as the first confederation of British colonies in .Amer- ica. It lasted more than forty years. Besides affording pro- tection against the Indians it brought the New England colo- nies into closer sympathy with each other, and showed the other colonies the advantages of union. 158. King Philip's War ; Cause. — On the death of Mas- sasoit, who for so many years had been a friend of the whites, his eldest son, Alexander, became chief of the tribe of Wam- panoags, who lived near the head of Narragansett Bay. As Alexander was suspected of plotting against the settlers, a company of men from Plymouth surprised him in his hunting lodge, and took him prisoner. This insult made the proud Indian furious. He was seized with a dangerous fever, from which he died soon after his release from captivity. His brother, Philip, succeeded him as chief. Philip possessed unusual ability and wielded a great influence over the New England tribes. He hated the whites and awaited an occasion for an outbreak. When three Indians of his tribe were accused of murder, found guilty, and put to death by the colonists, Philip called his warriors to arms, and a bloody war began ' i'or exclusiun of Rhode Ishiiul see paragraph 150. THE ENGLISH COLONIES. 95 159. Battles and Massacres. — One Sunday as the people of the village of Swanzey in the Plymouth colony were returning from church, they were attacked by the savages and a number of them were killed. Troops were sent from Massachusetts to aid the Plymouth peo- ple. The Indians were attacked and beaten, but escaped from place to place. Philip now drew to his support nearly all the New ttcii,n,ns a Ssttiecnei.t. England tribes and the war spread into all the colonies. According to a secret plot, a number of different settlements were attacked at the same day and hour. Hadley, Massa- chusetts, was surprised while the people were at church. Iri the fight that followed it is said that a strange man with long beard rushed to the front, rallied the hard-pressed colonists, and led them to victory. This was Golife, the "regicide," one of the judges who had condemned King Charles I. to death, 96 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. and who, having fled to America, was living in concealment among the Puritans of Massachusetts. In a Rhode Island swamp a severe battle was fought with the Narragansetts, in which the savages were completely defeated. Philip's allies began to desert him. His wife and little son were captured. " My heart breaks ! " he cried, " I am ready to die." He was at last shot by a faithless Indian. By his death, the power of the Indians was broken. 160. Results of King Philip's War. — King Philip's War was the severest blow the New England colonies suffered. The struggle lasted two years, and while it resulted in the com- plete overthrow of the Indians, yet it was long afterward be- fore the colonies recovered from the lesses which it caused. Over six hundred men were killed. Thirteen towns were destroyed, six hundred houses were burned, half a million dollars worth of property was destroyed, and a heavy debt was contracted, requiring the taxes to be greatly increased. 161. The Great Revival. — A reaction against the stern theology of the early days began in New England during the early part of the eighteenth century, and there was much looseness of religious belief and conduct. Then followed a period of intense religious excitement, known as the "Great Awakening." Beginning in the church of Jonathan Edwards, in Massachusetts, the revival reached its highest point in 1740, under the preaching of George W'hitetield. There were conver- sions in nearly every town in New England. Many, however, objected to the great excitement that accompanied the revival. Controversies followed, and a division in the churches was the result. There was much difference of opinion as to the general good effect of the revival. It certainly exerted a great influ- ence upon subsequent religious thought in New England. 162. New England under One Governor. — King James II. made Sir Edmund Andros governor of all the New England THE ENGLISH COLONIES. 97 colonies, afterward adding New York and New Jersey to his jurisdiction. The' charters were either taken away or declared annulled, and Andros ruled in a most despotic manner. When the people of England banished King James, the New Eng- land colonists immediately followed their example by deposing Governor Andros. The colonies were then allowed to resume their old forms of government. 163. Summary. — A close relation existed among the New England colonies. Important events that affected one, affected all. The war with the Pequod Indians originated in Connecticut. Massachusetts came to the aid of her sister colony and the savages were completely routed. The New England Confederation, formed for mutual defense against the Indians, in- cluded all the New England colonies except Rhode Island and lasted forty years. King Philip's War began in Massachusetts. There were numerous battles and massacres, resulting in great loss to the colonists. At last Philip was killed, and the power of the Indians overthrown. Under the preaching of Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield, there was a memora- ble religious awakening in New England. King James II. placed all the New England colonies under one governor. When King James was banished by his subjects, the old colonial governments were restored. 164. Thought Questions. — Is there any persecution on account of religion in the United States to-day.'' Do you know of any religious intolerance ? What circumstances of their history make the intolerance of the colonists seem inexcusable? What explanation can you offer for their conduct in this respect? Compare John Smith and Miles Standish ? Why did the Plymouth Colony have a patent instead of a charter ? Why did Massachusetts Bay Colony outstrip Plymouth ? How was slavery regarded 250 years ago? Does slavery exist anywhere to-day? Why did Con- necticut prize her charter so highly ? What colonies may be considered off-shoots of Massachusetts ? Fill out the following table : Colony. First Settlement. Date. By Whom Founded. Religion of First Settlers. Motive of Founders. Mass Connecticut . . Rhode Island New Hampshire i Plymouth ( Salem 1620 1628 Brewster and others Endicott and others Separatist ) Puritan j Religious freedom. 98 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. Topical Analysis (New England Colonies). r r 126. >-7- 128. 129. The Voyage Settlement. '3«- 13^- 133- 134- >35- 176. „ , , f Their religion. Founders of .... , , ,. , , < Highl from r.iiizlancl. Plymouth, i,,..^ •,.• 1^ Dissatisfaction with their new home. Looking toward f Authority to form settlement. America. \ Means for the voyage. J The ships. \^ First land seen. r Failure to reach destination. l^ Landing and settlement. „ f Agreement signed. Government. < ,,. [_ rirst governor. f Classification. First Colonists. -{ ^. rr ■ I burfenngs. (' New immigrants. Growth of Colony.^ New patent. (^ London stockholders. Capt. Standish : Successful dealings witli Indians. Union with Massachusetts Bay Colony. 1' Founders. The Beginning. ^t-C:ty)| I02 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. the citizens were tired of the tyranny of their governors ; so in spite of Governor Stuyvesant, who raged and swore at his people for refusing to make any resistance, New Amsterdam and all New Netherland were surrendered to the English. The entire region was presented by the king of England to his brother, the Duke of York. In honor of the new proprietor, the name New York took the place of the Dutch names for the colony and its chief town. After nine years of English rule a Dutch fleet appeared in the harbor and compelled New York to surrender. For one year the Dutch rule was restored. Then a treaty was made between Holland and England by which New Netherland was finally transferred to the English. 169. English Rule. — New \'()rk continued to suffer much from bad governors. When the Duke of \'ork became king of England (James II. j, he appointed Sir Edmund Andros governor of all New England and New York. (>| 162.) The rule of Andros was unpopular with the people. \\'hen the news of the downfall of King James was received, the deputy governor of New York abandoned his post and fled to England.' The colonists of New \'ork. like their New Eng- land neighbors, then took control of the government. Caj> tain Jacob Leisler acted as governor until the king's wishes could be known. On the arrival of a new governor from Eng- land, Leisler was tried for treason, and was convicted. Gov- ernor Slaughter, while drunk at a dinner party, was induced by the enemies of Leisler to sign his death-warrant. New \'ork remained a Royal province until the Revolution. 170. Summary. — 15y virtue of Henry Hudson's explorations the Dutch claimed the territory from Delaware Hay to Cape Cod, and called it New Netherland. They soon began a brisk fur-trade with the Indians, and for this purpose estal)lished trading posts on Manhattan Island and on the upper Hudson. The Dutch West India Company obtained a grant to the ' Andros himself was tlien in Boston. THE ENGLISH COLONIES. 103 New Netherlands, with authority to form settlements, direct the govern- ment, and control the trade of the settlers. Under the mild rule of the Dutch many emigrants from neighboring English colonies and from various European countries were attracted to the colony. Governor Stuyvesant conquered the Swedes on the Delaware, and brought them under Dutch authority. England, claiming New Netherland on the basis of Cabot's discoveries, sent a fleet against New Amsterdam, 1664, and the town and all New Netherland surrendered to the English. The entire region was presented by Charles II. to his brother, the Duke of York, in whose honor the name of New York took the place of the Dutch names for the colony and chief town. Nine years later New York was recovered by the Dutch, to be held by them only one year, when it was finally transferred to the English. James II. appointed Andros governor of all New England, New York, and New Jersey. When the news of the downfall of King James came, the Andros government was overthrown, and the colonists of New York took control of affairs with Jacob Leisler acting as temporary gover- nor. On the arrival of the new king's governor, Leisler was tried for treason and executed. New York remained a Royal province until the Revolution. New Jersey. 171. Settlement. — The lands between the Delaware and the Hudson had been claimed by the Dutch, the Swedes, and the English. This country was a por- tion of the grant made to the Duke of York in 1664, and he gave it to Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret. Car- teret had been governor of the Island of Jersey off the coast of England, so the grant was called New Jersey in his honor. Under a nephew of Sir George Carteret as governor, a settlement was made at Elizabethtown in 1665. 172. The Colony Divided. — Dis- putes soon arose between the proprie- tors and the inhabitants, and Berkeley, thoroughly dissatisfied, sold his interest to a party of Quakers. A division was then I04 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. made into East and West Jersey. The Eastern portion was given to Carteret, while the western portion was left to the Quakers. After the death of Carteret, Penn and his associates bought East New Jersey, and the Quakers established a liberal government there like that in their western colony. 173. East and West Jersey United. — King James II. took away from the proprietors of both colonies the rights of govern- ment, on the ground that the inhabitants were guilty of smug- gling. The disgusted proprietors soon afterward surrendered all their claims to the crown. East and West Jersey were then (1702) united as a royal colony. Although considered a sep- arate colony, New Jersey was not allowed a governor of its own until 1738. During this period the colony was under the administration of the governor of New York, who ruled through a deputy. 174. Summary. — The territory between the Delaware and the Hudson was a portion of tiie grant made to the Duke of \'ork in 1664, and he gave it to Lord lierkeley and Sir George Carteret. A settlement was made at ]vlizal)ethtown, 1C65. Berkeley sold his interests to a party of Quakers. A division was then made into East and West Jersey, the eastern portion given to Carteret and the western to the Quakers. Penn and his associates bought East New Jersey, and the Quakers established a liberal government. James II. took away from the proprietors of both colonies the rights of government. They soon after surrendered all their claims to the crown, and East and West Jersey were united as a Royal colony (1702). Still, for thirty-six years New Jersey was not allowed a governor of its own, but was under the governor of New York, who ruled through a deputy. Pennsylvania. 175. The Quakers. — Among the persecuted sects of Eng- land during the seventeenth century, none were more harshly treated than the Quakers. These people believed that the teachings of Christ should be followed literally in all things ; hence they refused to swear, even in a court of justice, nor THE ENGLISH COLONIES. 105 could they be induced to fight under any circumstances. In conversation they used the terms "thee" and "thou." Con- sidering all men absolutely equal, they declined to take off their hats as a mark of respect. They believed that all forms, ceremonies, and written creeds should be avoided. They op- posed dancing, theaters, and all public shows. They objected to a paid ministry, and held that any one might preach "when the spirit moved him." 176. The Founder of Pennsylvania. — William Penn was a wealthy Quaker who desired to find a re- fuge in America for his oppressed breth- ren. The king owed Penn's father a large sum of money. He agreed to give young Penn forty thousand square miles west of the Delaware for the debt. The grant was called Pennsylvania (Penn's woods). 177. Settlement. — In 1681 Penn's first colonists were brought over. The next year Penn himself joined them, and founded the capital city on the west bank of the Delaware. He called it Philadelphia (brotherly love), after a city men- tioned in the New Testament. 178. Growth of the Colony. — The growth of Pennsylvania was rapid. The colony was well governed from the first ; no William Penn. io6 HISTOKV OF OUR COUNTRY. religious persecution was allowed ; the Indians were fairly treated, and remained on good terms with the settlers. Thou- sands of English Quakers flocked to the colony, likewise large numbers of Irish and German immigrants. Before the beginning of the Revolution Philadel- phia was the largest town in all the col- onies. Penn and his heirs continued to govern the colony until the close of the colonial period. 179. Summary. — ^The king of England gave William Penn, a wealthy Quaker, forty thousand square miles west of the Delaware in payment of a debt which he owed Penn's father. The grant was called Pennsylvania. In 1 68 1 the first colonists were brought over, and Philadelphia was founded. The colony was well governed ; no religious persecution was allowed ; the Indians were fairly treated, and large numbers of Quakers, and Irish and German immigrants flocked to the colony. Penn's heirs continut--d to govern the colony until the close of the Colonial period. Penn's Slate-Roof House- Delaware. 180. Settlement. — Soon after the founding of New Am- sterdam, the Dutch made a settlement in Delaware, which was destroyed by the Indians a few years later. The first perma- nent settlement was made by the Swedes at Wilmington in 1638. 181. Conflicting Claims. — The territory was in turn under the control of the Swedes, the Dutch, and the English. When the English authority was established, Delaware, along with New Jersey and New York, was granted to the Duke of York. THE ENGLISH COLONIES. 107 The duke transferred the territory of Delaware toWilham Penn, who wanted an outlet to the sea for his colony. Delaware then became a part of Pennsylvania. 182. A Separate Province. — Her people were not satisfied with the union, however, and Penn finally allowed them a separate Assembly. In 1703 Dela- ware was recognized as a separate pro- vince, although she still remained under the same governor as Pennsylvania. 183. Summary. — The first permanent set- tlement was made by the Swedes in 1638. The territory was in turn under the control of the Swedes, the Dutch, and the English. Dela- ware was a portion of the grant made by King Charles II. to the Duke of York. It was transferred to William Penn, and became a part of Pennsyl- vania. The people of Delaware were not satisfied with the union, and Penn allowed them a separate Assembly. In 1703 Delaware was recognized as a separate province, but remained under the same governor as Pennsylvania. 184. Thought Questions. — What made the situation of New Amster- ■dam favorable for trade? What two colonies owed their first settlements to great trading companies.'' What colonies were governed by a trading company though not settled by it? Account for the early downfall of the Swedish power in America. Of the Dutch. What sects were not guilty of religious persecution in colonial times ? In what colonies do you find intolerance in religion? What colonies were settled by persecuted classes ? What colonies were originally gifts of territory to friends of the king? Copy and fill out the following table : Colony. First Settlement. Date. By Whom Founded. Religion of Settlers. Motive of Founder. New York New Jersey . Pennsylvania Delaware . . New Amsterdam .623 Dutch West India Co. 1 Dutch ) ( Protestants ) Trade Combine in one the tables in §§ 124, 164, and 184. io8 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. i IT) o o o t-. 8 ■n MAR Y L A N D V 1 R G 1 N 1 A >- : s C A R L 1 N A N. C. ; s. c. Igeorgia • \Z P L Y\| M O U T " ij ASSACHl ISETTS ( M A S S. BAY 1. \ -\ R H O D E IS LAND SiVDROOK 1 r, N N E C T 1 C U T 4C0NN. 1 — -| NEW HAVEN NEW H A M P SHIR E N E W Y R K 1 1 1 ' ' "^ ' "' jf.o.ss.r. .., E R S E Y ST JE Rie Y > N E W J PEN N SY LV A N 1 A 1 D E LAW ARE _ Synchronal Chart of the Colonies. Questions on Chart of Colonies. — Copy this chart on blackboard or on paper. In the s[);ice iLprL-sciUiiif^ Virginia, jjlace a cross-mark to indicate relative time of first introduction of slaves. What events in other colonies took place at nearly the same time ? Place cross-marks in proper positions on your chart to represent important events in the different colonies. How many and what colonies were founded during the thirty years between 1620 and 1650.' Find a period of 50 years during which no colony was founded. What colony was for a while united to New ^'ork .' What colony was once part of Pennsylvania.' What colonies were founded by people from Massachusetts ? THE ENGLISH COLONIES. 109 Topical Analysis (Middle Colonies). r Dutch claims. 165. Settlement.^ Trading posts. (^ Settlements. ^^ ^. -^ ^ fGrants from West India Company. 166. ThePatroons. ^ ^ ^ [^ rower. ^ ^ , _ ^ f Relations with Indians. TVTTTTTT vr.T>T^ J ^'^l ' Dutch Govemment. <^ „ NEW YORK. »"^7 i m] ass. 1b =^^^verhill FIRST THREE FRENCH WARS Boston and queen of England in his stead. This led to a war between France and England, in which their American colonies became involved, and which was known in America as King William's War. Queen Anne's and King George's Wars also originated in Europe. The scene of conflict of these three wars was New York, New England, and the French territory lying northward.^ Combined forces of French and Indians swooped down upon defenseless villages in New York and Massachu- setts and committed dreadful massacres. The colonial troops, with more or less aid from England, made expeditions against 1 The English colonies south of New York took little part in the first three French wars. During King William's War, however, the colonists of Soutii Carolina were fighting the Spanish and Indians of Florida, and defeated a combined French and Spanish expedition from Cuba. (§ 115.) 114 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. Quebec, Port Royal, and Louisburg (the latter a strong fortifi- cation on Cape Breton Island). 191. Results of the First Three French Wars. — Hut little change of territory resulted from these wars. In the first con- flict Port Royal was taken by English and colonial troops, but was given back to France at the close of the war. In the sec- ond war Port Royal, with Acadia, was again captured. This time the prize was kept by England, and never again fell into the hands of the French.' The name. Port Royal, was changed to Annapolis, in honor of Queen Anne, and Acadia was named Nova Scotia.- In King George's War the English achieved a splendid success in the capture of Louisburg, the strongest fortress in America. It was given back to France, however, at the close of the war, much to the disgust of the colonial troops who had taken a leading part in its overthrow. 192. The French and Indian War: Importance.^ — This war differs from the other French wars in several important particulars. In the first place, hostilities began in America before war had been declared by the mother-countries. It was the first war, also, in which all the English colonies were en- gaged. It was the bloodiest of the wars, and far the most important in its results. 193. How the War Began. — The English king authorized the governor of Virginia to grant a vast tract of land west of the Alleghanies to the Ohio Company for the purpose of col- onization. The French, who already had a few forts in this region, arrested the English immigrants, and established new strongholds in the disputed territory. Major George \\'ashing- ton, then a young man of twentj'-one, was sent by the governor 1 Newfoundland was also by treaty surrendered to England. The island had been occupied by the English since 15S3, but fell into French hands during Queen Anne's War. - I.atin for A'lif Scotland, to correspond with AVa- England. DOWNFALL OF FRENCH POWER IN AMERICA. 115 of Virginia to request the French to remove their forts. Wash- ington performed his dangerous mission wisely and courage- ously, but was unable to induce the French officers to retire. Soon afterward Washington was sent with a company of Vir- ginia troops to the relief of an English post at the head of the Ohio River, then threatened by the French. On his arrival he found that the French had captured the place, and had named it Fort Duquesne, after the governor of Canada. He repulsed the advance guard of the French, but was afterward forced to retire, and to surrender his little company at Fort Necessity (in southwestern Pennsylvania). Notwithstanding this surrender, the young commander and his troops received the thanks of the Virginia Assembly for having accomplished so much with their small force. 194. England Takes a Hand. — In England the news of the surrender of Fort Necessity caused great indignation, and SCALE OF MILES a plan was at once formed for driving the French from the entire country. General Edward Braddock was sent to America ii6 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY, with about looo men. At Alexandria, Va., IJraddock was met by the governors of Virginia, Maryland, Tennsylvania, New York, and Massachusetts, and a plan of operations was agreed upon. English troops, reinforced by colonial forces, were to advance and capture Fort Duquesnc;^ another expedition was to take Fort Niagara ; ^ a third was to seize Crown Point ; * a fourth was to attack the Acadian peninsula.' We shall see that each of these plans, except the last, was a failure on the first attempt. 195. Braddock's Defeat. — Braddock was a brave and experienced soldier, but wholly unfitted for fron- tier warfare. He was used to battles with trained soldiers on the open plains of Europe. He knew nothing of the methods of fighting savages in pathless woods. He started toward Fort Duquesne with a fine army numbering 2000 men, consisting of regulars from Eng- land and provincials from Vir- ginia, Maryland, and New York. Washington commanded the Virginia troops. Refusing to listen to the advice of the colonial officers, Ikaddock advanced through the forests, his troops encumbered with useless baggage, and with floating Hags and rolling drums, as if no enemy were near. Within a few miles of Fort Duquesne, his army, while passing through a wooded ravine, was suddenly attacked from ambush by a strong force of French and Indians. The British troops were thrown into confusion by the attack from unseen enemies, and fired wildly into the air. The colonial soldiers concealed themselves quickly behind trees, and fought as the savages did. Brad- dock had four horses shot from under him, Washington, two. 1 Find these places on the map, and tell how their location gave them importance in the war. DOWNFALL OF FRENCH POWER IN AMERICA. 117 An order to retreat had just been given when Braddock fell mortally wounded. His fall caused a panic, and the retreat became a rout. Washington and his troops alone savad the army from total destruction. 196. Acadia. — In the same year a force of British and colonial troops sailed from Boston, and captured the few re- maining French forts in Acadia.^ The French settlers of this region had steadfastly refused to take the oath of allegiance to England. They were all Roman Catholics, and wholly under the influence of French priests, who were hostile to English rule and loyal to France. England considered these French Acadians a source of perpetual danger to her authority. A cruel order was issued to banish them from their homes and confiscate their property. The plan was heartlessly carried out. About 4000 settlers were taken from their homes — often sepa- rated from their families — and scattered in different colonies from Massachu- setts to Louisiana. (In the poem "Evangeline," Long- fellow touchingly describes the sufferings of some of these unfortunate people.) 197. War Declared. — France and England de- clared war in 1756, after it had been raging two years in America. Each side sent over ships and men, and Montcalm. each seemed to realize that this was to be the final struggle for the control of the continent. 1 This region had been ceded to England at the close of Queen Anne's War, but had not been fully occupied. ii8 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 198. English Reverses. — The officers first sent over by England were inefficient, and were jealous of the colonial lead- ers. -There was little unity of action between the different English armies. On the other hand, Montcalm, commander- in-chief of the French troops, was one of the ablest generals of his time. His troops were well disciplined, his armies acted in harmony. For two years he successfully resisted the attacks of the English upon his posts in the disputed territory.^ 199. The Tide Turned. — In 1757 William Pitt became the actual head of the British ministry. The force of his genius was soon observed in the changed condition of affairs in America. Inefficient officers were re- moved to give place to able and experi- enced ones. The unjust preference shown to English regulars over the colonial soldiers was no longer observed, and all troops were placed on equal foot- ing. Energy and unity of acti(jn took the place of delays and jealousies. 200. Fall of French Strongholds. — One by one the great French strong- holds fell. Louisburg was surrendered in 1758. An attack on Ticonderoga, under General Abercrombie, was badly defeated, but the ne.\t year both Ticonderoga and Orown Point fell into the hands of the English. Fort Frontenac, on the north-east shore of Lake Ontario, was captured, and the I-'rench fleet on the lake destroyed. Fort Duquesne, thus cut off from its source of 1 During this period of French success, their arms met one reverse in the defe.it of Dieskau near the south end of Lake George. After their victory the EngHsh erected a fort, named Fort William Henry, near the battlefield. Two years later this fort was captured by Montcalm. Many of its helpless defenders were cruelly mur- dered by the Indian allies of the French, Montcalm being unable to control tliem. William Pitt. DOWNFALL OF FRENCH POWER IN AMERICA. 119 supplies, was abandoned on the approach of an English army. Washington, who led the advance guard, planted the English flag on the deserted ramparts, and changed the name of the place to Fort Pitt (now Pittsburg), in honor of the great British minister. Niagara was also taken, thus completely cutting off the communication between Canada and Louisiana. 201. The Last Great Battle. — All that now remained to France were a few strongholds along the St. Lawrence and an island at the north end of Lake Chimplnin. Quebec, the capi- tal of the French province of Canada, was at once the strongest and the most important of these defenses. Th^t part of ^"-i-^ the town known as the , "upper city" is situated on a steep bluff over- hanging the St. Lawrence River. General Mont- calm, who commanded the defenders, had about 13,000 men. These were strongly posted for a distance of several miles along the north bank of the stream. The English forces under General Wolfe numbered 10,000 men. Wolfe spent four months in the vain effort to draw his skillful antagonist into a fight in the open field, or to surprise some weak place in his defenses. At last the keen eye of the English leader espied with his glass what seemed to be a ravine threading its way down the preci- pice. Closer observation proved it to be a path. Wolfe re- solved to make a last desperate attempt to take the city by way of this perilous ascent. In the dead of night, boatloads of English soldiers floated silently down the stream, landed at the foot of the hidden path, and in single file climbed to the I20 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. top. Here, on a lofty plain, called the Heights of Abraham, the few astonished guards were overpowered, and 5000 troops, with Wolfe at their head, ranged themselves in battle line before their enemies were aware of their presence. The French rushed desperately to the attack. Both generals were mortally wounded. In his dying mo- ments Wolfe heard the cry, " They run ! " " Who run ? " he gasped. " The French ! " "God be praised!" he murmured, "I die happy." Five days after this victory the city was surrendered. 202. Close of the War The next year the French attempted to recapture Quebec. The effort failed, and a few months later Montreal and all the French ports in Canada were surrendered to the English. Although the fall of Canada closed the contest in America, war continued to be waged else- where between France and England. In 1762 Spain entered the war to aid France ; but Great Britain completely conquered both nations. In 1763 a treaty of peace was signed at Paris. France yielded to Great Britain all her possessions in North America east of the Mississippi.^ Spain agreed to give up Florida to Great Britain in exchange for the city of Havana, Cuba, which an English fleet had captured the year before. 203. Results of the French Wars. — The close of the French and Indian War marks the downfall of the French power in America. All the vast region conquered for France by her explorers, missionaries, traders, and settlers was thus wrested from her grasp by her most hated enemy. England 1 The territory of France west of the Mississippi was ceded to Spain to prevent its falling into the liands of England. WOLFE & MONTCALM' MONUMENT^, > . .'"^ DOWNFALL OF FRENCH POWER IN AMERICA. 121 had now undisputed control of the eastern half of North America, from the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico. The four wars had cost each side thousands of lives and millions of money. For the Ameri- can colonists other results were wrought besides those measured in terri- tory, lives, and money. The wars united the peo- ple. The widely separated colonists learned to act together against a com- mon foe. The success of colonial troops, fighting side by side with English regulars, taught them self- reliance and independence. The hard experiences of war gave the colonial soldiers valuable military training, and developed the genius of such leaders as Washington, Putnam, Stark, Sumter, Marion, and others. On the whole, it may be said that the French wars were a training-school to the American colonists for the great struggle with the mother-country which began twelve years later. North America at Close of French Wars, I 763. 204. Summary. — The French wars extended over a period of seventy- four years, from 1689 to 1763. At the beginning of this period, England held the Atlantic coast from New England to South Carolina. France controlled the region between the mouth of the St. Lawrence and the head of Lake Superior, and from the source of the Mississippi to its mouth. The first three wars, William's, Anne's, George's (mnemonic word, W.-A.-G.), originated in Europe, were waged chiefly on the frontiers of New England and New York, and, save in the surrender of Acadia by the French, re- sulted in no change of territory. In the last and most important war, the French and Indian, all the English colonies were concerned. It originated in America over a question of disputed territory. The English were un- successful until the genius of William Pitt turned the tide. The last great 122 HISTORV OF OUR COUNTRY. French stronghold, Quebec, fell after a desperate battle, in which both generals, Wolfe and Montcalm, were killed. l>y the treaty of peace, 1763, France gave to l-lngland all her territory east of the Mississippi; Spain gave Florida to Kngland. To the Fnglish colonists, the P'rench Wars were a valuable jjreparation for the approaching struggle with the mother- country. 205. Thought Questions. — What first attracted the French to the country about the mouth of the St. Lawrence." Why did they follow the water-courses in their explorations and settlements.' Why did so many French Huguenots settle in the English rather than in the French colonies.' What does the fact that European colonists in America were so ready to take up the quarrels of the mother-country prove.' How did it happen that so few colonies were engaged in the first three French wars.' Why were all the colonies united in the French and Indian War.' Did the Iroquois Indians pursue the wisest course? Was the English claim to the land west of the .Mleghanies more just than that of the French.' (iive reason for your opinion. Show how each side might claim that the other began the war. What e.\cuse had the English? the P'rench ? Tui'icAi. A.N.M.vsis (Frf.ncii W.\rs in America). > , „ . r Struggle for control of North America. 185. Cause of French ' , , . . -> J i 11,1 ..•^■iiities. lifferencf English. 7i, but niay "without fenfible Error, [erveall the ad- jacent Places, even from J^ewfounaiaad-Xo Smth- By KICHJRD SJUNDERS.Vhilom, ^^~— ^ PHILADELPHIA! Printed and fold ty B. FRANKLIN, at the Ncw^ | Printing- OflBce near the Market I Title Page of " Poor Richard's Almanack." 134 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. the almanac. "Poor Richard's Almanack," prepared and published by Benjamin Franklin, was perhaps the most popular of these. It contained scraps of history and poetry, anecdotes and epigrams. Some of the wise sayings of "Poor Richard" are familiar proverbs to-day. The " Almanacks " were care- fully preserved, some households possessing a file of them for fifty years. The ministers of New England produced most of the writings. The books were nearly all on theological sub- jects. Jonathan Edwards's great work, " On the Freedom of the Will," is yet considered a masterpiece of logical reasoning. The Puritans were great versifiers, but produced little true poetry.' 222. Summary. — It has been said that the characteristic features of New linglaiid life were her town meetings, schools, and churches. The most prominent traits which lay at the basis of these institutions were intense earnestness, intellectual activity, and hatred of all resem- blance to priestly rule. The people were orderly and industrious. Their keenness of intellect, thrift, and experience in trade mad^ them shrewd bar- gain-drivers, whose reputation remains to their (lesceiulants to-day. The influence of their religion on all departments of life, and their intolerance toward other sects, were marked features of their civilization. The gentle, imaginative, poetic side of their nature was not developed. The educa- tional preeminence of colonial New England was pronounced. The same fixedness of conviction that led her people to ignore the rights of others 1 The most popular book written in New Engl.ind before the Revolution was a poem by Micliael Wigglesworth, called tiie " Day of Doom." The following stanza from this "blazing and sulphurous" work describes the fate of the wicked : "Then might you hear them tear and rend The air with their out-cries : The hideous noise of their sad voice Ascendeth to the skies. They wring their h.ands, their caiti£f liands, And gnash their teeth for terror ; They cr>', they roar, for anguish sore, And gnaw their tongues for horror. But get away without delay ; Christ pities not your cry ; Depart to hell, there may you yell And roar eternally." LIFE IN THE COLONIES. 1 35 made them tenacious of their own. In the approaching contest with Eng- land, Massachusetts and Virginia led the way, and the New England colo- nists furnished to that struggle, and to the national character, some ele- ments of greatest strength. The Southern Colonies. 223. Occupations. — The first settlers in the Southern colo- nies found a climate and soil admirably adapted to agriculture. The Indians being usually friendly, it was not necessary for them to live in towns for the purpose of mutual defence. Numerous inlets of the sea and navigable rivers afforded a convenient means for the transportation of their products to European or colonial markets. The introduction of slave labor increased the profits of agriculture. Accordingly, farming was from the first the universal Occupation of the people. There were small traders, but no considerable merchant-class. Car- penters and mechanics were rare. On each plantation a few slaves were trained as blacksmiths, shoemakers, etc. The commonest articles of furniture were imported from England. A few iron furnaces were established in Virginia by Governor Spottswood, and among the North Carolinians the production of lumber, tar, and turpentine in a measure took the place of agri- culture. The professions of law and medicine had few follow- ers, and did not acquire any standing until near the Revolution. 224. Principal Crops. — In South Carolina and Georgia, rice and indigo were the principal productions. Cotton was raised, but not in any great quantity. In Virginia, Maryland, and North Carolina, tobacco was the universal crop. Its culture was so profitable that everything else was neglected, and it supplied the place of money as a medium of exchange. Taxes were levied in tobacco, and salaries were paid in tobacco. In later colonial days, grain became an important crop in Maryland, and large quantities of flour were exported from Baltimore. 136 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 225. Absence of Towns. — Absence of towns was charac- teristic of all the Southern colonies. Plantations lined the banks of the navigable streams, and each planter had a wharf on the river front, where ships laden with manufactured articles from England would land, and receive in return cargoes of colonial products. Thus every planter was his own merchant. Jamestown, for a long time the principal town of Virginia, con- sisted of a church, court-house, and about eighteen other houses. The county-seats, established by law for the administration of justice, were often located in the midst of a forest, and con- sisted of a court-house, a prison, a poorly-kept inn, and usually a church. The Legislatures of several of the colonies passed laws that towns should be established at specified places " for the encouragement of trade and manufacture." But these "paper towns" were failures. At the close of the colonial period, Charleston, with a population of about 15,000, was the principal town in the Southern colonies. Baltimore came next in size, then Norfolk, Virginia, with about 7000. Savannah, the largest town in Georgia, had 1200 inhabitants. In North Carolina only three places could be called towns, the largest, Wilmington, with a population of not over 600. 226. Slavery. — The culture of tobacco and rice, by mak- ing slave labor profitable, fastened the institution of African slavery upon the Southern colonies. Slaves were most numer- ous in South Carolina, where they outnumbered the whites two to one. In Virginia the slave and free population were about equal. The prohibition of slavery in Georgia was found to re- tard the growth of the colony, and was finally removed through the protests of the colonists and the influence of Rev. George Whitefield, who argued that the transportation of the negro from his savage home in Africa to a Christian land, where he would be humanely treated and -forced to work, was a benefit to him. Alarm at the rapid increase of slaves, and dread of LIFE IN THE COLONIES. 137 an uprising of the negroes, led to the passage of extremely harsh laws concerning them. Yet, in general, the relation be- tween master and slave was a kindly one.^ The negroes were well fed, comfortably clothed, not overworked, and, as a class, were contented and happy. 227. Government. — At the close of the colonial period all the Southern colonies, except Maryland, had come under the Royal form of government (§ 210). The privilege of voting was usually restricted to land-owners. Political affairs were controlled by the large planters, who were cordially supported, however, by the small farmers. The county (instead of the town, as in New England) was the unit of local government, and was modeled after the English shire. Commis- sioners, or justices of the peace, were ap- pointed by the governor for each county, to try offenses and administer such affairs as were not regulated by the Assembly. In some instances the church vestry, chosen by the heads of families, exercised certain powers of government. As a rule the people were not hampered by legal restraints upon the minor details of their conduct. The whipping-post was the common means of punishing violators of the law, though the pillory and ducking- stool were not unfamiliar objects, Cutting the ears was some- times resorted to, as in the case of the faithless clerk of the Virginia Assembly (§ 92). 228. Society. — The planters were the ruling class socially as well as politically. They comprised two divisions, the large 1 The little son of the planter might often be seen in the cabin " quarters" seated upon the knee of a gray-haired negro and listening with wonder and delight to the old "uncle's " tales of " Bre'r Rabbit " and " Bre'r Fox" ; when bed-time found " little massa " thus, he was tenderly carried home in the arms of his black " mammy," as his nurse was called. In the Pillory. 138 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. land-holders and the small planters. Separated from the planters by a broad social gulf was the comparatively small class of merchant-traders and landless laborers. At the bot- tom of the social scale, and cut off from the rest by an impassa- ble barrier, was the great mass of negro slaves. The large planters, with their hundreds of acres and scores of slaves, gave an aristocratic air to southern life. One of these estates re- sembled a small village. In the center of a grassy lawn, dotted with stately trees, stood the mansion of the planter, built of Southern Colonial Mansion. wood or brick, two stories high, with its broad veranda sup- ported by lofty pillars, its wide hallway, and low ceilings. Clustered around the mansion were numerous offices and store- houses, while a row of cabins, comprising the " negro-quarters," nestled in the distance.* The small planters lived in less style, and had fewer slaves. Bountiful hospitality charac- terized the people. There was usually one miserable tavern at each county-seat, but this was chiefly a resort for loafing and drinking. Only when court was in session did it have ' In the Southern colonies tlie law of entail provided that estates could not be divided, but were to be handed down to the eldest son. LIFE IN THE COLONIES. 1 39 any guests. " Court-days " were eagerly welcomed by the people as a release from their isolated life. Then the deserted county-seat became a scene of bustle and confusion. The free- men of the county, rich and poor, there met on an equal foot- ing, cracked jokes, talked politics, engaged in athletic sports, " swapped " horses, or bet on the speed of a favorite nag. In fine weather barbecues were common, when whole oxen and pigs were roasted, and contests in fiddling, wrestling, and danc- ing were held. Once a year, when the Assembly met, the colo- nial capital was a gay social center. Then the planter and his wife and daughters, arrayed in their finest clothes, were whirled away in their coach-and-four to Annapolis, Williamsburg, or Charleston, where they listened to the speeches in the hall of burgesses, visited horse-races, or attended a grand ball at the governor's " palace." Marriages were performed by clergymen, usually in church. In Maryland a special tax was imposed upon bachelors. In Virginia it would seem that the modern practice of " flirting " was discouraged. Governor Wyat, of that colony, required that any man or woman " engaging to marry two sev- eral persons at one time " should be punished by whipping or a fine, " according to the quality of the person so oftending." 229. Religion. — At the close of the colonial period the Church of England was the Established ^ Church in all the Southern colonies, although in Virginia alone did its members constitute a majority of the white population. Among dissent- ing sects, the most numerous and influential in Virginia and North Carolina were the Scotch-Irish Presbyterians ; in South Carolina, Huguenots ; in Maryland, Roman Catholics and Puri- tans; in Georgia, Lutherans, Methodists, and Baptists. Fining, imprisonment, and banishment were punishments sometimes inflicted for non-conformity to the Established Church. Mary- land was the first colony to establish religious toleration, and 1 That is, the State Church, supported by the governnlent. 140 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. the Carolinas and Georgia followed her example. The first permanent church in America was erected at Jamestown. The governor and his council, in full dress, were regular attendants, and occupied seats of honor. Owing to the scattered popula- tion, some of the parishes extended over fifty miles, rendering regular attend- ance upon church im- possible. The ministers were brought from Eng- laiul, and included many men of high character and mental ability, such as Rev. Jas. Blair, the founder of William and Mary College. In later colonial times, however, the fast lives of some of the English clergy, their quarrels over questions of salary, and the suspicion of disloyalty to the colonies lessened the in- fluence of the ministry as a class. 230. Education. — The sparsely settled character of the country in the South made it difficult to establish schools. Governor Berkeley's oft-quoted remark that he "thanked God there were no free schools nor printing-presses in Virginia" was not the sentiment of the colonists, but indicated the policy of the English governors, who would have their subjects ignorant in order to keep them submissive. Yet the bigotry of the rulers had its effect in encouraging indifference to popular education. Schools in the South were few. The 0;d Bdck Chuich, near Smithfield, Va. Erected in 1632. LIFE IN THE COLONIES. 141 wealthy planters employed private tutors, or sent their sons to England to be educated. Yet the founding of William and Mary College in Virginia in 1693, the second oldest college in the United States, shows the early interest of the people in education. Through the efforts of Rev. Jas. Blair ;{J"2 5oo were subscribed by the colonists for founding a college. The Assembly approved the plan, and against official resistance in England a charter was secured from the sovereigns, William William and Mary College in 1739. and Mary, after whom the institution was named. The first commencement of the college was a grand occasion. Not only Virginians but a number of Indians were present, while visitors from Maryland and even from Pennsylvania and New York came in boats to attend the exercises. 231. Literature. — Printing was forbidden in Virginia by the English government, and was discouraged in all the colonies directly under the Crown. The first newspaper in the South was the Maryland Gazette, which appeared at Annapolis in 1727. In 1765 there were ten newspapers in the Southern colonies ; two in Maryland, one in Virginia, two 142 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. in North Carolina, four in South Carolina, and one in Georgia. (In the same year the Middle colonies had thirteen news- papers, New England twenty.) The books of the colonists, like their furniture, were imported from England. The pro- ductions of native authors were generally narrative or descrip- tive, and possessed no permanent literary value. Compared with the writings of New England, the literature of the South was less abundant and was characterized by lightness and worldliness rather than by theological soberness. 232. Summary. — In the Southern colonies, as a whole, loyalty to the king and to the Established Church characterized the dominant class of settlers. The circumstances of their new homes made them an agricultural people and fastened upon them the institution of slavery. These facts will account for the distinctive features of colonial civilization in the South. There was no diversity of labor. The planters constituted the bulk of the population and were the leaders in society and jjolitics. The "poor whites," descendants, for the most part, of indented servants, were ignorant and shiftless. They were few in number, however, and without standing or influence. The slaves constituted nearly half the population, and as a rule were humanely treated. The isolated homes of the colonists and the bigotry of their rulers hindered the progress of popular education. Nevertheless there were occasional free schools, and Virginia boasted the second oldest college in the country. While instances of religious persecu- tion were not wanting, yet intolerance was not a characteristic of the people. Loyal churchmen as they were, they were quick to resent any infringe- ment of their rights by king or clergy. Jovial, hospitable, and socialite, their manner of life encouraged extravagance and love of ease. (lambling and intemperance were prevailing vices. Open-hearted generosity, refine- ment of feeling, patriotism, and a high sense of honor were characteristics of the better class. When the Revolutionary struggle came on, no section of the country furnished so splendid a group of leaders in the council and the field. LIFE IN THE COLONIES. 143 The Middle Colonies. 233. Nationality and Occupation of the People. — New York and Delaware alone of the thirteen colonies were not founded by the English race. The population of the Middle colonies as a whole was more heterogeneous than that of either New England or the South. The descendants of the Dutch continued to constitute a majority of the white population of New York, and gave a distinctive char- acter to the colony. The Germans in Pennsylvania nearly equaled in number the colonists of English descent. Agriculture and trade in nearly equal proportions engaged the attention of the people. Grain was the principal production, al- though there was a considerable diversity of crops. Numerous windmills in New York and watermills in Pennsylvania ground the wheat into flour, which Dutch Windmill. First Warehouse in New York. formed the leading export. New York was the chief trading and commercial colony. The fur-trade was most extensive and profitable. There were glass and paper factories, and in 144 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. Pennsylvania the iron industry received some attention. In Pennsylvania the professions of law and medicine were in good repute. 234. Religion. — Religious toleration was a marked charac- teristic of the Middle colonies. New \'ork formed an exception to this in her treatment of the Roman Catholics and Quakers. Her hatred of the Catholics was largely due to constant war- fare with the Roman Catholic French of Canada, The Quak- ers, true to their teachings, established a religious toleration as complete as that of to-day, and Pennsylvania became a refuge for a great variety of religious denominations. The ministers in the Middle colonies were generally upright and learned men. Those of New York were jovial in their lives and free from great formality. The predominant sects were Dutch Prot- estants in New York ; Quakers in Pennsylvania and Dela- ware ; Quakers, Congregationalists, and Scotch Presbyterians in New Jersey. 235. Education. — Numerous free schools were supported in New York by the Dutch. Under English rule, however, popu- lar education in the colony languished. The only free school in Pennsylvania was founded by the Quakers at Philadelphia in 1689. There were a few private schools in Pennsylvania supported chiefly by the Moravians, and a few free town-schools in New Jersey. In 1746 the Presbyterians of New Jersey founded the first college in the Middle colonies (now Princeton College). Kings (now Columbia), an Episcopal college, was established at New York in 1754. The next year the College of Pennsylvania was founded at Philadelphia. Among the lower classes of Maryland and Pennsylvania there was much ignorant superstition about ghosts, witches, spells and charms. 236. Government. — Pennsylvania and Delaware continued under proprietary government until the Revolution, while New LIFE IN THE COLONIES. I45 York and New Jersey came directly under the rule of the Crown. In the first two colonies the Council was merely an advisory body to the governor, and so the Legislature was com- posed of only one house, the Assembly. In their local govern- ment the Middle colonies occupied a position between the "town" system of New England and the county system of the South. In Pennsylvania and Delaware, county government prevailed, with the distinctive feature that all county officers were elected by the people.^ New York and New Jersey had county government, and also "town meetings," the latter, how- ever, with less ample powers than those of New England. The Quakers were mild in their punishment of crime. Pennsylvania made murder the only capital offense, and criminals were pun- ished with fines and light imprisonment. In 17 18 this mild system was abandoned. The whipping-post and pillory were introduced, and the number of capital offenses was increased to fourteen. In New York and New Jersey, negro murderers were burned at the stake. 237. Social Classes. — ^In the Dutch patroons New York possessed a more distinctly aristocratic class than any of the other colonies. These great landed proprietors on their vast estates, with their hundreds of tenants, multitudes of servants, and princely power lived in magnificent style. There were single estates that elected members of the Assembly, and these elections were controlled by the patroons. In the other Middle colonies the wealthy landed gentry constituted the highest class, but there were few large estates. There were many indented servants and a considerable number of slaves." With 1 The Pennsylvania system of county government exists in most states to-day. 2 In New York there was a deep antipathy to the negroes, which showed itself on two occasions in a craze of excitement not unlike the witchcraft frenzy of Massachu- setts. In the "negro plot" of 1741 the blacks were accused of plotting to burn the city of New York. Before the panic was over 13 of the unfortunate creatures were burned at the stake, 18 were hanged, and 17 transported, in accordance with the judgment of the court. 146 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. the exception of New York, social distinctions were less marked in the Middle colonies than in New England or the South. 238. Social Life. — Social life and customs were largely moulded by the Dutch in New York, and by the Quakers in the remaining Middle colonies. In New York the lords of the manor dressed in silks and velvets, and lived in large, hand- Dutch Manor House.' somely furnished houses of brick or stone. They had great barns, and an abundance of horses and cattle. Tliey generally spent their winters in the town of New York, returning to their country-seats in the spring. The houses of the moderate farm- ers were of wood, sometimes trimmed with yellow I lolland brick, and surmounted with a gilded weather-cock. The furniture was plain and solid. The sideboards were plentifully supplied with wine and decorated with a rack of tobacco-pipes, for the Dutch were great smokers. Both sexes dressed in homespun. 1 From " Memorial History of New York." LIFE IN THE COLONIES. 147 Burgomaster of New Amsterdam. The loose, "baggy" breeches of the men and the numerous petticoats of the women gave them a clumsy appearance. The Dutch women were notable housewives. Their houses were kept scrupulously clean, and their floors were regularly scrubbed and sanded. Carpets were not used. The people were fond of social pleasure, and had a great liking for holidays. Christmas and New Year's were great festivals. St. Valentine's Day, Easter, and May Day were also celebrated by the young people. The Quakers of Pennsylvania and New Jer- sey were the best farmers of their time, thrifty, temperate, and economical. In the older settled communities the houses were generally of brick, plastered and papered, and plainly furnished. Leather breeches, hempen jackets, and broad hats were worn by the farmers on work-days. House-raisings, huskings, and cider-pressings were occasions of social gatherings, but the ordinary daily life of the Quakers was sober and monotonous. Journeys were made on horseback. The bride rode to the wedding seated on a "pil- lion" behind her father, and returned in the same way behind her husband. In New Jersey a cow and a side saddle constituted a usual dower of the average farmer's daughter. Philadelphia and New York were the social centers of the Middle colonies ; in the lattev place, especially, society was gay and fashion- _ , able. Quaker. 239. Summary. — In their social and political institutions, as in their geographical situation, the Middle colonies occupy a middle ground between the New England and the Southern groups. Neither trade nor agriculture 148 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. engrossed the exclusive attention of the people. Their local government was a compromise between the " town " and county systems. .Slaves were more numerous than in New England, but far less abundant than in the South. The Middle colonies possessed the largest foreign population As a rule social distinctions were less marked than in either of the othei sections. In the Quaker colonies neither the religious persecution of the New Kngland Puritans nor the intolerance of the Virginia Churchmen existed. Hoth the Dutch and the Quakers were slow in thought and action. In the Revolution they furnished a conservative class that formed a valu- able element of strength in the struggle. 240. Thought Questions. — Whence did the colonists borrow the idea of having two l)raiiches in their colonial Legislatures? What points do you see to admire in the town system of local government in New England } In the county system of the South ? How did the methods of church govern- ment of the settlers of Massachusetts and of Virginia influence their local civil government ? Contrast the soil and climate of Massachusetts and of Virginia. I low did these differences affect the occupations of the settlers in New England and the South ? their local government ? the institution of slavery.' If the New England Puritans had .settled in Virginia, and the Virginia Royalists had settled in New England, would the distinctive features of colonial life in the two sections have been different from what they really were .' Was the difference in the life of the colonists due chiefly to local surroundings in America, or to the character and religion of the settlers, or to both .' Are the differences between the sections of our country to-day more or less marked than they were in colonial times ? Give the reason for your answer. What causes to-day tend to give uniformity to the manners and customs of the people in all parts of the United States? What causes tend to difference? In what particular have we made the greatest improvement since colonial times ? ToriCAi. Analysis (Life in tiik Coi.onik-s). '206. Introductory: Close of an Era. f Eormation of colonies GENERAL VIEW OF THE COLONIES. ::o7. Territorial _ . .. <, .Situation of settlements. Limits. L Region west of the Alleghanies. Crowth. „ „ , . Total population in 1760. 20S. Population. J ,„. ,.„ , , . '^ I 1 he different colonies. Towns and cities. LIFE IN THE COLONIES. 149 GENERAL VIEW OF THE COLONIES (co)itiniied). NEW ENGLAND COLONIES. 209. ^210, I The slave trade. Slavery. ■\ The Northern colonies. [ The Southern colonies. f Republican colonies. Government. < Proprietary colonies. 1^ Royal colonies. r Differences. Colonies Classified. -{ Resemblance. [^ Three groups. Occupations of the People. Farming. Fisheries. { Shipbuilding. I Commerce. [ Handicrafts. f Origin. 213. Towns. ^ Limits. 1^ Government. r Puritan church. Intolerance. Ministers. L Church services. Duration. Observance. Capital offenses. Modes of punishment. C Basis. Grades of Society. -{ Classes. [ Distinctions. Of the men. Of the women. r Social pleasures. 219. Social Life. -^ Holidays. [ Marriages and funerals. _,- ,. f Schools. 220. Education, i „ „ 1^ Colleges. C First printing press. 221. Literature. ^ ^T ""^"P^P"''- Almanacs. L Character of literature. 214. Religion. arge planters. .Small planters. Traders and laborers. S. Society. -^ Slaves. Court days. The colonial capitals. Marriages. The I'^stablished Church. Dissenting sects. Intolerance. Clergymen. ( .Scarcity of schools. } William and Mary College. Prohibition of printing. Books. Character of literature. 29. Religion. 230. Education. ly- Literature. Nationality and Occupations. Mixed population. Principal occupations. Principal productions. Leading e.\port. Other occupations. LIFE IN THE COLONIES. 151 MIDDLE COLONIES i (contimted). 234. Religion. \ L 235. Education. r Toleration. Intolerance in New York. Ministers. Leading denominations. Schools and colleges. Superstitions. ( Pennsylvania and Delaware. ^ „ .1 New York and New Jersey. 236. Government. -^ ^ , I Local government. I Punishment of crime. ( Patroons of New York. 237. Social Classes, -l Land-owners of other colonies. (^ Social distinctions. ■ 1 T -f i ^ ^''^ Dutch of New York. ( The Quakers of Pa. and New Jersey. ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. I. WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. I. Causes leading to the War, 17O0-74. II. Beginnings of the War, April, 1775-July, 1776. 1. In Massachusetts. ^ „, , . , ,. , . ^ ^ , I Washington appouited Lonimander-in- 2. In Canada. r ^1 • r t. , r , < 1 ^, ,. ^ Chief ; Declaration of Independence. 3. On the Carolina Coast. J III. Struggle for the Middle .States, July, 1776-July, 1778. 1. Campaigns around New York City. ~^ 2. Campaigns in northern New York. > Treaty with France. 3. Campaigns around Philadelphia. J IV. War beyond the Frontiers, 1778-9. 1. West of the Alleghanies. 2. On the Ocean. V. War in the South, 1778-81. 1. In Georgia and the Carolinas. ) Arnold's Treason. 2. In Virginia. ) Treaty of Peace with Great Britain. I. CAUSES LEADING TO THE REVOLUTION. 241. Old Grievances. — As a rule, the English kings were careless of the rights of their American subjects. America was valued chiefly as a means to pay royal debts by grants of territory, or to reward court favorites by appointments to colonial offices. The royal governors frequently lacked both character and ability, and often provoked the people to resist- ance. When the tvranny of Governor Nicholson became un- bearable to the "V irginians, the king at last graciously consented to transfer him to another colony, and he became in turn gov- ernor of Maryland and of Carolina. Every colony, except Penn- sylvania and Delaware, was at some period in its history the WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 153 victim of incompetent governors. But the victories won by English and colonial troops in the French and Indian War had caused old grievances to be forgotten and good feeling to pre- vail between the colonies and the mother-country. It was the course of the king and Parliament subsequent to 1760, in attempting to enforce certain old laws and in passing new ones distasteful to the colonists, that hurried on the Revolution. 242. Laws of Trade and Navigation. — It was commonly believed in England that British traders and manufacturers should not only be protected from competition in the colonies, but that they should derive an actual profit from colonial trade. To this end, more than one hundred years before the Revolu- tion, Parliament had begun to pass laws to regulate shipping, trade, and manufactures in the colonies. These laws provided among other things (i) that no foreign vessel, except British, should carry goods to or bring them from the colonies ; (2) that certain colonial products, such as tobacco, sugar, and cotton, should not be exported to any part of the world save to Great Britain or her colonies ; (3) that all European products needed by the colonists should be purchased in England and imported in English ships ; (4) that no articles made in England should be manufactured in the colonies. The object of these laws was partly to injure England's rivals (especially the Dutch, who at that time did most of the carrying trade of the world), but chiefly to enrich British merchants and manufacturers at the expense of the American colonists. 243. The Laws Evaded. — The disastrous effect of such laws upon the prosperity of the colonies, if strictly enforced, can be readily imagined. For nearly one hundred years the colonists ignored or evaded them. The numerous harbors on the American coast made it easy for smugglers ^ to avoid the 1 To smuggle goods is to import them without paying the import tax required by law. 154 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. king's officers. When offenders were arrested sympathizing juries refused to convict them, and even the judges appointed by the king were disposed to be lenient, remembering that their salaries depended upon the vote of colonial Assemblies. The pressure of the French wars prevented the British government from turninjr its attention to the enforcement of the law. 244. Efforts to Enforce the Navigation Laws. — When the French power in America was overthrown, England was free to enforce her hated navigation laws. Colonial juries having re- fused to punish smugglers, " Admiralty Courts " were established in the colonies, with authority to try offend- ers without juries. A still more formidable measure was the issuance of "writs of assistance" (1761). These were general warrants good for an indefinite time, author- izing officers to search all suspected places at any hour of the day for goods sup- posed to have been imported contrary to law. The colonists, believing the navigation laws unjust, were ready to oppose any effective measures for enforcing them. Moreover, it was held that these new measures were violations of the British Constitution, which al- lowed to every citizen the right of trial by jury, and declared his house should be secure against unreasonable search. James Otis resigned his position as advocate-general of Massa- chusetts to avoid supporting the writs. The Boston merchants appealed to the courts to declare the writs illegal, and employed Otis as their counsel. The case was decided against them, yet James Otis. WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 155 the powerful arguments of Otis exerted a wide influence in strengthening the opposition of the people. 245. The << Parson's Case." — While the admiralty courts and the writs of assistance were causing dissatisfaction and resistance in the commercial colonies, an event took place in Virginia which weakened the authority of the king in that loyal colony. The annual salary of each minister of the Established Church in Virginia was fixed by law at 16,000 pounds of tobacco, and this amount was raised by taxation. One year, when there was a failure of the tobacco crop, the Virginia Assembly passed a law allowing the salaries of ministers to be paid in money at the rate of twopence for each pound of tobacco due. As this sum was far below the market value of tobacco the clergy objected, and appealed to the king. The result was the king annulled or set aside the "two-penny act" of the Assembly. The ministers thereupon brought suits in their respective counties to recover the difference in salary due them. In one of the coun- ties Patrick Henry, an obscure young lawyer, was chosen to represent the tax-payers. In a speech of surprising boldness and eloquence, he denounced the king as a tyrant for setting aside a good law, and declared that the Assembly of Virginia "was the only authority for the laws of the colony." His words were cheered by the large crowd present, and the jury brought in a verdict awarding only one penny to the clergymen. In all parts of Virginia, Henry's defiance of the king was discussed, some condemning it as treason, many others approving it. Patrick Henry. 156 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 246. The Colonies to be Taxed. — The expenses of the French wars had brought an enormous debt upon England. As the wars had been waged partly in the interest of the colo- nies, England claimed that the colonies should help to pay the cost. Accordingly, the British Parliament decided to go a step further than it had ever gone before ; it determined to raise a revenue from the colonies by taxation. An old law, placing a duty on sugar and molasses, was revived, and the Stamp Act was passed (1765), requiring government stamps to be placed on all contracts, notes, and legal documents. These stamps were to be sold by British officials, and from this source a large revenue was expected. 247. Feeling of the Americans. — The proposed taxation of Americans by the British Parliament awakened a greater storm than did the enforcement of the navigation laws. Cen- turies before this, the people of England had taken away from their king the power to tax them, and had declared that in England taxes could be imposed only by the representatives elected by the people. In accordance with this principle, the American colonists claimed they could be taxed only by their colonial Assemblies. They elected no representatives to Par- liament ; that body, therefore, had no right to tax them. More- over, inasmuch as their territory, when first discovered, was con- sidered to belong to the king, and as they had obtained their title to the soil from the king, they held that they were subject to the king alone, and not to Parliament. As to the expenses of the French wars, the colonists held that they had already paid their share in the soldiers and supplies they had fur- nished. 248. The British Parliament. — The Parliament which pro- posed to tax the American colonists did not truly represent the people of England. In the United States to-day, we know that members of Congress are elected from districts of nearly equal WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 157 population ; and as population increases much more rapidly in some parts of the country than in others, we rearrange our rep- resentative districts every ten years in order to prevent unfair- ness in representation. In England, however, members of Parliament had been originally elected from "shires" or "boroughs," as such, and without reference to population. At the time of George III. these parliamentary districts, never regular, had not been changed for 200 years. As a conse- quence, cities like Manchester and Birmingham, which had sprung up in recent years, had no representatives, while other districts, whose population had decreased to hardly a dozen inhabitants, were yet allowed to choose members of Parlia- ment. The votes in these " rotten boroughs " were controlled by the king and a few wealthy families. The people of the unrepresented cities had begun to complain of their unjust treatment, and they sympathized with the Americans in their cry of " no taxation without representation." 249. Resistance to the Stamp Act. — News of the passage of the Stamp Act reached America in the spring of 1765. From Virginia came the first response. Her Assembly passed a series of resolutions introduced by the great orator, Patrick Henry, and supported by his matchless eloquence, declaring that " the Assembly of this colony have the only and sole ex- clusive right to levy taxes upon the in- habitants." John Ashe, speaker of the North Carolina Assembly, declared to the royal governor that in his colony the Stamp Act "would be resisted to blood," whereupon the governor promptly dis- solved the Assembly. The Massachusetts Assembly resolved that their courts should recognize unstamped documents, and sent a circular to the other colonies recom- ritish Stamp. 158 HISTOKV OF OUR COUNTRY. mending that a congress of delegates from all the colonies be held in New York to consider common grievances. In some places the feeling of opposition was so strong that mobs were formed and deeds of cruelty and lawlessness enacted.* Every- where stamp agents were forced to resign, and the stamps were either destroyed or sent back to England. 250. The Stamp Act Congress. — This Congress, proposed by Massachusetts and seconded by South Carolina, met in New York just before the Stamp Act was to go into effect (October, 1765). Twenty-eight delegates were present, repre- senting nine colonies. Four colonies were unrepresented, chietly through opposition of their royal governors and not through lack of interest in the cause. Petitions to the king and Parliament ^ were prepared and also a Declaration of Rights, asserting that the colonies should be free from all ta.xes not imposed with their own consent. 251. The Stamp Act Repealed. — It soon became evident to the British ministry that to enforce the Stamp Act an army must be used, and they were unwilling to go so far. The colonies, moreover, were not without sympathizers in England. When Parliament met in 1766, a petition against the Stamp Act was presented by the London merchants trading with America. William Pitt, now old and suffering with disease, appeared in the House of Commons on crutches, and fiercely opposed the policy of the British government. "I rejoice that America has resisted," said he. "If her people had sub- mitted, they would have voluntarily become slaves. My opinion is that the Stamp Act should be repealed, absolutely, 1 In Hoston the home of Chief-Justice Hutchison w.is burned by a mob, the Justice and his family barely escaping. In New York a torchlight procession dragged through the streets the governor's chariot bearing images of the governor and the devil, and finally made a bonfire of the chariot. 2 Gadsden, of South Carolina, objected to sending petitions to Parliament, because thereby its authority would be acknowledged. WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 159 totally, immediately." The result was the repeal of the Stamp Act before it had been in operation six months. At the same time a resolution was passed declaring that Parliament had the right to tax the colonies in all cases. Thus the principle of taxation without representation was still maintained. 252. The Townshend Acts. — The next year two laws known as the Townshend Acts (from their author, Charles Townshend) were passed. The first provided for the stricter execution of the laws of trade ; the second, for imposing a tax on glass, paper, and tea. Again bitter opposition was aroused, especially in the commercial colonies. The Massachusetts Assembly sent a circular to the various colonies censuring the recent acts of the British government in reference to trade and taxation. The king ordered the Assembly, under penalty of being instantly dissolved, to rescind this circular. By a vote of ninety-two to seventeen the Massachusetts Assembly refused to obey, thus deliberately defying the authority of the king. The Virginia Assembly the next year endorsed the Massa- chusetts circular and sent copies of her resolutions of approval to all the other colonies. , 253. The Mutiny Act and the Boston Massacre. — Several regiments of British troops were stationed in New York and Boston to enforce the unpopular laws. By the Mutiny Act of 1765 the colonies were required to furnish food and quarters for the soldiers. The New York Assembly having failed to provide fully for the troops. Parliament suspended its powers of legislation. All the colonies looked upon this act of Parlia- ment as a serious invasion of their rights. Boston flatly refus- ing to provide shelter for the soldiers, they were compelled to rent quarters at the expense of the Crown. There were frequent quarrels between the troops and the populace. Finally a collision occurred in which a squad of soldiers fired upon a crowd of citizens, killing three persons and wounding l60 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. several others^ (1770). This affair, known as the "Boston Massacre," increased the excitement all over the country. 254. The Battle of Alamance. — In North Carolina exces- sive fees had been collected by the officers of the royal governor, and the taxes had been squandered. The people of the western counties of the colony orgar>ized to resist the pay- ment of such taxes as were not "agreeable to law, and applied to the purposes therein mentioned."' In 177 1, at Alamance, near the head-waters of the Cape Fear River, a battle took place between the tax-payers and the governor's troops. The rebels were beaten, a large number were killed, and several of the captured were hanged as traitors. This was the first blood shed in America in resistance to unjust British taxation. 255. The Tax on Tea. — The British government decided to remove all taxes save that on tea. The tea tax was retained to show the colonists that the right to tax them was still main- tained. Thereupon the Americans refused to buy tea shipped from England, and either drank none at all, or smuggled it from Holland. In order to induce them to use this taxed tea, it was provided that on all tea shipped from England to the colonies the owners should have refunded to them the duty paid when first imported into England from China. By this means the tea could be sold to the colonists, with the American duty added, cheaper than it could be purchased elsewhere. But the colonists refused to be caught in the king's trap. It was not the payment of a few pence, but the principle of "taxation without representation" that they opposed. From Massachusetts to Georgia the people showed their indignation. The merchants of Philadelphia, New York, and Charleston, to whom the first shiploads of tea under the act were consigned, agreed not to receive it. As the Boston tea merchants 1 The soldiers were tried for murder. Two were convicted of manslaughter, the rest were acquitted. WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. l6l refused to join in this agreement, the eyes of the whole country were turned to that city to see what course the people would take. When the first three shiploads of tea arrived at that port, fifty men disguised as Indians boarded the vessels, cut open the chests of tea and emptied them into the harbor. 256. Punishment of Boston- — The British government decided that severe punishment should be inflicted upon Throwing the Tea Overboard. (An old Print.) Boston and the colony of Massachusetts for the destruction of the tea. Parliament at once passed an act known as the Boston Port Bill, by which no ships were allowed to leave or enter the port of Boston, until the town should pay for the tea destroyed. This put a stop to all commerce, and threatened the people with financial ruin. By another act, the charter of Massachusetts was annulled, the appointment of nearly all the 1 62 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. officers was vested in the king, and the most important powers of the town meetings were taken away. 257. First Continental Congress.' — From all the colonies came expressions of sympathy for the people of Boston, who were regarded as sufferers in a common cause. Georgia and South Carolina sent hundreds of barrels of rice to feed the hungry patriots. The Virginia Assembly set apart the first day of June (when the Boston Port Bill was to go into effect) as a day of "fasting, humiliation, and prayer." For this, the governor at once dissolved the Assembly, but the members met the next day at Raleigh Tavern and proposed a general congress of the colonies. A few days later, but before the news from Virginia had reached them, the Massachusetts Assembly made a similar proposition. The other colonies accepted the invitation of Virginia and Massachusetts, Georgia alone being prevented from doing so by the efforts of her royal governor. On September 5, 1774, the delegates met in Philadelphia. The Congress approved the resistance of Massachusetts to the despotic acts of Parliament, demanded a repeal of the laws invading their rights, and recommended commercial non-intercourse with Great Britain. They also prepared addresses to the king and people of Great Britain and fixed the loth day of May following for a second congress. 258. Summary of Causes of Revolution. — In their gifts of territory as well as in their appointments of colonial governors, the British sovereigns were careless of the welfare of their American subjects. Parlia- ment considered the colonies as existing solely for the benefit of the com- merce and manufactures of Great Hritain, and passed navigation laws in accordance with this idea. For years these laws were evaded, but at the close of the French Wars, England determined to enforce them and also to tax the colonists. The Americans declared there should be no taxation without representation. Their determined resistance to the .Stamp Act ' Called "Continental" Congress to distinguish it from "Provincial" Congress, a name applied to the revolutionary Legislatures of several of the colonies. WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 1 63 caused its repeal, but other taxes were soon afterward imposed. In a quarrel between British troops and citizens of Boston the troops fired into the crowd, killing several persons (1770). The first bloodshed in resistance to unjust taxation occurred at Alamance, North Carolina, 1771. Deter- mined not to pay the tax on tea, colonial merchants refused to receive it, and at Boston three shiploads were thrown into the sea. England having taken steps to punish Boston, all the colonies showed their sympathy. A congress of delegates from twelve colonies met in Philadelphia, 1774, approved the resistance of Massachusetts, and demanded the repeal of the unjust laws. 259. Thought Questions. — Show how each of the following causes influenced the separation between the colonies and the mother country : (i) the French wars; (2) overthrow of the French power in America; (3) conduct of the king of England ; (4) feeling of British merchants toward the colonists ; (5) action of Parliament ; (6) course of royal governors. Is there a stamp act in force in the United States to-day.' Why is it not resisted ? Why were the writs of assistance so much more objectionable than our modern search-warrants, which authorize a sheriff to enter a citizen's house .'' What excuse had the British government for taxing the colonists .'' How might Great Britain have imposed a tax with the consent of the Americans .' Why was she not willing to do this .'' What English- men sympathized with the Americans in their resistance ? How do you suppose the owners of the tea regarded the destruction of their property by the men of Boston? What was the justification of the act .'' What colo- nies took the lead in resistance to the British government.'' Name the prominent leaders in the different colonies. n. BEGINNINGS OF THE WAR. (April, 1775 -July, 1776-) 260. Lexington and Concord. — General Gage, who was stationed at Boston with 3,000 British troops, was appointed by the king governor of Massachusetts. The colonial As- sembly met in defiance of the new governor's proclamation, and voted to equip 12,000 men and provide supplies for them. General Gage fortified Boston Neck and seized the military stores in the neighborhood. Learning that the colonists had other stores at Concord, eighteen miles from Boston, he sent eight hundred men by night to destroy them, ordering them to 1 64 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. stop at Lexington and arrest the patriot leaders, Hancock and Adams. His plan, however, was discovered, and Paul Revere, "all booted and spurred,'' was ready to spread the alarm. The moment the British troops started, he sprang into his saddle and dashed madly through the neigh- boring villages on his famous midnight ride, to arouse the people. Thus warning was given, and when the troops reached Lexington at sunrise, April 19th, they found about fifty citizens drawn up on the village green. " Disperse, ye villains! " shouted Major Pitcairn, the ilritish leader. The patriots refused to Boston, Lexington, and Bunker Hill. mgtu/i Ci. ij Meoting-House. obey, and a skirmish followed in which the Americans were compelled to retreat with the loss of eight killed and several wounded. By the time the British reached Concord, most of the 1 66 HISTOKV OF OUK COUNTRY. Stores had been concealed. They hastily destroyed all they could find, and after another skirmish at Concord Bridge, began the return march to Boston. The whole country was now aroused. From every Village and farm militiamen came pouring in until the roadside fairly swarmed with marksmen. An incessant and deadly fire was kept up upon the weary British troops. The retreat became more and more disorderly, and had not reenforcements come out from Boston to meet them, it is probable that the whole force would have been killed or captured. The total loss of the British was two hundred and seventy-three ; of the Americans, ninety-three. The British had not gained the object of their expedition, while their troops had barely escaped capture. 261. Effect of the News ; the Mecklenburg Declaration. — The news that British regulars had been chased by American "peasants" caused great mortification in England. The gov- ernment became more fixed in its determination to crush the spirit of resistance in the col- onies. In America the news was hailed with joy. Every one realized that war had be- gun. From Connecticut, New Hampshire, and Rhode Island troops hurried to join the men of Massachusetts, who were besieging the British in Boston. The important forts Ticonde- roga and Crown Point, on Lake ( "hamplain, were surprised and captured by Vermont companies. The Middle and Southern colonies at once took steps to organize and train their militia. A party of Georgians seized the royal powder magazine at WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 167 Savannah, and sent five hundred pounds of the captured powder to the patriots at Boston. The citizens of Mecklenburg County, North CaroUna, met in the month of May and adopted the famous Mecklenburg Dec- laration of Independence, renouncing the authority of all crown officers in America, declaring that the Continental Congress and the Legislatures of the several colonies possessed all the powers of government, and asserting that their own county offi- cers should act independently of the British Crown. This was more than a year before the independence of the united colonies was declared. 262. Bunker Hill. — The British sent fresh troops to Bos- ton, until their forces numbered ten thousand men. Sixteen thousand New England militia had gathered just outside the city. In order to compel the British to leave, the colo- nists determined to fortify Bunker Hill on Charlestown peninsula, an eminence over- looking Boston. The troops sent out by night to execute this movement fortified Breed's Hill instead, because nearer the city. When the British awoke and saw the breastworks of the Americans on the hill within easy cannon shot, they realized they must either abandon the city or capture the threatening fortifications. On the 17th of June the British troops crossed over to Charlestown, set fire to the village and began the ascent of the coveted hill. The colonists watched in silence until the advancing column was within fifty yards, then opened fire with such deadly effect that the British troops broke and fled down the hill. A second attempt to storm the breast- Bunker Hill Monument. 1 68 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. works had a like disastrous result ; a third assault was success- ful. The ammunition of the Americans had given out, and they slowly retreated from Charlestown peninsula with a loss of about four hundred and fifty. The British lost over one thousand killed and wounded. 263. Second Continental Congress. — Three weeks after the battle of Lexington the second Continental Congress met at Philadelphia. John Hancock, of Massachusetts, was chosen president of the Congress, to succeed Peyton Randolph, of Virginia, who had been called home. While not yet ready for independence, Congress determined to make united resistance to British oppression. They voted to raise a " continental army" of twenty thousand, whose expenses were to be appor- tioned to the several colonies. The New England troops around Boston were to be adopted as the nucleus of the army. One of the most important acts of Congress was the selection of a commander-in-chief. George Washington, of Virginia, by his skillful management of the colonial troops in Braddock's disastrous expedition in the French and Indian war, and by the ability he displayed in the subsequent capture of Fort Du- quesne, had become the most prominent American soldier. At the suggestion of John Adams, he was unanimously chosen to command the American forces (June 19, two days after the battle of Bunker Hill). 264. Washington Takes Command. — It was just two weeks after the battle of Bunker Hill that Washington reached the vicinity of Boston, and took command of the patriot army. The men were undisciplined, poorly supplied with guns and ainnui- nition, enlisted for short periods of time, and dependent for support upon their various local authorities. Besides all these difficulties, the commander-in-chief had no organized central government to rely on. Undaunted, he began at once the task WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 169 Washington Elm (^under which Washington took Connmand). of organizing, drilling, and equipping the troops. Eight months were spent by Washington in this work and in strengthening the fortifications around Boston, while thoughtless critics were censuring him for his apparent inactivity. 265. Expedition against Canada. — An expedition against Canada was decided upon for the double pur- pose of preventing an attack from that quarter and of inducing the Canadians to join their southern neigh- bors against the British. A thousand men under Colonel Benedict Arnold left Washington's army, and advanced by way of the Kennebec River and the Maine woods. After a journey of frightful struggle with starvation, cold, and fatigue, they were joined by a force under General Montgomery, who had traveled due north from Ticonderoga by the Lake Champlain route. Mon- treal was captured by Montgomery, and the combined forces, now numbering hardly twelve hundred men, attacked Quebec. Montgomery was killed in the assault, and Arnold was desper- ately wounded. Part of the attacking force was captured ; the rest withdrew. Soon afterward Montreal was re-taken by the British, and the remnant of the colonial army was driven from Canada. Thus ended in disastrous failure the Canada expedition. 266. Evacuation of Boston. — Dorchester Heights overlook Boston from the south, and command the city even more effec- tually than does Bunker Hill. Having at last, in the spring of I/O HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 1776, received some cannon heavy enough for his purpose, Washington secretly fortified these heights. The British, re- membering the lesson of Jiunker Hill, refrained from attacking the fortifications, and being unable to hold the city longer, sailed away to Halifax, Nova Scotia (March 17). By this brilliant achievement of Washington, many valuable military stores fell into the hands of the American army, and New England was freed from British troops for the first time in six years. 267. The King's Authority Overthrown; Fighting in Vir- ginia and North Carolina. One by one the royal governors fled from the country, and tiic people proceeded to choose their successors and organize governments similar to the state gov- ernments of to-day. The governors of Georgia and New Jer- sey, having failed to resign their offices, were arrested and kept under guard. Lord Dunmore, governor of Virginia, seized a cjuantityof powder at Williamsburg and tried to arm the slaves, promising freedom to those who would join him. His force was beaten by the Virginians near Norfolk, and he sought refuge in an English ship. He afterward avenged himself by setting fire to Norfolk. In North Carolina a battle occurred at Moore's Creek (February 1776), in which one thousand militia- men completely routed a force of sixteen hundred Tories, who were on their way to the coast to cooperate with an expected British fleet. This battle aroused the Carolinians as Lexington did the New Englanders. Ten thousand men quickly as- sembled to resist the landing of the British. 268. Attack on the Carolina Coast. Tlie iiritish were led to believe that with the aid of Tory sympathizers in the colony. North Carolina could be easily conquered, and thus the South- ern colonies could be cut in two. Several vessels under Sir Henry Clinton were sent from Boston to the North Carolina coast, where they were to cooperate with the fleet under Ad- miral Parker, which had sailed from Ireland. Storms delayed WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 171 Parker's fleet, and the bold spirit of the North CaroUna patriots deterred Clinton from attempting a landing (§ 267). The combined British fleet then sailed south with the intention of taking Charleston, the largest city in the South. The Conti- nental Congress sent General Charles Lee with a force of Vir~ ginians and North Carolinians to relieve the town. 269. Battle of Fort Moultrie. — On an island just outside Charleston harbor, Colonel Moultrie had thrown up a fortifica- tion of palmetto logs (afterward called Fort Moultrie). The British fleet opened a heavy fire upon this fort (June 28). Meanwhile Clinton landed some troops on the east end of the island, so as to attack the fort on land and sea at the same time. The fire from the British guns was incessant, but their balls either flew above the low fortifications or sank harmlessly into its spongy pal- metto walls. The Americans fired less frequently, but their well-aimed shots proved so destructive to the British forces that they withdrew from the attack with a loss of life six times as great as that of their opponents.^ After 1 In the midst of the battle, the flag which floated over the smoking guns of the fort suddenly disappeared from view. A British shot had broken the flagstaff, and it fell outside the walls. While the balls were flying thickest a brave young oificer, Jasper replacing the Flag at Fort Moultrie. 1/2 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY spending three weeks repairing his damaged ships, Parker sailed away to New York. 270. Independence Declared. — In the early spring of 1776, soon after the battle of Moore's Creek, North Carolina authorized her delegates in Congress to concur with delegates from other colonies in declaring independence. In May, Massa- chusetts and Virginia separately renounced their dependence on Great Britain. At the same time Virginia went a step fur- ther and instructed her delegates to propose to Congress " to declare the United Colonies free and independent States." In obedience to these instruc- tions, on the 8th of June Richard Henry Lee, of Vir- ginia, moved " that these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States." This motion was seconded by John Adams, of Massachusetts. After warm discussion the question was postponed until July I, in orderthat express in- structions might be obtained from all the colonies. By that time every colony except New York had approved the step proposed, and on July 4 Congress unanimously adopted a formal Declaration of Independence. The delegates from New York refrained from voting ; but five days later New York formally ratified the Declaration, and her delegates then signed it. The news of the adoption of the Declaration, which was received at the same time as that of the brilliant success at Fort Moultrie, created the wildest joy The Old State House, Philadelphia, in which the Declaration of Independence was adopted and the Constitution of the United States framed. Sergeant Jasper, sprang over the defenses, in plain view of the enemy, seized the flag, and planted it again on the walls uf the fort. WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 1/3 throughout the country. Everywhere there were torch-light processions, ringing of bells, firing of guns, and other signs of delight and approval. 271. The Declaration. — The Declaration was written by Thomas Jefferson, of Virginia, chairman of a committee of Congress, of which John Adams and Benjamin Franklin were members. It contains among other statements the following : When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume, among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. We hold these truths to be self-evident : — That all men are created equal ; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights ; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. That, to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriv- ing their just powers from the consent of the governed ; that, whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute a new government. . . . The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations. . . . To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world. He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary for the public good. . . . He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing, with manly firmness, his invasions on the rights of the people. . . . He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction [Parliament] foreign to our constitutions, and unacknowledged by our laws ; giving his assent to their acts of pretended legislation : For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us ; ... For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world ; For imposing taxes on us without our consent ; For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury; . . . For taking away our charters ; . . ■ For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. . . . He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burned our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people. . . . 1 74 mSTOKV OF OUR COUNTRY. Our British brethren, . . . too, have been deaf to the voice of justice and consanguinity. We must, therefore, . . . hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, enemies in war, in peace friends. We, therefore, . . . do, in the name and by the authority of the good people of these colonies, solemnly publish and declare. That these united Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states ; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the Hritish crown, and that all political connection between them and the state of Great Hritain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved. . . . And, for the support of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor. 272. The New Government. .At the same time that the committee was appointed to draw up tlie Declaration of Inde- pendence, another committee wa.s named to prepare a phin of government. Twelve days after the adoption of the Declara- tion, this second committee submitted to Congress the first Constitution of the United States, entitled, " .\rticles of Con- federation and Perpetual Union between the States." It was adopted by Congress and then submitted to the several states for their ratification. In the year 1779 all the states had adopted the articles save Maryland, and Congress proceeded to exercise the powers thereby conferred. (See § 328.) 273. Summary of Beginnings of the War. — The war began in Massa- chusetts with the fight at Lexington (April 19, 1775), followed a month later by that of Hunker Hill, both of which had the effect of victories for the Americans. The second Continental Congress determined upon united resistance, and appointed Washington commander-in-chief of the Conti- nental army. In the spring of 1776 Washington compelled the Hritish to evacuate Hoston. An expedition against Canada ended in failure. A party of militia gained a victory at Moore's Creek, North Carolina, over a large force of Tories. A Hritish attack on Fort Moultrie, South Caro- lina, was defeated. On July 4, 1776, Congress declared the independence of the colonies, and steps were taken to form a new government. 274. Thought Questions. — Mow did it happen that the war began in Massachusetts rather than in some other colony .' Why did not the battle of Alamance have such an immediate and widespread effect as the battle WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 1/5 of Lexington ? Give instances of resistance to British tyranny in North Carolina ; in Massachusetts ; in Virginia ; in Georgia ; in New Jersey. Aside from Washington's preeminent fitness for the position of commander- in-chief, why was the selection of a Virginian or a Southerner desirable ? What were the causes of the failure of the Canada expedition ? How do you account for the refusal of the Canadians to join the colonies in resist- ance to Great Britain ? If the British had succeeded at Fort Moultrie, what change in the theatre of war would probably have occurred.'' Which was the greater rebel, Washington or Bacon .'' What punishment were the American leaders liable to receive in case of the failure of their cause ? What are " unalienable " rights .'' Name those mentioned in the Declara- tion of Independence. When, according to the Declaration, may a people alter or abolish their form of government? Which "injuries and usurpa- tions " enumerated in the Declaration were most galling to the colonists .-' What was the full title of the first constitution of the United States .-' What does this title suggest to have been the leading idea of the framers of the Articles .'' What previous confederation had existed among the colonies ? m. STRUGGLE FOR THE MIDDLE STATES. (July 1776-July 1778.) 275. The Plan of the British. — Great Britain now began active operations for tlie subjugation of her rebellious colonies. A powerful fleet under Admiral Howe was sent from England with an army of trained soldiers, including a strong force of hired German troops.^ The plan of the British was to attack our coast-line in the center, and by forcibly occupying one or more of the Middle States to cut off New England from the South. Accordingly, for the next two years (July, 1776, to July, 1778) we shall find the war to consist mainly of a great struggle for the possession of the Hudson and Delaware rivers. The military events may be grouped under three heads : (i) Campaigns around New York City ; (2) Campaigns in northern and central New York ; (3) Campaigns around Philadelphia. 1 These German troops were Hessians, from the district of Hesse-Cassel. The employment of foreign hirelings to subdue British-born subjects became a leading cause of American hatred for the mother-country. 176 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. / CAAfPArCNS AROUXD XF.ir YORK CITY. 276. Battle of Long Island. — In accordance with the plan just mentioned, New York was the first point of attack by the British. Washington suspecting their inten- tion hastened from Boston to oppose them. In order to defend the city of New York and its approaches, he was compelled to scatter his forces over a line of twenty miles. Abouthalf of hisarmy, under General Putnam, was stationed on Long Island at Brooklyn Heights, commanding the city. Howe's army soon arrived from Halifa.\, and was reinforced by the tleets of Admiral Howe (brother of the General) fresh from England, and of Admiral Parker, who had come from the defeat at Fort Moul- trie. General Howe determined to capture Putnam's division, and with that purpose landed twenty thousand soldiers on the southwest shore of Long Island. On the 27th of August a battle took place, in which the Ameri- can advance-guard was defeated with the loss of more than one thousand prisoners, besides many killed and wounded. Be- fore storming Putnam's main force on Brooklyn Heights, Howe waited for his fleet to come up. Meanwhile Wash- ington crossed over to Long Island from New York, and having collected every available boat and fishing craft, safely conducted the remnant of Putnam's troops across to New York by night under cover of a heavy fog. General Howe WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. IJJ 277. British occupy New York ; Washington's Retreat Northward. — With the British tleet in possession of the har- bor, and their troops occupying Brooklyn heights, it was im- possible for the American army to hold New York. Washing- ton withdrew from the city to the northern end of Manhattan Island, and was soon compelled by Howe's superior force to cross over to the mainland east of the Hudson. The whole of Manhattan Island thus fell into the hands of the British, with the exception of Fort Washington, which, with Fort Lee on the west bank of the Hudson, guarded the river. There was an indecisive engagement at White Plains between Howe's forces and the retreating Americans. Washington then retired to North Castle, while Howe suddenly turned and hurried back toward New York. He had just learned from an American deserter of the position and strength of the defenses at Fort Washington, and had decided to attack that fortification. Its garrison made a gallant defense, but was compelled to surrender. Three thousand prisoners, besides a large quantity of stores, fell into the hands of the British.^ To the Americans, this was one of the heaviest losses of the war. 278. Retreat across New Jersey. — Washington, fearing that Howe meditated an advance on Philadelphia, left half of his army under General Charles Lee at North Castle, while he crossed the Hudson into New Jersey with the remainder to watch Howe's movements. On the approach of the British General Cornwallis, Fort Lee was evacuated, and Washington was compelled to retreat. Meanwhile he sent repeated orders to General Lee to bring over his half of the army, that he might be able to oppose the enemy. But Lee was jealous of * Insomuch as the width of the Hudson at this point was so great that Forts Washington and Lee were unable to prevent British ships from passing up the river, Washington had directed the former fort to be evacuated. But in the absence of posi- tive orders, and in deference to a message from Congress not to abandon the fort, the officers in command had failed to carry out Washington's plan. 178 HISTORY OF OUR 'COUNTRY. Washington. He pretended to misunderstand, and sent vari- ous excuses.' W'asliington, with his httle force of hardly three thousand men, unable to risk a battle, continued to retreat across New Jersey, his men discouraged, poorly clad, and suffer- ing from the intense cold. Reaching the Delaware he crossed the river, taking with him every boat that could be found for ' Whet) Lee :it l:ist started toward Washington he was surprised and captured by a small British force while spending the niglit at a country-house some distance froai his army. (This Lee was not connected with the Lees of Virginia.) WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. T 79 miles in either direction. When the British arrived they found it impossible to cross. They then went into winter quarters, separating their army into several divisions, the main body be- ing stationed at Princeton, and a force of fifteen hundred Hessians at Trenton. 279. Battle of Trenton. — Everything now looked gloomy for the Americans. Washington's men were so much discour- aged that when their time expired many refused to reenlist, and his little army was rapidly decreasing in numbers. In response to Howe's proclamation offering pardon and protection to all who would swear allegiance to the British crown, hundreds of wealthy persons were abandoning the American cause. Gen- eral Cornwallis, thinking the war was over, prepared to sail for England. Washington saw that unless some success was won to revive the drooping spirits of his countrymen, the cause of liberty would be lost. He formed the daring plan of crossing the Delaware, now dangerous with floating ice, and attacking the British force at Trenton. On Christmas night he safely conducted his men across the stream, and advancing through snow and sleet, took the enemy completely by surprise. With the loss of only four men (two killed and two frozen to death) Washington captured the entire force of over one thousand Hessian soldiers, and crossed back into Pennsylvania with his prisoners and booty. 280. Battle of Princeton. — Four days later Washington again crossed the Delaware and occupied Trenton. Mean- while Cornwallis hastily abandoned his purpose of embarking for England, and led part of his troops from Princeton to at- tack the American forces at Trenton. After some skirmishing night came on, and Cornwallis decided to wait till next day for reenforcements. Washington's position was now most critical. Behind him was the river full of floating ice. If the British should force him from his entrenchments there was no way of i8o HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. escape, and a surrender seemed inevitable. Cornwallis re- marked that he had "run down the old fox at last." But again the genius of the American commander turned defeat into victory. Ordering a few of his soldiers to go within hear- ing distance of his enemy and to pretend to throw up entrench- ments, others to keep his camj>fires burning, Washington secretly withdrew his army from its perilous position, stole around Cornwallis, and at sunrise attacked and defeated the British force at Princeton (January 3d), capturing nearly five hundred prisoners. The sound of cannon behind him was the first hint Cornwallis had that his enemy had escaped. He hastened to the rescue of his men, but the "old fox" had out- generaled him. Washington had withdrawn to Morristown Heights, where the British made no attempt to follow. A general retreat of the British to the vicinity of New \'ork ensued. -'. CAMPAJdNS /.V X0KT//J:KN X/:if JOKh'. 281. Plan of the British. While Howe was taking pos- session of New York City, a British force from Canada had made an unsuccessful expedi- tion against the northern part of the state. Arnold, in com- mand of a small American fleet on Lake Champlain, made an heroic resistance, but was forced to abandon his ships and retire within the defenses of Ticonderoga. The British general feared to attack the fort, and withdrew his army to Canada. The next year (1777) a more carefully prepared plan was adopted. Three separate armies were to penetrate the state from different directions. One WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 151 army under General Burgoyne was to descend from the north, by way of Lake Champlain and the Hudson, as far as Albany. A second force, much smaller than the first, was to go up the St. Lawrence to Lake Ontario, land at Oswego, and advancing from the west, capture Fort Stanwix in central New York, then join Burgoyne at Albany. At the same time General Howe's army at New York was to ascend the Hudson, and unite with the two other forces. Thus would the conquest of New York be complete. 282. Burgoyne's Advance. — Burgoyne, with eight thou- sand men splendidly armed and equipped, sailed up the Sorrel River and Lake Champlain, unopposed until he reached Ticonderoga. After a brief resistance, the garrison abandoned this stronghold, and Burgoyne advanced to the head of Lake George. General Schuyler, commanding the American forces, slowly retreated to Bemis Heights on the Hudson, about thirty miles above Albany. Burgoyne's advance was now attended with the greatest difficulty. His line of march lay through a swampy wilderness through which his enemies had completely obstructed every road by cutting down trees across his path and destroying bridges. He could procure no food from the surrounding country, and found great trouble in getting sup- plies from Canada. 283. Bennington and Fort Stanwix. — Learning that the Americans had stores of provisions at Bennington, Vermont, twenty miles distant, Burgoyne sent one thousand men to capture them. These troops were attacked by General Stark with an army of hastily collected New England mihtia, and almost the entire British force was killed or captured. Mean- while the British general, St. Leger, with an army of British and Indians, had advanced from Lake Ontario to support Burgoyne, and was now besieging Fort Stanwix. Schuyler sent Arnold to relieve the fort. By a stratagem Arnold sue- |8j HISTOKV ok iH'K tOlNTRY. oeeded in creatinii .i panic in St. Lessor's troops. They .ihandoncil the sic^c .vud tlod to the west, hopelessly scattered, lo add to Burgoyne's dirticulties, he did not receive the expected support of Howe's army at New York. Howe having taileil to iiot v>rders to that etVect until t<.K> late. The news of the successes at Bennington and Kort Stanwix. and the wrath occasioned by the atrocities of the Indian allies of the British brought hundreds of recruits to the .Vnierican army and enabled Schuyler to make preparations for a battle. JS4. Battle of Saratoga. .Vt this critical moment news caine that Congress had removed Schuyler from conunand and appointed Ctates in his stead.' Schuyler bore the injustice nobly and lent e\ ery assistance to his successor. On Septem- ber u). near Saratoga, a desperate but indecisive battle was fouglit. iK^th armies then remained three weeks in their in- trenchments, Burgoyne's position growing daily more perilous on account of his scant supplies and the increasing numbers of his opponents. Then another battle was fought on the same ground i^tVtober -j). liates had quarreled with Arnold and stripped him of his command. But nevertheless Arnold without orders rushed into the thickest of the tight, placed himself at the head of his old command, who received him with cheers, aiul won the victory while Ciates stayed in his tent. 285. Surrender of Burgoyne. — Burgoyne. with his army beaten and dispirited, cut otY from supplies, and surrounded by a force three times as large as his own. decided to surrender. On the 17th of iVtober the papers were signed, and the entire British army of over six thousand men laid down their arms. It W.IS agreed that a passage to Great Britain should be granted to the trov^ps on condition of their not serving again ii\ the ' Not long betore this. Congress had grossly ortemieil Arnold by pr\«moting sub- ordinate i>ificers owr him. on the ground th.»t his st.»t»f. Connecticut, already had two generals. The unjust trvatntent <•>( Schuvler w.>s .»lso due to state prejudices. WAk OF THE REVOLUTfOK. 183 war. ('Congress failed t/^* carry out this agreement. The captured men remained in this country a« prisoners of war until the close of the struggle,; 286. Results of the Surrender. After this great victory the American forces rxxoipied Ticonderoga and all the forts on the northern frontier. 'I'he liritish plan to cut the United States in two by seizing the Hudson valley had failed. The news of the capture of a whole British army awakened the wildest joy from Maine to Georgia, completely counteracting the depressing effects of iirandy- wine and Germantown ('|| 288 and 289;. ilest of all, the vict^.»ry hastened the decision of the French government to acknowledge the independence of the United States and trj form an alliance with them. J- rom the beginning of the struggle the sympathies of Prance had be': with the Americans and again.: her old enemy, England. Her brave Lafayette had voluntarily ""' " left country and friends to fight for American liberty. Ship- loads of supplies and large suhls of money had been secretly sent over. The American commissioners in Paris, Franklin, I.>eane, and Arthur Lee, had been urging an alliance. In f ebruary, 1778, a treaty of alliance was signed, and a French fieet was sent over to aid the Americans, / CAMfAIGlfH AROUND f'/fl LA fJ/'.LI'HlA 287. Plan of the British. — Howe, in.stead of asictnding the Hud.son t/j cooperate with liurgoyne, as every one expected him to do, decided to advance upon Philadelphia, the "rebel capital." His first intention was to lead his army from New 1 84 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. York by land, but the skillful manceuvering of Washington caused him to abandon this attempt. He then embarked his troops, coasted south, entered Chesapeake Bay, and sailed up to its head, where he landed his army for their march to Phila- delphia. As soon as Washington was certain of his enemy's movements, he hastened to oppose him, while Schuyler and Gates were endeavoring to check Burgoyne in northern New York. 288. Battle of the Brandywine. — To oppose the British advance on Thiladelphia, Washington stationed his army at Chad's F'ord on Brandywine Creek, directly in their line of march. Howe divided his forces and while one division remained at Chad's Ford, Cornwallis led another across the stream sev- eral miles above, and fell upon Washington's flank. Although not routed, the Americans were driven from the field with heavy loss (September 11, 1777, eight days before the first battle of Saratoga). This was the first American battle in which the young French Marquis Lafayette participated. Both he and the Polish Count Pulaski showed conspicuous ii^allantry in the fight. 289. Philadelphia taken; Battle of Germantown. — The British army then took possession of Philadelphia, marching proudly into the city with bands playing and colors flying. Congress hastily adjourned to Lancaster, then to York, Penn- sylvania. The main body of Howe's troops was stationed at (icrmantown, five miles from Philadelphia. Here on the 4th of October (three days before the second battle of Saratoga) '% if BATTLE '--..'^ OF THE ^g"\|. BKAM>YWINE S'| Wilmimrton V ^ ^ ^ British Campaign against Philadelphia. 1 86 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. Washington attacked them. His plans were admirable, and doubtless would have been successful, had not a dense fog prevented their being carried out promptly. Again his troops were compelled to withdraw from the field. Soon afterward the forts guarding the mouth of the Delaware were captured by the British. This gave them possession of the river and enabled them to bring their supplies directly to Philadelphia by water. 290. A Winter of Suffering and Gloom. — The British now went into winter quarters at Philadelphia, while Washington retired to Valley Forge, about twenty-five miles west of the city. This winter of 1777-78 was the gloomiest period of the war. Washington's men had to build the rude log huts which were to protect them from the cold. Their food was flour mixed with water, which they baked at the open fires. Many of the men were without shirts, and hundreds were barefooted. Blankets were so scarce that the soldiers often had to sit by the fire all night to keep from freezing. Sleeping on the cold ground produced sickness, which spread rapidly among the troops. In the midst of all this suffering a few of Washing- ton's jealous subordinate officers were plotting for his over- throw. His defeats at lirandywine and Germantown were contrasted with the success of Schuyler and Gates against Burgoyne. A conspiracy known as the Conway Cabal, from its leader. General Conway, endeavored to weaken Washing- ton's influence with Congress and the country, that he might be displaced from command, and Gates appointed in his stead. The conspirators made some headway in Congress, but their wretched plot was at last made public, and only served to strengthen Washington in the esteem of his countrymen. C'ongress at this time was woefully inefficient. Many of its members feared a standing army, and refused to follow Wash- ington's advice for the relief of the troops. The ablest mem- WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 1 8/ bers of the first and second Congresses had accepted positions either in the army or in their state governments. " The Con- tinental Congress and the currency,"' wrote Gouverneur Morris in 1778, "have greatly depreciated." 291. British Retire from Philadelphia to New York. — Although Howe had driven Washington's army from two battle- fields, and had occupied Philadelphia, yet he had gained no decisive victory, in spite of the fact that his army outnumbered his opponent's two to one. The British government, dissatisfied with the results of his campaign, recalled General Howe, and appointed Sir Henry Clinton his successor. The expected arrival of the French fleet now made it necessary for the Brit- ish to concentrate their forces at New York. Accordingly, Philadelphia was evacuated, and General Clinton started his army across New Jersey (June 18, 1778). 292. Battle of Monmouth. — Washington hastened from Valley Forge in pursuit. The command of the American ad- vance fell to General Charles Lee,^ but being opposed to an attack he declined to act, and Washington appointed Lafayette in his stead. Lee afterward changed his mind, and demanded his place. Lafayette, to save embarrassment to Washington, at once yielded. The British army was overtaken near Mon- mouth, and an engagement began. Lee, apparently having no faith in the ability of his troops to stand against the British regulars, ordered them to retire, greatly to the disgust of his men. As soon as word was carried to Washington, he dashed to the front at full speed, meeting Lee with his men in full re- treat. Overwhelmed with indignation at Lee's conduct, he rebuked that general in severest terms, and ordered him to the rear. Then rallying the troops, he held his ground till night ended the conflict. At midnight Clinton stole away, leaving 1 Lee had been exchanged for the British general, Prescott, whom a few Ameri- cans had surprised and captured. 1 88 HISTORV OF OUR COUNTRY. his dead unburied. Neither side had been defeated, yet in effect the battle was a victory for the Americans. The next day Lee wrote an insolent note to Washington, demanding an apology for his language on the battlefield. He was placed under arrest and tried for disobedience to orders, misbehavior on the field, and disrespect to the commander-in-chief. Con- victed on all three charges, he was suspended from his com- mand for one year. He never returned to the army, but spent the rest of his life as a hermit on his estate. 293. Indian Massacres. — In the northeastern part of Penn- sylvania, where the Susquehanna river breaks through the moun- tains, is the beautiful valley of Wyoming. In the summer of 1778 a party of British and Indians swept down upon this peaceful region. The men were nearly all away in the Conti- nental armies. A small force hastily collected to oppose the invaders was beaten. Scenes of horrible cruelty followed. The whole valley was laid waste, helpless women and children were burned at the stake, or put to death with sickening tor- tures. Cherry Valley, in central New York, was attacked a few months later, and its inhabitants were treated in the same hor- rible manner. In the summer of the next year (1779). Wash- ington sent an army under General Sullivan into western New York to break up the strongholds of the Indians and Tories in that region. Sullivan defeated the enemy's force, and pro- ceeded to burn their villages, destroy their growing crops, and cut down their fruit trees. The Indians never recovered from this crushing blow. 294. The War Transferred to the South. — After the battle of Monmouth Clinton retired to New York, while Washington remained in striking distance of the city to watch every move- ment of his enemy. Save for an unsuccessful attack upon the British garrison at Newport, Rhode Island, by a land force under General Sullivan, aided by a French Heet (in the sum- WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 1 89 raer of 1778), there was no other military movement of any consequence in the states north of Virginia during the rest of the war. The cherished plan of the British to cut the United States in two by seizing the middle division had failed. Hence- forth they directed their efforts to conquering the Southern states. 295. Summary of War in the Middle States. — The plan ot the Brit- ish was to cut the United States in two by taking possession of the Hud- son or Delaware rivers. They first attempted to seize the Hudson. Gen- eral Howe won the battle of Long Island, then took New York City, and drove Washington up to North Castle. Fort Washington on the Hudson was surrendered to the British. Washington, having crossed into New Jersey, was compelled to retreat across that state, escaping over the Dela- ware. On Christmas night he won a brilliant victory at Trenton, and an- other ten days later at Princeton. The British general, Burgoyne, sup- ported by St. Leger, made an attempt to seize the Hudson River from the north. This campaign ended in the surrender of Burgoyne to Gates at Saratoga, October 17, 1777. France then formed an alliance with the United States, and sent over ships and men to our aid. Meanwhile Gen- eral Howe determined to seize Philadelphia and the Delaware River. Ad- vancing by way of Chesapeake Bay, he gained the battles of Brandywine and Germantown, and occupied Philadelphia. Washington's army spent a ter- rible winter at Valley Forge. The expected arrival of the French fleet caused the British to retire to New York. Washington followed them and fought an indecisive battle at Monmouth. The war was then transferred to the South. 296. Thought Questions. — Why was it so difficult for Washington to defend New York City.'' Why was control of the Hudson so important? On what previous occasions did New York City surrender to a foreign fleet? In the campaigns around New York City, mention two instances in which Washington's orders were not obeyed. What was the result in each case ? What results might have followed if Washington had attempted to hold New York City? What evidence of good generalship did Washington show in the escape from Long Island and the subsequent retreat ? in his operations during the two weeks beginning Christmas day, 1776? Mention the battles in which General Arnold has taken part up to this point in the war. What were the causes of the failure of the British attempt to take the Hudson River from the north ? Who deserves most IQO HISTORY OF OUK COUNTRY credit for the capture of Burgoyne? Why was France more willing to aid us than was Holland or Spain ? In which of the campaigns in the Middle states was the greatest military skill displayed by American commanders? Which campaign was most decisive in its results? Why did the British consider control of the Delaware River important? Were the money and supplies of the French, or their land troops, or their fleet most needed by the Americans? How was Washington hampered by Congress? by his subordinate officers ? rV THE WAR BEYOND THE FROirTIERS. (1778-79-) /. IVEST OF THE ALLEGHANIES. 297. Clarke's Conquest of the Illinois Country. — The region between the Ohio River and the Great Lakes was claimed by Virginia under her charter of 1609, but a recent act of Parliament had declared it part of the British Province of Quebec. In 1778, (leorge Rogers Clarke, member of the Virginia Legisla- ture from the " Coun- ty of Kentucky, " formed the bold plan of seizing the British forts between the Ohio and Mississippi T, . r-> Clarke's Expedition. Rivers. Governor Patrick Henry and the Legislature of Virginia approved the plan, and granted Clarke a small equipment of troops and supplies. Under a leader of less enthusiasm and strength of will than this " Hannibal of the West," the hazardous enter- prise would have been a failure. But Clarke's little band, WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. I9I sometimes marching for days without food, crossed trackless prairies, waded through miles of overflowed river-bottoms, over- awed hostile Indians, and finally reaching the British posts in Illinois and Indiana, compelled them to surrender. The neigh- boring French settlers were made to swear allegiance to Vir- ginia. This territory was at once constituted a county of Virginia, and was named the County of Illinois. The fact that it had been conquered by Clarke, and was held by American troops at the close of the war was the basis of the claim to its ownership made by the United States and finally admitted by Great Britain in the treaty of peace. But for the genius of George Rogers Clarke, the Ohio River, instead of the Great Lakes, would probably have been fixed as the southern bound- ary of British America. (§ 329.) 298. The Indians of the Southwest. — Constant efforts were made by British agents to arouse the Indians on the western frontiers of the Southern states. During the early years of the Revolution, there were frequent conflicts between the savages and the militia of Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia. In the latter part of the war, the Indians were kept quiet chiefly through the efforts of General Joseph Martin, Indian agent for Virginia, who made his home among them and wielded a great influence over them. It was this peaceful condition of the savages that made the victory at King's Mountain possible, by enabling the frontiersmen who won that battle to leave their homes for a time unprotected.^ 2. ON THE OCEAN. 299. Naval Forces of the United States. — At the begin- ning of the war Congress organized a little navy of five ships with Esek Hopkins, of Rhode Island, commander-in-chief. 1 In 1779, Spanish troops under Governor Galvez, of New Orleans, captured the British forts on the lower Mississippi. Within the next two years, they also took Mobile and Pensacola. 192 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRV s ;: A Before the war was over, almost every one of these vessels had been captured, or burned to avoid capture. Several states maintained independent naval forces of their own. But the com- bined navies of Congress and the separate states were unable to cope with the power of Great Britain on the sea. Until the very close of the war, little aid was rendered by the French Heet. Our most effective service on the ocean was performed by the numerous privateers commis- sioned by Congress. These intiicted untold damage on British commerce. 300. Paul Jones's Victory. — The most noteworthy naval battle of the war was fought on the North Sea, near the coast of England, off Flamborough Head. Here on September 23, 1779, a brilliant victory was gained by an American squad- ron under Captain John Paul Jones. Jones was a young Scotchman who had emigrated to New England, and had been appointed by Congress, captain in the United States navy. While cruising in the North Sea with a little fleet of French and American ships, Jones at- tacked two British men-of-war that were escorting a number of merchant vessels. Jones's own ship, the Bon Honnne Richard (so named from the "Good Man Richard" of Franklin's Almanac) attacked the WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 193 enemy's Serapis. The two ships were lashed together and fought until both took fire, and Jones's vessel was on the point of sinking. At last the Serapis surrendered, and Jones had barely transferred his men to the conquered ship when his own vessel sank. The other English ship was also cap- tured. 301. Summary. • — Under the authority of the State of Virginia, George Rogers Clarke led a party of militia against the British posts in the Illinois country, then held by Great Britain as part of her Province of Quebec. Clarke's expedition was successful, and the territory north-west of the Ohio was organized as a county of Virginia. Its occupation by Virginian troops had an important bearing on the question of boundary as agreed upon subsequently in the treaty of peace. The Indians on the western frontiers were a source of constant danger. The expedition of General Sullivan in the North (§ 293), and the efforts of militia leaders together with skillful diplomacy of our Indian agents in the South served to hold them in check. In 1779 Captain Paul Jones gained a brilliant naval victory off the coast of England. 302. Thought Questions. — -What independent part did Virginia play in the Revolutionary struggle? What results followed from it? How do you account for French settlements in the Illinois country? Why were the Indians so much less important in the Revolution than in the French wars ? Why were so few victories on the ocean won by the United States ? V. WAR IN THE SOUTH. (1778-1781.) 303. Plan of the British. — The successful defense of Fort Moultrie in the early part of the war (§ 269) had checked the first attempt of the British to subdue the Southern colonies. Defeated now in the New England and Middle states, they determined to renew their efforts for the subjugation of the South. Their plan was first to overcome Georgia and South Carolina, then from these states to work their way northward. Accordingly Clinton ordered part of his army under command of Colonel Campbell to sail from New York. To oppose this 194 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. movement Congress placed General Lincoln in command of the Southern department. /. IN GEORGIA AND THE CAROL/ NAS. 304. Fall of Savannah and Augusta. — Savannah, Geor- gia, was tlic first point of attack. Before Lincoln could arrive, the small force of defenders had been beaten, and the town had fallen into the hands of the British (December, 1778). The invaders then ascended the Savannah River and captured Augusta. General Prevost, com- manding the troops in the British territory of Florida, now took com- mand of the united forces of the General Lincoln CUemy. 305. Georgia Overrun by the British. — The militia of South Carolina and Georgia rallied under command of Colonels Pickens and Clarke, and defeated a detachment of the British at Kettle Creek, Georgia. Soon afterward, however, a division of Lincoln's army under General Ashe was surprised and beaten at Briar Creek. Georgia seemed now (spring of 1779) completely in the power of the British. The royal governor was reinstated, and the old colonial government restored. 306. Events in the North. — While these events were going on in the South, General Clinton at New York was sending out small marauding parties to various points on the Atlantic coast. In Connecticut, New Jersey, and Virginia, coast towns were plundered and burned, citizens murdered, and ladies insulted. At the same time, Clinton ascended the Hudson and captured the fort guarding the river at Stony Point. Washington sent General Wayne (called "Mad Anthony Wayne "from hisdesper- WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. I95 ate bravery) to recapture the place. Wayne determined upon a midnight assault. That the barking of curs might not betray him, he ordered every dog in the vicinity killed. That no shot from his own troops might reveal his plan he made his men unload their guns, and advance with fixed bayonets. Moving in perfect silence, his men reached the British outposts before they were discovered. After a brief conflict the garrison sur- rendered (July 16, 1779). Three days after this brilliant ex- ploit the captors destroyed the works and evacuated the fort, Washington finding that he could not spare enough men from his army to defend it. 307. Effort to Recapture Savannah. — In the autumn of this year the French fleet, after its unsuccessful attack upon Newport, Rhode Island (§ 294), appeared before Savannah. An assault upon the British defenses was made by the com- bined forces of the French under D'Estaing and the Americans under Lincoln (October, 1779). The attack was a disastrous fail- ure. Among those killed in the assault were Count Pulaski, a brave Polish officer, and Sergeant Jasper, the hero of Fort Moultrie. Lincoln's army withdrew into South Carolina, and the fleet sailed away to France. 308. British Capture Charleston. — Encouraged by the success of his troops in Georgia, Clinton determined -to take charge of the Southern army himself, and to begin the con- quest of South Carolina by an attack upon Charleston, the largest city in the South. Leaving a sufficient force in New York to hold Washington at bay, he landed thirty miles below Charleston, and led his army overland toward the city, while his fleet approached the harbor. Washington sent all his Vir- ginia and North Carolina troops to the aid of Lincoln, but still that general's forces were wholly inadequate for the defense of Charleston. The enemy's troops gradually surrounded him on the land side, while their fleet in the midst of a furious thunder- 196 HISTOKV OF OUR COUNTRY. storm sailed by Fort Moultrie, which guarded the entrance to the harbor, and joined in the attack. On May 12, 1780, Charleston was surrendered, and Lincoln with his whole army of about two thousand men became prisoners of war. 309. South Carolina Overrun by the British. — The sur- render of Lincoln's army together with the capture of Charles- ton was a severe blow to the patriot cause, and a correspond- ing encouragement to the British. Clinton sent detachments into the interior of the state, and issued a circular, offering pardon to all who would return to British allegiance, and calling upon all the people to aid in reestablishing the royal govern- ment under penalty of being treated as rebels and traitors. Then, thinking little else remained to be done, Clinton sailed away to New York, leaving Cornwallis to complete the conquest of the South. Al- thougb with no organized army of defense, the spirits of the southern patriots were not broken. Small bands of militia, under such leaders as Marion (the "Swamp Fox"), Sumter (the "Game Cock"), Pickens, and Clarke, carried on a vigorous warfare of sudden surprises and desperate hand-to-hand combats, keeping up the courage of their countrymen, until the liritish were finally expelled from the state. "But for Marion and Sumter," wrote the British general, "South Carolina would be at peace." 310. Battle of Camden. — Against the advice of Washing- ton, Congress appointed General Gates to the command of the Southern department, to succeed the captured Lincoln. Of Gates, who was praised as the "conqueror of Burgoyne," great things were expected. With a strong army he hurried south, disregarding the suggestions of his officers and confident of General Sumter. WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 197 victory. He encountered the British under Cornwallis near Camden, in the northern part of South Carolina. Each general had decided to surprise the other by a night attack. About two o'clock in the morning (August 16, 1780), their advance Savannah Greene's Campaign. — War in the Carolinas. guards met and a general conflict followed. The American militia fled at the first charge of the enemy. Our regulars under DeKalb held their ground until their brave leader fell pierced by eleven wounds ; then they abandoned the field. Save one brigade of regulars, who retired in good order, the 198 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. whole army of Gates was completely routed. Gates himself was borne in the headlong flight far into North Carolina, and that night found him sixty miles from the battlefield without an army. This was the severest defeat an American army had ever suffered. Gates's "Northern laurels" had indeed changed to "Southern willows." 311. Battle of King's Mountain (October 7, 1780). — After his victory at Camden, , Cornwallis advanced to Charlotte, North Carolina, the county-seat of the famous Mecklenburg County (§261) and a "hornet's nest of rebels" as the British general called it. From here he sent a detachment under General Ferguson to enlist the Tories in the highlands of South Carolina. Ferguson's force of twelve hundred men was attacked at King's Mountain, on the border between the Carolinas, by a band of frontiersmen led by William Campbell, Charles McDowell, John Sevier, and other border chieftains. The British position on the mountain was stormed from three directions. The Carolina backwoodsmen advanced from tree to tree, using their unerring rifles with deadly effect. The British general was killed while leading a charge, and his men surrendered. The victors dispersed for their homes, after hav- ing tried by court-martial and hanged for treason nine of their Tory prisoners. This brilliant victory, sometimes called the " Bennington of the South " changed the whole course of the war in this department. It cost Cornwallis a valuable part of his army, and caused him to abandon his plan of invading North Carolina, and to hurry back into South Carolina in order to hold the British posts in that state. 312. Arnold's Treason. Tlic year 1780 was full of dis- asters to the American cause. The surrender of Lincoln's army and the destruction of Gates's were now closely followed by the treason of one of our bravest oflftcers in the North. General Benedict Arnold had shown conspicuous courage at WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 1 99 Quebec, on Lake Champlain, and at Saratoga. But Congress had treated him unjustly, and General Gates had wronged him ; and he had not the greatness of soul to forget his own slights for his country's sake. After the British evacuation of Philadelphia, Arnold was placed in command of that city. Here he fell in love with a Tory lady. Her influence and that of her family led him to look with favor upon the enemies of his country. His extravagant living and self-willed conduct got him into trouble. He was accused of squander- ing public funds. On trial, the court acquitted him of inten- tional dishonesty, but sentenced him to be reprimanded by the commander-in-chief for " imprudence." Washington performed the disagreeable duty with great delicacy. Arnold, stung by the disgrace, however, determined to betray his country. He got himself appointed to the command of West Point, that he might surrender that important post to the British. Clinton sent Major Andre' up the Hudson to confer with him. As Andre was returning to New York in disguise, he was arrested by three militiamen, who searched him and discovered in his boots papers revealing Arnold's base plot. Word was carried to Arnold at West Point that his plans were discovered. He escaped at once on board a British vessel in the river, and reached New York in safety. Although he failed to deliver up West Point, he received ^10,000 and the rank of general in the British army for his treason. Major Andre' was tried as a spy and executed. 313. Greene Placed in Command. — Congress, following Washington's suggestion, now appointed General Greene to succeed the conquered Gates. On reaching the Carolinas, Greene found a difficult task confronting him. The British had possession of Georgia and South Carolina and were ready to advance upon North Carolina. Their troops were well disciplined and equipped; their officers, Cornwallis, Tarleton, 200 niSTORV OF OUR COUNTRY. and Rawdon, were bold and skillful. To meet these tremen- dous odds, Greene had a mere handful of men, the remnant of Gates's conquered army. His troops were without supplies, the people were dispirited. Yet Greene himself was one of the ablest generals of his time, and his genius was worth a dozen armies. Moreover, he was aided by a splendid group of subordinate officers. There was Daniel Morgan, who had served with distinction at Quebec and Saratoga. Like Arnold, he had been unjustly treated by Congress, and had retired in disgust to his home in Vir- ginia. But on learning of the defeat at Camden, he forgot his wrongs and hastened to the defense of his country. There were those splendid cavalry leaders, Henry Lee (known as " Light- horse Harry"), father of the distin- guished Robert E. Lee, and William General Greene. Washington, cousin of the commander- in-chief, besides the militia chieftains, Marion, Sumter, and Pickens, who were ever ready to strike a daring blow. We shall see how all the advantages of the enemy were overcome, and the Southern states recovered from the liritish. 314. Battle of the Cowpens. — After the defeat at King's Mountain, Cornwallis had withdrawn to Winsboro, in the northern part of South Carolina. Greene advanced into South Carolina, and encamped on the I'edee River directly cast of Cornwallis. The American commander now decided to divide his little army. He sent Morgan around the enemy's position to threaten the British posts in the western part of the state. Cornwallis by this time was ready for a second invasion of North Carolina, but he was unwilling to leave Morgan in his rear. Like Greene, the British general then divided his army. WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 20I sending a detachment under Tarleton after Morgan. Tarleton overtook Morgan at the Cowpens, a few miles from King's Mountain. In a hotly contested battle the British were de- feated. After a desperate single combat with Colonel Washing- ton, Tarleton himself barely escaped with a sword-cut in the hand. This decisive victory deprived Cornwallis of one-third of his army, and severely crippled his movements. 315. Greene's Retreat. — (See map, p. 197.) Morgan now hastened back to reunite his forces with those of Greene. Cornwallis made all speed to intercept him at the fords of the Catawba. Morgan, by a rapid march, reached the river first, and crossed in safety. A sudden rise in the stream prevented the British from crossing at once. Meanwhile Greene placed a subordinate officer in charge of his main army, with orders to retire northward so as to join Morgan's retreating division, while he himself dashed across the country by the shortest roads to Morgan's hard-pressed men. He joined them at the Catawba and at once took charge of the retreat. Cornwallis, having burned all his heavy baggage that might impede his movements, hastened the pursuit. He reached the Yadkin a few hours after the Americans had crossed, but again a sudden rise in the water checked his advance. At Guilford Court House, in northern North Carolina, Greene's main army joined him, but still his force was too small to risk a battle. Contin- uing the retreat, he reached the Dan River, and crossed over into Virginia. Cornwallis, baffled at last, gave up the pursuit. 316. Guilford Court House. — The British general turned back into North Carolina, and proclaiming that state con- quered, called upon the North Carolinians to return to their allegiance to the king. But Greene, by no means beaten, re- crossed the Dan, and having received heavy reinforcements, engaged Cornwallis in battle at Guilford Court House. After a desperate conflict in which the bravery of the militia atoned 202 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. for their disgraceful conduct at Camden, Greene retreated, leaving the enemy in possession of the field. Cornwallis claimed a victory, yet his loss was so heavy that it was said in England that " another such victory would destroy the British army." 317. Georgia and the Carolinas Recovered. — Cornwallis now began a retreat to Wilmington, on the North Carolina coast. Greene pursued him for some distance, then correctly judging that he had nothing to fear from Cornwallis's army at present, hastened to the relief of South Carolina, in which state several strong posts were held by the British. Al Hob- kirk Hill, near Camden, Greene, though compelled to retreat, proceeded as usual to reap all the fruits of victory. The British evacuated Camden, and one post after another fell into the hands of the Americans. Eutaw Springs, a drawn battle, was really another victory for Greene. The British retired to Charleston, and during the rest of the war remained cooped up on the coast. Thus, in a little more than a year, Greene's splendid generalship had wrested Georgia and the Carolinas from the control of the British. J. IX 1-/RGIN/A. 318. Plan of Cornwallis. — The traitor .Vrnold, with a British force, had been committing ravages in Virginia. He was opposed by a small army under Baron Steuben, an experienced German oflicer who had come over to aid the Americans. Afterward Lafayette was sent with a body of Northern troops to capture the traitor. Cornwallis, now that he found himself out-generalled by Greene, determined to abandon the Carolinas, march up into Virginia, unite his troops with those of Arnold, and attempt the conquest of this, the most powerful state in the South. WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 203 319. Washington's Daring Plan. — So far, the French army and fleet had been of little direct service to the Ameri- cans. In fact the great value of the French alliance up to this time had been indirect, in keeping ^-- — ^--^^ England so busy in other parts of the world that she was unable to concen- trate her energies upon her revolted colonies. In the summer of 1781, how- ever, a French fleet under DeGrasse again approached the coast of the United States. Washington now de- termined to strike a telling blow. His first plan was a joint attack upon New York by his own troops and the allied fleet, hoping thus to overwhelm Clin- ton's army and end the war. But learning that Cornwallis had come up into Virginia and was stationed near the coast with the army of Lafayette in front of him, Washington formed this daring plan : to hurry his own army four hundred miles south- ward into Virginia; to join Lafayette; and while the French fleet prevented the escape of Cornwallis, to crush thit general's army before Clinton could send him aid from New York. Lord Cornwallis. 320. Movements of the Armies. — Cornwallis invaded Vir- ginia, Lafayette's small force retreating before him. Clinton, who now feared an attack upon New York, sent word to Corn- wallis to keep near the coast, so as to be able to sail to his aid at any moment. Accordingly Cornwallis took position at York- town, on a peninsula between the mouths of the James and York Rivers. Meanwhile, as soon as Washington learned that the French fleet had started from the West Indies for Chesa- peake Bay, he entered upon the execution of his brilliant plan. Hurling his troops southward with all possible haste and secrecy, he had almost reached the Maryland border before 204 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. Clinton understood his movements. Clinton now hastened to send his Heet against the French squadron that had entered Chesapeake Bay. At the same time he ordered Arnold to attack the coast towns of Connecticut, hoping thus to draw Washington's March upon Yorktown. Washington back. Both plans failed of their object. The I'-nglish Heet was driven back from the mouth of the Chesa- peake, and Washington, refusing to be enticed from his prey, left Connecticut to take care of itself. Reaching the head of Chesapeake Bay, the American commander completed his swift journey in ships, and took cominaiul of the combined armies on Yorktown peninsula. WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 205 321. Surrender at Yorktown. — Cornwallis was entrapped. Encamped on a narrow peninsula, the French fleet threatened three sides of his position, while an army twice the size of his own blocked his escape by land. The French troops under General Rochambeau put themselves under Washington's orders, and vied with their American allies in storming the British works. One redoubt after another was taken. Finally, on the 19th of October, Cornwallis surrendered. His troops, eight thousand strong, marched between two long lines of French and American soldiers to lay down their arms, while their bands played an old English air, "The World's Turned Upside Down." 322. Result of the Victory. — Swift messengers sped the news of the glorious victory through the length and breadth of the land. Congress adjourned at once to church for a service of thanksgiving and prayer. The joy of the people knew no limit, for they realized that the capture of this British army must close the war. In England, Lord North's ministry was overthrown, and a new ministry favorable to the United States was chosen. For the last three years plucky old England had been waging war, single-handed and alone, with three of the most powerful nations in the world, France, Spain, and Hol- land. She now realized that to subdue her rebellious colonies, whose courage and love of freedom equaled her own, was a hopeless task. Moreover, from the beginning of the struggle, a strong minority in Parliament had opposed the war. A few months before the surrender at Yorktown, the younger Pitt had denounced the American war as "most accursed, wicked, bar- barous, cruel, unnatural, unjust, and diabolical." Although British troops continued to hold New York, Charleston, and a few other points, no further hostilities followed. 206 HISTOKV OF OUR COUNTRY. 323. Treaty of Peace. — In September, 1783, a final treaty of peace \v;is signed at Paris. Its first provision was as fol- lows : " His Britannic Majesty acknowledges the said United States, viz. : New Hampshire. Massachusetts Bay, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia to be free, sovereign and independent States." At the same time Eng- land made peace with the other nations with which she had been at war. To Spain she gave back Florida, which had been a British possession since 1763 (§ 202). 324. Summary of the War in the South. — Unsuccessful in the Middle status, thu- next p\im of the I'.ritish \va> to occupy Georgia and the Caroli- nas, and from these states to work their way northward. Savannah and Augusta were captured by the Hritish, and Georgia was overrun, 1778-79. CJeneral Lincoln made an unsuccessful attempt to re- capture Savannah. He was himself compelled to surrender at Charleston. !lis successor, General Gates, was badly beaten at Camden. King's Moun- tain was a brilliant victory for the American militia. General Greene, suc- cessor of Gates, by skillful manoeuvering, without gaining any decisive victory, recovered Georgia and the Carolinas from the Hritish. Cornwallis having advanced Trom North Carolina into Virginia, was besieged at Vork- town by the combined forces of Washington, Lafayette, and the French fleet. He surrendered October 19, 1781. A treaty of peace was made two years later. 325. Thought Questions. — How many years elapsed, after tlie l)egin- ning of the war, before the Southern states were invaded? Why did the liritish defer their attack on this section.' Why did they attempt the sul> jugation of the South when they did? What was the nature of most of the warfare in the Southern states ? In which of his campaigns during the Revolution did Wa.shington display the greatest skill? Whom do you consider the two ablest .American generals? The ablest Hritish general? Give grounds for your opinion. WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 20/ Topical Analysis (War of the Revolution). r Conduct of English kings. 241. Old Grievances. u z. u W 'J The King's Authority j Flight of royal governors. Overthrown. 1^ Hattle of Moore's Creek. 269. Attack on the f The North Carolina coast. Carolinas. \ Battle of Fort Moultrie. Action of North Carolina. Of Virginia. Of Congress. Synopsis of the Declaration. The New Government. Adoption of a constitution. Plan of the British. Washington's defenses. 76. Battle of Long Island.-! Howe's attack. Washington's escape. 268, 27c, 271. Independence. * 272. 275- u y 277, 27S. Washington's Retreat. 279. Battle of Trenton. 280. Battle of Princeton. From New York to White Plains. Fall of Fort Washington. Retreat acro.ss New Jersey. Despondency of Americans. Washington's victory. I Cornwallis's change of plan. ; Washington's critical position. y His splendid generalship. WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 209 o z o Z >. 281. Plan of the British. 2S2, 283. Burgoyne's Advance. 284, 285. Battles of Saratoga First expedition from Canada. Burgoyne's plan. f Retreat of the Americans. J Bennington. I Fort Stanwix. (^ Recruits for .Schuyler's army. Schuyler displaced. First battle. .Second battle. Surrender of Burgoyne. ^, ^ ,, . ,, f Territory recovered from British. 286. Results of the I ^ ^ , , . _ , < Encouragement of the colonists. Surrender. . • , r r 1^ Aid from r ranee. 287. Plan of the British 2SS J Howe's first intention. (^ Advance on Philadelphia. 293- 294. „ ,,, , ^ , . f Howe's strategy. Battle of Brandywine. \ ^ , r , f , ^ (^ Result of the battle. f Philadelphia taken. ■\ Fight at German town. [^ Forts on the Delaware. f Sufferings at Valley Forge. The Conway Cabal. Inefficiency of Congress. Howe recalled. Philadelphia evacuated. Conduct of Charles Lee. Battle of Monmouth. -I Washington's indignation. [ Result of the battle. Wyoming and Cherry Valley. Punishment of the Indians. f Situation of the armies. 289. Battle of Germantown. 290. Period of Gloom. 291. British retire to New York. Indian Massacres. f fc ' a kJ t/5 H H < S - ^ X < X ^ ^ ^ g w < K W ' ^ • H u '"' ^ War Transferred , ,, . t^, , x , ^ ,, _ ,, < Events in Rhode Island, to the South. 1 t. • • , , (^ British change of plan. ( Claims to the region. 297. Conquest of the Illinois 1 Clarke and his troops. Country. 1 The hazardous march. [ Result. 298. The Indians of the Southwest. 299. Naval Forces of the i ^ , ^ ngress. XT -x 3 r,x X ^ Naval forces of the states. United States. 1 „ . (^ Privateers. 300. Paul Jones's Victory. 210 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 303. Plan 301 305 < z s c -i ■506. Events in the North. 307 30S 310. of the British. Fall of Savannah and Augusta. Kettle Creek. Georgia Overrun. -^ Hriar Creek. Result. Clinton's marauding expedition. .Stony Point. Efforts to recapture Savannah. Clinton'.s advance. The surrender. J Klation of the I'ritish. 1^ Militia leaders. f (General (Jates. Battle of Camden. - 3'4 3'5- 3,r,. 3'7- f 3.,S. 3"> Arnold's Treason. Greene in Command. ( His ditiicultics. 1^ .Suljordinate officers. {Position of tlie armies. Plans of the generals. The battle. ( .Morgan's division. Greene's Retreat. < (Ireene's main army. [ The escape. Battle of Guilford Court House. „ , , ^ .. ( Cornwaliis'.s retreat. Georgia and the Carolinas ,,,,., ,,■,, ^ , < Hobkirk Hill. Recovered. ,. ^. . (^ I'.utaw .Springs. Plan of Cornwallis. f The I-'rench fleet. 1^ The proposed march. f Cornwallis. Movements of the Armies. ritain. ll_ AT THE CLOSE OF THE REVOLUTION Boundaries fixed by Treaty of 1788 SCALE OF MILtS 100 SOO sou iOU MO T»n(»lf«f!e 87 lirvLdUy i J\Mil4*, £nfr*ij A. i\ THE CONFEDERATION. 211 II. THE CONFEDERATION (1781-89). 326, Authority of Congress During the War — The first Continental Congress (1774) claimed no political power. It was merely a committee of the different colonies to consult about their wrongs. At the beginning of the Revolution, the need of concerted action of all the colonies was so apparent that the Congress of 1775, by universal consent, began to exer- cise important powers of government relating to the manage- ment of the war. This Congress and its successors assumed control of the continental armies, appointed officers and en- listed troops, borrowed and issued money, declared the inde- pendence of the united colonies, and negotiated a treaty with France. All these and other powers it exercised on the authority of the vague and by no means uniform instructions of the different states to their delegates. Its measures had, in themselves, no authority over any one of the thirteen sover- eign and independent states, save in the willing obedience of each. It was six years after Congress began to exercise cer- tain powers of government before any constitution defining those powers was formally agreed upon. 327. Adoption of the First Constitution. — We have seen (§ 272) that, at the time of the Declaration of Independence, Congress took steps to prepare a constitution for the United States. This constitution, called the Articles of Confederation, was to have no binding effect until all the states should ratify it. Most of the states did so at once. But Maryland refused her assent until the lands northwest of the Ohio should be sur- rendered by those states claiming them, and should be recog- nized as the common property of all the states, to be used in paying the debts contracted by Congress. She based her position on the grounds, (i) that the control of this region had been wrested from the French by the French and Indian War, 212 inSTOKV OF OUR COUNTRY. in which all the states had shared ; (2) that the possession of such a vast territory would give an oversiiadowing influence to the few states claiming it. Thus it was 1781 before Maryland ratified the Articles. They then went into full effect. 328. Nature of the Articles of Confederation. — The gov- ernment of the rnilcd Stales under the Articles of Confedera- tion was in the nature of a league between sovereign states for certain purposes. The Articles expressly declared that " each State retains its sovereignty, freedom, and independence." There was no president of the United States ; there were no United States courts. The powers of government were vested in a Congress which was composed of one house, its members elected for one year, and paid by their respective states. No state could be represented by less than two or more than seven members. The voting in Congress was by states, each state having one vote. The most important powers of Congress were to declare war, deal with foreign nations, establish post- offices, settle disputes between states, borrow money, and fix the sums to be raised by the different states in proportion to the value of the land and buildings in each. The power to coin and issue money was shared with the states. The con- sent of nine states was necessary to carry any important meas- ure. No change in the Articles could be made without the approval of every state. 329. Treaty with England. — The final treaty of peace with England (§ 323) was ratified by Congress in 1783. The boun- daries of the United States were fixed at Canada on the north (§ 297), the Mississippi River on the west, and Florida ex- tending west to the Mississippi on the south. The army was disbanded and the poorly paid soldiers returned to their homes. Washington appeared before Congress and resigned his office as commander-in-chief. Savannah. Charleston, and New York were evacuated by the British. It was twelve years 87 88 7| THE NORTllWJilT TEKKITORY w»« divided Into tba Bve fol- lowing KUtfa: 1. OKJo, aJinitUsd 1S03i 2. Indians. mdmltUd Ib16; i. Illlnob, admllUd 1£I4; 4. MUhigan, a^tUl IsST: 5. Wlaconiln, ftdinltUd I>48. Lon gttudi THE CONFEDERATION. 213 later, however, before Great Britain surrendered the western posts on the Canadian frontier. 330. The Northwest Territory. — At the close of the Revolution, Virginia held, besides her present limits and those of West Virginia and Kentucky, all the vast domain from the Ohio River to the Great Lakes and the Mississippi (§ 297). Her claim to the Illinois Country, or the "Northwest Territory," as it was afterward called, was based (i) on the limits fixed by her colonial charter of 1609, (2) on its conquest from the British by her tooops under Clarke, (3) upon its actual occupa- tion by her officers. Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New York also made claim to parts of this region, chiefly on the basis of their colonial charters. When the Articles of Confed- eration were being adopted, Maryland made the bold sugges- tion that the whole territory be surrendered to Congress as the common property of all the states (§ 326). This suggestion was finally carried out. In 1784 Virginia generously ceded to Congress all territory northwest of the Ohio that was claimed by her. The other states likewise gave up their claims. The acceptance of the gift made it necessary for Congress to assume new and important powers in regard to the government of the ceded territory. • It did much to strengthen the union between the states, and was one of the most momentous events in our histor}^ 331. The Ordinance of 1787. — The act of Congress pro- viding for the government of the Northwest Territory is known as the Ordinance of 1787. It provided that the territory might be divided into states, not exceeding five in number, whenever the population of a proposed state should reach sixty thousand. In the meantime the territory was to be governed by officers appointed by Congress. In this territory the property of parents dying without wills should be equally divided among the children. (The laws of several states at that time gave 214 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. the eldest son all the property ; in all other states he received a double share.) The Ordinance further provided for com- plete religious freedom. The rights of trial by jury and of the writ of habeas corpus were to be forever inviolable. Schools were to be encouraged, and slavery forever prohibited,' though fugitive slaves from other states were to be returned to their owners. Few acts of Congress have had a more far-reaching effect than the Ordinance of 1787. It not only moulded to a certain extent the subsequent history of the great states carved from the Northwest Territory, but it served as a model for the government of future territories, and alTected great national questions of the next century. 332. The Southwest. - The western lands soutli of the Ohio were claimed by Virginia, North Carolina, South Caro- lina, and Georgia. In 1784, the inhabitants of the eastern part of the present State of Tennessee revolted from North Carolina and established a separate state, which they called PYanklin. They elected John Sevier (hero of King's Mountain) governor, organized a Legislature, and sent a delegate to Con- gress. But North Carolina reestablished her authority, and, in 1790, ceded Tennessee Territory to the United States. South Carolina had given up her western claims in 1787. In 1792 Virginia consented that Kentucky be formed into a sep- arate state. Georgia granted to the I'nited States the terri- tory of Alabama and Mississippi in 1802. Where the ceded land did not at once become a state (as Kentucky) it was first organized into a territory with a government similar to that of the Northwest Territory. 333. Navigation of the Mississippi. How to carry their products to the markets of the world was a serious problem to the settlers on the western frontier. There were few roads 1 This was the first limitation by law of the extension of slavery, and it was sup- ported by every .Soutiiern member of Congress. THE CONFEDERATION. 215 across the mountains, and these were beset with difficulties and dangers. The Mississippi River became the great high- way of trade for the farmers of the west. But the territory on both banks of the river near its mouth was now owned by Spain (see map). That nation claimed the sole right to the navigation of the lower Mississippi, and threatened to tax all other than Spanish vessels passing the mouth of the stream. In 1786 a treaty with Spain was proposed in Congress which provided that in return for certain privileges to be granted by Spain to our commerce in other parts of the world, we surrender for twenty-five years our right to navigate the Mississippi. The proposition was at first considered favorably. At once a storm of indignation arose throughout the South and Southwest. The result was. Congress finally rejected the proposal. But the angry discussions over the matter called attention to the importance of establishing our control over the Mississippi. At the same time a bitter feeling was aroused in the South against the New England states, whose delegates in Congress favored the proposed treaty. 334. Finances of the Country. — The varying and uncer- tain value of money was a continual source of distress from the time of the Declaration of Independence to the adoption of our present Constitution. Congress had no power to tax the people. Funds for the expenses of the war were ob- tained from three sources : (i) The manufacture of paper money by authority of Con- gress ; (2) grants of money by the different states ; (3) loans from Spain, France, and Holland, and from wealthy citizens of our own country (notably Robert Morris, of Penn- Six 3iO££mi§. THIS BmentUte: tilt SIX SP&MISB MlLLrD DOLLAP.S, or the '\uwtthtrnf in Cold aRri.luiionof cO/Vi lBiUljt}da N.v^2- i/^ff . 'Ci Continental Money. 2l6 HISTOKV OF OUR COUNTRY. sylvania, whose generous aid to the destitute army just before the battle of Trenton, made that victory possible). The first issue of "Continental currency" was accepted by the people at its face value. ]kit as the weakness of C'oniileiit's Flaa .VdmlralN Flair UNITED STATKS COAT OF ARMS X A T 1 O .\ A I. K N S I i\ X lU'Vcnue EiiMlgn Yacht Kiihiuii THE UNION OF THE STATES. — DEVELOPMENT. — DIVISION. PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT. (Washington to J. Q. Adams.) Washington's Administration. Two Terms : 1789-1797. 347. Services and Character of the First President. — When the time came to elect a president, under the new Constitu- tion, all eyes were turned to George Washington. Born in Mount Vernon. Virginia, February 22, 1732, Washington was descended from one of the Cavalier families that had emigrated from England to Virginia during the period of Cromwell's rule. He received 226 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. a fair English education, and became a surveyor. The hard- ships and dangers of his woric on the wilderness frontier devel- oped his powers, while the ability and integrity he displayed attracted public notice. By the death of an elder brother, he came into possession of the estate of Mount Vernon, on the Potomac, not far from the present city of Washington. He married Mrs. Martha Custis, a rich widow. His services in the French and Indian War first brought him into prominence as a soldier. He was member of Congress from Virginia when chosen commander-in-chief of the armies of the united colonies. His military genius, his incorruptible patriotism, his splendid reserve-power in the midst of discouragements entitle him to be called the "soul of the Revolution.'' President of the convention of 1787, his influence secured the final adoption of the Constitution. He was chosen first president of the United States by the unanimous vote of the electors.^ 348. The Inauguration. — .^ few days after he had received notice of his election, Washington left his home at Mount Vernon in Virginia, and set out for New* York, which was then the capital. Accompanied by friends, he traveled across the country in a coach, 'i'he journey occupied several days and was one grand triumph. Feasts, balls, and other enter- tainments in his honor were given in the various cities through which he passed ; arches were built, streets were decorated with flags and flowers, and everything was done to show the respect and loyalty the people felt for " the savior of the country.'' Though the fourth of March was the day set for the inauguration, the slow methods of travel delayed the ceremony till April 30. 349. Political Parties. — Those who had supported the new Constitution were called Federalists, those who had opposed it 1 See Article II, Section 1, clauses 2 and 3 of the Constitution, and Article .\1I of the Amendments. PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT. 22/ Anti-Federalists. The Federalists believed in a strong central government that should have ample power to lay and collect taxes, raise armies, and transact the business of the govern- ment promptly and independently. The Anti-Federalists be- lieved that the people of the states, through the states, were the source of power, that government should be instituted solely for their convenience and service, and that it must be subject at all times to the voice of the people. After the Constitution was adopted, the Federalists were called " Loose Constructionists" because they put a very broad construction on the general provisions of the Constitution -^ and claimed rights and powers of government not specifically granted. The Anti- Federalists were called " Strict Construc- tionists " because they insisted upon the letter of the Constitu- tion and denied to the Federal government any powers except those specifically granted by the Constitution. The Federalists were willing to encroach upon the powers of the states. The Anti-Federalists believed that the general government should have only such limited powers as should be specifically dele- gated to it by the states. 350. The New Nation. — When our country took its first step as a nation it was not rich nor powerful. In the thirteen states, the first census showed a population of not quite four millions.^ The area of the country then was not quite four times that of the State of Texas to-day. But the patriots who had risked "their lives, their fortunes, and their sacred honor " '^ to create the new republic were more anxious to lead free and manly lives than they were to be rich and powerful. They cared more for the character of the nation that would result from their acts than for its size, population, or wealth. 1 See Constitution, Article I, Section VIII, last Clause. ~ In 1S90, each of two states — Pennsylvania and New York — had a greater pop- ulation than the whole country in 1 790. 3 See the concluding clause of the Declaration of Independence, § 271. 228 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 351. The First Cabinet. — George Washington appreciated the necessity of moving forward slowly and carefully. He felt keenly and bore bravely the responsibility of chief officer of the nation. He leaned toward the new Federalist party, but called to his cabinet, after Congress had authorized its formation,' able leaders from both parties. Thomas JetTerson, the most distinguished opponent of the Federalist plans and theories, was made secretary of state. Alexander Hamilton.'- the leader of the Federalist party, who afterwards added to his re- putation as a great party leader the more solid and worthy one of a great finan- cier, was given the treasury department, (ieneral Henry Kno.x, a Federalist of Massa- chusetts, became secretary of war. Fdmund Randolph, of Virginia, who was opposed to many of the strong-govern- ment theories of the Federal- ists, was appointed attorney general. There was oppor- tunity in this cabinet for the leaders of the opposing parties to unite on plans and policies and to harmonize conflicting theories of government ; but there was opportunity, also, for further and more vital disagreement when the theories were to be put in * The president's cabinet is not named in the constitution. It includes tiie heads of departments who constitute the president's advisers. ■■2 Hamilton was one of the authors of the Federalist. This was a publication founded to aid in securing the adoption of the Constitution. It contained papers written by Hamilton, Madison, and Jay, explaining and advocating the provisions of the Constitution. Washington appointed Jay chief-justice of the ."supreme Court. Madison was a member of the first Congress. 8 After a portrait by Trumbull, by permission, from Lodge's Works of Alexander Hamilton. Alexander Hamilton ' PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT. 229 practice and the country was to take its course this way or that. One does not need to know much of politics to know that further disagreement was most likely ; and, indeed, this was the result. The breach between the factions was widened as time went on. Since the time of Washington, cabinets have been formed usually from the party that elects the president. 352. Financial Plans. — The first thing to be done was to raise money to pay the expenses of the new government. For this purpose, Congress passed a bill laying taxes on imports. A large income was the result. To the next Congress, Hamilton proposed that we should pay our debts. These debts were divided into three classes : (i) We owed abroad about $13,000,- 000, that we had borrowed ; (2) We owed to our own country- men about $42,500,000 for debts contracted in furthering the Revolution ; (3) it was proposed that Congress pay the debts incurred by the separate states in the prosecution of the war, amounting in the aggregate to about $25,000,000. To the pay- ment of the foreign debt all agreed. The proposition to pay the immense debt due our own countrymen caused wide-spread speculation in the depreciated securities of these debts, and there was considerable opposition to the measure ; in the end it was carried. Hamilton's plan to assume the debts of the states caused a great surprise to the country and aroused bitter oppo- sition. But after a hard struggle and some bargaining,^ this, too, was carried. The tax on imports, though it raised a large revenue, did not enable us to pay these large debts as rapidly as was wished. * The Northern states were, in the main, in favor of the Federal government pay- ing the state debts ; most of the Southern states believed that each state should be responsible for its own debt. The North wanted the new permanent capital ; the South also wanted it. Some Northern congressmen voted for a Southern location of the capital in exchange for some Southern votes in favor of assumption of the state debts. By this trade, Hamilton's third proposition carried, and by it the permanent capital — Washington — was located on the Potomac. 230 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. To supplement the tariff revenue, a special tax, or excise, was imposed on spirits. A national bank, that was to be the financial agent of the government, and a mint were established for the purpose of giving us a national currency. With the establishment of the mint, Jefferson's system of decimal currency was put in opera- tion and has proven itself to be the best in the world. 353. The Whiskey Insurrection. — The tax on spirits was very unpopular with those who had to pay it. In western Penn- sylvania, where there were many stills and where whiskey was used in place of money, the opposition to the tax was very bitter. The people refused to pay the tax; government in- spectors were mobbed ; secret societies were formed to resist the execution of the law. A call to arms raised a band of 2000 insurgents who marched to Pittsburg, but committed no depre- dations. Washington called out the militia of Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Maryland, and Virginia to put down the insurrec- tion ; 15,000 troops took the field. Hamilton, who was anxious to vindicate the government's power to lay the tax, accom- panied the troops. But before this force reached the scene of the disturbances, the ringleaders of the insurrection had fled. The people made no resistance but promptly took the oath of allegiance. A few arrests and convictions were made, but the president pardoned all who were implicated and the trouble ceased. The government had shown its power to put down any ordinary insurrection. 354. Extension of the Frontier. — New States.— Hostile tribes had long since been driven away from the sea-board, and east of the AUeghanies there was no further trouble from them. But adventurous pioneers pushed beyond the mountains into the Western wilderness ; and every inch of their progress was disputed by the old enemy. Daniel Boone and his followers i PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT. 231 had established themselves in territory that is now included in the State of Kentucky. Settlements had been made in what is now Cincinnati, and at other points along the Ohio. There were so many massacres of settlers in the Kentucky territory that it came to be called "the Dark and Bloody Ground." Washington, when he became the executive of the new nation, determined to protect these pioneers. In his early life he had become familiar with this Western country and was interested Fort Washington ("Site of Cincinnati). in its development. He was also familiar with Indian warfare and knew its cruel and treacherous methods. General Harmer was sent against the hostile tribes of the Ohio region in 1790 ; but he was surprised and defeated. Next year, General St. Claire was sent against them with more than two thousand troops. He had been solemnly advised and warned by Wash- ington, but he allowed himself to be ambushed and his army was cut to pieces. "Mad " Anthony Wayne, the hero of Stony Point (§ 306), was now put in command of the army. He defeated a large force of Indians on the Maumee (1794). A treaty of peace followed and this region was cleared of hostile forces. With greater security, immigrants poured into 232 HISTORV OF OUR COUNTRY. the Ohio region. Kentucky was admitted into the Union in 1792. Tennessee, still further west and south, came in in 1796. Vermont had been admitted in 1791, so that at the close of Washington's second term, the Union consisted of sixteen states. 355. Foreign Relations. — The Federalist party was in strong sympathy with the principles and ceremonious methods of the English government; the Republicans^ took the new republic of the French for their model, were jealous of the rights of the people, opposed all forms and ceremonies, and were afraid that the national governyient would assume too much power. When the French became involved in a war with England (1793) they asked for assistance from their old friends of the United States. Citizen Genet was sent to this country to solicit aid. Many of the Federalists sided with England, while the Republicans were enthusiastic for France. Washington, after carefully reviewing the situation, declared that the I'nited States would be neutral. This decision disappointed some of the Federalists, and raised an outcry from the Republicans. Genet, after the declaration by the president, appealed to the people. He stirred up all the ill-feeling he could, and altogether acted in such an insolent way that he lost the approval of many Republicans who had formerly supported him. Washington objected to Genet's course, and he was soon recalled by his government. But the feelings that had been aroused during the controversy made the differences between the two parties more pronounced. Later (in 1795) the treaty with England,^ secured by Chief- 1 After the Constitution was adopted, and the government for which it provided was inaugurated, the term Anti-Federalist was no longer applicable, as all active op- position to the Constitution soon ceased. But there was a strong party, led chiefly by those who had been Anti-Federalists, who (about 1791) took the name of the " Repub- lican " party. This Republican party was therefore the successor of the Anti-Feder- alist party. 2 The treaty contained twenty-eight sections, and held agreements upon many mat- ters of dispute between the two countries. Peace was declared established ; the PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT. 233 Justice Jay, was bitterly attacked by the Republicans, and could not be warmly defended by the Federalists. It was not satisfactory to anybody, but Washington thought the terms the best that could be obtained at the time. But party-feeling ran so high over it that Washington's private character was at- tacked, and he became so worried by violent abuse that he declared he had rather be in his grave than in the presidency. 356. The Cotton-Gin. — A government can do nothing but plan for the prosperity of the people ; the prosperity is won by the industry and good judgment of the people themselves. The people of the United States have been not only industrious and thrifty but they have been fertile in the invention of labor-sav- ing, wealth-producing machinery. One of the most useful machines ever invented in our country is the cotton-gin, which came into use during Washington's administration. Eli Whit- ney, the inventor, was reared in Massachusetts. He spent his youth in going to school and in making walking-canes, nails, and pins. But after being graduated from Yale College he be- came a teacher in the family of General Nathaniel Greene, resid- ing near Savannah. While here his attention was called to the difficulty of separating the seed of cotton from the fiber. The value of cotton in making cloth was well known, and many planters grew patches of it ; but as one man could separate but a pound of cotton fiber a day, the cloth was very expen- JllllllliyiE^^^^/^^v sive. Whitney set to work ^'^^^j llilp^^*i~^ ^^3 to construct a machine that ^^^ ''i ■'^■^'•^/^^^■,^'^'^^^^^^y^'^ would do this task of sepa- ^i^r^^^^B- '' jf ""^^ w/ ration more rapidly. The — ""^".V ^ result was a cotton -gm Whitney's First Contrivance for Pulling off ("gin" is from engine) the cotton Seeds. Mississippi was declared open to botii countries ; the northern boundary of the United States was again defined ; the injury done American commerce was to be paid for, etc. 234 IIISTOKY OF OUR COUNTRY. which would separate a thousand pounds of fiber a day. A new industry was given to the country. Cotton-growing developed in the Southern states till it became their chief industry, and now they furnish more cotton than the remainder of the world. The manufacture of cotton-cloth became an im- portant industry in the New England states. Much of our cotton is shipped to England for manufacture. 357. The Second Term. — When Washington closed his first term he was again unanimously elected to the presidency. At the end of his second term lie was asked to become a candidate for a third term, but refused. He kept the respect of the better elements of both parties throughout his otiicial life, but he was unable to harmonize the differences of the two parties as he had hoped to do. 358. Condition of the Country. — The messenger who car- ried Wasliington the notice of iiis election rode on horseback. The overland traveling of the time was done by means of horses. In many sections there were good roads with inns at frequent intervals. Steamboats had not been invented, and there was not a mile of railway in the United States. News was carried by mounted messengers, and of course required considerable time to reach all parts of the country. There were no telegraph or telephone lines till many years later. 'O.xen and horses were used for drawing loads; mules were very rare, the majority of the people never having seen one. Cast-iron plows had not been invented, and riding-plows and steam-plows were yet many years in the future. .\ house- wife would not have known what to do with a cooking-stove, and heating-stoves were e.xtremely rare. Wood was used for fuel everywhere but at the forge, where charcoal was substi- tuted. One of the school-books, the " New England Trimer." contained the Lord's Prayer, the catechism, hymns, and so on. The pupil wrote with a cjuill pen made by the teacher, or by PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT. ^35 himself, if he was skillful enough. Slate-pencils were whittled out of "soap " stone. Lead was sometimes used for marking; our graphite "lead" pencil was unknown. New York, the first capital of our country, had a population of about fifty thousand souls. 359. Summary. — When the first president took his seat our population was not quite four millions. The first cabinet was formed by the selection of leaders from both parties. The financial policy proposed by Hamilton gave us money to pay our debts and establish our credit with other nations. After the Indians were defeated emigration to the western country increased rapidly. Vermont, Kentucky, and Tennessee were admitted to the Union. A new treaty was made with England. The cotton-gin was invented, and cotton eventually became the chief crop of the Southern states. 360. Thought Questions. — Name the leading political parties to-day. Which one corresponds most closely in its beliefs to the Federalist party ? to the Anti- Federalist party .'' What was our total public debt at the beginning of Washington's administration.' Compare this with the national debt to-day. What do you think of Washington's refusal to aid France .'' Give reasons for your opinion. What do you consider the most important event of this administration ? Why ? John Adams's Administration. One Term: 1797-1801. 361. Services and Character of the New President. — John Adams, of Massachusetts, was one of the ablest and most fearless of the Revolutionary patriots. In all the stormy scenes preceding the Declaration of Independence, he played an important part. He was a delegate to both of the Continental Congresses. He was the chief debater in defending the Declara- tion of Independence before Congress. He urged the selection of Washington for commander-in-chief of the army. He was minister to France in 1778. He was one of the commis- sioners who arranged a treaty of peace with Great Britain after 236 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY our independence was acknowledged. In 1785, Congress sent him as minister to England, and the king had to receive as our representative a conspicuous leader of the revolution that had lost the crown the American colonies. He was the first vice-president and was a member of the Federalist party. 362. Change of the Capital. — Adams was inaugurated in Philadelphia, to which place the capital had been removed from New York. But during this administration the capital was permanently located at a site on the Potomac that had been Washingt.^n I (HI Y.-v: Ae'^ chosen by Washington. This site was at the time nothing but a straggling settlement, neigiibors being as much as a mile apart. Tlie District of Cokunbia, in which the capital is situated, was presented to the I'nited States by \'irginia and Maryland. It was originally a district ten miles square, on both banks of tiie I'otoniac. The \'irgiiiia grant, on the southern l)ank, was afterwards returned. PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT. 237 363. Renewed Trouble with France. — Early in Adams's administration, the trouble with France took a more serious turn. The Directory,^ feeling incensed that the United States persisted in a neutral course, ordered our minister out of the country. The president called an extra session of Congress, and laid the matter before this body. It was decided to send an embassy to France to treat with the Directory if any reason- able terms could be made. Three envoys, two Federalists and one Republican, were sent to France. They were coldly received, and little attempt was made by the Directory to reach Washington at the Present T an agreement. Finally the envoys were informed in a rounda- bout way that if the United States would pay a certain sum of money, a satisfactory treaty would be made. The envoys indignantly rejected the idea of paying money in the way of a bribe. One of them - said the United States " would raise mil- 1 France had just gone through a bloody revolution, and had dethroned and be- headed her king. A new constitution had been adopted which placed the executive branch of the government in the hands of a Directory composed of five members. 2 Charles Pinckney. !3« HISTf)KV OF OUR COUNTRY. lions for defense, but not one cent for tiibute." The two Federalist envoys were ordered out of the country, but Elbridge Gerry, who was a Republican, was invited to remain. In a short time, however, this last envoy came home without having effected anything. In the meantime, whenever opportunity offered, the French vessels captured American merchantmen on the high John Adams. seas and took thciii lu)mc and sold their cargoes. These things meant war, and the Ignited States prudently began to defend herself. The treaties with France were annulled. American men-of-war were directed to capture any French vessel that interfered with our commerce. Steps were taken to raise an army, and Washington was made commander-in- chief.^ ' During Jackson's administration France paid ?5,ooo,ooo for the injury done our (ommerce at this time. PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT. 239 364. Death of Washington. — But Washington's services to his country were ended. He died December 14, 1799. The whole country went into mourning. England and France made public acknowledgment of their great respect for him. One of the resolutions introduced in Congress said he was " first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his fellow-citizens." No one has arisen to dispute this proud posi- tion with him. 365. The Alien and Sedition Laws. — At the same time. Congress made two laws that ought never to have been proposed. The Alien Law' authorized the president to banish, without trial, any foreigner whom he thought dangerous to the peace and liberty of the country. The Sedition Law imposed a heavy fine upon those who should combine or conspire to- gether to oppose any measure of government, and upon those who should utter any false, scandalous, or malicious writings against the authorities of our government. 366. The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions. — The Alien and Sedition Laws had been bitterly opposed by the Republi- cans in Congress. It was held that the Sedition Law was an open violation of the first amendment of the Constitution, and that the right of trial by jury that was guaranteed by the Con- stitution was denied in the Alien Law. Prosecutions ' under the Sedition Law aroused the fiercest indignation. The matter was taken up by the Legislatures of Virginia and Kentucky. These Legislatures declared in resolutions '-^ that the Union was a compact between the states, and that beyond the well-defined powers delegated to it the general government had no right to ^ Matthew Lyon, of Vermont, while a candidate for Congress, was arrested for accusing the president of having a " thirst for ridiculous pomp, foolish adulation, and selfish avarice." He was imprisoned and iined. He was elected to Congress, but was obliged to serve his term of imprisonment before he could take his seat. Editors of several papers were imprisoned and fined for criticising the administration. 2 Madison wrote the Virginia Resolutions ; Jefferson, the Kentucky Resolutions. 240 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. Step; that the Alien and Sedition Laws were an usurpation of power in direct violation of the Constitution ; that it was the duty of the states to interpose and maintain their rights against the encroachment of the federal power. They asserted the right of the states to judge of violations of the Constitution and of the mode and measure of redress. The two laws caused the defeat of the Federalist party, that had jiassed them and was active in their execution. 367. A New Treaty. — In 1800, Napoleon IJonaparte. who had secured control of the French government, received a new embassy from our country in the most cordial manner. A treaty vowing " firm and universal peace " between France and the United States was soon effected. The question of pay- ment for the confiscation of some of our merchant-\essels was left to future negotiation. 368. Election of a New President. — The Constitution pro- vided that the electors should vote for two candidates for presi- dent; that the candidate receiving the highest number of votes — if a majority — should be president, and the one receiving the ne.xt highest number should be vice-president. In the election of a successor to Adams, Jefferson and Burr, both belonging to the same party, each had a majority of the votes, each receiving seventy-three. It fell upon tiie House of Representatives to decide between them, each state having one vote. In the House, Jefferson had the greater number of votes from the beginning, but it was some time before he had a majority of all the votes. I'urr became vice-president. It was seen that our method of electing a president was very faulty. The Con- stitution was amended (1804), so that electors vote for presi- dent and vice-president separately. 369. Summary. — Washington, on the Potomac, bccamt; the capital. P'rance, inukr the I )irectory, refused all reasonable terms for a treaty. Prep- arations for war were niade I)y llie L'nited .States. Wiien Napoleon gained TiiuMAS JEFFERSON. PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT. 24I control a treaty was made. Washington died December 14, 1799. The Alien and Sedition Laws, granting arbitrary powers to the president and to the courts, were passed by the Federalist party, then in power. Indignation against these laws led to the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, which declared the laws unconstitutional and beyond the rightful power of Con- gress to enact. The election of a president was thrown into the House ; Jefferson was elected. 370. Thought Questions. — Why was not the new capital placed farther west .'' What provision in the first amendment of the Constitution was violated by the Sedition Law.-" Which amendment was violated by the Alien Law.' In the Kentucky Resolutions, what was meant by the "mode and measure of redress " for violations of the Constitution ? The Repub- lican electors of 1800 wanted Burr for vice-president ; how did it happen that their votes made a tie between him and Jefferson for president.' What do you consider the most important event of this administration? Why.' Jefferson's Administration. Two Terms : 1801-1S09. 371. Services and Character of the New President. — Thomas Jefferson, of Virginia, had been a prominent member of the Continental Congress. He was the author of the Declara- tion of Independence. He was the founder of the University of Virginia. He was governor of Virginia during part of the Revolutionary War. He was one of the commissioners sent to Europe, after our independence was declared, to treat with European powers. He succeeded Franklin as our minister to France. He was secretary of state in Washington's cabinet. He was vice-president under Adams. 372. Republican Simplicity. — Jefferson was the first presi- dent elected by the Republican or Democratic party. He was inaugurated in the new capital at Washington. Previous in- augurations had been conducted with a great deal of ceremony. But Jefferson, one of the most dignified of men, disapproved of all forms and ceremonies. Former presidents had held recep- 242 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. tions conducted with great formality; but Jefferson was readily accessible to the humblest citizen. He received foreign minis- ters in a simple, matter-of-fact way that was very wounding to their vanity. He had declared that all men are created equal ; he looked upon a public officer as a public servant, and conse- c|uently he could see no reason why office-holding should be marked with pomp and haughty behavior. 373. Trouble with the Pirates of the Mediterranean. — Along the north coast of Africa bands of Mahometan pirates had intrenched themselves. They sailed forth from their ports and harbors and captured the rich merchant-vessels from other countries. FAiropean nations had ceased resisting them by force of arms, and had adopted the method of paying yearly tribute as a means of buying protection for their trading-ves- sels. American commerce and American citizens had suffered very much from them. Some of our vessels had been captured and confiscated and the seamen sold into slavery. The United States had paid tribute for some years for protection and had used large sums of money in paying the ransom of captives. Finally, the demands of the pirates grew to such unreasonable amounts that our government refused to pay them. Then the Pasha of Tripoli declared war against the Ignited States. In 1803, a number of our war-vessels were sent to the Mediterra- nean to bring the pirates to terms. Our seamen showed great skill and courage and made our prowess respected by Euro- pean nations. Lieutenant Decatur, particularly, distinguished himself. The frigate Philadflpliia chased one of the pirate vessels out of the open sea to the protection of the batteries of Tripoli. Hut in the pursuit, the /'/li/aiie/p/iid ran on a reef and fell an easy prey to the pirates. The officers of the frigate were held in captivity. The Mahometans then manned the vessel with their own people and added it to their Heet. Some months later, in a small vessel, with only seventy-four men. PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT. 243 Decatur surprised the Philadelphia at night and killed or drove away all of the pirate crew. Then the vessel was set on fire. As Decatur sailed away in the light of the flames, he was fired upon by all the available guns of the fort ; but not a man was killed. Later, the whole American fleet appeared before Tripoli and besieged it. A land force of the Pasha's enemies had also been enlisted in the service of America. Tripoli could not hope to withstand the double attack and the Pasha sued for peace. A treaty was made in 1805 that gave us immunity from these annoying and destructive depredations. So that a new nation, from another continent, had done more to subdue the pirates than the old European nations had done with the buc- caneers at their own doors. 374. Ohio Admitted. — In 1802, some territory west of Pennsylvania was admitted into the Union as the State of Ohio. It was the first state cut out of the great Northwest Territory (§ 330). 375. The Louisiana Purchase. — When Jefferson became president the Mississippi was the extreme limit of our country on the west. Spain owned the great territory of Louisiana, lying west of the Mississippi. This territory included New Orleans and the mouth of the Mississippi ; and in those days, when wars were so frequent and railroads unheard of, the con- trol of a great river on the border of a country was vital to its interests. We have seen (§ 333) how the proposed surrender of the navigation of the Mississippi aroused the people of the West. In 1800, the territory of Louisiana was ceded back to France. President Jefferson thought it would be bad policy to allow our country to be hemmed in by a powerful European nation. In 1803, an attempt was made to purchase a part of the territory, including New Orleans and the mouth of the Mississippi. Napoleon, who was involved in a war with Eng- land, stood in much greater need of money than he did of 244 IIISTOKV OF OUR COUNTRY. Louisiana ; and he offered to sell the whole territory, The United States was glad enough to buy. The price paid was fifteen million dollars. For this sum, the United States bought a great territory that extended from the Gulf to the source of the Mississippi and from the Mississippi to the Rocky Moun- tains. The territory gained contained nearly a million square miles, and was larger than the United States itself. By this purchase, it became possible for the United States to develop into one of the great nations of the earth. 376. The Lewis and Clarke Expedition. — Some of this vast territory is very little known in our own day ; ninety years ago only its eastern border had been explored. But the presi- dent resolved to gain all the information that he could about the region. He arranged to send an exploring expedition out into the wild country. The expedition consisted of thirty men commanded by Captains Lewis and Clarke. They left St. Louis in the fall of 1803, and ascended the Missouri River in boats. They were the first white men to see the great falls near the source. They crossed through a pass in the moun- tains and descended the Columbia River to the Pacific Ocean. They returned to civilization after an absence of nearly three years, having lost but one man.' Because of this exploration the United States claimed the Oregon territory. 377. Trouble with England : The Embargo. — The war which was going on between Kngland and France involved most of the European countries and caused the United States considerable loss and annoyance. Each nation had prohibited all trade with the other, and claimed the right to conliscate all vessels engaged in such trade. Of course, this 'made American vessels liable to seizure at any time by one or the other of the enemies. Besides this, Kngland claimed the right to search all 1 The history of this expedition, printed by Harper & Brothers, is a very inter- esting, true story of exploration and adventure. PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT. 245 American vessels and take from them any English seamen that might be found among th'eir crews. Officers were, of course, not very careful to distinguish between English-born and American-born seamen. Several hundred men were seized within a year. The frigate Chesapeake refused to be searched by the officers of an English man-of-war. It was fired upon, searched, and some of its crew taken away. Retaliation could no longer be deferred. Congress decreed that no American vessels should carry goods to foreign countries. It was hoped that this embargo would materially injure both England and France ; but it hurt the United States more than it did either of them. As New England was more heavily engaged in foreign commerce than any other section of the country, it suf- ferred the most. New York City was the chief port of entry of the country ; this embargo brought its commerce to a stop and ruin stared it in the face. After a little more than a year's trial the act was repealed and a new act called the non-inter- course act, allowing commerce with all nations except England and France, was passed. 378. Aaron Burr's Treason. — Aaron Burr, a brilliant but unprincipled man, had been vice-president during Jefferson's first term. He and Hamilton became bitter political rivals. The feeling on Burr's side grew to such intensity that he chal- lenged Hamilton to a duel : in the encounter he shot Hamil- ton, who did not attempt to harm Burr. Afterward he was sus- pected of forming a conspiracy to detach some of the south- western states and form a new nation, of which he should be the chief officer. He was arrested and tried for treason. Though the charge could not be proven in the courts, the pub- lic believed it true and he lost the respect of every one. 379. Importation of Slaves. — In 1807, Congress forbade the importation of slaves after the beginning of 1808. Slaves were still bought and sold in our own territory ; but negroes cap- 246 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. tured in Africa could no longer legally be brought to the United States and sold into slavery. Jeflferson and the leaders of both parties looked forward to the gradual emancipation of slaves already on our soil. 380. The First Steamboat.— After the steam engine was invented in England, attempts were made in all civilized coun- tries to apply steam-power to boats. The first successful steamboat was the creation of an American, Robert Fulton. His boat, called the "Clermont," was a rude affair, with uncovered wheels on the sides, showing no architectural beauty, and carrying^ sails to aid the new power. The people had no faith in its success while it was being built and derisively named it Fulton's Folly. Fulton announced that on a certain day he would start from New York for Albany, and great crowds gath- ered at the wharves to see what would happen. At the appointed time, the boat steamed off up the river and made the journey to Albany in thirty-two hours. Steamboats multiplied rapidly from this time, and by their means our commerce was developed with enormous rapidity. There were no railroads in the country at the time ; our carrying agents were wagon trains, Hat boats (rude rafts) pulled or rowed up and down the rivers, and sail-boats on the lakes and coasts. Steamboats were put on the Ohio and Mississippi rivers and were instrumental in hastening greatly the development of the western country. With the growth of railroads later, steamboats became less and less useful in domestic commerce, and are gradually disappearing from our rivers. PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT. 24/ 381. Summary. — Jefferson adopted simple manners and customs in his bearing as president. The pirates of the Mediterranean were defeated by our ships and our commerce was freed from their robberies. The State of Ohio was admitted into the Union. Louisiana, a territory lying west of the Mississippi and extending to the Rocky Mountains, was purchased from France at a cost of $15,000,000. Lewis and Clarke led a party out into this wilderness and penetrated through to the western coast. They pre- pared a description of the country they had explored. Trouble with Eng- land caused an embargo to be laid upon our commerce. This proved to be a very unpopular measure, and after a little more than a year it was re- pealed. Aaron Burr shot Alexander Hamilton in a duel. Further impor- tation of slaves was prohibited. Robert Fulton invented the first steam- boat. The administration is chiefly noted for the growing prosperity of the country and the great extension of its limits. 382. Thought Questions. — By what nation was Louisiana first claimed ? When did it pass into the hands of Spain .'' Why was this transfer made ? When and to whom was the second transfer made.' The third.' Give two reasons why the United States was anxious to get Louisiana. If Louisiana had fallen into the hands of England, would the United States have been able to acquire it.' Why was the Embargo Act so unpopular.' What does the Constitution say about the importation of slaves ? What do you consider the most important event of this administration? Why.' Madison's Ad.ministration. Two Terms: 1809-1817. 383. Services and Character of the New President. — Three members of the Republican party, James Madison and James Monroe, both of Virginia, and De Witt Clinton, of New York, were conspicuous candidates for the presidency; but Jefferson preferred Madison, as his views were known to harmonize with those of the retiring president; and he was the one elected. The new president was one of the most distinguished statesmen of the day. He had served his state in the state Legislature, the Continental Congress, the constitu- tional convention, and the national Congress. He was secre- 248 HISTORY OF OUK COUNTRY. tary of state durinj^ Jefferson's two terms as president. He was the author of many of the Federalist^ papers, of the Virginia liill of Rights, and of the Virginia Resolutions ( i? 366), - — all enlightened and significant writings, important in their times, and destined to inHuence the future course of the James Madison. republic. He received nearly three-fourths of the electoral votes, but forty votes fewer than Jefferson had received for his second term. 384. The Condition that Confronted the Administration. — Jefferson had been unable to settle the disputes with Kngland and France ; and Ma^lison fell heir to them, and was expected to pursue the same policy in regard to them. The method of this policy was to avoid war, and to seek to gain what we wanted by 1 See footnote, p. 22S. PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT. 249 diplomacy and commercial retaliations. England had forbid- den our ships to trade with France and her allies, and France had laid the same prohibition on our commerce in regard to England and her allies; our Congress had sought to retaliate, first, by prohibiting all foreign commerce, and afterward by lim- iting the prohibition to England and France.^ The people of the northeastern states were largely engaged in commerce, and they suffered heavily under this condition of things; it became a vital national matter to afford relief. 385. The Process of Relief. — Madison, shortly after his inau- guration, entered into an agreement with the British minister by the terms of which commercial relations with England were to be resumed. Immediately upon the announcement of this agreement more than a thousand of our vessels, heavily laden with precious cargoes, sailed from our ports for foreign shores. But England promptly repudiated her minister's agreement, and reasserted the former provisions and restrictions; and only the vessels that had been fortunate enough to get away upon the first announcement of the agreement were allowed to sail un- molested. Then negotiations were opened with France, and terms were offered us that seemed to make some concessions, and we accepted. But the result was even worse than in the English agreement, for we gained no real commercial conces- sions, and we further offended and alienated England. Eng- land seemed to play with us, and P>ance duped us, and the result of the negotiations was nothing but humiliation and ex- asperation. A feeling was growing that our interests and our honor demanded stronger measures. 386. The Tippecanoe Incident. — In i8 1 1, through the imme- diate influence of the great chief, Tecumseh, the Indian tribes of ' England and France were at war ; the United States had declared herself neu- tral ; neither country was willing that we should sell any kind of supplies to the other. 250 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. the Northwest united in a great uprising, 'llieir purpose was to drive the white settlers from the country. General Harrison was sent against the Indians. He was surprised at night in his camp at Tippecanoe, in the Territory of Indiana; but his men rallied quickly and defeated the Indians with great slaughter. It was believed that Englisii agents had encouraged the Indians with arms and advice, and the feeling against England in the West was intense. 387. The Wrongs to our Seamen. — England continued to seize seamen from our ships and force them into her own service. During the seven years preceding this time more than four thousand American seamen had been taken from American ships and pressed into British service. She also continued to seize our merchant vessels as prizes, and finally became so insolent as to enter our own waters and capture some of our ships. 388. The Declaration of War. — The time was ripe for war. Years of negotiations and retaliatory legislation had gained us nothing. Those of our merchant vessels that ventured beyond our ports were captured and confiscated, and our seamen were taken from our ships and forced to serve England in her war against France. The Tippecanoe incident, and the discovery of the Henry letters,' purporting to reveal a plot of the governor of Canada secretly to infiuence New England to secede from 1 Henry represented himself to hnve lived a few ye.irs in New England as the secret agent of Canada and England, acting under instructions to note the signs and expressions of discontent with the administration of affairs in the United States, and of New England's leaning toward the mother-country ; and further, to use his influence in increasing the discontent and strengthening the regard for England. He claimed to be able to prove these things by authentic official letters in his possession. The president paid him 850,000 for the letters. PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT. 251 the Union and annex itself to Canada, caused great excitement. Those who had been opposed to war — including the presi- dent — were obliged, finally, to abandon their position and join the war party. In a speech before Congress, Henry Clay asked, " What are we not to lose by peace ? Commerce, character, a nation's best treasure, honor." War was declared in June, 1812. SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN Events of 1812. 389. The First Movement against Canada. — General Hull, governor of Michigan Territory, an old officer of Revolutionary fame, was instructed to invade Canada. But the general was inefficient and cowardly. He was besieged in Detroit by a force of British and Indians, and without firing a gun sur- rendered Detroit and Mich- igan (August 16), thereby covering his name with shame ^ and greatly discour- aging the American army. 390. The First Sea Fight At this time the American people believed that they could march into Canada and easily conquer it, but so far as sea fighting was concerned they had little hope of accomplishing more England was, at this time, the greatest maritime power in the world. She had nearly a 1 General Hull was afterwards tried by a court of army officers on the charge of treason, cowardice, and conduct unbecoming an officer, convicted on the two latter charges, and sentenced to be shot. President Madison pardoned him in considera- tion of his services in the Revolution. than a weak defense of our coast. 252 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. thousand ships manned with veteran crews, while the United States had but twelve men-of-war, and some of them had been hastily and imperfectly manned.^ But in the first decisive engagement we gained such a signal victory that we took heart and prepared for greater enterprises. One of our warships, the Constitution, commanded by Captain Isaac Hull,'^ while cruising in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, fell in with the P^nglish warship Gucrricrc. The Giwrriere, after an engagement last- ing about an hour, surrendered. The prisoners were taken to Boston, and Captain Hull and his officers were feasted at Faneuil Hall. The Constitution, after this victory, was named Old Ironsides, and became a famous ship.'' 391. Continuation of the Contest on the Sea. — Our next importimt victory was gained by the sloop-of-war Wasp. This vessel, cruising off the coast of North Carolina, fell in with a fleet of English merchantmen under the convoy of the brig Frolic. The Frolic was much better armed and ecjuipped than the Wasp, but after a desperate encounter the Americans boarded the English ship, and themselves hauled down the English colors. The firing had hardly ceased when a pow- erful English man-of-war appeared in sight, and it at once took possession of the Wasp and its prizes. But the moral effect of the Wasp's victory against such odds remained to encourage our seamen. And, indeed, the effect was soon to be seen. Our captains attacked English vessels against great odds; and lights occurred between English and American vessels all along our coast, and even in the waters of the Ciulf and on the South American coast. The Americans were 1 " The American navy consisted of twelve vessels, the largest of which were the three 44-gu" frigates United Stales, Constitution, and President. The British navy was composed of 830 vessels, of which 230 were larger than any of the American ships." Prof. A. B. Hart, "Formation of the Union." ■- Captain Hull was a nephew of the Cieneral Hull who had failed so signally at Detroit, and was a brave and efficient officer. * See Oliver Wendell Holmes's poem, "Old Ironsides." PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT. 253 almost uniformly successful. During the year almost three hun- dred prizes, carrying valuable cargoes and manned by more than three thousand men, were captured by American cruisers. All Europe was greatly astonished at our success in fighting the " Mistress of the Seas," and England herself was astounded. 392. The Invasion of Canada. — While our ships were so fortunately engaged upon the ocean, another invasion of Canada was attempted. General Van Rensselaer led a body of troops to the Niagara frontier of New York and pre- pared to cross over into Can- .ada. Colonel Van Rensselaer with a thousand men did cross over, and in a sharp engagement dislodged the English from Queenstown Heights, and took possession of the batteries.^ The English, however, sent for reenforcements, and as the American militiamen who remained on the New York side would not go over to succor their gallant comrades,^ after severe losses, Colonel Van Rensselaer was obliged to surren- der. General Van Rensselaer, disgusted with troops so inde- pendent and undisciplined, resigned command, and M^as replaced with General Smyth, of Virginia. General Smyth issued some fiery proclamations, and made a show of a dashing campaign ; 1 Colonel Van Rensselaer was wounded as his forces were trying to effect a land- ing on the Canadian side, and the Americans were led by subordinate officers. Gen- eral Brock, to whom General Hull had surrendered at Detroit, was still in command of the English troops in the attempt to retake Queenstown. 2 These militiamen insisted that they had joined the army to protect the American border, but not to invade foreign territory. 254 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRV but in the end he proved absolutely ineffective, and was re- moved after the fall had passed away and nothing had been accomplished. The invasion of Canada was, so far, a dismal failure. 393. Madison's Reelection. - rhe Federal party generally, and the members of it in New England in particular, were strongly opposed to the continuance of the war; but the Re- publican party was committed to it, and was enthusiastic in prosecuting it. In the fall of this year Madison was renomi- nated by the Republicans, and was reelected, receiving 128 of the 217 electoral votes. 1813. 394. Off the Atlantic Coast. — Captain Lawrence of the Hornet^ as a reward fur his victory over the Jiritish brig Pea- cock^ was placed in command of the Chesapeake, one of our best frigates. The ship was laid up in Boston harbor to be repaired and refitted. The crew had not yet been trained and disciplined for their duties, several of the sailors were sick, and there was much dissatisfaction because of delayed pay. But Lawrence had j^> , ^ ^^fl^Jk- been made over-confident by pre- ii:^ V ''/(:^^^t^ vious success, and in this poor condition he sailed out of the harbor and attacked the liritish frigate Shannon. A dreadful combat ensued, in which both 1 The sloop-of-war Hornet, commanded by Captain Lawrence, and the British brig Peacock had a terrific battle of a few minutes. Tlie Peacock was disabled and struck her colors. The brig was damaged more than was thought and sank suddenly, en- gulfing nine British seamen and three .Americans. James Lawrence. • PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT. ' 255 ships suffered severely, and in which Lawrence was mortally wounded. As the brave captain was carried below decks, with almost his last breath he cried to his men, " Don't give up the ship." Victory rested with the English, however, and the Shannon, greatly damaged, towed the shattered Chesapeake to Halifax, where Lawrence was buried with military honors.-^ 395. Plans for the Invasion of Canada. — The land forces were this year organized in three divisions : The Army of the North, under General Hampton, was to march by way of Lake Champlain; the Army of the Center, under the command of Major-General Dearborn, was to take the old Niagara course ; the Army of the West, under General Harrison, was to recover Michigan for us and again invade Canada by the way of De- troit. All these armies were to be aided by a greatly strength- ened navy of the Lakes. Let us examine the western movement first. 396. The Raisin River Massacre. — An advance force of General Harrison's army drove a body of English and Indians out of Frenchtown, on the Raisin River, and captured the town. (See map, p. 253.) Shortly afterward a large force of English and Indians, under Colonel Proctor, returned to Frenchtown and attacked the Americans. Under a pledge of protection, our forces surrendered. Colonel Proctor immedi- ately returned to Maiden, and left the prisoners at the mercy of the savages. A large proportion of the captives were killed by tomahawk, knife, or fire, while some of them were dragged to Detroit and sold to Americans for heavy ransoms. 397. Fort Meigs. — General Harrison, checked by the Raisin River misfortune, built Fort Meigs (Fort Defiance on map) on the Maumee and retired to it. Here he was besieged by a large force of British and Indians, under General Proctor 1 His remains now rest in Trinity churchyard, New York City. 256 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. and Tecumseh. During the siege a detachment of a relief party of Kentuckians was cut off from the main body and cruelly massacred after the manner of the Frenchtown out- rage. But the attacking party was obliged to abandon the siege. It retired to Maiden. In the latter part of July Proc- tor and Tecumseh, with a force twice as large as before, re- turned to the siege. Failing to take the fort and also to entice the Americans into the open. General Proctor took part of his force and marched away to attack Fort Stephenson (Sandusky on map). This fort was defended by one hundred and sixty men, under Captain Crogan, a young man just twenty-one. Upon the "demand to surrender, the gallant captain answered that he would defend the fort so long as there was a man alive within its walls. Cannonading producing no important effect, the Eng- lish made an assault to carry the fort by storm. The only gun the fort contained had been masked in position to control the trench that surrounded the walls; the attacking party, when it came within range, was almost entirely swept away by a charge from this single gun. After this deadly repulse. General Proc- tor, "fearing that he would be attacked by a relief party under General Harrison, again retired to Maiden. 398. The Victory on Lake Erie In September of this year, Captain Perry with a Heet of nine vessels, five of which he had just built on the shore of *^^?^5*^*' V T:>i . Lake Erie, sailed out into the lake and engaged an English fleet. Perry's own ship, the La7i>reiice, bearing the ilag, " Don't give up the ship," was so cut to pieces that it had to be abandoned. Perry had to pass by some of the enemy's ships in reach- ing the Aluf^am of his own Heet. He carried his flag in one hand, PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT. 257 and in an open boat made a near and conspicuous target for the fire of the enemy. But he made the passage safely. In a few minutes after Perry readied the Niagara the fight was over, and the brave young captain returned to the shattered Lawrence to receive the surrender of the English fleet. Perry's des- patch, describing the con- test, was as brief and abso- lute in its way as the combat had been in another way : — " We have met the enemy and they are ours — two ships, two brigs, one schoon- er, and one sloop." ^ The victory gave us control of Lake Erie. Oliver Hazard Perry. 399. The Thames Victory. — General Harrison was quick to seize the advantage of Perry's victory; he immediately crossed the lake to attack the English and Indians at Maiden. He found Maiden deserted, however, Proctor and Tecumseh having retreated with their forces. The Americans entered on a hot pursuit, and overtook the enemy at the Thames river. In the battle that ensued the British were defeated and obliged to surrender. Colonel Proctor escaped by flight. Tecumseh was shot during the battle, and the Indians fled in confusion. The western movement resulted in clearing Lake Erie, recov- ering Michigan, and administering a severe defeat to the enemy on his own soil. Captain Perry and General Harrison became the heroes of the nation. 1 The British had fewer vessels, but better ones, and more men, and more but smaller guns. The English captain was one of Nelson's veterans, while Perry had never seen a naval engagement in his life. 258 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 400. The Movement in the East. — The armies of the Cen- ter and of the North gained us no important victories. The Army of the Center embarked from Sackett's Harbor and crossed the lake for the purpose of capturing Toronto. In this movement they were successful, capturing the town, tak- ing many prisoners and securing much valuable property. The army then returned to Sackett's Harbor to find that it had been attacked in their absence, but successfully defended by the garrison left there. Late in the next month (May) the army again crossed to the Canadian side and took some minor posts. But this time they were attacked by a large English force, and had enough to do to defend themselves. A plan was now formed to unite the armies of the Center and of the North and attack Montreal. The Army of the Center sailed down the St. Lawrence to make the junction.^ The troops were disembarked at St. Regis, where it was expected the Army of the North would soon join them. But the Army of the North had not moved, and the plan to invade Canada by this route had to be abandoned for the season. 401. On the Sea. — The contest was waged upon the sea more fiercely, perhaps, than upon land. But on the American side there was small equipment and little organization, our suc- cesses coming from the courage and enterprise of our seamen. Many English merchantmen were captured. But the English were quick to retaliate, and often went beyond just bounds in trying to punish us. They captured some of our men-of-war. Several defenseless villages along Chesapeake Bay were wan- tonly bombarded and destroyed. The Carolina and Virginia coasts were ravaged after the manner in which freebooters would conduct a campaign. 1 In order to drive away the British and Indians, who were gathering in bands along the river bank to obstruct the progress of the fleet, a force was landed, and an engagement resulted. There were heavy losses on both sides — about three hundred on the American side — and notiiing decisive gained. PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT. 259 402. The Creek Uprising. ^ — The Creek Indians, a power- ful tribe in Alabama, incited to violence by Tecumseh and his brother, the Prophet, fell upon the garrison at Fort Mimms and massacred more than four hundred people, sparing neither men, women, nor children. Immediate preparations were made by the southwestern states to march against the Indians. Gen- eral Jackson, with a force of Tennesseeans, was the first in the field. He drove the Indians before him, defeated them in sev- eral hard-fought battles, and burned one of their villages. Finally the Indian forces concentrated for a great battle, and the engagement took place at Horseshoe Bend,^ on a branch of the Alabama River (January 27, 1814). The Indians suffered a bloody defeat, and surrendered to Jackson on his own terms. 1814. 403. The Last Invasion of Canada. — July 3, Generals Scott and Ripley, leading the Army of the Center, crossed the Niagara river into Canada. They met the English force near Chippewa, and a hotly contested battle ensued. The English were defeated, and retreated down the river to Queenstown. In sight of Niagara Falls, General Scott, with a division of the army, met the English forces again. General Scott, though greatly outnumbered, heroically held his position until reen- forced by the other divisions. The fighting was desperate and very destructive to both sides. The Americans distinguished themselves by daring generalship and dogged endurance. The English were at last driven from the field with a loss of nearly a thousand men; the American losses were nearly as great. The Americans had much the smaller force. 404. The Siege of Fort Erie. — The Americans fell back to Fort Erie. Soon the English, reenforced, moved forward and invested the fort. About the middle of September, after hav- 1 Sam Houston, afterward prominent in Texas history, was wounded in this battle. 26o HISTORY OF OUK COUNTKV. ing besieged the fort for more than a month, the English, hear- ing that a division of the Army of the North was on the way to the relief of the fort, raised the siege and retired to Fort George. Early in November the Americans burned P'ort Erie, and recrossed the Niagara and went into winter quarters. 405. The Battle of Lake Champlain. — When the division of tlie Army of the North was taken to the relief of Eort Erie about fifteen hundred troops were left to hold Plattsburgh, on Lake Champlain. Hearing of the re- duced force at Plattsburgh, the English decided to seize the opportunity to get control of Lake Champlain. General Prevost, with fourteen thousand men, marched into New York to attack Plattsburgh, while an English Hect was to attack Commodore McDonough's squadron on the lake.^ Fighting began on the lake first, and the Ameri- cans achieved a signal victory; several of the English ships surrendered, but some of the smaller ones fled, and escaped pursuit because our own ships were too badly damaged to chase them. In the meantime, the small land force had held the fourteen thousand P'.nglish veterans in check, and when the news of the .Vmerican victory on the lake reached the English general he retreated under the enthusiastic charge of the re- joicing militia, leaving his sick and wounded and his military stores, and made haste to get back into Canada. 1 The English squadron h.icl more men and more guns. One of McDonough's vessels had just been iniilt, within twenty days, on the bank of the lake. PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT. 261 406. Along the Coast. — The blockade which had been put upon the southern coast the previous year was now extended to the northern coast. Several small towns near the seaboard had been captured and destroyed. In August a British fleet ^ of twenty-one vessels reached our country and landed on the Maryland shore an army of five thousand men, whose purpose was to capture Washington. A force of militia and marines was put forward to intercept them, but it was defeated. The English suddenly appeared at the capitol, captured the president's dinner, which he had just left, and came near capturing the president himself. The capitol buildings and some private residences were burned. General Ross, who commanded the land force, then marched his army against Baltimore, and instructed the fleet to bombard Fort Henry, Baltimore's protection from attacks by sea. The land force was checked in its march by a determined body of militia, and in a preliminary skirmish General Ross himself was killed. The British men- of-war bombarded Fort Henry all day and part of the night without doing serious damage.^ The troops then reembarked, the siege was raised, and the squadron sailed away. 1 Admiral Cockburn, who commanded this fleet, was a vandal and a barbarian. He stood in the speaker's chair in the capitol, waved his hat and gave the command to burn the building, which contained the precious records of the new nation. He burned defenseless villages, and even country houses occupied only by women. See Coffin's " Building of the Nation." '- Francis S. Key, detained on board an English man-of-war, watching by the flashes of the guns the flag that waved on Fort Henry, composed the " Star-Spangled Banner." 262 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 407. The Hartford Convention. - New England had bit- terly opposed the methods pursued during the progress of the war, and now that the blockade had extended to its own ports, that the capitol had been burned and nothing was secure, it felt willing to resort to strong measures. At the suggestion of the Massachusetts Legislature a convention was called, and delegates from all the New England states met at Hartford December 15. The discussions of this convention have for- ever been secret, and the official record of its proceedings was •not made public by the convention itself. The Republican party openly charged the convention with treasonable purposes, with the intention of advising the states represented to secede from the Union and make peace with England, or proffer al- legiance to the enemy. If these charges were without founda- tion they might easily have been disproven, but no effort was made to refute them. The convention was so condemned by the people generally that it ruined the Federalist party. ^ 408. Peace. — Both sides were tired of the conflict, and neither side had gained anything decisive. The treaty signed at Ghent, December 24, was as negative in its nature as the war had been. Nothing for which the war had been fought was mentioned in the treaty; the two nations, tired of war, did lit- tle more than agree to peace. However, the moral and sub- stantial victories were with us in reality, although they were not formally mentioned in the terms of the treaty. Since that day England has never confiscated our ships, nor impressed our seamen, nor blockaded our ports. We demonstrated to the world that American seamen were equal in every way to English seamen, and were better gunners. And we proved to all interested parties that any attempt to establish a foreign power on our territory would meet with disastrous failure. 1 A representative was sent from the convention to confer with the president, but peace was declared before the conference could take place. PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT, 263 409. Battle of New Orleans Although the treaty of peace had been signed on December 24, on January 8 one of the bloodiest battles of the war was fought at New Orleans. We had no telegraph then, and the news of the treaty did not reach us till after the battle. The British made great prepara- tions for the conquest of Louisiana. A fleet of fifty vessels, carrying twelve thousand men, under command of General Pakenham, sailed to attack New Orleans. General Jackson, who, after his victory over the Creeks, had been placed in com- mand of the Army of the South, hastened to defend the city. Jackson had but six thousand men, but they were well pro- tected behind breastworks. The English made one assault after another on these extemporized defenses, but they were repulsed with heavy losses every time. Their general and many of their chief officers were killed. Their losses amounted to twenty-six hundred men. The Americans had but eight men killed and thirteen wounded. 410. Admission of States. — The Territory of Orleans, which was the southern part of the Louisiana purchase, was admitted to the Union in 18 12 under the name of Louisiana, making the eighteenth state. The northern part of the terri- tory was thereafter called Missouri. Indiana, the second state from the Northwest Territory, was admitted in 18 16. 411. Summary. — The new president and his advisers were unable to make satisfactory terms with England. England prohibited trade with France, and France prohibited trade with England. The English searched our vessels, captured our seamen and forced them into the British service. The belief that the English had instigated the Indian uprising in the North- west, and the revelations of the Henry letters, hastened the declaration of war (June, 181 2). The contest is known as the War of 18 12, but it lasted more than two years. The terms of the treaty of peace (signed at Ghent December 24, 1814) did nob settle the matters in dispute. But we have never since had the same causes for trouble, and the English have never since that time presumed to confiscate our merchantmen, nor to capture and impress our seamen. Our standing among nations of the world was 264 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. greatly improved by our success in resisting the British on the S2a ; in every important engagement, except one, where the forces were at all evenly matched, the British ships had to strike their colors. We showed, too, by this war, that we were able to defend ourselves against foreign inva- sion, and that, therefore, the United States was secure to work out its own history. Louisiana was admitted in 1812; Indiana in 1816. 412. Thought Questions. — Let the student summarize the events of the war under the following heads: 1. War on the northern frontier. 2. War on the .\tlantic coast. 3. Naval battles. 4. Events in the South. In what quarter (as above indicated) were the American arms most suc- cessful ? When did the greatest number of American failures occur.' Can you explain why ? Monroe's Administraiion'. Two Terms: 1817-1S35. 413. Services and Character of the New President. — James Monroe, of \'irginia, was a .student in William and Mary Col- lege when the United States declared their independence of (}reat Britain. He joined the American forces and served throughout the war, distinguishing him.self as a soldier and an officer. He was minister to France under President Washing- ton. President Jefferson .sent him to P'rance for the purchase of Louisiana, and afterwards appointed him minister to Eng- land. He served in Madison's cabinet as secretary of state. i'he new president was a kind-hearted man, but firm and deter- mined in purpose. He was modest in regard to his own talents and services, and generous in admiration of tlie ability and usefulness of others. 414. The President's Northern Tour. — Soon after his inau- guration, Monroe made a tour througii the New England and other eastern states. During the war of 181 2, New England had become disaffected toward the government and the I'nion PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT. 265 (§ 407), and it was Monroe's purpose to express the presi- dent's undiminished regard for this section, and to incite the loyalty of the people. He was received everywhere most cor- dially. The people who had favored the war, those who had opposed it, and the radical Federalist leaders who had advocated such extreme measures against it, now that the war was ended and its objects ac- complished, united in doing honor to the nation's presi- dent.^ The Federalist party went to pieces over its course in regard to this war, and our whole people seemed to be united in one party. Indeed, as years went on, the period of Monroe's administration began to be called the " Era of Good Feeling," so cordial and harmonious was the support given the president. Only one electoral vote was cast against him on his election to the second term. Monroe. 415. Extension of Territory : the Seminole War. — At this time Florida belonged to Spain (§ 323), and on its territory there were some Spanish forts garrisoned with Spanish soldiers. The population, however, was made up of Seminole Indians, runaway slaves, and a few English adventurers. The Sem- inoles formed the greater part of this mixed population. These people made frequent raids across the border into 1 On formal occasions Monroe appeared clad in his Revolutionary uniform, and completely won the hearts of the scarred veterans of our early struggle for independ- ence. 266 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. Georgia, destroying property, stealing slaves, and murdering settlers. When pursued into Florida, these marauding bands claimed the protection of neutral territory, or fled to the secret recesses of the everglades beyond pursuit. These raids finally became so frequent and so exasperating that General Jackson, the New Orleans hero, was sent to the front to teach the Sem- inoles and their allies a lesson. Jackson dealt with the matter after his usual summary manner. He drove the Indians out of Georgia, and followed them into Florida, where they scat- tered into the swamps to save themselves. He captured and destroyed the Seminoles' chief village, took forcible possession of two or three principal Spanish forts, and executed two British subjects who had aided the Indians. Jackson's course caused a heated controversy in Congress, where he was accused of exceeding his instructions and of violating the law of nations. The administration, though em- barrassed by his actions, defended his course, and Congress refused to censure him. Spain finally decided to sell us the territory of Florida. It was bought, in 1819, for five million dollars. As one of the conditions of this purchase we agreed that the Sabine River should form our southwestern boundary. By this agreement we relinquished in Spain's favor all claims to Texas.* The states of Mississippi and Alabama were formerly part of the territory claimed by Georgia. This territory was ceded to the United States in 1802 (§ 332). Mississippi became a state in 1817 ; Alabama, in 1819. Illinois, the third state from the great Northwest Territory, was admitted in 18 18. 416. Slavery. — In 1818, the Union consisted of twenty- two states, half " free " and half " slave," with the Ohio River and the south line of Pennsylvania as the boundary between them. Circumstances had made it possible that a new South- ern territory could be put forward for admission directly after the admission of each new Northern state, so that the balance J The United States had claimed Texas as part of the Louisiana purchase. PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT. 26/ had been preserved. There had been much discussion of slavery privately, in the public prints and on public platforms. Northern sentiment was divided. There was a small faction that, on moral grounds, insisted on the abolition of slavery. A greater faction feared the growth and final preponderance of the slave-holding population. A third faction, from the nature of the terms of the original union of states and the reading of the Constitution, thought it illegal and dishonorable to restrict slavery beyond the original provisions and prohibi- tions of the Constitution. In the South, there were many people who were opposed to slavery on moral grounds (Jeffer- son, Clay, and other great leaders among them), and who hoped for the gradual extinction of slavery;^ but the major part of the population, through custom or self-interest,^ had come to think the mild form of slavery that existed in the South best for both negroes and whites. And it was seen by sensible people everywhere that the immediate abolition of slavery meant ruin to the South ; it would rob both races of the means of living. 417. The Missouri Compromise. — When a territorial gov- ernment was proposed for Missouri (1819), the controversy broke out in intense form. The dividing line between the "free" and the "slave" states — the Ohio River — was lost on the west side of the Mississippi. Should Missouri be " free " 1 Jefferson's plan for the gradual extinction of slavery was to declare all negroes born after a certain date free, to keep these free-born negroes with their parents until able to maintain themselves, and then to ship them to some friendly asylum outside of the United States, bought and prepared for the purpose. With this plan, slavery would perish with the death of the negroes who were still in bondage on the date set. 2 In the beginning all sections without distinction bought and sold slaves, and no section thought it wrong (§§ 91, 139, 209). The negroes were at first used chiefly as domestic servants ; but, with the development of cotton and rice-growing in the Southern states, they became almost indispensable in the fields of this section; so that their number grew very fast at the South and very slowly at the North. After a while there came a day when the liberation of slaves meant but slight loss to the North and ruin to the South. 268 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. or " slave " ? It lay for the most part north of the Ohio line, but it had been settled chiefly by slaveholders, and its own voice was for slaveholding. In Congress the advocates of " free " territory at first gained the advantage ; but in the end Missouri was organized without any restrictions as to slavery. When the bill to admit Missouri as a state came up next year (1820), the contest was renewed. Maine ^ was asking for ad- mission as a free state at the same time. Those who favored the admission of Missouri as a slave state joined the two states in one bill, so that they should succeed or fail together. But there could be no quarrel over Maine, as it was wholly free, and the real battle was fought over Missouri. The Northern states insisted that Congress had the right to prohibit slavery in the states it admitted to the Union, and should exercise the right ; the Southern people urged that each state should deter- mine its own domestic concerns, and that Missouri should be allowed to say whether it should enter as a free or as a slave state. The debate that followed was a long and able one, and sometimes reached a very angry tone. Through the eloquence and influence of Henry Clay, a compromise was effected. By its terms Missouri entered as a slave state (182 1), but with the provision that any state afterward formed out of the Louisiana purchase lying north of 36° 30' — the southern boundary of Missouri — must enter as a free state ; any state formed out of the purchase south of this line might decide for itself whether it would be free or slave. By a separate bill Maine was admitted as a free state the day after the Missouri Compromise bill was passed. 418. Internal Improvements. — In this day, railroads were unknown, and overland commerce was carried on solely by wagons drawn by draught animals. With such slow means of transportation, distress might exist in one part of the country 1 Up to this time, Maine liad been Massachusetts teriitory. HEMR-. CLAY. PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT. 269 while another section had more food products than could be used or sold. Anything that would lead to a quicker and more general distribution of supplies would, of course, greatly aid the development of the country. In 18 17, through the influence of Governor Clinton and by the authority of the state legislature, work was begun on the Erie Canal. It extended from the eastern end of Lake Erie to Albany on the Hudson, and when completed (1825) was 363 miles long. It afforded an extreme- ly cheap means of transportation, and assisted greatly in the development of the interior of New York, and even of Ohio and the western country. With its help, New York City jumped into the front rank of commercial cities, and has ever since been the great commercial center of the Union. 419. The Cumberland Road. — ^This highway, begun in a small town in Maryland, supported at first by state funds, grew in importance until it became a subject of national dis- cussion and of national aid. It was fostered and encouraged by the powerful Clay and an enthusiastic party. It was finally extended, eighty feet wide, paved with hard stone, " a noble turnpike," to Wheeling. It proved highly useful in developing the West and in adding to the wealth of the East. Clay planned to extend it down the Ohio to the Mississippi. A southern road was projected from Washington to New Orleans. 420. The Monroe Doctrine. — Several of the Spanish colo- nies in South America revolted, and set up governments of their own. The United States was the first nation to recog- nize their independence. Later, France gave notice that she would call a congress of the great powers to consider the revolt of these colonies. Of course, the plan would be to reduce these revolted colonies to European dependence by put- ting over them kings sent from the royal families of Europe. In opposition to this purpose, President Monroe sent to Con- gress (1823) a message that declared, " That we should con- 270 HISTORY OK OUR COUNTRY. sider any attempt on their part (the part of the European powers) to extend their system to any portion of this hemi- sphere as dangerous to our peace and safety," and further that, " The American continents, by the free and independent posi- tion which they have assumed and maintained, are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European powers." "In these two propositions consists the celebrated ' Monroe Doctrine,' a doctrine, we may add, which our later statesmen have developed at their convenience, link- ing it inseparably with the name of the president who thus pronounced it, and seeing in it what many hundred millions of American freemen, in the long vista of coming centuries, will still better recognize, if free institutions are capable of growth and endurance, the sacred stone of chartered liberty in the Western world."' This message was carefully studied in all the capitals of Europe; the congress was never called; the plan of reducing the revolted colonies was abandoned. 421. Lafayette's Visit. — In 1824, Lafayette (§ 286), now nearly seventy years old, in response to an invitation from the president, made our country a visit. He stayed more than a year, and visited every state in the Union. He was received everywhere with the greatest enthusiasm, the survivors of the Revolution showing the deepest feeling at again clasping the hand of their old comrade-in-arms. Lafayette had joined our struggle for independence at its darkest hour ; he had expended large sums of money from his private fortune to help our cause; he had brought us soldiers and had given us the prestige of his great name; in joining us, he relin- quished his home and a certain career of distinction in his own country; he repeatedly risked his life in our service; and he had joined his fortunes with ours from a pure sympathy with the oppressed, an ideal love of abstract liberty; he had not 1 Schouler, " History of the United States," Vol. HI, p. 288. PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT. 2/1 suffered our wrongs or borne our yoke. We were deeply in debt to him and anxious to show our appreciation of his noble conduct. Congress seized this opportunity, when he visited our country in his old age, broken in fortune, suffering the loss of political power at home, to express our gratitude. Two hundred thousand dollars and twenty-four thousand acres of land were voted to him as a slight expression of the affectionate remembrance of a grateful people. Some of the states were eager to add special grants to the national grant, but Lafayette thought it best not to accept the state grants.^ 422. The Presidential Election. — This year there were four candidates for the presidency, all calling themselves Re- publicans. Andrew Jackson received 99 electoral votes, John Quincy Adams, 84; W. H. Crawford, 41; and Henry Clay, 37. As none of the candidates had a majority, there was no election, and it became the duty of the House to select a presi- dent. Clay threw his strength for Adams, who, with him, favored high tariff and loose construction of the Constitution, and Adams was elected. * The American youth who loves liberty cannot find a better subject for study than the career of Lafayette. His connection with our Revolution was merely a picturesque and significant incident in a long life devoted to the cause of constitu- tional liberty. His career was one marked by the most extreme vicissitudes : he was one of the leading factors in the Revolution, a few years after the American struggle, in his own country ; his party lost its power, and Lafayette to save his life fled from the country ; he was captured and thrown into an Austrian prison, where he spent several years; he was liberated by the great Napoleon; again became an important figure ; again had reverses, and came to this country, broken in fortune, and having lost his seat in the French legislature ; but before his death, after visiting America, he again became prominent and powerful. He followed the star of liberty through good and evil report, through the darkest nights and through days of tlie greatest splendor ; he risked his life by the peasant's side against the oppressor's tyranny, and he threw his sheltering arm around the dethroned monarch to protect him from the despotic fury of the mob ; and through his long career he was the same brave, true, chivalrous knight, the same consistent democrat, the same picturesque, heroic figure. 2/2 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 423. Summary. — The president's northern tour aroused patriotic feeling and added to his personal popularity. The Federalist party, which had violently opposed the war, was ruined by the successful result achieved, and by the overwhelming endorsement of the new president, whom it had also opposed. The Seminole Indians were severely punished by Jackson. Florida, which served as a refuge to these lawless Indians, was sold to us by Spain for 55,000,000. Mississippi, Alabama and Illiiujis were admitted as states. Missouri's request for admission as a state brought up a new and bitter agitation of the slavery question. Missouri was admitted under a compromise which forbade slavery in all other Louisiana territory north of 36^ 30', leaving the question to the choice of the inhal)itants in territory south of this limit. The 1-rie Canal, extending from Lake Erie to the Hudson (363 mile.s), was completed in 1825. The Cumberland Road was built from Maryland to Wheeling. President Monroe declared that the United States would oppose any attempt on the part of European powers to gain control of any countries in America. Lafayette made a tour of our country, and was presented with money and land as an e.xpres- sion of our gratitude. 424. Thought Questions. — Give brief sketch of the history of Florida up to the time of its purchase by the United States. (Treat of its dis- covery, exploration, settlement, population, conflicts with neighboring colonies, changes of ownership.) Why are canals of less importance now than formerly .' Do you consider the Monroe Doctrine justifiable? (Jive your reasons. What do you consider the most important event of this administration ? ■ John Qiuncy Adams's Administration. One Term: 1S25-1S29. 425. Services and Character of the New President. — John Quincy Adanis, son of the .second president, w.ts born in Massachusetts, in 1767, and lived to be 81 years of age. Most of his life was spent in office. When he was but twenty- seven years old, Washington appointed him minister to the Netherlands. .-Xt different times, he was our minister to Hol- land, Germany, Russia, and England. .\s our representative^ he spent fifteen years at foreign courts. While abroad, he PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT. 273 served on several special missions, among them the important one that negotiated the treaty of Ghent that closed the war of 18 1 2. He was secretary of state in Monroe's cab- inet and succeeded Mon- roe as president. In less than two years after his retirement from the presi- dency, he was elected to Congress from his district in Massachusetts, and served continuously until his death fifteen years later. He was a pure patriot and statesman of great learning and experi- ence. He was cold, blunt, and haughty in manner, the reverse of the simple Republican that he was in principle. John Quincy Adams. 426. Material Advancement. — The Erie Canal was opened during the year of Adams's inauguration, and it was seen that by its means freight could be handled profitably at one-tenth the former cost of transportation. The demonstration of this fact gave a great impetus to canal-building. Canals were pro- jected by individuals, companies, and states, and for many of them aid was asked from Congress. Pennsylvania wished to connect Pittsburg and Philadelphia, Ohio proposed to join Lake Erie and the Ohio River, Virginia and Maryland united on a favorite plan, and it was prophesied that a waterway would finally be made between the Pacific ports of Oregon and Phila- delphia. Many of these canals were actually completed, and no doubt canal-building would have gone beyond the most ex- travagant prophecies of the day if something better had not 274 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. speedily been found in railroads. Steamboats were to be found in great numbers along our western coast and on our western rivers. Steamships had crossed the ocean by this time ; but they were not depended upon for regular trips. Canals aided commerce in the East, and steamboats on the Ohio and Mississippi were fast developing the West. A few Mohawk Valley, showing Erie Canal. miles of railroad track were now in use. but the cars were drawn by horses. The locomotive was not tried until a year or so after Adams's administration closed. Illuminating gas was first successfully used in London in 1S13. It came into general use in New York City in 1S25, but the other cities were much slower in taking hold of it and it was many years before it came to be used in the small towns. 427. Adams's Policy. — Adams's views were in perfect har- mony with this spirit of development ; and it was the purpose of the president to encourage progress with all the influence his administration could command. He boldly declared, in his inaugural address, that his administration would stand or fall on the policy of internal improvements. In his first annual message, he urged Congress to multiply roads and canals, I PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT. 2/5 endow a national university, make appropriations for scientific research, and erect an observatory.^ 428. Failure of the Policy. ^ — Congress paid very little at- tention to the policy outlined by the president. The " Era of Good Feeling," of Monroe's administration, was followed in Adams's administration by the growth of new parties,^ political agitation, personal and party rivalries and bitterness. Many thought it unjust that Adams, who had fewer votes than Jack- son (§ 422), should have been selected for the presidency; and the president was unpopular with those who thought so. The fact that Henry Clay, whose influence caused this minority candidate to be elected, was immediately made secretary of state, gave rise to the charge that the president and secretary had made a corrupt bargain.^ These condemnations were used very successfully by politicians to make the president and his administration unpopular. Besides there were many people who thought that internal improvements should be taken care of by state appropriations and believed that it was wrong to appropriate national revenues for these purposes. In the end, an appropriation, of $30,000 for repairs on the Cumberland Road (§ 419), an order for the removal of obstructions from 1 In 1835, when a member of Congress, he was made chairman of the Congres- sional committee that was to consider the bequest of James Smithson, of London, of #400,000 to establish at Washington an institution for the diffusion of knowledge. He presented a very able report, and introduced the bill creating the Smithsonian Institution, an institution of which the nation has since grown justly proud. The ex-president counted his services in connection with this institution among the most valuable of those rendered by him to his country. 2 The Clay and Adams factions united and called themselves National Repub- licans. They were " loose constructionists," believed in public improvements at national expense and in a high tax on imports. Those who opposed the administra- tion called themselves Democrats. They believed in holding closely to the Constitu- tion, in a low tariff, and in using the national revenues only for the support of the government. 3 Senator Randolph, of Virginia, referred to the matter as the contract between " Puritan and blackleg." Clay challenged Randolph and a duel was fought. Neither duellist was hurt. 2/6 HISTORY OF OUK COUNTRY. the Ohio River, grants of some public lands in aid of canals, turnpikes, and to establish some institutions of learning, was the little that Congress would do in response to the glowing message that had asked so much, 429. The Creek Land Trouble. — Ry an agreement with Georgia, in 1802, in consideration of the territory which after- wards made the States of Alabama and Mississippi, the United States undertook to deliver to Georgia the lands held by the Indians in the state. In carrying out this agreement, several millions of acres of land had been bought from the Indians and the title transferred to Georgia ; but there was still a large section of this land in the possession of the Indians. The people of the state began to complain of the delay in effecting the total transfer. Negotiations were again begun with the Indians. In 1825, a treaty was made' that ceded the re- mainder of the Georgia lands and a large tract in Alabama besides. But the Indians immediately repudiated the treaty, saying that it was fraudulent ; and expressed their savage indig- nation by burning the house of their agent, General Mcintosh, and afterwards murdering him. They sent a delegation to Washington to show that the treaty had been obtained by cor- rupt means and to ask a reconsideration. President Adams thought the treaty unfair and probably unfairly obtained. He sent a body of troops to Georgia with instructions to their gen- eral to obtain a new cession about which there could be no question. Under the direction of the Georgia authorities the survey of the new lands acquired by the Mcintosh treaty had already begun. The federal officer asked that the survey cease. The governor, taking the position that the lands had been turned over to the state, and could be managed at the state's discretion, insisted tliat thr survey siiouUi proceed. ' The United States was represented by two agents, the Indians by (ieneral Mcintosh, their chief. PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT. 2/7 The president finally notified the governor that he would ex- pect all surveys to cease until Congress should consider the matter. There was further controversy between the state and federal authorities, and considerable excitement arose in Georgia. In the end, a new and undisputed cession was made by which the Indians relinquished the lands and bound them- selves to emigrate to a new home beyond the Mississippi. 430. Character of the Period. — The people had already shown a great interest in public improvements. They saw the advantages to be gained by good roads, open waterways, cheap exchange of products. The president urged Congress to aid the people in developing the country. But Congress believed that it had no right to use national funds to aid any enterprise not wholly national in its character. So Congress granted very little of all the president asked. But progress was the watch- word of the day. By means of aid from states, and from private enterprise, improvements multiplied in all parts of the country. The advancement was as great as the president had hoped, though it was not brought about as he had planned it. 431. Summary. — The Erie Canal, opened in 1825, proved that freight could be carried by it at one-tenth the price paid for the old wagon trans- portation. Other canals were built and many more were planned. Rail- roads, however, soon checked the growth of canals. Steamboats were to be found on our coasts and on our large rivers. Steamships crossed the ocean. Illuminating gas was used in New York City in 1825. The presi- dent's policy was to build up public improvements with the national reve- nues. Congress opposed this policy and granted very little that he asked. Improvements went forward rapidly by means of private enterprise. In settling an old agreement, the Creek lands in Georgia were bought by the government and transferred to the state. 432. Thought Questions. — What benefits result from cheap and rapid transportation ? Of the six presidents so far considered, who served only one term ? Account for the failure of these two to be reelected. What was the distinguishing feature of John Quincy Adams's administration.'' 278 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. Topical Analysis (Dkvelopment ok the United States). ' 347. The First President. „ „. , ,. f Enthusiasm of the people. 34b. The Inauguration, i , , , . , l^ Delay in the ceremony. ^ ,. . , ^ ,. f The Federalists. 349. Political Parties. < „,, . . „ , ,. ^ -^ { The Anti-Federahsts. J Population. Area. [ Patriotism. ^, »,- i >, . • • r 1 he president's policy. 351. The First Cabinet. -^ ^„ *^ • , [ Otncers appomted. „. f The public debt. 352. Finances. ■{ .. ., , , (^ Hamilton s plans. 353. The Whiskey Insurrection. -^ , "V •^^■^ ' \ Incidents. ( Pioneers in the West. 354. Extension of Frontier. < Conflicts with the Indians. [ New states. ( France and England. 355. Foreign Relations. X Citizen Genet. [ Treaty with England. r The inventor. 356. The Cotton Gin. -l The invention. (^ Results. 357. The Second Term. 358. Condition of the Country. f 361. The New President. Travel and news. Horses and plows. Stoves and fuel. School apparatus. ^ r,. i^ ^. ^ -i , I •'^•tt-' of the city. 362. Change of the Capital. -^ ,,. . . . , ^ , , . [ District of Columbia. -, ., ... ^ f Quarrel with the Directory. 363. Trouble with France. \ r: , ' I Steps toward war. 364. Death of Washington. 365. The Alien and Sedition Laws. ^^ _,„... , T, ^ , f Opposition to the Alien and 366. The Virginia and Kentucky ., ... •^ Jr , . S Sedition Laws. Resolutions. . ■ n-- • ■ it- 1 (^ .Action of \ irginia and Kentucky. 367. Treaty with France. ^ , „ . , . , f Complication. 36b. Presidential Election. < „. , , 1 r inal settlement. PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT. 279 O l-H H r42 5. The New President. l^ The result. No decision by electors. Decision by the House. ^ I CO . 1 rouble between Georgia and the Indians. Land Trouble, j ^ ,, , ^ . , ^r ■ , . 1^ i rouble between Georgia and United States. 430. Character of the Period. 282 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM. (Jackson to Buchanan.) Jackson's Administration. Two Terms: 1829-1S37. 433. Services and Character of the New President. — Andrew Jackson was born in North Carolina in 1767. He early made his home in Tennessee, was a resident of the state when he was elected to the presidency, and after serving his term returned to his estate there, where he resided till his death in 1845. His chief services to his country previous to his election to the presidency were of a military character. With volunteer and independent parties he aided the patriots in the Revolution. He was captured by the British and much mistreated by them. In the war of 18 12, he distinguished himself by his wonderful defense of New Orleans (§ 409). His L^reat popularity was due to the people's enthusiasm for him as a daring and suc- cessful military chieftain. He was, besides, a western man and carried the support of this growing territory. He was a man of the people in his origin, in his habits, and in his methods of thought; and the plain people of the South and West elected him to the presidency and loyally supported him through the eight years of his stormy contests with politicians and would-be aristocrats. He was a man of strong will, disposed to control every movement with which he was connected. He was honest and fearless and blunt of speech. He was a loyal citizen, pre- pared to sacrifice property or life to his country; but his methods were those of a partisan and he sometimes mistook his own prejudices for national principles. Andrew Jackson. GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM. 283 434. Changes in Office. — Jackson dominated his adminis- tration to a degree unusual with presidents. He was familiar with the methods of military government which cause the prompt and unhesitating execution of the orders of the superior officers. He had definite policies and principles to execute. Looking upon himself as the chief officer of a party that advo- cated those principles, he called to aid him in the execution of those policies only officers who had faith in the party's plans. He, therefore, removed from office those bitterly opposed to these party policies and appointed from his own party men who believed these policies for the best interests of the country. These political removals subjected the president to much criticism ; ^ but succeeding presidents have followed the same practice, believing that a government carried on through parties must have the party policies executed by those who believe in them. 435. The National Bank. — Up to this time, the financial transactions of the government had been managed through a national bank situated at Philadelphia^ (§ 352). This central bank had twenty-five branches in the different states. Its charter, granted in 18 16, was for a term of twenty years. Jackson, in his first message to Congress (1829), ques- tioned both the soundness of the law creating the bank and the wisdom of its continuance. He said that it had failed in one of the chief purposes for which it was established, viz. : that of making a uniform and sound currenc}^ He suggested that Congress try some other plan. His utter- ances on this subject caused excited discussion all over 1 " Of Jackson's procedure in this matter it can be said, in partial excuse, so bitter had been the opposition to him by office-holders as well as others, that many removals were undoubtedly indispensable in order to the efficiency of the public service." — Andrews's History of the United States, Vol. I, p. 357. 2 The first United States bank was chartered for twenty years, 1791-1S11. 284 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. the country. Gradually, as this discussion continued, and voters began to take sides for or against the bank, the ques- tion of the renewal of its charter became a leading issue in politics. The president and his friends continually and vigor- ously opposed the renewal of the charter ; Henry Clay and his friends, and the bank's friends, and the enemies of the presi- dent united in upholding the bank and in pressing for a new charter. In his second message, the president again opposed the re-charter of the bank, and a bill to renew the charter for fifteen years was killed by his veto. Late in 1833, in the vacation of Congress, the president, through the secretary of the treasury, began depositing the nation's funds, as they came in, in state banks. Before March of the following year, more than six million dollars had been paid out from the national bank. The necessity of producing so much money in so short a time necessarily strained the resources of the bank to the utmost ; but it stood firm and met all engagements. When Congress met. Senator Clay introduced a resolution cen- suring the president and the secretary of the treasury for withdrawing the public patronage from the bank. A long and angry debate followed. When a vote was reached, it was found that the Senate was for condemning the president's course and in favor of returning the funds to the national bank. But the House supported the president and passed a bill regulating the deposit in the state banks. The Congress of 1835 passed an act pursuing the president's policy in regard to the bank, authorizing and regulating the deposit of public funds in state banks, and permitting the secretary of the treasury to sell the government's stock in the national bank, thereby ending all national connection with it. The charter expired in 1836 and it was not renewed. 436. Tariff Development. — P>om an early day the amounl of duty to be laid and the choice of imports to be taxed have GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM. 285 formed important questions of legislation and have divided political parties. The first tariff act, passed during Washing- ton's administration (§ 352), was primarily for the purpose of raising a revenue for the expenses of our government and for paying our debts. The people of new England favored a low tariff because they were chiefly engaged in commerce, and the lower the tax on imports the larger would be the volume of trade. The southern cotton-growing states also favored a low tariff. The destruction of our foreign commerce during the war of 18 12 caused us to manufacture many articles formerly bought of other countries. But we were not able to manufacture many things as cheaply as they could be imported. In 1816, Congress was asked to raise the tax on imports so that the price on certain articles would be increased to such a degree that our own people could afford to manu- facture them.^ A bill having this object was passed ■ — chiefly by the Republicans. John C. Calhoun, of South Carolina, led in supporting it. The Federalists and the New Englanders, led by Daniel Webster, opposed it. New England, lacking a fertile soil and a mild climate, could not compete with other sections in agricultural produc- tions ; but as it possessed water and fuel in abundance it gradually developed into a great manufacturing region. With this change of occupation there was a gradual change of opinion as to the value of a high or protective tariff. A manufacturing region is, of course, directly benefited by a high tariff, as the price of manufactured articles is increased thereby. On the other hand, many people in the South who had formerly supported a high tariff" had come to see that agri- culture must be their chief occupation, and that their interest lay in keeping down the price of manufactured articles that they must buy. In 1824 the vote for a bill raising the tariff 1 This kind of tariff is called " protective," because it protects the home manu- facturer from foreign competition. 286 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. showed an increasing sentiment in favor of it in New England and a decreasing sentiment in South CaroHna and the adjoining region. Its chief strength came from central and western states. It was opposed by Webster and many New Knglanders and by the people of the Southern states. The bill was passed. In 1828, a bill was offered, providing still higher protection than the bill of 1824. Webster was one of its chief advocates.' New England was strongly in favor of it. Calhoun and the people of his state were bitterly opposed to it. The people of the cotton-growing states were opposed to it. There was an angry contest in Congress and much excitement in the country. The bill was passed. 437. Nullification. — Early in Jackson's administration, this " tariff controversy led to one of the most famous debates (in 1830) ever held in the Senate. Senator Hayne, of South Carolina, in a series of speeches that rank among the greatest efforts of human oratory, advanced the views that the national government had no power to lay high protective tariffs, and that the states might justly and constitutionally refuse to pay them ; that it lay within the province of a state's power to "nullify" or set aside an act of Congress. Daniel Webster, senator from Massachu- setts, replied to Senator Hayne, and in advocating the power of the Federal government, and pleading for the preservation of the Union, made a speech that is one of the world's great master- pieces of eloquence. Two years later, a new tariff bill (raising some duties against which the South had protested, though the sum of the duties was somewhat lowered) was introduced in Congress and led to a fierce and prolonged controversy. The bill was brought forward under the advice and management of Henry Clay. The plan he advocated was called the " Ameri- can System " — a policy of high tariff and internal improve- ments. It was violently opposed by the whole South Carolina 1 Daniel Webster at first advocated free trade, as that was the policy favored by his Massachusetts constituency ; but he afterwards became a protectionist when Massachusetts became a manufacturing state. DANIEL WEBSTER. GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM. 28/ delegation, led by Senator Hayne and Vice-President Calhoun. The bill — which had been carefully framed to aid all the manu- facturing sections of the country — when it came to a vote (July, 1832) passed by a large majority. In the November following, South Carolina held a state convention called by the state Legislature, and presided over by the governor, which declared the tariff acts of 1828 and 1832 null and void and not enforceable after the ist of February, 1833. The Legislature immediately passed the laws necessary to carry out the wishes of the convention in resisting the collection of duties in the ports of South Carolina. President Jackson took prompt and decided steps to enforce the law. He sent an officer and a sloop-of-war to Charleston to protect the custom officers in the collection of duties. He posted troops on the border where they would be at ready command in an emergency. In December, he issued a proclamation to the people of the state, upholding the right and the power of the Federal government, and admonishing the citizens against resistance. At the same time, in his message to Congress, again in session, he proposed a reduction of the tariff that had caused the trouble. Further war-like preparations were made on both sides ; but in the end there was a peaceful adjustment. Calhoun, having re- signed the vice-presidency, appeared in Congress as a senator from South Carolina, filling a vacancy caused by the resigna- tion of Senator Hayne, and he and Webster held another debate on the rights and prerogatives of the Federal govern- ment in relation to the rights and prerogatives of the states, that was as famous as the previous one on the same subject. But a compromise tariff bill, advocated by Clay, lowering many duties in the line asked by the South, was passed by Congress late in February.^ This satisfied South Carolina. The Nullifi- cation Ordinance was at once repealed by another state con- vention, and all active opposition to the tariff regulations ceased. 1 South Carolina had postponed the enforcement of her nullification measures until March 4. 288 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 438. Indian Uprisings. — The Sac and the Fox Indians, living in Wisconsin, agreed to remove to territory set apart for them in Iowa. Part of the tribe made the change peaceably ; but the chief, l^lack Hawk, and some of his followers were re- moved by force. From the Iowa territory frequent raids were made into the surrounding region, and for years the settlers of the vicinity lived in fear of attack. Some of the Seminole tribe were yet living in Florida, An attempt was made to remove them beyond the Mississippi. The tribe rose in revolt, and massacred all l)ut four of a band of one hundred men. General Taylor marched against the Indians, pursued them into the everglades of Florida, and de- feated them in a hard-fought battle. They were not entirely subdued till 1842, seven years from their first outbreak. Much money was spent and many lives were lost in the contests. 439. The Abolition Crusade: the Pioneers. — Though all sections in the United States practiced slavery in the begin- ning, there were men here and there who thought it an evil. Some of our greatest statesmen. Southern as well as Northern, did not hesitate to declare publicly their condemnation of it. Many states had, before this time, passed laws to abolish slavery either immediately or gradually. Societies had been formed to colonize freed slaves out of the country. lUil the first man to devote his life to an effort to free the slaves was Benjamin Lundy, a Quaker of New Jersey. He founded (182 1) and published for several years in different parts of our country — Ohio, Tennessee, Maryland, and other states -r~ a journal called IVic Genius of Universal Emancipation. The editor also labored to form emancipation societies and spoke on the subject when he could get audiences. His crusade was one of argument and persuasion, and he addressed his appeal to the humane and kindly feelings of the white people. .\t Boston, he met and made a convert of William Lloyd Garrison. GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM. 289 For a short time, Garrison aided Lundy in the publication of The Genius; but in 1831, he began printing in Boston an aboUtion paper of his own called The Liberator. Garrison condemned slavery in a violent way that provoked much bitter feeling. He would not consent to the purchase of the slaves nor to their gradual emancipation. He said slavery was a crime and the slave-holder a criminal. He demanded the immediate and unconditional abolition of slavery. 440. The Opinions. — Extremists at the South believed slavery to be profitable and right and were willing, if need be, to leave the Union in order to preserve it. Conservative peo- ple, both North and South, believed that it had been recog- nized in the formation of the Union and in the making of the Constitution, and that efforts to abolish it violated the good faith of the compact of the states. Individuals, here and there, of this conservative majority condemned slavery oh abstract grounds and wished that some just means of abolition could be devised ; but they could see none, and so strongly censured the methods of such men as Garrison. Abolitionists asserted that the " Constitution was a covenant with death and an agreement with hell," and were anxious that the slave-holding states should be cast out of the Union. These were the most distinct opinions : necessarily there were many other opinions based on minor principles. 441. The Condition of the Crusade. — Under Garrison's influence, many societies were formed in the Northern states for the purpose of urging the abolition of slavery. Every pos- sible means of agitation was used, speeches were made, articles written for the newspapers, candidates of abolition tendencies put forward, Congress petitioned, and incendiary circulars sent through the mails to all parts of the South. The slaves began to feel the influence of the agitation. In Virginia, in 183 1 (the 290 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. same year that The Liberator first saw the light), there was a negro uprising which resulted in the massacre of sixty white people. Other uprisings were threatened ; and in many quarters slaves became excited and rebellious. The Southern people had become very sensitive on this subject. They wanted to take extreme measures for the suppression of the abolition agi- tation. Garrison, while editing The Genius, in Baltimore, was arrested, fined, and put in jail. Georgia offered five thousand dollars reward for the arrest of any one found circulating The Liberator in the state. Packages of incendiary pamphlets were taken from the mails and, together with effigies of leading abolition agitators, publicly burned. But the great mass of the people were for preserving the Union as it stood, and were in favor of suppressing in a lawful way all disorganizing violence, whether North or South. By a vote nearly unanimous the Senate refused (1836) to grant a petition to abolish slavery in the District of Columbia. The House, later in the same year, declared that: (i) Congress had no constitutional authority to interfere with the institution of slavery in any state ; (2) that Congress ought not to interfere with slavery in the District of Columbia; and by a vote of more than two-thirds of the mem- bers, passed a resolution that it would not consider in any way a petition, memorial, resolution, or proposition in regard to slavery. So, although the abolition agitators had created much excitement, it was apparent that a great majority of the people were opposed to the agitation and the strife it engendered. 442. Railways; New States. — Railways were first used in England for the purpose of transporting mineral ore from mines to some convenient shipping point. The cars on these first rail- ways were drawn by horses. The first railway built in this coun- try (1826) extended from Quincy, Mass., to the Neponset River, a distance of five miles, and was for the purpose of transport- ing granite from the quarry to a shipping point. The cars were GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM. 291 drawn by horses. A few other railways for similar purposes and operated in the same way were built in the country. Several unsuccessful efforts were made in England to con- struct steam-engines that would draw the cars. A like experiment was made with a steam-engine in Pennsylvania in 1829. George Stephenson, an English engineer, was the ^"'^ American Ra,iway (the ■ Gr,r,tn Ro d ■■). first to make a really successful locomotive. This locomotive was tried in America in 1831. But Americans immediately began the manufacture of locomotives from their own patterns ^ that were better adapted to the needs of our country. With the success of locomotives, railroad building developed very rapidly. Before the close of Jackson's administration, there were fifteen hundred miles of railway in the United States. Railways were just what was needed for the Stephenson's Locomotive (the " Rocket"), development of our country. They were seized upon immediately and we have never ceased building them. The United States now have nearly as many miles of railway as are found in the remainder of the world. Arkansas, originally from the Louisiana Purchase, was ad- mitted as a state in 1836. Michigan, the fourth state from the Northwest Territory, was admitted in 1837. 443. The Whig Party The president soon had several classes of people opposed to him. Those who supported the bank, those who favored a high protective tariff, those who be- 1 The first successful American locomotive, called the " Arabian," was built in 1833. It was still running in 18S3, but during this year was destroyed by fire. 292 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. lieved in state sovereignty,^ and the nullifiers could unite in opposition to Jackson. These factions began to call them- selves Whigs, though they did not at this time form a close party organization. Clay, who had been the leader of the National Republicans, was now the leader of the Whig party, the Republican party's successor. The name " Whig " was selected (1834) because that was the name of the Knglish party that had resisted the tyranny of King George III., and this American party meant to resist what they called the tyranny of Jackson. However, the Whigs were united on nothing but opposition to Jackson. Different factions of the party put forward different candidates for the presidency. The Democratic party put forward but one candidate, Van Buren, and gained an easy victory. 444. Summary. — The president made the custom of removing politi- cal enemies from office and appointing political friends, conspicuous, lie waged a long contest against the national bank. The bank's charter ex- pired in 1836 and was not renewed. The national funds were placed in state banks. Parties were divided on the tariff ta.x. Those who believed in "protecting" home manufactures introduced a bill laying higher duties on imports. This bill was bitterly opposed in the South. After the bill was passed by Congress, South Carolina held a convention and " nullified " the act. The president sent a sloop-of-war and troops to Charleston to enforce the collection of duties. In its next session, Congress modified the law so that it was not so objectionable to the South. South Carolina repealed her Nullification Ordinance. This administration marks the rapid rise of the abolition crusade. Tapers and pamphlets were published, socie- ties were formed, and orators spoke in opposition to slavery. Congress refused to pass any anti-slavery laws or to interfere in any way. Locomo- tives came into use on railways and revolutionized the methods of civiliza- tion. The Whig party was formed as a successor to the National Repub- lican party. Arkansas and Michigan were admitted. 1 It was the doctrine of a large party in tlic South, that tlie Union was simply a compact between the states ; that any state could withdraw from this compact and leave the Union at its own pleasure ; that the state was supreme and not the general government. This was the doctrine of -State Sovereignty. GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM. 293 445. Thought Questions. — What can be said in favor of permitting the president to fill the offices, under his administration, with his friends and adherents .'' To what evils may this practice lead ? Are United States funds deposited in national banks to-day ? Debate : Resolved that a pro- tective tariff is best for the United States. Give two instances in our history where, through self-interest, a section has changed or modified its political beliefs. Compare the effects of the Alien and Sedition Laws with those of the Tariff Act of 1832. What do you consider the most important event of this administration .'' -^ Van Buren's Administration. One Term : 1837-1841. 446. Services and Character of the New President Martin Van Buren was born in New York in 1782. He early evinced an ambition ^, , and a capacity for pub- lic service. For most of his life, he was the chief factor in the pol- itics of his state. After a short service as state senator, he was elected to the United States Senate. He was after- wards governor of New York. He espoused Jackson's candidacy for the presidency, and through his influence, New York cast her deciding vote for the old warrior. He was appointed secretary of state by President Jackson and resigned the governorship to accept it. He resigned the secretaryship after two years' service, and Martin Van Buren. 294 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. shortly afterward was appointed minister to England. He was elected vice-president for Jackson's second term, and succeeded his friend to the presidency. He was an adept in practical politics, being expert in the organization and management of parties. The importance of New York's voice in national councils made Van Buren, who was the sovereign state's spokesman, a national figure, and put him on the road to the highest preferment. But he proved himself a statesman as well as a politician, and while president, he performed the duties of his high station with wisdom and courage. 447. The Financial Panic. — The period preceding and embracing Jackson's administration had been one of great prosperity. Roads and canals were being built in all parts of the country. There was also much railway building. Such enterprises require large sums of money. The rapid material development of the country gave a headlong impulse to specu- lation and trade. Farms multiplied, cities sprang up, banks were everywhere. Every one seemed to be striving to become rich and to be succeeding in the effort. But the easy success led to over-confidence, to recklessness, and to ruin. Specula- tion ran wild ; people borrowed too much ; the banks loaned too willingly. The government lost large sums of money through the failure of some of the state banks. The banks of New York suspended in a body, and numbers of banks in other parts of the Union followed. Business failures were numerous, trade stopped, factories shut down, enterprises were abandoned. 448. The Sub-Treasury. — The president called an extra session of Congress and in his message to the body proposed a new treasury plan. He advocated the government's use of specie ' only in its transactions. He thought it best to cut 1 Specie means coin of silver or gold. Paper money is only the government's promissory note to pay in specie. GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM. 295 away from banks altogether and urged the building of govern- ment vaults for the safe keeping and handling of government funds by the government's own officers. A bill embodying the president's plans finally passed, in 1840, and was the beginning of our present modified, developed system. Vaults and safes were supplied in the treasury building at Washington, and in six of the principal cities of the Union " sub-treasuries " were established for government deposits and with government officers to receive and disburse funds. 449. Slavery. — The abolition agitation at the North con- tinued and began to be of national importance. It was esti- mated that abolition societies contained, in 1837, one hundred and fifty thousand members. New abolition papers were established and some of the Northern states made new laws that reflected the new ideas of the emancipation crusade. Elijah Lovejoy, editor of an emancipation sheet at Alton, Illinois, while defending his press from destruction was killed by the mob. The Abolitionists used the incident for political purposes. Wendell Phillips made his first great speech in behalf of the cause to which he afterward devoted his wonder- ful oratorical talents, in discussing the Lovejoy matter in a public meeting in Boston.^ Feeling at the North was divided, and the extreme wing of the Abolitionists was as bitterly con- demned by the majority of its own section as by the Southern people. Congress again refused to receive the numerous eman- cipation petitions that came pouring in. Southern people became more and more restless under the continued and violent agitation of the Abolitionists. When a Northern mem- 1 Phillips was a man of culture and independent character. He joined the ex- treme wing of the Abolition party that clamored for disunion. He refused to take the oath to support the Constitution of his country. He was afterwards a champion of the temperance movement, L K L(HN1K\. the Union as soon as possible. He sent agents to both territo- ries for the purpose of urging the people to ask for admission, and of advising them as to the best method to reach this end. In California, a constitutional convention was called by the military governor. 'I'he constitution which it framed was adopted almost unanimously by the people (November 13, 1849), "^"t' state officers were elected. Under this organiza- tion and this constitution, the territory asked for admission as a state. It sent congressmen and senators to Washington. A clause in its constitution, prohibiting slavery, caused trouble and delay. The old controversy as to whether new territory should enter the Union " free " or " slave " arose again with greater intensity and bitterness. 481. The Conflicting Opinions. — The extreme party at the North insisted that sla\ery should be prohibited in all the terri- tory acquired from Mexico.^ As heretofore, some of the South- LTii leaders urged that the territories should decide for them- selves whether they should enter the Union as " slave " or "free" states. Others wanted the line of the Missouri Com- promise drawn to the Pacific. 482. The Compromise of 1850. — Henry Clay, "The Great Peace-Maker," brought forward in January a comjiromise measure, which, because of the many interests it included, was called the Omnibus Bill. These were its provisions: (i) The speedy admission of California as a free state; (2) territorial governments in New Mexico and Utah without any restrictions upon slavery; (3) The payment to Texas of ten million dollars for her claim to a part of the territory of New Mexico ; (4) Slavery was not to be abolished in the District of Columbia witiiout the consent of Maryland, but the slave trade therein 1 The \\ ilmot Proviso, introduced in Congress during the progress of tiic w.ir, sought to prohibit, beforehand, the introduction of slavery into any of tlie territory tluit might be acquired. It did not become a law. GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM. 321 was prohibited; (5) A more effective fugitive slave-law; (6) Denial to Congress of all power to interfere with the slave trade between slave-holding states.^ This bill became law. The debate upon this bill extended over seven months and was carried on by men who made national reputations in its discussion and by others, already famous, who remain our country's greatest orators. Webster, Clay, and Calhoun, the great statesmen who had been powerful in shaping the policy of our government for a quarter of a century, were in their old age again in their places in the Senate ; and all of them pre- sented eloquent arguments and all of them supported the gen- eral provisions of the bill.^ Among others who participated in the debate were Jefferson Davis, who took positive and aggres- sive Southern ground, and William H. Seward, of New York, an impassioned anti-slavery orator. 483. The Fugitive-Slave Agitation. — The Fugitive-Slave Law, which was a part of the compromise, provided that run- away slaves might be claimed by their owners in any territory : it directed federal officers to aid the master in securing fugi- tives ; it allowed the master to present proofs of ownership and identity, but denied the slave the right to testify.^ In the Northern states the arrest of fugitive slaves, under this law, was resisted. One slave in Syracuse and another in Boston 1 " To please the North, California was to be admitted, and the slave depots here in the District were to be broken up. To please the slave states a stringent fugitive- slave act wasto be passed and slavery was to have a chance to get into the new terri- tories. The support of the senators and representatives from Texas was to be gained by a liberal adjustment of boundary and by the assumption of a large portion of their state debt." — Salmon P. Chase, Senate, February 3, 1S54. 2 Mr. Calhoun was too feeble to deliver his speech on this bill, but he sat in the Senate while it was read by a friend. This was Calhoun's last appearance in the Senate. He died March 31, 1850. Clay and Webster died two years later; Clay, June 28, 1852 ; Webster, October 24, 1852. 3 Webster had contended for trial by jury in the question of ownership and iden- tity. He wished to provide against the fraudulent capture of negroes by adventurers But no case of a fraudulent claim of this kind was ever discovered. 322 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. were taken from officers by mob force and secretly hurried out of the country. Several Northern states passed Personal Liber- ty Bills " nullifying " the fugitive-slave law. The Abolitionists established routes and stations from the South to Canada by means of which " underground railways," as they were called, slaves were aided to escape from the United States. Webster, Choate, and many of the Northern statesmen defended the law or advocated compliance with it. Seward and the Abolitionists asserted that the obligation to conscience was higher than the obligation to the law of the land. 484. Railroad Development. — In the year 1851, the Erie Railroad, the longest in the country at the time (470 miles), was formally opened. The president, and several members of his cabinet, rode the full length of the track and joined in the jubilee exercises by speaking at the larger towns. Before the close of the administration, 10,087 miles of road had been con- structed. In March, 1853, Congress ordered an exploration at public expense to ascertain the best route for a railroad to the Pacific Ocean. 485. Summary. — President Taylor died after a little more than a year's service, and Vice-President FiUmore succeeded to the presidency. California adopted a constitution in 1849 ^"*^ asked for admission to the Union. Controversy arose as to whether it should be admitted as "free " or "slave " territory. Henry Clay offered the Omnibus Kill (r85o) as a compromise measure. California was admitted as a free state ; New Mexico and Utah were to have territorial governments without restrictions as to slavery. A new and severe fugitive-slave bill aroused great opposi- tion at the North. Secret routes and stations (nicknamed " underground railways ") were arranged to aid the flight of runaway slaves. Railroads de- veloped rapidly : the administration closed with 10,000 miles of track and an order for a survey for a route to the Pacific Ocean. 486. Thought Questions. — What reference to fugitive slaves was con- tained in the provisions of the New Kngland Confederation .' In the Ordinance of 1787.'' In the Constitution of the United States? What was the most important event of this administration ? GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM. 323 Pierce's Administration. One Term : 1853-1857. 487. Services and Character of the New President. — Franklin Pierce (born in New Hampshire in 1804) was the son of a distinguished family and had excellent early advantages of education and association. At twenty-five, he entered the state Legislature; at twenty-nine, the House of Representatives; and at thirty-three, the United States Senate. After serv- ing five years in the Senate, he resigned his seat and resumed the practice of law at Concord, New Hamp- shire. He declined to go into President Polk's cab- inet as attorney- general. He also refused to be con- sidered for the Democratic nomination for governor of his state. When the Mexi- can War came up, he en- listed as a volunteer. He was quickly advanced to the rank of brigadier-general ; and in General Scott's march to the Mexican capital he rendered signal service. He was nominated for the presidency by the Demo- cratic party in 1852, and was elected over General Scott, who was the Whig candidate. He was a man of aggressive temper, was true to his friends and to his party, and was fearless and persevering in the execution of his policies. 488. Slavery : The Kansas and Nebraska Bill. — Not all of the pioneers who started for the Pacific coast reached the Californian El Dorado. Some stopped on the way, fearing to Franklin Pierce. 324 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTKV. risk the dangerous journey across the mountains. The great plain west of the Missouri was settled by these travelers who found it impossible to reach the extreme west. Senator Douglas of Illinois, chairman of the committee on territories, had become interested in this " Platte Country " ' and proposed to organize it into territories. His bill, intro- duced in January, 1854,^ divided this region into two parts, the northern part called Nebraska, and the southern part Kansas. Both of the proposed territories lay within the limits of the Louisiana purchase and north of 36° 30' and were therefore, under the provisions of the Missouri Compromise, free terri- tory. The Kansas-Nebraska bill, however, proposed to set aside this part of the Missouri Compromise and to leave the people of the territory to say, when they asked for admission as a state, whether they would permit slavery. The bill was strongly opposed by those who were fighting slavery. It was condemned as a flagrant violation of the Missouri Compromise, which, by its own terms, was to last forever. Senator Douglas contended that the great compromise Omnibus Bill of 1850 virtually repealed the Missouri Compromise by setting forth the principle that Congress should not interfere with new terri- tory by legislating either freedom or slavery into it, and by de- claring the people's right to decide about slavery in their own domain." For months, the bill was the subject of debate in 1 This great plain was called the " Platte Country" from the I'latte River, which was its chief physical feature. 2 On January 4, iS-;4, Senator Douglas introduced a hill for the organization of Nebraska Territory. 'Jhis bill provided that the people, by their own constitution, should decide wliether slavery should be jjermitted within the limits of the state. In other words, the existence of slavery or of freedom within Nebr.aska was not to be considered by Congress when the territory applied for admission as a state. On January 23, Senator Douglas offered the bill described above as a substitute for the bill of January 4. The second bill expressly repealed that part of the Missouri Com- promise (Section 8) which the first bill was said to violate indirectly. 8 The Omnibus Bill provided that .New Mexico and L'tah should be admitted without any restrictions as to slavery. GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM. 325 Congress. It became a national issue, and was the subject of bitter controversy in the newspapers and on the stump. It was passed in May. It created two new territories. It expressly repealed that part of the Missouri Compromise which said that the territory north of 36° 30' should be forever free. The authority for deciding upon slavery was taken from Congress and was given to the people of the territories.^ 489. The Struggle for Kansas. — Between the North and the South, a struggle began for supremacy in Kansas. Indeed, in the North, preparations to colonize Kansas with free settlers began while the bill was pending. In April, 1854, the Massa- chusetts Legislature granted a charter to " The Massachusetts Emigrant Aid Society " which, with a capital stock of five million dollars, prepared to organize a far-reaching system of Kansas emigration.^ But this first attempt at colonization was not very successful. The next year, a second charter was granted by the Massachusetts Legislature, this time to the " New England Emigrant Society," which society was duly or- ganized, obtained contributions to the amount of $140,000, and was more successful than the first one had been. In July, 1854, however, through the influence and direct aid of the original Massachusetts Company, a body of Massachusetts emigrants set out on their way to Kansas. The news of the journey to the West, heralded far and wide in the press, proved a wonderful stimulus in inducing others to aid in getting con- trol of the territory ; so that by the end of the year, Kansas had a population of several thousand "sons of freedom." The South made no organized attempt at colonization, but it looked on the Northern movement with a jealous eye. The slave- 1 The settlers in this Western country were often called " Squatters," and their right to decide upon slavery was often spoken of as "Squatter Sovereignty." '•2 This charter was the result of the work of Eli Thayer, who was a pioneer in Kansas colonization from the North. He was heartily encouraged and sup- ported by such men as Charles Francis Adams, Edward Everett Hale, and Horace Greeley. 326 HISTORY (M- OUR COUNTRY. holders along the borders of Missouri prepared their own plan for saving Kansas to the South : they proposed to move over into Kansas at the proper time and meet the New England Free-Soilers at the polls. The New England societies had armed their colonists, and the Missouri " Borderers " had guns and knew how to use them. Under such conditions, contests, riots, and bloodshed were inevitable. In the election of a ter- ritorial delegate to Congress, the slave-holders were successful. The first territorial Legislature was in favor of slavery. But the free-state settlers claimed that this first Legislature was elected by fraudulent votes of " Border Ruffians " from Missouri. So the free-state colonists elected a Legislature of their own and prepared to form a code of laws. The president recognized the slavery Legislature as the legal one and sent federal troops to suppress any violence or rebellion. There was so much fighting between the factions that the territory came to be known as " Bleeding Kansas." 490. The Republican Party. — People who were opposed to the Kansas- Nebraska Act. or to slavery, joined together in the ne.xt election to elect congressmen who were opposed to slavery and to the principles of this act. These voters were at first spoken of as the " Anti-Nebraska Men." 'I'hey elected a majority of the next House of Representatives. They after- wards took the name of the Republican party.' At the time, the organization was strictly a Northern and an anti-slavery party. Its members came from Northern Democrats, Northern Whigs, Free-Soilers, and the American party." This was the origin of the Republican party of to-day. ' The Democrats c.illed the Republicans " Black Republicans " because they sought to free the negro. - A secret political organization was formed about 1S52. Because outsiders could learn nothing of its purposes, it was called the Know-Nothing jjarty. It took tlie name of the American party and its object became known. Its design was to hinder or prevent the naturalization of foreigners (see Constitution) and to vote only for American candidates for ortice. GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM. 327 491. The World's Fair. — In July, 1853, America's first World's Fair was opened at New York City. President Pierce attended the exercises and spoke to a vast audience. The Old World, however, did not extend the patronage that the New World had expected, and financially the fair was a failure. But it demonstrated that Americans were the greatest of all inventors, and that in labor-saving machinery, and notably agri- cultural implements, America led the world. 492. The Treaty with Japan; Gadsden Purchase. — In the same year (1853), Commodore Perry, with a fleet of steam- ships was allowed to enter one of the ports of Japan. The Japanese had never seen a steamship, and they were very suspicious of Americans ; but, on acquaintance, they liked our ships and our representatives so well that they made a treaty with the United States opening the way to commerce between the nations. Since that time, the Japanese have advanced rapidly in civilization, and have borne the most cordial relations with our country. There was much controversy over the southern boundary of our new acquisitions in the Southwest. In 1853 we paid Mexico $10,000,000 for 45,000 square miles lying south of the Gila River, fixing the exact boundary of the tract by treaty. This tract is called the Gadsden Purchase, from General Gadsden of South Carolina, who negotiated the purchase. 493. Summary. — The Kansas-Nebraska bill, organizing the territories of Kansas and Nebraska, was passed (May, 1854). By its provisions, the people of the territory were to decide on slavery. A fierce struggle began between the anti-slavery and the slavery people for the possession of Kan- sas. The preliminary victories were for those who favored slavery. The Republican party, a party opposed to slavery, grew out of the opposition to the Kansas-Nebraska bill. Our first World's Fair was held in New York in 1853. A treaty with Japan, made in 1853, established a friendly relation with this country. The Gadsden Purchase was effected. 494. Thought Questions. — Name the states whose admission aroused the slavery controversy. What two bills were violations of the " Missouri Compromise" ? What was the most important event of Pierce's adminis- tration .'' Why do you so consider it ? 328 HISTOKV OF OUR COUNTRY. Buchanan's Administration. One Term: 1S57-1S61. 495. Services and Character of the New President. — James Buchanan, of Pennsylvania, was born in 1791. He edu- cated himself for the law. Prior to his entrance into national politics he served his state as a mem- ber of the Pennsyl- vania House of Representatives. Prom 1820 to 1 83 1, he was a represen- tative in the Con- gress of the United States. He w'as then sent as minis- ter to Russia. For eleven years (1834 to 1845) he was a llnited States sen- ator. During Polk's administration he was secretary of state. At the time he was nominated for the presidency he was minister to England. Throughout his entire political career he was a Democrat. He was a man of high character, cautious temperament, and patriotic feeling. 496. Dred Scott Decision. — A few days after Buchanan's inauguration the Supreme Court rendered its decision in the Dred Scott case. Dred Scott was a slave owned by Dr. Emer- son of Missouri. While in discharge of his duties as surgeon in the I'nited States .Army. Dr. Kmersf)n resided for several years in the free State of Illinois, and in that part of the James Buchanan. GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM. 329 Louisiana territory now embraced in the State of Minnesota. The master carried his slave with him, and after his return to Missouri sold Scott to a Mr. Sanford, a citizen of New York. Suit was instituted against Sanford in the name of Scott. Upon the ground that residence in a free state and territory had secured his liberty, the slave was declared free by the State Circuit Court of Missouri. On appeal by Sanford, this decision was reversed by the State Supreme Court. Scott, claiming to be a citizen of Missouri, then instituted suit in the Federal Circuit Court. If Scott was a citizen of Missouri, then the suit was between citizens of the different states, and could therefore be tried in the United States courts (§ 343). Sanford urged that Scott was not a citizen, but a slave, and, therefore, could not bring suit. This plea was overruled, and a jury awarded Scott as a slave to Sanford. The case was then appealed by Scott and went before the Supreme Court of the United States for decision. After three years, in 1857, the decision was an- nounced. The court, consisting of nine justices, declared that no African, whether slave or free, could be a citizen of a state or of the United States ; that Scott, upon his return to Mis- souri, had again becorne a slave. 497. Results of the Decision. — The Court has been severely censured for not stopping there. But thinking that the case involved the constitutionality of the Missouri Com- promise, the Court considered that also. This compromise was declared unconstitutional, on the ground that the Louisi- ana territory was common property, and Congress had no right to discriminate against any state. (Const, Art. TV, Sec. 2, clause i.) In this decision seven of the nine justices concurred. Thirty-seven years after the passage of the Compromise Bill, the Court had at last an opportunity to ex- press its opinion as to the constitutionality of the measure. The decision was rendered in the hope that the political excite- 330 IIIST(1RY OF OUR COUNTRY. ment might be allayed by this settlement of the question. But instead of averting the threatened danger, it added fuel to the flames. The anti-slavery element saw that every depart- ment of the government was against their views. The name of Chief Justice Taney was execrated at the North ; and although he had held the position of chief justice of the United States for nearly a quarter of a century, he was accused of playing into the hands of the Southern leaders. 498. Mormon Insurrection. — During the first year of this administration, trouble arose with the Mormons in Utah. They objected to the establishment of Federal courts in their territo- ry, and prepared to resist the United States authorities. An army was sent against them, and upon a general proclamation of pardon, quiet was restored. 499. Panic of 1857. — For a number of years the country had been in a prosperous condition. The great gold dis- coveries had given unusual stimulus to trade. Speculation was rife. A reaction, caused by too great stimulus, came in 1857, and a financial panic occurred. Congress, to relieve the stringency, passed the tariff law of 1857, reducing tariff duties to the revenue level. This period has been called *' the free- trade era." 500. The Lincoln-Douglas Debate. — Senator Douglas, of Illinois, by favoring the repeal of the Missouri Compromise, had made himself very popular at the South, though he was severely criticised at the North. He parted company, how- ever, with the South in the Kansas controversy. The South- ern party in Kansas adopted a constitution which allowed slavery, and applied for admission to the Union. The conven- tion was held at Lecompton, and the constitution adopted was therefore called the " Lecompton Constitution." The opposi- tion charged unfairness and refrained from voting when the GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM. 33 1 constitution was submitted for adoption by the people of the territory. Congress passed a bill admitting Kansas, but resub- mitting the constitution to a vote of the people. The constitu- tion was defeated this time, and Kansas remained a territory. Douglas opposed the enforcement of the Lecompton constitu- tion, and thus regained his hold in the North. He wished also to regain the leadership which he had lost in the South, for he wanted to be elected president. Accordingly, his canvass for the senatorship from Illinois, in 1858, attracted the attention of the whole country. His opponent was Abraham Lincoln, who was soon to be the foremost figure in the United States. The two candidates took the stump in their own interest, and a series of most important debates occurred. Douglas was an experienced debater and had no rival in his ability to present his side of the slavery question. His opponent, Abraham Lincoln, had a strong, logical mind, and his evident sincerity was sure to create a deep impression upon his hearers. The issue of these debates would affect not only the election to the United States Senate, but the decision as to who should be elected as the next president. Lincoln, in spite of the protest of his friends, said in his opening speech, "A house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this government cannot endure half slave and half free. I do not expect the house to fall, but I expect it will cease to be divided. It will become all one thing or all the other." Whatever Lincoln may have meant by these words, it gave Douglas an opportunity to represent his opponent as a Disunionist. In the Dred Scott case Douglas's doctrine of " Squatter Sovereignty" (p. 325, footnote), which declared that the people of the territories might decide the question of slavery as they should see fit, had been repudiated by the Supreme Court. Lincoln asked if the people of a territory might legally keep out slavery. If Douglas answered "No," then not only Illinois but the entire North would be incensed ; if he said "Yes" then the 332 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY support of the South would be totally lost. In this dilemma Douglas replied that as a matter of fact if the people of a terri- tory were hostile to slavery, slavery would not exist there. This answer satisfied the people of Illinois, and he was elected to the Senate, but it offended the South and ruined his chances for the presidency. 501. New States. ^ — During this administration three new states were admitted into the I'nion : Minnesota in 1858 ; Oregon in 1859 ; and Kansas in 1861. All of these states came in as free states. Kansas, which had been refused ad- . mission as a free state by the Senate, was admitted in 1861 after some of the Southern senators had withdrawn from the Senate. 502. Mineral Discoveries. — In 1858, just ten years after the discoveries in Cali- fornia, gold mines were found at Pike's Peak, Colorado. Already it had been found that large areas of the I'nited States contained coal-bearing strata, and that the cost of fuel would offer no impediment to the develop- ment of our country. In the same year that gold was discovered in Colorado, the Com- stock Silver Mines were discovered at Virginia City, Nevada. Cp to this time it was not known that there were any silver deposits in the I'nited States. Since then the West has produced most of the world's silver. In 1859, rich underground oil streams were found in Pennsylvania. Wells were sunk and the oil brought to the surface. These wells were richer in usefulness to man than even the great mines of Colorado. I GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM. 333 503. Scientific Progress.— The first maps of the winds and currents of the sea were made by Matthew F. Maury, Superin- tendent of tlie United States Naval Observatory (see biographical sketch, Appendix B). They proved of world-wide benefit as a means of saving every year millions of dollars and thousands of lives. Maury's obser- vations of the winds and his suggestions based upon them were the be- ginning of our present elaborate system of weather reports. By the aid of a deep sea sounding apparatus devised by his associate, John M. Brooke, of Virginia, Maury discovered the existence of a plateau in the bed of the northern Atlantic, upon which the first Atlantic cable was after- ward laid (§ 614). 504. John Brown's Raid. — Prodigious excitement had been produced at the North by the Dred Scott decision. Equally intense was the excitement produced in the South by the John Brown Raid. John Brown was a half-crazy fanatic, who conceived the notion that it was his special mission to overthrow slavery. Recognizing no law but his own conception of right, he had figured as a bloody fanatic in the Kansas struggle. His large family of sons were very like their father. This family and a few friends, under Brown, conceived a plan of liberating and arming the slaves. With the view of securing the necessary arms, they seized the arsenal at Harper's Ferry, Matthew F. Maury. 334 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. Va., in October, 1859. The band numbered less than two dozen. Before they could escape they were easily captured by Col. Robert E.Lee with a few United States troops. In resist- ing capture most of the band were killed. The survivors were tried and executed by the Virginia authorities. Intense sympathy for Brown was manifested in many parts of the North. He was eulogized as a martyr. Abolitionists of the Wendell Phillips and William Lloyd Garrison type approved his terrible scheme; the expressions of such men caused the gravest apprehension in the South. Brown's plot seemed to foreshadow larger plots for servile insurrection with all its attendant horrors, and it led the South to believe that an Abolitionist president, if elected, would aid such plots. PRESIDEXTfAL CAMPAIGN OF iS6o. 505. The Democratic Convention met in Charleston, S.C, April 23, 1S60, to nominate candidates for the presidency and vice-presidency. The Southern members insisted that the Dred Scott decision (§ 496) be endorsed in the platform, and they opposed the nomination of Douglas. The Northern members refused to endorse the platform sub- mitted. To do so would, they feared, cause defeat in their own states. The Southern members refused to accept less than the endorsement of the Dred Scott decision. 506. First Split in Democratic Party. — The convention split in two. Many of the Southern delegates withdrew and decided to meet later in Richmond. The rest of the conven- tion, though largely Douglas men, could not agree on a candi- date. On May 3 the convention adjourned to give time for the vacancies caused by the seceding members to be filled. They adjourned to meet in Baltimore. 507. Constitutional Party. — While the Democratic Con- vention had been in session at Charleston, the Constitutional GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM. 335 Union party had met. This was composed mainly of the old Know-Nothing sympathizers. They were joined also by a large number who were weary of the agitation of the slavery question. They nominated John Bell, of Tennessee, for the presidency, and Edward Everett, of Massachusetts, for the vice-presidency. 508. Republicans. — On May 16 the Republican Conven- tion assembled at Chicago. The general expectation was that W. H. Seward would be nominated, and on the first ballot he received the largest number of votes. There was strong oppo- sition to him, however, and it was thought best to conciliate it. On the third ballot Abraham Lincoln, of Illinois, was nominated for the presidency. Hannibal Hamlin, of Maine, was placed on the ticket for the vice-presidency. 509. Second Split in Democratic Party. — The larger ele- ment of the Democratic party containing the Northern dele- gates convened at Baltimore on June 18. The contested seats were decided in favor of the Douglas men. This caused a second split ; and the chairman of the convention, most of the Southern members, and a few Northerners withdrew. Those remaining nominated' Douglas of Illinois by adopting the majority vote. The second set of seceders adopted the platform which caused the division in Charleston. Their nominees were John C. Breckinridge, of Kentucky, and Joseph Lane, of Oregon. Their action was endorsed by the first set of seceders when they met in Richmond. Thus we find four strong parties with candidates for the presidency. 510. Position of the Parties on Slavery. — The Repub- lican party, under the leadership of Lincoln, declared that slavery was a local institution, and owed its existence to state laws ; that it had no rights in the territories, and that Congress should prohibit its extension. 33^ HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. The Southern wing of the Democratic party, with Breckin- ridge as their champion, affirmed that Congress should protect all property in the territories, and therefore the property in slaves. They based their demands on the decision of the Supreme Court. The Northern Democrats declared their willingness to abide by the Supreme Court decision, yet adhered to the " Squatter Sovereignty" doctrine. With their leader, Douglas, they held that it was possible to exclude slavery from any territory if the people of the territory voted to do so. The Constitutional I'^nion party desired to avoid the slavery issue. They merely declared their loyalty to the Constitution and devotion to the Union. 511. The Election. — The Republicans went into the cam- paign with the utmost enthusiasm. In convention they de- nounced the John Brown Raid, but the Abolitionists constituted a large and aggressive element of the party. As the number of Abolitionists increased, their crusade against slavery grew in intensity. They now hoped, through the election of Lincoln, to strike a fatal blow at slavery, even by subverting the Constitution, if necessary (§ 439 d sc(/.). It is not strange that the masses of the Southern people began to conclude that Lincoln's election would make it necessary for the Southern states to secede if the inherent rights of the states were to be preserved. The Republicans won the election chiefiy because their opponents were divided. Lincoln carried the Northern states, Breckinridge the South, Bell the border states of Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee, and Douglas carried Missouri. The vote of New Jersey was divided between Lincoln and Douglas. Douglas's strength lay in the same states as Lin- coln's, but Lincoln carried all of these states except New Jersey, and received the majority of the votes of that state. The popu- lar vote gave Lincoln 1,866,541; Douglas, 1,375,157; Breckin- GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM. 337 ridge, 847,953; Bell, 590,631. Thus we see that the opposition to Lincoln was very strong, and that he received far less than a majority of the popular vote. By electoral votes the result stood : Lincoln, 180 ; Breckinridge, 72 ; Bell, 39 ; Douglas, 12. 512. Effect of the Election. — When it became known that Lincoln was elected, the excitement in the South grew intense. Secession, which heretofore had been viewed as a mere possi- Area of Slave and Free States. bility, now seemed to the South a necessity. Yet love for the Union which their fathers had established incUned conserva- tive people North and South still to hope that some way would be found to avert the impending separation ; but affairs were rapidly approaching a crisis wherein the North and South would soon be arrayed in deadly opposition to each other. 513. Buchanan's Message. — President Buchanan, in his message to Congress, which met on December 3, i860, justified in a large measure the attitude of the South. He declared the 338 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. Constitution and Federal laws had been nullified by the " Per- sonal Liberty Laws " (§ 483) passed by the Northern states, denounced the so-called " underground railway " (§ 483), and condemned the anti-slavery agitation so prevalent at the North. While he did not admit that secession was a right, he declared that the general government had no power to coerce a state. 514. Efforts at Compromise. — Efforts were made in both Houses of Congress to avert the impending peril by compro- mise, but they came to naught. Senator Crittenden, of Ken- tucky, proposed that the Constitution be so amended as to establish the 36° 30' line (§ 417) between the free and slave territory, and that payment be made out of the Treasury of the United States for such fugitive slaves as could not be recovered. Action on his resolution was postponed until seven states had seceded, and then it was defeated. A com- mittee of thirteen senators, chosen from Southern Democrats, Northern Democrats, and Republicans, was appointed to find a basis of compromise, but they were unable to agree because the Republican members. Hushed with their recent victory,' were unwilling to make any concessions. A similar effort in the House of Representatives proved equally futile. Virginia invited all the states to send delegates to a Peace Congress, which was to meet in \\'ashington on February 4. Twenty-one states responded, and ex-President John Tyler presided over the conference, but the movement was fruitless. Sectional feeling had grown too strong to be arrested by compromise. 1 In reply to a boastful remark of Senator Seward to the effect that "the North was now to take charge of tiie Government," Senator Hammond, of .South Carolina, said : " Do not forget, it cannot be forgotten, that we, the slaveiiolders of the South, took our country in her infancy and, after ruling her sixty out of seventy years of her existence, surrender her to you without a stain upon her honor, boundless in wealth, incalculable in strength, the wonder and admiration of the world I Time will tell what you will do for her; but time will never diminish our glory or your responsi- bility." GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM. 339 515. Secession. ^ The electors in South Carolina were chosen by the Legislature. After choosing them the Legis- lature remained in session to await the result of their action. When the news of Lincoln's election was received the Legis- lature called a convention to be elected by the people. This convention was to take such action as the emergency demanded. It met December 17, and on the 20th, by a unanimous vote, passed the Secession Ordinance^ recalling the consent given to the Federal Constitution in 1788 and to the amendments adopted afterward. 516. First Area of Secession. — In January, 1861, Mis- sissippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, and Louisiana seceded, and in February Texas also left the Union. In all these states conventions of the people passed the secession or- dinances. In Texas the action of the convention was sub- mitted to the people and ratified by popular vote. As the states seceded, their senators and representatives withdrew from the Federal Congress,^ and Southern officers generally withdrew from the Federal army and navy.^ 517. Federal Property. — As the states seceded they took possession of all forts, arsenals, and other Federal property within their limits, so far as they could do so without bloodshed. Soon the only forts within the seceded states remaining in the possession of the Federals were those at Charleston, Pensacola, Key West, and the Dry Tortugas. The sites on which the Federal buildings stood had been ceded by the states to the 1 Their grounds for action were shown in the admirable address of Jefferson Davis on leaving the Senate. — (Davis's " Rise and Fall of the Confederacy," Vol. I, pp. 221-225.) 2 General Robert E. Lee, who resigned after Virginia seceded, expressed in noble and patriotic language the sentiments of these officers. He showed that he loved the Union, which he had served for twenty-five years, but his loyalty to his state was supreme. " Save in defense of my native state," he wrote to General Scott, " I never desire again to draw my sword." 340 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. general government for the protection of the states ; after the states seceded these sites could not be used for the purpose for which they were ceded, and hence, as the South held, they reverted to the states. The right of all the states in buildings and other Federal property, except the sites, was recognized at the South, and commissioners were sent in December by South Carolina to arrange for a friendly adjustment of the questions relating to this Federal property within their limits, as well as the national debt (§ 527). 518. The Right of Secession. — An exhaustive discussion of the right of secession does not belong to the province of a school history.^ Secession and the attendant questions have been subjects of sharp controversy, in which widely different views have been held, but in regard to the whole question, the South steadfastly maintained (i) that secession was a historic and legal right of the states; (2) that the Southern states had sufficient reason for withdrawing from the llnion. (i) Secession a Historic Right. — The right of a state to secede was not questioned during the time while the Constitu- tion was being formed and while the states were entering into the Union, It is safe to say that the Union could not have been formed had the right to secede been denied. Virginia, New York, and Rhode Island (§ 339), in adopting the Consti- tution, expressly affirmed the right of the people of the states to resume the powers delegated to the Union if they should find cause to do so afterwards. Innumerable instances of the assertion of this right by statesmen, jurists, political writers, state legislatures, and conventions may be cited. In the early years of our country's history the secession sentiment was strongest in New England. It was shown when negotiations 1 Convenient and accessible works treating this subject more fully are Davis's " Rise and Fall of the Confederacy," Stephens's " War between the States," Curry's " The South," Rhodes's " History of the United States." The complete bibliography of the subject is very extensive. GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM. 34 1 for closing the Mississippi failed (§ 333),^ when Jefferson was a candidate for the presidency, and negotiations were pending for the purchase of Louisiana.^ During the War of 18 12 the New England states were making threats of secession, when the Treaty of Ghent put an end to the scheme (§ 407). The Massachusetts Legislature in 1844 resolved that, "The project of the annexation of Texas, unless arrested on the threshold, may tend to drive these states into a dissolution of the Union. "^ There was little difference between the North and the South on this point : the majority of the Northern states had threat- ened, the majority of the Southern states acted ; both had affirmed the right. (2) Secession a Legal Right. — A brief statement of the legal ground of the right of secession is as follows : The states were "free, sovereign, and independent," and were so recog- nized by each other (§ 326) and by England in the Treaty of Paris (§ 323) prior to the adoption of the Constitution. The Constitution was formed as a compact or agreement between these "free, sovereign, and independent" states. The general government of the United States provided in the Constitution was created to promote the general welfare of the states. Its powers were given to it by the states and were specified by the Constitution ; all other powers were reserved to the states. In case of violation of the Constitution by any member of the Union, the other members were released from obligation to maintain the Union, Secession, or withdrawal from the com- pact, was a final and peaceable mode of redress. Such were the teachings of many of the fathers and founders of the United States. The people of the Southern states held stead- fastly to these teachings and believed sincerely and implicitly that the states had the legal right to withdraw from the Union. 1 Fiske's " Critical Period," p. 221. 2 " Welling on Conn. Fed.," pp. 9-1 1. 8 Davis's " Rise and Fall of the Confederacy," Vol. I, p. 96. 342 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 519. Reasons for Secession. — It is an error to suppose that the Southern states rushed hastily and blindly into seces- sion. The grave questions involved in a course so decisive as that of seceding from the Union were discussed with intense earnestness throughout the South. The states, at last con- cluding that their constitutional rights could not be saved in the Union, deliberately withdrew. Their reasons for this course may be summed up as follows: — (i) Fourteen Northern states, by passing "Personal Liberty Laws" (§§ 483, 513), had nullified the Constitution (see Art. 4, § 2, of Constitution, in Appendix), and they had also violated Federal laws passed in pursuance of the Constitution. These violations of the Constitution by the Northern states not only absolved the Southern states from further obligation to the constitutional compact, but they also showed that the Constitution could not be enforced and the government main- tained with these states. (2) The North had abandoned the historic and legal view (§ 518) of a Union under the terms of the Constitution. It had come to hold that the Constitution was not a compact between the states, but the supreme law over the states, and that not only was the Union not created by the states, but that the states had been created by the Union. These ideas were held by the Republican party, which was just coming into power. This party was pledged to disregard certain decisions of the Supreme Court and to attack slavery.' (3) Sectional feeling between the North and South existed to some extent in Colonial days, being apparent even in the convention that formed the Constitution.^ This feeling became stronger as the conflict of interests between the agricultural and 1 The Republican party denounced the Dred Scott decision of the Supreme Court. See platform Republican party passed at Chicago, i860. 2 Madison said : " It seems now to be pretty well understood tiiat the real dif ference of interest lay, not Ix-tween the large and small, but Ijetween the Northern and Southern states." — (2 Madison, 1104.) GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM. 343 manufacturing communities began to find expression in tariff legislation (§ 436) ; but it was the growth of abolitionism that transformed sectional feeling into sectional fury. Although the Republican party denounced the John Brown Raid, still the Abolitionists at the North glorified John Brown, fanatic as he was, whose mad plot sent a thrill of horror into every Southern home. Slavery and slaveholders were denounced, in public and in private, by the press, from pulpit and rostrum, in story, essay, and poem.^ This persistent and powerful crusade inevi- tably incensed and imbittered the South beyond endurance. Among the masses of the people, North and South, sectional antipathy supplanted the friendlier feeling of earlier times. Thus differences in ideas, sentiment, and institutions had made two different peoples, almost two different countries, of the North and the South. A separation was felt to be the only logical outcome. (4) Lincoln had declared that "the country cannot exist half slave and half free." To the South this meant that Lincoln and the great party which had elected him would undermine the constitutional rights of the states wherever and whenever it was practicable to do so in the interest of abolition. The question with every Southerner then was, What is best for the South to do in view of all the circumstances ? Can the rights of the states be preserved best in the Union or out of the Union ? The question was answered by her acts ; she withdrew from the Union. 1 The South was not responsible for the existence of African slavery in the United States (§§ 91, 139). The Southern whites suffered more from its existence than anybody else. The evils of the institution were greatly exaggerated. Public senti- ment in the South discountenanced cruelty and neglect on the part of the slave- holder. Masters were generally kind and humane to their slaves, and the slaves were generally loyal and well affected toward their masters. Exceptional cases of ill treatment were often taken as texts for the slander and abuse of the Southern people. 344 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 520. Cause of the War. — The Southern states in seceding were seeking peace, which they could no longer hope for in the Federal Union. They did not desire war, and many believed that war would not follow ; for, if the Federal government had observed its constitutional powers and respected the original and inherent rights of the states, war would have been averted ; as secession was a right of the states (§§ 518 ct seq.), coer- cion — that is, the use of force by the general government to keep states in the Union — was beyond its constitutional powers. Coercion was opposed by many eminent Northerners,* as well as by many influential journals ; " indeed, any purpose of direct coercion was disclaimed by nearly all."^ Neverthe- less, as the states seceded, the sentiment in favor of the main- tenance of the Union by force, if necessary, grew stronger in the North, until it became a passionate desire and purpose. It was this purpose on the part of the North of coercing (§ 527) the states, and the acts (§ 528) on the part of the Fed- eral government resulting from this spirit, that caused the war between the states. In the North the " National" idea had supplanted the theory of the Constitution." To enforce this idea, the Government of the United States undertook to invade and conquer the South. Thus the Southern people were forced either to submit to aggression or to fight. They accepted the fateful issue, and thus began one of the mightiest struggles of modern times. 521. The Confederate States of America. — South Caro- lina, after passing the Ordinance of Secession, issued a call for a convention of such states as should secede. This con- vention was appointed to be held at Montgomery on February 4. 1 Horace Greeley said : " If the cotton states shall decide that they can do better out of the Union than in it, we insist on letting them go in peace. The right to secede may be a revolutionary one, but it exists nevertheless." '^ Davis's "Rise and F'all of the Confederacy," Vol. I, p. 252. 8 Woodrow Wilson's " The State," pp. 477-480. GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM. 345 Delegates from six states, all the seceding states except Texas,^ met and organized by electing Howell Cobb, of Georgia, as permanent chairman. On February 8 the convention adopted a provisional Con- stitution and thus created a new Union, the Confed- erate States of America, and on the next day, Feb- ruary 9, Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi, was elected president, and Alexander H. Stephens, of Georgia, was elected vice-president. Nine days later President Davis was inaugurated. In his inaugural message he reviewed briefly the causes which had made the organ- ization of the new Union necessary, and declared that the Confederacy was " moved by no interest or passion to invade the rights of others," and that it was " anxious to culti- vate peace and commerce with all nations." Mr. Davis selected as members of his first cabinet: ^ Robert Toombs, of Georgia, secretary of state; S. R. Mallory, of Florida, secretary of the navy; Judah P. Benjamin, of Louisi- Alexander H. Stephens. 1 The delegates from Texas, whose convention had adopted the Secession Ordi- nance on February i, awaited tlie result of the popular election (February 23) on the adoption of the Ordinance. Texas was admitted on March 2, the anniversary of Texan independence. 2 During the greater part of the existence of the Confederacy, however, the cabi- net stood as follows : Judah P. Benjamin, secretary of state ; C. G. Memminger, secretary of the treasury ; James A. Seddon, secretary of war ; S. R. Mallory, secre- tary of the navy ; John H. Reagan, postmaster-general. Reagan was also secretary of the treasury during the last few months of the Confederacy. 346 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. ana, attorney-general; John H. Reagan, of Texas, postmaster- general; C. G. Memminger, of South Carolina, secretary of the treasury; L. P. Walker, of Alabama, secretary of war. He also, in compliance with a resolution passed by the Con- federate Congress, appointed A. B. Roman, of Louisiana, M. J. Crawford, of Georgia, and John Forsyth, of Alabama, as commissioners to adjust with the United States all cjuestions of difference between the two governments. The convention which formed the Confederate Constitu- tion, remaining in session, adopted, on March 11, a perma- nent Constitution modeled on the Constitution of the United States. This Constitution ^ was submitted to the seceding states and ratified by them. The permanent Confederate government was put into operation February 22, 1862. 522. The President of the Southern Confederacy — Jefferson Davis, the first and only president of the Confederate States, was born in 1808 in Kentucky. His father removed shortly after to Mississippi. After attending Transylvania University, Davis entered West Point, and was graduated in the class of 1828. He served in the army until 1835, when he resigned and settled upon his plantation in Mississippi. In 1845 he was elected to Congress. As Colonel of the ist Mis- sissippi Rirtes he won distinction at Monterey and Buena Vista. He became United States senator from Mississippi in 1847. 1 Some of hs features worthy of note are as follows : — (i) The doctrine of state sovereignty was clearly defined. (2) Foreign slave trade was forbidden. (3) No protective tariff was to be levied. (4) Memtiers of the cabinet were given the right to speak in Congress. (5) The term of office for president and vice-president w.os made six years, and they were ineligible for reiilectioa. (6) The president was allowed to veto single items in appropriation bills. (7) Any officer of the Confederate government acting solely within a state could be impeached by a vote of two-thirds of both branches of the Legislature of the state. i pw* [.-^^ ,1^ ibi^ WL --*#> fW ;■ > fk -^fi^---: p^^ 3K-:'o' ;?:, ■ ,,,;-■;■■ i;^^ ISPP^^'^ ' r^ .;^,^g| \-*^B v''** ■ ■ ' JEFFERSON DAVIS. GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM. 347 He was secretary of war under Pierce from 1S53 to 1857. In 1857 he was again elected senator, and in 186 1 he withdrew from the Senate after the secession of Mississippi. He was elected provisional president of the Confederate States for one year, on February g, 1861, and on November of the same year he was unanimously chosen by the electoral vote of the Confed- erate States to be president for six years from February 22, 1862. On that date the Confederate government was organized under its permanent Constitution at Richmond, Va., and Mr. Davis was inaugurated. He served the South ably and faith- fully until the Confederacy was destroyed. He was captured by Federal troops in Georgia at the close of the war, thrown into a dungeon, and grievously mistreated. He was kept in prison two years under the charge of treason, but the Federal government would never try him on the charge. The foremost jurists of the country advised that no case could be made against him (see § 615). He was at last released on bail, one of his bondsmen being Horace Greeley, the famous Aboli- tionist editor of the New York Tribune. Mr. Davis spent the remaining years of his eventful life chiefly in travel or at his beautiful Mississippi home, " Beauvoir." His death, on December 6, 1889, called forth a deep and spontaneous out- pouring of love and sorrow from the people whom he had led so loyally in prosperity and in adversity. After Calhoun, Mr. Davis was the ablest expounder of the doctrine of state sovereignty that the country has produced. A Christian gentleman, he was tried as few other men in the world's history have been tried. As a soldier, statesman, orator, thinker, and man, he is worthy of all honor. Vice-President of the Southern Confederacy. — Alexander H. Stephens was born in 18 12 in Georgia. He was care- fully educated, and graduated from the University of Georgia, After teaching for a year he became a lawyer. He served in 348 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. the Georgia Legislature, and in 1843 was elected to Congress, and was reelected six times. Stephens believed in secession as a right, but opposed the step as a matter of policy. When Georgia seceded, however, he resigned his seat in (Congress, and, joining his fortunes with his state, became vice-president of the Confederacy. He entered United States Congress again in 1877, and served until 1882, when he was elected governor of Georgia. He died in 1883, before the close of his term. In Stephens were joined a slight and delicate physical frame and an intellect of wonderful power. Simple and unaffected in manner, broad and liberal in character, pure in public and private life, he possessed in a remarkable degree the confidence and affection of his people. 523. End of Buchanan's Administration. — Buchanan was not the man to deal with the great crisis. He condemned both secession and coercion (§ 513). His cabinet was divided, and several members resigned. Secretary Lewis Cass, of Michigan, withdrew from the cabinet because the president would not reinforce Major Anderson, who commanded the Federal gar- rison at Fort Moultrie in Charleston Harbor. Secretary John B. Floyd, of Virginia, resigned because Buchanan permitted Anderson to transfer his forces to Fort Sumter, a much stronger position, commanding the entrance to the harbor. The presi- dent refused official recognition to the Carolina commissioners sent to arrange for the withdrawal of the Federal garrison from the forts (§517), but he received them informally, and led them to believe that their mission would be successful. Then he tried to reinforce Major Anderson by sending secretly a steamer. Star of the West, with troops and provisions — an attempt which failed only because the vessel was driven back by Carolina cannon. This act of hostility to the seceded states caused Secretary Jacob Thompson, of Mississippi, to retire from the cabinet. Congress gave the president no aid GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM. 349 (§ 514). Secession was consummated. Sentiment at the North was crystallizing in favor of coercion. Thus Buchanan's administration closed beneath the shadows of the impending conflict. 524. Summary. — The decision of the Supreme Court in the Dred Scott case, that no slave could be a citizen, and that the Missouri Compro- mise was unconstitutional, caused political excitement in the North. A Mormon insurrection was quelled by United States troops. To relieve financial stringency, the low tariff act of 1857 was passed. The debates of Lincoln and Douglas in their canvass for the senatorship of Illinois attracted national attention. The first maps of the winds and currents of the sea were made by M. F. Maury. John Brown's lawless effort to free the slaves caused excitement and apprehension in the South. In the presiden- tial campaign of i860 the Democratic party split, and there were four can- didates in the field. Lincoln, the Republican candidate, was elected. Believing that with the Republican party in power their rights under the Constitution were no longer safe, the Southern states determined to with- draw from the Union. Secession, an historic and legal right of the states. Efforts at compromise proved futile. South Carolina led off in December, followed quickly by Georgia and the five Gulf states. The government of the Confederate States was organized with Jefferson Davis as president and Alexander H. Stephens as vice-president. The seceded states took possession of Federal property in their territory, and were active in organiz- ing the new government. In the North sentiment was divided. Major Anderson, commanding the Federal garrison at Fort Moultrie, transferred his men to Fort Sumter. A steamer bearing reinforcements to Fort Sumter was driven back. 525. Thought Questions. — On what occasion did Congress first limit the extension of slavery? Was this before or after the adoption of our present Constitution ? Show how the Dred Scott decision affected the extension of slavery. Mention another important decision of the Supreme Court. Give an outline of tariff legislation up to the close of Buchanan's administration. Mention the occasions in our history when the right of secession has been claimed. 350 niSTORV OF OUR COUNTRY. Topical Analysis. ((iRovvTH of Sectional Antagonism.) r 433. The New President. 434. Changes in Office. j Jackson's policy. \ Policy of later presidents. 435. The National Bank. 436. Tariff Development. <1 First United States banks. Jackson's opposition. Removal of deposits. Final action of Congress. r The first tariff. Positions of New England and the South. Tariff of 1S16. Change of sentiment. I Tariff of 1824. I Tariff of 1828. 437. Nullification. A ( The Hayne-Welister debate. Tariff of 1832. Action of South Carolina. .Action of the president. I The Calhoun-Webster debate. I Compromise tariff. „ , ,. ^ . . (The .Sacs and the Fo.\es. 438. Indian Uprisings. .,,, ^, •^ ( 1 he Semmoles. 439, 440, 441. The Abolition Crusade. The pioneers. Various opinions. I >eeds of violence. .\ction of Congress. 442. Railways. New States. ' First railway in the United States. Steam engines. -^ First locomotive. Increase of railways. Two new states. 443. The Whig Party. Opposition to Jackson. Rise of Whigs. Presidential election. GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM. 351 VAN BUREN'S ' 446. The New President. _. . , ^ . ( Cause. 447. Financial Panic. ] ^ ' / Results. ADMTNTS- I o ^, r, ,_ ^ ^ The president's views. AUiYiiiNics I ^^g Yjjg Sub-Treasury. ■< .. , ""^ * ^■r^-.x 1 ^ hub-treasury system. TRATION 1837-41. C The abolitionists. 449- Slavery. | ^.^^j.^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ 450. Scientific Progress. 453. Harrison's Election and Death. 454. President Tyler : Services and character. 455. The National Bank Controversy. Repeal of Sub-treasury law. Passage of Bank bills. President's vetoes. Results. Trouble wdth Great Britain. Settlement of the dispute. 456. The Ashburton Treaty. 457. The Tariff Legislation : The Tariff of 1842. r Suffrage in Rhode Island. 458. The Dorr Rebellion. n. C The services of Taylor. The Presidents, -j Death of Taylor. [ Services of Fillmore. The Problem f Military government of California, of the Ad- "! Movements toward statehood, ministration. [ The old controversy. Conflicting Opinions. f The "Omnibus Hill." Compromise of 1850. j ^^^^^^ ^^^ ^,^^ j^.„_ GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM. 353 TAYLOR AND FILLMORE'S ADMINIS- i TRATION. (Contimted.) 483. The Fugitive-Slave Agitation. 4S4. Railroad Development. The Fugitive-Slave Law. Resistance by individuals. Nullification by states. " Underground Railway." Views of Northern statesmen. The Erie Railroad. Increase of railroads. ' 487- The New President. PIERCE'S ADMINIS- TRATION. 1853-57- [' First settlers of the plains. 4SS. The Kansas-Nebraska J Douglas's bill. Bill. j Opposition to the bill. t Its passage. c mi. c^j. , r r Emigrant societies. J 4S9. The Struggle for I . ' ^ -^ Immigration to Kansas. K.ansas. 1 1^ Conflicts. First principles. Composition of the party. 490. The Republican Party. 491. Our First World's Fair. 492. Treaty with Japan : Gadsden Purchase 495. The New President. f Origin of the suit. 496, 497. The Dred Scott Decision. -{ Appeals and final decision. (^ Results of the decision. O I— I H < W s < < < w & 499. 500. Mormon Insurrection Panic of 1857 Cause. New tariff law. r Position of Douglas on Mo. Compromise. Lincoln-Douglas J His position on the Kansas question. Debate. 1 Canvass for Illinois senatorship t Debates of the candidates. 501. New States. 502. Mineral Discoveries. ■{ I Gold in Colorado. Coal. I Silver. L Oil wells. 354 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 503- _,...-_ ( Maps of winds and sea currents. Scientific Progress. ,.,,., ( Ked or Atlantic explored. 504. John Brown's Raid. 505-510. Presidential Campaign of i860. 511, 512. The Election. 5'3- 514. 5' 5. S'7- 5.8. 5'9- Buchanan's Message Efforts at Compromise 516. Secession Federal Property Right of Secession. Reasons for Seces- sion. 520. Cause of the War. 521, 522. The Confederate States 5^3- End of Buchanan's Ad- ministration. Hrown's plan. Seizure of U. S. arsenal. Capture and execution. I Feeling in North and South. Democratic Convention at Charleston. First split in Democratic party. Constitutional party. Republicans. Second split in Democratic party. Position of the parties on slavery. r The Abolitionists. I Vote of the sections. I Popular vote and electoral vote. I Effect of the election. Northern nullification. Anti-slavery agitation. Secession. \ Crittenden's proposition. ' Peace Congress. Action of Legislature of .South Carolina. Convention of South Carolina. Action of other Southern states. j Action of Seceded states. ' South Carolina's commissioners. J Historic view. ' Legal view. r Violations of Courts by Northern states, j Centralizing tendencies of North. I Sectional feeling. I Success of Republican party. \ The South's desire. ' Growth of coercion sentiment. C Organization. Constitution. Sketch of President. I Sketch of Vice-President. Divisions in the cabinet. Reception of S. C. commissioners. .'Affairs at Charleston Harbor. ^/J^oU^'*\Jt:^r'^ THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES. Lincoln's Administration, 1861-1865. FIRST YEAR OF THE WAR. 526. Services and Character of the New President. — Abraham Lincoln was born of poor parents, in Kentucky, February 12, 1809. With his parents he removed first to Indiana and afterward to Illinois. Young Lincoln was reared amid the hardships, privations, and heroic energies of our pioneer life. He worked on the farm, cleared land, split rails, as other farm-hands did ; he was for a time a boatman on the Mississippi River; he served as a private in a war against the Indians ; and he was a great reader and student of the few books that a backwoodsman in Illinois could command in those days. By earnest and constant effort he made himself a lawyer. He had served a term in Congress when he met Douglas in the great debate in 1858. Lincoln was a man of heroic mold. Simple, sincere, fearless, he understood the masses of the people, and they gave him sooner or later their deepest respect and fullest confidence. It is not too much to say that Lincoln saved the Union. 527. The New Administration. — On March 4, 1861, Abra- ham Lincoln was inaugurated president of the United States. Probably no man ever assumed such an exalted position in more trying circumstances. Seven of the states had cast off all allegiance to the Union. The country was in confusion. There were those who even feared for the life of the president. 356 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. and for this reason, he had traveled secretly from Philadelphia to Washington. The tone of his inaugural address seemed ominous to the seceded states. While he asserted that slavery in the states had nothing to fear from him, at the same time he declared secession impossible, and expressed his intention of occupying all Federal property in the seceded states and collecting reve- nues in their ports. To the South this meant war. 528. The Question as to Fort Sumter. — The condition of affairs at Fort Sumter demanded immediate action. The alternative of peace or war was thus presented : For the Federal government to withdraw the gar- rison would be to agree to the South's plan of peaceable seces- sion ; for it to send supplies or reinforcements would m e a n to the South the adoption of the policy of coercion, and would be a practical declaration of war (see §§ 517, 523). A few days after the inauguration of President Lincoln, the commissioners appointed by President Davis (§ 523) arrived in Washington and made known their mission. The new administration refused to receive them, as this would be to recognize the Confederate States as a foreign power. How- ever, the commissioners were assured by Secretary of State Charleston Harbor. FIRST YEAR OF THE WAR. 357 Seward, through Judges Nelson and Campbell, of the Supreme Court, that Fort Sumter would soon be evacuated. As the fulfillment of this promise was delayed, intense anxiety was felt as to the course President Lincoln would pursue. 529. The Fall of Fort Sumter. — South Carolina con- sidered both Major Anderson's removal of his troops to Fort Sumter and the attempt of the Star of the West to rein- Fort Sumter after Bombardment force the garrison as hostile acts. Yet she refrained from any act of aggression, in the hope of a peaceable solution of the difficulty. On April 6 President Lincoln notified Governor Pickens, of South Carolina, of his determination to provision Fort Sumter.^ By that time a " relief squadron " of eight armed vessels and 2400 men had set sail from New York, 1 Lincoln's cabinet on a final vote stood hvo (Chase and Blair) in favor of send- ing relief to Fort Sumter and five against. Lincoln then decided to act on his own responsibilitj'. 35J> HISTOKV OF OL'K COUNTRY. and but for a storm at sea would already have reached Charleston. No time was to be lost. The Confederate au- thorities ordered General Beauregard by telegraph to take possession of the fort. Major Anderson refused to give it up. On April 12 the Confederates opened tire. An incessant cannonading was kept up by both sides for thirty-four hours. Finally the fort caught tire, and Major Anderson surrendered. The garrison was allowed to retire with the honors of war. While they were tiring a salute to the United States flag, a cannon burst, and one soldier was accidentally killed and several wounded. — the only blood spilled in this famous fight. On April 13. iSbi, Sumter fell. The great war had beg^in. 530. Effect of the Fall of Sumter. — /// the North. For the first time the North realized that the South was in earnest. Those who had hitherto opposed coercion joined with the administration. Lincoln called for 75,000 troops to suppress the rebellion and enforce the laws. Many times that number volunteered. The whole North became united. Soon after- wards he declared a blockade of all Southern ports and sus- pended the writ of habeas corpus in certain instances. This was all extra-constitutional, but the urgency of the occasion was held to be sufficient justification. In the South it was felt that the North had begun the war by sending troops and provisions to garrison Fort Sumter. All opposition was silenced. The invaders must be repelled at any cost. President Davis's call for 35,000 volunteers was met with as great alacrity as was President Lincoln's at the North. 531. In the Border States. — Lincoln's call for troops to force the seceding states back into the Union produced intense excitement in the border states of ^Laryland. Virginia, North Carolina, Kentucky. Tennessee, .\rkansas. and Missouri. The governors of most of them refused in emphatic terms to obey The "Stars and Bars," adopted by the Confederate Cony;ress, March 4, 1861. The "lialtlc Flag.' The "National Flag," adopted by the Confederate Congress, May I, 1863. The "National Flag," adopted by tlie Confederate Congress, March 4, 1865. FLAGS OF CONFEDERATE STATES OF AMERICA. FIRST YEAR OF THE WAR. 359 the call, and four states — Virginia, Arkansas, North Carolina, and Tennessee — soon joined the Confederacy. Kentucky de- clared that she would neither secede nor join in the war against her sister states of the South. In Missouri the majority of the people were opposed to secession, but the state authorities were in favor of joining the Confederacy, and a bitter civil strife ensued. By acts of the Confederate Congress both Kentucky and Missouri were subsequently admitted into the Confederacy, and these two states were represented in both Federal and Confederate congresses. Maryland was kept in the Union, although a large element of her people sympathized with the South. This sympathy was manifested in Baltimore by an attack made by citizens on some Massachusetts troops who were on their way to Washington. Several were killed on both sides, and here, on April 19, was shed the first blood of the war. The western portion of Virginia contained many Unionists. During the first year of the war, this section of the state was occupied by Union armies. Forty-eight western counties and a few eastern counties held by Federal troops organized a state government, which, claiming to be the true government of Virginia, provided for a division of the state. (See Constitu- tion, Art. 4, § 3.) Congress ratified this action,' and in 1863 admitted the state of West Virginia into the Union. By June, 1861, the Confederacy embraced eleven states, not including the disputed states of Missouri and Kentucky. The capital was removed from Montgomery to Richmond. 532. Confidence North and South. — The North had about three times as many people as the South had. Besides this tremendous advantage in numbers, the North was far superior in wealth to the South. All the machine shops, factories, foundries, were in the North, so that whatever was needed in 1 During the debate in Congress, Hon. Thaddeus Stevens, of Pennsylvania, said of this measure, " We know it is not constitutional, but it is necessary." 360 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. waging war could soon be provided. Yet the Southern people felt confident that the " Stars and Bars " would be victorious. True, they recognized the advantages that the North possessed; but they reckoned confidently that the world could not long do without Southern cotton. They felt sure that the nations of Europe, whose looms they supplied, would not quietly permit those looms to be hushed. They especially counted on the assistance of France and England.^ It was believed, too, that the Southern man was a better soldier than the Northerner, because he was accustomed to a rough, outdoor life, and was familiar with the use of firearms. The South was full of daring and enthusiasm, while the North was firm, resolute, and un- daunted. Each was fully confident of ultimate success. 533. The South's Line of Defense. — East of the Allegha- nies there was a strong line of defense extending from Norfolk around the northern boundaries of Virginia. At Norfolk, on the peninsula guarding the mouth of the James River, was sta- tioned an army under Generals Huger and Magruder. In the northern part of Virginia were two bodies of troops under Gen- erals Joseph E. Johnston and P. G. T. Beauregard. West of the mountains the Confederates, under command of General Albert vSidney Johnston, had a strong line of defense extending through southern Kentucky to Columbus on the Mississippi. Their forces occupied Bowling Green and Mill Spring. Fort Henry, on the Tennessee, and Fort Donelson, on the Cumberland, a distance of twelve miles apart, were two important Confederate strongholds. The Mississippi River was strongly fortified from its mouth to the northern limit of .he Confederate States. The coast line of the seceded states from the Rio Grande to the Potomac was strengthened by the erection of new forts. The Confederacy was fortified on all sides. (See double page map.) 1 Foreign nations, while declining to recognize the Confederate States as an inde- pendent nation, promptly recognized them as belligerents, ihus giving Confederate cruisers the right to take refuge in foreign harbors. 107 LooKitade UH Wad from 92 Greenwich 87 82 77 72 07 ^ A \ \ A ^ \ F ^ ^i^ / {■ MAP OF THE UNITED STATES, 1861 SCALE OF MILES FIRST YEAR OF THE WAR. 361 534. Northern Plan of Operation. — Against these four lines of defense, offensive preparations were made. A blockade of Southern ports had been declared. This shut out all com- mercial intercourse with the foreign world. Although at the time the blockade was declared there were no ships with Running the Blockade. which to enforce it, a navy was soon organized which effectu- ally shut up the South to its own resources. Opposed to the Confederate forces in Northern Virginia, and threatening an attack on Richmond, was the Army of the Potomac, under General Irwin McDowell. Its purpose was to break through the line of defense, and capture the Southern capital. Northern armies under command of General Fremont were concentrated against the line of fortifications west of the Cumberland Mountains. 362 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. A very important part of the Northern plan was the opening up of the Mississippi River. Loss of control of this great river would not only deprive the South of an important means of transportation, but also divide the Confederacy. The attacks in these four places were largely independent of each other, and were made at first without any unity of plan. We will uote them as the campaigns in Virginia, in the West, on the Mississippi, and Naval Operations. 535. In West Virginia. — Three months passed after the fall of Fort Sumter before any movement of importance took place. The only conflicts were minor ones in western Virginia, where small bodies of troops were engaged. Both sides tried to secure possession of this portion of Vir- ginia. Several battles, mostly unimportant, were fought. The Union army was commanded by General George B. McClellan, who in this campaign won the name of a successful general. In the latter part of the campaign General R. K. Lee commanded the Confederate troops. After several engagements, of which the Federal success at Rich Mountain was the most important, the Union army got complete possession of West Virginia. 536. On to Richmond ; Battle of Manassas or Bull Run. — President Lincoln had made his first call for volunteers for three months only. It was felt that some- thing must be done. The cry in the North was, "On to Richmond." General Scott, the hero of the Mexican War, now com- mander-in-chief of the Union forces, on July 16 ordered General McDowell with his army of 35,000 men to begin the move- ment from Washington to Richmond. Between the two capitals, about twenty- * nve miles south of W ashmgton and five miles north of Manassas Junction, Hows the little stream of Bull FIRST YEAR OF THE WAR. 363 Run, a tributary of the Potomac. South of this stream General Beauregard's army of 18,000 men was posted. In the Shenan- doah Valley, west of Beauregard, were the forces of General J. E. Johnston, confronting the Federal General Patterson, whose instructions were to prevent Johnston from joining Beauregard. On July 18 General McDowell came upon the Con- federates at Bull Run, and was repulsed in a sharply con- tested fight. Meanwhile Gen- eral Johnston eluded Patter- son, and united part of his forces with those of Beauregard.^ On July 21 Mc- Dowell crossed Bull Run above the Confederate position, and at- tacked hisenemy upon the left flank. At first the Federals were successful. The troops of General Bee of South Carolina were falling back in disorder when they encountered General T. J. Jack- son's brigade, which at the sound of fighting had hurried up from another part of the field. Galloping up to Jackson, 1 The total Confederate forces at Manassas were probably 30,000 men. About half the total forces on each side were actually engaged. Map of Seat of War in Virginia. 364 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. his voice tremblins: with emotion, Ree exclaimed: "General, they are beating us back ! " Jackson, unmoved by the storm of bursting shells and whistling bullets, calmly replied : " Sir, we will give them the bayonet." Inspired by his words, Bee rushed back to his men, and, pointing with his sword to Jackson, shouted : " Look, there is Jackson standing like a stone wall ! Let us determine to die here, and we will conquer." His troops rallied, and, taking their position on the right of the leader thenceforth to be known by the immortal name of " Stonewall Jackson," all swept steadily forward, and the Federal onset was checked. A desperate conflict followed, the gallant Bee falling at the head of his men. At 3 o'clock a detachment of Johnston's army, hurrying from the valley, struck the Hank of the Federal advance. At the same time a charge of the entire Confederate line was ordered. The Union troops were unable to hold their ground, but gave way, and fled panic-stricken to Washington. 537. Effect of the Battle. — At the South every one was jubilant. Tc JXinns were echoed from the houses of worship. The impression spread that the war was virtually over; many of the volunteers, under this impression, returned to their homes. In the North a deep sense of humiliation at first pre- vailed, but this feeling soon gave place to a determination to wipe out the disgrace with victory. After the first feeling of despondency came the conviction that the war was to be a long and desperate struggle. This defeat taught the people of the North that they must prepare for a terrible war, such as the western continent had never seen. Congress voted to call out half a million men. To the North the defeat was a blessing in disguise, while it made the South overconfident. 538. Operations in Missouri. — Governor Jackson, of Mis- souri, tried to get his state, in which sentiment was divided, to juin the Confederacy. His attempt was frustrated by FIRST YEAR OF THE WAR. 365 ^ / V ■* '^ ^ ^ \ '^ . "'^ ) Sprmigfield JEFFERSON v° / CITY %'^- V ^,;4r^ Springfield-^ \ ■-*r^ OrM- //HI ,-^ ^ .4#O^V ''%v^ MJ \ fj Nathaniel Lyon, who seized the arsenal at St. Louis to prevent its being used to arm the Confederates, and then broke up the Confederate encampment of Camp Jackson. The gov- ernor called for Confederate volunteers, and placed General Sterling Price in command. At first the Confederates were driven back, but being rein- forced by troops from Arkansas and Texas, under General Ben McCuUoch, they met and de- feated the Union army at Wil- son's Creek, in which engage- ment Lyon lost his life. The Confederates were gradually driven southward, and Missouri was held by the Union forces. operation. ,n Missouri. 539. Operations on the Coast. — On the sea the South was at a disadvantage. She had no war-ships to break up the blockade. President Davis, in reprisal for the blockade, granted "letters of marque," permitting private vessels sailing under the Confederate flag to prey on the commerce of the United States. A few Confederate vessels were built during the first year, which did immense damage. The two most famous were the Sumter and the Nashville. Steamers built for swiftness to run the blockade frequently succeeded in carrying out car- goes of cotton and bringing back war supplies and other neces- sary articles of commerce. During 1861 the Union navy captured the forts of Cape Hatteras and Port Royal, S.C. No important naval engagement took place during this year. 540. The Trent Affair. — The South, as we have already seen (§ 532), hoped for aid from England and France. To endeavor to secure this aid. Mason and Slidell were sent as commissioners to those countries. Running the blockade, 366 msTOKY OF our country. they reached Havana, and there embarked on an English mail steamer, the Trent, for England. This steamer was stopped by the United States sloop-of-war San Jacinto, commanded by Captain Wilkes, and the commissioners were taken off as prison- ers of war. The North was at first delighted with this capture, but England angrily demanded the release of the prisoners, and began to prepare for war. It seemed that the hope of the Confederacy was to be realized, and war between England and the United States would follow. But the war was averted. The Queen and Prince Albert urged pacific measures, and Secretary of State Seward released the prisoners and placed them under British protection. The capture was directly con- trary to the principle for which the United States had fought in 1812, — the right of neutrals to be free from search. Secre- tary Seward won an important diplomatic victory in this trans- action, for war with England was averted, and England was committed against the right of search. 541. Summary of the First Year of the War. — At Fort Sumter the war began. In Virginia the Confederates were successful, and won a l)ril- liant victory at liull Run. In Missouri the Confederates gained a victory at Wilson's Creei<, but before the end of the year retired to the extreme South, leaving the state in the hands of the Union soldiers. The navy of the United .States was very successful, both in shutting up the ports, making the blockade effectual, and in capturing several important forts. EVENTS OF 1862. IX THE WEST. The Confederate line of defense west of the Cumberland Mountains was under the command of the brilliant Texas soldier, Albert Sidney Johnston. This line extended from the Cumberland Moimtains through Mill Spring to Columbus on the Mississippi, and included Fort Henry on the Tennessee and Fort 1 )oneIson on the Cumberland, the forts being within twelve miles ol each other. Arrayed against this line of EVENTS OF 1802. 367 defense was General Buell with a force of 100,000 men in central Kentucky, and General Grant with 15,000 men at Cairo* 111. 542. Mill Spring. — In January a division of Buell's army under General George H. Thomas moved against the Confed- Operations in the West. erate force at Mill Spring. The gallant General Zollicoffer, commanding the Confederates, was killed in the engagement, and his force was pushed back into Tennessee. 543. Forts Henry and Donelson. — The Federals had con- centrated forces and gunboats at the mouths of the Tennessee and the Cumberland Rivers, with the intention of using these streams as highways for penetrating Confederate territory. In February General Grant embarked on a fleet of gunboats, com- manded by Commodore Foote, and moved up the Tennessee River. When within a few miles of Fort Henry, Grant's force marched out to surround the fort and prevent the escape of the garrison. Commodore Foote moved up the river and stormed the fort from the water side. The little force of 2500 368 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. men had two forces aggregating 16,000 men closing in upon it. With a few hundred men, the commander of the fort engaged the gunboats, while the major portion of his command left the fort before Grant appeared, and made their escape to Fort Donel- son. Only a small force surrendered, but the loss of the fort was a severe blow to the South, as the Tennessee was now open. Grant and Foote, with 35,000 men, now moved on Fort l)on- elson. The fort was defended by 15,000 men under Generals Floyd, Pillow, and Buckner. During the first day of the battle several gunboats were disabled. Commodore Foote was wounded, and the fleet retired from the siege. The land force was also driven from an important position, so that a line of retreat was opened for the Confederates. Afterward the tide turned against the Confederates, and the Federal forces gained a strong posi- tion. The officers commanding the fort felt their danger, but could not agree upon a course to pursue. Generals Floyd, Pillow, and Forrest, taking three or four thousand men with them, left the fort during the night and escaped. General Buckner asked for a conference to arrange terms of surrender. Grant replied that he would grant no terms but "unconditional surrender." General Buckner surrendered without terms the force of more than 10,000 men that remained in the fort. The line of defense was now broken, Nashville was aban- doned, and the Confederate forces retired through Tennessee into northern Mississippi. 544. Battle of Shiloh or Pittsburg Landing. — General Grant moved up the Tennessee River and encamped at Pitts- burg Landing, near the boundary line between Mississippi and Tennessee. Buell's army was marching to join Grant, and together they intended to crush the Confederates. But Gen- eral Johnston had no idea of being crushed, and he did not wait to be attacked. On the morning of April 6 he fell on Grant's army near Shiloh church, and a severe fight ensued. The Confederates were everywhere victorious ; they drove the GENERAL GRANT. EVENTS OF 1863. 369 Federal forces in confusion back upon the gunboats lying in the river. But at the height of their success, when it seemed that Grant's army would be captured or forced to surrender, late in the after- noon General Johnston, whose brilliant personal leadership had inspired the success, was killed. Beauregard came from a sick bed to take command, some confusion ensued, and the final blow was not struck. During the night Buell's army joined Grant's, and the Confed- erates were outnumbered nearly two to one. The next morning the combined Federal armies attacked the Con- federates, and, after a day of the most stubborn and bloody fighting, drove the Confederates from the positions they had gained under Johnston. Beauregard retired to Corinth. In this battle the Confederates had 40,000 ; the Federals, on the second day, about 70,000. General Halleck now took charge of the united Federal forces of the west, and slowly advanced upon Corinth. Beau- regard withdrew from Corinth and retreated southward. 545. On the Upper Mississippi. — When the Confederates retired from Kentucky, Columbus on the Mississippi and Island No. 10, two Confederate strongholds, were given up. With their withdrawal from Tennessee came the fall of Fort Pillow and Memphis. The Mississippi was thus opened as far as Vicksburg. Kentucky and Tennessee had fallen into the hands of the Union army, and the state officials of Tennessee General Albert Sidney Johnston. 370 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. withdrew from Nashville. President Lincoln appointed Andrew Johnson military governor of Tennessee. 546. Battle of Pea Ridge. — It had been General Johnston's plan to have the troops west of the Mississippi unite with his forces before any attack was made on the Union army. This plan was frustrated by the Union army under General Curtis. A bloody engagement at Pea Ridge, or Elk Horn, in Arkansas, on March 7, in which the Confederates suffered severe loss, including the gallant General Ben McCuUoch, destroyed all hope of reinforcing Johnston, and left Missouri in the hands of the Union army. 547. Bragg's Invasion. — After Beauregard evacuated Cor- inth he was succeeded by General Bragg, who undertook to invade Tennessee and Kentucky and recover them for the Confederacy. He occupied Chattanooga, and, aided by Gen- eral Kirby Smith, penetrated Kentucky to the vicinity of Louis- ville without much opposition. General Smith's command won a victory at Richmond, Kentucky. Buell, who had been watching Bragg's movements, ran a race with him and got to Louisville first. The battle of Perryville was fought between the two armies on the 8th of October. The Confederates were successful in the fight, but the Union forces were so much stronger in numbers that Bragg retreated to Chattanooga, carrying with him an immense quantity of arms, ammunition, and other supplies which he had captured. The Union army took position at Nashville. 548. luka and Corinth. — When Bragg moved northward he left a strong Confederate force under Van Dorn and Price to watch Grant, who occupied Corinth. Two of the hottest fights of the war occurred between these armies. At luka the Confederates lost the day, and their attack on Corinth, though at first successful, ended in defeat' (October 4, 1862). 1 Colonel \V. P. Rogers of the Second Texas led a charge upon the Federal intrenchinents, and fell with the colors in his hand just as he had leaped upon the EVENTS OF 1862. 371 549. Battle of Murfreesboro. — From Chattanooga the Con- federate troops moved toward Nashville, intrenching themselves at Murfreesboro with the intention of going into winter quarters. But Rosecrans, who had succeeded Buell in command of the Union army, decided to attack the Confederates. Bragg moved out to meet him. The armies were unequally matched — 43,000 Federals to 37,000 Confederates — and here, on the last day of the year, began one of the bloodiest battles of the war. By a singular coincidence each of the generals had formed the plan of attacking his opponent's right wing. Bragg was first; and his left wing drove back Rosecrans's right, with great loss, so as to uncover lialf of the field, and to permit General Wharton, of Texas, with his cavalry force, to get in the rear of the Union army, and intercept supply trains, and capture 2000 prisoners. The next attack was made on the Union center. . Here the defense of the Union soldiers was heroic, but the line was carried at the point of the bayonet. The remaining wing was now charged, but it was in a very advantageous position and held its ground. The battle lasted three days, neither side gaining a victory. On the night of January 3 (1863), Bragg withdrew his forces, and both armies went into winter quarters. The loss of the Confederates was 9865 ; of the Federals, 13,249. 550. On the Lower Mississippi; Capture of New Orleans; Sibley in New Mexico. — We have seen (§ 534) that it was an important part of the plan of conquering the South that it should be deprived of the control of the Mississippi River. We have also seen (§545) that the upper Mississippi had been opened as far as Vicksburg. New Orleans was a place of much im- portance to the Confederacy, both because it was the great embankment and was cheering on his men. The Federal troops, in admiration of his bravery, gave his body an honorable burial. General W. L. Cabell, whose desperate valor won him the appellation of " Old Tige," was severely wounded on the Federal breastworks while charging at the head of an Arkansas brigade. It was at Corinth that General Sul Ross, of Texas, obtained the title of "the hero of Corinth." 372 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTKV. metropolis of the South, and because it guarded the mouth of the Mississippi. In November, i86i,the United States govern- ment decided to fit out an expedition to capture New Orleans. This expedition (the most powerful naval force that had ever sailed under the United States flag) consisted of nearly fifty armed vessels, including war sloops, gunboats, and bomb schooners, the bomb schooners being a special force under the control of Commodore Porter. The fleet was commanded by Captain Farragut. The vessels carried a land force of 15,000 soldiers under General JJ. F. Butler to be used as occasion might require. New Orleans, hearing early in the year of the mighty preparations for its capture, set to work as best she could to prepare defenses. On opposite banks, seventy-five miles below the city, Forts Jackson and St. Philip were built to guard the mouth of the Mississippi. A raft of logs and hulks, lashed together with chains, was stretched across the river above the forts to bar the passage of vessels. With its utmost efforts the city could collect only a small fleet of twelve vessels. Of these the only iron-clad war-ship, the Louisiana, from which mucii was hoped, could not be gotten ready in time, and remained tied up to the bank during the engagement. Rafts designed to be fired and pushed down upon the enemy were also prepared. All the Confederate soldiers except one company had been sent to the front; the city was defended by a force of 3000 volunteers, poorly armed and inexperienced, commanded by Major Lovell. On April 18 the mortar boats began shelling the forts; they kept up the bombardment six days, firing in all about 20,000 shells. The forts returned the fire with vigor. Little damage was done to either side. Captain Farragut, tired of the futile attack upon the forts, resolved to try other measures. A night expedition cut the chains which held the great raft, and before day on the morning of the 24th the fleet of gunboats attempted to proceed up the river. A fierce engagement ensued, 'i'he flash of cannon was incessant, collisions both accidental and EVENTS OF 1862. 373 intended crippled and sank vessels, burning boats drifted help- lessly down stream, and fire-rafts were pushed against the Union ships. Many of the Confederate boats were destroyed by the enemy, others were destroyed by their crews to keep them from falling into the enemy's hands ; only one was saved. The Union forces lost many boats, but in the end thirteen of them steamed up to New Orleans and demanded the surrender of the city.' The volunteer force, fearing to provoke the bombardment and destruction of the city, offered no resistance. General Butler came in with his soldiers and established military control. His rule was so unjust, tyrannical, and rapacious that President Davis issued a proclamation outlawing him. The loss of New Orleans was the greatest blow the Confed- eracy received during the year. The Mississippi River was now almost opened to the Union vessels. The Confederates still held strong forts at Vicksburg and Port Hudson, and con- tinued to hold them during this year. In Ne%o Mexico. — In the winter of 186 1-2 a brigade of Texans under General H. H. Sibley entered New Mexico, defeated the Federal troops under General Canby at Val Verde, occupied Santa Fe', and were again successful in the engage- ment at Glorietta. Finding his small force and scanty supplies inadequate to hold the territory, Sibley retired toward Texas. At Peralta a severe engagement took place. The Texans, con- tinuing their retreat, returned to San Antonio. in the east. Operations on the Sea, 551. The Monitor and the Merrimac. — For the first time in the history of the world, vessels covered with iron were to 1 The Union force had 302 guns, 63 per cent of which were above 32-pound calibre. The Confederate forts and vessels had 166 guns, only 30 per cent of which were above 32-pound calibre. The Union fleet that steamed up the river carried 192 guns, while the Confederate fleet had only 40 guns, and 16 of these, the best, were on the useless Louisiana. 374 HISTOKV ()!•• OUR COUNTRY, be used in nnval warfare. England and France had built iron- clads, but they had never been tested in battle. The Confed- erates raised the frigate Alcrrimac, which had been sunk when the Federal navy-yard at Norfolk was abandoned, and, after plans originated by John M. Brooke,' refitted it as an iron- clad ram. When finished, this vessel, rechristened the Vir- ^iniiU presented a very formidable appearance, and was the first iron-clad ever tried in battle. Cannon balls rebounded harm- less from her sides. On March 8 she left the port, steamed into Hampton Roads (at the mouth of the James), and played havoc with the pow- erful Union Heet King there. The Cumberland was sinik, the Coiii^rcss was burnt, and the other ships were driven into the shoals or put to tlight. Conster- nation spread in the North, . where it was feared that the new iron-clad would attack her great sea-ports. Fven Washington itself would be at the mercy of the monster. While the J/i-r/vw^zr was being iron- plated. John Ericsson had been busy at New Vork inventing and constructing a turret ship, named the Monitor. It was a small, Hat craft, much smaller than the Viri^inia, and very much less exposed to the enemy's fire, and carried in a revolving turret two guns so enormous that they could shoot heavier balls than had ever been used in war. So great was the hurry to get the Monitor to Hampton Roads that the vessel had not been tested, and little was known ' Brooke was an associate and co-laborer of Commodore Maury, lie liad invented an apparatus for deep-sea soundings (§ 503). John M Brooke. EVENTS OF 1862. 375 of its real merit. It reached Hampton Roads in the night, and took up a position behind the Minnesota. Early the next morn- ing when the Virginia steamed forth to complete her work of destruction, she was unexpectedly confronted by her little iron opponent. Four hours of desperate combat ensued. When the fighting ceased the Monitor was considerably damaged. She retired to shallow water where the Virginia could not reach her and where she was protected by the guns along shore. She was afterwards instructed not to risk another engagement with the Virgifiia, and though the Virginia twice afterward appeared in the waters of Hampton Roads, the Monitor kept her safe position. When Norfolk was captured by the Federals the Virginia was destroyed by the Confederates. At the end of the year the Monitor iownd&xtd off Cape Hatteras. This day's battle revolutionized naval warfare. Both the Confederate and United States governments began the con- struction of iron- clad vessels, and the navies of all foreign powers had to be recon- structed. The Union navy was suc- cessful in many places along the coast. At the end of the year only two large sea-port towns on the Atlantic coast, Charleston and Wilmington, were preserved to the Confederacy. The blockade became more and more effectual as the places to be guarded decreased in number. The Monitor and the Merrimac. Operations in Virginia. 552. Advance toward Richmond ; the Peninsular Cam- paign. — McClellan, who, on account of his successes in West 376 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. Virginia, had l)een called to take command of the Northern army, had spent the winter of 1 86 1-2 in drilling his men and preparing for an advance on Richmond. Instead of pursuing the plan of the previous year, he decided to sail down the Potomac and Chesapeake Bay, and. landing at Fortress Mon- Eastern Virginia and the Shenandoah Valley. roe, to approach the Confederate capital by way of the penin- sula between the James and the York Rivers. General J. E. Johnston now commanded the Confederate forces on the Peninsula. After a month's siege, early in May, Yorktown was evacuated. Johnston withdrew before the superior forces of McClellan. At Williamsburg an indecisive engagement took place. McClellan continued to advance. The Confed- GENERAL LEE. EVENTS OF 1862. 377 erates abandoned Norfolk and Federal gunboats steamed up the James toward Richmond, which was now threatened by McClellan from the Peninsula, McDowell from Fredericksburg, and by the Union fleet. The batteries of Fort Darling on James River, eight miles below Richmond, stopped the advance of the Federal gunboats. In order that when a junction with McDowell was made, an army might still be between the Confederate army and Washington, McClellan threw but a part of his forces across the Chickahominy River. While the river was in a swollen condition, separating the two divisions, Johnston attacked that part of the army which was on the south side of the Chickahominy. In this battle, called Seven Pines, or Fair Oaks, McClellan barely escaped a complete rout. Johnston was severely wounded in the battle, and had to withdraw from the command. He was succeeded by Gen- eral Robert E. Lee, who commanded the army of Virginia until the close of the war. 553- "Stonewall" Jackson's Valley Campaign. — Mc- Clellan had expected to be reinforced by McDowell. To prevent this. General T. J. Jackson undertook to clear the Shenandoah Valley of Federal troops, and even to threaten Washington. The campaign was one of the most brilliant in history. Concealing his plans even from his own officers, in forty days he marched his army of 15,000 men nearly 400 miles, attacked and defeated in succession four bodies of troops com- manded by Milroy, Banks, Fremont, and Shields, aggregating three times his own force. Washington was thought to be in danger, and McDowell, instead of reinforcing McClellan, was called back to the capital to protect it from Jackson. Having secured this result, Jackson left the valley region and had united his forces with Lee's before his adversaries knew what he was about. Meanwhile, General J. E. B. Stuart had made his famous cavalry ride around McClellan's army, doing much 378 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY damage and greatly interfering with that commander's plans, besides learning the exact position of his troops. 554. The Seven Days' Battles. — Lee now determined to strike that part of McClellan's army which was still north of the Chickahominy. Keeping part of his forces near Richmond to defend the city, he threw a body of troops across the Chicka- hominy to attack the Federal positio" at Mechanicsville, while Stonewall Jackson, from the Shenandoah Valley, at the same time fell upon the enemy's Hank. McClellan was driven from his intrenchments (June 26). At Gaines's Mill, on the next day, Lee again attacked him and won a brilliant vic- tory. Discouraged by defeat, and cut ofT from his base of supplies on the York River. Mc- Clellan now withdrew all his forces to the south side of the Chickahominy, and began a retrograde movement toward the shelter of the Union gunboats on the James River, where a new base of supplies could be established. His retreating columns were assailed by the (Confederates on successive days at Savage Station, Frazer's Farm, and White Oak Swamp, suffering heavy loss. At Malvern Hill Lee's victo- rious troops were checked. But during the night McClellan continued his retreat, finally reaching the protection of the Federal gunboats at Harrison's Landing on the J lines. Here The Seven Days' Battles. EVENTS OF 1862. 379 he began to reorganize his discomfited forces. For seven days there had been incessant fighting. McClellan's troops were recalled to Washington, and the Peninsular Campaign ended in failure. (Map, p. 376.) 555- Pope in Command ; Second Battle of Manassas. — The forces around Washington were organized and united under the name of the Army of Virginia, and General John Pope, who had won considerable reputation in the capture of Island No. 10 on the Mississippi, was put in command. McClellan's forces were ordered to unite with him. Pope chose the overland route against Richmond. While McClellan was withdrawing his forces and Lee was guarding Richmond from the Peninsula, Jackson was sent to check Pope. He defeated Pope's right wing at Cedar Mountain. As McClellan's command joined Pope, Lee's army was drawn forward to resist the united enemy. On August 30 Lee and Jackson attacked the combined Federal forces at the old battle-ground of Bull Run. In this second battle of Manassas Pope's army was utterly defeated, and after an ineffectual stand at Chantilly (September i) took refuge within the fortifications of Washington. The combined Union forces around Washington were again placed in command of McClellan. 556. First Invasion of the North ; Battle of Antietam or Sharpsburg. — Lee determined to invade the North. He crossed into Maryland and occupied Frederick City, north of Washington, threatening both Baltimore and Philadelphia. McClellan moved forward to intercept his march and Lee turned to the northwest. On the way Jackson captured Harper's Ferry with 12,000 Federal troops and large military stores. McClellan hastened after Lee and overtook him at Sharpsburg on Antietam Creek. Here on September 17 was fought one of the bloodiest battles of the war. Lee's army numbered about 40,000 and McClellan's more than twice as 380 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. many. Each side lost over 10,000 men without either gaining the victory. Lee, unable to defeat McClellan. who was con- tinually receiving reenforcements, had to abandon his invasion of the North, and to retire across the Potomac into West Virginia. The Federal government, again dissatisfied with McClellan, put General Ambrose E. Burnside in command of the Army of the Potomac. 557. Battle of Fredericksburg. — Burnside chose to march upon Richmond by way of Fredericksburg, hoping to reach that place before Lee. His army now numbered about 125,000, about twice as many men as Lee had. Crossing the Rappahan- nock, he found that Lee had fortified himself at Fredericksburg. The Federal army attacked (December 13) and were repulsed with heavy loss,^ — over 12,000 men, more than twice as many as the Confederates lost. Burnside withdrew across the Rap- pahannock and was superseded by General Joe Hooker. The two armies lay facing each other without any engagement until spring. 558. Emancipation Proclamation. — President Lincoln had announced that the war was not against slavery, but to maintain the Union. Accordingly when the Union generals conquered slave territory and wished to declare the slaves therein free, he forbade them. Slaves were becoming more and more useful to the Confederates as teamsters, builders of earth-works, etc. General Butler declared that they were sub- ject to capture as any other property, and accordingly claimed them as " contraband of war." The president had recommended to Congress to appropriate money to purchase the slaves of loyal masters. But the con- gressmen from the slave states which had not seceded opposed this policy and it was not adopted. At last Lincoln decided 1 Official estimate of the Federal loss is 12,410 ; of the Confederate loss, 11,172. EVENTS OF 1862. 381 that slavery must be abolished. He reached this conclusion early in the year 1862, but did not announce it until September. The Confederates had been very successful in Virginia, and such a proclamation would create the impression that the North was in a critical condition and grasping at straws. The battle of Antietarh, though a drawn battle, was claimed as a Union victory because Lee withdrew from Maryland. Lincoln seized the opportunity. He issued a preliminary proclamation declaring that after January i, 1863, all the slaves in that part of the Union then in arms against the United States government would be set free. No attention was paid to the announcement, and accordingly on January i, 1863, he issued the famous Proclamation of Emancipation. This proclamation did not apply to the Union states, nor to those portions of the Confederacy which were then under Federal control (§§ 534, 544, 545). 559. Summary of Events of 1862. — In the East. The Army of the Potomac, a large and thoroughly drilled force, was put under the command of General McClellan. He attempted to reach Richmond from the south- east by way of the Peninsula. Washington was protected meanwhile by an army under McDowell. Johnston, the Confederate leader, slowly withdrew towards Richmond. He was wounded at Seven Pines, and was succeeded by General R. E. Lee. To prevent McClellan from receiving assistance from McDowell, Jackson was sent up the Shenandoah Valley. McDowell was thus forced to retire to Washington to protect that city. Jackson then quickly rejoined Lee and aided him in the Seven Days' Battles. McClellan was forced to abandon his advance on Richmond. The authorities at Washington, dissatisfied with McClellan, ordered him to unite his forces with those of Pope, who had been given charge of the army. Lee sent Jackson against Pope's army, which was defeated by him at Cedar Mountain. In the Second Battle of Manassas Pope's army was completely overthrown. Lee seized the opportunity to invade the North. McClellan was sent after him, and after the battle of Sharpsburg, or Antietam, Lee withdrew into northwest Virginia to recruit his army. The Union army was then given to Burnside, who endeavored to place his army between Lee and Richmond. At Fredericksburg he found himself confronted by the Southern army and was defeated. He was superseded by General Hooker. Thus three campaigns against Richmond ended in failure. 382 HISTORY OF OUK LOUMRV In Ihe West. The Confederates were driven out of Kentucky, and after the capture of Fort Donelson by Grant, Tennessee also was lost to them. General A. S. Johnston was killed at Shiloh at the moment of victory : Beauregard, who succeeded him, retreated south to Corinth. Followed by the Union army he abandoned that place. The Southern army was given to Bragg, who invaded Kentucky, and managed to elude Buell and escape safely back to Chattanooga. The Union army was given to General Ro.secrans, and on the last day of the year the two armies met in the bloody and indecisive battle of Murfreesboro. Union forces gained possession of the Mississippi above Vicksburg, and captured the city of New Orleans. This was also a year of great naval battles. The fight between the Afoiiitor and the Merriimic revolutionized naval warfare, introducing iron-clad war-ves.sels. Charleston, Wilmington, and Mobile were the only seaboard towns still held by the Confederacy. EVENTS OF 1863. /.\- rflE EAST. 560. Chancellorsville. — In the spring of 1863 (ieneral Hooker, — "Fighting Joe Hooker," as he was called, — with more than 130,000' men, prepared to move against Lee, whose army numbered about 53,000. The Federal commander sent Averill with 3000 cavalry to dislodge Lee's pickets on the Rappahannock, but they were driven back by 800 of Stuart's cavalry under Fitzhugh Lee. Here the gallant Pelham fell. Hooker's plan of attack at Chancellorsville was well con- ceived. He threw forward 50,000 men under General Sedg- wick against Lee's right as a feint, while he massed the greater part of his army, over 73,000 men. on his own right to attack and crush the Confederate left. He sent 10,000 cavalry around to the rear of Lee's army to cut off his commimications and head off retreats. Lee divined Hooker's plan and out-man(tu\ red him at every point. He at once advanced his forces and threw Hooker on 1 On April 30 Hooker h.id 133,708 " present, equipped for duty " ; Lee had 53.303 present for duty at Chancellorsville. GENERAL JACKSON. EVENTS OF 1863. 383 the defensive. Then, detaching Stuart with a brigade of cav- alry to protect his communications, and holding about one- third of his army in Hooker's front, he sent Stonewall Jackson with less than 30,000 men around to strike his rear. Jackson moved swiftly and silently ; at 6 p.m., May 2d, "his men burst with a cheer upon the startled enemy, swept down the line, and captured the cannon before they could be reversed to fire upon them."^ The Federals fled panic-stricken, and onward rushed Jackson's force so rapidly his ranks became broken. While his men halted to re-form, Jackson rode forward with a small party in advance of his lines to reconnoiter. Fired on by some Federal infantry, he turned back. His party was mis- taken by his own troops for Federal cavalry and fired upon. Several were killed, and Jackson was grievously wounded, and died eight days later. On Sunday, May loth, he died. " ' Order A. P. Hill to prepare for action,' he cried in the delirium just before death ; 'pass the infantry to the front rapidly ; tell Major Hawks ' — he stopped, and then, with a feeling of relief, he said, ' Let us pass over the river, and rest under the shade of the trees.' "^ Thus this heroic Christian soldier passed over the river and rested under the shade of the trees of Paradise. " If I had had Stonewall Jackson, I would have won at Gettysburg," said General Lee afterward. His death was an irreparable loss to the South. No nobler character adorns the annals of history. (See " Stonewall Jackson," in Appendix.) General J. E. B. Stuart succeeded Jackson in command, and on the morning of May 3d, with magnificent daring, he charged the Federals, who had been reinforced by 20,000 men from Sedgwick's corps and were now strongly intrenched. Twice repulsed, Stuart placed himself at the head of his men and, as he sang " Old Joe Hooker, won't you come out of the wilder- ness?" charged again, drove the Federals in disorder from their breastworks, and reunited the two main divisions of Lee's 1 General Fitzlnigli Lee, in his admirable "General Lee" (Great Commander Series). 384 lllSTUKV OK OUK COUNTHV. army in triumph. Sedgwick, who was thirteen miles away when the battle began, moved up during the night with 30,000 men, and on the morning of the 3d was fighting his way, in spite of stubborn resistance, to the Confederate rear. Lee stopped Stuart's pursuit of Hooker and, turning his attention to Sedgwick, on May 4th, near nightfall, defeated and drove him back to the river. Sedgwick retreated across the river during the night. Hooker was saved by a storm from further attack, and stole away under cover of night on the 5th. Hooker lost at Chan- cellorsville 17,197. Lee's loss was 10,281. This superb vic- tory put Lee in the front rank of military commanders. 561. Lee's Second Invasion of the North. — After his bril- liant victories around Chancellorsville, Lee determined to transfer the seat of war to Northern soil. Leaving General A. P. Hill with a corps to watch Hooker, whose great army was too well intrenched on Stafford Heights to be attacked without danger of disaster, Lee moved Northward. Hooker withdrew Northward also, keeping between the Confederates and Wash- ington, and Hill joined in the Northward movement. On the march Stuart defeated a combined infantry and cavalry force under Pleasanton at Beverly's Ford, June 9, and Ewell routed Milroy at Winchester, capturing 4000 prisoners, June 14-15, thus clearing the Shenandoah Valley. With his army of 70,000, Lee hurried on, passing west of the mountains, and entered Pennsylvania. Harrisburg and Philadelphia were threatened. Consternation spread throughout the North. 562. Battle of Gettysburg. — Just on the eve of the meet- ing of the two armies General Hooker was superseded by (ieneral George G. Meade, who commanded the L^nion forces in the great battle which followed. Meade determined, in pur- suance of Hooker's plans, to move through Maryland into Pennsylvania and cause a battle by threatening Lee's com- EVENTS OF 1863. 385 General Meade. munications. Lee, apprehending his purpose, turned and began to concentrate his army at Gettysburg. Here, on July i, the great battle began; 26,000 Confederates, two-thirds of Ewell's corps and two-thirds of A. P. Hill's, with artillery, defeated and drove back with heavy loss 23,000 Federals, — 20,000 infantry under Rey- nolds, who was killed in the engagement, and 3000 cav- alry under Buford. The Confederates captured 5000 prisoners. Pursuit of the Federals was not pressed, and, the main body of their army coming up during the night and next morning, they intrenched themselves on Cemetery Ridge and Culp's Hill (see map, p. 386). As the Confederate army came up they took position on Seminary Ridge. On the second day of the battle (July 2), in spite of unexpected delay in making the attack, the Confederates drove the Federals under General Sickles, Hood's division leading the onset, from a strong position on the right, and Ewell gained and kept a foothold on Culp's Hill. At one time during the day Round Top was won and Little Round Top almost captured by the Confederates, but, after furious fighting, they were given up. The Federal loss on the second day was about 10,000 men. The Federals at Gettysburg had the advan- tage of superior numbers, strong intrenchments on heights dififi- cult of access, and position on interior lines (see map, p. 386). General Lee, encouraged by the success of the first and second days, determined to press the attack on the morning of the third. Ewell was to assail the Federal right on Culp's Hill, while Longstreet, aided by Hill, was to storm the left center, 386 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. commanded by Hancock, on Cemetery Ridge. Ewell attacked in tiie morning, and, in spite of heroic efforts, failed to carry Culp's Hill, and was finally compelled to retire. After several hours' delay, at i I'.M., the Confederate artillery on the right opened fire. The Federals responded, and for two hours nearly 300 cannon "volleyed and thundered." At last the cannon- ading ceased and the long, magnificent line of Confederates moved forward and stormed Cemetery Ridge. Over the ridge behind which they had lain pro- tected during the artillery duel, down the slope and up the heights, three-quarters of a mile, less than 14,000 heroes in gray^ charged an army of 100,000 men. At 1100 yards the Federal cannon reo- pened fire, and the shot cut windrows through the advancing lines. The Con- federates closed up and pressed on. The advance reached the Federal works, captured their guns, and planted the Confederate Hag on the outer stone wall ; but they were not supported, and under a terrific fire from the front and both flanks they went back, the 14,000 now but 7000. 'Fhe charge had failed. In heroic daring it has never been sur- passed. "It is all my fault," said the great-hearted Lee, as, after the charge, he rallied his shattered troops, thus taking upon himself the shortcomings of his lieutenants. He had intended that Kwell and Longstreet should attack at the same time, earlv in the morning, and had expected Longstreet to lead his entire corps and so much of Hill's corps as he might need, nearly 40,000 men in all, in the charge on Cemetery Ridge. Ewell, knowing nothing of the delay, attacked in the morning. Tte ROUND TOP ifUND TOP 1 "Pickett's division of 5000 men, with Wilcox's brigade of 1200 on the right, Heth's and Pender's divisions together numbering 7000 on the left." — Fitz Lee's " Life of K. E. Lee," pp. 287, 288, and 297. EVENTS OF 1863. 387 The Federals were reinforced and foiled him, and Longstreet attacked with a little more than one-third of the forces under his command in the afternoon. Lee was also greatly embar- rassed by the absence, until the evening of the second day, of Stuart and his cavalry. This battle was the turning-point in the war. The invincible army of northern Virginia, though not defeated, was checked. The 20,000 brave veterans who were lost at Gettysburg could not be replaced. Courage at the North revived, and the South began to grow weary of the unequal contest. Meade had about 100,000 men at Gettysburg; Lee about 70,000. The Federal loss was 23,003 ; the Confederate loss, 20,451. Lee, after waiting a day for an attack from Meade, began to withdraw to the Potomac and Virginia. He was fol- lowed — at a safe distance — by the Union army as far as the Rapidan. Here the two armies remained during the rest of the year, and this was their position when Grant assumed command the following year. ON THE MISSISSIPPI. 563. Fall of Vicksburg. — While the important events, the battle of Chancellorsville and the invasion of the North, were occupying the attention of the forces in the East, Grant made several attempts to gain possession of Vicksburg, all of which were unsuccessful. Van Dorn made a daring raid upon Grant's base of supplies at Holly Springs, destroyed his stores, and compelled him to retreat. Sherman, whom Grant sent from Memphis with 32,000 men to surprise Vicksburg, was defeated with heavy loss at Chickasaw Bayou, five miles from Vicksburg, by a part of Pemberton's army under General S. D. Lee. Grant then attempted without success to change the course of the Missis- sippi River by digging a canal across a great bend. This would have left Vicksburg off of the Mississippi River. Finally S88 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. he hit upon a plan. By a daring movement the gunboats were run past the city, and (Irant himself moved down the west side of the river, and crossed the Mississippi in his gunboats. He pushed on to Jackson, Mississippi, thus preventing General J. E. Johnston, who had general com- mand of the depart- ment, from coming to the aid of Vicks- burg. Pemberton, who commanded the Confederate arinv near Vicks- burg, was defeated at Champion Hills and Big Black, and, contrary to John- ston's order, re- treated within his fortifications. Grant, after two un- successful attacks, determined to lay siege to the place and starve tlie people into surrender. After seven weeks' siege, the people being almost famished, Pember- ton, seeing no chance of success or relief, surrendered to General Grant. The surrender of Vicksburg was a heavy blow to the Confederacy. Over 30,000 prisoners were captured; large stores of firearms and ammunition, so much needed by the South, fell into the hands of the Federals ; the Mississippi was practically in the hands of the linion army. Vicksburg fell on the very day that Lee began his retreat from Pennsylvania, July 4, the anniversary of the Declaration of Independence. Five days later Port Hudson surrendered to General Banks's EVENTS OF 1863. 389 army, and the control of the Mississippi passed into the hands of the Federal government. The Confederacy was thus divided by Federal armies, and assistance from beyond the Mississippi was cut off.^ 564. On the Coast of Texas. — The efforts of the Union forces to gain a foothold on the soil of Texas were unsuccess- ful until the latter part of 1863. Galveston was occupied by them during the summer of 1862, but General Magruder resolved to recapture it for the Confederacy. He fitted out two small steamers with bulwarks of cotton and with cannon, and sent them against the Union fleet in the harbor. At the same time he landed a small force of troops and took posses- sion of the city January i, 1863. The attack on the Union ships was begun immediately. One of the Union ships was captured, another blown up, and the remaining ones steamed away. The expedition was brilliantly successful. After the capture of Port Hudson, Banks sent a strong detachment, con- sisting of four gunboats and transports, bearing a force esti- mated at from 5000 to 10,000, to take Sabine Pass and invade Texas from the south. The fort at the Pass was defended by forty-two men under Lieutenant Dick Dowling. Soon two of the vessels were disabled by the fire from the fort, and the other two, with the transports, retired from the siege. One hundred and fifty prisoners were taken by Lieutenant Dowling and his heroic band." IN THE IV EST. 565. Battle of Chickamauga. — After the battle of Mur- freesboro, which had begun on the last day of 1862, and lasted 1 General John Morgan, with 4000 Confederate cavalry, made a raid in July, 1863, through Tennessee and Kentucky, into Indiana and Ohio, causing great excite- ment. He was finally captured and imprisoned, but escaped soon after. •^ " The success of the single company which garrisoned this earthwork is witiiout parallel in ancient or modern war." — Jefferson Davis. 390 HISTORY OF OUK COUNTRY. through the first two days of 1863, the armies had long re- mained inactive. The Confederate General Bragg had with- drawn his forces, leaving the Union army under Rosecrans in possession of Murfrecsboro. For six months nothing was done on either side. In June General Rosecrans began a forward movement, Bragg retiring before him. Chattanooga thus fell into the hands of the Union army. I'fagg had halted at Chickamauga, in northwest Georgia, twelve miles from Chat- tanooga. Here he was reinforced by troops from Lee's army, under General Longstreet, and by Johnston from Mississippi. On September 19 an attack was begun by the Union army. The result of the first day's battle was indecisive. On the second day Rose- crans's forces were divided, and his right wing was com- pletely routed and retreated to Chattanooga. The left wing, under General George H. Thomas, the " Rock of Chickamauga," made a mag- nificent resistance, and saved the Union army from over- who now succeeded Rosecrans, retreated to Chattanooga, and Bragg began a siege of that place. General Thomas. whelming defeat. Thomas, 566. Siege of Chattanooga. — Thomas's army was com- pletely shut off from outside communications, and his capture seemed certain. Bragg had his forces strongly posted in the apparently impregnable positions on Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge. So sure was he of his success that he sent part of his forces, under Longstreet, against Burnside, who was at Knoxville. After the capture of Vicksburg Grant was EVENTS OF 1863. 391 put in charge of all the armies in the West. He collected forces from all the armies, and went to the relief of Chatta- nooga. General Hooker also brought forces from the Army of the Potomac. 567. Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge. — In order to relieve Chattanooga, Grant determined to take the Con- federate positions on Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge. To take Bragg's position, half a mile up the mountain, " above the clouds," seemed impossible. On November 24 Lookout Mountain was stormed ; on the following day the Confederate forces were driven from Missionary Ridge. Bragg retreated to Dalton, Ga., and the command of the army was turned over to General Johnston. Equally unsuccessful was General Long- street against Burnside. His attack on Knoxville was dis- astrously repulsed. General Grant hastened to Burnside's assistance, and Longstreet crossed into Virginia and rejoined Lee. 568. Conscription Act. — The war had lasted so long that it became necessary to force men into service on both sides by Con- scription Acts. Conscription was bitterly opposed in some parts of the North where opposition to the war was strong. The opposition culminated in what is known as the Draft Riot in New York City. This riot began on July 13, and for three days the city was in the hands of the mob. Their hatred of negroes was manifested by attacks upon them and by the burning of an orphan asylum for colored children. Governor Seymour tried to pacify the mob, but was unable to do so. About 100 people were killed. Finally, the police, assisted by troops, quelled the disturbance, and order was restored. The drafting of soldiers was a failure, and its only success lay in encouraging voluntary enlistment. The spirit of opposition to the war was so strong in the North that in August President 392 HISTOKV OF OUR COUNTRY. Lincoln suspended the writ of /lalwas corpus. The successes at Vicksburg and (Gettysburg tended, however, to arrest dis- affection and create sentiment in favor of the administration policy. 569. West Virginia.- In June of this year West Virginia was admitted into the L'nion (see § 531). 570. Summary of Events of 1863. — The year 1S63 was the turning point of the war. 'Ihc Mississippi had completely fallen into the hands of the United States by the capture of Vickshuig and Fort Hudson. In the East, Hooker had commenced operations by trying to march around the west of Fredericksburg and upon Richmond. He met disastrous defeat at Chancellorsville. Lee then invaded the North, reaching south Pennsylvania. Hooker followed him until superseded by Meade. The latter stationed himself in the Southern general's path at Gettysburg and Lee could not dislodge him. This forced the abandonment of the Northern invasion. In the West, Rosecrans had marched ujjon Bragg, who thereupon evacuated Chattanooga. He was overtaken, but turned and defeated Rosecrans at Chickamauga. The Union army retreated to Chattanooga and was closely besieged. Their ultimate surrender seemed certain. C«rant, who had on July 4 captured Vicksburg, came to Thomas's relief. Sher- man and Hooker also brought assistance. Bragg was defeated and resigned his command. His army was given to General J. E. Johnston. The same day that Lee began his retreat from Pennsylvania, Vicksburg surrendered to Crant. Thenceforth the South was wholly on the defensive, and was gradually e.\ii:iusting her strength. EVENTS OF 1864. 571. Earlier Movements. - The two important campaigns of 1864 did not begin till May. Up to this time some less important movements must engage our attention. Florida was invaded by a Union army to reclaim it for the Union, but the Federals were defeated at Ocean Pond. Gencriil S/urnhvi advanced from \'icksburg, Miss., to cap- ture Mobile. Ilet(jre up railroad and telegraph communica- EVENTS OF 1864. 393 tions around Meridian, and thus prevented any assistance to the Southern army from the west, and cut off the Confederate army in northern Georgia from a good basis of supplies. The cavalry which he expected to assist him was met and defeated by General Forrest. Sherman, after inflicting considerable damage, returned to Vicksburg. Forrest, after driving the Union cavalry back to Memphis, continued his raid. He attacked Paducah, Ky., but was unsuccessful. He turned southward into Tennessee and captured Fort Pillow, manned principally by negro troops. Most of them were killed. The Red River expedition under General Banks resulted in the com- plete failure of the Federals. This expedition was to capture Shreveport and conquer the rest of Louisiana. Banks was so thoroughly beaten by an inferior force under General Dick Taylor at Mansfield (Sabine Cross Roads) and Pleasant Hill that he was glad to get back to New Orleans. The gunboats which accompanied Banks's army were barely rescued. Gen- eral Kirby Smith, who commanded the Trans-Mississippi department, then moved across northwest Louisiana and, though checked at Jenkins Ferry, compelled the Federal General Steele to retreat to Little Rock. 572. Grant Made Lieutenant-GeneraL — This was the situation of affairs when Grant completed his plans for the campaign which was to close the war. His uniform successes in the West during 1863 had won the confidence of the Federal authorities. In the spring of 1864 the office of Lieutenant- Gen eral was revived and given to Grant. All the Union forces in America, amounting to nearly one million men, were put under his direction. The total Confederate forces numbered at this time less than one-third of the Union forces in the field. Besides, the Confederacy had no means of increasing its army. The Union, by its bounty system, easily secured recruits, draw- ing soldiers even from Europe. 394 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 573. Grant's Plan. — Two movements were planned against the Confederacy, — the capture of Atlanta and the capture of Richmond. Grant left Sherman to march against Atlanta, while he himself assumed command of the Army of the Potomac. The troops on both sides were principally massed into two large armies. The one under Sherman, numbering 100,000 men, was to oppose the Confederates under J. E. Johnston with 70,000 troops. Grant's immense army of 175,000 soldiers was to " hammer " away at Lee's army of about one-third the size. The movements were to be simultaneous and continuous, so as to prevent Johnston and Lee from rendering aid to each other. During the first week of May both Sherman and Grant began their forward movements. Let us first follow Grant's attack on Richmond. /iV THE EAST. 574. Grant's Plans against Richmond. — In his movement against the Confederate capital (irant chose the direct overland route. For the purpose he took 100,000 men, leaving a reserve force of 40,000 upon which to draw. He also organized two minor expeditions, — one under General Butler and another under Generals Crook and Sigel. Butler was sent with 30,000 troops to ascend the James River, attack Petersburg, and threaten Richmond from the south. Crook and Sigel were sent to capture Lynchburg and threaten the Confederate capi- tal from the west. (See map, p. 376.) 575. Lee versus Grant. — Cirant began his forward move- ment on the 5th of May, and entered the Wilderness' south of ' At a critical moment in the battle of the Wilderness, 800 Texans under General (jregg were about to charge, when they noticed General Lee in tiieir van. "We won't go unless you go back," they shouted ; a soldier stepped forward, seized " Old Traveller's " rein, and led him to the rear. (Jeneral Gregg came up and urged Lee to comply with the wishes of his men. The great commander yielded, and the Texans won tiie charge, with one-half their number wounded or slain. EVENTS OF 1864. 395 the Rapidan. Lee advanced to meet him, and attempted during the succeeding month, with consummate skill, to thwart the forward movement of Grant. On May 5 and 6 the bloody battles in the Wilderness were fought. Grant continued to force Lee slowly back by sending troops around his flank. Beginning on the 9th, two days' severe and bloody encounters took place at Spottsylvania Court-house. Grant continued his movement around Lee's right till the latter had to fall back to his intrenchments around Richmond. He attacked the Confederates at Cold Harbor, but was severely beaten, and gave up the attempt to storm Lee's position. There had been continuous fighting for a month, and yet Grant had been un- able to break through Lee's line. On the contrary, Lee could not hope to drive the Union army back, but could only act on the defensive. The loss on both sides had been terrible. During the march from the Rapidan to the fortifications around Richmond the Union loss was not less than 60,000 men, equal in number to Lee's entire army. The Confederates had also lost a large number, a loss deeply felt, for it was growing more and more difficult to replace the men. 576. Butler's Movements. — Butler had made his way up the James River and landed below Petersburg on the peninsula formed by the confluence of the James and the Appomattox Rivers. Beauregard erected fortifications across the peninsula from river to river, and thus effectually " bottled up " Butler at Bermuda Hundreds on the peninsula. 577. The Movement against Lynchburg ; Early and Sheri- dan in the Valley. — General Sigel was met and defeated by General Breckinridge at Newmarket.-^ Sigel's command was then given to Hunter, who, with Crook's forces, was driven from the Shenandoah Valley by General Early. Lee, in the hope of 1 Two hundred cadets from the Virginia Mihtary Institute fought like veterans under Breckinridge in this battle. 39^ HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. distracting Grant's attention from Richmond, had sent General Early through the Shenandoah Valley into Maryland to threaten Washington. Early, after turning aside to save Lynchburg, resumed his original plan and marched northward into Mary- land. He was detained at Monocacy, where he met and routetl the Federal forces which opposed him. By the time he reached Wjfshington he found it too strong for him to capture. He captured provisions for the army and began his return to Lee. As soon as Grant heard of the danger in which Washington stood he despatched General Sheridan against General Early. On the 19th of September Early was defeated at Winchester. A month later Early attacked the Federal forces during Sheridan's absence and routed them. Sheridan met his flee- ing forces, turned them, and routed the Confederates. Grant had ordered Sheridan to lay waste the beautiful Shenandoah Valley. No military necessity could justify such wanton and wholesale destruction of private property as Sheridan's men inflicted. 578. Grant's Change of Base. Finding that he would be unable to take the fortifications around Richmond, Grant determined to change the basis of his operations to the James River. He moved his army to this new position, thus threaten- ing the fortifications around Petersburg, which is twenty miles south of Richmond. Lee had a continuous line of fortifications about thirty miles in length surrounding Petersburg and Rich- mond. Lee's army still numbered about 60,000, while Grant was besieging him with over twice that number. Py pushing towards the southwest Grant forced Lee to lengthen this line of fortifications, and thus weaken his line of defense. Lee lacked forces to man his fortifications. 579. The Petersburg Mine. — On July 30, much to the sur- prise of the Confederates, a portion of the breastworks around Petersburg was hurled into the air, and a break made in the EVENTS OF 1864. 397 line of defense. Into this breach in the fortifications, making a crater in the ground, Union troops were poured. They but rushed to a slaughter-pit, for over 4000 lost their lives, and no entrance into Petersburg was made. This attempt to blow up the fortifications by exploding four tons of gunpowder under them resulted disastrously to the Federals, and did little dam- age to the Confederates. Grant saw that he could not take the fortifications by storm, and he began the siege, which lasted nine months. During the remainder of the year 1864 nothing more of importance occurred in the East. IN THE WEST. 580. Sherman and Johnston. — About the same time that Grant crossed the Rapidan and began his advance upon Lee Sherman commenced his march to Atlanta. He was opposed by Johnston with a force mgm-'^^^^-^^^j^^'^jmg^^^^^^^-^:>^i»M little more than half as large as his own. No regular engagement took place. Johnston adopted the " Fabian policy " of retreating till a favorable moment for resistance should occur. This policy was a successful one, and Sherman found his march to Atlanta very difficult. He continually attempted to pass around Johnston's army, thus compelling him to fall back to a new posi- tion. Various encounters took place between the two armies, but no set battle was fought. Johnston would select his ground General Sherman. 398 HISTORY OK OUR COUNTRY. and at an opportune moment would strike the advancing hosts. He made a stand at Resaca. Again, on May 25, 26, and 27, the armies encountered each other near Dallas. The most severe encounter was at Kenesaw Mountain. Here Sherman's assault was severely repulsed. Gradually the wily Confederate chieftain fell back to his fortifications around Atlanta. At last he determined to engage the forces of Sherman. Sher- man's loss had been consider- ably more than Johnston's. 581. Hood in Command. — At this critical point in the cam- paign Johnston was superseded by General John R. Hood. In- stead of awaiting the attack, as Johnston had intended. Hood determined to make an attack himself. Hood's forces were inferior in numbers to Sher- man's, and his repeated assaults were severely repulsed. The Confederates could ill afford the loss they suffered. On the last day of August Hood was forced to evacuate the city, and on the 2d of September it fell into the hands of General Sherman. The loss of Atlanta was a heavy blow to the Confederacy. Here were stationed their machine shops and stores of war munitions. 582. Hood in Tennessee. — After his evacuation of Atlanta Hood moved northward, hoping to draw Sherman after him. The Union army followed a short distance. Then a detachment under General Thomas, equal in number to Hood's depleted army, was sent after the Confederates. These forces Hood met at Franklin and drove from the field. Next he besieged Thomas at Nashville. On December 15 and 16 Thomas, EVENTS OF 1864. 399 whose army now greatly outnumbered Hood's, came out and gave him battle and utterly defeated the Confederate army. One of the two strong Confederate armies was broken up. It never was completely reunited. 583. Sherman's March to the Sea. — After sending Thomas after Hood, Sherman returned to Atlanta. This place he burned. He then set out upon his march to the sea. His army, numbering 60,000 men, cut a swath through Georgia sixty miles wide. No efficient force lay before — nothing to stop him in his forward march. He cut loose from all commu- nications with the North, and for a month nothing was heard from him. His army carried devastation into the rich country hitherto free from soldiery. The railroads were all destroyed. After an eight days' siege Savannah was captured on December 28. Sher- man here reopened com- munications with the North, telegraphing to President Lincoln that he gave him Savannah as a Christmas gift. \^ ,VJ^ ^^V^ General Hood. 584. On the Coast and Sea; Price's Raid. — In the summer of this year a stop was put to blockade running in Mobile. Ad- miral Farragut, with his fleet, attacked the two forts guarding the entrance and captured them. He also captured the Confederate iron-clad, the Tennessee. The Confederate cruiser Alabama, after capturing sixty-nine prizes and inflicting untold injury upon the commerce of the United States, was sunk in a combat off the coast of France. 400 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. The Alabama was in the port of Cherbourg:;, France. While there, Semmes, her captain, offered battle to the Federal steamer Kearsarge, and in an hour and a half the Alabama had sunk. The Shenandoah, next to the Alabama, inflicted the greatest damage upon the commerce of the North. Ignorant of events on shore, her crew were engaged in capturing United States whaling vessels in Behring Sea three months after the fall of the Confederacy. The Confederate cruiser Florida was illegally captured while in a neutral port in Brazil. Before any steps were taken in regard to it, the vessel was sunk by a collision with a United States vessel in Hampton Roads. General Sterling Price (.August 28 to December 3). with about 12,000 troops, moved rapidly through northern Arkansas and eastern Missouri, threatening St. Louis and Jefferson City, and returned through western Missouri, Kansas, and the Indian Territory. He marched nearly 1500 miles, fought forty-three battles and skirmishes, captured several thousand prisoners and large quantities of supplies, and destroyed property worth $10,000,000. His own loss was inconsiderable. 585. Exchange of Prisoners. — At the beginning o^ the war the Union authorities refused to exchange prisoners be- cause to do so would be to recognize the Confederacy as a belligerent power. Union generals occasionally consented to an exchange with opposing commanders without express authority from their government. In the summer of 1862, however, a general system of exchange was agreed upon. But it was not long before obstacles were presented. A Confeder- ate soldier was found to be worth more to the South than a Union soldier to the North. Each Southern soldier captured lessened by one the fighting force of the Confederacy, because the South early enlisted all her able-bodied men and had no source from which to recruit her depleted armies, while the EVENTS OF 1864. 40 r greater population and wealth of the North readily supplied the places of captured Union soldiers. In 1864 the Federal authorities again resorted to the policy of refusing to exchange prisoners.-^ A delegation from the Federal prisoners at Ander- sonville, Ga., visited Washington and pleaded in vain for an exchange of themselves and their fellow prisoners.^ In the crowding together of large numbers of prisoners, conditions frequently arose in both Northern and Southern prisons that led to suffering, disease, and death. The blockade caused the supply of medicines in the South to become grea;tly reduced. When the Confederate authorities proposed to buy medicines of the North, to be used exclusively for Union prisoners, and even to be dispensed by Union surgeons, the request was ignored by the Federal government. The total number of Confederate prisoners in Northern prisons has been estimated at 220,000 ; the Union prisoners in Southern prisons, 270,000.^ The Confederates who died in Northern prisons numbered 26,246; Federals who died in Southern prisons, 22,576.* 586. Presidential Campaign of 1864; Nevada admitted. — Much dissatisfaction had arisen in the North over the long- continued war. Many were weary of the struggle and desired peace. The Democratic Convention declared openly its hostility to the war, pronouncing it a failure. They put in nomination 1 General Grant, in a despatch to General Butler dated August 18, 1864, said : " It is hard on our men held in Southern prisons not to exchange them, but it is humanity to those left in the ranks to fight our battles. Every man released on parole or otherwise becomes an active soldier against us at once either directly or in- directly. If we commence a system of exchange which liberates all prisoners taken, We will have to fight on until the whole South is exterminated. If we hold those caught, they amount to no more than dead men. At this particular time, to release all rebel prisoners North would insure Sherman's defeat, and would compromise our safety here." 2 Davis's " Rise and Fall," Vol. II, p. 598. 3 Official Report U. S. Surgeon-General Barnes. * Report of (J. S. See. of War Stanton. 402 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. for the presidency General McClellan, who secured a large popular vote. Opportune Union victories gave renewed confi- dence in Lincoln, who was reelected. Andrew Johnson, the war governor of Tennessee, was elected vice-president. Nevada was admitted as a state in March, 1864. 587. Summary of Events of 1864. The campaign had been opened in May by forward movements in the East under Grant and in the West under .Sherman. In his advance against Richmond, Grant had fought the battles of the Wilderness, Spottsylvania, and Cold tiarbor. Lee was finally driven inside his fortifications, and the siege of Petersburg began. In the West .Sherman had been skillfully opposed by Johnston, who was gradually forced to fall back to Atlanta. Here Johnston was superseded by Hood. Atlanta was captured, and Hood moved into Tennessee. He was followed by General Thomas, and his army was almost totally destroyed at Nashville. Sherman continued his march southward, and just before Christmas had reached Savannah. Nevada admitted. CONCLUSIOlf OF THE WAR 1865). 588. Sherman's March through the Carolinas. — In February, 1865, Sherman left Savannah, and began his march northward to join Grant. He had been ordered to transport his army by sea, but, finding this impiacticable, he marched overland through the state of South Carolina, which was looked upon in the North as the "hotbed of the rebellion." Much destruction marked his path. The beautiful city of Columbia, the capital of the state, was burned while Sher- man's army was occupying it. Unopposed by any obstacle save such as nature olYered, Sherman continued his onward movement, clearly demonstrating the fact that the Confederacy was but a shell which he had penetrated. 589. Johnston Recalled. Meanwhile Johnston had been recalled, and, gathering what scattered remnants of the old army he could find, with the garrisons of Charleston and other coast cities which had been evacuated at Sherman's approach, CONCLUSION OF THE WAR. 403 he placed himself in front of Sherman with a force of about 20,000 men. Sherman was vigorously and almost successfully attacked at Bentonville, N.C., on March 19. Sherman was joined by Terry and Schofield at Goldsboro four days later, and his forces now outnumbered Johnston's five to one, Sherman moved toward Raleigh, and Johnston withdrew in the same direction, both armies awaiting the result in Virginia. 590. Sheridan's Raid. — General Sheridan, with his cavalry, moved southward up the Shenandoah Valley, carrying destruc- tion with him. His object was to cut off Lee's base of sup- plies from the West and South. He destroyed part of the railroad between Lynchburg and Richmond, and made the James River canal useless, thus cutting off supplies from Richmond. He then captured Five Forks, twelve miles south- west from Petersburg, and thus intercepted the supplies for that point, afterwards rejoining Grant around Richmond. 591. Evacuation of Richmond and Surrender of Lee — Grant had been gradually extending his army around Rich- mond, thereby lengthening and at the same time weakening Lee's line of defense. By sudden attacks Lee gained some unimportant successes. At last the line was lengthened too much, and broke in twain. Grant, with his 200,000 men, was able to force the 45,000 men under Lee to leave their position. On the last day of March the assault upon the Confederate line began. For three days the attacks were nobly met, and then Lee, realizing that he could not resist another attack, on April 2 evacuated his position and began his retreat toward the southwest. Grant pursued vigorously, giving the Confederates no time for rest. The army was famished. Lee's forward movement was stopped at Appomattox Court House by Union forces under Sheridan. Grant was behind him. Surrounded on all sides by overwhelming forces, Lee surrendered, April 9, his less than 10,000 muskets. Liberal terms were granted, the 404 IIISTOKV OK OUR COUNTRY. sbldiers being permitted to return home after giving their oath not to enlist again in the war till exchanged. 592. Assassination of President Lincoln Five days after Lee'5 surrender the world was shocked by the assassination of President Lincoln. He was shot in his box at Ford's Theater in Washington, on the evening of April 14, by John Wilkes Booth, an actor. Booth seems to have thought that the death of the president and members of his cabinet (Secretary Seward was stabbed, but not fatally, in his own house on the same evening) would paralyze the government and give the South another chance. He crept up behind the president, who was in the midst of his family and friends, and shot him through the head. He then leaped upon the stage, exclaiming " Sic semper tyrannis ! " (Thus ever to tyrants). Although the assassin fell and broke a leg, he escaped from the theater and fled into Virginia, where he was shortly afterward overtaken and, as he refused to surrender, put to death. The assassina- tion was a part of a conspiracy which was ferreted out. The conspirators were captured, tried, and convicted, four to be hanged, and four to serve long terms of imprisonment. Booth was probably insane. His crime was viewed with horror in the South as well as in the North. The tragic death of Lincoln was a terrible misfortune to the whole country, and most of all to the South. Vice-President Johnson took the oath of office as president within three hours after Lincoln had passed away. 593. Surrender of Johnston; Close of the War. — After Lee's surrender, Johnston and Sherman agreed upon terms of surrender for the former's army. These terms were rejected by President Johnson and his cabinet as too liberal. No doubt this was due to the North's being enraged at the assassi- nation of President Lincoln. Johnston surrendered to Sher- man, April 26, upon the same terms as had been accorded to Lee. The surrender of other Southern forces soon followed. CONCLUSION OF THE WAR. 405 President Davis was captured in Georgia on the loth of May. On the 12th of May the Confederates won the last battle of the war at Boco Chico, on the Rio Grande, in Texas. General Kirby Smith surrendered the Confederate forces west of the Mississippi on the 26th of May. The greatest war of history was at an end. The South had worn herself out fighting against overwhelming odds, both in numbers and material resources. The courage and endurance of the Southern soldier have never been surpassed. Of the 200 battles of the war, he won 120. His deeds form fitting themes for song and story. 594. Robert E. Lee. — As the clouds of passion and preju- dice clear away from the war between the states, Robert E. Lee is seen to have been its greatest figure. Sprung from a historic ancestry — he was the son of "Light-horse Harry" Lee (§ 3 1 3) -y- and born (January 19, 1807) in Westmoreland County, Virginia, near the birthplace of Washington, he inher- ited the heroic spirit of Revolutionary sires. His boyhood was as simple and noble as Washington's. At West Point, where he was graduated in 1829, he was distinguished for both high scholarship and perfect deportment. Assigned as lieutenant to a corps of engineers of the United States army, he studied his profession intensely and was noted for his faultless habits. On June 30, 183 1, he was married to Mary Custis, daughter of G. W. P. Custis, Washington's adopted son. He gained dis- tinction as a member of the corps of engineers at Hampton Roads, Washington, St. Louis, and New York. General Scott took Lee with him to Mexico in 1846, placed him on his staff, and made him his military adviser. After the war Captain Lee was assigned to construct works for the defense of Balti- more Harbor, whence he was called in 1852 to the superin- tendency of the West Point Military Academy. This position he filled for three years with great ability. When, in 1855, Congress added two regiments of cavalry to the regular army, 406 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. the secretary of war, Mr. Jefferson Davis, assigned Captain Lee to the lieutenant-colonelcy of one of these regiments, Albert Sidney Johnston being its colonel. Lee was sent first to Louisville, then to Jefferson Barracks, Mo., and in 1856 to Texas. From this time to 1861 he was stationed on the Texas frontier. While at home on a furlough he was directed by the secretary of war to capture John Brown (§ 504). In February, 1861, he was summoned to Washington. Here he was offered the command of the army which was to be brought into the field by the United States. He declined because, as he wrote afterward, " though opposed to secession and deprecating a war, I could take no part in the invasion of the Southern states." He sent his resignation as an officer in the I'nited States army to the secretary of war on the 20th of April, and at the same time wrote to his friend, General Scott, the letter to which reference is made elsewhere. Lee's love of the Union, which he had served so long and so well, and his unfaltering loyalty to Virginia, made this act a struggle as great as Chancellorsville or Gettysburg. Virginia at once offered him the position of commander-in-chief of her forces. His brief speech of acceptance is a model of manly modesty and eloquence. He declined the command of the mighty armies of the Union to accept that of the forces of his beloved state. When the Confederate government was trans- ferred from Montgomery to Richmond, General Lee became the military adviser of President Davis. The history of the next four years is largely a history of Lee. He was a great organizer. His genius as a strategist was unrivaled. Wise and far-sighted in planning, he was terrible in execution. Serene in victory, he was undaunted in defeat. His men loved him with a tenderness and devotion stronger than death. His greatness was not dimmed by disaster. After the war was over, he urged his people to accept its results in good faith, and to look to the future rather than to the past. Asked to CONCLUSION OF THE WAR. 4O7 lend the use of his name to a great insurance enterprise to which he could not give his personal attention, he declined. The name of Lee, poor though he was, could not be bought for fifty thousand dollars a year. In 1865 he accepted the presidency of Washington College, and devoted the re- mainder of his life to the great work of training the young men of the South for the responsibilities of the future. In this noble institution, now Washington and Lee University, his name is forever linked with that of Washington. His death occurred at his home in Lexington on the 12th of October, 1870. A sincere Christian, a gentleman without reproach, a great general, patriot of the highest type, Robert E. Lee holds a secure place among the world's heroes. THE WAR ENDED. 595. Numbers Engaged. — On July i, 1861, the Union army numbered 186,000 men. Six months later it had in- creased to nearly 600,000. The increase continued until more than a million men were under arms at a time. The entire number of men enrolled in the Union armies during the four years was 2,850,000. The Confederates never had so many troops in the field as the Federals, and toward the close of the war the number became very much smaller. The numbers were about as 10 to 9 in 1861 ; in 1862 they were as 10 to 6 ; in 1863, as 10 to 5 ; in 1864, as 10 to 3 ; and in January, 1865, as 10 to 2. The entire white male population of the South in i860 was about 2,800,000. Of this number probably not more than one in four would make an able-bodied soldier. The complete en- rollment of the Confederate army is not known. The largest number of Confederates in the field at any time during the war was about 450,000.^ 1 Jameson's Dictionary of United States History, " Army." President Davis, Vice-President Stephens, and Adjutant-General S. Cooper estimated the Confeder- ate enrollment as not more than 600,000. 408 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 596. Losses: in Men. — The Union armies lost by deaths during the war about 360,000 men. The loss of the Confed- erates is not known, but it may have amounted to a quarter of a million. Many more on both sides incurred wounds or diseases which either killed them afterward or disabled them for life. It is probable that the war cost the country tlirce- quarters of a fnillion of its best men. 597. Losses: in Money. — The money cost of the war is estimated by careful students at $9,000,000,000. The national debt in August, 1865, reached the enormous sum of $2,845,- 907,626.26. It has not been paid off yet, — thirty-three years after the close of the contest. The amount paid for pensions to Union soldiers seems likely to reach $2,000,000,000. Besides what the general government spent, the states and municipali- ties poured out freely vast sums to help preserve the Union. But the South suffered most. The abolition of slavery meant, to the white people of the South, the destruction of $2,000,000,000 of their property. The property destroyed by both armies was enormous. Thousands of homes were burned, cities were destroyed, railroads were torn up, and all the notes and bonds issued by the states of the Confederacy, as well as by the Confederate government, were made worthless by the failure of the Confederacy (see Const., Amendment XIV). 598. The Armies Disbanded. -- The llnion armies were reviewed at Washington by the president in May, and nearly a million men were paid off and sent to their homes. The regu- lar army was reduced to 50,000 men. The soldiers, proud of success, turned to the pursuits of peace, finding their country prospering as never before. The case was far different with the Southern soldiers. " Ragged, half-starved, heavy-hearted." they went back to begin anew and build up a new South. The following description of the South's desolation at the close of the war between the states is not overdrawn : — CONCLUSION OF THE WAR. 4O9 "Think of him as ragged, lialf-starved, heavy-hearted, enfeebled by want and wounds ; having fought to exhaustion, he surrenders his gun, wrings the hands of his comrades in silence, and, lifting his tear-stained and pallid face for the last time to the graves that dot the old Virginia hills, pulls his gray cap over his brow and begins the slow and painful journey. What does he find — let me ask you who went to your homes eager to find, in the welcome you had justly earned, full payment for four years' sacrifice — what does he find when, having followed the battle-stained cross against overwhelming odds, dreading death not half so much as surrender, he reaches the home he left so prosperous and beautiful ? He finds his house in ruins, his farm devastated, his slaves free, his stock killed, his barn empty, his trade destroyed, his money worthless ; his social system, feudal in its magnificence, swept away ; his people without law or legal status ; his comrades slain, and the burdens of others heavy on his shoulders. Crushed by defeat, his very traditions gone ; without money, credit, employment, material training ; and, besides all this, confronted with the gravest problem that ever met human intelli- gence, — the establishing of a status for the vast body of his liber- ated slaves. What does he do, — this hero in gray with a heart of gold.'' Does he sit down in sullenness and despair.? Not for a day. Surely God, who had stripped him of his prosperity, inspired him in his adversity. As ruin was never before so overwhelming, never was restoration swifter. The soldier stepped from the trenches into the furrow ; horses that had faced Federal guns marched before the plow, and fields that ran red with human blood in April were green with the harvest in June ; women reared in luxury cut up their dresses and made breeches for their husbands, and, with a patience and heroism that fit women always as a garment, gave their hands to work. There was little bitterness in all this. Cheerfulness and frank- ness prevailed." — H. W. Grady, before the New England Society. 599. Slavery Abolished. — The Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution, abolishing slavery, proposed by Congress in Febru- ary, 1865, was declared adopted in December of the same year. 600. Finances of the Federal Government. — The Morrill Tariff, passed in i860, before the war was certain, furnished a 41 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. new basis of taxation. It changed the ad valorem duties of the Walker Tariff (1856) to specific, called for higher duties, and laid a duty on wool. Paper Money — National Banks. — Congress also issued paper money, and made it legal tender for all debts. In 1863 there were over $450,000,000 of such money outstanding. Gold rose until 1865, when it reached 285. Bonds were issued for immense sums. One of the means employed to float these bonds was the present national banking system, the first steps of which were taken in 1863. To start a national bank it is necessary for the organizers to buy and deposit with the United States Treasurer a certain amount of government bonds to protect circulation. The bank is then allowed to issue bank notes equal to 90 per cent of the amount of bonds purchased. In order to encourage this banking system, a tax of 10 per cent was levied upon the circulation of state banks. Internal Rc7 J3 -t-> 3 Q H & i-l b fe Topical Analysis (War Between the States). f 526. The New President. 527. Beginning of the Administra- J Condition of the country. tion. \ The president's position. 528. The Question as to f Alternative presented. Fort Sumter. \ Commissioners at Washington. ^ , « , (^ Action of U. S. government. 529. Fort Sumter. -! ^ , r ^u {\ (_ Capture of the fort. j' In the North. 53°' 531- Effect of the Fall of Sumter. , . 43 •> O -^ IM n> -- a> c {H f^ C "On to Richmond." ■ < z. W 536. 537- The First Battle. ^ The opposing forces. I Victory at Manassas. Kffect of the battle. f Defeat of Gov. Jackson's plans. 53S. In Missouri. •{ Battle of Wilson's Creek. (^ F'ederals in control. f Privateers. \ Klockade runners. 540. The Trent Affair. 539. On the Coast. Mill Spring. Forts Henry and Donelson. C 542, 543. Kentucky and Ten- nessee seized. 544. Battle of Shiloh. 545. The Upper Mississippi: Fall of Confederate strongholds. 546. West of the Mississippi : Hattk- of IVa Ridge. 547. Bragg's Invasion of Tennessee and Kentucky. 548. In Northern Mississippi: luka and Corinth. 549. Bragg's Second Movement : Murfreesl)oro. TThe defenses of New Orleans. 550. The Low^er Mississippi.^ The Union attack. [ The fall of the city. ( 551. On the Sea : Monitor and Merrimac. 552-554. The Peninsular f M'^Clellan against Richmond. Campaign. \ Jackson's Valley campaign. [ The seven days' battles. 555. Pope against Richmond : .Second Bull Run. 556. Lee's Invasion of the North : Antietam or Sharpsburg. 557. Burnside against Richmond : Fredericksburg. 558. Emancipation Proclamation. I 560. Hooker against Richmond : Chancellorsville. I 561, 562. Lee's Second Invasion of the North: fiettysburg. C 563. Fall of Vicksburg. , . rr. ( Galveston. 564. Movements in Texas. < „ , . „ •' { Sabme Pass. r Chickamauga. 565-567. Around Chattanooga. J ^"^'^^e of Chattanooga. ^ ^ ^ * j Lookout Mt. and Mis- ^ I sionary Ridge. ^ 568. The Conscription Act: Draft Riot in New York. L 569. West Virginia Admitted to the Union. CONCLUSION OF THE WAR. 415 ■r ■ . . n ■, ^ if His promotion. 572, 573- Lieutenant-General Grant. < ^,. ^. (_ His plan. ''574. Grant's Plans against Richmond. f The Wilderness. 575. Lee versus Grant. crsonnel, refused to sustain the claim of the Republican candidate for governor. The other Southern states had already become Democratic. 639. Labor Troubles. — The early part of the administra- tion was marked by serious labor disturbances. Thousands of persons were unable to secure employment and the country was filled with tramps. In 1877 serious riots occurred among rail- road employees. Concerted action was taken by them all over the country. The most serious troubles were at Pittsburg, Chicago, and St. Louis. These riots cost about one hundred lives and more than three million dollars' worth of property. 640. Financial Legislation. — In 1878 silver, which had been demonetized in 1S73, was restored to its place as legal ten- der.^ The Resumption Act (§ 629) went into effect during this administration. It restored confidence in the financial soundness of the government. In consequence of this restoration of con- fidence in the ability of the government to meet its obligations, the secretary of the treasury borrowed money at a much lower rate of interest than the bonds already issued bore. The new bonds were sold bearing a lower rate of interest, and with the money thus secured bonds bearing a higher rate of interest were paid as they matured. This was called ft/uii(/iii^ f/ii- national licbt. 1 The bill w.is called the Rland Rill, from the name of the congressman who intro- duced it. It did not provide for the free coinage of silver. An amendment by Senator Allison was adopted requiring the secretary of the treasury to purchase and coin into dollars nu)nthly not less than two million dollars' worth of silver, and not more than four million dollars' worth. RECENT EVENTS. 437 641. Inventions. — The telephone and the electric light were perfected during this period. The telephone was perfected by Bell and Graham in 1877. The electric light was introduced in 1878. Edison in 1877 gave to the world the pjionograph. 642. Yellow Fever. — In 1878-79 yellow fever prevailed in many places in the Southern states, especially in the Mississippi valley. Of the twenty thousand persons who had this fever, about one-third died from its effects. Since that time medical science has shown that yellow fever can be excluded from this country by disinfection and quarantine. 643. The Presidential Election of 1880. — Strenuous ef- forts were again made in the Republican party to nominate ex-President Grant for a third term. After a long wrangle the Republican convention nominated James A. Garfield of Ohio for president, and Chester A. Arthur of New York for vice- president. The Democrats nominated General W. S. Hancock of Penn- sylvania for president, and William H. English of Indiana for vice-president. The Greenback party nominated James B. Weaver for presi- dent, but he received no electoral vote. Hancock received the electoral vote of the " Solid South," ^ Nevada, and California,"^ a total of 155. Garfield and Arthur received the remainder of the electoral votes, 214, and were accordingly elected. 644. Summary. — President Hayes withdrew the United States troops that had been upholding the carpet-bag governments in the South, and the state administrations in this section at once passed into the hands of the Democratic party. A bill remonetizing silver was passed. The process of refunding the national debt began. The telephone, electric light, and 1 All of the states that had belonged to the Southern Confederacy voted the Democratic ticket, and hence were called the " Solid South." 2 One of the votes of California was cast for Garfield. 438 HISTORY OF OCR COL'XTRV. phonograph were introduced. A severe yellow-fever epidemic raged in the South. In the presidential election, (iartield, the Republican candidate, was elected. 645. Thought Questions. — Define the following terms : legal tender; demonetization of silver; resumption of specie payments; refunding the debt. Administration of Garfield and Arthur. One Term: 1881-1885. 646. Life and Services of Garfield. — James A. Garfield, like his two predecessors, was a native of Ohio, where he was born in 1831. Reared in poverty he worked his way through college, and was graduated from Wil- liams. He studied law and taught school in his native state. Reserved for awhile in the army during the war, winning the rank of major- general. Elected to Con- gress, he left the army and thereafter devoted himself to political life. He was sent to the House of Repre- james A. Garfield scntatives foiir times in suc- cession, and had just been elected to the Senate when he received the nomination to the presidency. President Garfield was well equipped for the duties of the presidency. A man of culture, and versed in public life, his knowledge of civil affairs gave promise of a wholesome admin- istration. 647. Appointments to Office. — Soon after his accession to the presidency Garfield became involved in a wrangle with the RECENT EVENTS. 439 Senate over appointments to office. The senators from New York opposed the confirmation of the president's appointee to the coUectorship of the port of New York. Being unable to defeat the confirmation of the appointee through what is known as the " courtesy of the Senate " ^ they resigned their seats in Congress. This increased the bitterness between the two fac- tions of the Republican party, and indirectly led to the tragic death of the president. 648. Assassination of Garfield. — Charles J. Guiteau was a weak-minded, disappointed office-seeker. In order, as he said, "to make Arthur president, and unite the Republican party," he planned the death of the president. On July 2, 1 88 1, at a railway station in Washington, he accomplished his purpose by shooting President Garfield in the side. For twelve weeks the sufferer lingered between life and death, and on September 19 died at Elbe- ron, N. J. The entire people mourned his death. 649. The Accession of Arthur. — By the death of Garfield, Vice-President Arthur became chief magis- trate of the United States and served the remainder of the term. 650. Life and Services of President Arthur. — Chester Allan Arthur was born in Vermont in 1830. Chester A. Arthur. He was college-bred, and like Garfield, taught school and studied law. He held the col- 1 The " courtesy of the Senate " requires all the senators of one political party to vote on questions of official appointments in accordance with the wishes of the senators (of their party) from the state in which the office to be filled is situated. 440 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY, lectorship of the port of New York under Grant's administra- tion and was put on the ticket as vice-president to please the " Stalwarts," as those favoring the nomination of Grant for the third term were called. He made a good president. He died in New York in November, 1886. 651. Star Route Frauds. — In 1S81 it was discovered that the government was being defrauded of several million dollars per year by the contractors of the " star routes " * in the West. Although several prominent officials were tried, and for lack of sufficient evidence were acquitted, the investigations stopped the abuse. 652. Polar Expeditions. — The New York Herald sent out an expedition in the ^\M^Jcannctte, under Captain De Long, to ex- plore the Arctic seas north of Behring's Strait. The ship was caught by icebergs, and after drifting several months was crushed. Some of the party, after terrible sufferings, reached the coast of Siberia. An expedition under Lieutenant Greely located on Lady Franklin Bay, west of Greenland, and not receiving aid when expected, resulted in disaster. When the party was rescued in June, 1883, only seven of the twenty-four had survived the cold and privation of the Arctic winter. 653. Important Legislation. Law against Polygamy. — In 1882 Congress passed a severe anti-polygamy law. The religion of the Mormons allows polygamy. Utah, where the Mormons live, had not been admitted to the Union because if it should become a state it could pass its own laws on this subject. Ch'il Scri'ice Reform. — In 1883 Congress passed a bill to provide for the filling of many offices through competitive 1 In the United States when mail is carried in any other way than by rail thi- route is called a " star route." RECENT EVENTS. 441 examinations on the basis of merit, without regard to the political affiliations of the applicants for positions. This reform makes tenure of office more certain, and secures better service for the government. It was opposed by politicians in both parties, who believed that "to the victor belong the spoils." The Tariff of i88j. — An attempt was made in 1882 to reduce the tariff, but it failed. It became manifest that the Brooklyn Bridge. high tariff which had been needed to pay off the war debt was no longer necessary, as the treasury had an increas- ing surplus of money. Accordingly, in 1883 a bill was passed slightly lowering the import charges, chiefly on articles not produced in this country. Letter postage in 1883 was reduced from three cents to two cents per one-half ounce. ^ Postal notes were introduced the same year. East River Ferry (between Brooklyn and New York) in 1746. 1 In 1SS5 letter postage was further reduced to two cents per ounce or fraction thereof. 442 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 654. The Brooklyn Bridge. — Work on the bridge connect- ing New York and lirooklyn had been begun in 1870. It was completed in May, 1883. This famous bridge is 5,989 feet long, and its cost was $16,000,000. 655. Standard Time. — During the same year the railroads adopted what is known as standard time. Local time for the meridians of 75°, 90°, 105°, and 120° was adopted as standard time for the Eastern, Central, Mountain, and Pacific divisions, respectively. All places within any one division use the same time. When it is twelve o'clock in the Eastern division it is one, two, and three hours earlier, respectively, in the Central, Mountain, and Pacific divisions. 656. Disasters. — The summer of 1881 was marked by a very protracted drouth. Crops all over the country were great- ly damaged. Many forest fires occurred. Of these the most destructive were in Michigan. In this state as many as five thousand persons were rendered homeless, and several hun- dred lost their lives. The ne.xt year was notable for the great floods. The Ohio and Mississippi rivers rose higher than ever before, producing great overflows and causing immense damage to property, as well as the loss of many lives. The Mississippi River was, in places, over one hundred miles wide. 657. Expositions. — The great Cotton Exposition was lield in Atlanta, (ieorgia, in 1881. It showed that the Southern states had adapted themselves with wonderful success to the changed conditions brought about by the late war. In the same year the Centennial Celebration of the Sur- render 0/ Cormcallis was held at Yorktown, Virginia. Three years later a H'orld's Exposition was held at New Orleans. It served to promote trade relations with Mexico and Central America. RECENT EVENTS. 443 658. The Cincinnati Riot. — In 1884 a riot occurred in Cin cinnati on account of delay in the courts. Over one hundred Hves were lost before it was suppressed. 659. Election of 1884. — In 1884 the question of reducing duties on foreign imports became a national issue. These duties were still maintained at nearly [—-;;-= the same rates as had been levied during the War between the States. They yielded a revenue beyond the needs of the government and thus caused an increasing surplus in the national treasury. The Republicans nominated James G. Blaine, of Maine, for the presi- dency, and John A. Logan, of Illinois, for the vice-presidency. Their platform proposed reduction in the revenues " by such methods as will relieve the tax-payer without injuring the laborers or the great productive interests of the country." The Democratic platform declared the protective tariff a burdensome tax no longei necessary, and demanded a tax " for revenue only." They nominated Grover Cleveland, of New York, for the presidency, and Thomas A. Hendricks, of Indiana, for the vice-presidency. Nominations for the presidency and vice- presidency were also made by the Prohibi- tionists (J. P. St. John, of Kansas, and Wm. Daniel, of Maryland), and the Greenback Labor and Anti- Monopoly party (B. F. Butler, of Massachusetts, and A. M. West, of Mississippi). The Prohibitionists cast 151,809 votes, and the Anti-Monopolists 133,825. Washington Monument, Washington, D. C, completed 1885. 444 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. Cleveland and Hendricks were elected, receiving 219 electoral votes. Their opponents received 182. Thus for the first time in a quarter of a century the Democrats elected and seated a president. 660. Summary. — A few months after his inauguration, I'resident (larfield was assassinated by a weak-minded, disappointed office-seeker. Vice-I'resident Arthur succeeded to the presidency. ".Star-route" frauds perpetrated on the government by contractors for carrying the mail.s in the West were discovered and checked. Two unsuccessful polar expeditions were made. A stringent law against polygamy was enacted. A civil service law making merit, rather than political service, the basis of appoint- ment to office was passed. Expositions were held in Atlanta and New Orleans. A law reducing letter postage, and the adoption of standard time i)y the railroads proved of great benefit. In the presidential election Cleve- land, the Democratic candidate, was successful. 661. Thought Questions. — If polygamy is part of the religious belief of the Mormons, how can anti-polygamy laws of Congress be justified (see Constitution, Amendment I) ? llow does civil service reform secure better official service.^ Cleveland's First Administration. One Term: 188 5- 1889. 662. Life and Services of the President. — Grover Cleve- land was born in New Jersey in 1837, His father removed to New York in 1841. Left an orphan by the death of his father, his youth was spent in poverty. He studied in the Academy at Clinton, made himself a lawyer, was assistant district attor- ney, sheriff, and mayor at Buffalo, and was elected governor of New York, in 1882, by nearly 200,000 majority. He served (1893-97) a second term as president. Before the end of his second term he lost the confidence and support of the majority of his party. RECENT EVENTS. 445 663. The Reform President. — Cleveland won the name of the Reform President by the changes which he proposed in the administration of the gov- ernment, but the Republi- cans had a majority in the Senate, and so the Demo- cratic party was unable to make the changes proposed in the tariff. President Cleveland carried out the civil service reform idea more thoroughly than his predecessors had done. He was noted for his moderate course in regard to remov- als from office. Grover Cleveland 664. Deaths. — On July 23, 18S5, ex-President Grant died. Universal sorrow was manifested and his funeral was such as befitted one to whom the Union owed so much. Several prominent Confederate generals, among them General Jos. E. Johnston, officiated at his funeral. On the 25th of November, 1885, the vice-presidency became vacant by the death of Vice-President Hendricks. 665. Important Legislation. Presidential Succession. — By a law passed in 1792, the president pro tempore of the Senate and the speaker of the House were to succeed in order to the presidency in case of death, resignation, or disability of both the president and vice-president. The death of Vice-President Hendricks occurred when Congress was not in session, that is, when there was neither a president /n? tempore of the Senate nor a speaker of the House. Thus, if the president were to die, there would be no one to succeed to the position, and the country would be left without a chief magistrate. In 1886 a law was passed 44^ HISTOKV OF OUK COUNTRY. changing the order of succession to the presidency, and pre- scribing that cabinet officers shall succeed to this position in a certain specified order.^ Counting of Electoral Vote. — The peril incurred in 1876 in counting the electoral vote led ten jears later to the passage of an act providing more definitely against the recurrence of such a crisis. The act provided that the electoral votes whicli both houses agree to be legal shall be counted. In case of disagree- ment, those votes are to be counted which have the certificate of the governor attached. In 1887 the Interstate Railroad Commission was established by Congress to regulate railroad transportation between states. In the same year a more stringent bill was passed to prevent polygamy among the Mormons (§ 652). The year following Congress passed a law prohibiting Chinese imtfiigratioii for a period of ten years. 666. Labor Troubles. — The quarrel between labor and capital attracted attention from time to time for many years. It culminated, in 1886, in strikes all over the United States. In Chicago the strikers manifested their sympathy with the Anarchists (chiefly foreigners who were opposed to government of any kind). A fight occurred with the police and about eighty persons were killed. This trouble was started by a dynamite bomb thrown by Anarchists among the policemen. The bomb exploded and killed seven of the officers. The Anarchist leaders were arrested and tried, and four were ex- ecuted. The others were sentenced to long terms of imprison- ment, but were liberated in 1893 on the ground that they had not been justly treated in the trial. ' The following is the order of presidential succession in the cabinet : (i) secretary of state; (2) secretary of the treasury; (3) secretary of war; (4) attorney-general; (5) postmaster-general; ((1) secretary of the navy; (7) secietary of the interior; (8) secretary of agriculture. L inri„ltbj Charles 1 Root LIBERTY ENLIGHTENING THE WORLD A Statue in the Harbor of New York City, given to the American People by the People of France RECENT EVENTS. 447 667. The Charleston Earthquake The South Atlantic seaboard was visited by severe eartliquake shocks in 1886. The center of the disturbance was near Charleston, S. C. Im- mense damage was done to property. Nearly every house in the city was either destroyed or much injured (August 31, 1886). 668. The Statue of Liberty. — The French people, to show their admiration for the United States, presented to the people 1 ^ ^ |.,, , ^.^i ^H 1 Ul^^^^^B^^^g ^N 1 ^^^S-~e^ w;^^ - -^ ■- -"'' "'"^'. ;1:^^:^^ ^^^ Houses Destroyed by the Earthquake. of our country a statue of " Liberty Enlightening the World." The statue was made in France, by the artist Bartholdi, at a cost of a quarter of a million dollars. It is the largest work of the kind in the world, its height being 292 feet. The interior of the head contains standing room for forty persons. It faces the entrance to New York harbor. 669. Political Questions. — The tariff on imports added to the internal revenues on liquor and tobacco yielded the govern- ment an annual surplus of $100,000,000 after all the expenses had been paid. President Cleveland recommended to Con- gress, in December, 1887, such a reduction in the tariff as 448 HISTORY OF UUK COUNTRY. would make the receipts and the expenses of the government more nearly equal. The Mills ' bill, which passed the House of Representatives, but was defeated in the Senate, was intended to carry out the policy recommended by the president. The House was Democratic and the Senate was Republican. So the issue was made before the people in the presidential elec- tion on the tarilT policy of President Cleveland. 670. Presidential Election of 1888. — The Democrats re- nominated Cleveland, with Allen G. Thurman, of Ohio, for vice-president. Their platform demanded a reduction of the tariff to the revenue basis. The Republicans nominated Ben- jamin Harrison, of Indiana, for president, and Levi P. Morton, of New York, for vice-president. Their platform advocated protection for American industries. The Prohibitionists and the United Labor party put up can- didates also, but they got no electoral votes. Cleveland was defeated, the Republican candidates receiving 233 electoral votes to Cleveland's 168. The popular vote for Cleveland exceeded that for Harrison by 94,611. 671. Summary. — rresident Cleveland carried out with great firmness his ideas of reform in the civil service. The deaths of (jeneral Cirant and Vice-President Hendricks occurred during this administration. 'Ihere were quarrels between capital and labor in various parts of the country and a conflict between Anarchists and the police of Chicago. An earthquake at Charleston, S. C, did great damage. The statue of "Liberty Enlightening the World" was presented to the United .States by the French people. Laws regulating the presidential succession, pro- viding for the settlement of disputed elections, establishing an Interstate Railway Commission, and forbidding Chinese immigration were passed. In the presidential election, the reduction of the tariff was made an issue between the parties. Cleveland was beaten for reelection by Harrison, the Republican candidate. 672. Thought Questions. — Who was the last Democratic president before Cleveland ? What are the arguments in favor of restricting Chinese 1 So named from its autlior. Hon. Roger Q. Mills of Texas. THE UNITED STATES RECENT EVENTS. 449 immigration? Why do the Chinese come to this country? Why do they settle in the West ? What immigrants have been most valuable to us ? What sort of immigrants are undesirable ? What political question was most prominent during this administration ? How may a candidate receiving a minority of the popular vote be elected president? Administration of Benjamin Harrison. One Term: 1SS9-1893. 673. Life and Services of the New President. — Benjamin Harrison (grandson of President William Henry Harrison) was born in Ohio on the 20th of August, 1833. After gradu- ating at Miami University, and studying law, he went ] to Indiana to practice his •3 piofession. He entered tile Union army in 1861, and had reached the rank of brevet-brigadier general when the war closed. Re- turning then to Indianapo- lis he resumed the practice of law. He was elected to the United States Senate in 1880. 674. The Pan-Ameri- Benjamin Harrison. Can COngreSS. The J^IH- Amcrican {Fan is a Greek word meaning " all ") Congress was a body composed of sixty-six delegates from eighteen of the North, Central, and South American governments. They met in Washington on 450 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. October 2, 1889, and, after spending six weeks visiting lead- ing cities, continued their deliberations until May, 1890. The object of the meeting, as stated, was the promotion of friendly feeling and closer intercourse between the American peoples. One useful recommendation made by the congress was that the nations represented should settle their disputes by arbitration rather than war. 675. Congressional Legislation. — The McKinley Bill. — In the campaign of 18S8 the Republicans had committed them- selves to the policy of increasing the tariff ; and as they now had control of both Houses of Congress they proceeded to pass a new tariff law, which was named from its framer ' the McKinley Hill. Under this tariff' the duties on a large num- ber of imported articles were increased, while they were re- duced or altogether removed on others. The law contained, besides, a section which authorized the president to impose duties on articles otherwise free, if they came from foreign countries in which duties were levied on exports from this country. This was known as the "Reciprocity Policy," and was suggested by Secretary of State James G. Blaine. Trea- ties were afterward made with some of the South American countries, as well as with Spain (in the interest of her American possessions, especially Cuba) under the provisions of this law. Silver Attain. — The advocates of the free coinage of silver, not satisfied with the Bland Bill (§ C40, note), continued to demand legislation in favor of " the white metal." The result was a compromise called the Sherman Act, from .Senatt)r John Sherman of Ohio. One of its provisions was tiiat the secre- tary of the treasury should buy 4,500,000 ounces of .silver monthly, and i^ay for it in treasury notes. 1 11(111. William McKinley, member of Congress from Ohio. RECENT EVENTS. 45 I 676. Diplomatic Troubles. — President Harrison's adminis- tration was noted for an unusual number of disputes with foreign powers. None of them, however, led to an actual con- flict of arms. The Mafia. — One of these disputes was with Italy. It resulted from a lynching in New Orleans. The chief of poUce of that city was assassinated, and the evidence pointed pretty conclusively to some resident Italians who were members of a dangerous secret society called the Mafia. As the courts failed to convict the murderers, the indignant citizens broke into the jail where they were still confined, and put them to death. The Italian government protested and demanded reparation of the United States, on the ground that some of the men killed were Italian subjects. The secretary of state, on behalf of the United States, disclaimed responsibility, and war seemed imminent. Our government agreed at last to pay a money compensation to the families of some of the victims, and Italy accepted the situation. Samoa. — Germany claimed special control over the Samoan Islands in the Pacific Ocean. The claim was disputed by the United States, and matters looked serious for a while. The question was settled by a treaty signed at Berlin, provid- ing that England, Germany, and the United States should guarantee the independence of these islands. Chili. — Our country was brought to the verge of a war with Chili in 1891. The trouble resulted from the murder of some sailors belonging to the warship Baltimore, who had gone ashore at Valparaiso. They were attacked in the streets by a mob, and two of them were killed. Chili finally dis- avowed the deed, and agreed to pay damages to the United States. 677. New War-ships. — One important result of these in- cidents was that attention was directed to the weakness of our 452 inSTOKV OF OUR COUNTRY. navy in comparison with the navies of the oilier ^reat nati ^ 1 1^ Postal laws. ^ ^ 654. The Brooklyn Bridge. 655. Standard Time. ^. , f Poorest fires. 6s6 Disasters. -{ ^,, , •^ 1^ rloods. r At Atlanta. 657. Expositions. -{ At New Orleans. 1^ Centennial celel)ration at Vorktown. 658. Cincinnati Riot. „ „, , . f Issues before the people. Gko. Presidential Election. -^ ,, , . , , . ^ -'-^ [ Result ot the election. 464 HISTORY or OUR CdUNTKV. Q -r ^ 00 M 662. The New President. 663. The President's Policy. ,, ^ ,, r (ieneral (Jrant. 664. Deaths. ] I Vice-rresident Hendricks. 665. Important Legislation. < ( Presidential succession. I Counting of electoral vote. Interstate Railway t'ommi.ssion. Anti-polygamy law. Chinese immigration law. (366. Labor Troubles : Chicago Anarchists. 667. The Charleston Earthquake. The givers and their purpose. O < 06 H O) nia oi)ened to settlement. fnH. Minor Events. ] .... , , . ,, , ' (^ 1 lie Johnstown Hood. 679. Four New States. Revolution on the Island. S 6S0. Hawaii. ^ ,. , \ .Steps toward annexation. 681. The Eleventh Census : Crowth of the country. _ _ „. .. r Issues before the people. C&z. The Presidential Election. ^ , , -• , , . 1^ Result of tile election. RECENT EVENTS. 465 CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION.^ (1893-97) 685. 686. 687. 688. 689. 690. 691. Silver Legislation. Revision f of the Tariff. Financial crisis. Extra session of Congress. Repeal of Sherman Act. The Wilson Bill. Disagreement between Senate and House. Act to admit Utah. Behring Sea f Quarrel with England. Arbitration. \ Settlement of the disputes. Columbian Exposition. Chicago Strike. Atlanta Exposition. r Among the Old Soldiers. 692-3. Era of Good Feeling. 694. 1695- MCKINLEY'S (^9^- ADMINISTRATION. '. Alcoti were other writers who were followers of Emerson. l)ut their literary merit is small. Ralph Waldo Emerson, AN OUTLINE OF AMERICAN LITERATURE. Vll The Great Romancer Hawthorne (1804-1864) was born in Salem, Mass. He was graduated from Bowdoin College. He was much alone in his boyhood and youth, and the solitude seemed to suit him. He began writing early, but received little encouragement from the public. To use his own expres- sion he " was for years the obscurest man of letters in America." The historian Bancroft, collector of the port of Boston, appointed Haw- thorne to a minor position in the service. Later, Hawthorne became sur- veyor at the Salem Cus- tom House. When his schoolmate and friend, Franklin Pierce, beca""'" president, he was ] pointed consul to Li^ pool. He spent sev< 1 1 years abroad in England and in Italy. He re- turned to America in i860, and took up re- sidence in Concord. Hawthorne's first suc- cess was gained with "The Scarlet Letter" (1850), although he had previously published "Twice-Told Tales" (1837) and "Mosses from an Old Manse" (1846). "The Blithedale Romance" (1852) and " The Marble Faun " are later romances, published during his life. After his death, several studies for romances were published. His "English Note Book," "Italian Note Book," and " Our Old Home " are records of his observations abroad, Nathaniel Hawthorne. Vlll APPENDIX A. He was a master of pure, simple Eliiglish. He is America's •greatest imaginative writer. The Singer. — Zw/^^y*-//^?!' (i 807-1882) was born in Maine. He attended school at Bowdoin College, where he and Haw- thorne were friends and classmates. After some years of study abroad, he became a professor in Bowdoin. From 1835 to 1854 he was professor of Modern Languages in Harvard College. The termination of his pro- fessorship did not ter- minate his residence in Cambridge. For nearly fifty years, till his death, the house Washington had occupied as head- ([uarters was his home. He lived a quiet, un- eventful life, brightened Henry W. Longfellow. ^^^^^ ^, ^^.jp^ ^^ EurOpC. His correct and peaceful life is reflected in his poetry. He writes of the affections, and he expresses refined sentiments ; he touches the heart with pathetic incidents; he gently urges us to the better life. His verse is always smooth and musical. Many of his poems attest his love for children. The long poem, " Evangeline," founded upon the forcible removal of the Acadians, is a classic in our language. The story is a touching one, and the treatment is musical and appropriate. " Hiawatha " is, perhaps, the poet's best work. Its noble conception is AN OUTLINE OF AMERICAN LITERATURE. IX entirely original. The form of the verse is also original, and is admirably adapted to its use. The poem presents the ideal of Indian life. The author translated Dante's " Divine Comedy," spending some years upon it. The Crusader. — Whittier (i 807-1 892) was a New England boy, born on a farm in Massachusetts. He was familiar with poverty and hard work. He had access to but few books, and he received but a poor education. ]jut, with the chances all against him, he became a famous poet. A copy of the poems of Burns whicli fell into his hands kept the poetic fire alight . His first printed poem appeared in a local papei — a paper that has since become historic. The editor, interested in the poem, sought the acquain- tance of the poet. He found a youth ploughing in the field. The acquain- tance so begun ripened into friendship. The editor. Garrison, was an ardent advocate of the abolition of slavery. Whittier adopted the same views, and in subsequent years edited or helped to edit several of the abolition papers. In his youth he had supported himself by teaching school or by making shoes, but his reputation grew, so that subsequent to the War he was able to support himself with his pen. Jonn Greenieaf Whixiier. X APPENDIX A. Whittier believed in the extreme theories of the Abolitionists. Most of his early poetry was written to further the cause of emancipation. He was willing to sacrifice beauty of composi- tion to the needs of the cause, and often did so. " Voices of Freedom" and "In War Time" belong to this early poetry written in advocacy of freedom for the slave. After the war was over and the negroes were freed, Whittier became the poet of peaceful, happy, rural life. " Snow-P.ound " (1866) is one of the most nearly perfect idylls in our literature. "The Tent on the Beach," "Among the Hills," and many other poems reriect the same love for the simple, serene, isolated life of the New England people of some years ago. The Humorist. - Cambridiie, Mass. Dr. Holmes (1809-1894) was born in He was graduated from Harvard, with first honors, in his twentieth year. He be- Ljan the study of law, but abandoned it for medicine. He spent three years abroad study- in lj anatomy. In 1836 he was appointed to a professorship in Dart- mouth Medical .School. He removed to ]}oston in 1840: he made this city his home for more than fifty years. In 1847 lie was appointed pro- fessor of anatomy and piiysiology in the Har- vard M e d i c a 1 School. oi.ver Wendell Hoirres. He wrotc many afticlcs AN OUTLINE OF AMERICAN LITERATURE. XI on subjects connected with his profession and was an authority in it. But most of his writings are of an entirely different kind. He wrote a large volume of poems, two novels, " Elsie Ven- ner," and "The Guardian Angel," "The Autocrat " series, — running comments upon a variety of topics, — consisting of "The Autocrat at the Breakfast Table," "The Professor at the Breakfast Table," and "The Poet at the Breakfast Table." He is the author of two or three of our most celebrated humorous poems and of many that rank second only to his own best. " The Wonderful One-Hoss Shay," " How the Old Horse won the Bet," "The Hot Season," "The Comet" are among these humorous poems. But he has serious and pathetic poems as well. " The Last Leaf " and " The Cham- bered Nautilus " are beautiful in sentiment and perfect in work- manship. He was an extremely patriotic American, and a large number of his poems were written in celebration of national holidays, ceremonies, or events. " Old Ironsides," the first of his poems to gain wide popularity, saved the ship Constitution from destruction by the government. Our Representative Man of Letters. — James Russell Lowell (i8 19-189 1) was born in Cambridge ten years after the birth of Holmes, twelve years after the birth of Longfellow. He was fifteen years younger than Hawthorne, sixteen years younger than Emerson, twenty-five years younger than Bryant. He was, therefore, near to the first great group of writers, but not of it. He was graduated from Harvard in 1838. When Longfellow resigned his professorship in Harvard (1855) Lowell was chosen to fill it. He was the first editor of the " Atlantic Monthly," his connection with it lasting from 1852 to 1862. For nearly ten years he was one of the editors of the " North Ameri- can Review." From 1877 to 1880 he represented the United States at the court of Spain. In 1880 he was appointed minister to England; he held the position for five years. APPENDIX A. He was an eloquent advocate of the emancipation of the slaves, and snnv "i |-- h"-t -vw-ms and the " Higlow Papers" idvocated this cause. Mut only a small part if his poetry is argu- in e n t a ti v e. " The \ ision of Sir Launfal " IS an imaginative treat- ment of an old subject. The "Fable for Critics" reviews in racy verse the work of the promi- nent authors of its day. • The Cathedral " is a ible discussion of modern jiroblems. Put not all of his poems c an be named ; there are other long poems and many short ones. Lowell was also a critic of great ability, and has printed valuable studies of some of the world's great authors. He has written delightful essays on various subjects. Because of the high public position he has held and honored and of the breadth and quality of his literary work he is, per- haps, our most representative author. James Russell Lowell. The Historians. — America has been too busy making history to write much of it, still we have something to show. George Bancrof/^s " History of the Ihiited States" is the best that has been written o[ the colonial development of our countrv. It shows the origin and the working of the forces AN OUTLINE OF AMERICAN LITERATURE. Xlll that have made us the nation that we are. It reaches only to the Constitutional period. It is conscientious, fair, and broad. Francis Parkjuan wrote charming accounts of the explora- tion and settlement of the Mississippi region. Professor John Bach McMaster has begun a " History of the People of the United States " at the point where Bancroft dropped his. A number of writers on the Civil War have put forth pamphlets or ambitious volumes. Horace Greelefs " Great American Conflict " is a notable contribution to the anti-slavery view of it. Alexander H. Stephens, in " The War between the States " discusses the same subject from the states' rights point of view. Jefferson Davis, in his " Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government," gives a full account of the great events in which he played such a conspicuous part. IV. H. Prescott, in the " Conquest of Mexico " and the " Con- quest of Peru " turns the attention of Americans to some of the earliest European interferences with political affairs on this hemisphere. John Lothrop Motley, from the vantage-ground of free America, writes histories of magnificent struggles for free- dom in " The Rise of the Dutch Republic " and " The History of the United Netherlands." The Later Literature of the East. — Our later literature has not shown the power of the literature of the time already portrayed. There has been much more writing, and much effort has been expended in developing new forms and in adapting old ones, but recently there has been no author whose writings showed the solid worth of the great authors of our first golden days. In the East Bayard Taylor (1825-1878) shows the best achievement for this period. He is the author of several very interesting books of travel. After walking through the most interesting countries of Europe he wrote "Views Afoot." He visited nearly every inhabited part of the globe and wrote books about what he saw. XIV APPENDIX A. Of his novels "Hannah Thurston" and "The Story of Kennett " may be mentioned. But it was in poetry that Taylor was most ambitious. He is the author of a large volume of poetry and of a volume of "Dramatic Works." Some of his short poems — notably " Amran's Wooing" and the "Bedouin Love Song" — are strong in feeling and of exquisite workmanship. Many of his longer poems are rich in lyrical passages, and they show a thorough knowledge of poetical forms ; but they often lack the complete majesty of the theme upon which they are written. Thojttas Bailey Aldrich is the most exquisite of our lyric poets. His verse is of the simple and apparently spontaneous kind that requires so much art in the writing and reads so easily and musically that it sings itself into the memory at once. " Baby Bell," a touching account of the death of a little girl, has secured a permanent place in our literature. " The Story of a liad Boy " describes in prose mischievous juvenile pranks highly interesting to boys both young and old. lUit the largest part of the writing of this time is fiction. Novels with all sorts of themes from all sorts of people are being continually issued. Even schisms have arisen, and writers profess themselves of this or tliat school. Of the so- called " realists," Henry James and IV. D. J/im>e//s are the chief American representatives. Tile novels of Henry James are used largely to contrast national customs. " The American," " The Europeans," "Daisy Miller" are of this international type, — a class of novels for which James himself in these very books set the model. "The Portrait of a Lady," "The Bo.stonians," " Princess Cassamassia " incidentally depict national peculiar- ities, but their chief force is spent upon the analysis of character. His novels seldom have a plot and they often end in what seems to be the middle of the story. The interest of his work lies in the bright, wittv dialogue and in the keen, subtle AN OUTLINE OF AMERICAN LITERATURE. XV dissection of motive. The author is a literary critic who speaks from wide culture, and with great power of discrimina- tion and rare delicacy of statement. His " Nathaniel Haw- thorne," in the English Men of Letters series, is a sympathetic study of our great romancer. Mr. Howells was born in Ohio of poor but ambitious parents. He learned to set type and helped to " edit " a country newspaper. His boyhood was spent in hard work. In a series of articles recently printed, entitled "A Boy's Town," one may learn of these early experiences. From newspaper work he under- took magazine sketches, and finally he became a novelist. He was for years editor of the "At- lantic Monthly." Later he edited a department of literary criticism in "Harper's Monthly." He is thoroughly identi- fied with America, and nearly all of his novels are studies of American life. "The Lady of the Aroostook," "A Modern Instance," "Dr. Breen's Practice," " The Rise of Silas Lapham " are among his best stories. He is the author of several bright comedies and farces, such as "The Mouse Trap," " The Garroters," "The Counterfeit Presentment." Julian Hawthorne's views of fiction are very different from those held by the "realists." He seeks to set before us stirring examples that shall spur us to higher endeavor. He is XVI APPENDIX A. willing to tell us a story that has a beginning and an end. He tries to portray our highest inner nature. In working to this end he ignores the conventional, every-day acts which are common to all men and do not, therefore, reveal character. He seeks rather to try his men and women by crucial tests. Therefore his plots involve great crimes, profound expiation, glorious moral victory, deep condemnation. '* Hressant," "Idolatry," "Sebastian Strome," "Fortune's Fool," "Sinfire" are novels that reveal the soul of man in tragic situations. F. Marion Crawford may be classed with the '• Romantic " school. He is not above telling a good old-fashioned love story. His heroes are noble chivalrous men, his heroines are lovely women ; and sooner or later, whatever the vicissitudes along the way, the knight wins the lady and the couple are happy ever afterward. "Mr. Isaacs," " Saracenesca," "The Roman Singer" are three popular books from his long list of popular books. Though Frank R. Stockton imitates the jjlausible manner of the Realists he imagines plots that are far removed from daily experience. In " Negative Gravity" he suspends a man evenly balanced in mid air. In "The Transferred Ghost" a spirit comes back to earth and plays a lively part in the love- experiences of two people. In another story a spirit is brought to earth and embodied in a young man, and after that it is dis- embodied or reembodied at will. The author has written several charming stories for children. The Beginning in the West. — The West was necessarily late in adiliiii; anylliing to our literature ; but its beginning, when at last the hour arrived, was notable. Its first authors extended their local reputations to the Fast, and, for various reasons, are conspicuous among the American authors known in Europe. The W'^est possesses a worthy poet in Joaquin Miller. He loves her vast solitudes, her virgin forests, her AN OUTLINE OF AMERICAN LITERATURE. XVll rugged sierras ; he professes himself, and is, indeed, a sym- pathetic child of this wild region. His poems express fire and passion, and unbounded self-confidence ; they show a free spirit untrammeled by convention or tradition. They are musical and eloquent, often dramatic. Bret Harte shares with Miller the honor and the profit of revealing the West to the East. He spent some time on the Pacific slope in the years when mining for precious metals was the chief occupation of the people. His sketches of the wild life of this region at this time are among the most entertaining short stories in the language. "'How Santa Claus came to Simpson's Bar " tells how the rude miners were touched by a child's pathetic reference to Christmas and Santa Claus. "The Luck of Roaring Camp " was a baby, and the interest the miners felt in it was the cause of the reformation of the camp. Gamblers, stage-drivers, saloon-keepers, parsons, miners play picturesque parts in his stories. He has written some long stories, but was not successful with them. Alark Tivain is the humorist of this region. In " Roughing It" and in several short sketches he has shown the laughable side of the prospector's life. But the West is not his only field. "The Innocents Abroad," a story of a trip through Europe, made the author's reputation, and nothing he has written has surpassed it. Edward Egg/csion, in his " Hoosier Schoolmaster," " The Circuit Rider," " Roxy," etc., gives us a portrayal of pioneer life in Indiana and Illinois that is faithful to the minutest detail. He has also written several books that are favorites with young people. The Renewal in the South. — The first poet in the South in point of time and in fame is Poe, already noticed. Con- temporary with him, and living many years after his death, was the South's most assiduous man of letters in the period XVlll APPENDIX A. preceding the War ; namely, William Giltnore Simtns. He edited Shakespeare, printed political articles, prepared histories, biographies, and criticisms, and wrote a number of novels of adventure with the scenes laid in the Southern states and the motives founded on the traditions or history of the same region, /o/m Estcii Cooke, in Virginia, published before the War "The Virginia Comedians," a novel depicting the ante-bellum life of the Southern planter. Henry Timrod, a South Carolina poet who wrote warm, vivid verse, contributed to the Southern Literary Messenger, of which Poe was, at one time, editor. \\'ith the exception of the pathetic poems of Father Ryan, the Laureate of the Lost Cause, and occasional war lyrics from Paul Hamilton Hayne, who had previously published some noble poems, and Cooke's account of the great struggle, the \\'ar silenced all voices in the South. The singer was too sad to sing ; the dramatist, torn and bleeding, had no heart for mimic tra- gedy ; the novelist was o V e r w h e 1 m e d w i t h a calamity in real life. But the South is full of color; it is bright with a charming colonial his- tory; it is peopled with the descendants of picturescjue races ; elo- (juence and poetry are natural to it: in the full- ness of time this desolated Eden be sur- render of, 182, 183. Bumsidc, Gen., succeeds McClellan, 369. Burr, Aaron, conspiracy of, 245. Butler, CJen. Benjamin F., at New Orleans, 361 ; sent to James River, 376 ; operations on the James, 380 ; on employment of captured slaves, 391 ; nominated for the presidency by Anti-Monopolists, 423. Cabezade Vaca(Kah-baythah day Vah'kah), 33- Cabinet, the first, 228, 229. Cabot, John, 23-25 ; voyage, 25. Cabot, .Sebastian, 25, 26. Calhoun, John C, proposes tax on imports, 285 ; on nullification, 286, 287 ; speech on Compromise bill of 1850, 320. California, acquisition of, 313, 314. California question, 319. Calvert, Cecil, 66. George, 66. Cambridge. Alass., first printing in, 132. Camden, battle of, njb, 197. Campbell, William, 198. Canada Expedition, i^x). Canada, invasion of, 1812,253 ; in 1813,255- 258 : in 1814, 259. Canals, activity in building, 273, 274. Canary Islands, 20. Cape Fear Settlement, 68. Capital, the national, 229 ; removal of, 236. Caravels, 20. Carolina, Huguenot settlements in, 37; charter of, 69 ; first proprietors of, 69 ; constitution, 69; misrule in, 70; fall of proprietary government, 70. " Carpet-baggers," the, 400 ; rule of the, 407. Carteret, SirGeorge, grantee of New Jersey, 103. Cartier, Jacques (Zhack Kart-e-ay'), discov- ers the St. I-iwrence, 37. Carver, Gov. John, 82, 83. Catholics in Georgia, 74 ; in Maryland, 65. Census, the eleventh, 434. Centennial Exposition, the, 410 Central America, ruins in, 2. Cerro (Thay'ro) Gordo, battle of, 312. Chad's Ford, 184. Champlain (Sham-plane'), 37. Champlain, I^ke, oattle of, 260. Cliancellorsville, battle of, 370. Charles the Second, 62. Charles IX of France, 37. Charleston, S. C, settlement, 71 ; character of first settlers, 71 ; relative size in 1763, 125; principal town in the .South, 136; attack on, in 1776, 171 ; capture of, 195. earthquake in 18SO, 427. Charter Oak, the, 90. Chattanooga, Gen. Bragg at, 360; siege of, 375- Cherry Valley Massacre, 1S8. Chesafitake, the, and the Shannon, 254, 255. Chesapeake Bay, the English in, 65 ; French fleet in, 204. Chicago, the, 432. Chicago fire, the, 406. Chicago, World's Fair in, 436, 437. Chicamauga. battle of, 375. Chili, trouble with, in 1891, 431. Chinese immigration, 426. Chippewa, battle of, 259. Church customs in New England Colonies, 129. Cincinnati, riot in, 1S84, 423. Cipango (Che-pan 'go), island of, 25. Citizen, rights of the, under the Constitution, 222. Civil Serv'ice under Jackson, 283. Civil .Service reform, 420, 421. Clarke, George Rogers, expedition of, to the Illinois countr)', n/i, 191. Clay, Henry, 251; and the Missouri com- promise, 268: duel with Randolph, 275; supports national bank, 284, 299; tariff policy of, T.XU. 2H7 : Whig leader, 292 ; his compromise bill. 311), 320. Claybome, William, 66, 67. Clermoui, the, 246. Cleveland, Grover, nomination of, 423; administration of, 424 ; defeat of, 428 ; reelected, 434. Cliff dwellers, the, 2. Clinton, Sir Henr)-, on the Carolina coast, 170; supersedes Howe, 187; captures Charleston, 195. Cockbum, Admiral, 361. Cold Harbor, battle of, 380. Colfax, Schuyler (Sky-ler Cole-fax), nomin- ated for vice-president, 403. College of Pennsylvania, 144. Colonies, manners and customs, 124. Colonists, the first. 56. Colonization, English, 43-45. Colorado, admission of, 410. Columbia, .S. C, burning of, 386. Columbia, district of, selected as seat of govt., 236; slavery in, 2i/>. Columbia College, 144. Columbia river, 244 ; discovery of, 307. Columbus. Christopher, i'>-23. Comanches, the, 3. Commercial difficulties, 249. INDEX. lix Compromise of 1850, 319, 320. Comstock silver mines, 331. Concord, Mass., battle of, 163-166. Confederacy, defensive points of the, 351, 352- Confederate States, organization of the, 337. Confederation, articles of, 211, 212, 217. Congress, burning of the, 362. Congress, formation of, 220, 221. See, also. Continental Congress, Stamp Act Congress. Connecticut Colony, settlement of, . 89 ; unites with New Haven Colony, 90 ; charter, 90. Conscription Act, the, 376. Constitution, Federal, the, adoption of, 219 ; provisions of the, 220-222 ; Northern and Southern views of the, 339 ; fourteenth amendment, 399 : fifteenth amendment, 405- Constitution, the, and the Guerriire, 252. Constitutional convention at Annapolis, 218; at Philadelphia, 21S, 219. "Constitutional Party," the, 333. Continental Congress, 162 ; second Con- gress, 168 ; powers of, 211. Continental Currency, 215, 216. " Contraband of War," 368. " Conway Cabal " (Ca-bal'), the, 186. Corinth, battle of, 360. Comwallis, Lord, 179, 184; in South Caro- lina, 196-198 ; retreats to Virginia, 202 : surrender of, 205. Coronado (Co-ro-nah'do), 33. Corruption, official, 408. Cortez in Mexico, 33. Cotton gin, the, 233. Cotton industry, growth of, 234. " Courtesy of the Senate," 419. Cowpens, battle of the, 200, 201. Credit Mobilier (Mo-beel'yer), the, 408. Creek land troubles, 276, 277. Creek war, the, 259. " Crittenden Compromise," the, 336, 390. Crogan, Capt., defends Fort Stephenson, 256. Cromwell, "Lord Protector," 62. Crook, Gen., 379. Crown Point, 116. Cumberland road, the, 269, 275, 276. Cumberland, the, sinking of, 362. Currency, irregular standards in the various states, 216, 217. See Continental Currency. Custer, Gen., death of, 409. Da Gama (Dah Gah'mah), Vasco, 42. Daguerre (Dah-gair'), 296. Dakotahs, the, 3. Dark ages, the, 16. Dartmouth College founded, 132. Davenport, John, 90. Davis, Jefferson, in the compromise of 1850, 320 ; elected president of the confederacy, 337 ; capture of, 389 ; death, 389. Davis, John, 42. Dearborn, Gen., 255. Declaration of Independence, the, 172. Declaration of rights, the, 158. De Grasse, Count, 203. Delaware, Swedes in, 48, 49 ; settlement, 106 ; claim to, 106, 107 ; province, 107. De Long, Capt., polar expedition of, 420. Democratic party in i860, 333. "Democratic simplicity," 242. Demonetization of silver, 409. De Monts (Da Mong') founds Port Royal, 37. De Soto, Ferdinand, 32, 33. Detroit, surrender of, 251. Dollar, silver, 216. Dorchester heights, 169, 170. Dorr Rebellion, the, 299. Douglas, Stephen A., on the Nebraska bill, 323 ; nomination of, 333. Douglas-Lincoln debate, 329-331. Draft riot in N. Y. city, 376. Drake, Sir Francis, voyages of, 40-42, 45. Dred Scott decision, 327, 328. Dress of the colonists, 131, 147, Drouth in 1881, 422. Dutch explorations, 46, 47. customs in N. Y., 146, 147. in N. Y., 100, loi. patroons, 145. Protestants, 144. West India Company, 47. Duxbury, Standish house in, 84. Early, Gen., marches to Washington, 380. Earth, figure of the, 17. East India Company, 54. Jersey, 104. Education in the colonies, 132, 140, 141, 144. Edwards, Jonathan, 134. Elections, see Presidential elections. Electoral commission of 1876, 412. votes, counting the, 426. Electric light, 417. Elk Horn, battle of, 359. Emancipation, proclamation of, 367, 391. Embargo, the, 244. Embassy to France in 1796, 237. Endicott, John, 84, 85. England, religious sects in, 71. difficulties with, in 1810, 249 Emerson, Dr., 327. English, W. H., nomination of, 417. English claims to North America, 26, 45. colonies, territorial extent of, 124, 125. depredations on American commerce, 245- , . explorations, 39. possessions in North America, 11 1 ; " Era of good feeling," the, 265. Ericsson, Leif, 13-15. John, builds the Monitor, 362. Erie canal, the, 269. Lake, battle of, 256, 257. Eutaw Springs, battle of, 202. Evangeline, poem, 117. Everett, Edward, nominated for vice-presi- dent, 333. HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. Karragiit, Admiral, runs the fire of the con- federate forts, 361. Federal convention of 1787, the, 218, 219. Kederalist, the. 24S. party, downfall of, 262. Federalists, the, 22(>, 227. Ferguson, (;cn.,at King's mountain, 198. Field, Cyrus W., 401. Fifteenth amendment, the. 405. " Fifty-four forty or fight," 309. Fillmore, administration of, 31S-320. Finances under the confederation, 215. Financial system, Hamilton's, 229. Fires, forest, in 1881, 422. great, 406. First legislative assembly, 60. Fisheries, the, 35, 36, 405. Floods in 1882, 422. Florida, discovery of, 30 ; conquest of, 32 ; Sir John Hawkins's voyage to, 40; pur- chase of, 266 ; admitted to the Union, 305 ; invasion of, 377. Florida, the, 385. Foote, Commodore, captures Fort Henry, ,358- Forrest, Gen., raid by, 3 78. Fort Brown, Texas. 310; Fort Donelson, 358; Fort Duquesne (l)u-kane'), 115-117; evacuation of, 118, 119; Fort Erie, siege of, 259, 260; Fort Frontenac, iiH; Fort Henry, attack on, 261, 352, 358: Fort Jackson, capture of, 361 ; Fort Meigs (Meegs), siege of, 255, 256 ; Fort Mimms, massacre at, 251); Fort Necessity, sur- render of. 115: Fort Niagara. 116, 119; P'ort Orange, 100; Fort Phillips, 361; Fort Pillow, 359. 378 ; Fort Stanwix, siege of, 181, 1S2 : Fort .Stephenson. 256; Fort .Sumter, bombardment and surrender of, 348-3J0 ; effect of fall of, 350 : Fort Wil- liam Henry, 1 18. " Forty-niners." 31(1. Fourteenth amendment. 399. France, difficulties with, during Adams's administration, 237, 238, 249. See, also, under French. Franklin. Hcnianiin, 134. Franklin, battle of, 385. F'ranklin. state of, 214. Fredericksburg, battle of, 367. Fremont. Cen. John C, explores the Rocky mountains, 313 : conquers California. 314. French alliance, 183. French and the Indians, 112. and Indian war, 1 14-120. claims to North America, 39. colonists, number of. 1 1 1. in North America, 36-39. power in America, downfall, 113. settlements in North America, limits, 1 1 1. spoliations, 238. sympathizers, 1793, 232. traders, 38. wars, 1 10. Frenchtown. battle of, 255. Frobisher, Martin, 42. Frolic, the, capture of, 252. Fugitive slave law, 320, 321. Fulton, Robert, 246, Cialvez. CJovernor, 191. Garfield, James A., administration of, 418, 419: assassination of, 419. Garrison, William Lloyd, abolition advo- cate, 289, 290; publishes the Liberator, 289. Gas, illuminating, 274. Gates, (ien.,at Saratoga, 182 ; in the .South. 196-11)9. Genet (Zhen-ay') citizeil, 232. Genius, the, 289, 290. Genius 0/ Universal Emancipation, the, 289. Genoa, 18. Georgia, settlement and colonization, 72-75 ; territory of. 72 ; trustees of. 73 ; govern- ment of . 74 ; Whitefieldand Wesley in, 74, 75 ; Spanish invasions. 75 ; British army in, ig'i ; rank of, in population, in 1763, 125 ; the Creek lands question. 276, 277. Gerry (g as in get), KIbridge, in France, 238. Gettysburg, battle of, 371, 372. 'rilbert. Sir ditions, 43. Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, colonization expe- 71.372 , colo Goffe, the " regicide," 95. Gold, discover^' of, in California, 315. (Jold fever of 1849, 315, 316. Gold seekers, 56. Goldsboro. battle of. 3W1. (iosnold, 53, 54, 55 : voyage of, 45. Government, in the Knglish colonies, 126. (Jrangers, Society of, 407. " Granite Road." the. 21)0, 291. Grant, Gen. U. S.. captures Fort Donelson, 358; VIcksburg. 373. 374: commands army of the west. 37(1 : appointed lieuten- ant-general, 378 : plan of campaign, 378, 379 ; moves on Richmond, 379 : changes base of operations to the James, 381 ; forces I.ee to surrender, 3S7 ; elected president. 402 ; administration of, 404-412 ; death, 425. Gray, Robert, discovers the Columbia river, .^07- " Great awakening," the, 96. Great Cham, the, 25. Great Eastern, the, 401. ( Ireat lakes, the P'rench on the, 38. Greeley. Horace, nomination of, 407. Greely, Lieut., polar expedition of, 420. Greenback partv, tiie. 417. Greene, Gen. >fatlianiel. supersedes Gates, 11)9; southern campaign of, 200-202. Guanahani (Gwah-nali-hahne') island. 21. Gurrrihre (( Iher-re-air'). the. capture of. 252. Ciuilford Court House, battle of, 201, 202. Guiteau (Git-to'). C. J., assassin, 419. Guslavus Adolphus, 48. Habeas Corpus, suspension of writ of, 350, 376- Hadley, Mass., Indian attack, 9$. Half Moon, the, 47. INDEX. Ixi Halleck, Gen., placed in command of Union army, 359. Hamilton, Alexander, secretary of the treas- ury, 228 ; financial scheme of, 229. Hamlin, Hannibal, 323. Hampton, Gen., 255. Hampton Roads, 362, 363. Hancock, John, 168. Hancock, Gen. W. S., nomination of, 417. " Hannibal of the West," 190. Harmer, Gen., expedition of, against the Indians, 231. Harper's Ferry, John Brown at, 332 ; cap- ture of, 367. Harrison, Benjamin, nomination of, 429 ; character and services of, 430 ; adminis- tration, 430-435. Harrison, Gen. W. H., at Tippecanoe, 250; campaign in Michigan, 255, 256 ; in battle of the Thames, 257 ; elected president, 297 ; death, 297. Hartford convention, the, 262. Hartford, founded, 89. Harvard College, 132. Hawaii (Hah-wi'e), revolution in, 433. Hawkins, Sir John, on the Florida coast, 40. Hayes, Rutherford B., nomination of, 410 ; elected president, 412 ; administration, 415-41S ; withdraws Federal troops from the South, 416. Hayne-Webster debate, 286. Hendricks, Thomas A., nomination of, 411, 423 ; death, 425. Henry VII, 39. Henry, Patrick, 62 ; defiant speech, 155. Henry Letters, the, 250. Hobkirk Hill, 202. Holidays in Colonial New England, 131 ; in the Middle colonies, 147 ; in the Southern colonies, 139. Holland in the i6th and 17th centuries, 46. Hood, Gen. J. B., succeeds Johnston, 383; Tennessee campaign of, 383, 384. Hooker, Gen. Jos., supersedes Bumside, 367- Hooker, Thomas, settles Hartford, 89. Hornet, the, and the Peacock, 254. Horseshoe Bend, battle of, 259. Houston (Hew'ston), Sam, 303. Howe, Gen., 176, 177. Hudson, Henry, voyage of, 42. Hudson's bay, 42. Hudson river, discovery, 11, 46, 47; cam- paign on the, 179, I So. Huguenots, massacre of the, 34 ; settle- ments of, in South Carolina and Florida, 37- Hull, Capt. Isaac, 252. Hull, Gen. William, defeated at Detroit, 251. Hutchinson, Gov., 158. Hutchinson, Anne, teachings of, 86. Idaho, admission of, 433. Illinois country, the Clarke's expedition to, in 1778, 190, 191. Impeachment proceedings against President Johnson, 400. Impressment of American seamen, 245, 250. Indian massacres in Virginia, 59. Indian tribes, classification of, 3. Indian wars, 7. Indiana admitted to the Union, 263. Indians, as allies, 9 ; characteristics, 9 ; clothing, 4; government and religion, 6; home life, 4 : on the reservations, 10 ; lands of, 8 ; relations with the whites, 8 ; social distinctions among, 5 ; tortures by, 7- Indians in the Southwest, 191. Internal improvements, 268, 269 : John Quincy Adams's policy in regard to, 274, 275 ; policy of Congress, 277. Interstate railroad commission, 426. Inventions, 416. Iowa, admission of, 305. Iron furnaces in Virginia, 135. Iron-clad oath, the, 400. Ironclads, 363. Iroquois (Ir'ro-quoy), the, 3, 112. Isabella, Queen, 20. Island No. 10, fall of, 359. Italy, trouble with, in regard to New Orleans riot, 431. luka, battle of, 360. Jackson, Gov. of Missouri, 355. Jackson, Gen. Andrew, in the Creek war, 259 ; at New Orleans, in 1814, 263 ; in the Seminole war, 266 ; services of, 282 ; ad- ministration of, 282-292 ; treatment of the NuUifiers, 287. Jackson, " Stonewall," in the Shenandoah Valley, 364, 365 ; death of, 371. James river, 55. Jamestown, Va., settlement of, 45, 55, 56; sufferings of the settlers, 57 ; principal town in Va., 136 ; first church in, 140. Japan, treaty with, 326. Jasper, Sergeant, 171, 172, 195. Jay's treaty, 232, 233. Jeannette, the, 420. Jefferson, Thomas, 62 ; and the declaration of independence, 173 ; secretary of state, 228 ; elected president, 240 ; administra- tion of, 241-246; his plan for gradual ex- tinction of slavery, 267. Johnson, Andrew, governor of Tenn., 359; becomes president, 388 ; administration of. 397-404 ; impeachment of, 400, 401. Johnston, Gen. Albert Sidney, death of, 358. Johnston, Gen. J. E., victorious at Bull Run, 354, 355 ; succeeded by Gen. Lee, 364; opposes Sherman in Georgia, 382, 386 ; surrenders, 388. Johnstown flood, the, 433. Jones, Paul, naval victory of, 192, 193. Kansas, the struggle for, 329, 330 ; admis- sion of, 331. Kansas-and-Nebraska Bill, 322-324. Ixii HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. Kearney (Kar'ny), Gen., in New Mexico, 3'4. 3I5- Kenesaw mountain, battle of, 382. Kentucky, becomes a state, 214; Indian massacres in, 231; admitted to the Union, 232 ; adheres to the Union, 350. Kentucky Resolutions, the, 339. Kettle Creek, (Ja., 194. Key, Francis S., 261. King George's war, 113, 114. King Philip's war, 94-98. King William's war, 113, 114. King's mountain, battle of, 198. Know-Nothing party, 325. Knox, Gen., secretary of war, 228. Ku Klux Klan, the, 407. Labor riots in 1877, 416. I^bor troubles in 1886, 426. Lafayette, Gen., 183, 184 ; his visit to Amer- ica, 270, 271 ; in Virginia campaign, 202, 203. I.a Salle (Lah-sahl') explores the Missis- sippi, .18, 39. I^wrence, Capt., attacks the Shannon, 254 ; death, 255. Lawrence, the, 256, 257. Laws of New England Colonies, 129. Lecompton Constitution, the, 329, 330. Lee, Gen. Charles, disobeys Washington, '77i '7^; rebuked, 187; suspended, 188. Gen. Henry, 200. Richard Henrv, 172, 173. Gen. Robert \\., assumes command of Army of Virginia, 364 ; invades Mar>'- land, 3f>6, 3C17 : defeats Hooker, 370, 371 ; invades Pennsylvania, 371 ; retreat of, 372 ; repulses Grant in the Wilderness, 380 ; surrender of, 387. I>ees, the, 62. Leisler (Lise'ler), Jacob, governor of New York, 102. Lewis and Clarke Expedition, 244, 307. Lexington, battle of, 163-1^}. " Liberal Republicans," the, 407, 408. Liberator, the, 289, 290. Lincoln, Gen., 194; surrender of, 195, 196. I-incoln, Abraham, nomination, 333 ; elec- tion, 33s ; administration of, 347-387 ; issued Proclamation of Emancipation, 368; reelection, 3S5 ; assassination of, 387 ; his plan of reconstruction, 397, 398. Lincoln-Douglas debate, 329-331. Literature of New England Colonies, 132, 133 ; in Southern Colonies, 141. " Log Cabin " candidate, 297. I^cke, John, his " Fundamental Constitu- tions," (k), 72. Ix)comotive, the, 274. London t?onipany, the, 54, 62. Long Island, battle of, 176. Lookout mountain, battle of, 376. Ixisses in the war between the states, 389, .19p- Louisburg, capture of, 114. Louisiana, purchase of, 243 ; admitted to the Union, 263 ; election dispute in 1876, 411. Ix5uisiana, name applied by La Salle to the Mississippi Valley, 39. Lovejoy, Elijah, martyrdom of, 295. Lundy, Benjamin, early Abolitionist, 288. Lynchburg, Va., movement against, 380, 3X1. Lyon, Matthew, imprisonment of, 239. Lyon, Gen., campaign of, in Missouri, 355, 356- Madison, James, administration of, 247-271. Mafia (Mah-fee'ah), the, 432. Magellan, 31, 42. Straits of, 41. Magruder, t Jen., 374. Maine, admission of, 268. Maiden, Mich., 255. Malvern Hill, battle of, 366. Manassas, battle of, 353, 366. Manstield, battle of, 86. Marion, Gen. P'rancis, 196, 200. Marriages in the .Southern Colonies, 139. Martin, Gen. Joseph, 191. Mar>'land, founders of, 65 ; settlement, 65- 6S ; boundary dispute with Virginia, 66 ; religious troubles, 67. Maryland (lazctte, the, 141. Mason, Capt. John, in Pequod war, 93. Mason and Dixon's Line, b-], 125. Mason and Slidell, capture of, 356. Massachusetts Bay Colony, 84-,S8. RLissathusetls, rank in population in 1763, 125 ; resolutions on Townshend Acts, 159 ; annulment of charter, i<>2. Massachusetts Emigrant Aid Society, 324, 32:;. Massasoit, 94. Matagorda Bay, I^ Salle at, 39. Matamoras, capture of, 311. Mather, Increase, and witchcraft, 87. Maximilian, Emperor, 401. Mayflower, the, 81. Mayflower Compact, the, 82. McGlellan, Gen. G. B., in West Virginia, 353 ; assumes command of the Army of the Potomac, 3^13 ; his Peninsular cam- paign, 365, 3W) ; nominated for president, McClure, Capt., 43. McCulloch, (ren. Ben., 359. McDonald, Gen., 198. McDonouch, Commodore, 2'io. McDowell, Gen. Irvin, at Bull Run, 354, 3155; threatens Richmond, 364; guards Washingt', Commodore O. H., victory on Lake Erie, 256, 257. Commodore M. C, expedition to Japan, 326. Perr>'sville, Ky., battle of, 360. Personal liberty bills, 321, 336. Petersburg, \'a., fortifications around, 381. Philadelphia, settled, 105 ; relative rank in population, 125 ; campaign around, in '77^'. ''*^.1. '84 : capture of, 184 ; British leave, 1S7 ; capital, 236. J^hi/aiiel/'hia, frigate, 242, 243. Philip, King, 94, i/i ; war on whites, 94-98. Phillips, Wendell, on Lovejoy assassina- tion, 295. Phonograph, the, 417. Pickens, Cen., 196, 200, 349. Pierce, Franklin, administration of, 322. Pike's Peak, gold at, 331. Pillory, the, 137. Pine-Tree shilling, 216. Pirates of the Mediterranean, 242, 243. Pitcairn, Maj., 164. Pitt, William, 118,158. Pizarro, 32. Plantation life, 138, 139. Plantations of the South, the, 136. Plattsburgh. battle of, 260. Pleasant Hill, 378. Plows, 234. Plymouth, settlement of, 82. Plymouth Colony, "Separatists" of, 79; founders, .So ; settlement, 82 ; early years of, 83, 84 : union with Mass., 84. company, the, 55, S3. patent, the, 81. Pocahontas and John .Smith, 58, 59. Polk, James K., elected president, 304 ; administration of, 306-316. Polo, Marco, 17. Polygamy, laws against, 420, 426. Ponce de l,ei>n(P(.n'tliaydaylay-own'), 30, 31. Poor Richard's Almanac, 133, 134. Pope, (len., takes command on the Potomac, 3^)6. Population in 1890, 434. " Populists," the, 434. Port Hudson, surrender of, 314. Port Roval, Nova .Scotia, settled, 37 ; cap- ture of, 114. Port Royal, S. C. 71, Postage rates, reduction of, 421. Potomac River, '15. Powhatan t Pow-ha-tan'), Va., 59. President's election, powers and duties, 211. Presidential election of 1789, 225; of 1800, 240; of 180S, 247; of 1812, 254; of 1824, 271 ; of 1840. 297 ; of 1844, 304 ; of 1852, 322; of i860, 332; of 1864, 386; of 1868, 402; of 1876, 410; of 1880, 417; of 1884, 423 ; of 1888, 428 ; of 1892, 434. Presidential succession, 425, 426. Prevost (Pre-vo'), (>en., 194, 260. Price, (.len. .Sterling, 355, 360. ^ Princeton, battle of, 179, iSo. Princeton College. 144. Printing in colonial Virginia, 141. Prisoners, excliange of, 385. Proctor, lien., 255 ; attacks Fort Stephen- son, 256. " Protection," 434. Protective tariff, 285. Providence, settlement of, 91. Pueblo (pway'-blo) Indians, the, 2. Pulaski, Count, 195. Punishments in colonial New England, 130. Quakers in Pennsylvania, 104-106, 144. Quebec, capture of, 119, 120; founding of, 37- Queen Anne s war, 113, 114. Queenstown Heights, capture of, 253. Quincy railway, 290. Radicals, the, 34S. Railroads, early, 290, 291 ; development of, 321 ; transcontinental, 406. Raleigh (Raw'ly), Sir Walter, charter to, 43 : expeditions of, 43, 44. Randolph, Kdmund, secretary of war, 228. " Reciprocity policy," 431. Reconstruction acts of Congress, 391J. Reconstruction period, 397 et seq. Red River expedition, 37S. Religion, in the New England Colonies, 128 ; in the .Southern CiHonies, 139 ; in the Middle Colonies, 144. Republican convention at Chicago, in i860, ns- Republican party, the, 232, 325. Resaca de la I'alma ( Ray-sail 'cah dey lah Pal 'mail), battle of, 311. Resumption Act, the, 416. " Returning Hoards," the, 411. Revere, I'aul, 164. Revival, the great, of 1740, 96. Revolution, beginnings of, 163, 164; war of the, 152-184. Rhode Island, settlement, 91 ; the Dorr Rebellion, 300 ; ratifies constitution, 220. Rice culture in .South Carolina, 71. Richmond, Va., settlement of, 58; capital of .Southern Confederacy, 351; prisons of, 385 ; ev.icuation of, 387. Rio Grande boundary, 3 10. INDEX. Ixv Ripley, Gen., in Canada, 259. Roanoke Island, Raleigh's Colony, 44. Rochambeau (Ro-sham-bo'), Gen., 205. " Rocket," The, 291. Rolfe, Capt. John, 58, 59, 60. Rosecrans, (ien. VV. S., luka and Corinth, 360; Murfreesboro, 360 ; defeat of, 375. Ross, Gen., attacks Baltimore, 261. " Rotten boroughs," 157. Sabbath observance, 129. Sabine Cross Roads, 378. Sabine Pass, attack on, 374. Sabine river, boundary, 266. Sackett's Harbor, attack on, 258. Sacramento, growth of, in 1849, 316. Sagas (Say'gaz), the Norse, 15, 16. St. Augustine, Fla., settlement of, 34; burning of, 71. St. Clair, Gen., defeat of, 231. St. John, J. P., nomination of, 423. St. Lawrence, Cartier on the, 37. St. Leger (Lej'er) at Fort Stanwix, 182. St. Mary's, Maryland, 65. St. Regis, battle of, 258. " Salary grab," the, 408. Salem, Mass., settlement of, 84; witchcraft in, 87. Samoan dispute, the, 431. San Francisco, in 1849, 3i6- San Francisco bay, Drake in, 41. San Jacinto, battle of, 303. San Jacinto, the, 356. San Salvador island, 21 Sandys, Sir Edwin, 60. Santa Anna, Gen., defeat of, 312, 313. Santa Fe, N. M., capture of, 315. Santa lilaria (Mah-ree'ah), the, 20. Saratoga, battle of, 182. Savannah, Ga., settlement of, 74; capture of, 194 ; American and French attack on, 195 ; capture of, 384. Saybrook, Fort, Conn., 89, 90. Schools in the colonies, 132, 141, 144. Schuyler (Ski'ler) Gen., i8i, 1S2. Scientific progress, 1837-40, 296. Scotch-Irish in Virginia, 63, 64. Scotch Presbyterians in New Jersey, 144. Scott, Dred, 327, 328. Scott, Gen. W. S., in Canada, 259; cam- paign in Mexico, 312, 313. Seal fisheries, the, 437. Secession, the " mode of redress," 339, 340. Secession of Southern States, 336, 337. Secession ordinance, 337. Secession, right of, 338, 392. Seminole war, the, 265, 266, 288. " Separatists," the, 79, 80. Serapis (Ser-ay'pis), the, 193. Seven Days' Battles, 1862, 366. Seven Pines, battle of, 364^ Sevier (Se-veer'), John, 198, 214. Seward, W. H., 357, 388. Seymour (Se'more), Horatio, 403. Shannon, the, 254, 255. Sharpsburg, or Antietam, battle of, 366, 367. Shays's Rebellion, 217. Shenandoah Valley, operations in the, 380, 381 ; .Stonewall Jackson's campaign, 364, 365 ; Sheridan in, 381, 387. Sheridan, Gen., campaign of, in the Shen- andoah Valley, 381, 387. Sherman, Gen., moves on Mobile, 378; marches to oppose Johnston, 379 ; pur- sues Johnston in Georgia, 382; "March to the Sea," 384, 386. Sherman Act, the, 430. Shiloh, battle of, 358. Sigel (See'-gel), Gen., 379, 380. Silver, demonetization of, 409 ; restoration of, 416. Silver legislation in 1888, 430. Silver question in 1893, 435. Sioux (Soo) Indians, 3 ; uprising in 1876, 409. Sitting Bull, 409. " Slave " and " Free " states, 266. Slave labor in Southern Colonies, 135. Slave ship, the first, 86. Slavery, abolition of, 391 : in the colonies, 125 ; in Southern Colonies, 136 ; in the ter- ritories, 266, 267 ; position of parties on, in i860, 334 ; prohibited in Northwest Territory, 214 ; prohibited in Georgia, 74 ; Southern view of, 289. Slaves, the first, 61 ; prohibition of importa- tion of, 246. Sloat, Commodore, 314. Sloughter (Slo'ter), Gov., 102. Smith, Capt. John, sketch of, 54 ; the " Great Deliverer," 58 ; in New Eng- land, 93. Smith, Joseph, founder of Mormonism, 300, 301. Smith, Gen. Kirby, raids Kentucky, 360 ; surrender, 388. Smithson, James, 296. Smithsonian Institution, the, 275. Smuggling, 152, 153 ; in New Jersey, 104. Smyth, Gen., expedition of, to Canada, 253, 254- Social life in the Middle Colonies, 146 ; in New England Colonies, 130 ; in the Southern Colonies, 138, 139. " Solid South," the 417. South, preparation of the, for war, 341; con- dition of the, at close of the war, 392 ; sen- timent of, in i860, 335 ; war in the, in 1778-80, 193. South Carolina, settlement and colonization, 70-72 ; rice culture, 72 ; fundamental con- stitutions, 72 ; British in, 196. South Dakota, admission of, 433. Southern Colonies, the, 135 ; form of govern- ment of, 137. Southern States, political condition in 1876 ; readmission of, 399, 400. Spain and the navigation of the Mississippi, 215. Spaniards in Georgia, troubles with, 75. Spanish explorations, 29. Specie payments, resumption of, 409. Spoils system, 283. Spotswood, Gov., 64, 135. Squatter sovereignty, 330, 331. Ixvi HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. Stamp Act, the, 156-158. Stamp Act Congress, 158. Stanaard time, 422. Standish, Miles, 83, 84. " Star Route " frauds, 420. " Star spangled banner," 261. SUrk, Gen., iSi. " Stars and bars," 351. Steamboat, the first, 246. Stephens, Alexander H., vice-president of Southern Confederacy, 338. Stephenson, George, 21)1. Stevenson, A. E., nomination of, 434. Stony Point, capture of, 194, 195. "Strict Constructionists," 227. Stuyvesant (.Sty've-sant), Peter, loi. Sub-Treasury system, 294, 299. Sullivan, Gen., expedition against the In- dians, 1S8. .Sumter, Gen., 106, 200. Sumter, blockade runner, 356. Sumter, Fort, see Fort Sumter. Supreme Court, the, 221, 222. Sutter, Capt., 315. Sutter's Fort, 314. " Swamp P"ox," the, 196. Swanzey, Mass., Indian massacre, 95. Swedes in America, the, 48-50. Tanev, Chief Justice, 329. Tariff Act of 1842, 300 ; of 1883, 421. Tariff legislation under Jackson, 284-286; in 1888, 428; the .McKinley Bill, 430; the Wilson Hill, 436. " Tariff for revenue only," 434. Tarleton, Gen., 200, 201. Taylor, Gen. Z., defeats Seminoles, 288; march of, to the Kio (Jrande, 311; invades Mexico, 311 ; defeats Mexicans at Huena Vista, 312; elected president, 317; ser- vices and character of, 318. "Tea Party" in Boston harbor, 161. Tea tax, 160, 161. Tecumseh, 256, 257. Telegraph put into operation, 300. Telephone, the, 416. Tennessee, the, 384. Tennessee, ceded to the U. S., 214; ad- mitted to the Union, 232 ; restored to the Union, 399. " Tenure of office " .Act, 400. Territories, slavery in the, 318, 319. Texas. .Spanish in, 33 ; relinquished to Spain, 2^)6; independence of , 302 ; annex- ation of, 301-304, 310; campaign of 1863, in, 374- Thames, battle of the, 257. Thom.-is, (len. G. H., at Chattanooga, 375; defeats Hood at Nashville, 383, 384. Ticonderoga, Fort, 118, 183. Tilden, .Samuel J., nomination of, 411. Tippecanoe, battle of, 249, 250 " Tippecanoe and Tyler too, ' Tithing-men, 129. Tobacco, introduction of, into Europe, 44 ; culture in Va., 59, 60, 135. Tomahawk, the, 7. 297. Tomochichi (-chee-chee), Indian chief, 74. Totem, the, 5. Town life in New England Colonies, 128. Town-meeting, 128. Towns, absence of, in the South, 136. Townshend Acts, 159. Travel, facilities of, 234. Treaty of Ghent, 262. Treaty of Peace. 1783, 206, 212. Treaty of Washington, 404. Treaty with Fiance, iXoo, 240. Treaty with Mexico, 315. Trent, affair of the, 356. Trenton, battle of, 179. Tripoli, war with, 242, 243. Tyler, John, administration of, 297-305. Underground railway, the, 321, 336. Utah, admission of, 436. Valley Forge, camp at, 186. Van Buren, Martin, elected president, 292 ; administration of, 293-296. Vancouver's Island, 405. VanOorn, Gen., 360. Vera Cruz, siege of, 311. Verraz2ano(Vay-raht-zahn'o\ 36. Vespucci, .\merigo (Ah-ma-rego Ves-poot" che>, 29. Vicksburg, fall of, 373, 374. Vir^nia, named, 44 ; settlement and colo- nization, 53-65; first charter, 56; first Assembly, 60 ; slaves in colony of, 61 ; settlement of valley, 6^ ; population in 1763, 125: the Townshend Acts, 159; resolutions of Assembly of, on Boston Port Bill, 162 ; Lord Dunmore's war, 170; cedes N. W. Territory, 213. Virginia Bill of Rights, 248. Virginia and Kentucky resolutions, 239. Virginia, the, 363. War of 1812-1S14, 250-262. War between the states, causes, 340 ; first year of, 347-357; second year, 35'*-37o; campaign of 1S63, 371-377 ; campaign of ■ ^64, 377-386; comparative strength of Union and Confederate armies, 389; losses, 389 ; close of the. 389 ; financial cost of, 390 ; results, 3(^0 Washington, George, expedition to Ohio, 114, 115; with Braddock, 116, 117; ap- pointed commander of the Continental army, 168 ; takes command, 169 ; retreat through New Jersey, 177, 178; crosses the Delaware, 178, 179; at Trenton, 179; at Chad's Ford, 184 ; at Valley Forge, 186 ; rebukes Lee, 18^ ; plans to attack Comwallis, 203 ; president of Constitu- tional Convention, 218; inauguration of, 226 ; administration of, 225-235 ; appointed Commander-in-chief of the army, 238 ; death, 239. John, 62. City, capital of the United States, 236 ; capture of, 261. state of, admission of, 433. INDEX. Ixvii IVasp, the, 252, 253. Wayne, Gen., at Stony Point, 195; defeats Maumee Indians, 231. Weaver, J. K., nominated by the "Popu- lists," 434. Webster, Daniel, replies to Hayne, 286 ; on the tariff of 1816, 285 ; supports protective tariff, 286 ; debate of, with Calhoun, 287 ; on Compromise of 1S50, 320. Wesley, John, in Georgia, 74, 75. West Jersey, 104. West Virginia, loyal to the Union, 350 ; campaign of 1861 in, 353 ; admission of, 377- , , , West, settlement of the, 230, 231. Wheeler, William A., nomination of, 410. Whig party, the, 291, 292. " Whiskey insurrection," the, 230. " Whiskey ring," the, 408. Whitefield (Whitfield), George, in Georgia, 74, 75 ; and the " Great Awakening," 96 ; on slavery, 136. Whitman, Marcus, expedition of, to Oregon, 309- Whitney, Eli, 233. Wigglesworth, M., his " Day of Doom," 134- Wilderness, battles of the, 380, 381. Willamette Valley, 309. William and Mary College, Virginia, 64, Williams, Roger, 86, 91. Williamsburg, capital of Virginia, 64 ; en- gagement at, 364. Wilmot Proviso, the, 319. Wilson, Henry, nomination of, 408. Wilson Bill, the, 436. Wilson's Creek, battle of, 356. Winchester, battle of, 381. Windmills, 143. Winthrop, f Jovemor, 85. Winthrop, John, Jr., builds Ft. Saybrook, 89. Witchcraft craze in Massachusetts, 87. Wolfe, Gen., at Quebec, 119, 120. World, circumnavigation of, 31. World's Fair, 1853, the, 326. World's Fair at Cliicago, the, 436. Writs of assistance, 154. Wyeth, Nathaniel J., 309. Wyoming, admission of, 433. massacre, 188. Yale College, founded, 132. Yeardley, Governor, 60. Yellow fever epidemic, 1878-9, 417. Yorktown, surrender at, 205 ; evacuation of, 1862, 364. centennial, 422. Young, Brigham, 301. Ysleta (Is-let'ta), settlement at, 35. Zollicoffer, Gen., 358. STICKNEY'S READERS By J. H. STICKNEY. A series of attractive, well-graded, and thoroughly tested reading books, combining in an unusual degree, exceptional literary merit and marked originality with the most rational and practical methods. 40 cents. Illustrated. 50 cents. Illustrated. 60 cents. A FIRST READER. 104 pages. 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