Glass. Book-- COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT J C. Adams, Kditor, ouMua i^t-a-MUe Ha* b.i luciliua AavucdUd m Una JJuuk, Newton County, Ga. Tilling the Soil FOR Profit and Pleasure Successful Southern Tillers A Compendium of Agricultural Science and Practice on Field, Orchard, and Garden Crops, Spraying. Soils, the Feeding and Diseases of Farm Animals, Dairy Farming and Poultry in the Southern States. . . Bv . . JAMES CLYDE ADAMS, S. B. Illustrated. The Austell Publishing Co.. Atlanta, Ga. iLIBHARYo(CON.iKES3 juN 6 "Jy^a 301-^ a. ^ Entered According to Act of Congress with the Librarian of Congress, by J. C. Adams, 1908 All Rights Reserved THE AUSTELL PUBLISHING CO., Atllnta, Ga. Preface We have no apologies to offer for bringing out this book. Having been raised on t'he farm ; Uved in several of the Southern States, and traveled in all of them, we believe that we are in a position to know the wants and needs of the farmers. The South is the Garden Spot of America. If men will only develop her resources, they need not fear what the rest of t'he world may do. Primarily the South is an agricultural section. Other industries are important and necessary, but they should not, neither can they take the place of agriculture. The world must have the grains and cereals, cotton and wool, silk and tea, fruits and vegetables, horses and mules. The South can produce these articles cheaper than any other section. But to produce them a revolution must take place in her methods of Cultivation. Agriculture, the oldest of the arts, has not kept pace with the other arts and industries. There are many reasons why Agriculture is so far behind. The principal reason why there has not been more progress in our own section is ignorance. The farmers have been uneducated. They have relied on brawn instead of brain. Up to this time there has never been issued, as we know of, a strictly Southern agricultural book. The country is not crowded with books on this line as on others. Some agricultural books have been sold in the South, but they were written by Northern men, published by Northern houses, and have not been adapted to our needs. These books are all right for the sections t'hey were written for. but they will not do here. The sale of these books, no doubt accounts for the idea so prevalent that books will not help the farmer. We are not so foolish as to believe that you can take a book, and just by reading it make an excellent crop of corn, wheat or cotton, but we do believe, and our experience backs us up in the belief, that there are many valuable suggestions in books that will be of incalculable benefit to the farmer. What is true of farming is true of other professions. The physician, whom you call into your home cannot rely on his medical books altogether, but he must use common sense and judgment. Just so with the farmer. He cannot farm by book methods alone, but by using the suggestions as given in books that are suited to his country, with good common sense, he can liave better success than without the book. It has been our aim to have the book practical. We have selected practical men to write and revise the different departments with the idea of giving to the farmer a work that he can read and understand. Every department of the book has been edited and revised by men who live in the South, and who know our conditions and needs. We are under obligations to many men throughout the South who have given us encouragement in our efforts to bring out this book. The work could not be as great a success as it is without their aid. Especially are we under obligations to each of the editors and to those who furnis'h us many of the illus- trations. J c. ADAMS. To the men of the South who have borne the heat and burden of many days and summers without receiving their just reward, this book is DEDICATED iWith a prayer that it may aid the Southern Farmer in receiving the just recompense for his efforts. Publisher's Preface It may be of interest to the readers of tliis book to know something of the metTiods used in produc- ing it. The Editor of the book, Mr. Adams, was born and reared upon a Southern farm. He knows from experience what it is to labor on the farm. He has traveled in every Southern State among the farmers. He is a graduate of Emory College. While in college he made a special study of the sciences. All of this qualified liim for the work of gathering together the material for a Great Southern Farm Book. He secured back files, and subscribed to the leading Southern farm papers. He also secured books covering every topic possible, even securing some books from across the Atlantic Ocean. From this matter he compiled, what he thought, an excellent farm book. (With the exception of the Horse Department, Flo- ral Department, And The Use of -Improved Farm Machinery, which were written by their respective au- thors as they now stand.) However, in order to produce the very best book possible, he secured for each department an editor especially gifted in his particular line, to revise the department, thereby bring- ing out the very best book possible. Many people do not get the full value of a book because they do not know what it contains. Read your book; know what it contains; make it your companion. When you cannot find what you want, con- sult the Index in the back of the book. The Index was made to use. . Publisher. Board of Editors. FARM DEPARTMENT— Edited and Revised by F. J. Merriam, Editor of Southern Ruralist, Atlanta, Ga. GARDEN DEPARTMENT— Edited and Revised by F. J. Merriam, Editor of Southern Ruralist, Atlanta, Ga. FRUIT DEPARTMENT— Revised by P. J. Berckmans, Augusta, Ga. FLORAL DEPARTMENT— Edited by H. G. Hastings, Florist and Seedman. Member of Southern Florists' Association, x^t- lanta, Ga. FERTILIZER DEPARTMENT— Edited and Revised by Prof. W. F. Massey, for- merly Prof, of Horticulture and Botany, N. C. College of Agriculture & Mechanical Arts. For- merly Editor of Practical Farmer, Phila. Mem- ber of American Association and the National Geographical Society of Washington, Lecturer at Farmers Institutes, in various States, and contributor to the leading farm papers. INSECT DEPARTMENT— Edited and Revised by R. I. Smith, formerly State Entomologist for Georgia, formerly As- sistant Entomologist Maryland Agricultural College. Entomologist for t'he North Carolina Experiment Station. Raleigh, North Carolina. IRRIGATION DEPART^NIENT- Edited by J. C. Adams. S. B., Mesena, Ga. ENEMIES TO THE FARM— Edited by J. C. Adams, S. B., Mesena, Ga. USE OF THE IMPROVED FARM MACHIN- ERY— Edited by G. F. Hunnicutt, A. B., Editor of the Southern Cultivator, Atlanta, Ga. BEE DEPARTMENT— Edited by J. C. Adams, S. B., Mesena, Ga. HORSE DEPARTMENT— Edited by C. A. Gary, B. SC, D. V. M. Prof, of Physiology and Veterinarj^ Science at the Ala- bama Polytechnic Institute: Veterinary of the Alabama Experiment Station, Director of Far- mers Institutes & State Veterinarian of Ala- bama, Auburn, Alabama. Also by Dr. J. C. Curryer, Asst. Supt. Mankato, Minn., Foun- der of the Minnesota Horseman. HOG DEPARTMENT.— Edited and Revised by Gen. Thos. T. Munford, Head of Diversification Farm No. 3. Union- town, Ala. Also by J. P. Conner, V. M. D. Alabama Experiment Station, LTniontown, Ala. SHEEP DEPARTMENT— Edited and Revised by William Lea, ]\Iarietta, Ga. COW DEPARTMENT— Edited and Revised by C. L. Willoughby, B. Agri., Secretary Georgia Dairy and Live Stock Association; Dairyman and Animal Husband- man, Georgia Experiment Station. Experiment, Ga. POULTRY DEPARTMENT— Edited and Revised by H. F. Reils, Editor South- ern Fancier, Secretary Atlanta Poultry Asso- ciation, Atlanta, Ga., and J. A. P. Wolf, Mem- ber National White Wyandotte Club, ?,Iember North Carolina Poultry Association ; Member Piedmont Poultry Association ; Director Poul- try Department, Forsyth County Fair, Winston, N. C. and Central Carolina Fair, Greensboro N. C. , Rural Hall, N. C. Table of Contents. BOOK I. FARM DEPARTMENT. FARMING, THE SOIL, SEED NEICEi&SARY 10 PARTS OP THE PLO'WBR.— Perfect flower. Imperfect flower. How tbey are fertilized 10-11 ALFALFA OR LUCBRN. — Number of cuttings per year, Suitable soil. Bacteria necessary, How to inoculate land, Alfalfa as a soil improver 11-13 BARLEY. — Suitable soil, Preparation of land, Its value as a stock food 13-14 BEGGAR WEED. — Used as a forage plant, When to cut . 14 BROOM CORN.— Its use. Suitable soil, How to cultivate . 14 CASTOR BEAN. — Suitable soil, Method of cultivation . . 15 CHUFAS. — Used for fattening hogs, Method of cultiva- tion 15 CRIMSON CLOVER.— Feed crop and soil renovator ... 16 CORN. — Suitable soil, Preparation of land, Harrowing necessary, iSelecting seed corn. The best fertilizer. Variety to be used. When to plant. How to cultivate, Methods of harvesting corn 16-21 COTTON. — Long staple. Where grown. Short staple. Land suitable for cotton, Preparation of land. How to cultivate 21-23 COW PEAS. — Their value as a land renewer. Value as a fornge plant. How to cultivate. When to cut for hay. How to cure hay during wet weather .... 23-25 GRASSES. — Bermuda grass. Carpet grass. Crab grass, Johnson grass, Kentucky blue grass. Meadow fescue 25-27 LESPEDEZA. — Leguminous iplant. Suitable for South. only 27 MILLET. — Foxtail millet. Barnyard millet. Broomcom millet, When to cut millet for hay, Requires warm weather 27-2S OATS. — Suitable soil, The winter turf sod oat. Enemies to oats 28 PEANUT. — ^Leguminous plant. Used for fattening hogs. When to plant and methods of cultivation 2S-29 POTATOES. — Irish potatoes, An ideal soil tor. Prepara- tion of land for. Size of pieces to be used. Keeping late potatoes. Sweet potatoes. How to bed. How to cultivate. How to dig potatoes. Methods of keeping 29-34 RICE. — Land suitable for. How to prepare land for, Se- lec-tion of seed. Methods of treating rice just after planting. Importance of flooding. The irrigation plant. The time to harvest rice. By-products of rice 34-3S RYE.— Its use. Soils adapted for rye. Preparation of ground. Planting 3S SORGHUM — Its use. Suit.nble land, Planting and culti- vation 39-40 SUGAR CANE.— -Suitable land. Preparation of land. Fer- tilizers. Methods of manufacture 40 SUN FLOWER.— 44 TOBACCO. — Climate and fertilizers as they affect the to- bacco. Varieties grown in the South, Soil upon which tobacco should be grown, Fertilizers for tobacco. Making the seed bed. Preparatin'i of land. When and how to set out. Topping tobacco. Harvesting tobacco. Worming tobacco 45-5i VE3LVET BEANS. — iLeguminous plant. Its value as a feed crop 52 VETCH. — How to cultivate. Inoculation of land .... 53 WHEAT. — Its importance. Wheat farming upon soil fer- tility. Soils suitable for wheat. When to plant. When to harvest 54-55 ' BOOK II. GARDEN DEPARTMENT. MARKET GARDENING.— Money in gardening. Soils suitable for gardening. Location of garden, Fertili- zers for gardens 53 HOW TO PREPARE A SEED BED.— Its size. Location, E3 COLD FRAMES. — How to make a cold frame. Ventila- tion necessary 59-GO THE GERMINATION OF SEE©.— What temperature necessary for the germination of seed, Seeds lose their vitality, Mulching 60-61 ROTATION OF GARDEN CROPS.— Its importance. ... 61 PACKING AND SHIPPING VEGETABLES.— Must ship when there is a demand and when they can be kept. Proper crate necessary. Appearance of crate 62 THE FARMER'S GARDEN.— Shape of garden. Early or- dering of seed necessary. Thorough cultivation nec- essary (j2 VEGETABLES NOTE'S.— 63 64 ARTICHOKES.— Used as hog feed. Suitable soil, Culti- vation 54 ASPARAGUS.— How to raise plants. Suitable soil, Cul- tivation 65-66 BEANS. . V.nrieties of beans. Suitable soil. Sensitive to frost. How to plant and cultivate 66 BEETS.^Suitable soil. Preparation of land. Cultivation C7 CABBAGE.-^Suitable soil. Early cabbage. Fertilizers, Healthy plants necessary. Growing late cabbage.' Dispose of the crops as early as possible 67-69 CELERY.— Most suitable land. Thorough preparation of the land necessary. Transplanting celery. Irrigation. C9 COLLARDS.— . ' iQ CUCUMBERS. — Suitable land. How to produce early . cucumbers " ^0 CARROTS.— How to plant and cultivate 71 EGGPLANT. — How to start plants and to transplant them Yj^ KALE.— ' '. ' '. 72 LETTUCE.— Forcing lettuce. Varieties 72 MUSHROOMS. — Temperature necessary for mushrooms. Preparation of mushrooms beds. How to plant and cultivate mushrooms 73-74 MTJSKMELON.— Suitable soil To secure an early crop. How to plant and cultivate, Varieties 74-75 OKRA or GUMBO.— 75 ONIONS. — Metbods of growing onions, first with sets. Second, sowing seed in fall and transplanting in ear- ly spring. Third, by sowing seed in open ground in the spring. How to get sets and plants started. Suitable soil. Fertilizers. How to plant and cultivate. Har- vesting onions. New onion culture 76-77 PUMPKIN. — Methods of cultivation 77 KAUISH. — Methods of cultivation '^^ RUTABAGAS.— Suitable soil. How to plant and culti- vate '^ SAGE. — Its use and cultivation '^ SALSIFY or VEGETAB.LE OYSTER.— How to cultivate . 79 SQUASH. — Summer squash. Winter squa.sh '9 SWEET CORN.— Use Southern seed, Cultivation, Suita- l3le soil . ''^" TEA. — Experiments made at Pinehurst, S. C, How to cul- tivate ^'^ TOMATOES.— How to start the plants. Fertilizers, Trans- planting, Handling tomatoes. Varieties Si) TURNIP.— ^-'■ WATERMELON.— Should be rotated, Preparation of the land. Cultivation *■" FUNGOUS DISEASES OF GARDEN PLANTS.— Aspara- gus rust, Anthrocnot^e, Rust, Black rot of cabbaiie. Clubfoot, Leaf blight, Damping off, Powdery mildew Downy mildew. Tomato blight, Tomato black rot. . !>2-t>5 BOOK III. FRUIT DZPARXr.lENT. APPLES. — Where grown. Ideal location of orchard. When transplanted. Preparation of trees, Fertilizers, When gathered S9-90 BLACl-iBERKIES.- Value of cultivation, pruning 91 CHERRY.— Suitable soil. Variety 92 CHESTNUT.— 92 DEWBSKrt\.— How propagated. How planted 92 CHINCAPIN 93 FIG.- Suitable soil. Cutting. Smyrna fig. Wild fig. Polli- nation, Fertilizers, How shipped 93-93 GRAPES. — Selection of site for vineyard, Propagation of grapes. Layering, Fertilizer for 95-97 MULBERRY.— Varieties, Propagation 97 ORi\NGBS. — Budding, Transplanting seedling trees, Protection • 97 PEACH.— ^Soil, Preparation of the land. Planting, Culti- vation, Fertilizer, pruning. Borers, Thin curculio. Brown rot. Spraying of peaches 9S-103 PEAR.— Preparation of orchard. Thinning pears. Varieties in;j PECAN. — Propagation, Suitable soil. ... 104 JAPANESE PERSIMMON.— Varieties 104 •PINKAIJPLE. — How soil is fertilized. Sheds for pineap- ples 105 PLUMS.— Varieties, European plum, Japanese, American lOG QUINCE. — How and when planted 106 RASPBERRy.--Black raspberry 107 STRAWBERRY. — Its importance. Raised for the market. Soil suitable for, Preparation of soil, Systems of planting. Hill system. Wide matted row. Directions for cultivation. Mulching, Sex of blossoms . . . 107-110 FUNGOUS DISEASES.— Cedar ball fungous or rust, Black rot. Leaf blight or leaf spot. Fire blight. Peach scab or black spot. Brown rot. Peach curl. Peach yellows. Peach rosette, .Shothole fungous. Plum blad- ders. Anthraenose scab. Bird's eye rot. Black rot, Downy mildew, or brown rot. Powdery mildew, An- thraenose cane rust, Anthraenose blight. Spring orange rust, Strawberry leaf blight. Mildew. . 110-114 BUDDING AND GRAFTING TREES.— What plants are budded, When to bud. Tools necessary to bud. Graft- ing, Cleft grafting. Whip or tongue grafting. . . 114-116 TREE PRUNING. — Wounds in pruning. The stub. How to use shears. Painting a wound. When to prune. What to do with the wood removed. Special direc- tions or pruning, berries, peach, pear, plum . . . 117-119 SPRAYING.— Considered under the INSECT DEPART- MENT ..... 244 FRUIT ON THE F.\iR.VI.— Increasing size of fruit, meth- ods for the same, Fruit notes 119 BOOK IV. FLORAL DEPARTMENT. A PLEA FOR MOKE OF THEM 124 FLOWERS FROM SEED 124 HOW TO SOW FLOWER SEED 124 THE SOIL. Planting the Seed. Sowing in Boxes ... 125 AGERATUM 125 ALYSSUM 125 ABRONIA 125 AMARANTHUS 12G ASTERS 126 ANTERRJHINUM 127 BALSA.M. (Touch-Me-Not, or Ladles Slippers) 127 BELLIS PERENNIS, (or Double English Daisy) .... 127 CARNATION • 127 CACALIA. (Tassel Flower) 12S C.A.NNAS 12S COLEUS 12S CHRYS.\NTHEMUM V2'.) COSMOS 129 DAHLIAS 130 DIANTHUS. (or Garden Pinks) 130 DELP'HIMIUM (Larkspur) 131 BSCHSCHOLTZIA (or Garden Poppy) 131 GAILLARDIA 131 HELIOTROPE 131 FORGET-ME-NOT 131 HOLLYHOCKS 131 IBERIS (or Candytuft) 132 LANT-\NA 132 M-\RVEL of PERU 132 MARIGOLDS 132 NASTURTIUMS 132 PANSIES 133 PETUNIAS 133 PHLOX DRUMMONDIE 133 RICIUMS (or Castor Bean) 134 POPPIES 134 SALVIA SPLENDEUS (Scarlet Sage) 1.34 SWEET PEAS 134 SWEET WILLIAMS 135 VIOLETS 135 VINCA 135 VERBENA 135 ZINNIAS 13G ARISlX)TOCHIA Cor Dutchman's Pipe;. . . ; 136 BALiLOON VINE ISG CUMBEKS FOR PORCHES and TRELLIS 136 BALSAM APPLE 136 CYPRESS VINE 136 JAPANESE MORNING GLORY 137 COBEA SCANDEUS 137 JAPANESE HOP (Humulus Japanicus) 137 ALL EASILY OBTAINED 138 ABOUT SEED BUYING 138 FLOWERS FROM BULBS 139 OUT-DOOR CULTURE 139 THE NARCISSUS FAMILY 140 CROCUS 140 BULBS— POT AND WATER CULTURE 141 BULBS FOR SPRING PLANTING 142 TUBE-ROSES 142 GLADIOLI 142 CALADIUMS 143 CANNAS and DAHLIA 143 THE ROSES 143 BOOK V. FERTILIZER DEPARTMENT. THE USE OF FERTILIZERS.— Restoration of our soils. Nitrogen, Potash, Soils of good mechanical make-up. Deep breaking and thorough pulverization of the soil necessary. Water in soils, Getting nitrogen from the air, Potash and phosphoric acid necessary tor a legume plant. What diflerent plants require, Impor- tance of a well balanced fertilizer. How plants get food from the air 150-159 THE SPECIAL VALUE OF BARN-YARD MANURE.— Organic matter 159 COTTON SEED -A.S A FERTILIZER ICO LIME AS A FERTILIZER 160 LAND PLASTER 161 FISH AS A FEiRTILIZER 161 FERTILIZER FORMULAS.— How to make them, Wliat is a filler 1G2 CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OP THE SOIL.— Of little value to the farmer 1G3 HOW A FARMER MAY ANALYZE HIS SOIL.— By ac- tual tests 164 FORMULAS FOR DIFFERENT CROiPS.— General formu- las, Cotton formulas, Wheat formulas. Corn formu- las. Watermelon and sweet potato formulas. Fruit tree formulas, Fertilizers for truck farming. . . . 166-173 HOME MADE FERTILIZERS 173 COMPOSTING 173 BORING INSECTS ATTACKING THE PEAOH.— The Peachtree Borer, The Fruit-tree Bark-Beetle, The Peach Twig Borer, The Curculio 186-197 PLANT LICE INJURIOUS TO THE PEACH.— The New- Plum Aphis, The Black peach Aphis, Root Knot, or Nematode Gall 197-199 CATERPILLARS. — The American Tent Caterpillars. Other Caterpillars 199 APPLE INSECTS. — Woolly Aphis, Apple Tree Borers, Round Headed Borer, Flat Head Borer, The Coa- ling Moth, The American Tent Caterpillar, Apple Curculio, Canker Worms, Seventeen Year Locust, or Cicada 200-205 THE MEXICAN COTTON BOLL WEEVIL 205-211 INSECTS FREQUENTLY MISTAKEN FOR COTTON BOLL WEEVIL. — The cow-pea-pod weevil. The Acorn and Chestnut weevils. The Blood Weed Weev- ils, Other short' beetles. Click Beetles, The Cotton Sharpshooter, The Cotton Boll Worm 211-213 THE COTTON BOLL WORM 213 THE COTTON CATERPILLAR 216 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CORN AND TRUCK CROPS The Corn Stalk Borer, Corn ?oot Worm, The Squash Vine Borer, Cutworms Squash Bug, The Cucumber Beetle, Colorado Potato Beetle, Flea Beetles, Cab- bage Worms, Plant Lice 217-224 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO TOBACCO.— Cutworms, The robacco Stalk Worm, The Spined Tobacco Bug, Bud Worms, The Tobacco Leaf-Miner, The Horn- Worm or Tobacco-Worm 224-226 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STORED GRAIN.— The Grain weevils. The Grain Moths, Flour and Meal Moths, The Flour Beetles, The Meal Worms,. . . 2;26-232 ORANGE INSECTS.— The White Fly, The San Jose Scale, The Cottony Cushion Scale, The Red Orange Scale 232-234 HOUSEHOLD PESTS.— Bedbugs, Fleas. The Carpet Bee- tle or ••Buffalo" Moth, The Clothes Moth, Spiders, Book Moths, Flies 234-237 PRACTICAL RECIPES.— The Screw Worm 237 SPRAYING, INSECTICIDES, AND FUNGICIDES . . . 239 DIRECTIONS FOR PREPARING INSECTICIDES.— Lime Sulphur-Salt Wash, Kerosene Emulsion, Paris Green, Paris Green Mixture, Arsenate of Lead, Hellebore. Pyrethum, Tobacco, Whale Oil Soap, Potash Lye .40-241 FUNGICIDES.— Bordeaux Mixture, Copper Sulphate So- lution, Liver of Sulphur, Ammoniacal Copper Carbo- nate Solution. Formalin or Formaldehyde, Corrosive Sublimate, Carbon Bi-Sulphide 241-243 BOOK VII. IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE. BOOK VI. INSECT DEPARTMENT. SCALE INSECTS AFFECTING THE PEACH.— The San Jose Scale, Putnam's Scale insect, Cherry Scale, West Indian Peach Scale Peach Lecanium, Plum Fulvi- naria . ., 176-186 IRRIGATION. — The importance of irrigation. Amount of water necessary for plants. Rainfall in the Southern States. Irrigation in Georgia, Relation of soil to irri- gation. Water supply. Irrigation in Texas, Irrigating the orchard. Irrigation of celery, Irrigation of onions. Irrigation of rice 25G-262 DRAIN.'iGE.- The purpose of drainage. Depth of drams. Distance between drains, Kind of drains, The fall for drains. Size of tiles to use, Terracing. . . . 263-267 BOOK VIII. ENEMIES TO THE FARM. MICE AND RATS.— Kemedies 272 RABBITS 272 MOiL^S.— Are tliey destrucUve 272 JOHNSON GRASS 273 BERMUDA GRASS 273 BOOK IX. IMPROVED MACHINERY AND TOOLS. THE IMPORTANCE AND USE OF FARM TOOLS.— The importance, Must clear land of stumps and rocks . . 276 TOOLS TO BE USEO IN THE PREPARATION OF LAND IN CULTIVATION OF CROPS.— The plow, Harrow, Weeder, Light harrows. Cultivators . . 277-279 TOOLS TO BE USED IN SAVING AND UTILIZING THE FARM PRODUCTS 279 CARE OF FARM TOOLS 279 BOCK X. BEE CULTURE. MONEY IN BEE CULTURE 284 BEGINNING WITH BEES 285 HIVES. — Cheaper to buy hives than to try to make them. Size 28G SWARMING OF BEES.— How to tell when they will swarm. Hiving the bees 287 FEEDING OF BEES.— It is a poor practice 288 STING AND HOW TO AVOID BEING STUNG. . . . 288-289' BEE NOTES 290 BOOK XI. THE HORSE. INTRODUCTION 293 EXTERIOR ANATOMY, OR THE OUTER FORM OF THE HORSE 295-307 SHOEING THE HEALTHY FOOT OF THE HORSE. 307 309 THE AGE OF THE HORSE DETERMINED BY THE TEETH 309-316 LAMENESS AND THE DISEASES ASSOCIATEHD WITH IX. — Thrush, Canker, Corns, Laraitis or Founder, Quittor, Cracks in the wall of the Hoof, Horny tu- mor of the Wall, Side Bones, Navicular Disease, Ring Bone, Splints, Bone Spavin 317-329 DISEASES OF THE TENTDO'NS AND LIGAMENTS, Curb 329-331 DROPSICAL CONDITIONS OF THE SYNOVIAL SACS. 331 INFLAMMATION OF AN ARTICULATION 332 DISEASES PRODUCING LAM:ENESS AT THE SHOUL- DER 333 PARALYSIS OF NERVES OF SHOULDER 333 PARALYSIS OF THE RADIAL NERVE 334 DISEASE OF THE LARGE BLOOD VESSELS AT THE SHOULUEK 33-1 INFLAMMATION OF THE MUSCLE THAT WORKS OVER THE POINT OF THE SHOULDER 335 DEEP-SEATED ABSCESSES NEAR THE POINT OP THE SHOULDER 335 DISEASE OF THE HIP REGION 335 P.\RALYSIS OF NERVES 335 HIP JOINT DISEASE 336 DISEASE OF THE BLOOD VESSELS 336 DISEASES OF THE STIFLE.— Dislocation of the Pa- tella or knee cap, Outward dislocation of the Patella 33G SHOE BOIL 337 FRACTURES 33S WOUNDS 340 SNAKE BITES 342 FISTULOUS WITHERS 342 POLL EVIL 342 DISEASES OF DIGESTIVE ORGANS.— Choke, Indige.s- tion and Colic in Horses, Chronie Indigestion, Spas- modic Colic, Flatulent or Wind Colic, Worms or Ani- mal Parasites that Live in the Stomach, or Intes- tines, Bots or Grubs in the Stomach of the Horse. Diarrhoea, Inflammation of the Bowels 343-349 DISEASES OP THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS.— Distem- per or Strangles, Bronchitis, Pneumonia or Lung Fe- ver, Pleurisy, The "Bellowsed" Horse, or Heaves, Spasm of the Diaphragm 350-35C DISEASES OF THE URIN.\RY ORGANS.— Inflamma- tion of the Kidneys, Irritable Condition of the Blad- der 356-357 INFECTIOUS AND CO'NTAGIOUS DISEASES.— Glan- ders, Inlhienza, Rabbles in the Hoife, Cerebrospi- nal, Meningitis Potechial Fever, Anthrax, Tetanus, Big Head in Horses and Mules 357-365 CONDITIONS AND DISEASES OF COMMON INTER- EST OCCURRING IN BREEDING ANIMALS.— Sterility 368-373 DISEASES OF THE EY'E.— Diseases of the Eyelids, Wounds of the Eyelids, Inflammation of the Eyelids, EBthropium, Folding inward of the Lid, Ectropium Kolling outward of the Lid, Ptosis, Falling of the Up- per Lid, Diseases of the Haw or membrana Nicti- tans. Diseases of the tear apparatus, Diseases of the Tissues suhhounding the Eye and in the Orbital Cavity, Diseases of the Con.iunctiva, Diseases of the Cornea, Keratitis or Corneitis, Infectious Conjunc- tivitis and Keratitis, or Infectious Inflammation of the Conjunctiva and Cornea, New Growthsi on the Cornea, Diseases of the Iris, Closure of the pupil. Cataract, Amaurosis, Glaucoma, Hydropthalmus, Dis- location of the Eye Ball-Exopthalmus, Animal para- sites or the Eye, Strabismus, Squinting or Crosseye, Some of the causes of Indistinct Vision and Shying, Periodic Opthalmia, Mooublindness, Methods of Ex- amining the Eyes 374-402 CONTROLLING THE HORSE.— Education of the Horse in the Stall, The Halter Puller. Kicking and Pawing in the Stall. Educating the Horse to Back, Controll- ing the Actions of the Horse by his Tail, Manner of tying the Halter Strap to the Tail, Novel but Prac- tical Method of Hitching Horses, Controlling the Hind Feet in Shoeing. Position of the Horse in Shoeing Important, Beecher on the Horse, Horses' Teeth, How Long have Horses Worn Shoes, Man's Great Helper, Feeding Horses, Adirondack Murray on Shoeing, Teaetiing Teams to Pull. Horses need Light, Means and Methods of Controlling our Horses, Some of the Laws Governing our Horses, Handling by the Head, Stallion or Safety Bridle, Applying the Safety Bridle, Method of Using the Safety Bridle, A Good Cheap Riding Bridle. Handling Umbrella, Power of Man over the Horse. First Lesson in Har- ness Satisfactory. Persuasive Control of the Horse, The Wilfully Vicious Kicker, The Switcher and Kein Catcher, The Balky Horse 4U2-42S BOOK XII. THE HOG. INTRODUCTORY 433 SHELTERS. — Expensive shelters not necessary 434 PEEDL\'G.— Grasses, Meal, Milk 434 PROTECTION OF BROOD SOWS 435 HEAD OF THE HERD 435 SALT AND ASHES 435 HOG RAISING PROFITABLE 435 THE BREEDS. — The Berkshire, Poland China, Duroc- Jersey, The Chester-Whites, Victorias, Yorkshire 435-436 HOG FEEDS THAT FATTEN.— The peanut, corn and meal 437 THE SCRATCHING POST 438 KEEPING MEAT THROUGH TPIE SUMMER 438 PICKLING MEAT 438 WHY HE FAILED WITH HOGS 439 HOG, PHILOSOPHY 439 DISEASES OT HOGS.— Swine plague or hog cholera. Pneumonia or inflammation of the lungs. Apoplexy, Sliii^gers 0)- congestion of the brain, Measles, Paraly- sis of hogs. Rheumatism, Thumps, Eczema, Kidney worms 440-444 BOOK XIII. SHEEP AND GOATS. WHAT IT TAKES TO SUCCEED WaTH SHEEP. ... 447 BREEDS OF SHEEP.— The Hampshire-Downs, The South-Downs, Shropshire 447-448 HOW TO RAISE SHEEP 448 THE BREEDING AGE OF SHEEP 449 WATER FOR SHEEP 449 SHELTER FOR SHEEP 449 DISEASES O'F SHEEP.— Grubs in the head, or Gadfly, etc 445 GOAT INDUSTRY 449 THE ANGORA GOAT 450 BOOK XIV. THE COW. DISEASES OF CATTLE.— Contagious diseases. Conta- gious Pleuro-pneumonia, Variola vaccinae or cow po::. Anthrax or charbon. Tick fever or splenetic fever, Tuh'iculosis, Lumpy jaw or Actinomycosis, Nou Contagious diseases, Plethora, Anaemia, RJieuma- tism, Haematuria , . ,* 541 THE TRAP NEST ' . ':j^'„^\, • ' " HOW SOON AND HOW LONG EGG? ARS '"*""■ KEEPING POULTRY IN HEALTH. ...'.'-. STICK TO ONE BREED j-' 527 '•'what BREED TO S3LECT 45'S 527 ■ JUDGING. - .^.' 552 • ^"j'tHE AMERICAN STANDARD OF PERFECTION.. . . 553 "breeds of FOWLS.— White Georgian Games, Game Bantams, Cochins, Langshans, Wyamlottes, Brahraas, , Plymouth Roclre, Leghorns, Minorcas, Orpingtons. 533 Mamburgs, Cornish and White Indian Games . 549-552 537 A, STU'DY OF THE POINTS NECESSARY 554 537 ■ i^ASONABLE HINTS 554 541 .'4SUCK RAISING FOR PROFIT 555 5-13 '^''^THE BEST HATCHING SEASON 5.30 543-' , ' PREPARATORY TREATMENT OF SHOW BIRDS . . 557 545,. ROOSTER TALK 558 546" POULTRY POINTERS 559-5(;a 547 ,^ 1-i SELLING COTTON AT NEWXAN, GA. Book I. Farm Department, . . . EDITED BY . . . F. J. MERRIAM, EDITOR SOUTHERN RURALIST, ATLANTA, GEORGIA. ALFALFA AT SUMTER, LA. Use Improved Farm Machinery. Agriculture as a Science. Science is what man knows about God's laws. There are no accidents in the physical universe. Everything moves according to some law. This is true in every department of nature. There are laws governing the growth of plants, and these laws are in- variable. Some of them most of us are unacquainted with, but these laws exist just the same. The earth or soil was created .and adapted to germinate seed when certain conditions are fulfilled and if these conditions are not fulfilled there will be no germination of seed. There are a class of farmers who do not believe that ag- riculture is a science ; they believe that all that is nec- essary to make a successful farmer is manual labor; but if tliese people would stop to think for a mo- ment they would see the fallacy of. their position. There are three principal conditions necessary for the germination of seed ; the presence of heat, moisture and air. Unless these conditions are present the seed will not germinate. Let us look at the matter a little. If you plant seeds in cold soil, they will not germinate. Every farmer and garderner knows that if he plants seeds in the Spring wdien the ground is cold, they will be slow to germinate and may not come up at all. Of course some seeds require more heat to cause them to sprout than others, and some few will sprout in cold weather, but these are exceptions. Again, if you will take seeds and plant them in a soil that has been thoroughly dried out by heating, and do not let it become moist, they will not come up. Seed also re- quire air. If you place some seed on a wet piece of blotting paper, in a bottle, leaving the stopper of the bottle out ; and in another bottle place some in the same way, but place the stopper in, you will note the effect of air upon germination. In the one that is stopped up there is some air and the experiment will not be entirely complete ; but the comparison is suf- ficient to show that air is necessary for seed to ger- minate. And so it is in all departments of agricul- ture, there are certain laws which govern the growth of plants and these laws must be complied with. If farmers understood the laws governing the feed- ing of plants, they would avoid many mistakes in buving their fertilizers. The successful farmer will study the needs of his plants. A simple corn plant is very much like the human body in many respects- Just as there are laws governing the human body, so there are laws governing the simplest plant that grows. The plant breathes, takes in food and wa- ter, and reproduces itself very much like human be- ings. There are male plants and female plants just as there are male beings and female beings. You must know the laws governing these plants in order to be successful in the highest sense of the word. And may we not suggest just here that the farmer who raises the greatest number of bales of cotton or the greatest number of bushels of corn is not neces- sari!}- the most successful farmer. To be a successful farmer, you must be able to enjoy your work, an? above all things see the beauty of nature. You must also be able to show the largest margin of profit. The question has often been asked, How can the farm boys be kept on the farm? We believe that question will be answered when farmers are able to show to their children some of the beauties of the farm life, some of the attractions, and some of the sweet, pure thoughts that the study of nature inspir- es. There is no more fascinating study anywhere than tlie laws governing the growth of plants, and yet how many children are ignorant of all of these laws. They are taught to study everything that will lead them awa}' from the farm towards the city and factory. The farm need not fear results. If the beau- ties of God's laws, as expressed in the laws govern- ing the growth of plants, are taught to the child, as well PS some of the attractions of machinery and electricity, and the counting room, the farm will not sulifer. Our farmers should also be able to show their boys that there is money to be made on the farm and that • it offers an opportunity for intelligent efforts equal if not superior to any other calling. The aim of this department is to show to the people some few of these simple laws, and to suggest to them the advis- ability of studying these principles: Most of the ed- ucation in tl.e rural schools is away from the farm, instead of towards it. People have gone mad in their pursuit of higher education, while what we really need is wider education. We need to know more TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. about the laws governing nature. It is well enough to know something concerning the writings of Cae- sar, Cicero, Ovid, Xenophpn, and many other ancient writers; but it is far more important to know some- thing concerning the laws that govern the plants which are growing around us every day. There are two great divisions of matter; dead mat- ter, and living matter. We might define dead mat- ter as that which cannot move or change its form. For instance, you see a grain of sand. You may look at it every day for a year, or two years for that mat- ter, and it will be just the same as before. You may change it, but it in itself can not change or move. Living matter is that which can move or change its form. Fig. i shows some yeast plants as they appear under a microscope. There are the little plants that are in ordinary loaf bread, or light bread, which causes it to rise. These plants are so small that you can not see them with the ordinary eye. But they are in the bread, and if it was not for them, you could have no light bread. Each one of these little plants is made up of a little closed sac, contain- ing a thick liquid jelly, and we call this jelly matter, protoplasm. Now if we look at this yeast plant un- Fig. 1. — Yeast plants, magnified. der the microscope, we find that it changes. Little swellings grow upon it, like knots on a potato, and these swellings finally fall ofif. The part that falls off is another yeast plant. In other words, this little plant that you can not see with the unaided eye has grown into two plants. But in order for it to do so, certain laws and conditions had to be complied with. In other words, for this plant to grow into two plants it had to have food, air, moisture or water, and heat. Unless it had had plenty of each of these, it would have never grown into two plants. A horse will not live without corn or some other kind of food, and neither will a plant live without food. That is, it is necessary to use barnyard manure and commercial fertilizers under plants. In other words, when you put guano, or fertilizers under corn, wheat or cotton, you are simply feeding that corn, wheat or cotton, just the same as you would be when you feed the horse, hay or oats. Many of the plants that are rais- ed on the farm are fed to animals in order that the animal may live. We, as human beings, are high ani- mals; in fact, the highest class of beings, and take a great many different things to supply out needs and make us comfortable. To make the plant comforta- ble so that it will thrive it is just as necessary to supply its needs as it is our own. Soil is the home of plants in which they live and from which they take their food. But what is soil? Soil is the top of the earth, or that part which has become fine and in which plants will grow. Soil has no fixed depth or fertility. In other words, soil is the rocks that have rotted or been decomposed by the elements and varies very greatly in dift'erent places. In one place it is sandy, and in another we have a clay soil. The soil and subsoil are very much alike. That part of the soil that is somewhat loose and dark colored we call top soil ; and that which is not so loose and lighter in color, the subsoil; but there is no fixed definite line between soil and sub- soil. The subsoil begins where the soil leaves off, no matter where that may be. As is explained in the fertilizer department, plants require three principal foods ; nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash. These three elements are in all soils to a greater or less extent. But in order that this plant food be of any service it must be in a state in which it can be dissolved in water; for unless this is the case the plants can not use it, as they take up all their food in a liquid form. There are large aimounts of potash in some solids that can not be dissolved in water, also nitrogen and phosphoric acid which are in indissoluble forms. These minerals that can not be dissolved in water are of no service what- ever to the plants. They will in time come to the point where they will be soluble in water, but until that time, they are of no service whatever. Thorough tillage and the adding of vegetable matter to the soil will hasten and help make them available, as will al- so the growing of different crops, some of which have the faculty of appropriating the crude forms of plant food. When such crops die on the land and are turn- ed under they return this plant food in a more avail- Keep an accurate account with each field, and see what it pays. able form which other crops utilize. The soil on hill- sides is not so fertile as a rule as the more level por- tion of the earth's surface, for the loose parts of the earth have been to some extent washed away. In low places we find exactly the opposite to be true, the loose earth has accumulated here and the soil is deeper and more fertile. It is frequently true that the soil in bottoms is several feet deep, while the soil on a hill is less than six inches. The soil or top soil is made from the subsoil, and will be just as deep as you plow. For instance, if you plow six inches deep, the soil will be six inches. Under this six inches, there may be just as good soil, but it is of little use to the farmer in growing crops for it is hard and the roots of the plants can not penetrate it. When you plow only four or six inches deep, year after year, the tramping of the horse in the bottom of the fur- row finally forms a hard pan or clay land, and the land will not drain well. It then becomes necessary to use a subsoil plow to break this hard pan and when this is done the land will be much more productive. As a rule, it is better to deepen the soil gradually by ■ plowing an inch or so deeper every year as you are able to add the necessary vegetable matter to keep it in good mechanical condition. If you plow too deeply all at once, the succeeding crop is likely to be smaller than the one before it. Now there are many different kinds of soil. We often hear of sandy soils, but still never ask our- selves in what sandy soil consists. A sandy soil is one in which sand predominates. It contains about 70 per cent. sand. Clay soils have about 70 per cent, clay. In between these two soils, we have what is called loams. There are two kinds of loams; sandy loams, and clay loams. A sandy loam is one contain- ing 60 per cent, sand, and a clay loam ic one contain- ing 60 per cent. clay. But what is the difference be- tween sand and clay? Sand is the name that is given coarse grains or particles, while clay is the name given to fine grains or particles. Soils are composed of minerals, such as aluminum, quartz, iron, feldspar, potash, lime, phosphoric acid, magnesia, soda and many others. Humus is also a prominent element in soils. Humus is decayed vegetable or carbonaceous matter, and is not a mineral. Many soils are sandy on top, and have a stiflf clay below. These soils can be easily improved, but if the soil has no clay under- neath or if the subsoil is pipe clay, it is very difficult to improve it. These facts should be borne in mind when buying a piece of land. We have already suggested that the soil furnishes the plant with food ; but it also serves another pur- pose, it supports the plant, holding it up against the wind. For this purpose the soil must furnish a good root bed, for it is by the roots that the plants are held in the correct position, and in many cases the roots penetrate deep down in the ground. So you can readily see that the soil must be porous in order to fully accomplish its mission. This is another very strong argument in favor of deep breaking of your land. We have had a great deal to say about deep plowing, breaking the land 9 to 12 inches deep; but you must remember that this applies only to clay land and land having a clay subsoil. On the sandy poorer soils near the coast the best results will be obtained by shallow plowing. Another very important function of the soil is to hold the water for the plant. The soil not only takes m water, but it must dissolve and hold in solution the food that is consumed by the plant. When we consider that nearly three-fourths of all vegetation is water, we at once realize the importance of the water question, and the necessity of putting it in ideal condition. In this connection it might be well to consider what constitutes an ideal condition of the soil. In the first place; it should be deep, so it will act as a reservoir for holding water. At the same time it must be well drained, so that surplus water will pass off. The soil receives its w.ater at irregular intervals, and it must be able to hold the water in. order to supply the need of the crops. We have al- readly learned that plants must have air, therefore the soil should be porous, for the air can only get to the roots of the plants through the pores in the soil. The rootlets of plants will not grow in clods, and the- plant food contained In clods is useless. Therefore^ all clods should be crushed and the soil made fine,, so that the plant roots will have access to every por- tion. Unless the land is well drained the surplus wa- ter will exclude the air and nitrification or the con- version of decaying vegetable matter into available plant food will stop, and the plant will turn yellow and cease to grow. Consequently the land should be well drained. Lastly, it should be well filled with de- caying vegetable matter, for this not only supplies, plant food, but helps to make the soil warm and TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. porous, making a comfortable home for the plant. In decomposing, vegetable matter generates a great deal of carbonic acid gas and this gas acts on the soil setting free phosphoric acid and potash which before was locked up and unavailable. A piece of new land when freshly cleaned of stumps and roots, especially hammock and hard wood lands, is an ideal condition and the farmer should try to bring his soil into a similar state, and keep it so. THE SOIL AND WATER. All have seen a kerosene lamp burning, and many ■of us have asked the question why it is that the oil ri.'ses in the wick as fast as it is burned out? We are tempted to believe at first, that it is something special in the wick that attracts the oil upwards. And still we have no answer for that question. If we try an ordinary piece of blotting paper we find that ink rises in it just as oil does in the lamp wicks. But will a liquid rise in other materials, as well as lamp wicks, and blotting paper? Have these two substances any special property that catises a liquid to rise in them? If we take ordinary soil or earth and fill a bottle with it, we will find that this earth makes an excellent wick, and that oil rises as rapidly through "the pores or little holes in the earth as it does in the lamp wick. As to why this liquid rises through the pores we cannot tell, it is what is knowri as capillary attraction. But what has this to do with agriculture? Simply this; the water in the soil rises through the pores of the soil as the oil in the lamp wick rises through the pores of the lamp wick and supplies the plant. If this law of capillary attrac- tion were not true, there would be no vegetation practically, for as soon as the root used up the water right around it, it would be unable to secure more water, and the plant would die of thirst. During dry weather the moisture will rise from the subsoil into the surface soil and supply water to the plant if the land is in the right condition. If the soil is left rough • riud lumpy, especially if these lumps are at the bottom of the furrow, or if a great deal of tra.sh is turned under in the spring without being worked up, they will tend to break the capillary attraction and pre- vent the soil water from rising. Then, if the surface is kept broken to prevent evaporation the soil will remain moist. HOW PLANTS FEED. We have explained that water in the ground has minerals in it, and when the plant takes in this water it takes in the mineral matter also, but here are other foods that must be taken in as well. We cannot see the air, and it would seem strange that a part of thj plant conies from the air, but it is true, nevertheless. The air contains a gas called carbonic acid, mixed with it. This gas is made of two substances, carbon and oxygen. We have all seen carbon in the form of charcoal and ordinary soot in the chimney, it also composes a large part of the woody substance of plants. The other element in carbonic acid is not so familiar to the ordinary man, and it is oxygen. Where we have charcoal the carbon combines with the oxy- gen from the air and goes off in smoke as carbonic acid gas. When wood or plants decay, this is a slow burning and is called oxidation, as the carbon com- bines with oxygen and goes off in the air. Plants breathe through their leaves and in so doing they absorb the carbonic acid once more and it is recon- verted into wood fibre. This carbonic acid enters the leaves of the plant through small openings, and after it goes in the leaves it enters the cells, and comes in contact with a substance called chlorophyll. If the sun is shining a part of the carbonic acid and w'ater which is in the cells is decomposed (by decomposed we mean separated into the different parts that riiake it up.) Some of this carbon unites with other sub- stances and forms an altogether different substance. This new substance is called starch. Now most of us are familiar with starch. Starch is made in the green part of plants. It is mostly in the leaves of the plants. This starch, together with the minerals that are taken in by the roots, serves as food for the protoplasm of the plant, being converted into fibre and in some plants, such as sugar cane, into the sweet juice which we make into syrup and sugar. HOW PLANTS GROW. By looking at the illustration Fig. 2 you will see an ordinary plant of Indian Corn. You will observe two small tiny shoots growing from this plant. One of these shoots grows upward and the other downward. This is always true. It is according to law that the one grows up, while the other grows down. The one Try to Improve your Land. that grows upward is called the stem, while the one whose tendency is downward is the root. As noted, you can always depend upon the root tending down- ward, no matter in what position you turn the seed. If you reverse the seed, and turn the root so that it will point upward and the stem downward, the root and stem will change, the root still growing down- the plant; which means tha*^ the plant must starve. To take away the food of the plant by destroying the leaves, is just about the same as taking away the food of a man. We cannot work without food, and just so the plant cannot work without food, for the roots cannot grow and absorb as much water and other elements from the soil in consequence. Fig. 2. — flantlet of Indian corn. ward, and the stem upward. This law cannot be changed. You will notice on the main roots there are smaller roots, and upon these smaller roots there are still smaller roots. These smallest roots are called root hairs, and they take up the water and plant food that the plant uses. All water that is used by plants comes through these veiy tiny root hairs. Some of these are so small that you cannot see them with the naked eye. The stem, that part which grows above the ground, bears the leaves, flowers, fruit, and seed. In many plants it supports the leaves- above the ground, but in some plants it is weak, and has to grow upon some other support, like the grape vine. It is necessary that the leaves be exposed to the light, and this the plant does. The leaves do not grow out from the stem at haphazard places, but they come at regular intervals. The more we study plants, and their habits the more we are convinced that there is a definite law controlling plants, and that this law is never violated. Light can pass through the leaves, as you will see if you place a finger behind the leaf. In the leaves is the chlorophyll that causes it to appear green. These leaves are very necessary, for we have already learn- ed that it is in the leaves that the starch is manufac- tured. If the insects eat the leaves or if they are picked off or broken off they cannot prepare food for HOW TO KEEP THE LAND FERTILE. Suppose we dissolve a spoonful of salt in a glass of water, and then take out a spoonful of this water. Of course we take a part of the salt in solution. There is not as much salt left in the glass as there was before. But suppose we keep on taking out this water, spoonful after spoonful. Let us look at the water for a minute. Have we removed any salt .' Look as hard as you inay, and you cannot see a sin- gle grain of salt. But suppose we taste it. We find that it has salt in it, so when we take out all the water we have also taken out all of the salt. Just so it is with farming. The water absorbs, or dissolves the mineral matter, such as nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, and the plant takes in this water through the root hairs and if it keeps on taking up this min- eral matter after a while there will be none left un- less it is replaced by some other means. But some farmers believe that they ought to be able to take away from the land every year, and never replace anything. After a while the land has nothing to give, and as a result we have what is called poor land. A man is called poor when he has not enough to prop- erly feed his family, and the land is called poor when it has not enough plant food in it to properly feed the plants growing upon it. We have already shown the fact that plants need food, and we have told you what the principal foods are that plants require. An- other way that soil is worn out or becomes poor in the South is by washing. Where land is not proper- ly drained or terraced the rains cause water to flow over it, and this takes the plant food out of it. Wash- ing: has ruined manv farms throughout the South. It would not be so bad if it was necessary, but it is not necessary. Whenever land is washed away it is on account of some one's carelessness, or inattention. Man}' farmers have land that does not wash, nor do they use terraces. They prevent the washing in their method of cultivation. They take for their motto "Plow deep and on a level, And in peace and plenty revel." 8 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. Plow deep enough to break the hard-pan. By do- ing this the water will soak in, and there will not be so much to run off. This not only prevents the land from washing, but it also stores the water for use in a drouthr But the thing under consideration is the washing of land. Unless the hard-pan is broken so that the water can soak in, it must run off. Each square yard of land will huld all the water that falls upon it, provided none gets on it from any other source. But for the water to remain where it falls and not run here and there, the land must be broken deep. And you will note tnai tne little rhyme says something concerning level plowing. Many farmers make the mistake of not plowing level. You cannot do this by guess work. It will be necessary for you to take a spirit level and lay off guide rows to plow by. Those guide rows should be for every three feet of perpendicular fall. They should be run on an ex- act level, so that there will be as near no fall as pos- sible. The thing you want to do is to keep the wa- ter just where it falls. If your furrows run down hill, the water will follow, and your land will wash. If the farmer will break the hard-pan and plow his land on a level, he will not have to use great high banks called levels. After you keep your land from washing, and losing valuable plant food, the next thing to be done is to replace the plant food that is removed by the plants. This can be done with barnyard manure, wood ashes and commercial fertilizers. Land, alter a time, unless the soil is exceedingly deep, will become unproduc- tive unless you fertilize it. The best way to fertilize land, is by the use of stable or barnyard manure. And as is suggested in the Fertilizer Department, this is a point where a great many farmers lose out. They fail to take care of the manure, and must buy commercial fertilizers to take their place. In using commercial fertilizers you fail to secure one element that is needed, which is supplied in manure, and that is humus, or decayed vegetable matter. Land will not produce without this vegetable matter. The wise farmer will not permit the land to be burned off, as is so often practiced. You may lay it down as a safe rule never to allow anything to be burned on the farm that will rot, and if anything will burn it will rot, therefore do not burn anything. Cornstalks are a little trouble to plow under, but they are worth a great deal more plowed under than they are burned. The vegetable matter cannot be classed as a plant food, but it is none the less important. The grass may be rank and hard to plow under, but it is better to go to extra hard labor and plow it under than it is to burn it off. The land needs all the humus that it can get. If the wagons and stock have nothing else they can do, it will pay to haul leaves and pine straw on the land to help supply vegetable matter, for when- ever the vegetable matter in the soil becomes ex- hausted the land becomes dead and unproductive. Such a soil may contain a large amount of plant food, but in the absence of vegetable matter this plant food reverts into insoluble forms which the plants cannot take up, so that very often a soil will appear to be worn out when in reality it is not, anrl all that is necessary is a new supply of vegetable matter to make it again productive. Wood ashes, if they have not become wet, contain potash, and some phosphoric acid, but no nitrogen ; and are quite valuable as soil improvers. By taking advantage of these small mat- ters, we can do much to improve our land. ROTATION OF CROPS. With most crops and on most soils the rotation of crops is desirable. Rotation refers to the order in which crops are made to follow each other in differ- ent years, so that in order to rotate crops you must have more than one crop. Where rotation is not practiced the same crop is planted year after year on the same land, certain elements in the soil are uied up and the land becomes unproductive unless large amounts of fertilizers are used. It also encourages insect enemies. If potatoes are made to follow pota- toes year after year the ground soon becomes infest- ed with a disease so that only scabby potatoes will be reproduced, the potato bugs will also become more and more abundant each year. If clover is made to follow clover year after year the land soon becomes "clover sick" and fails to produce good crops, and the same is sometimes true of cowpeas. Land that con- tinually grows grain soon becomes foul with weeds. You must also remember that some plants are shal- low feeders, and where these are continually planted on land thev leave a great deal of unused food below, which cannot be used until you introduce a deeper feeding crop. Deep rooted crops such as alfalfa and cow peas will pump up potash and phosphoric acid from the sub- soil for the benefit of other surface rooted crops to Break your Land Deeply in the Fall if Possible. follow. The change of crops also adds more vegetable matter and helps to keep the land from -washing and blowing away, as is the case where continuous clean culture is practiced with a crop like cotton. With a proper rotation in connection with improved methods of tillage the soil will steadily improve year after year. We cannot lay down a system of rotation which will apply throughout the South, for so many crops can be planted, that you could not secure a system that would suit every one. The Louisiana Station recommends the following system of Rota- tion. Corn, the first year; oats followed by cow peas the second year, and cotton the third year. Some one has recommended the following principles which should guide you in your system of rotation : "i. Have at least one leguminous crop in the rota- tion. 2. Have at least one cultivated crop. 3. Ro- tate shallow rooting crops with deep rooting crops. 4. In the South and on leachy soils plan to have a growing crop on the land all the time. 5. Avoid bare summer following. 6. Do not rotate small ce- reals with small cereals. 7. Plan the rotation so as to have the same amount of forage each year. 8. Keep stock on the farm. 9. Unless it be thoroughly rotted, apply the barnyard manure thus made, to the rank growing crop in the rotation like corn." Try rotating your crops for a few years, and see how your land will improve, and how much money you will make by so doing. THE PREPARATION OF LAND. Some one has said that thorough preparation is half the cultivation. This is certainly true. You may put it down that the man who expects to break his land, and get it in shape after the crop is planted, will not raise much of a crop. If your land is prepared as it should be it will make a pretty fair crop regardless of seasons. If possible in preparing your land, break it up with a two-horse plow. Now, we realize that there are many farmers who have but one horse or mule, but it should be an easy matter to exchange work with your neighbor who is in the same condi- tion you are, and prepare your land. If you have more than two horses or mules, so much the better. The more you use the better will be your prepara- tion. Many farmers in the South find it to their ad- vantage to use four and five horses to a plow in breaking their land. This plowing is the most im- portant part of preparation and it should be done thoroughly so that every inch of the ground is brok- en, and not run over leaving ridges unbroken to be covered up. Try to use a plow which will pulverize the soil as much as possible while breaking it. Af- ter plowing harrow well with straight tooth harrow, and drag with planks or log drag. Where an extra fine seed bed is desired follow with disc or cutaway and drag again. This will put land in fine condition for almost any crop. Remember that the better the land is prepared the better will be the production from that land. Last, but not least, never plow land too wet. It should be dry enough to crumble and not be sticky when cracked in the hand, before your plow is started. LARGE OR SMALL SEEDS. Every perfect seed contains a plantlet. This plant- let is very small. The rest of the seed is filled with food for the plant until the root and stem become sufficiently developed to furnish food for it. It nat- urally follows that the larger the seed, the more food for the plantlet it contains; and as a general rule it is much better to plant the larger seed. In this con- nection, the size of the seed determines to a large ex- tent how deep they should be covered. It has been stated that seed should be planted to a depth corre- sponding to twice the diameter of the seed, and while this will hold good with some seed, it can not be ob- served in all cases. The smaller the seed the more shallow it should be planted, and seed which force themselves up, — the seed forming the first leaves such as beans, — should be planted more shallow than those which send up a shoot, such as corn. Small seed like clover cannot push up through as much dirt, and overcome as much resistance as larger seed, and should always be planted very shallow. As a rule it is advisable to plant seed more shallow early in the spring than it is later in the season, when the weather is warmer and the land contains less moisture. Gar- deners who grow radishes and lettuce find by sifting the seed and planting only the larges ones, that their crops mature much more evenly, than when they plant the seed without sifting them; also that the crops mature a great deal earlier. It is sometimes pjisible to grow an extra crop in the winter in this vv-ay. The success of any crop depends so largely up- I'.e seed that it is important that- they are the lO TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. very best procurable. Many farmers pass their grain through a fanning mill, to take out the smaller and shrunken grains. It is also best to reject the small grains of corn on the end of the cob. More atten- tion should be given generally to the selection and saving of seed on the farm, as the labor and thought so directed will pay better than in almost any other way. FIRMING THE SOIL ABOUT SEED NECESSARY. to go down in the earth and secure this water. It will, therefore, be observed how necessary it is that proper conditions be secured in order to obtain the best results. PARTS OF THE FLOWER. We enjoy looking at flowers, for they are beautiful. But forgetting their beauty, let us look at them a mo- ment frqm the standpoint of usefulness. If we had no flowers we would have no fruit, neither would we If you will take some ordinary moist soil (not wet) and place it in a jar, and plant some bean seed in it loosely, and in another jar plant some more beans, packing the soil well over the seed, and then set both jars away in a warm room, you will find that the seeds from the one in which the dirt is packed will come up quicker than in the other jar. You can try this for yourself, but what causes the difference? In the first place, the seed absorb water faster from the soil when it is pressed closely about them, and seed cannot germinate until it takes up all the water it can hold, and therefore it will germinate quicker when the soil is packed close about it. A very suc- cessful gardener once wrote: "As an experiment, I sowed twelve rows of sweet corn and twelve rows of beets, treading in (that is, walked over the rows, placing the heel of one foot at the toe of the other, so that all parts of the row would become packed) after sowing, every alternate row of each. In both cases those trodden in came up in four days, while those unfirmed remained twelve days before starting, and would not then have germinated had not rain followed." It is quite important, especially in dry weather, to use a roller over the land just after grain is planted, and the practice of tramping in garden seed in dry weather is an excellent one. Grain sow- ing machines and corn planters often have a little iron roller attached to them to press the soil over the seed, which helps greatly in obtaining a start. In planting \-erv small seed it is frefpiently the prac- tice not to co\-cr them at all, but to place a board over them, and to walk on this board in order to bring the seed in. very close contact with the soil. The pressing of tbc soil also brings the moisture to the surface and ia a measure prevents evar>oration. ,Vhen a seed first starts to germinate it must secure 's water from right around it. for it has no -long roots Fig. 3. — Sections of Clierr.y Blos.som showing parts of a Flower. have many varieties of grain and vegetables ; for the flowers are necessary to their production. The flow- er is made up of the sepals, petals, stamens and pis- tils. The sepals taken together constitute the calyx, the petals taken together constitute the corolla. Fig. 5. By reference to this illustration you will see the different parts of the flowers. This is a section of a cherry blossom. At the base we find a green part marked C in the figure which we call the calyx. As noted above the calyx is made up of sepals. The calyx is not always green, but is in most cases. The part cor. in the illustration shows the corolla, and as stated the corolla is made up of the petals. The petals, as a ru-le are the part that gives the beauty to the flower. Inside of the ci rolla will be found some long slender organs, whicl' ar^ irked S., and these are called stamens. Now the stamen is one of the most important parts of the flower. \'ery often is it the case that they are unnoticed but that only shows how often we fail to observe the important things of life. The stamen produces pollen, which is the male [art of the flower. Inside of the stamens is the pis- til, which is the female part of the flower. These small pollen grains which are on the stamens must be cp.rrif^i to the bottom of the pistil. This pro« of carrying pollen from the stamen to the ovule 's called pollination. Insects and bees aid le^' Don't wait until the First of January to begin preparing your Land. II in the carrying of this pollen grain from the stamen stamen,) and also an imperfect flower. You will to the ovule. If these pollen are not carried from notice that the Fig. A. contains both stamens (Sj the stamen to the pistil there will be no seed pro- and pistils (P). This is what is called a perfect duced. This is as true in corn as it is with the flow- flower. By noticing flower B you will note that it is ers of the yard. If the pollen which is in the tassel imperfect, or it only has pistils. Now the flower A of corn is not blown to the ear below, there will be will produce fruit of itself, but tb*^ flower B. cannot no corn produced. The pollen does not have to come produce fruit unless the pollen come from some other perfect flower of a similar kind. It is quite important to know if a flower is perfect, for there are varieties of strawberries with imperfect flowers. It is also true with ordinary Indian corn, melons, squashes, cucumbers, and pumpkins. If the pollen of one flower is carried to the ovules of another flower we have what is called cross-fcrtd- ization, and if the resulting seed be planted a new variety is the result. This is the reason pop corn and Indian corn mix when planted anywhere near each other. By crossing certain plants with others B~~ A Fig. 4. — Strawberry Blos.soms, A is perfect flower, B imper- fect flower. from the same flower, but a flower of the same kind. But all flowers are not perfect, that is, that have not of like kind, and carefully collectino- the seed that all these parts. By reference to the illustration, Fig. are produced, new and improved varieties are obtain- 4, }'ou will see an example of a perfect flower, (by ed. And yet some people claim that there are no perfect flower we mean one that has both pistils and laws governing agriculture. Field Crops. ALFALFA OR LUCERNE. 5- Alfalfa is one of the best forage crops for the South. It is only recently that it has conie to be grown to any great extent, but people are realizing more and more its. value. It is a plant similar to clover, has a single tap root which runs down from 8 to 12 feet, and sometimes as far as 40 feet. It is a leguminous plant and is well adapted to the South. As much as four cuttings of a ton each can be made in a season, wdiich ,..-ikes .it quite a valuable forage plant. It has a distmctive advantage over clover, es- pecially to dairymen; as it can be cut at least one month earlier in the spring, and this is an important feature. ^-T-vtlier advantage of alfalfa is that as soon as cut it ..rings into grc^ h immediately, while it takes clo - some time to C- nmence growing again. After the 1 cutting, anothi crop will be produced in six to .'it weeks. Clovci as a rule will die out after twc ur three years, whr alfalfa will last from eight to ten years, and somei nes longer. It is now being gr >wn more or less in ivery Southern State. Some soils that were not considered fertile have been made to produce alfalfa very bountifully. In the States of Kentucky, Tennessee, JNIississippi, Arkansas, Alabama and Georgia there is a wide stretch of soils derived from the Mississippi or subcarboniferous for- mations, that are not considered fertile. The charac- teristics of these soils is the presence of angular cher- ty gravel, and at some places an underclay which is stiff and chocolate in color. At other places this un- derclay is whitish or yellowish in color and so porous that it will not retain well the fertilizer placed upon it. Both of these soils produce alfalfa abundantly, and are quite valuable to use in that way. These soils were once considered worthless because they would not produce the cereals as did the rich lime- stone lands around them. Alfalfa will do best planted in a rich sandy loam with a good subsoil. Like most leguminous crops it needs lime and thrives best where lime is abundant in the soil. It is quite important that the land have a good subsoil, and that :t be well drained. Alfalfa 112 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. ■,?(»'js: S^JV Fig. 5. — Alfalfa or Lucerne, showing the roots of the plant will not live more than a year in cold heavy clays and wet lands. One reason why more farmers have not succeeded with alfalfa is because that they did not thoroughly prepare their land for it. It should be sown on land where a hoed crop was grown the year before, which was well manured. It can either be planted in the fall or spring. If yoti plant in the fall, it should be sown in September, and if you plant in the spring, March or April perhaps is the best time to sow. See to it that your land is free from weeds, and then break your land very deep, fertilize well and work down fine before planting. Sow from 20 to 25 pounds seed per acre. If you use drill from 15 to 20 pounds of seeds to the acre is stifficient. If you are sowing for a hay meadow, and most farmers will, sow the larger amount of seed. If you desire to raise it from the seed, the smaller amount it better. Some lands do not produce alfalfa because there is no bacteria in the soil. As stated above, alfalfa is a leguminous crop, and it is necessary to have the bac- teria in the soil in order to make a success with it. These bacteria have the power of gathering the nitro- gen from the air, and making it available so the roots can take it up. Every farmer who is a close observer has noticed the little nodules or tubercles on the roots of alfalfa or pea vines. These tubercles are nests of bacteria. The Government has taken this matter in hand, and farmers can, by applying to the Agricultural Department at Washington, D. C, ob- tain packages of these bacteria germs. There are three packages that go together. No. 2 contains dry cotton with bacteria, and Nos. i. and 3 contain food for the bacteria. The following directions for the use of these different packages are given: "Put one gallon of water, preferably rain water, in a clean tub or bucket and add No. i of the enclosed package of salts. Stir occasionally until all is dis- solved. Carefully open package No. 2 am" rop the enclosed cotton into tl solution. Cover le tub with a paper to protect from dust. Set aide in a warm place for 24 hours. Do not heat the lolution or you will kill the bacteria — it should never bo warm- er than blood heat. After 24 hours add the con- tents of package No. 3. Within 20 hours more the solution will have a cloudy appearance and is ready to use. "To inoculate seeds, take just enough of the solu- tion to thoroughly moisten them. Stir thoroughly so that all the seeds are touched by the solution. Spread Don t Let your Land Wash Away. 13 out the seeds in a shady place until they are perfect- ly dry and plant just as you would untreated seed. If bad weather should prevent planting at once, the inoculated seed, if thoroughly dried, may be kept with- out deterioration for several weeks. The dry cultures as sent from the laboratory will keep for several months. Do not prepare the liquid culture more than two or three days previous to the time when the seed are to be treated, as the solution once made up' must usually be used at the end of 48 hours. "To inoculate soil, take enough dry earth so that the solution will merely moisten it. Mix thoroughly so that all the particles of soil are moistened. Thor- oughly mi.x this earth with four or five times as much, say half a wagon-load. Spread this inoculated soil thinly and evenly over the prepared ground, exactly as if spreading fertilizer. The inoculated soil should be harrowed in immediately. Either of the above methods may be used, as may be most convenient." This bacteria is now put up in a commercial form and sold by most seedsmen. The effect of inoculation is very great. The ex- periments made by the Department at Washington, D. C, shows an increase from three to twenty fold. Many old worn-out fields are worn-out simply be- cause their supply of nitrogen and organic matter has been exhausted. The principle of inoculation which will enable them to grow leguminous plants and restore the nitrogen, will work wonders in the South. Perhaps better results can be had in the South to sow in drills from sixteen inches to two feet apart, and keep it worked out the first year, as the crab grass will interfere considerably before it gets started. Alfalfa as a soil improver is very valuable. The following will give you some idea of its value as a fertilizer: "The value of alfalfa harvested from one-half acre of land for five years was about $50.00 more than the cost of producing it. "The value of potatoes and grain from an adjoin- ing half acre for five years was about $44.00 more than the cost of producing at local prices. "When the alfalfa land was plowed and planted to wheat it produced $8.00 to $12.00 more value in wheat per acre than the land which had grown po- tatoes and grain before. "When alfalfa land was plowed and planted to oats it produced $16.00 worth of grain more than land which had grown potatoes and grain before. "When alfalfa land was plowed and planted to po- tatoes it gave $16.00 worth more of potatoes per acre than was obtained from land which had grown pota- toes and grain before. "By growing alfalfa the above increase of yields and values were produced with absolutely no cost for fertilizing the ground." Alfalfa is cut for hay just as the first flowers are coming into bloom. At this time it is more tender and contains the most digestible protein. It should be cut in the forenoon and allowed to cure until the leaves are well wilted. Then raked into windrows, and allowed to cure. It can be then removed to the stack or barn. Alfalfa should be handled just as lit- tle as possible, as the leaves, which are the most val- uable part of the plant, crumble off. It can be cut from three to four times. However, it should not be cut too late in the season^ as it hurts it more than cutting early. If you do not make a good crop the first year do not be discouraged, it frequently takes from one to two and frequently three years to get it started, but when you once get it started you should have no more trouble with it. You will find it ad- vantageous to cut the first crop a little early, when there are just a few blooms to be seen. Alfalfa will not stand heavy pasturing, and cattle and sheep are liable to bloat if pastured on young alfalfa, or when allowed to eat it while the dew is on it ; but horses and hogs never have any trouble with it. BARLEY. Barley is grown in the United States for two pur- poses: feeding and malting. It will grow all right in the Southern States, but for some cause has never received a great deal of attention here. It will grow on rather light dry soil, containing a good deal of lime and in a soil resting on a naturally drained subsoil. Heavier yields of grain and straw are produced on fertile clays, and clay loams. The malting barley used by the brewers brings the better price. The land for barley should be plowed fairly deep and well pulverized. Land that produced some hoed 14 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. crop which was well manured will be a good place to grow it. In the South where it is grown mostly for pasturing and feeding, it should be sown in Sep- tember and on fertile soils as late as the last of Oc- tober. If barley is grown for feeding purposes it is best to fertilize it with stable manure or a fertilizer that contains plenty of nitrogen and phosphoric acid. A top dressing of nitrate of soda in the spring will be very beneficial. If it is grown for the purpose of malting potash should be used quite largely as a fer- tilizer. It should be harvested when the grain is ripe, but do not wait until it is too ripe. The value of barley used for malting purposes is dependent upon the col- or of the grain. Barley as a stock food is excellent. It has about the same food value as corn or wheat, and has a greater food value than oats or bran. It is not so good for fattening purposes as some other grains, but for growing animals it stands at the head of all grains. Barley hay does not have such a high feeding value, but it is excellent for cutting and feeding green to cattle. Fig. 6. — Beggar Weed. BEGGAR WEED. The Beggar Weed is a leguminous plant, and grows fr jm three to eight feet high. It is used for a forage plant, and soil renovator. The United States Department of Agriculture says, in comparing it with alfalfa, velvet beans, soy beans and cow peas: "It is perhaps the best of these for the lighter, sandy soils, including the hammock and pine lands of Florida, and the sandy pine lands along the Gulf Coast."' From five to six pounds of clean seed are sown per acre, but if sown for hay it will perhaps be better to sow say, from eight to ten pounds of clean seed. It should be sown when the ground is warm and moist. If it is sown early, two cuttings may be had. It should be cut for hay, when the first flowers appear. Its yield is from three to five tons of hay per acre and the hay is said to be nearly as good as red clover. It can be sown in the corn at the last plowing and furnish a good pasture the rest of the season. BROOM CORN. Broom corn is a variety of sorghum. It is grown for the fine stems composing its head, which are used in manufacturing brooms and such articles. Broom corn can be grown on any soil which will produce corn or sorghum. It resists drouth much better than corn, although frequent rains in the early stages o'f its growth induce a vigorous plant. Weeds greatly interfere with the cultivation of young broom corn, and care should be observed to plant where the land has been kept clean the year previous. Sandy or gravelly soils produce good broom corn, but they must be thoroughly drained. It should be planted about the same time as other corn. Some plant it in drills, and others prefer to plant it in hills. It will require about three quarts, of seed per acre, provided the seed are of good qual- ity. In planting do not be in too great a hurry, for it will do all right if planted about the same time that cotton is planted. In no case should planting- occur until the soil is warm. Success with broom corn like most other plants, is dependent largely up- on the thorough preparation of the land. If the ground is well plowed two or three times before the corn is planted, say at intervals of ten to fifteen days, it will prove quite valuable to the growth of the crop. It should be planted in rows about three or four feet wide. The more fertile the land the thicker it may be planted. About four plants to the foot is tlie right distance, or thickness. If you intend to hoe it out. you can plant it in hills about twelve or fifteen inches Good Farmers Make Money. 15 apart, and leave from five to six stalks in the hill. The seed should be covered about one inch deep. You should use about the same fertilizer that you would use for ordinary corn. Harvesting is done in August, September, and October, at the season when there is little rain, as rain is very detrimental to the selling qualities of the crop. Rain causes the bush to turn red, and it loses its bright green color af- ter being cut. When the seed is in the dough stage Fig. 7. — Dwarf Broom Corn. is the proper time for harvesting. It is best to cure it under a shed, but care must be observed that it be not placed in too thick layers, as it will spoil. It is a good plan to cut in the morning and allow it to cure all day, and put under shed in the afternoon. The seed are then thrashed from the bush, and after the bush is cured so that it breaks easily, it is baled for the market. A good yield of broom corn is from 600 to 700 pounds per acre, and it brings from $70.00 to $80.00 per ton when baled. CASTOR BEAN. The castor bean is grown to some extent m the Southern States as a field ciop, and froT, it castor oil is made. A fertile, well drained loam soil is best suited to the crop. However, any soil that will pro- duce corn or wheat will produce castor beans. The ground should be thoroughly broken, and harrowed. Rows laid off from four to five feet wide each way is about the proper distance. It is a good idea to leave a wide place every sixth row to allow a wagon to be driven along when gathering the beans. Six or eight beans should be placed in a hill, and when danger from the cut worm has past, they should be thinned out, leaving one plant in a hill. The proper time for planting is from the first to the middle of April. To aid the seeds in germinating, hot water, a little below the boiling point, should be poured over them, and allow them to soak in this for twenty-four hours. Cultivate level, just about as you would corn. The beans are produced in pods of various lengths. If they are allowed to become too ripe, they burst open, and the beans are wasted. As soon as the pods begin to turn brown, they should be cut off, and placed on a floor or sheet with boards placed around them to prevent their wasting off the sheet or pop- ping open. They begin ripening in July and contin- ue until frost. After they begin ripening it will be necessary to go over the field at least twice a week. If this is not done your beans will be wasted on the ground. The beans should not be allowed to get wet, as this causes them to lose some of their value. CHUFAS. Chufas are raised in the South for the purpose of fattening hogs. A crop of one-third of an acre at the Arkansas Station supported three hogs averaging 122 pounds in weight for 46 days. They gained 66 pounds Fig. S. — Cliufa. each, or a total of 198 pounds. The nuts are more effective for fattening purposes than corn. Chufas grow on light sandy soils, and produces starchy roots i6 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. or bulbs about the size of peanut kernels. A great ntimber of these roots or bulbs are attached to the plant, and are near the top of the soil. The crop is excellent for hogs, as they do their own harvesting. Chufas will grow on thin land where many other plants will not. They should be planted in April in rows, and cultivated about as peanuts are. giving them light, shallow cultivation. The crop re-seeds itself, as the nut can stand the winter without harm to itself. However, it is not such a pest as some of the other nut crops. CRIMSON CLOVER. Crimson clover is an annual leguminous plant and grows from one to two feet high. It makes a very iine orchard crop, as it does not draw on the land as much as many other crops. It is also used as a soil renovator, and hay crop. It is said to be as good as red clover. It is an annual and consequently not good for permanent meadows and pastures. It should be planted in August or September. Some recom- mend planting when you lay by your cotton, but it will not do as well then, for the hot sun of July and August is liable to kill it. It can be sown in cotton or corn, and will make good hay the next spring. About 12 to 15 pounds per acre should be planted. It should be covered very lightly with harrow, say one-half an inch. It is hard to cover it too shallow, but it is a very easy matter to get too much dirt on it, unless your land is very rich. The inoculated seed should be planted, as this will insure you a crop. As soon as it comes into bloom is the proper time to harvest it, as after the seed begin to ripen the long tough hairs on the head are dangerous to stock. As a hay plant it is good, and as a soiling plant, it stands at the head of the list. It is very helpful in improv- ing land. CORN. There is more corn grown in the United States than any other grain. However, this crop in the South has been neglected. Too many farmers be- lieve in raising cotton and buying corn. Corn is used throughout the South as a feed more than any other grain. Corn will grow on more different va- rieties of soils and different conditions than any oth- er crop, and the Southern farmer will never reach the greatest success until he devotes more time to this crop. A great many farmers select the very best land that they have for their cotton, and the land that will not produce cotton they plant in corn. They buy most of their fertilizers for the cotton, and if they happen to have any more than they think they will need, they place that on the corn. If the corn and cotton both need plowing, the cotton gets the work, while the corn is allowed to suffer. When fall comes and the cotton is placed on the market, the merchant informs the farmer that he has not made enough to pay off the debts he has made in buying corn and meat. If you do not raise enough corn and meat to do you, you have no right to complain at hard times, for you alone are responsible. Corn needs a deep, rich, well drained soil, whether it be heavy clay or light loam, to do its best. And this point should always be borne in mind when pre- paring your land. If the land is well filled with veg- etable matter, it will stand drouths better, and this is one reason why stable manure gives such good re- sults. Bottom lands are excellently well suited for corn, as they contain more moisture, and, therefore, produce better crops. A good supply of moisture is very necessary and deep, thorough preparation helps greatly along this line. As stated above, corn needs land well filled with decayed vegetable matter. This vegetable matter can be supplied by applying ma- nure, or by sowing cow peas, velvet beans, and sow- mg other crops of like nature, and turning the vines under. In the North the best crops of corn are grown on a clover sod. The roots of the clover fur- nish the humus and other plant food needed by corn. In the South we must substitute other crops for the "clover. The time the land should be broken, is an cpen ciuestion. If the land has a great deal of tough sod on it, it is better to plow it under in the fall ; but if not, it is perhaps as well to wait until it becomes dry enough in the spring. It is not a good practice to leave the bare soil exposed to the washing and leaching of the winter rains ; and if plowed in the fall it should be thrown into ridges running the furrow on a level to prevent washing. As a rule the heavier the land the deeper it should be plowed. As to whether the land should be plowed flat or in beds is an open question. If the land is sufficiently rolling to allow the surface water to run off without washing, it may be plowed flat in the fall ; but as a rule most land will dry out quicker in the spring and leach less when thrown into ridges. Formerlv all corn land No Heme is as Happy as the True Farmer's Htifne. 17 !'''£■ !'. — Corn field situated in Nacoochee Valky. White County, Georgia. Tliis farm is owned by Dr. L. G. Hardman. CommErce, Georgia. was plowed in 4 or 5 foot beds, by throwing- four to six furrows together; but this practice is being aban- doned. Even on river and boUom lands, where the lands have to be surface drained the beds are made eight feet in width, allowing two rows to each bed. It requires more work to bed than it does to plow fiat, and it has no advantage over flat plowing except to drain land liable to overflow. Where land is broken in the fall it can usuallv be fitted for corn in the spring by giving several good harrowings with a disc or cutaway harrow, working the land to a depth of six inches and then drag level before laying off the rows. Where this is impossi- ble the land should be re-plowed with small plows. This should be done as early in the spring as possi- ble, and several harrowings given with smoothing or drag harrow before planting. No question is of more importance in raising corn than that of selecting the seed corn. iMany farmers insist on having pure bred stock on their farm, but are careless about the breed of corn they use. The laws which govern the breeding of animals apply with equal force to the breeding of plants. Pure bred or improved varieties of corn means the same, as pure bred animals, that is, strains and var'eties have been kept pure and selected for a number of years, and are noted for large production and high quality along certain lines. To show you the importance of using good seed corn, one farmer stated that he made an increase in yield of 25 bushels per acre by using pure bred corn over that made by using ordinary seed corn. If you feel enough interest in this subject, go to some reliable seedsman and get the very best from him and then take care of it yourself by selecting your seed every year in the field. It is quite important that you buy your seed from men who are known to be perfectly reliable, as there are fakers among seedsmen as well as other lines of business.. If you do not feel enough interest in it to buy seed, then breed up your own corn. Go through your field before the crop is harvested and select the best ears from the best stalks. As a rule the largest yield of grain is from corn producing two ears to the stalk. Prof. M. F. Miller in a circular issued by the ^Missouri Experiment .Station gives the following methods of breeding up corn : "It will be well in any system of corn improve- ment or corn-breeding to begin with a good varietv. preferably one that is well bred. It may be that a p,articular variety which has been grown in the com- munity has given good results and has been kept fair- ly pure, or it may be necessary to buy improved seed from some man living at a greater or, less distance: but whatever the source, the seed .should be good. There is nothing to be gained in beginning with very poor corn, as several years may be saved by begin- ning with a strain that has received some care in the matter of selection, providing it is fairly well adapted to the community. If there are any marked peculiari- ties of soil or climate, however, such as hardpan or drouth, the best yielding variety of the community hhould be used." The simplest method of corn-breeding is to set aside each year a plot of ground of two or three acres on which to grow seed corn for the next year. The idea in this is to allow only good individuals to cross with good individuals : consequently, only the very choicest ears should be used for this purpose. The plot should be located preferably in a soot removed from the other corn, or it may be located in one cor- ner or along one side of the main field. Corn pollen will often blow a long d'stance, so that the plot should be located as far from corn o' another va-iety i8 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. as possible. It should never be nearer than 200 yds. If the plot is placed in a part of the field with the same variety, the east side should be selected, as pre- vailing winds are generally from the west or south- west, and there will be less danger of outside cross- ing. The only disadvantage in crossing with corn of the same variety is that pollen from an undesirable sialk in the general field may blow into the plot and fertilize some of the silks of the seed ears. The soil on which this seed plot should be the average of that used for corn on the farm. Fig. 10.— Flint corn. Dent corn. Select 30 ears that are nearest ideal in character, and which represent perfectly the type which it is proposed to breed. It is never advisable to select less than 25 ears, as there is danger of inbreeding if the number is few. It is best to test the vitality of each ear used in the plot before planting, in order that only those of strong germinating qualities may be used. Remove butts and tips and shell the ears together. From this mixture take enough to plant a plot of the desired size. The corn may be planted in the same manner as the rest of the field, but it should receive good cultivation and care. When coming into tassel it may be well to go through every day for a week and cut out with a knife all barren stalks, in order that their pollen may not fertilize the ears on other stalks. This is not absolutely neces- sary, but is desirable. It has been found that barren stalks vary in number with the season rather than with the variety, and it is nature's tendency to breed them out, since they produce no ears. Nevertheless, better results would undoubtedly be secured if they were removed. Allow the corn to become thoroughly ripe on the stalk and then go through and select from desirable stalks suflicieiit perfect ears for planting the next sea- son's crop. See that the ears are thoroughly dried before frost, following directions already given for preserving seed corn. Each succeeding year's planting will be exactly sim- ilar to the first, always keeping the corn pure and tending by this careful selection and the crossing of good with good to build up a variety of high yield and high quality. Some such method as this should be practiced by every corn-grower. Stable manure is without doubt the best fertilizer for corn. Its value, however, depends very much up- on how it is taken care of, and if left out in an open lot for the rain to leach away it will not be worth half as much as if kept packed down under a shed or left in a stable until you are ready to haul to the field. Where you have an abundance of manure it is doubtless best to broadcast it, but where there is only a limited quantity apply it in the drill. If barn- yard manure is not available, cotton seed, cotton seed meal, potash, and phosphate, may be used. Under the head of fertilizers we give formulas for commer- cial fertilizers for corn. But just a word about cot- ton seed and cotton seed meal. Next to stable ma- nure it is one of the best fertilizers we have for corn. Two hundred pounds of cotton seed meal, applied on each side of the row at the second plowing will fre- quently add ten bushels per acre to the yield. As a general proposition it is better to sell the seed and buy meal, or exchange them for meal to use in this way. This in addition to two hundred or four hun- dred pounds of commercial fertilizer used at planting Make the Farm as Attractive as Possible. 19 time. For commercial fertilizers see Chapter on Fer- tilizers. As to varieties, use that variety which will produce the greatest number of bushels of shelled corn per acre in your locality, regardless of the time of ripen- ing or the size either of the ears or stalks. In the South the seasons are long enough for any corn to Fig. 11. — Cockes frolific Corn. mature, and you do not have to select quick grow- ing varieties. Of course where corn is planted after some. crop, such as oats, wheat, clover, or some early crop has been cut, some of the earlier maturing sorts may have to be used. The United States Department of Agriculture recommends the use of white varie- ties as they claim that in one hundred tests made with white varieties and colored varieties the best re- sults were secured from the white. However, the col- ored variety is richer in food value, and perhaps its richness in that line makes up for its lack of produc- tiveness. Altogether we would prefer a smaller cob, to a larger one. When the cob is small 50 pounds or a bushel of ears will produce 62 or 63 pounds of shell- ed corn, while 50 pounds of corn in the ear of a large cob variety will only give from 52 to 55 pounds of grain. It has been found where land has to produce large ears of corn, it will not produce as many of them. When corn is grown for ordinary purposes, it should have the following characteristics: (1) It should be a dent rather than a flint variety. (2) It should have a growing period of from 150 to 170 days. (3) The stalks should have well-developed roots and should average nearly two ears each. (4) The ears should be of good size, of uniform diameter throughout, well filled at both ends and should point downward when ripe. (5) The cobs should be small in proportion to the size of the ear. (6) The individual grains should be long and so broad at the upper end as to leave only a slight de- pression between the rows. (7) The variety should be of local origin. As to planting, if the land is well drained it is much better to plant flat, than to plant on beds, and many of the most successful growers plant in furrows be- low the level, claiming that the corn stands drouth better. The land can then be worked to the corn, which will keep it from blowing down. As a rule never plant on a bed unless your land is very poorly drained. Corn should be planted from March ist, to May 1st, according to locality; but don't be in too big a hurry. Better be a little late and get your land in good condition than to rush the seed into poorly prepared ground. As to the distance it should be planted, depends upon the productivity of the ground : if the land is fertile and will produce from 25 to 40 bii. of corn to the acre, the rows should be from three and a half to four feet apart, and planted about thirty inches in the drill. If the land is not so fertile, it should be given more space, say four and a half to five feet, and a little further in the drills. The more fertile the land, the thicker should be the corn. Thorough cultivation of corn is necessary, but this does not mean deep cultivation. Deep plowing should be done before the corn is planted and never after the first working. Corn has not a large tap root like cotton, but is a surface feeder, and has a large num- ber of long roots that run along near the top of the soil. To plow deep, say four or five inches, cuts these roots and the corn is checked in growth and never recovers from it. Corn should never be plow- ed over two inches deep after it is six inches high. It is a good plan to begin the cultivation of corn be- 20 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. fore it comes up, by using a light smoothing harrow or weeder with the teeth pointing backwards. A hay rake will do good work, with the teeth running into the ground very slightly. This breaks the crust, stops evaporation, and kills the weeds and grass in the seed leaf, leaving the land smooth for future cul- tivation. The weeder and hay rake can be used only when the sod is fine and mellow. Cultivation should follow each rain to prevent a crust from forming, and to kill the new crop of weeds germinating. The weeder and harrow can be used until the corn is six inches high. Some ten or fifteen acres per day can. be gone over with a harrow or weeder. When the corn is from four to six inches high it should be thin- ned to the proper distance, leaving one stalk in a place, on poor land three feet, and on rich land eigh- teen inches to 'two feet. In the South it is better to tests of shallow cultivation gave an average yield of 74.7 bushels per acre, a difference of more than 15 per cent, in favor of shallow cultivation. In only 5 cases out of the entire number reported did the deep culture gi\'e the better results."" In times of drouth cultivation should be as frequent as possible, but deep cultivation at the time of a drouth is ruinous. If the soil is stirred an inch or perhaps two inches deep evaporation is checked. While the soil at the top frequently has the appear- ance of being very dry, underneath this dust mulch will be found a moist soil, which Vvill remain moist much longer than it would were the whole surface , to become compact. There are several plans of harvesting corn. The plan that has been in general practice in the South is Ki'i IL'. — L'.iru eiup on AnJersLius F.inii, Alarirtla. leave the corn thicker in the drill than to leave more than one stalk to the hill. It is, as a rule advisable to give one good deep working to start with, but af- ter that, all the cultivation should be very shallow. The plan of ridging up corn by throwing the soil to- wards the rows at the time of the last cultivation, in order to assist the brace-roots of the corn to take bet- ter hold, and thus prevent the corn from being blown down so easily by storms, has some advantage but it has its disadvantages. This "ridging up"' cuts the roots of the corn at the time they are needed most. The seed have already been formed, and what is needed is an uninterrupted supply of nourishment to enable these seed to develop to their fullest size. Many experiments have been made to determine which is the better, deep or shallow cultivation. The following is the result of such tests: "Tlie records of 116 such tests made at 13 different stations show that 61 tests of deep cultivation gave an average yield of 64.9 bushels per acre, while 55 to pull the blades from the corn when ripe and allow them to cure for fodder. Then gather the ears when they are dr}-. This plan of harvesting is a poor and e.xpensive one and lessens the production of corn; that is, shelled corn. An experiment made at the Georgia Experiment Station produced results- show- ing that corn weighed heavier when fodder was not pulled. This experiment shows a gain of a small amoimt by pulling the fodder when considering the sale of the fodder, but it shows conclusively that corn produces less when fodder was pulled. The farmer is after practical results, and when he considers the trouble and expe'nse of gathering fodder there is certainly nothing in it for him. For fodder to be any good it must be cured at the proper time, and not allowed to get wet. As it ripens usually during the rainy season there is very little money in it and a great deal of trouble. It is estimated by conservative farmers that fodder is worth, when properly cured, just about You Should Love Your Work. 21 what it costs to gather it. And then when you con- sider the risk that he runs, and the loss in the weight of the shelled corn, it is certainly not a paying busi- ness. Corn should not be harvested too soon, as it is not so rich in food value as it would be if allowed to stand longer. Most farmers make the mistake of pul- ing the fodder or cutting the corn too soon. The best plan is to let it stand until the blades begin to burn up, then cut and shock in large shocks, putting not less than 150 stalks in a shock, and when dry shuck off the ears and shred the stalks and shucks. It is claimed that corn stover hay is an excellent and pala- table food for horses, mules, and cattle, and the yield of grain is not diminished when the corn is pulled at the right time. In some of the corn growing States the corn and fodder remain on the stalk until the corn is matured, when it is pulled and housed. In practicing this method you lose the stalk and fodder. But this plan is better than to pull the fodder from the stalk, as the stalk dies immediately when the fodder is strip- ped from it. As soon as the corn is stored in the bin or barn, one pound of bisulphide of carbon for every 100 bushels of corn should be poured over it, as it will keep the weevils and moths away for several months. It is a good plan to keep a close watch on the corn and if the weevils and moths begin to bother it, make another application of bisulphide of carbon. The U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 81, sums up the corn-growing question as follows: "(i) The best soil for corn is a rich sandy loam which contains a good supply of humus. Land which has been used for growing red clover, melilotus, cow- peas, or other leguminous crops is much better than that which has been used recently for hoed crops. "(2) In using manures and fertilizers it is better to use the coarse stable manure and the whole cot- ton seed on the heavier soils, and the well-rotted ma- nure and the cotton-seed meal on the lighter soils. "(3) Air well-drained lands should be plowed flat, and high beds are advisable only on lands which are subject to overflows. When beds are used they should be wide enough for two rows each. "(4) The best variety of corn for ordinary purposes is the one which will produce the greatest amount of shelled grain per acre, regardless of the number or size of the ears. "(5) White varieties will usually make a heavier yield than colored varieties, though many colored va- rieties are more vigorous and hardy than are some of the more prolific white varieties. "(6) The best yields are secured from dent varie- ties, which require about 160 days for maturing and average nearly two ears per stalk. The ears should be of good size, have small cobs well filled at each end, and should hang downward when ripe. "(7) Nothing is gaine'd by planting before the ground is sufficiently warm and dry to promote immediate growth. Early plantings should not be covered so deep as late plantings. "(8) Cultivation should be shallow and frequent, and the surface of the ground should be kept as near- ly level and smooth as possible. "(9) When other hay can be saved readily and the cornfields can be pastured immediately after the crop is gathered, it is not usually profitable to cut the stalks for fodder. "(10) Corn which is to be stored for some time should be treated with bisulphid of carbon to destroy insects. "(11) Seed should always be selected in the field by taking the best ears from the best stalks." COTTON. Cotton is a fiber plant, and is grown in the South- ern States of the United States. It is grown as far North as southern Virginia, and northern Oklahoma, and as far west as Texas. There are two species of cotton grown in the United States, the upland, or short staple cotton, and the long staple, or sea island cotton. The short staple is raised much more exten- sively than the sea island, but the sea island brings the higher price. The sea island is grown mostly on the islands off the coast of Florida, South Caroli- na, and in the lowlands of South Georgia, and South Carolina. The Short Staple is raised practically in all the remainder of the cotton belt. The flowers of the short staple, or upland cotton, are white or cream colored on the first day, become reddish on the sec- ond, and fall off on the third day, leaving a small boll enveloped in the calyx. This boll continues to grow until it is about the size and shape of a hen's egg. The cotton plant has a long tap root, which ena- bles it to stand drouth well and to thrive better on poor land than most other crops. It is almost unnec- 22 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. fssary to say anything about the soil that is best compaied with 272 pounds planted in the usual way. adapted to and sandy ommended cotton-growing. Clay loams well drained loams resting on clay are both highly rec- for growing cotton. Thorough prepara- Cotton cultivated with a cultivator gave as good re- sults as that cultivated with a sweep. m' ^'^' sa.^» ij IMP SrH P f ^9 n ^ i i ^jH ■"" r^ J * y 1 A good cotton to be grown (From H, G. Hastings & Co.). tion of the land is essential to successful cotton- growing. The great trouble with Southern cotton- raisers is that they try to cultivate too much, and do not give it sufficient attention. If the farmers would plant half the acreage in cotton that they do now, and give it the same work and fertilizers they use at pres- ent, they would have better returns in the end. Along the line of deep breaking of land the Alaba- ma Station made an experiment about as follows : Land plowed six and one-half inches deep yielded seventy-six pounds of seed cotton and sixteen pounds of lint more than land plowed three and a half inches deep. So the experiment shows that it pays to break your land deep. There may be cases in which sub- soiling will pay, but it is the exception and not the rule. Cotton planted on ridges at the Alabama Sta- tion yielded 344 pounds of lint cotton per acre, as A week before planing at least, all the land should be in readiness for the seed. It is well to place the fertilizer in the ground two or three weeks before planting, and bed on top of that. The rows should be from three and a half to five feet apart, according to the fertility of the land. The richer the land the wider the rows. The same rule applies to the dis- tance in the row. If the land is fertile it should have a good space, but if the land is poor it should be close together. The average farmer leaves it about twelve inches apart in rows four feet wide, ^^'e are convinced, however, that the majority of farmers leave their cotton too close. Fig. 14. — Picking Cotton. Raise Your Feed at Home. 23 Perhaps barnyard manure stands at the head of the list as a fertihzer for cotton, and many farmers do not realize how much it costs them each year to allow their manure to go to waste. It is good to have cot- ton follow a crop of small grain or leguminous crop. For commercial ferilizers for cotton see chapter on Fertilizers. The planting should be done with a good planter. The old practice of dropping the seed by hand is long out of date. These planters are cheap, and every Fig. 15. — Ruralist Cotton. farmer who knows what is business, will have one. Cotton should be planted in April or the first of May. The earlier it is planted, provided there is no danger from frost, the better. The seed should be covered from one and a half to two inches deep. It may be gone over after the first rain with a weeder or har- row as suggested for corn, which will do much to fa- cilitate the early cultivation of the crop. It will also keep the crust broken and help the seed to come up. It will kill the young grass before it has a chance to start. This is a great benefit to the crop, for cotton and grass are bitter enemies. It is, therefore, urged that the farmer plant a crop small enough to handle easily during rainy years, as these years come quite frequently. If he plants a large crop, he may manage to scratch over it once in a while, and keep the grass from taking it during dry years, but what will he do at other times? Cotton should be worked after every rain, if possible. At first, you can give it a deep plowing, but never after that. It does not pay to plow deep, for th'is cuts the roots and stops the growth of the plant. Do your deep plowing before you plant the crop, then it will not be so hard upon the mule or the cotton either. As to topping cotton, there is no definite rule. It is practiced by some farmers, and others would not under any circumstances, permit their cotton to be topped. At the Georgia Experiment Station at times it increases the yield, while at other times it dimin- ished it. Farmers should keep their land well drained and practice rotation of the crops. Cof'on should not be planted after cotton where it is possible to avoid it. In this way, the danger from rust and other diseases of cotton are avoided to a large extent. COW PEAS. The cowpea is a leguminous plant that is grown for both forage and human consumption. A great deal of land is void of nearly all vegetable matter and sadly in need of same. Cowpeas furnish this vege- table matter, and the crop can be grown success- fully on almost every variety of soil. The cowpea is a tropical plant and quite sensitive to frost, but delights in the long hot summers. In addition it is one of the best soil renovators grown in the Southern States. It is to the South what red clover is to the North and alfalfa to the West, and it has been cultivated in the South for more than 150 years. TJie peas are all colors, white, brown, black. A few early varieties ripen seed in sixty days after they are planted, while it takes some of them eight or nine months to ripen seed. In between these two limits, 24 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. we have all grades. As a forage crop the cowpea has few superiors and from two to three tons of ha}- per acre can be made under proper conditions. There are many advantages in growing cowpeas, its great- est advantage being that it will grow on poor land and make a profitable crop, while at the same time, it improves the soil, making it more productive for other crops. As before mentioned, the cow])ea is a legu- minous plant, and has the power to appropriate the free nitrogen from the air, and as the air is four- fifths nitrogen, this is very important, especially sincft so much of our Southern land \< in sad need of this element. Another advantage is that it shades the soil in the summer, keeping it in a condition most suitable for the formation of nitrogen and leaves it in fine mechanical condition for the next crop. It has a large root development, and pumps up from the subsoil much of the mineral matter needed by land in. the Southern States. It grows rapidly, enab- ling the farmer to grow two crops of the earlier va- rieties in one year. The cowpea being a legume, it is best that it follow a crop that has drawn heavily upon the nitrogen in the soil, such as oats, rye, or wheat. The manner of cultivation depends upon the pur- pose for which they are grown. If vines are wanted, it would be better to plant early, as soon as danger from frost is past and the ground is warm ; but if the peas are wanted it will be better to plant later. The later thev are planted the less vine they make, and the qui.'ker they set peas. They may be planted at any time from April to August. They are sometimes planted in the drill, and sometimes broadcast. If you desire to make hay, perhaps it will be better to sow them broadcast. If you want to raise the shelled pea, plant in drills two to three feet apart, using from one to two pecks of seed per acre. If you plant for a forage crop, broadcast, sowing from one to two bush- els. As a rule, we think they make better hay when not sown too thickly and one bushel per acre of good seed is a very good quanhty. It will pay to use a little nitrogen in the fertilizer for cowpeas, to give the plants a quick start; but if the soil is inoculated with the necessary baceria, they will obtain this ele- ment from the air. The mineral elements, phosphoric acid and potash, however, should be liberally applied. For fertilizer for cowpeas see Fertilizer Department. It will pay you to prepare the land thoroughly for cowpeas, b}' breaking deeply, harrowing down the land and appljnng the fertilizer. It is better to wait until it rains before planting, as you will usually get a better stand. Cowpeas love the sun, and \vill not do well if sown before the soil is warm. Soon after planting, they may be harrowed, say just before they come above the ground. It will perhaps be better to use some weeder, or hay rake, as the harrow will go too deep and disturb the peas. This cultivation should be sufficient where they are sown broadcast. If ])lanted in drills they should be cultivated at least twice. - To cure cowpeas they should be cut when the pods are about two-thirds ripe, as at this time the \-ines contain the greatest feeding value. The following method has been tried, and found to be a success in curing cowpea hay. First, construct what might be ^ \/ V Fig. 16. — Showing fine .and post for curing pea Tine hay. called a ventilator tube, as shown in illustration. (Fig. l6.) This should be made of two ix6 or ix8 planks five feet long with slats one by three by eight nailed to the edges, forming a square of eight inches, similar to those used frequently around trees. Then a stack pole is made, say five inches in diameter and ten to twelve feet high, sharpening the lower end a little. It Does not Take Much Land to Raise a Good Forage Crop. 25 Then a frame is made similar to tlie one shown in the illustration, using pieces four or five, and sometimes six feet long. The outfit is set up, putting pole in- side of the ventilator, and setting the frame shown in Figure 17 about eight inches from the ground. This platform Should be eight inches from the ground. Around the ventilator, hay may be placed, as green as you please. However, the hay should not be pack- ed with the feet, as it will be too close together. When you have piled your hay nearly to the top of the ventilator, then by getting on a ladder you may raise the tube nearly its entire length, and the hole will still remain. You can keep it in place by run- ning a small stick through the slats near the bottom of the ventilator, and allowing the stick to rest on the hay. As you proceed toward the top, bring the stack to a point. When you have reached a point I e Fig. 17.- — Showing frame and flue ready to place hay on same. take the ventilator out and use it for the next stack, and cap the stack just made, by placing a forkful of crab grass on the sharpened end of the stack pole, Then with a string, or twine, tie the cap tightly to the pole a foot from the top of the pole. In a few hours the hay will wilt and settle down, leaving the cap there like an umbrella over the ventilating flue. A cool stream of air rushes up through this flue, and cures the hay as well on the inside as the outside. After it has remained there for a week or ten days, you can then go over the field pulling the cap nearly to the top of the hay stack. By this method hay can be placed iii the stack as soon as it is cut. There is no need of spoiling on ac- count of rain. As soon as it is cured, it can be hauled to the barn. In doing this work, care should be ob- served that the hay be not packed with the feet, or any one allowed to get on the stack with their feet. This is undoubtedly the best method for curing pea- vine hay known, especially when there is danger of the hay getting wet. Of course the hay should not be cut when wet_, and the mower should not be start- ed until after the dew is off; but there is no need to fear the rain after you have stacked it. Another method.— Nail a piece of plank one by four inches across the stack pole, and at right angles to this piece, nail another just above it. These pieces should be as long as the stack is wide. On top of these two poles place a layer of hay two feet thick, and place another set of cross bars across the pole similar to the others. Continue to place these cross pieces until you get to the top of the stack. The hay should not be stacked on the ground, but on a platform as suggested in the former method. This method is not quite as good as the other. GRASSES. Bermuda Grass. — There is not a more valuable pasturage in the South than Bermuda grass. It is very resistant to heat and cold, but will not grow in the shade. It is also used for hay, but is especially recommended for pastures, and will flourish where other grasses perish. It is propagated by sowing seed or planting chopped sections of the roots. The grass spreads very rapidly on good land and will soon cov- er the whole ground. It will pay every farmer to have a good Bermuda pasture for his stock. They need something green to eat at all times, and Ber- muda will come nearer answering this demand than anything that we know of. Every farmer has some land that could be planted ir Bermuda, which would bring in much better returns than it does at present. The man who owns a good Bermuda pasture can keep his stock a great deal cheaper and in much bet- ter condition than the one who does not. The seed are very fine and should be sown in the Spring after 26 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE the soil is warm, on thoroughly prepared ground, and covered by dragging a light brush over the ground. If roots are used plant in April, dropping the pieces in rows two feet apart, and cover with the foot. Carpet Grass. — This grass is very common in Mis- sissippi and Alabama. It is a low creeping perennial' grass, and is too short for hay, but is very valuable for pastures. It spreads quite rapidly, and will drive other grasses and weeds out. It withstands frosts well, and in sections of the extreme southern part of Louisiana and Alabama, stays green all the winter. growing perennial, growing from three to six feet high. It thrives best on rich alluvial soils, but will grow on the poorest soils, withstanding all drouths. It is valuable for hay, yielding for 3 to 5 tons per acre, and giving two or three cuttings. If cut at the right time it is equal to timothy hay in feeding value, and stock eat it readily. For a pasture, Johnson grass has no value, as pasturing will soon kill it out. The grass should be cut as soon as the head appears. It takes about one bushel of seed to plant an acre. Root cuttings may be planted a foot apart each way, and excellent results will be obtained. After it has been cut for hay for three or four years Kig. IS. — Crab Grass and Pursley Hay — Two tons per acre. Grown by C. E. Pleas, Chipley, Georgia. It is usually propagated by sowing the seed. It is easily killed by cultivation, and is not a dangerous grass to have around. Crab Grass. — Every Southerner knows what crab- grass is without any explanation. It is never sown but comes up spontaneously and frequently grows so rapidly that you can get two cuttings of hay from it in one season. The hay is much relished by stock. It is easily leached of its nutritive qualities by the rain. If it is stacked in the field it should be capped with some other kind of grass. Johnson Grass. — Johnson grass was introduced in- to this country from the old world in 1830 and is now scattered throughout the whole South. It is a rank the roots become so matted that the yield is decreased. The field should then be plowed up and thoroughly harrowed, after which the grass will grow very luxuriantly. It is the most pro- lific perennial grass grown in the South. It is diffi- cult to eradicate when once firmly established, but it can be done by persistent effort. Perhaps the best way is to plow the land four inches deep in the Fall and rake out all the roots possible with a new tool called a grass hoe which has a number of sharp teeth rv-inting forward. Then pile the roots and burn them. The grass will not come up from the roots left below four inches plowed. In the spring if there are any pieces of roots left in the surface soil they will sprout and come up. It will then be neces^^ary to go Some Farmers Make a Living on Less Than Ten Acres. 27 over the field and pull all of these up by hand. When they are about a foot high this can be easily done and the root will come with the plant. Haul these off and burn them and you are rid of the grass. Kentucky Blue Grass. — This grass is a native from South Carolina, west to the Pacific Coast, and north to Labrador and Alaska; but it attains its highest development in the limestone regions of Tennessee and Kentucky. This is the best pasture grass grown, and the regions where it abounds most plentifully have become world famed for their stock. As a hay crop it is not so good, for it does not grow high enough, and makes a light yield. It spreads rapidly Fig. 19. — Tall Meadow Fescue. by means of seed, and various runners or suckers forming a close compact sod which withstands tramp- ling and grazing well. Blue Grass does not do well on sandy land, or land deficient in lime, and for that reason will not thrive in a great deal of the southern territory. From one-half to two and a half bushels of seed are required per acre. Meadow Fescue. — This grass was introduced from Europe and has become naturalized all over the United States. It is of special value as a pasture grass and as a hay. Soutfi of Virginia and Kentucky it remains green nearly all the year around, and for that reason is very valuable for pasture purposes. It is grown from seed sown from two to three bush- els per acre. It takes about three years for this grass to become fully established. In good soils it will yield from one to one and a half tons of hay the first year and double this amount the next year. Overflows do not injure this plant, but some claim that it actually does it good. In Virginia it is known as Randall Grass; in South Carolina, Evergreen Grass, and sometimes 'it is called tall fescue. LESPEDEZA. This is an annual leguminous forage crop. It is grown a good deal in the South, but is too tender to be grown in the North. It is used, quite extensively in the South on poor clay soils. It is seeded at the rate of twelve pounds per acre and reseeds itself from year to year unless it is too closely pastured. It grows from a foot and a half to two feet high and makes a fine crop of hay. It is sometimes called Ja- pan clover. It can be sown with nielilotus, also among oats in the early spring, and will come on af- ter the oats are cut. MILLET. There are a large number of grasses grown princi- pally for forage that ■ are called millet. There are three varieties of millet grown in this country: The foxtail millet, which is characterized by a compact bristly foxtail head, including several varieties, such as, Common, German, Htmgarian, and Golden Won- der Millet. The barnyard millet includes several va- rieties which are characterized by dense paniculate heads, and are the true barnyard millet. Shama mil- let, Sanawa millet. The broom corn millet, character- ized by brushy heads and consists of the broom corn or Hog millet, Manitoba, etc. Millet is a very valua- ble catch crop, and can be grown from six to eight weeks in the summer. It will grow best on good soil," but will make a fairly good crop on poor soil. Many feeders have a strong prejudice against .mil- hay, especially for horses; but this objection is be- cause the millet is not cut at the proper time. If the crop is allowed to become mature, or nearly so, the hay will be of poor quality, the stems being hard and unpalatable, while the excess of seed frequentlv caus- es founder. Millet should be cut for hav while the 28 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. head is still in the boot, or just beginning to show. If it be allowed to stand until the seed begins to harden, it will make a very poor feed. If millet be cut at the proper time the hay will compare favorably with that produced from any other grass. The plant grows very rapidly, and when ready to cut for hay, will not do to wait until next week. As a seed crop millet is quite valuable. It yields from twenty to forty bush- els of seed per acre, and these seed sell from one to two dollars per bushel at wholesale. So you can readily see that millet is quite a paying crop to grow for seed. Pearl or Cat-Tail Millet (■■Pencillaria). Millet is a summer plant, and requires warm weather. It will do best on a rich, well drained sandy loam, but will not thrive on heavy clays or wet lands. It may be planted from May to August. The ground should be well plowed and harrowed to free it from clods, grass and weeds. When planted for hay about one-half bushel per acre of Hungarian, German, or Common millet seed is required, but about three-fourths of a bushel of seed, per acre, of broom corn millet. It may be sown broadcast. Millet is . cut in a more immature state than other crops, and therefore should be allowed to cure thoroughly. OATS. Oats are grown in every State in the Union. The uat crop ranks second in number of bushels pro- duced, and third in number of acres sown, to any oth- grown in the United States. Oats are successfully grown on a wide range of soils, such as poor clays, sandy loams, peaty soils, even marshy and undrained lands. The lands should be prepared by plowing and harrowing and the seed put in with seed drill or cut- away harrow. They should be planted in the early fall, in most sections of the South, as has been shown by experiments. Plant about two inches deep, and from one to two bushels of seed per acre should be sown. Seeding oats with some other grain has been practiced in the North, but if you want the greatest amount of grain and straw, it is best not to plant anything with them. Oats, when planted early in the fall, require less seed than when planted late, or when planted in the spring. The winter turf sod oat will withstand a great dea^ of cold and make e.xcellent grazing in the winter. It also makes a large growth of straw and is therefore excellent for forage. The Rust Proof variety is usu- ally planted for grain, as it makes very heavy heads, althought it is more sensitive to cold. As for fertili- zers for oats, see small grain in the Fertilizer Depart- ment. It is well to let oats follow corn or some le- guminous crop. They should be harvested when the lower part of the stalk or straw has turned yellow. This is better than to wait until the grain is fully ma- tured, as a considerable amount is lost in shattering out. Enemies to Oats. — The smuts are the most dan- gerous enemy to oats. One of the best treatments for any of the smuts is to soak the seed in formalin solution, using one pound to fifty or sixty gallons of water. Soak for two hours. PEANUT. Peanuts are trailing leguminnus plants, sometimes called Ground-pea, Goober, Pinders, Earth-nuts, etc. This crop is one of the best, if not the best, for fat- Don't Try to Cultivate too Many Acres of Land. 29 lening hogs that is grown in the Sonth. It is strictly a Southern crop and one of great value. It would be still more valuabk, however, if the farmers would cultivate it more extensively. The peanut will grow almost anywhere corn will, requires about five months to mature, and is easil}- killed by frost. A sandy loam is best suited for peanuts, as in F:.?. 20. — Portion of Peanut Plant. the 'hea\'y soils the pods cannot push their way into fche ground or mature. You do not need a soil rich in vegetable matter, for such soil produces vines instead of peanuts ; but you do need land containing considerable lime; as with- out lime the peanuts will make pops instead of full nuts. When lime is lacking it can be supplied by broadcasting from 20 to 50 bushels per acre as more or less seems to be needed. There are several advan- Fig. 21. — Spanish Peanuts. tages in growng peanuts. In the first place, it grows on soils that will not produce other crops, and it has no insect enemies. Nearly all crops have ene- mies in the insect world, but the peanut seems to be an exception. The vines of the peanut make excel- lent hay. Pull up the vines in the afternoon, and al- low them to sun until the ne.xt afternoon, and you liave a hay that you will be proud of. Peanuts should be planted about the same time cotton is. They are frequently planted with corn, planting tlie corn in seven foot, rows with a row of peanuts in between. When planting peanuts by them- selves have the rows from two to three feet apart, with the hills from one to two feet apart in the row. They should be cultivated shallow, and not ridged. Recent experiments prove it is not necessary to shell the nuts before planting, as breaking the pods only, produces as satisfactory results, as where the former plan was practiced. If the crop is grown for hogs, they can do their own harvesting, l)y turning into field just after the first frost. If grown for hay and the market thev should be harvested just before the first frost. A plow is run un- der them, cutting the tap root, and loosening up the ground. The vines can be thrown in wind-rows, and after a day can be stacked in piles seven to eight feet high. The nuts are then picked off, and allowed to dry, when they should be sacked. \Vhen some of the nuts are cured and fed with the hay the feeding value is greatly increased. POTATOES. When one speaks of potatoes, in the South, he is usually supposed to be speaking of what is known as sweet potatoes ; but the most generallv accepted mean- ing, taking the United States as a whole, is the Irish potato. So our first subject will be the Irish Potato. Next to the cereals, potatoes are probably the most important food crop grown for man. The annual po- tato crop in the United States, is 200,000,000 bushels, and there are some counties in Europe whose crops exceed even that amount; so you can readily see that the growing of potatoes is no small business. The average yield for the whole country is a little under 100 bushels per acre, and 200 bushels per acre is con- sidered a fair yield, while a great deal of land will produce 300 bushels per acre. An ideal soil for pota- toes is one which is so light it offers no great resi.s- tance to the enlargement of tubers, so supplied with" organic matter as to be rather moist without being 30 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. wet, and so rich as to furnish an unfailing supply of the necessary plant food. A rich sandy loam well supplied with vegetable matter and one naturally well drained is preferred. Very heavy clays should not be used if the farm contains a lighter soil. If sufficient vegetable matter be applied to sandy soils, good po- tatoes can be produced, and of better quality than where grown on a heavy soil. Potatoes should not be planted in the same field more than one year, or at the most, two years in succession. Potatoes thrive best on land which has been made rich by a liberal appli- cation of stable manure on some previous crop, or by turning under a clover sod or heavy peavine stubble. It is not advisable to apply stable manure directly to the potato crop, as it has a tendency to produce scab. For this reason a complete high-grade commercial fer- The pieces should be covered lightly about two inches deep, using a cultivator or double foot stock, after which apply the fertilizer in a broad band ten or twelve inches wide, and cover the whole with two good furrows,' which leaves a ridge over the row. As a general rule, growers distribute the fertilizer in the row and mix it well with the soil before dropping the potatoes, but better results have been obtained from the method outlined above, as the fertilizer is placed right where the new potatoes form above the seed piece. It will require about four barrels of potatoes to plant an acre, the amount varying according to varie- ty, size of potato, and distance. From a recent bulletin we take the following gen- eral cosiderations on amount and size of seed pieces : Fig. 22. — Loading potatoes on cars, Atlanta, Texas. tilizer should be used directly on the crop, and the fer- tilizer should contain a relatively large per cent, of potash, h'or fertilizer for potatoes see Fertilizer De- partment. The land should be thoroughly prepared, and laid off in rows about three feet apart, running them out deeply so the potatoes when dropped will be four to six inches below the general surface of the field when level. The potatoes should be cut to two good eyes and the pieces dropped from 8 to 15 inches apart according to variety, early sorts being planted closer than later varieties. A number of investi.gators have noted that large seed pieces (either large cuttings or entire potatoes) afford an earlier crop than very small cuttings, a mat- ter of much interest to growers of early potatoes. However, some growers have reported that uncut potatoes germinate more slowly than lar.ge cuttings. Most of those who raise potatoes for the early mar- ket use large cuttings rather than whole potatoes. In this connection it may be said that the seed end half gives an earlier crop than the other half. This suggests the expediency of cutting a potato length- wise when halves or charters are to be nlanted, thin se"ur'ng on each piece oi:: or mor'^ of the eyes vh',;'.! A Legume Crop is one that Takes the Nitrogen from the Air. 31 germinate first. Another advantage of cutting length- wise is that it insures a more even distribution of the eyes on the several pieces. Of course this system is not practicable when very small cuttings are to be made from long, slender potatoes, since the large amount of exposed surface would render the long pieces susceptible to injury both from moisture and dryness. If it is desired to cut the potato into small pieces the operator should begin at the stem end, and the pieces should be cut in compact shape, and of as nearly equal size as is practicable without leaving any piece entirely devoid of eyes. There are special implements for cutting potatoes, and their use is re- ported as enabling a man to cut four or five times as many bushels of seed per day as by hand. The char- acter of the work is said to be satisfactory. No definite rule can be given as to the best size of seed piece, for this depends somewhat on the dis- tance between the hills and on the character of the soil and season. Another important factor in deter- mining the proper amount of seed is variety. Some varieties are able to produce a crop almost as large from small cuttings as from large pieces. Thus, in several experiments, the variety Clark No. 1 has given indications of this capacity to produce well ev- en with light seeding. Soon after planting the field should be harrowed with a smoothing harrow, and just before the pota- toes 'begin to come up ; then just as the young plants begin to appear above the ground, harrow again or cultivate with horse weeder. The harrow destroys young weeds, and prevents the formation of a crust. After that they should be cultivated shallow with cultivator and weeder._ Mulching with straw, leaves, hay, etc., often increases the yield, but is only practical in small gardens, and not in planting for commercial purposes. The crop should.be dug when the vines die. Of course for early market it is not necessary to wait tmtil the vines die, but as long as any portion of the vino is green the potatoes will con- tinue to grow. In gardens early po.atoes are some- times secured by removing carefully some of the larger tubers, then replacing the dirt, allowing the small potatoes to continue growing In harvesting potatoes if one has a large area in cultivation a potato digger is almost a necessity. In storing potatoes they should be exposed to the light as little as possible, and they should also be kept cool. If they are allowed to become warm, they are liable to sprout or decay, which will injure their sale, as well as their reproducing value. The early crop of Irish potatoes cannot be kept easily, owing to the fact that they ripen and are dug in hot weather. Usually the sooner they can be sold the better. There is no difficulty in keeping late po- tatoes. The following summary of a bulletin issued by the U. S. Department of Agriculture on this subject puts the matter in a terse form : "(i) A rich, sandy loam, well drained and well supplied with vegetable matter is the best soil for the potato. Stiffer land may be improved as a potato soil by green manuring and drainage, and lighter soil can often be made sufficiently rich by the addi- tion of green manures and fertilizers. (2) Potatoes should not, as a rule be grown con- tinuously on the same land, but should be alternated with other crops. Barnyard manure may be freely used, but should, as a rule, be applied to previous crops in the rotation. (3) If commercial fertilizers are used, a mixture containing nitrogen in form of nitrate of soda, phos- phoric acid as superphosphate, and potash as sul- phate, and in which potash predominates, is recom- mended. (4) Preparation of the land should be deep and thorough. (5) Planting without ridges generally affords the larger yields, but a stiff soil and the desire for an ex- tra crop sometimes necessitates planting on ridges. (6) The best time for planting depends on the climate of each locality. The planting should be so timed as to bring the period when the tubers are rap- idly forming at the date when the average rainfall is ample. (7) On mellow, well-drained soil deep planting (3 to 5 inches) is best, especially when the season happens to be dry. For the early crop, or on stiff soil with a tendency to bake, the depth of plantiu'^- may be decreased. (8) The use of the harrow before the plants are • all up and frequent' shallow cultivation afterwards, until the vines shade the land, is advisable. (9) Seed potatoes grown in New England in sev- eral tests proved superior to Maryland seed both in New England and in Maryland. However, the data seems insufficient to determine the relative value of seed potatoes from different climates. 3^ ilLLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. \icj Cutting the seed pieces a few days before Ijiar.ting appears to exercise no injurious influence, provided, of course, that the cuttings ar.e carefully stored in the internn. (ii) The yield from planting the seed or bud end is generally greater than from the stem or butt end of the tuber. The eyes on the seed end are the first to germinate, hnd hence are ' especially important when an early crop is desired. (i2 Exposing unsprouted tubers in a warm place before planting hasteils growth, but if continued until sprouts form (which are rublicd off) the yield may be considerably reduced. (13) Experiments indicate that it is more impor- tant to cut the tuber into compact pieces of nearly uniform size than to so shape the pieces as to have a definite number of eyes on each set. No piece should be entirely devoid of eyes, and the majority of the seed pieces are large enough to support at least two eyes, and better three or more. (14) At distances of i by 3 feet, and with seed tu- bers averaging 4 ounces, an acre requires of quarters, about 15 bushels. (15) The total yield increr.scs with every increase in the size of seed piece from the single eye to the whole potatoes. This increase occurs both in the large and in the small potatoes, but chiefly in the lat- ter. (16) The gross yield of salable potatoes (large and medium) also increases with the size of the seed piece from one eye to the whole potato. (17) The net yield of salable potatoes (found by subtracting the amount of seed potatoes and the yield of small potatoes from the total yield) increases with every increase in the size of seed piece from one eye to the whole potato. The lialf potato affords a larger net salable crop than the whole potato, on acount of the excessive amount of seed required in planting ■entire *tubers. Taking ihe average of many ex- periments, it was found that for every 100 bushels of net salable crop grown from single eye pieces there were 114 bushels from two-eye pieces, 131 bushels from quarters, and 139 bushels from halves, but only 129 bushels from planting whole potatoes. (18) These results favor the use of halves instead of wholes as seed pieces if seed potatoes, and crop are assumed to be of equal value per bushel, but when seed potatoes command a very high price quarters may be used to advantage. SWEET POTATOES. Perhaps the Sweet Potato is of greater importance in tlie South than Irish potato. The climate here is better suited lor sweet potatoes than in the North and sweet potatoes thrive better here than Irish po- tatoes. A temperature below 45 degrees is injurious to sweet potatoes, and frost is immediately fatal to tliem. For profitalile culture, sweet potatoes require four months of warm weather, without frost, and without cold winds. The sweet potato will thrive on any well drained land, but heavy peaty soils do not make as good potatoes, so far as quality is con- cerned as lighter soils. The best soil is a light, but not leachy sandy loam. The fertilizer, (See Fertili- zer Department) should be thoroughly mixed with the soil, otherwise it will injure the crop. The land should be plowed early in the spring, and replowed several times, so as to have it in the best possible con- dition when you are ready to set your slips or vines. It is not necessary to break the land as deeply as for Irish potatoes, but it is important to keep the land you intend to plant in sweet potatoes cultivated so as to retain the moisture, and keep down the grass until you are ready to plant, otherwise you will have trouble in getting your vine to live, unless the weather is very favorable. The rows should be from three to four feet apart, depending, of course, upon the fertility of the soil. If the soil is very fertile, three feet, but if rather thin, three and a half or four feet. Most every one knows how to bed potatoes for plants. There has been a tendency in some sections to bed small potatoes, but we are satisfied that better results will be obtained in the long run, by selecting a medium Avell-shaped potato for this purpose. When there is a good season in the ground set the plants, allowing them to stand from eighteen inches to two feet apart in the drill. The plant should be planted a little deeper than it was in the seedbed. Potatoes and grass are bitter enemies. It is neces- sary to cultivate potatoes often and to keep the grass down until the vines take possession of the fields. If they have been well cultivated up to this time, there will be no more trouble. Every one knows when the sweet potato vines come in contact with the ground they form roots. It has been a question as to wheth- er this rooting injured or helped in the formation of Peas Are a Legume Crop. 33 potatoes. It was for a long time thought to be inju- rious to the formation of potatoes, but this has been proven untrue. It has been found by e.xperiment that such rooting in no way affects the formation of pota- toes. The most critical period in the life of the sweet potato begins when it is transplanted, and ends when it begins to send out a vigorous growth of vines. It is only during this period that dama:;e from insects amounts to much, except in the case of the sweet po- tato weevil or beetle, which is proving quite destruct- ive in some parts of Louisiana and Texas. Potatoes should be dug in dry weather as^soon as they are ma- ture. When a potato is broken, and the milk oozes out and turns green, it may be considered as a safe sign that the potato is not mature. When it remains white, and very little appears, the potato is ripe. When digging, great care should be e.xercised to handle the potatoes carefully, and avoid bruising them. To do this, it is better to throw the potatoes into heap-rows, instead of throwing them into piles, as generally practiced. Then go along this row with baskets or boxes, select the perfect potatoes, hauling them to the bank or house in these baskets. This saves one handling and prevents bruising. The cut and bruised potatoes should be fed to stock, and the small ones banked by themselves. If they are to be shipped they should be shipped in barrels, as they are easily bruised. One of the most important ques- tions connected with sweet potato growing, is that of storing" and keeping them throught the winter, as potatoes will bring twice as much in April as they will if sold before Christmas. The old plan of banking potatoes is about as good as the average grower can do. Cellars are as a rule damp, and for that reason unsatisfactory. The banks should have a foundation of sand, over which should be placed a good thick layer of pine straw. Then thirty or forty bushels of potatoes can be put in, and a good thick layer of pine straw placed over them. A flue made of six inch boards, should be perforated with auger holes, and placed in the center of the bank so that the potatoes can be well ventilated. This flue should be stopped up during cold weather. On top of fhe pine straw should be placed a layer of corn-stalks which will keep the weight of the dirt off. And a thin layer of dirt should be put on the stalks, and just before a freeze, this dirt should be made much thick- er. However, if you are going into the business for the money, it wiil be better to make preparations for taking care of your crop by building a potato house. It is of tliC utmost importance that your potaiioes be stored in such a way as to keep them. The following plan has been used for a long time, which we take from bulletin No. 25, Georgia E.xperiment Station : A close shed with an alley running through ; dou- ble doors at both ends of llie ailcyway, so vehicles may pass through. On either side of the alleyway a bin eight feet interior width and as long as the alley- way or shed; the bin four feet high and constructed of double walls of inch and a quarter plank, the walls fifteen inches wide between the boards, the intersti- tial space filled with dry sand. This is the perma- nent structure. The potatoes are banked in bulk, cross divisions, however, being run for the purpose of preventing the possibility of rot in one portion of the bin extending to the entire mass. Dry pinestraw is placed on the bottom of the bin, which is on a level with the natural surface of the ground — no excava- tion. The potatoes are piled carefully by hand in the bin, straw keeping them from touching the plank sides. They are piled nearlv as high as the side walls of the bin and are heaped in the center say two feet above the sides. A horizontal cleat is tacked on the sides of the bin just below the too of the side walls on the inside to afford a resting place for a series of roof-boards wdiich are made of 1x12 plank cut with a bevel at each end and about four feet, eight inches long. One beveled end of each board rests on the horizontal cleat of the side walls, the other bevels make a mitred joint in the renter of the bin, touching each other and forming solid and substantial, though removable, rafters — or rather rafters and roof in one. After the potatoes are piled up in the bins, straw is placed several inches thick on top, and the rafters put in place as stated. The bin is then left until cold weather sets in — the potatoes meanwdiile going through their "sweat." On permanently cold weath- er -setting in, several inches of drv sand are placed on top of the roof, thus making the bin air tight, though access can be easily had at any time to the interior by scraping away a portion of the sand and removing a couple of the boards. The sand once hauled and the roof-boards once cut, only the straw remains to be annually renewed, thus reducing the yearly cost almost to the interest, only, on the plant. ■ A large quantity of potatoes can thus be safely and economically stored with reasonable assurance of im- munity from rot. 34 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. The by-products of the potato are quite important. The vines and culls are worth a great deal to the far- mer as stock food, and it is by saving these by-prod- ucts that the farmer saves monev. RICE. Rice constitutes the chief food of over half the peo- ple, of the world. It is grown more in China, Japan, and India than any other country. The United '; States produces only about one-half of what she con- 'sumes, the rest being imported. There is no reason why the United States should not produce all she uses, and have some to spare. If she does this, then ■the South must do the raising. There are sections 'of the South that do not yieUl enough to pay taxes on the land, which could be made to pay good money b}' growing rice. From fifteen hundred to three thousand five hundred pounds of rice can be raised per acre, and this will sell, anywhere from $25.00 to $150.00. Mr. J. C. Fletcher, of Katy, Texas, writing of his experience in growing rice, has this to say: "One man can prepare enough land during the winter season to raise his corn, oats and vegetables for his own use and have them laid by before pump- ing season begins. Some use wells, others use tanks or small canals. I use a well. "My well is one hundred and sixty feet deep. I pump from the second strata of water. I use a pit thirty-five feet deep to put my pumps in. That (35 ft.) being my lift. I use a five-inch pump with an eight-inch discharge. My boiler and engine are thir- ty-five horse power. It throws one thousand gallons of pure sparkling water per minute. This water runs through a flume and empties into the first levee. The ground is surveyed into levees so as to water the high and low places. These levees are thrown up as high as can be conveniently done all around the field so as to hold all the water. Cross levees are thrown up so as to hold permanently 4 inches of water all over the rice field. Small pipes are run through the cross levees at the spot set, just so the water will run into the next levee. When the water gets above the four inches in the first levee it will run through the pipe into the next levee and so on until the whole field is flooded. When I begin to pump I need two men. One to run the engine during the day, the oth- er at night. I look after the levees and haul oil. "I use 'Beaumont' oil. I use about six barrels every twenty-four hours at a cost of fifty-two cents per bar- rel. I hire two men for two months at twenty-five dollars per month each and board. Average fifteen sacks per acre, three dollars and twenty-five cents per sack makes forty-eight dollars and seventy-five cents per acre or four thousand eight hundred and seventy-five dollars from one hundred acres. Ex- penses, one thousand dollars. Net for use of land and machinery and four mules, three thousand eight hundred and seventy-five dollars. Can vou do sO' well with cotton and corn?" Rice as a rule grows on land which is low and lev- el and easily irrigated ; but there are varieties which grow on fertile uplands without irrigation. The crop grown upon upland, however, is not nearly so cer- tain, and the quality of the rice greatly inferior to that grown on lowlands. The best soil for rice is a medium loam, containing about 50 per cent. clay. The rich soils of Texas, Louisiana and .\rkansas are re- markably well suited to rice culture. Rice has gen- erally failed on peaty soils. Among the best rice lands of Southeastern Louisiana, are the so-called buckshot-clay lands, which are so stiff that they can hardly be plowed up unless first flooded to soften them. Gravelly or sandy soils are not adapted, to rice growing, for they are not able to retain water. In selecting land to be planted in rice, one must keep in \iew the fact that rice needs water. We do not mean to say that a man cannot grow rice without artificial irrigation, nor do we dispute the fact that a man can make a crop without hoeing. To make a crop with- out artificial irrigation is about like making a crop without hoeing. In Louisiana. Arkansas and Texas, there are vast prairie lands that produce excellent rice. There is no expensive ditching or leveling to be done to prepare the land for rice. Some planters recommend shallow plowing for rice, because it appears to thrive best in compact earth. But this is not sufficient evidence against the deep plowing of your land. We believe that much better results can be had by deep preparation. Deep plowing just before planting frequently brings too much alkali to the surface on alkali lands in the West. The remedy for this is to plow just a little deeper than the previous plowing just before the har- vest. The alkali will then be washed out before the si)ring plowing. After plowing the land thoroughly, it should be gone over with the harrow, after which it should be rolled with a heavy roller. In planting rice, care should be observed in select- A Legume Crop Stores the Nitrogen in the Ground. 35 ing seed, for you should be sure that your rice does not contain any red rice, or any grass or weed seeds. Rice can be sown between the middle of March, and the middle of May, but it is a safe rule to have your rice in the ground by the 20th of April. The amount sown varies with the method to be used in sowing. Anywhere from one to three bushels per acre is the proper amount. Rice should be planted with a drill, for this distributes the seed more evenly, and the quantity used will be exact. The seed will be planted at a uniform depth, and the dirt packed over them with the drill roller. The land should be rolled be- fore planting, for if it is not, the feet of the animals drawing the drill will push some of the rice down four or five inches lower than the other. Rice sown broadcast does not germinate and grow with any uniformity. In some cases the variation of the ger- mination in the same field has been as much as eight days. There are three different methods of treating rice just after planting. Some let in just enou.gh water to thoroughly saturate the ground immediately after sowing and harrowing, and then draw off all the sur- face water. Uthers sow and trust to the amount of moisture in the land to germinate the seed. This is rather uncertain, and rarely produces good results. Then some sprout the rice before planting, by plac- ing bags of rice in water. This plan is sure to be a failure if the land is drv when the rice is sown. If you plant in dry soil without saturation, rolling the land after seeding, and harrowing have been found lieneficial. But of these methods it is believed the first gives best results. As has been stated above, rice should not be .gone over with stock of any kind after it is planted. If that be true, then we would insist that no roller or harrow go over the land. As for trusting to there being sufficient moisture in the .ground to germinate the rice, that plan is too uncertain. So we recom- mend the use of the first svstem. Flooding is one of the most important features of rice culture. Rice can be grown without any irriga- tion, and it can be grown with continuous irrigation, so you can readily see the wide scope between the two. We cannot lay down invariable rules for gov- erning the flooding of rice. Usually flooding is not practiced until the rice is six or eight inches high, ex- cept where water is used to sprout the seed. The depth of water that should be maintained from the first flooding until it is drawn off, depends upon the following conditions: If the growing crop thorough- ly shades the land, just enough water should be used to thoroughly saturate the land. It is better to keep from three to six inches of water on the land all the time, and then you will be on the safe side of the question. To prevent stagnation it should be as near continuously flowing in and out all the time, as pos- sible. It has been found that when the stand of rice is thin, the water should be deeper. In South Caro- lina the practice is as follows: "Under the usual method the water is let on as soon as the seed is covered^ and remains on four to six daj'S, till the grain is well sprouted. It is then withdrawn. .Vs soon as the blade is up a few inches, the water is sometimes put on for a few days and again withdrawn. The first water is locally called the "sprout water.'' After the rice has two leaves the r.o-callcd 'stretch water,' or 'long-point flow,' is put on. At first it is allowed to be deep enough to coved the rice completely — generally from 10 to 12 inches — then it is gradually drawn down to about 6 inches, ■where it is held twenty to thirty days. It is then withdrawn and the field allowed to dry. When the field is sufficiently dry the rice is hoed thoroughly, all grass and 'volunteer' rice being carefully removed. .\fter hoeing it remains without irrigation until joint- ing commences, when it is slightly hoed, cdre being used to prevent injury to the plants, and the water is then turned on a.gain. During the time water is held on the rice it is changed at least every week to avoid its becoming stagnant. When this occurs rice is lia- ible to be troubled with the water weevil. This 'lay- by flow,' or final irrigation, continues until about eight days before the harvest, when the water is drawn off for the field to dry." In Arkansas where the rice fields have recentlv been developed, the field is never dry from the time it is flooded, when the rice is six or eight inches high until is is ready to harvest, when it is drained, and cut. This practice produces as .good rice as that of South Carolina, and is done with perhaps less ex- pense. To flood land it is necessary to have levees, and they should be constructed as follows : "In coast-marsh and river-bottom culture a canal is excavated on the outer rim of the tract selected. 36 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. completely inclosing it. The excavated dirt is thrown upon the outer bank to form a levee. The canal must be of sufficient capacity for irrigation and drainage. The levee must be sufficient not only to inclose the flooding waters, but to protect the fields from the en- croachment of the river at all seasons. When prac- ticable the rice lands are flooded from the river, and find drainage by a canal or subsidary stream that en- ters the. river at a lower level. The embankment must be sufficient to protect the rice against either freshets or salt water. Freshets are injurious to growing rice, not only because of the volume of water, but by reason of the temperature. A great body of water descending rapidly from the mountains to the sea is several degrees colder than water under the ordinary flow. Any large amount of this cold water admitted to the field not only retards the growth but is a posi- tive injury to the crop. In periods of continued drought the salt water of the sea frequently ascends the river a considerable distance. Slightly brackish water is not injurious to rice, but salt water is de- structive. "The tract of land selected and inclosed is then cut up by smaller canals into fields or subfields of suita- ble size, a small levee being thrown up on the borders of each. The entire tract is usually level, but if there should be any inequality care must be taken that the surface of each subfield be level. The main canal is ID to 30 feet wide, about 4 feet deep, and connects with the river by flood gates. Through these canal boats of considerable tonnage have ready access to the entire circuit of the tract, while smaller boats can pass along the subcanals to the several fields. The subcanals are usually from 6 to 10 feet in width and should be nearly as deep as the main canal. During the flooding period the ditches and canals become more or less filled by the mud which flows into them with the water. As soon after harvest as possible the ditch banks should be cleared of all grasses, weeds or brush, and the ditches cleaned. The levees should 'be examined to see if they are in re- pair." The irrigating plant is a very important question to some people. If you. have a stream you can use for irrigating you are fortunate, and of course this stream solves the problem. You can use artesian wells for the purpose of irrigating, using of course a tank or large receptacle to hold the water. Very frequently by digging a canal, a stream of water can be so turned as to be used for flooding purposes. Wells are also used, and the water pumped into a reservoir. Of course circumstances will govern in this matter. A good engine; boiler and pumping outfit can be placed in service at a very reasonable price, depending upon the size of the body of land to be irrigat- ed. A plant recently visited, capable of irrigating two hundred acres, cost about three thousand dollars in all, but the first crop of rice turned in from $75.00 to $100.00 per acre. Red rice, which is a wild variety of rice containing red grains, causes rice growers no little annoyance. The presence of a few red grains in milled rice low- ers its grade and reduces its price. If it once gets a foothold in a field it increases rapidly from year to j-ear until finally the product becomes unsalable. The red rice and the common white rice are . two separate and distinct strains. The seed of one will not produce the other. Being stronger, hardier, and more persistent than the cultivated white rice, the former becomes a dangerous weed in the rice field. Its first start comes from the sowing of seed con- taining red grains. The fields are reseeded from year to year mainly in this way: After the crop is harvest- ed the stalks which have been cut off frequently send out suckers from the lower joints which mature seed. As these seeds possess remarkable resistance to pre- mature germination, spring finds the ground well sown with red rice. Remedies. — Two things must be accomplished to keep the fields clear of red rice: First, seed planted must be free of red rice, and the utmost caution must be exercised to secure this ; second, red seed must be prevented from maturing in the field if accidentally planted. To this end it is exceedingly important to prevent a second crop of red seed from maturing after the general harvest, which is almost certain to occur if the field is left fallow till the following winter. The land should be well drained at the time of the harvest, and within a few weeks thereafter the stubble should be plowed under. In October the land should be thor- oughly cultivated with a disk harrow and sown to oats for winter pasture. If the harvest be early, the stubble may be plowed under immediately and the field planted to vetches or crimson clover for pasture. In pasturage care should be exercised not to allow any stock on these fields in wet weather. It is quite customary to burn the stubble. This may destroy Take Advantage of the Nitrogen that is in the Air. 37 a few seeds and prevent sprouts from maturing seed, but it destroys fertilizers and leaves the land bare. Fall plowing and planting to forage crops is far more advantageous. Plowing in the early spring and thor- ough cultivation just before planting is helpful in re- ducing the red rice, but not sufficient for complete eradication. While some of the methods mentioned for eradi- _cating weeds and red rice are helpful, none of them liave proved completely successful except summer fallowing with cowpeas or planting in corn. This plan increases the fertility of the soil, so that more rice is produced in a series of years than by uninter- rupted cropping with rice. On new land seed absolutely free from red rice should be used ; then, with care, the land may be kept free from it. In case land is already filled with it, if sufficiently well drained, cultivate to corn or cotton a few years ; if not sufficiently well drained, summer fallow ; if this can not be done, pasture to sheep or hogs. Every rice planter should use great care, in selecting a new piece of ground upon which to raise seed, to choose a plot without possible taint of red. The seed should be examined so closely as to prevent the sowing of any red seed. When the rice is in the dough stage, it is allowed to drain, as there is sufficient water in the ground to finish the maturity. In eight or ten days it should be sufficiently dry for you to begin harvesting. It is ready to cut when the straw begins to turn yellow. Harvesting machinery is used to harvest it with where any amount is planted, but where a small amount is planted it is harvested with a sickle. After being eut it is handled very muc'h like wheat or oats. It is allowed to cure, and then it is thrashed from the straw. Af- ter the rice comes from the thrasher, it is known as paddy rice, or dough rice. Paddy rice consists of the grain proper, and around it a close fitting cuticle, which is enclosed in a somewhat hard stiff husk. The rice is carried through a mill, and this husk is re- moved. This milling, process is as follows, as given in a recent Bulletin issued by one of the Stations : "The improved processes of milling rice are quite complicated. The paddy is first screened to remove trash and foreign particles. The hulls, or chaff, are removed by rapidly revolving 'milling stones' set about two-thirds of the length of a rice grain apart. The product goes over horizontal screens and blow- ers, which separate the light chaff and the whole and broken kernels. The grain is now of a mixed yellow and white color. To remove the outer skin the grain is put in huge mortars holding from 4 to 6 bushels each and pounded with pestles weighing 350 to 400 pounds. Strange to say, the heavy weight of the pes- tles breaks very little grain. "When sufficiently decorticated, the contents of the mortars, consisting now of flour, fine chaff, and clean rice of a dull, filni)', creamy color, are re- moved to the flour screens, where the flour is sifted out; and thence to the fine-chaff fan, where the fine chaff is blown out. On account of the heat generat- ed by the heavy frictional process through which it has just passed, the rice next goes to the cooling bins. It remains here for eight or nine hours, and then passes to the brush screens, whence the smallest rice and what little flour is left pass down on one side and the larger rice down the other. "Polishing. — The grain is now clean and ready for the last process — polishing. This is necessary to give the rice its pearly luster, and it makes all the differ- ence imaginable in its appearance. The polishing is effected by friction against the rice of pieces of moose hide or sheepskin, tanned and worked to a wonderful degree of softness, loosely tacked around a rev^'vinf double cylinder of wood and wire gauze. From the polishers the rice goes to the separating screens, com- posed of different sizes of gauze,- where it is di\ ided into its appropriate grades. It is then barreled and is ready for market. "Hulling machines. — In mills more recently erected the foregoing process has been modified by substi- tuting the 'huller' for the mortar and pounder. The huller is a short, cast-iron, horizontal tube with inte- rior ribs and a funnel at one end to admit the rice. Within this tube revolves a shaft with ribs. These ribs are so adjusted that the revolution of the shaft creates the friction necessary to remove the cuticle. The rice passes out of the huller at the end opposite the funnel. It resembles externally a larare sausage machine. It requires six hullers for each set of burs. 7'he automatic sacker and weigher is used instead of barreling, sacks being preferred for shipping the cleaned rice. "With the above modification of the milling pro- cesses considerable reduction has been made in the cost of the mill. Mills of a daily capacity of 60,000 38 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. pounds of cleaned rice can now be constructed at a total cost of $10,000 to $15,000. "A portable mill. — A portable mill has also been de- vised for plantation use, costing $250, aside from the power to run it, and capable of cleaning 8,100 pounds of paddy rice per day. Such small machines do not give the finish required by the general market, but turn out excellent rice for local use." BY-PRODUCTS OF RICE. From a recent Bulletin issued by one of the Ex- periment Stations, we take the following oti the by- products of rice: "Rice bran contains 12. i per cent, protein, 8.8 per cent, fat, and 59.4 per cent, fiber and carbohydrates; rice hulls, 3.6 per cent, protein, 0.7 per cent, fat, 35.7 per cent, fiber, and 38.6 per cent, other carbohydrates; and rice polish, 11.7 per cent, protein, 7.3 per cent, fat, and 64.3 per cent, fiber and carbohydrates. Ac- cording to an estimate made by Dr. Stubbs, director of the Louisiana Experiment Station, rice polish is worth $21.55 per ton; rice bran, $20.80; rice straw, $9.13, and rice hulls, $8.34. These values are based on the assumption that the nutritive elements in rice are digestible in the same degree .as those contained in the by-products of wheat and other .cereals. "Straw. — Rice straw is worth preserving. As a fodder for stock its value is about equal to good Southern prairie hay. Rice straw contains 4.72 per cent, crude protein, 32.21 per cent, carbohydrates, and 1.87 per cent. fats. The sweetness and excellent fla- vor of well-preserved rice straw adds very materially to its practical feeding value, because stock will con- sume large quantities of it. Digestion Experiments have not been made with the straw or any of the by- products of rice milling. "Rice hulls. — The hulls removed from the rice in the first process of milling possess a low degree of feeding value, and being also deficient in flavor and digestibility they are of little value as food for stock; they are more valuable as a fertilizer. They not only restore to the land part of the elements of fertility re- moved by the crop, but increase the porosity of the soil. They also make an excellent mulch for garden and orchard. "Hull ashes. — In passing through rice-milling dis- tricts large quantities of hull ashes will be noticed. These are very little used by farmers and gardeners, under the general impression that they are of no value. One hundred pounds of hull ashes contain 0.82 pound of phosphoric acid and 0.93 pound of potash. There are many other better sources of potash and phos- phoric acid. The amount contained in the hull ashes would not pay the cost of scattering them over the fields. "The planter who burns his straw and sells his rice in the paddy loses 63.92 per cent, of the total mineral matter of the crop. If the rice straw and the hulls be returned to the soil as manure, 86.36 per cent, of the mineral matter of the crop will be restored, and the loss would be only 13.64 per cent. The present meth- od of burning rice hulls cannot be too severely con- demned, but doubtless will be continued as long as rice is sold in the paddy. Hulling is a process re- quiring very simple and inexpensive machinery. It can be done profitably upon the farm, and is done in most of the great rice-producing countries. In addi- tion to their fertilizing value, the removal of the hull on the farm saves the expense for sacks and freight charge for extra bulk and weight, the hulls forming about 20 per cent, of the weight of the paddy. It al- so enables the farmer as well as the miller to deter mine with greater exactness the quality of the grain, thereby removing that element of uncertainty which always operates to the detriment of the farmer. It should be mentioned, however, that the hard husk of the rice tends to prevent attacks of weevil on the grain, and that rice with all or a portion of the husks on keeps better in storage or long shipment. '' "Rice polish. — This is the fine flour resulting from the polishing process. It is a valuable stock food, be- ing rich in albuminoids as well as carbohydrates." RYE. Rye is grown in this country for green forage and mining purposes. The grain is also used for malting. and the straw in the manufacture of paper. The yield of grain for the United States is about fifteen bush- els per acre. It will grow on poorer soils than any other cereal, and as a soiling crop in the South is excel- lent, giving several cuttings during the winter and spring. For bread, a rather dry, sandy soil of medium fertility is best, but a fair crop can be produced on soil too poor to produce wheat or corn, and with less Pay Cash If Possible. 39 care. It will not do well On wet soil. The ground should be prepared in the same way as for wheat, and if it is intended to be cut green, should be well manur- ed with stable manure a little earlier in the fall. As it is likely to be affected with the fly, the best time to sow is in September and October. If the soil is not fertile, you should plant your rye early, so as to give it plenty of time to get a good foothold before freezing weather. The seed should be put in about two inches deep, sowing about one bushel per acre. If you are growing the rye for forage and have good land, you will want to use more seed than otherwise, and in this case two bushels would not be too much. Be sure to secure Southern grown seed, as Northern seed will not suc- ceed well in the South. Rye is ready to cut when the straw changes color and the kernels pass into the hard dough stage. The grain is harvested in the same manner as wheat. Special machines are in use for threshing out the grain, which will not injure the straw. Tliese machines are valuable where the straw is used for packing or for making into paper; but of course such machines cannot be used unless one goes into the business very extensively. SORGHUM. Sorghum resembles Indian corn in habit of growth, but it produces its grain upon the head instead of forming ears. It is used both as a forage plant and for the pro- duction of syrup. It will grow wherever Indian corn will grow, but will withstand drought better and yield more forage on poor land. The cultivation of sorghum has assumed quite large proportions in the South. It should not be planted until after the ground gets thoroughy warm, as it is very sensitive to cold. As suggested, sorghum is worth more as a forage plant, than it is for the syrup. For forage it should be sown broadcast, at the rate of about one and a half or two bushels per acre. Many farmers sow sorghum and cow peas together, but the crop is more difficult to cure and we do not recommend it. If you use cow peas with the sorghum you should use from one-half bushel to three pecks of each. One great difficulty in growing sorghum broadcast is weeds. Conse- quently the ground should be thoroughly prepared before the seed are sown. Sorghum should be cut when the heads are about ripe. It is important that it be well cured, for it will not keep unless it is. It yields anywhere from one to three tons of dry forage per acre. In many places, and where you have fav- orable seasons several cuttings may be had. As a syrup plant it is planted in rows four feet apart, the seed, as a rule, being drilled in. Fig. 23. — Seeded Ribbon Cane. A species of Sorghum grown in Texas. Cultivate shallow the same as corn. When grown for sprout, it should be well manured with stable ma- nure, tankage or cottonseed meal. "Press Bulletin 14, of the Nebraska Experiment Sta- tion, is on "The Danger Limit in the Use of Sor- ghum.' The publicity given to the injurious effects of sorghum through the investigations carried on by this station to ascertain the cause has moved people not heretofore acquainted with this occasionally ex- hibited peculiarity of the plant, to become suspicious of it. While no further positive information has been obtained on the subject, there yet remains a word or two that may be profitably spoken. "The records of this station do not show any cases of sudden death from sorghum occurring in the east- ern portion of Nebraska, with the exception of a few which occurred on second growth sorghum. There is also reason to believe that plants producing this dis- astrous effect have not made a healthy growth, and are yellow and wilted, a condition easily detected by 40 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. the farmer. It would, therefore, seem reasonable to conclude that no danger is to be encountered in pas- turing sorghum of healthy growth in Eastern Ne- braska. "Again it would appear that no danger is incurred if the sorghum is fed after cutting and allowing to lie for some time. A sample of sorghum was recently received by the station with a letter accompanying it, stating the plants were parts of a very few partially eaten by a cow whic'h was killed by them in two min- utes. The sample was fed to a cow on the station farm without injuring her in the leait. This, togeth- er with the fact that no poison has been detected in samples sent to the station for analysis, would indi- cate that any toxic substances which the plants might have contained have become dissipated after cutting. The length of time required for this is not known, but it is certainly accomplished in a few days. "As sorghum is undoubtedly the best annual mid- summer forage crop for this region, it is important that its limitations should be well defined. The use of healthy sorghum for pasturage with the ordinary precautions in Eastern Nebraska, and of sorghum hay, may be considered safe." SUGAR CANE. Sugar cane is a tropical plant, and grows more or less in all of the Gulf States. It is planted more ex- tensively in Louisiana. In this country it is propa- gated altogether by cuttings, as it does not produce seed in the United States, and it was only recently discovered that the seed would reproduce sugar-cane at all. Sugar-cane flourishes on rich alluvial bottom lands, but it may be grown on any fertile soil in a warm climate where water is abundant and the land well drained, and worked. The sugar soils of Louisiana range from loamy soils to almost pure clays. It is im- portant to have the land well drained, and some ex- periment stations recommended using drains one hun- dred feet apart deep enough to hold the ground wa- ter at least three feet below the surface. The growing of sugar-cane is deserving of more at- tention from the farmers of the South. While the in- dustry is large in Louisiana, it is not grown so exten- sively in other portions of the South as it should be. Dr. W. C. Stubbs of the Louisiana Experiment Sta- tion while on a visit to Georgia, had the following to say about the possibilities of Georgia in the produc- tion of sugar-cane: "A previous visit to this State during the season of syrup-making, and a critical examination of your fields of cane and your methods of manufacture, and a subsequent examination of many sampler of cane in our laboratory, convinced me of the fitness of your soil and climate to this industry. The superior sacch- arine richness of your canes and your abundant and cheap labor, your large supply of cheap fuel, the low prices of your land, and the ease with which it can be cultivated and drained, all suggested to me the possibility of lh!s section making sugar and syrup in competition with the world. The large sugar content of your canes should attract readily the attention of n:anufacturers of sugar and central factories would surely come as soon as the farmers would guarantee the necessary cane. A central factory would not only increase the present value of a ton of cane by saving ■ therefrom nearly double the juice wdiich is now ob- tained by your small mills, but would furnish a market for many of your other products which are today un- salable. The community would find a central factory a veritable increment to the volume of business trans- acted. Railroads would not only profit by the trans- portation of cane to the factory and the sugar market, but by the increased transportation of all kinds of wares needed by the factory and its clientelle, and the increased travel which a constantly growing pop- ulation would indulge in. Every environment de- clares for central factories, and if the local farmers guarantee an ample supply of cane, few business commvmities can afford to be with- out them. In the absence of central factories, con- tinue to make syrup. Remember three cardinal prin- ciples in the growing of cane and the manufacture of sugar or syrup. "i. The sugar is made only in the field; therefore aim to make each acre as productive as your soil, cli- mate and your own intelligence can effect it. "2. After making the sugar in the field, it is al- most a criminal waste to leave it in the bagasse or in the scums. Therefore mills should be adjusted to get the largest percentage of extraction possible, and ar- rangements should be made by which the scum should be greatly reduced in quantity. "3. After getting all th.e juice poss'ble and decreas- ing the losses from scums, the operations of concen- tration and the preparation for market should be ef- fected in the most approved styles, remembering that Den t Depend on the Other Man Keeping Your Books. 41 attractiveness to-day is demanded in every article, which meet with a ready sale. "A good acre of cane in Georgia should yield at least 20 tons of cane. A ton of Georgia cane should give 1,400 to 1,500 pounds of juice containing at least 15 per cent, of total solids, and shoiild yield an evap- oration of 25 to 30 gallons of syrup. Thus an acre of Georgia cane should yield at least 500 to 600 gallons of syrup of standard density and weight, if properly handled. With a larger density of the juice which experience has shown actually exists, and an increase in tonnage, 800 or even 1,000 gallons per acre might easily be obtained." What is true of Georgia is true of other Southern States. They are depending entirely too much on one crop. Diversified farming is the salvation of the South, and much of the diversification can commence in planting sugar-cane. More than twice as much sugar is now produced in the United States from su- gar beets than from sugar-cane. For sugar-cane, as for most other crops, the land should be thoroughly prepared by deep plowing and harrowing. When farmers realize the real value of deep plowing, they will stop scratching the surface of the land. After the land has been deeply broken and harrowed it should be thrown in beds from five to sev- en feet wide. Sometimes only one line of continuous cane is laid. This will not always insure a stand, and it is far better to use two layers than one. When two canes are laid side by side it will require four tons to plant an acre, using seven foot rows. In Louisiana it is planted in the winter, which results in an earlier growth ; but in Georgia and Florida it is thought best to bank the seed and plant in the early spring. The cane should be covered with the good furrows. In many sections, the tops or mature joints are used for planting. In Louisiana and many other sections in the extreme southern part of the South, cane is al- lowed to grow from the stubble, and makes quite ex- cellent cane. That is, when they cut the cane to make into syrup or sugar, by using a turning plow the roots from which the cane has just been cut are cov- ered with dirt and the next year produces as good cane as before. "The yield per acre on good land not fertilized was twelve tons cane and the maximum yield on the same land with 2,000 pounds of guano per acre, was thirty-nine tons, thus giving a gain of twenty-seven tons cane per acre as the result of 2,000 pounds of gu- ano ; the twenty-seven tons cane at $3.50 per ton is worth $94.50, and the 2,000 pounds guano cost $21, this shows a net gain of $73.50 per acre as the result of this fertilizer. "On my crop last year I used 1,200 pounds of gu- ano per acre at two applications of the following for- mula. Twelve hundred pounds 16 per cent, acid phosphate, 400 pounds, 8 per cent., cottonseed meal, 200 pounds nitrate of soda, 200 pounds muriate of pot- ash." Nitrogen and phosphoric acid are used as fertili- zers in most cane growing sections. The nitrogen is supplied by cotton seed meal, and turning in a heavy crop of cow peas every third year. Phosphoric acid is supplied by using dissolved bone, Thomas slag, or acid phosphate. Many successful cane growers also use large green titus of tankage which supplies both nitrogen and phosphoric acid. The cane should have shallow cultivation. As to the manufacture of syrup, perhaps we cannot do better than give a concrete case. Explaining how he manufactures his syrup, Mr W. E. Roddenberry, of Cairo, Ga., has the following to say: "My manufacturing plant consists of one 45 horse- power steam boiler, two 15 horse-power engines, two 2,600 No. 3 roller mills, large rolls 18 inches in diam- eter, two galvanized iron cooking vats, with copper coils for steam heat, and the necessary pumps, pip- ing and tanks, also wagon scales, cane derrick, cane car, bagasse carrier, etc. The total cost of this outfit approximates $2,500, including the building. The two mills are not geared together so as to get the best extraction by running same cane through both mills, as is done in modern mills, but are set up on the ground side by side, both mills being run at the same time and fed lightly in order to be able to key them tighter than if fed full. I have frequent break- down in the mills, as they are too frail to do the work I try to make therri do. "I secured an extraction of juice estimated at about 64 per cent, of the weight of the cane with these mills. One fifteen horse-power engine is sufficient to drive both mills, and I have the second engine simply as a reserve in case of accident to engine in use. "The cane is tied in bundles with ropes laid across the wagon beds in the field, about 1,000 pounds in each bundle, two bundles to the load; after weighing each load on wagon scale, the cane is lifted from the wagon by a hand derrick and placed on small car which is shoved to an inclined platform in front of the 42 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. mills and dumped from the car. which works on piv- ot, on to the inclined platform, the bundles of cane sliding- down the incline to the mills so that one hand can easily feed each mill. The r.a,a:asse is carried by elevators from each mill to a platform from which it is carted in dump carts direct to the field and scattered on the land as fast as ground to be plowed under la- ter. "The juice is filtered through a small box of black moss as it comes from the mills to remove the coarse fibre, and is then elevated by a steam jet to a larger used for defecating or skimming and after the juice is thoroughly skimmed in same it is allowed to flow into second vat where it is evaporated into syrup, and another charge of juice let into first vat, and this pro- cess goes on in this way continually. At the outlet from the first vat into the second vat, I use a ba-? fil- ter, made of thin sea island sheeting, this bag is about six feet long and two feet wide, it must be this Hrgc to allow the juice to run through rapidly ; this filter or strainer removes a considerable portion of sediment that cannot be skimmed off, because it will not rise to Fig. 24. — Sugar-pan? field of W. E. Roddenberry, Cairo. G-a. moss filter, this filter being a so-gallon barrel packed full of black, cleaned moss, this filter barrel is placed in the top of the building so that the juice will flow from the same into the juice tank which is made of galvanized iron and is large enough to hold two charges of juice. The two cooking vats are placed side by side and at such elevation as will permit juice to flow by grav- ity from juice tank into first cooking vat and from this vat into the second cooking vat. The first vat is the top. The solid matter thus removed is largely the same class of matter that is removed by use of set- tling tanks in up-to-date cane mills. The skimming process is kept up constantly in the second or finish- ing vat, until the juice is reduced to syrup of a densi- ty registering 34 degrees Beaurne; then the syrup is drawn out into syrup tank from which the syrup is canned or barreled. If canned, it is done while the syrup is verv hot and hermetically sealed at once. The syrup is strained through heavy flannel bag, as it flows from finishing vat into syrup tank, and it is sur- Look cut for your Own Interests. The Other Fellow will do the Same. 43 prising to see how much of the black solid matter we get from the syrup with this flannel strainer, when it is considered that the juice has been filtered through three feet of moss, then skimmed thoroughly in the first vat, and strained as it goes into second vat and then skimmed continuously while evaporating. Just here I will mention that I have found it advisable to allow the heavy scum commonly called the blanket, to rise slowly and thoroughly in the skimming vat be- fore breaking or removing the same, being very care- ful not to let any of it boil in, and to wait a minute or two after shutting off the steam before removing it in order to allow the scum to harden somewhat, and it is decidedly better to remove the blanket by raking it off with a paddle thar. to skim it off with the or- dinary skimmer, commonly used by our farmers. In order to facilitate the removing of the blanket, I have my skimming vat constructed with a flange on one side twelve inches wide, and inclined at an angle of about 45 degress and under the lip of this flange, I have a gutter into which the scum is raked and from which it flows into the skimming barrels. "I have 4 barrels for skimming, the bottom of each being tapped with iron pipe, which is connected with same steam jet with which I elevate the juice from the mill. I fill the skimming- barrels in rotation, and bv the time I begin filling the last barrel, the skimmings in the first barrel have become clarified by slight fer- mentation, so that practically all the scum has risen to the top and left the clear juice in the bottom of the barrel. I then pump this clarified juice by means of the steam jet from the first barrel into the moss filter, from whence it flows to the juice tank. I then keep up this regular rotation of filling and emptying these skimming barrels, and by this method I am able to use about two-thirds of the skimmings. This clarified juice from the skimmings is slightly acid when it goes into the juice vat and this aids somewhat the clarification of the juice in the skimming vat. "I use no lime or sulphur in clarification and have succeeded in making as bright a syrup by the above method as some of my neighbors make by the use of sulphur and lime. I will state, however, that these parties do not use settling tanks, which may account for the fact that they do not make any better grade of syrup with sulphur and lime than I make without it. This is one of the problems among many others that we are looking to the department of agriculture to settle for us. "As to the quality of the syrup thus made, I will say that I have here samples of the product for your inspection. I do not claim that this syrup is better than that made by some others in my sect'on who are equally careful and painstaking and who employ practically the same methods, and in justice to the smaller cane growers of my section who are still using the old-fashioned mill and iron open kettle, I desire to say that in some instances they succeed in making an excellent grade of syrup, but the great disadvan- tage in this method is the lack of uniformity in the grade of the syrup. "My cooking vats are elevated sufficiently to allow the condensed steam from copper coils in the vats to flow into a tank, which is elevated slightly above my steam boiler, and from this tank it is pumped while hot into the steam boiler. Th's is an important factor in cutting down expenses for fuel. "My plant described above is a fair representation of a dozen or more such plants located around Cairo and represent our largest and best outfits with the exception of one at Ingleside plantation, operated by Messrs. Wight, where they have a three-roller mill weighing 8,ooo pounds, and where they use sulphur and lime for clarifying; also except one now being lo- cated about i8 miles from Cairo, in Decatur county, with a capacity of 200 tons of cane per day. This plant is a second-hand outfit from Louisiana, and it is proposed to make sugar on same as well as syrup. "The capacity of my plant is 35 tons of cane in 24 hours, and by buying cane from mv neighbors, I am able to run day and night. "I will now go back to the proposition that with a modern and first-class outfit my profit would have been increased' about 50 per cent. "By a modern outfit I mean a six-roller mill with a crusher or a nine-roller mill with a capacity of at least 200 tons of cane in 24 hours. Such a mill should give an extraction of 78 per cent, by the aid of satu- ration between the rolls. This mill should be equipped with cliain carrier and feeder, and best cooking out- fit, including sulphur and liming process, settling tanks and filter process so as to utilize practically all the skimming. Such a mill would make possible the use of bagasse for fuel, and would save about two- thirds the fuel, and would also greatly reduce the ex- pense of manufacturing. "With a mill of this description of large enough capacity, I could have waited to begin grinding until my cane was matured. Tm's would have saved a con- 44 .TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. siderable waste, as will be seen from the following da- ta. "I began grinding cane October 20, and finished December 18. During the first half of this grinding season I secured an average of 19 1-2 gallons of syrup from a ton of cane, and during the latter half I se- sured 23 1-2 gallons per ton. Thus you see I could have gained four gallons of syrup on every ton ground during the first half of the season by waiting until the cane was matured to begin grinding. This would have given me 1,752 gallons increase in the syrup out- put. This increase in syrup at 27 cents per gallon is $473. As stated above, my niills gave an average on a smaller scale than the gentleman just quoted from, less expensive machinery must be used. He must be contented with a one or two horse mill, or a mill run by a smaller engine. The evaporator is more successful than the kettle for making syrup, for you can make a better grade of syrup, and make it much faster than the old style kettle process. The Japanese sugar-cane has been grown quite ex- tensively in Florida with excellent results. It has one advantage over the other cane, and that is, it can stand drought better than any other cane, is not sen- sitive, and for that reason can be grown in places Fi^. -J. — Russian Suullowers. extraction of 64 per cent. With a mill that would give an extraction of 78 per cent, the increase would have been 4,136 gallons of syrup at 27 cents — $1,116.72 "The approximate cost of manufacturing on my outfit is $1 per barrel of 30 gallons, whereas on a first- class plant the cost would be reduced to about 50 cents per barrel. This would have been a saving on my crop of $315. These three items aggregate $1,- 904.72, which is slightly more than 50 per cent, of my entire profit on this cane crop. This gain does not include the saving by using practically all the skim- mings. With an up-to-date cane mill, the net profit per acre on my cane crop in 1902 would have been approximately $128 instead of $84. Of course for the man who goes into the business where the regular sugar-cane cannot. When it is once planted it will last for six or eight years, while the other canes only last for three or four years, al- though the stalks become smaller each year. In plant- ing the Japanese variety the rows should be placed perhaps a foot wider than the other varieties. It is said that it produces more syrup than any other cane, but will not make good sugar. It is worthy of inves- tigation by anyone desiring to raise cane. SUNFLOWER. The sunflower is a native annual growing from three to fifteen feet high. The seed are used for feed- ing birds and for poultry, and are quite valuable as a Plant the Very Best Seed. 45 medicine for horses and cattle. If you desire to raise them very extensively, prepare the land about the same as you would for Indian corn, and cultivate in the same way. Many terraces and other ridges that are allowed to grow up in weeds 'COuld be profit- ably used to raise sunflowers on. They will be found quite valuable for chickens, and can be used all right around the house. TOBACCO. Tobacco is a rank growing plant which reaches the height of from two to ten feet. The plant is a native of America and was first made known to the civilized world by Columbus. It requires a very or in leaf, and less sweet. There is another striking feature about tobacco, and that is, the readiness with which varieties mix. You may take two varieties, one a long, narrow leaf, and the other a brocd, short leaf, and plant them on the same farm, and you will produce a modification of the preceding crop, al- though you use your utmost pains to prevent them from mixing. Thus you can see how easy it is for one to improve tobacco, and how easy it is to allow his own variety to rvm down. You can create a new variety or improve the old one by crossing with a plant that has the qualifications you desire. There are a great many new varieties of tobacco brought out, but when traced up, they are found to be only modifications of old varieties. ''^i Fig. 26. — Seed beds. Plants ready to set. Connecticut Ex- periment Station. short period for its growth, and is verj' sensitive to frost. It is grown extensively in North Carolina, Kentucky, and Virginia.- The treatment here of the tobacco subject, is not intended to instruct those who have already learned to grow tobacco, but is intend- ed only to aid those who are not familiar with it. Hbwever, the crop is of so much importance that we will go into details. No plant is so modified by climate, soil, and meth- od of cultivation. The inodorous product of the seed- leaf districts of our Northern States, when trans- planted South in a few generations becomes as sweet as native Southern tobacco. North it becomes larg- The German Kali Works has issued a phamplet on the cultivation of tobacco, and we take the follow- ing, upon the classification of tobacco : "The location, soil and climate in which the tobac- co crop is grown, and the widely differing properties of these crops lead to very marked differences in cul- tivation. In the trade there are many sub-divisions for each class, or type, of tobacco handled, but for our purposes here we will treat of four classes as fol- lows; (i) Cigar Leaf, (2) Export Tobacco, (3) Briglit Leaf and Manufacturing and (4) Perique. (i.) Cigar leeif. — Tobacco for cigar manufacture includes three different types of leaf, viz. the Con- 46 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. necticut seed leaf, the Cuban, and the Sumatra varie- ties. Moreover, there are different grades, resulting either from crossing or from local conditions of soil, climate, planting or methods of fertilizer employed. Cigar Tobaccos are grown for two distinct purpos- es, namely : for flavor or aroma, and for texture of the leaf which properties adapt it for use as cigar wrappers. For aroma, the Vuelta Abajo may be ac- cepted as typical, while for wrapper purposes, Con- necticut seed leaf and Sumatra tobaccos ar^^ typical. (2.) Export Tobaccos. — These tobaccos include several different types, each meeting various de- mands of the trade. Usually they are of rank growth, heavy, coarse grained and strong flavored. They are used for manufacturing smoking products required in foreign countries. Their value lies in their strength, as they are chiefly used in mixtures, either with inferior tobaccos, or with other vegetable adulterants. ( T,.) Bright Leaf and Manufacturing Tobacco. — Bright Leaf is produced largely in the Carolinas, Virginia, and Eastern Tennessee, and is valuable for its flavor and aroma : its bright yellow color adds to its popularity. Tt is used almost entirelv for pipe and cigarette tobaccos, and for wrapping for plug tobacco. White Burley Tobacco is grown in the .Southern counties of Ohio and in t1ie north central counties of Kentucky, and is used for plug tobacco. Tt is very mild, has a good flavor, and is an excellent absorbant, and for these reasons, it is popular with manufacturers. (4.) Perique. — This tobacco belongs to the coarse, heavy types of tobaccos. Its distinctive properties are the result rather of the method of curing than of the quality of leaf. Tt is grown exclusively upon the moist alluvial b.ottom lands of St. James River, and one or two other Parishes in Louisiana, but its commercial importance is comparatively small. Pe- culiarities of flavor and form of marketing, however, make it necessary to consider this class under a spec- ial heading. All classes or typfes of tobacco, belong to a single species, Nicotiana tabacum, closely related to wild and cultivated plants, among which are: the petunia, Irish potato, egg-plant, and "Jimson weed." Tobacco plants of all varieties 'have much the same habits of growth and characteristics. They grow from three to nine feet in height, possess wide- spread, lanceolate leaves attached spirally and alter- nately to the stalk, at distances of about two inches. The flowers form large clusters with pink-tipped white corollas, which, when grown in masses, pre- sent so attractive an appearance, that the plant is fre- quently grown for purely ornamental purposes." The soil upon which tobacco is grown should be selected in accordance with the object of the special Fig. 27. — Tobacco unfertilized. Experiment Farm, Southern Pines, N. C. r- ■i . T ^ i.-^ >? 28. — Tob.TCCo, fertilized with potash, phosphoric acid a.zi-1 nitrogen (complete fertilizer) — Experiment F.-irm, Southern Pines, N. C. kind of tobacco grown. The heavy shipping tobacco is grown upon soils that contain a large proportion of clay, or a soil that retains the moisture. On lighter sandier soils, a thinner, more delicate leaf is produc- ed. In order to make a selection of the soil, you will have to study the effects of soil upon tobacco, aj tliis Time Spent in Selecting Seed is Well Spent. 47 information cannot be given in a brief work of this kind. Perhaps the greatest question connected with the growing of tobacco is the fertilizer question. Tobac- co requires a great amount of plant food, and cannot get a sufficient supply from the natural ground. While tobacco requires a great deal of plant food, still it does not exhaust the soil. The point is this, the tobacco returns to the land the plant food it takes from it. and leaves it about in the same condition it was before. Of course it exhausts the soil to a cer- tain extent, but only to a very small degree. There was a very prevalent idea a few years ago that tobac- co exhausted the soil more than other crops, but this is not true. There is one thing true in the cultiva- tion of tobacco, as with any plant requiring clean cultivation, vast quantities of surface soil is washed away by the rains, and in this the soil is exhausted more than by the crop itself. The remedy for this is rotation of crops. The question of fertilizing must be studied, and printed matter can be of help, but it cannot supplant actual experience, and cannot be substituted for ex- perience. The effect of one fertilizer upon one kind of land will be different from the effect produced bv the same fertilizer upon a different soil; and in fertilizing tobacco it is quite important to avoid applying to the soil any substance that is liable to injure any desir- able quality of the tobacco. While the use of chlo- rides will sometimes produce a superior quality of tobacco, still growers will do well to avoid the use of chlorides, as experience shows that it is liable to injure the burning quality of the tobacco. Chlorides exist as common salt, chloride of potash, or muriate of potash. Low .grade sulphates of potash, such as kainit, carnallite, krugit, etc., contain a large quanti- tv of common salt, and should not be used as a fer- tilizer for tobacco, and use potash in the form of sul- phate. Manure is one of the best fertilizers for tobacco known, as it contains all the elements that the plant needs, and this is an advantage no other fertilizer has. It, however, is not best to use alone, as it de- composes very slowly, and tobacco needs a fertili- zer that will act quickly. The best results will be obtained by using a commercial fertilizer with stable manure. Land for tobacco should contain plentj' of humus or decaying vegetable matter. This humus absorbs moisture and heat, and its decay makes available plant food in the soil, and for this, manure should be used as part of the fertilizer. Tobacco requires a great deal of nitrogen, as has been shown by experiments and experience in the fields. It is not a leguminous plant and must de- pend upon the soil for its nitro.gen, and it is impor- tant that the nitro.gen in the soil be in an available form, or the plant cannot use it. Nitro.gen is obtained from a number of different products and chemicals. Cottonseed meal is one of the most popular sources of nitrogen. It acts very rapidly, and furnishes nitrogen in easily available form. For tobacco you use a good dressing of ma- nure, a thousand pounds of meal should be applied to the acre in addition, putting on at least two weeks before setting the plants. Linseed or flaxseed meal is often used as a ferti- lizer for tobacco. It is not quite so rich in plant food as cottonseed meal, but the difference is verv slight. Cottonseed- meal, liowever, being a Southern product, is cheaper and more generally used at the South. Tobacco requires more potash than any other ele- ment, and the necessity of supplying potash is obvi- ous to anyone. Tobacco is a potash feeder, and it is quite important to note that your land contains a sufficient amount of this element. Every farmer can test his land by planting tobacco on land without applying any potash', and planting tobacco on anoth- er spot using potash. The difference in the .growth of the plant will demonstrate to you wliether or not potash is needed. Also by using fertilizers contain- ing different amounts of potash, on different plats of ground planted in tobacco will soon show how much is needed for best results. No.T— Composed of 2000 lb.s. cotton-seed meal, 1000 lbs. cotton hull ash, 500 lbs. lime, 500 lbs. plaster, 1 Containing j Nitrogen, 130 lbs. Potash, 230 lb.s. Phosphoric acid, 126 lbs. "The essential elements are derived from the meal and ash : the plaster and lime only being supplied to affect the soil mechanically and to assist the burnin.g qualities of the tobacco. Linseed meal is used in- stead of cottonseed when it can be bou.ght to better advantage. This formula has also been modified by omitting the lime and plaster, adding more ash or 48 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. meal, and sometimes by adding small quantities of No. 9. Another favorite formula is superphosphate, or tankage, following combinations : It is also used in the Is^o. 2 — Composed of 1000 lb.s. eotton-.seed nienl 1250 lbs. castor pomace, 500 lbs. cotton hull ash, 500 lbs. double sulphate of potash, 500 lbs. lime, 500 lbs. plaster,' No. 3— Composed of 1000 lbs. cotton-seed meal 600 lbs. dry fish scrap, 500 lbs. 96 per cent, sulphate potash, 500 lbs. lime, 500 lbs. plaster., Containing Nitrogen, 12S lbs. Phosphoric acid, 45 lbs. Potash, 288 Ihs. Containing Nitrogen, 116 lbs. Phosphoric- acid, 60 lbs. Potash, 207 lbs. No. 4— Composed of 1000 lbs. castor pomace, 500 lbs. dry fish scrap, 100 lbs. sulphate of ammnnia, 500 lbs. 96 per cent, sulphate potash 1 Containini I Nitrogen, 113 Ihs. \- Phosphorir acid, j GO lbs. ! Potash, 267 lbs. No. 5. On old tobacco fields that are in 2;ood heart, a favorite formula at present is 2000 lbs. cot- tonseed meal and 1000 lbs. cottonhull ash. No. 6. One well-known tobacco grower says: "My formula for a homemade tobacco fertilizer is 2000 lbs. cottonseed meal. 1000 lbs. double sulphate of potash, 1000 lbs. plaster, 1000 lbs. lime, and it is the best and cheapest fertilizer for tobacco T have ev- er tried." Composed of 1500 lbs. cotton-seed meal, 1500 lbs. cotton hull asb, 500 lbs. lime, 500 lbs. plaster. Containing Nitrogen, 97 lbs. ■ Phosphoric acid, 150 lbs. Potash, 400 lbs. ^■■■■i 1 \;*.- bj ^1 Fig. 19.— T(.1j,-,cC( iintertilized. On farm of C. De Funiak Springs, Fla. K. M'cQuan-ie, Fig. 30. — Tobacco fertilized. On fami of C. K. McQuarrie, De Funiak Springs, Fla. No. 7. Another applies 10 cords of manure per acre, from 1000 to 2000 lbs. cottonseed meal, and 400 to 500 lbs. Peruvian guano. No. 8. A formula used by several successful growers is for one acre of land that has a good sup- ply of manure or vegetable matter in the soil: Composed of 300 Ihs. lime, or about 1 cask, 400 lbs. sulphate of potash, 500 lbs. pure lione meal, 2000 lbs. cotton-seed meal, Containing Nitrogen, 166 lbs. Phosphoric acid, 140 lbs. Potash, 234 lbs. No. ID. A homemade tobacco fertilizer that gave good satisfaction is Composed c~f ] Containing 2000 lbs. cotton-seed meal, 1000 lbs. cotton bull ash, 1000 lbs. lime. Nitrogen, 152 lbs. Phosphoric acid, 164 lbs. Potash, 3C0 lbs. No. II. Another, used with excellent results at the rate of two tons per acre : Composed of 1000 lbs. cotton-seed meal, 500 lbs. cotton hull ash, 50 lbs. lime, Containing . Nitrogen, 76 lbs. Phosphoric acid, 82 lbs. Potash, ICO lbs. Don't Neglect to Keep Your Farm and House Up. 49 No. 12. Cotton-seed meal 900 pounds Nitrate of soda 100 pounds Sulphur of potash, high-grade . . 250 pounds Acid phosphate, 14 per cent. . 750 pounds 2,000 pounds This mixture will contain : available phosphoric acid, 6.3 per cent. : potash, 6.9 per cent. ; nitrogen, 3.7 per cent, (equal to ammonia, 4.5 per cent.). '■No. 13. Dried blood, high grade 500 pounds Nitrate of soda 125 pounds Sulphate of potash, high grade.. 310 pounds Atid phosphate 1,065 pounds 2,ooD .pounds This mixture will contain: available phosphoric acid, 7.4 per cent. ; potash, "j."] per cent. ; nitrogen, 4.3 per cent, (equal to ammonia, .2 per cent.). No. 14. Fish scrap 725 pounds Nitrate of soda 100 pounds Sulphate of potash, high grade.. 300 pounds Acid phosphate 875 pounds 2,000 pounds This mixture will contain : available phosphoric ac- id, 7.2 per cent. ; potash, 7.5 per cent. ; nitrogen, 3.8 per cent, (equal to ammonia, 4.6 per cent.). No. 15. Dried blood 500 pounds Nitrate of soda 100 pounds Sulphate of potash, high grade. . 400 pounds Acid phosphate 1000 pounds 2,000 pounds This mixture will contain: available phosphoric acid, 7 per cent.; potash, 10 per cent.; nitrogen, 4.1 per cent, (equal to anunonia, 5 per cent.). No. 16. ' Cotton-seed meal 700 pounds Nitrate of soda 100 pounds Sulphate of potash, high grade.. 300 pounds Acid phosphate 900 pounds 2,000 pounds This mixture will contain : available phosphoric] acid, 7.2 per cent.; potash, j.-j per cent.; nitrogen, 3.1I per cent, (equal to ammonia, 3.8 per cent.). No. 17. Cotton-seed meal 1,140 pounds Sulphate of potash, high grade.... 115 pounds Acid Phosphate 745 pounds 2,000 pounds This mixture will contain: available phosphoric acid, 6.6 per cent.; potash, 3.7 per cent.; nitrogen, 3.8 per cent, (equal to ammonia 4.6 per cent.). Four hundred to one thousand pounds of these mixtures should be used to the acre. -*j-^< , V f ■5- ^^ _' Fig. 31. — Cuban tobacco on new ground. Florida EJxperi- ment Station. It will of course be necessary to use the proper amount of phosphoric acid and nitrogen in the ferti- lizer on the different plats. Under the head of pot- ash in the Fertilizer Department, we give some atten- tion to its source and forms used. Lime has been found quite valuable on tobacco lands. As a plant food, it has little value in itself, but its mechanical effect on the soil is excellent, and it has the power of making available plant food m the soil. A great many different materials can be used in fertilizing tobacco. We give here seventeen formulas, and these are based upon the supposition that you have used a great supply of stable manure. A mixed nitrogen supply gives better results than a single material, for if the action of one is hindered, or too rapid, the oth- er corrects this defect. In raising tobacco, no step is of more importance 50 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. than proper care and work in the selection and prep- aration of the seed bed. If tliis matter is neglected failure is almost certain. The spot selected should have a southern or south-eastern exposure, so as to get the advantage of the sun as much as possible in the earl}' spring. The bed should not be nearer than thirty or forty feet from any tree, as they sap the moisture. If you have a place where there are woods to the North or West, so much the better, as thev ' — v~ : — ■ -.^"-^ 1^ ■4 ■ ^; ■ ^^•■■" ■'•'• ■■■''■■ B&^^.y f '' ..'''''' !^^P**,i,«*'-'-' ' ■'-'-' i ^A.^^': .:..:'^' ,y j; :x,^*^'"""" ■ -.r' ; i ''': " . ■ ...'^'^ ■■■/ . »-'*■ ' • ■ 1 • ->■' -'.^' f •* : ■ ■ ,■ ■:*■- ■ ". ^^"^ ■, ^^^'ifi _=J Fig. 32. — Tobacco on new gni^iiiil. Shailing transpl.anted Plants. Florida Experiment Station. will protect the seed-bed from the cold wind. As a rule, soil that is fresh is much better to use for a seed-bed, for there are not so many weed seed pres- ent. However, if you have not the virgin soil, select a good rich spot, black loam, and prepare your bed. Wood and brush are then piled on the bed and burned for about an hour to destroy all weed seed and insect eggs, also to supply potash for the young plants that will germinate. One tablespoonful of seed should be put on every one hundred square yard of seed bed, proper care being observed in the selection of these seed. This should produce enough plants to set six ■or seven acres. It requires from ten days to two weeks for the seed to germinate. The seed bed should be protected by having a good cloth placed over it on a frame, as this protects it against sudden changes in the weatb.er, until the seed germinates. Six or seven weeks after the plants appear they will be ready for transplanting. In the meantime they shoulfi be wa- tered each week. After they are up the cover or cloth can be removed. three feet apart as a rule, though sometimes three ant, a half feet are allowed. The fertilizer is placed in ths furrow, mixed with the soil, and planted on. Thf plants are set about three feet apart in the row. Th(' distance varying in some instances; the further apart the larger and coarser the leaves. Cuban tobacco irij Florida is given fourteen inches apart in the drill, witi the rows three feet wide, When removing the plants the bed should be thoroughly wet first, and the plant; taken up from the bed one at a time. The plants art set out in a similar manner to sweet potatoes. A holt is made in the ground with a peg or dibble, of thci proper size and depth, and the plant placed in posi- tion, a little water poured in, and the dirt placed aboui* it firmly. Machines have been made that transplant^ tobacco very successfully. It is said that the worl- done by the machine is superior to that done by thf, hand. As soon as the tobacco takes root it should l>e hoed and see that the cultivation of the crop be shallow. Topping tobacco is the breaking off of the bud a1 the top of the stalk. This should be done when th« button is well put out; and causes the leaves to grow much larger and ripen up more evenly. Priming con- sists in the removal of the four or five bottom leaves Not all tobacco growers prime their tobacco, for thej claim that tlie leaves should be left on as a protec- tion to those above. When it is practiced it is topped Soon after topping, sprouts put out, and these shoulc be removed every ten days. Tobacco is harvested by cutting down the entirt stalk, or by gathering the leaves separately. The former method is perhaps the better. Tobacco if ready to gather when the leaves turn a greenish yel- low color, or when they are brittle, and crack when bent together. After the plant is cut, if you cut tht entire plant, which is advisable, it is left in the field to dry for an hour, when it is carried to the barnf and placed on a stick. This is done either by split ting the stem, or by hanging the stem on a nail driv en through the stick. The sticks used are laths about four or five feet long, and the plants are placed or these about six inches apart. If you desire to cure by the leaf method, the leaves are brought in in baskets, and four or five tied to- gether and hung over a stick. This involves more work than the other method. The land for tobacco shoul just as you would a garden. 1 be thoroughly prepared Worming tobacco. — Worming tobacco should be- The rows are laid off gin immediately after transplanting. The cut worm Use All Labor-Saving Machinery Possible. 5 makes his appearance at once, and you will have tn Jook after him. A hole the size of a pin head now will develop to one the size of a dollar by the time the tobacco is matured. Mix with one gallon of corn meal one tablespoon of Paris green and sprinkle on the plants. This mixture is also good for the bud worm. The horned worm appears in May, the second and worst brood appearing in July, by which time Flor- ida tobacco should be safely housed. The best pre- ventive of the big horned- worm, is to plant James- town or "Jimpson" weed around the borders of the Cigar tobacco barns should be near the field, 32 feet wide, 16 feet high, at least, and as long as neces- sary. A barn 32x50, and 16 feet high will house five acres. Tobacco left long on bottom tier poles will mould in Florida. The first cutting may often be stripped and boxed to make room for the next — say in thirty-five or forty days. Peeled poles, four or five inches thick, make good tier poles. Posts should be 4x6, set in four rows, making a driveway in the middle, with* rows of 12-foot poles on each side. The two middle rows of posts should be 20 feet high, to give pitch to the roof, and eaves and gables should project 12 or 15 inches. The poles should be four Fig. ^a— Setting and watering tobacco by machine, necticut feperiment Station. Con- field, and put into the blossoms a few drops of cobah dissolved in honey and water or sugar and water. The moth which laj-s the eggs is very fond of James- town blossom, and the cobalt kills him. Each moth killed, prevents 500 worms. If these worms get into the field, a good flock of turkeys will search them out most industriously. The common wasp, the mud- dauber, yellow jacket, hornet, etc., all destroy these worms, as do toads, lizards and green crickets, but the last also occasionally takes a chew of tobacco. A single red wasp is said to be worth 15 cents a. day in a tobacco field. As to curing tobacco, this can only be learned from experience. We give some general details, but this is all we can do. feet apart and laths 4 feet 2 inches long. Posts should be eight feet apart, with window between. Windows should be three feet wide and ten feet long, hung at top with strap hinges, to push out for ventilation at night, closing in day time. When leaf stems are cured, cigar tobacco is ready to strip and box, even though all green has not disappeared from the leaf. The dampness com- ing in at the open windows at night, will put the leaves "in case" to handle without breaking every morning. Separate into four grades, placing each in separate boxes: First, wrappers (perfect leaves): second.- binders (partially perfect leaves) ; third, fil- ler, (ragged and imperfect leaves) ; fourth, trashy pieces, which if sold at all, should not be included 52 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. T # ^^ W 9^^ Fig. 34.— Preparing tobacco for curing. Ex^pBriment Farm, North Carolina State Horticultural Society-, Southern Pines, N. C. with the crop. If in doubt to which grade to give a leaf, put it in the lower one. Bind in "hands" or bundles of twenty or thirty leaves of even lengths, and .keep under a cover till noon or after, then place straight and compact in boxes, lapping the tips and leaving space of an inch between Ijutts and end of box, to altow escape of heat from the sweating pro- cess, which will begin at once. Till box is full, keep covered with cheap oilcloth. When full, press top down by standing on it, or with small lever. When leaves are primed off in tlic field, much of the grad- ing can be done as they are strung on a cord, string- ing each grade to itself. Do not allow tobacco to hang too long on poles or its Y.lt wHl evaporate, and never sprinkle or dip it to bring it in case for handling. Trust to air dampness to put in cellar. Early strip- ping and boxing preserve fineness of texture and of flavor, and prevent waste. Boxes should be 2 feet wide, 2 feet deep, and 3 feet long, for smaller kinds, and 6 inches longer each way for Sumatra and Old I'lorida. It pavs to sell soon after boxing, even at a smaller ])rice rather than hold tobacco too long, as a general rule. ^m^ m^^' ■' , '^ m \^ 1 Fig. 35. — Tobacco ready for curing. Experiment Farm. North Carolina State Horticultural Society, Southern Pino!*^ N. C. Fig. 30. — Typical Connecticut tobacco barn. VELVET BEANS. The velvet bean is a leguminous plant, which has been grown in Florida for years as an ornamental covering for porches, arbors, etc., and its value as a manuring anil forage plant has only recently been discovered. Experiments in Louisiana. Alabama, and Florida, show that for the southern half of these States, the velvet bean is as valuable as the cowpeas. As cited above, experience in the growth of the vel- vet bean is limited, but from the experiments made, we learn that it is best to have the rows four or five feet apart, and place two beans in a hill, two- feet ai)art in the row. Light sandy soils are best for this crop, but it can be grown on almost any kind of land. Clean cultivation should be practiced until the vines interfere. It should be cut between the time the plant is in full bloom, and the time the pods are well formed. It is quite a difficult matter to harvest the crop for hay, but it is used principally as a winter pasture for cattle and hogs, as the cattle relish the vines bet- ter after they have been killed by frost. A mowing machine with the blades in between the wheels has been used. Also a hand sickle or grass hook is used. Don't Try to Farm Without a Grood Harrow. 53 From two to three tons of hay are produced on the acre. The hay should be allowed to lie on the ground for two days, when it can be carried to the barn, or served in a similar manner to that suggested for cow peas. on account of the high price of the seed they are not so popular as they would be otherwise. Hairy Vetch produces numerous slender branches from 3 to 6 feet in length. In character and growth it is somewhat similar to the English. The leaves and •Mf&li'.^# '*^^''^^?o^^. Fig. 37. — Field of Velvet Beans, crla. Expt. Sta. liul GO.) VETCH. There are several varieties of vetches grown in this country, one of the most important of which is Hairy Vetch. Vetches are all leguminous plants, but Fig. 3S. — ^Hairy Vetch grown, on (a) uninoculated and (b) inoculated soil. (U. S. Dept. Agr.) Dranches are covered with a coat of fine hairs, hence the name. The pods burst open when ripe, and re- seed the field when not pastured too closely. If grown for forage it should be planted with rye or oats. It should be planted the latter part of August, or the first of September. If you drill the seed, one bushel per acre should be used, but if you broadcast the seed, a bushel and a half per acre should be sown. If you use oats or rye or wheat use one bush- el of these seed with the vetch seed. It does best on sandy soils, but will grow well on almost any good soil after the soil becomes inoculated, and it is said to be better than cowpeas or clover as a renovating crop. This is one of the best winter renovating crops Southern farmers can use. If your land has never grown the vetches it may be necessary to in- oculate with the proper bacteria. It grows all winter in the South, and for that reason is quite val- uable to sow on a Bermuda sod for pasture. The common or English vetch is preferred by some, who claim that it makes the best hay and is relished more by stock. 54 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. WHEAT. Wheat stands second in acreage, and third in yield, of cereals in the United States. It is used principal- ly as a food for human beings, but occasionally it is fed to stock. It makes excellent forage when cut in the dough. It is quite important that Southern farmers devote more time and attention to the grow- ing of wheat. Roller mills are established in many places throughout the South, and it is no trouble for the farmer to produce first-class flour right at home. It is much cheaper to raise wheat and make your own bread than it is to raise cotton and buy flour. One great advantage in raising wheat, corn, pota- toes, and such things is, that you can rotate your crops. Crop rotation is impossible where only one or two crops grow. By planting land in wheat, you are able to use a leguminous plant afterwards, which builds up the land. It may be of interest to discuss the growing of wheat and the fertility of the soil in this connection. The l^niversity of Minnesota made experiments upon this subject, and they issued a bul- letin, in which the following conclusions are given. The Bulletin is No. 70: After careful experiments extending over a series of years, the results of which are given in this bulle- tin, the following conclusions were reached: First — When wheat has grown continuously upon the same soil for eight years, there was a loss of 1,700 pounds per acre of nitrogen, about 300 pounds being utilized as plant food and 1,400 pounds lost by the decay of the animal and vegetable matter of the soil and the liberation of the nitrogen as gaseous and sol- uble compounds. During the eight years of contin- uous wheat cultivation there was a loss of over 21 per cent, of the total nitrogen of the soil, equivalent to an annual loss of 175 pounds per acre in addition to that used as plant food. eight years was less than 100 pounds in excess of that removed as plant food. i Third — When the oats and barley were grown con- J tinuously the losses of nitrogen from the soil were j nearly as large as when wheat was grown continu- '^ ously. j i Fourth. — When corn was grown continuously ^ the loss of nitrogen from the soil was less than half as large as when wheat was grown continuously. When corn is introduced into a rotation of crops, the losses of nitrogen are less than if wheat were grown. Fifth — When wheat was grown continuously there J; was an aimual loss of over 2,000 pounds per acre of humus due to the fermentation and decay of the ani- mal and vegetable matter of the soil. When wheat was grown in a rotation with clover and oats, no ma- terial loss of humus from the soil occurred. ' Sixth — The loss of humus changed the physical ; properties of the soil, causing it to be less retentive ' of moisture, lighter in color, and heavier in weight = per cubic foot. During times of drought the soil from the continuous wheat cultivated plot contained less water than the soil from the plot which pro- duced wheat in rotation with clover. Humus con- serves the moisture of the soil, while the rotation of crops, the use of farm manures and the growing of clover, conserve the humus of the soil. Seventh — When bare summer fallowing is prac- ticed, a heavier loss of nitrogen occurs than when wheat is grown continuously. Summer fallowing fa- vors the decay of the humus and the loss of the ni- trogen. While larger crops of wheat are produced after a year of fallow, this increase is followed by a heavy loss of the total nitrogen of the soil. Summer fallowing exhausts the soil of its nitrogen. Second — When wheat was grown in rotation with clover and oats, five crops of wheat being removed in eight years, larger yields per acre were secured and the total loss of nitrogen from the soil was re- duced to 800 pounds or about 450 pounds in excess of that utilized as plant food. When corn was grown with clover and oats in a rotation and farm manure was used, the total loss of nitrogen from the soil for Eighth — When the nitrogen and humus of the soil were conserved by the rotation of crops, arid the pro- duction of clover, an increase of 20 bushels per acre of corn and 5.6 bushels of wheat were secured. Ninth^Wheat is not an exhaustive crop when it is grown in a rotation, but when grown continuous- ly the fertility of the soil is impaired. It is not the Have a Good Pasture for Your Stock when they are Not at Work. 55 crop itself that reduces fertility, but it is the lack of systematic methods of farming which cause the de- cline of fertility. Old wheat soils readily recuperate when some humus form of materials are returned I jto the soil. By the rotation of crops, the use of farm [manures, and the cultivation of clover, the heavy llosses of nitrogen and humus from the soil can be [checked and larger yields and a better quality se- Icured. To get the very best results wheat should be planted on fertile soil. Rich clays and heavy loams are the best when they are thoroughly drained. Calcarous soils are jalso considered good wheat lands. Land for wheat (should be well broken and thoroughly worked down with harrows and rollers until you have a firm,, fine I seed-bed. When we consider the fact that most, if inot all the cultivation is done before planting, it be- comes more necessary than ever to thoroughly prepare jyour land. It may possibly take longer, but time that [is spent in preparing land for crops is never lost. The i object of every farmer should, be to produce the most wheat possible on a given tract of land and thorough preparation is absolutely necessary in order to get the best results. If you are going to raise wheat, and if you are a farmer in the highest sense of the word, you will, take pains when preparing your land to make it do its best. It has not been found advisable to sub- soil land for wheat. It is necessary to have the soil firm underneath, and subsoiling makes this more dif- ficult. For fertilizers for wheat see Chapter on Fertili- zers in another part of this book. Wheat should be planted in the South from the middle of October to the middle of November, or as soon as possible after the first white frost. The ob- ject in planting at this time, is to give the plants a chance to get started before the cold weather sets in. Spring wheat should be sown as early in the spring as the soil and weather will permit, but this is sel- dom, if ever, practiced in the South. Wheat should be drilled in rather than broadcasted, as the drill puts it in more evenly. It may be, however, sown by hand broadcast, and worked in with a disc harrow or cultivator. From one to two bushels of seed should be sown per acre, according to the size of the grain and the time of sowing. A bushel of small grains will contain two or three times as many ker- nels, as a bushel of grain containing large grains. As a rule, about a bushel and a half is the proper amount to plant. Harrowing winter wheat in the spring does not pay, as experiments on < that question prove that the yield is smaller when harrowed than otherwise. Wheat should be harvested when the grain is ful- ly in the dough stage. It can, at this time be com- pressed between the finger and the thumb and is still not milky. By the time the grain is fully ripe, the cutting should be complete. If you defer harvesting, much of the grain is lost by shattering, also the feed- ing value of the straw is less when you wait too late. Reapers, binders, and headers are used to gather the grain in most places. The cradle is used little, and should be used much less than it is at present. It does not pay unless you have a very rough piece of land or very little wheat is planted. 1 ■ MK^ >\ 1 5 ^ ** 'afe^Sf * ^^^r ^ 1 ^^nB*»<^ 1 ^^^p* 1 Im ^^.^»n^ SIX HEADS CABBAUt. GHoWN BY NEW NiOAKES, NUECESTOWN, TEiXAS (Near Corpus Christi). (Courtesy of H. G. Hastings & Co.) Book II. Garden Department . . . EDITED BY . . . F. J. MERRIAM, EDITOR SOUTHERN RURALIST, ATLANTA, GEORGIA. 58 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. MARKET GARDENING. There is no question of more interest to the South than market gardening. The Southern cities are coming to the front, cotton factories are being built, and many industries established. All these indus- tries require vegetables for the employees. These vegetables must be furnished by some one, and the Southern farmer is the one to furnish them. Up un- til a few years ago, little attention was paid to gar- dening in the South, but developments have been made, and now around every city, and most of the towns will be found many men who make their liv- ing by selling vegetables. About $100,000,000 is in- vested in truck farming in the United States, the products of which will reach a valuation of $75,000- 000 which is produced upon 534,440 acres of land. For- merly each vegetable had its season, and any attempt to secure that vegetable out of its regular season^ -which only lasted for a few weeks, would prove fu- tile. Now, every vegetable can be secured at any time - That there is money to be made in truck farming there is no doubt. The South must, to a large ex- tent, supply the early vegetables for all the United States. Market gardening' is just in its infancy. It is an industry that requires a great deal of study and brain work ; but it is a business that will yield good returns. It requires more money to grow vegetables than it does to grow field crops ; still, the returns am- ply jiay for the greater expenditure. Alluvial soils with gravel or porous clay subsoil, are best for vegetables. But this, like many other things connected with agriculture, cannot be placed under definite laws, for here, also, circumstances al- ter cases. It fre(|ucntly happens that nearly pure clays and apparently inert sands have been made to yield satisfactorily for the time and attention devoted to them. A lighter soil means an early crop, while a clay soil means a later crop. As a rule, it is the early crop that pays best, though there are many ex- •ceptions. Success in market gardening depends more on the proper location than anything else. No matter how good the land may be, how fine the vegetables pro- duced, unless the garden be located where produce can be easily shipped or sold in a good local market it is almost worthless. So you must locate where you will be accessible to the market, if you wish to suc- ceed. If you have to haul your produce a long way over rough country roads before reaching a shipping point, the quality of your goods will be materially affected. Moreover, the question of the necessary supply of labor must be considered by the wise man before he embarks in the business of growing veg- etables and small fruits. This question is of great importance, for it v ill be useless to try and grow vegetables without plenty of labor. The question of fertilizers is of great importance to the truck grower, and it is safe to say that stable or barnyard manure is the best for gardening pur- poses. However, in some localities it is impossible to obtain it in sufficient quantities, and for this reas- on it cannot be used. Wood ashes are also quite val- uable for fertilizing purposes when they can be pro- cured. For commercial fertilizers we give a list of formulas under the Fertilizer Department. In selecting a place for your garden try and get land that is warm and naturally well drained. If it is not naturally well drained, 3'ou had best tile drain it to begin with, as it is impossible to grow large crops of early vegetables on poorly drained land; and while tile draining is expensive to start with, your increase will soon pav the difference. Drainage is very important, as it enables the air to en- ter the soil, also keeps the soil warmer. The chem- istry of garden plants is discussed under the Fertili- zer Department. We also refer you to the Agricul- ture Department, proper, for treatment in the devel- opment and growth of seeds. HOW TO PREPARE A SEED BED. The ordinary size of a convenient hotbed may be ten feet by six or seven feet wide, or it may be only of the dimensions of a common window sash, three feet by four, more or less. The shape has nothing to do with the definition, which may be to the effect that a hotbed is a bo.x covered with glass, the whole placed upon a bed of soil resting on a bed of ferment- ing stable manure, the heat from which rising in the form ot vapor warms and moistens the soil within the box, while at the same time, the sun's rays pass- ing through the glass are retained to warm and viv- ify the surface. The location of the hotbed has much to do with its success or failure. It should only be placed on A Good Garden Pays. 59 land always tree from flooding, preferably on a de- clivity, with good subsoil drainage, sheltered from cold winds, and facing south or southeast. As an example of a hotbed frame, we will describe it as a box for one, two, or four sashes, each seven feet long by three and one-quarter feet wide. This dimension of sashes is given because it is easy to handle. The width named will allow for four lengths of 8xio glass placed lengthwise. Whatever the dimensions of the sashes, all should be alike so as to be inter-« changeable. The frame may be permanent, of brick or stone ; or temporary, of boards ; it may be regular- ly built by a carpenter, with strong corner-pieces, or a gardener can do all the work himself and attain Fig. 1. — The Early Hotbeds. just r.s practical results. Doing the work himself, he may proceed as follows : The length and breadth of the frame having been decided upon, excavate a space 2 ft. wider and 2 ft. longer than the indicated dimensions and i8 in. deep. After the excavation is completed, drive down at four corners post of prop- er lengths, four by four inches square, to which nail the sideboards; the posts on the back of the frame being twelve to fifteen inches above the surface lev- el, and those in front of the frame 6 or 8 inches; nailing the boards only to those portions of the posts which are above the earth level; the boxes, as it were, standing on stilts; it being desirable to use as little lumber as possible. The excavation is for the purpose of keeping the material and contents of the bed as much removed as possible from frigid air currents, and thus economize manure. Into the excavations of eighteen or twenty inches of depth, throw one foot in thickness of cornstalks, leaves, halfrotten, straw and coarse manure ; these principally for preventing dampness and to facili- tate drainage. On top of this coarse strata spread a layer of three to four inches of good horse-stable manure, just beginning to ferment. Avoid pig or cow manure, as they do not heat. The manure for hotbeds must be well manipulated, that the fermen- tation may be prolonged, and this is best done by shaking out the manure loosely with forks, and. if exceedingly rich, mixing it with some poorer mater- ial. Otherwise the fermentation will be too fierce and of too short duration. Indeed, to secure thor- ough mixing, it is well to turn the manure intended for hotbeds at least three times at intervals of two days, and when transferring the manure from the pile to the bed it should be done quickly that the manure be as little exposed to the chilling influence of the air as possible. Tramp the manure down and spread it from end to end and side to side; when done, repeat with a layer of three or four inches, and when this is spread and well tramped down add a third layer of the shortest and best unfermented manure, as this will subsequently be a feeding ground for plants. The various layers of manure make twelve to fourteen inches in total depth. If the tramping, spread'n"'. and cpiality of material be not evenly distributed in the bed it will be irregular, and the subsequent growth of the plants the same. For early beds use the ma- nure liberally. Very late hotbeds can be made with- out any, as the sun in the late spring will give suf- ficient heat. Manure for Hotbed. — As fresh horse-stable ma- nure when used alone is very heating and soon cools; it is best to mix with it leaves or half-rotten straw, as seed will be burned over manure of too high tem- perature. Of course, it is impossible to indicate fixed dates for sowing over a country so broad as this, and with such a variety of climatic conditions. COLD FRAMES. Many farmers and gardeners do not know how to make a cold frame. This is a very simple matter in the South. Select a protected spot and stake off where you wish your bed to be, a strip six feet wide 6o TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. and as long- as necessary. Plow this up and fertilize heavily with rich old compost. The soil should con- tain a large proportion of sand, and if it is naturally stiff it will be best to add some sand 'to it and work it with the manure. After the bed is ready, put up a twelve inch board in front, having the two lines of boards about sLx feet apart or just far enough for a six foot sash to lay across nicely. Put in a cross piece of 1x4 every ten feet to hold the two lines of plank at an equal distance, and steady at the top. Then bank up earth around the outside against the boards, and your bed is ready for the sash. In the latitude of Atlanta it is best to use the regular 3x6 foot glass sash, but farther South frames covered with cloth can be substituted. See that plenty of ventilation is given the plants in the beds during bright days and that they are not kept too warm, especially cabbage plants. Where the beds are allowed to get very warm the plants be- come very tender and are much more likely to get killed if there comes a big freeze. SOWING SEEDS. Every one familiar with farming knows it is quite important that land should be well prepared before any seed are placed in it. He who hopes to be suc- cessful raising vegetables without thorough prepara- tion of the land, is a fit subject for the insane asy- lum. But many people do practice the plan of try- ing to garden without preparing the land. They think the tiny seed should be able to adapt itself to the same conditions under which the larger field seed germinate and grow. Many men, on the other hand, know that the land should be prepared, but they do not know how this preparation should be done. The only way they can learn is by reading, observation, and experience. And let us digress long enough to say that if any one fails to learn by experience, he stands in his own light. You cannot be truly suc- cessful unless you are a close enough observer to learn by experience. If you continue to make the same mistakes year after year, you cannot hope for success. No definite law can be laid down for the prepara- tion of land. The main thing is to try to have the conditions right for the germination of the seed, and this is to have vour seed-bed fine and firm to the bot- tom of the furrow. Much disappointment results in planting seed at the wrong time, covering too deep- ly, or not covering deeply enough ; or from planting a variety or a vegetable that is unsuited to your con- ditions, climate, soil, etc. It is, of course, necessary that you plant the proper amount of seed per acre, but many farmers and gardeners make the mistake of planting too few seed. You must get a good start, for it is much easier to thin out than to replace. The real difference in planting a great many seed and in planting a few is in the cost of the seed, and you can readily see this is such a small matter that a farmer cannot afford not to have enough seed to insure a stand at the start. In a country so large as the South, it is hard to lay ■down a definite rule for the cultivation of the garden. It is a good idea to watch the successful truck farm- er in your neighborhood, and follow largely in his steps, until you have acquired experience. Above all things, the land should be well prepared, and made fine and mellow. Small seeds will not come up and grow well in tough, cloddy ground. There- fore, see that the land is in the very best condition to receive the seeds. As to when each different kind of seed should be planted : this depends largely on locality, and the kind of plant you wish to .grow. It may be laid down as a general rule — though there are exceptions to it — that it does not pay to put the seed in the ground too early, that is, before the soil gets warm. Many of the seed will rot in cold, damp soil and those that do not rot will not germinate until the soil becomes warm. THE GERMINATION OF SEED. The process of germination covers that period of time from the moment the dry seed are placed in the ground until the appearance of the plant. Very few garden seed will commence germinating at a temper- ature lower than 50 degrees, many requiring the soil to be much warmer than that. On the other liand, too much heat dries up the grains, and prevents ger- mination. Experiments indicate t'hat most varieties of seed will germinate rapidly in a temperature of from 70 to 90 degrees. Spinach, on the contrary, will germinate best in cool weather, and will hardly come up at all in hot weather. It is quite important that the seed have a sufficient amount of moisture. Some seeds require more moisture than others. Some will only germinate in water, wihile others require You Cannot Have a Good Garden Without Work. 6i very little. Garden seed germinate best when the soil is moist but not wet. Too much moisture causes the seed to decay. The time required for seed to germinate varies very widely. Some seed, such as peas, beans, corn, and a few others, will germinate in three days; while cabbage, turnips, and radishes us- ually require a little longer. It is not always true that seeds which germinate will produce vegitation, for it is frequently the case that the sprout cannot push its way through the soil on account of being covered too deeply, or because of the ground baking on top of it. In growing vegetables you want to pro- duce as rapid a growth as possible, for by so d'oing you can overcome the dangers arising from floods, grubs, insects, etc., which so often injure your plants. And the quickly grown vegetable is always the most salable. Seed frequently lose their vitality. This is partic- ularly true in the Southern States where the air is moist and the weather warm. Many seed, after or.c year, lose their vitality. This is especially true of onions and salsify. There are methods of testing seed. Placing seed between two layers of damp or wet blotting paper will determine whether thej^ are sound or not, in a very few days. While we are speaking upon this subject, it will not be out of place to stress the importance of using pure seed. Many sore disappointments are brought about on account of the seed not being pure. See to it that you pur- chase your seed from a reliable seed house, and that they are fresh. Such a firm cannot afford to put out old or impure stock. Many seed are first planted in beds and afterwards the plants are transplanted to their permanent place. I'his is done for several reasons: In the first place, the space where the crop will ultimatelj' stand may be occupied by some immature crop. Then too, Ismail plants, such as celery, would be overcome by fweeds, or eaten down by insects. It is much easier jto I'ook after a small seedbed than it is the whole tgarden. It is also done in order to get earlier varie- ties of a fruit or vegetable. For instance, by planting tomato seed in a hotbed the plants will have a good start before it would be possible to plant them in the open field. Transplanting, as a rule, should be done in damp weather. Many farmers and gardeners Tiake the mistake of pulling up the plants from the lied, thus stripping them of their rootlets. This I should never be done. Plants should be removed with a trowel or similar tool. Most plants should be transplanted deeper than they ordinarily stood in the seed bed. The root and rootlets should not be al- lowed to point upwards, but should be spread out- ward and downward, as is the natural tendency of the plant. The soil should be pressed down firmly around the stem so that the roots will come into firm contact with the earth. In small gardens it is a good practice to mulch after transplanting the plants. This is simply cov- ering the soil around fresh set plants, vines or shrubs with three or four inches of litter, straw, hay, leaves, manure or weeds, to prevent an excessive evapora- tion of moisture from the soil. iNIulching has some advantage in that the crop that is mulched will re- main comparatively free from weeds except when one will occasionally push its way through ; but these can be easily pulled up. Moreover, it keeps the ground in a good mellow condition. If you have never tried mulching it would be a good idea to exper- iment with it. ROTATION OF GARDEN CROPS. Just as it is important for the farmer to rotate his field crops, so it is with garden crops. There are many reasons for this. In the first place, to keep planting the same land in the same crop year after year soon exhausts certain elements of plant food, and unless very large quantities of manure are used the land fails to give the very best returns. Then, too, there are certain fungus diseases that will live over the winter in the soil, and should your land be infested with these it wdl mean great loss to plant the land again in the san:e crop. In a proper rota- tion there are certain crops which do better if they follow certain other crops. Peas may be followed by kale- or turnips-, Irish potatoes by late cabbage or ruta baga turnips, but tomatoes or egg-plant should never follow potatoes. Beans may be followed by turnips, winter radishes, lettuce or collards. This list only suggests to 3'ou something of what is in- tended. It is a good idea to try to rotate crops as dissimilar in character as possible. Rotation is a great help in keeping vegetable crops awav from in- sect pests, which are apt to become very disastrous where the same crop is grown in the same place a number of vears in succession. 62 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. PACKING AND SHIPPING VEGETABLES. One of the problems of gardening is marketing the vegetables after they are grown. And right on this point is where many farmers .and gardeners lose money. It makes little difference if fine, large vege- tables are grown, unless they can be put on a good market, in good shape. The price obtained for produce shipped North by Soutbern gardeners depends large- ly upon condition of produce when it reaches its des- tination, and the amount of such produce on the mar- ket at that time. It is useless to ship produce from the South to the North at a time when it will decay before it reaches the market. It is also a losing proposition to ship vegetables to the North when the market is supplied nearer home. For example, tomatoes ship- ped to Philadelphia from the South in March or April bring anywhere from $3.00 to $5.00 per crate, but in June they will bring very little, for they will come in competition with the crop from Maryland or Delaware: and besides, the weather is so warm in June that the tomatoes shipped then are liable to spoil before they reach the market. Many garden- ers also lose money by shipping tomatoes too green. During the shipping season the field should be gone over every other day at first ; and later, every day, and the fruit gathered just as soon as they, start to turn. They should also be carefully selected, wra])ped, and placed in good crates. Vegetables generate heat and moisture, which in- crease as the temperature rises. If this heat and moisture is removed rapidly the fruit will keep much longer and much better. In other words, the crates for vegetables should be of such a size as to permit free ventilation. Barrels are poor things to ship vegetables in, with the exception of potatoes, as small packages carry much better. When you have secured the proper crate or package the next thing is to see that the fruit or vegetable is properly assort- ed before it is packed. A few spoiled or poor speci- mens of fruit Or vegetable will injure the sale of vour whole lot. The packing should be done in the shade, and it is much better to pack where they can be' cooled by passing breezes. When packed in the hot sun they will not keep near so well. You see to it that the outside appearance of 3'our package is neat and attractive. Some shippers are of the opinion that the transportation company will pay especial atten- tion to their shipments, and are therefore careless in regard to shipping them. Remember that you will be treated as any other shipper, and unless you go to the trouble of correctly packing, marking and ship- ping your vegetables you cannot expect good returns. The earliest crops command the best prices. But do not sacrifice quality in order to get your produce on the market first. THE FARMER'S GARDEN. How can a farmer living on a farm and always busy, so manage his garden as to secure the largest amount of fresh vegetables at the smallest expendi- ture of time and labor. "Now," says a writer in the Review, "I am in no sense a market gardener, nor do I raise vegetables for any other purposes than to se- cure for my family a succession of vegetables the year around ; but anything I may say in this article is the result of fifteen years' experience with a farm garden. In selecting your garden have it as conven- iently situated as possible; if not rich or well drained it should be made so. One-quarter of an acre is not too much, and if small fruits are to be included in it, it should be larger. I do not approve of such though, in the vegetable garden. While they are a great luxury and should be on every farm, it is better to keep them out of the garden. The shape of the garden should be oblong, giving long rows. All herbs, beds of asparagus, rhubarb, beds for cabbage and early plants should be placed on the same side together, leaving nothing to interfere with the thor- ough cultivation of the vegetables. The old way of having a small garden for the "women folks and chil- dren" to work in the spring, and which went to weeds in the summer, is mostly a thing of the past. The garden of the progressive farmer is as up-to- date as himself. He gives the same careful cultiva- tion to his garden that he does to his corn or wheat, realizing its advantages and recognising the fact that it is a part of the farm ; demanding and receiv- ing its full share of work, and no longer left neglect- ed. Of the very greatest importance is your choice of seeds. Send early for the catalogues of the leading seedsmen. They are lovely to look at, and much useful information can be gleaned from them. If you are just starting a garden for yourself they will be a great help to you and their description of the different varieties grown which will enable yoti to de- Select the Best Land for Your Garden. 63 cide which is most suitable for you. It is best to or- der early and get plenty of seeds, so if a late frost or a hard rain injures your stand you can plant over at once. Prepare your ground thoroughly. Vegetables delight in a rich, well prepared soil. In laying off your rows keep them perfectly straight, as the cultivation is much easier. Make your rows 2 1-2 or 3 feet apart ; I prefer 3 feet. A wheel hoe is a good thing, but I can take a mule and cultivate a garden quicker and better than any other way. My garden is treated like my crops; first plowing it deep, then I cultivate often and shallow. If dry weather comes on I culti- vate more and keep a dust mulch to save the mois- ture. Just as fast as early vegetables come off, I re- place them with others. My aim is to have no enjp- ty rows for weeds. I plant radishes every Friday, to have plenty, and beans every two weeks. After May, I plant all vacant rows in cow peas ; in August sow turnips, winter lettuce, and radishes; in Septem- ber set out winter cabbage; in October all my gar- den is broadcast to mustard, kale, and spinach, which gives an abundance of green for winter, and serves as a covering for the land. In short, I practice in- tensive farming. This requires plenty of fertilizer and high cultivation; but it pays. I save no seeds; I leave that to those who make a business of it and understand it. My business is to raise vegetables, not seeds. All chicken manure is put on the garden, scattering it between the rows as fast as made. I find it good for onions and cabbage, especially. That vegetables and fruit are healthy, is certain. I have a large family, but in fifteen years our drug and doctor's bills together will not average $5.00 per year. Give a farmer's wife a good garden, milk and butter, and eggs, with a plump chicken, and she will prepare a dinner that is fit to be set, not before a king, but before an American farmer, who surely de- serves the best in the land, for does he not feed the world? Prepare your garden, plant your seed, culti- vate it well and enjoy the fruits thereof." VEGETABLE NOTES. If you let your strawberry patch get in the grass you are going to have trouble. Try a small patch of Chinese Winter Rose Radish. They are fine for home use and the local market. We have made our best fall lettuce in open ground by sowing the seed the latter part of August. Flori- da Header and Big Boston are excellent varieties for this purpose. When you set out those celery plants do not forget to make the land rich. Fill up the furrows with good, old compost ; then try irrigation. Celery is 84 per cent, water. If the land you wish to plant in vegetables in very grassy when plowed, run over it several times with a Planet Jr., or Iron Age Cultivator, with three inch scooter attached. This will tear up the grass so it will die. Then run a straight tooth harrow over the field and drag out as much as possible. Repeat the operation, and you will soon have your land in shape. It is often a difficult matter to get seed to come up in hot weather, even when they are perfectly sound, unless the conditions are just right. If the weather should happen to be dry when you wish to plant, try tramping in the seed with your feet. We have often been able to bring up seed in this manner when other- wise they would not have come up at all. We like best to have land prepared ahead, get a good rain on it, and then rake or harrow off the rows and plant. We almost always secure a stand when we do this. We have also found it necessary to shade lettuce at this season in order to get it to germinate well. Don't wait until the last minute to prepare those hotbed sashes, but begin to overhaul them now. A good coat of paint will add to their usefulness. For the early crop, we find that the early varieties of cabbage like the Early Jersey Wakefield, pay us best. The second, or mid-section varieties, usually find a glutted market and show a much smaller mar- gin of profit. October is an excellent time to plant spinach. The weather is cool and the seed germinate well. Seven Top turnip for spring salad may also be planted in open ground. We find it a good plan not to spread manure on land intended for early vegetables until after the land has been plowed in the spring. Where the manure is spread during the winter it prevents the land dry- ing out, keeps it wet until late in the spring, and de- lays planting. When sowing seed of almost any description very early in the spring we find it best to plant very shal- low. In fact, it is hardly necessary to cover seed like turnips at all when they are sown on freshly prepared land. The rain will usually cover them as much as is necessary and they will sprout and come up much 64 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. quicker, and you will obtain a better stand than if they were covered deeper. If you use cottonseed meal as a fertilizer, be sure to apply it at least ten days before you plant, and see that it is well stirred into the soil and does not come in contact with the seed ; otherwise you are very like- ly to lose your stand. We have seen it kill turnip seed and even snap beans. It does not seem to affect beets, however. Try an application of quick-lime on the land you intend to plant in turnips. It will help to prevent scab and make nice, smooth roots. When applying lime to land for any purpose do not let it air slack, for in doing this it loses much of its strength. It is much better to haul the lump lime direct to the f^eld, scoop out a hollow place in the ground at different places where the lime will be needed, put in several barrels cf lime, throw on a lit- tle water and cover the whole pile with earth. In this position the lime will crumble to a fine powder so it can be spread without losing any of its strength, and you will find it much more effective. Ur.e about 40 bushels per acre. We have found that a good application of lime to land which we intended to plant in tomatoes prevent- ed their dying from Idight. An application of lime to some soils has been found to more than double the size of lettuce. It will also prevent lettuce from damping off in cold frames. Lime will make clay land more friable, and sand less loose. It will sweeten sour land and where land is poorly drained, is a great help toward making it productive. Do not let it come into direct contact, however, with either guano or manure. ARTICHOKES. No farmer who is raising hogs should omit a good supply of Jerusalem artichokes for the hogs to feed on during the late winter or early spring months. They can be grown with half the labor needed for sweet potatoes, will yiehl from three to five times as much, and, bushel for bushel, are worth nearly or quite as much. They can remain in the ground through the winter without injury by freezing, antl are so available for fresh feed at a season when pota- toes, peanuts and other similar hog feeds have been exhausted. They arc not particular about the soil on which they grow, though a rich, sandy loam is best, and a dry, heavy, and barren clay the poorest. A good sweet potato soil is a good soil for artichokes The land needs no special preparation, but we prefer it plowed broadcast so as to plant on a level. Seed can be purchased from most seed dealers, and about as much per acre is needed as is needed for Irish pota- toes. The tubers are about as large as potatoes, and can be cut in the same manner. When to be planted early, on rich soil, which is in good condition, very small pieces may be used. Lay off in rows four feet apart, drop the seed about eighteen inches apart in the rows and cover with a plow. No fertilizer will be needed on good ground. Fig -Jerusalem Artichuke. The only cultivation necessary is what will be needed to keep the ground clean from weeds and to prevent the surface from becoming hard and baked. Usually one thorough harrowing about the time the plants come up, and two later cultivations are suffi- cient, and by the first of July the plants should be so large as to shade the ground and prevent any further growth of weeds. As the tubers are not formed un- til late in the season, and are clustered very close to the bottom of the stalk, we like to make the last cul- tivation with a turning plow, and then throw the dirt toward the rows. Harvesting may be safely delayed until January, and then only enough for planting need be gathered. Plow up a few rows, gather up the tubers, and bury or store them away like potatoes ; then let the hogs have the rest. If more convenient a small part of the field may be fenced off from the lot where the hogs run, and the tubers allowed to remain where they g-rew, until needed for planting. A few who have grown this crop claim that their hogs did not relish the roots, and would not eat them freely. We have never heard such complaint from anyone after the first of January, though we are sat- Do Not Fail to Fertilize Your Garden Spot Well. 65 isfied that there is often good ground for it early in the winter. The roots do not form until in the ! fall, September and October, and so do not become j well matured until two or three months later. We I have never heard of a hog which was not hungry for artichokes at any time from January to March. I Some farmers have objected to the crop on account I of the supposed difficulty in getting rid of the plants when in a field wanted for other uses. It is true that i artichokes will persist for many years, if not disturbed during the summer, but a single good plowing or hoe- ing out between June and September will kill every plant. This work can be successfully done at any I time during the summer, after the old tubers have be- come exhausted and before the new ones are formed. j On the other hand, some growers regard this persis- ; tent character as an advantage, as hogs usually leave I enough tubers in the ground to make a crop the fol- I lowing year. We have never liked that way of do- j ing, as the second season the plants are so irregular 1 that it is impossible to- cultivate them, and we have I always found it more profitable, even when using the same field, to plow broadcast and replant every 1 spring. The yield, of course, depends on the soil ; but on land of fair quality it is seldom less than thiee hun- . ■ dred bushels per acre, while on very good land dou- ble that amount may reasonably be expected. Try a few this spring. ASPARAGUS. ' Asparagus is one of the finest vegetables of the spring, and is grown quite largely for the market. It grows year after year from the same roots. As it is ordinarily grown in the garden it is a troublesome crop, but if it is planted in rows so as to be cultivated with a horse, it can be as easily grown as any other crop. Asparagus thrives best in a rich sandy low soil, and is a crop that cannot receive too much ma- luire. There are two methods of making an aspara- gus bed. One plan is to get the roots from a seeds- man, and set out your bed, and the other plan it to plant the seed and grow the plants at home vourself. If you desire to raise your own plants, the seed should be sown in drills about eighteen inches apart early in the spring. One ounce will sow fifty feet of drill, and these seed should be covered one inch deep. Before sowing the seed the land should be thorough- ly prepared by plowing and harrowing or spading, us- ing a liberal quantity of some complete commercial fertilizer, as the weed seed in the manure make it difficult to clean out the young plants. The seed germinate very slowly, so it will be well to plant rad- ish seed with it, then break the ground and mark the row, so that you can cultivate and keep the weeds down. The radish will also gfet some benefit from the Fig. o. — PosUion of Asparagus Roots at Planting. land. The ground should be kept free from weeds at all times, and by the ne.xt spring the plants should be large enough to transplant to their permanent bed. Sometimes they are allowed to stand for another year, but this is not the general practice., ■ The ground selected for the permanent asparagus bed should be well fertilized. By well fertilized we mean at least ten tons of manure per acre broadcast, or 1000 lbs. of high grade fertilizer. The rows in the asparagus bed should be four feet apart, and the plants should be set three or four feet apart in the rows. The plants should be set with their crowns about six inches apart under the ground. If they are planted at a less depth than this, the roots push up the surface and interfere with the cultivation. It will not do to cover them six inches at once, as the young shoots would not be able to push up through six inches of soil. They should be frequently cultivated with the cultivator and hoe. In the fall the tops should be cut off close to the ground and a liberal application of well-rotted manure worked in on the surface. No at- tention- should be paid to the plants, but the whole surface can be plowed or harrowed to a depth of three inches. In the spring, as soon as the land can be worked, give one shallow cultivation in order that the soil may warm up quickly. When the crop has been harvested, or about the last of June, the whole bed should have another thorough cultivation to a depth of three inches, without regard to rows. These 66 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. cultivations should make unnecessary the liand weed- ing which so often makes asparagfus growing a diffi- cult task. Asparagus is best when it is white, crisp, and ten- der, and to secure it so the hills must be mounded up somewhat to bleach the sprouts. Ordinarily, howev-- er, the sprouts are taken when from four to six inch- es long, and cut an inch or two beneath the surface with an asparagus knife. All should be cut when of the proper size, for if any are permitted to grow on, they interfere with subsequent cutting and stop the growth of new sprouts. The time between cuttings is laregly dependent on the weather; Once in two Fig. 4. — Florida Asparagus. days is the average time. Frost kills shoots above ground, but does not injure subsequent cuttings. There are a number of good varieties, among the best of which are Conover's Colossal, Moore's, and Pal- metto. For the enemies to Asparagus see Diseases of Plants, and the Insect Department. BEANS. There are many varieties of beans, such as com- mon field and garden, or kidney beans, Lima beans. Scarlet Runner beans, and horse or broad beans. The most extensively planted varieties for market pur- poses are Extra Early Red Valentine, Stringless Green Pod, Round Pod Refugee, Kidney Wax, Rust Proof Wax, and White Wax; also Henderson's Bush Lima. Beans thrive best on a welHdrained clay loam, or sandy loam soil, with good clay subsoil. The land should be well prepared by plowing and har- rowing, using a liberal application of rotted barn- yard manure in the row. The bean is a leguminous plant, and therefore can draw nitrogen from the air; at the same time this will not take the place of ammo- nia in the fertilizer. Wood ashes are an excellent fer- tilizer for beans, used as a top dressing in addition to the manure. Beans are very sensitive to frost, and therefore are easily killed, and the seed should not be planted too e'arl_v. This is especially true of the Lima bean, which should never be planted until the soil is warm, or the seed will rot in the ground. Beans may be either planted in hills or drills. When planted in drills, the rows should be from two to three feet wide, and if planted in hills, the hills should be from a foot to a foot and a half apart, using from three to six beans to a hill. They should be cultivated often and shal- low. This not only helps to furnish plant food and keep down the weeds, but it preserves the soil mois- ture. The cultivation of the White Navy bean is similar to the above, except that it does not require as rich land nor as much fertilizer. If the crop is large the plants are pulled up when the pods are ripe, and this is sometimes done by running a plovv' along the side Fig. 5. — White Mexican or Prolific Tree Bean. of the row, cutting the vines off just under the sur- face of the ground. The vines are then thrown to- gether in small piles, where they are left for a day or so. The vines should not be allowed to get wet, as this discolors the beans and lowers their market Do Not Neglect to Work Your Garden. 67- value. When the vines are dry the beans are thresh- ed out by using either a machine made for the busi- ness, or they are threshed out with a flail. They are then run through a fan, then cleaned ; after which they are assorted. The garden bean requires a much richer soil than the field bean. They will also stand very 'heavy fertil- izing. When the running sort are planted, some rec- onnnend the placing of the poles in the ground four feet apart each way, and then planting the beans about them. We do not believe, however, that this plan has any advantage over the plan of planting the beans first, and after they begin running then to place poles or sticks where they are needed. If you do not care to use poles, you may use two wires, placing one about six inches above the ground, and the other about six feet. Ball twine may then be used for the vines to run on. For enemies to bean? see Diseases of Garden Plants in "this chapter, also the Insect Department. BEETS. Fig. 6. — Eclipse Turnip Beet. There are two varieties of beets, the sugar beet and the table beet. Sugar beets are not grown in the South, and hence we will only notice the table beet. Good table beets can be produced on most any friable soil, provided it is well-drained and made rich with plenty of old compost. If commercial fertilizer is t used, apply broadcast about 2000 lbs. of a complete I vegetable fertilizer per acre. If possible, the land should be plowed deeply in the fall and again in the spring, making a fine seedbed by repeated harrow- ings. Beets as a rule are hardy, and may be sown just as early as the land can be cultivated after dan- ger of many freezings is past. The rows are planted from a foot to two and a half feet apart. After they come up, they should be thinned to about four inches apart. Thin when about two inches high, or as soon as they can be handled easily. Plant about an inch deep and see that the seed go in thick enough to in- sure a good stand. There should be at least three to the inch. As soon as the beets are as large as a hen's egg 3'ou "may begin pulling and bunching them for market, putting from iWe to eight in a bunch. They sell readily early in the season and are one of the most profitable of all vegetable crops to the market gardener. Early Egyptian. Eclipse, and Blood Tur- nip, are the most popular varieties. CABBAGE. ' The cabbage is largely grown all over the whole countrv, and market gardeners have found that it is one of the most profitable crops they can grow. Cab- bage can be shipped much better than collards, and sell for better prices. The early crop is usually the most profitable, but of recent years gardeners have been making good money from the late crop as well. Cabbage delight in a rich, well-drained soil, but one that retains the moisture. You cannot make the land too rich and many gardeners apply as much as 100 two-horse loads of stable manure or 3,000 lbs. of guano per acre. Land for cabbage should be broken deeply, thoroughly pulverized, and the manure and fertilizer worked into tlie whole land near the sur- face. EARLY CABBAGE. The early Jersey Wakefield is still the leading sort for this purpose, although there are a number of newer varieties which the originators claim to be su- perior. If they are earlier, however, they usually sac- ' rifice size, and if they are larger they sacrifice earli- ness ; but the Wakefield comes nearer filling the bill than any we have tried. You can set the plants eigh- teen inches apart in rows two feet wide, which will give you about 12,000 plants per acre, and they will make cabbage that will weigh anywhere from two pounds to ten pounds each. Now, if you produce a crop of 12,000 cabbage aver- 68 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND ?LZASU~E. aging five pounds each, that means 60,000 lbs. of cab- bage altogether. But you cannot figure on such a large yield, as there will be some missing places, and the cabbage are not likely to average five lbs. each. With proper preparation, cultivation, and fertilizing, however, 3'ou can count on half this amount, or about 30,000 lbs. Now, 30,000 pounds of cabbage will remove from an acre of ground 114 lbs. of nitrogen, 33 lbs. of p'hosphoric acid and 129 lbs. potash. To supply this amount of plant food it would require a ton of ferti- lizer that would analyze 7 per cent nitrogen, about 2 per cent, phosphoric acid, and over 14 per cent, pot- ash. This crop of cabbage would alsO' require 26.100 lbs. of water. I give you these figures to show what Fig -Succession Cabbage. a crop of 30,000 lbs. of cabbage would require, and, of course, the cabbage cannot be produced unless the fertilit}- is in the land to begin with. I am preparing to plant an acre in cabbage this spring myself, and 1 shall apply to that acre about forty tons of stable manure and at least a ton of high grade commercial fertilizer. And this on land that is already quite rich. A fertilizer for cabbage should analyze about 6 per cent, ammonia, 5 per cent, phos- phoric acid, and 7 per cent, potash. If I were short on manure I should not hesitate to use one and a half or even two tons of such fertilizer per acre. For to grow a big crop of cabbage it is necessary to put down two or three times as much plant food in the fertilizer as we expect the crop to consume. We have to do this in order to force rapid growth and large size, for the bulk of the cabbage crop is water any- way, and we want to sell as much water in the shape of cabbage as possible. To obtain the best results we must have our ma- nure and fertilizer worked into the first four or five inches of top soil, so it will all be where the plants can get at it. It is, therefore, best to break your land deeply, in the first place, and then apply and work in the fertilizer broadcast on the surface. A little gu- ano can also be applied in the drill to advantage ; but we must be very careful to see that it is all thorough- ly stirred into the soil and that our land is well worked down and is fine and mellow. We do not want to see any lumps or clods, and we must be careful not to work the land when too wet, as this will lock up plant food and is very likely to cause failure. Another very important point is to have good, strong plants, of an even size. It is impossible to make a good crop of cabbage with poor plants. You must have strong, healthy plants, as near a size as possible ; then the whole field will head up evenly. If you must use some small plants, select them out and get them by ourselves. It will pay better, how- ever, to throw the little plants away and procure enough strong large plants to set your whole field. When a man puts in an investment of $75 or $100 per acre for manure and fertilizer, he cannot afford to take chances with poor plants. If you purchase your plants from a grower, better have him send you a sample so you will know what you are getting, and better pay a dollar per thousand extra if necessary, to get selected plants. When you set your plants wet the roots, and see that the soil is pressed firmly against the stem and root with the foot. The plant should be so firmly set that when taking hold of a leaf, it will break be- fore pulling up the plant. As soon as the plants begin tO' take hold give them a good hoeing and then see that they a-re either hoed or cultivated with a horse cultivator at least once a week, until they become too large to work. When the plants start to head a little nitrate of soda sprinkled around them and hoed in will prove a great help. If you can irrigate your patch you make suc- cess doubly sure, and when this is impossibe try to select a piece of bottom land or some that will not Iv: likely to suffer from drouth. My cabbage will I'"' planted on a piece of well-drained bottom land that T can irritjate. Vegetables Pay More Than Cotton. 69 While I have not gone very exhaustively into de- tails in this article, I have tried to make clear the main points which must be observed to produce a bigf crop of cabbage ; and after all, that is the only kind of crop that it really pays to grow. So do not for- get to pile on the manure and fertilizer, prepare your land thoroughly, use only good, strong plants, and give them rapid cultivation. Whenever we fail to observe any of these principal points our cabbage crop has not been what it should. For early cabbages, the seed bed should be planted in November or December for plants to set out in March. They will have to be planted in a cold frame. A small shallow box, placed in the kitchen window will answer: but here tbey need not be started until January. The seed should be covered about one- fourth of an inch deep. The plants should be har- dened to out-of-door conditions by gradually expos- ing them to such conditions, so that when set in the field they would not be killed by a sharp frost. The rows should be about two and a half feet apart and the plants set eighteen inches to two feet in the rows. In growing late cabbage the great difficulty is to get a stand. .-Vs a rule it is better to plant the seed in the rows in tlie field where you wish to grow the cabbage. In planting by this method you thorough- ly prepare the land and then as soon as you have a good rain rake off the bed and place four or five seed in a hill every ten feet apart. They can be covered with the foot, pressing the dirt upon them with the ball of the foot. As foon as the plants appear, go over the field and dust them with air-slacked lime or ashes, so as to keep off the flea beetle, a little pest that is likely to destroy your plants before you know of their presence. You should be careful that a crust does not form around the plants, as they frequently die from want of moisture. To keep the crust from forming around them, you just keep the harrow and rake going. In fact, they should be pushed by thor- ough cultivation from then on. When cabbage are grown for the market, it is gen- erally advisable to dispose of as much of the crop as possible as soon as they head and not try to store them and wait. Cabbage should not be stored while wet, or handled while frozen. They keep well if stored in a cool, damp cellar, if stored in bins about four feet wide. They also keep well when the heads are buried in sand. They can be stored out of doors by digging long, narrow trenches, placing them in. and covering with straw and dirt deep enough to pre- vent serious freezing: When stored pull them up by the roots and turn them up-side down, leaving on all their leaves. There are a great many diseases of cabbages, and also enemies in the form of insects, all of which are treated in this book. For diseases, see Diseases of Garden Plants, and for insects, see Insect Depart- ment. Among the best varieties are the Early Jersey Wakefield, Long Island Wakefield, All-head Early, Early Summer, Sure Head, and Late Flat Dutch. CELERY. Celerv is a hardy plant grown in almost all parts of the country for the leaf stalf. The celery industry Fig. 10. — Savannah .Market Celery. of Florida is enormous. The best land for it is a muck, or sandy loam, but the sandy loam would have to be heavily fertilized, as celery is a rank feeder. A reclaimed swamp that is well-drained and in good tilth is a fine place for celery, but the celery grown on swampy lands is not so good as that grown on up- land. It is a frequent custom to plant muck land in a crop of potatoes or onions, and follow it the same season with a crop of celery. It is sometimes the cus- tom to set the celery plants out before the potato crop is dug, omitting every third row of potatoes. Celery seed are perhaps the smallest seed used by gardeners, and the plants are very small themselves when quite young. It is often the case that a small 70 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. clod of dirt resting upon seed or plants will retard and sometimes prevent growth. For this reason it is incumbent upon the grower to thoroughly prepare his land, especially the seed bed, which must be as fine as an ash bank. The seed should be sown thickly on top of the ground in rows ten or twelve inches apart. Tread the seed into the soil with the feet, but do not cover them. The planting should be done while the soil is fresh as soon as the land is prepared, then sprinkle iightly with a watering pot with a fine sprin- kler, and cover with wet sacks. Sprinkle the sacks every day until the seed sprout, when the sacks may be removed and a partial shade given until the little plants get started. As soon as the plants appear, cul- tivate between th.e rows tv.'ice a week, weeds or no weeds, and when two inches lib thin out to about one inch apart in the row. Transplant to permanent field when six inches high, setting in rows 4 feet apart, and placing plants 6 to 8 inches in row. feed are sometimes sown broadcast, but this is usually- (lone in flats in the greenhouse. When the seed are sown in this manner they should be mixed with sand, using one part seed and five parts sand. When the plants are about three inches high they are transplanted to rows about two or three inches apart in other flats or beds. This ^lan of sowing broadcast in the bed is used for early celery, and the other plan is used for late celery. The work of transplanting should be given special atten- tion. The time celery should be transplanted depends largely upon local conditions. In the central South this is done in August, the crop following some early vegetable crop. In I-lorida it is done late in t!ic fall. When setting have ready a pail of mud. that is. earth and water stirred together, mixed to the consistency of cream. Dip the roots in th.is. using, of course, only lar--e, strong plants. The plants should be dropped in the freshly opened row, anywhere from six to eight inches apart. Double rows, where the soil is suffi- ciently fertile to permit it, a-e better than single rows. Tl e double rows are six inches apart, and the sets of rows are four feet apart. In this manner vou get r.ear'y twice the amount on an acre of land. .mgaticn is quite important in growing celerv. Surface irrigation at one station doubled the yield of the crop, and increased its market value eight times. Sub-irrigation has proven very effective in manv places. It is needlese to state that land for celery should be made very rich, and repeated top dressings of Nitrate of Soda will prove very beneficial in pro- moting quick growth. Golden Self-Bleaching and White Plume are the principal varieties used. COLLARDS. The collard is extensively grown throughout the South, but not so much as a few years ago. It grows about two feet high, but does not make a hard head. The leaves are tender -ar.d are used for greens. The Fig. 9. — Collards. collards sh.ould be planted in the same manner as cab- bage. CUCUMBER. Cucumbers are sensitive to frost, and require for their best growth a rich, sandy, warm loam. Any land that will produce rood corn will also produce good cucumbers, if they are properly manured in the hill. • Some advocate not planting seed until the weather is warm, but one nuist run some risk in order to secure earl'ness. The following method will give you earlier cucumbers than the plan of waiting until the weather is warm before planting the seed : Take plant or strawberry boxes without bottoms, place them in cold frames or hotbed, and fill them ^vith good garden soil, and well rotted manure. Plant your seed in them, and i)rotect by placing sash, or some other glass over them. The feed can be planted in t::e ear- ly part of February, or about six weeks before it would be safe to set the plants in open ground. After the seed are up and the weather is warm, the sash can be taken off in the day, and replaced at night. If the Do Not Let the Insects Get Your Garden. 71 weather be extremely cold, hay or straw could be placed over them, and the sash on top of the hay. When setting in the field set a little lower than they were in the boxes, cut away the box, water well, and set firml)'. By this method you can ship cucumbers before anyone else, and have good profits, in that they are the first. Kig. lu. — Japanese Climbing Cucumber. Land for cucumbers should be prepared al^out the same as you would for corn. The rows should be run out deeply from four to six feet apart each way, and a good shovelful of well rotted manure worked into the soil, and the hill made up at the check. Keep ||cultivated and keep free from weeds at all times. I For table and market use cucumbers should be '•picked when they are grown but still green : and for pickling purposes, according to size of pickle wanted. iAll large and over-grown cucumbers should be kept ppicked off and not allowed to ripen seed, for with the ripening of the seed the vine will stop bearing and be- jgin to die. For enemies to cucumbers see Diseases of Garden [Plants in this chapter, also the Insect Department. White Spire, Long Green and Evergreen are the Imost popular varieties. CARROTS. Corrots are grown almost the same as turnips. They should be planted very early in the spring on well-prepared and fertilized land in rows about eigh- teen inches apart. They are largely grown around New Orleans for shipping to Northern markets and here the crop is planted in the fall. Carrots are very valuable as a stock food as well as a vegetable for market. Sow seed in shallow drills in early spring when the trees are leafing out. Make several sowings about a month apart so as to give a succession crop. When plants are well started, thin out to four inches apart in the row. Sow in rich or v\-ell manured soil worked deep. This is a deep-rooted crop and the soil should be prepared deep enough, so the roots can penetrate without difficulty. Cultivate frequently, keeping your ground free from weeds and grass. Best make drills 16 to 18 inches apart to allow easy working. In Florida sow seed in September, October and No- vember. Oxheart is a good early variety ; but Chan- tenay and Danvers Intermediate are probably most largely grown. Kig. 11. — Oxlie.Ti-t Carrot. EGGPLANT. The eggplant is only grown in the South for com- inercial purposes, and. its cultivation is similar to that of tomatoes. The plants will have to be started under glass, aad should be vigorous and at least six or eight inches high v^'hen they are transplanted to the field. Tlie}" should be transplanted as soon as the soil is warm and all danger from frost is past. If you only want a few plants, it would be belter to buy them than to try to raise them. 10 or 12 plants should be a plenty to supply the average family. It is best to plant the -J^ TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. Fig. VI. — Improved Large Purple Tlioruk-.ss Eggplant. seed in small bo.xes or pots, say three inch pots, as these can be easily transplanted, and the plant will not suffer on account of transplanting. The main thing' is to use only vigorous, healthy plants, and keep them growing after they get started. It is far better to throw away poor plants than it is to bother with them. The plants should be placed three feet apart in rows which are four feet apart. For enemies to the eggplant see Diseases of Garden Plants in this chap- ter. KALE Kale belongs to the cabbage family. It does not head up, but has a thick crown of leaves. It is used as a vegetable for greens in the early spring or late fall. Kale requires the same soil as cabbage, also similar cultivation. The leaves are cut and sold loose on the market by the busliel in the early spring when they are often quite profitable. The German kale or Si- berian is verv hardy and will grow all winter without protection in the South. LETTUCE. Lettuce is becoming one of the most profitable veg- etables grown by the market gardener at the South. The seed are usually planted in the open field in the early fall and then plants transplanted to cold frames protected by cloth or glass sash, and sometimes heat- ed bv steam or hot water. Then thev are forced and Vi. — Karly Green Curled Kale or Borecole. Fig. 14. — California Cream Butter. head up about Christmas for the fall trade. Seed are also sown in the frame in the spring, the plants to be transplanted to open ground in March. Lettuce grows best in a clay loam soil made rich with well rot- ted manure. It is usualy planted in rows about one foot apart, with the plants six inches apart. If you desire first-class lettuce, the crop must be grown rap- idly. A quick growth is sometimes secured by an ap- plication of 200 to 300 pounds of nitrate of soda broadcast and raked in. Apply after a rain, but when the plants are dry. Constant cultivation is also nee- Thorough Preparation is Half the Battle. 73 essary to success. The crop should mature from six to eight weeks after it is transplanted.- For enemies to lettuce, see Diseases of Plants, also the insect department. The Iceberg is an excellent summer lettuce, but is very slow to run to head, but Big Boston and Cali- fornia Cream Butter are varieties, usually grown for market. MUSHROOMS Few people realize the value of mushrooms as a food. j\Iost of us allow these delicious plants - to spring up, bear fruit, and we never take advantage of that fruit. There is an idea that most mushrooms are poisonous. Some of them cannot be eaten on ac- count of being too woody, but the greater number of common, soft, fleshy mushrooms are edible and many are among the most delicious and nutritious foods that the vegetable kingdom affords. We take from a Bulletin recently issued by one of the expermient stations, the following: "Only the so-called 'cultivated mushroom,' Agaricus Campestris, is grown for mar- ket. The culture is very easy and almost any one can succeed at it. This mushroom thrives best at a steady temperature of about 55 deg. F. to 65 deg. F. The temperature must not fall below 50 deg. F. nor rise above 70 deg. F. ' "In France and England, this mushroom is exten- sively grown for market in sheds, stables, cellars, dis- used quarries, mines and caves. It is also grown dur- ing the fall months out of doors in garden-beds, kept covered from direct sunlight. Mushrooms do not re- quire sunlight as green plants do, but ordinary dif- fused light will do them no harm though direct sun- light is injurious. In eastern and central North Car- olina the temperature of the air during the months of September, October, and November is well suited for growing this mushroom out of doors. The plant may also be grown in ordinarv pits roofed over or under cold frames or disused hot-beds — the sashes being kept covered with straw to exclude the light. "In preparing mushroom beds, whether for indoor or outdoor beds, horse or mule droppings must be obtained, though one-fourth the manure may be from cows. The fresh manure should be mixed with one- third its bulk of clean garden or pasture loam soil. The mixture is then firmly beaten down with a spade and allowed to stand under cover for a week unless in the meantime it ferments too violentlv, in which case the pile must be turned over and made afresh, adding a little fresh soil to the pile. In making the beds, firm the mixture of soil and manure by tread- ing on it Avith the feet or beating with a brick. Make the bed when firm about 8 inches thick. Let the bed stand for a few days, then insert a thermometer into a hole made in the bed, and when temperature falls to about 90 deg. F. it is ready for spawning. The spawn of the cultivated mushroom is sold in bricks by all the larger seedsmen. Another variety is sold in flakes, but the brick spawn seems to be better. The bricks weigh about one pound and cost from 12 to 15 cents each, or about $7.50 per 100 pounds. Each br.ck is broken into a dozen or eighteen pieces. ]Make holes in the bed about 10 inches apart each way and insert the pieces of brick-spawn so that they will be covered two inches deep. Beat the covering as firm as rest of bed. Let the spawned bed stand for 6 to 8 days and then cover the whole with two inches of clean garden soil. This soil covering must not be put on until at least six days after spawning. The beds, if out of doors, must be covered with rain-proof cloth, such as the ordinary oiled plant-bed cloth. Over this if the air is very warm, mats of straw may be placed to keep the bed cool. The beds must be watered if the soil shows any tendency to crust on top. Use water heated to 100 deg. F. Cold water must not be used. Give just enough water to moisten the top two inches of soil and no more. The fruits or "mushrooms" will begin to push through the soil in from 5 to 7 weeks, according to the temperature. The plants are salable in all stages of growth, but are most valued when just out of the "button" stage — when the cap can be distinguished from the stem. The mushrooms tend to come up in clusters. In gathering it is best to twist the stem off its hold on the underground spawn. If necessary the stem may be cut off. The crop should be gathered every day. If any mushrooms are allowed to attain full size, yield of bed will be diminished. The bed should continue to bear from four to six weeks. The average yield is about 3-4 pound per square foot of bed surface. After the first crop is gathered -the bed should be copiou^y watered with warm water, to each gallon of which has been added one ounce of nitrate of soda. In lack of nitrate, use a strong decoction of hen manure for same purpose. -A second crop can be obtained, often superior to the first. The market price for mushrooms varies greatly. It sometimes reaches $1.25 per pound, but as a rule the 74 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. price is from 25 cents to 50 cents per pound for young, fresh stock of uniform size. At present mushrooms are consumed chiefly by the wealthy and only first- class goods are salable at any price. The lower grade of mushrooms must be consumed at home or utilized in manufacture of catsups or sauces. The lo-pound "Georgia" grape basket is a suitable package for shipping mushrooms. The basket should be lined with clean white paper. Pack solidly and keep as cool as possible until sold. Some mushrooms are poisonous, notably the Ama- nita genus. If you are inexperienced in the mush- room business, you will do well to avoid eating tlic following kinds of mushrooms: 1. All mushrooms which are worm-eaten, or in the least degree decayed. 2. All mushrooms which are woody or corky. 3. All mushrooms which are bitter, sour or peppery to the taste. 4. All mushrooms which have a fetid or strong dis- agreeable odor 5. All mushrooms which have a sheath surrounding a bulbous or swpllen base. 6. All mushrooms having a milky juice, uidess the milk is reddish. 7. All bright-colored mushrooms having a sticky, warty or scaly cap with thickish gills. 8. All tube mushrooms wdiose flesh changes color -when broken, or whose tubes have reddish mouths. A good wav to test the edibility of mushrooms is to break off a piece of the cap about the size of a grain of corn and chew it, rejecting the chewed mat- ter after a few minutes. If the mushroom seems to agree with any species described in this paper as edible, and is pleasant to the taste, the chances are greatlv in favor of its being wholesome. There is no reliable short test for determining the edibility of mushrooms. MUSKMELON. The muskmelon is a sensitive, annual, trailing vine, wdiich is very sensitive to frost. The term canta- loupe is quite often applied to muskmelons, but should only be applied to one group, which is characterized by a hard, scaly and sometimes deep-furrowed rind. Cantaloupes are grown very largely in the South for shi]imcnt and has proven most profitable. They thrive best when grown on a medium, light, sandy the fall before and frequent harrowing during the winter and spring. Where it is desired to get in an extra early crop, some growers start the plants under glass, as suggested for cucumbers, and transplant hem as soon as the weather permits. It is often dif- Fig. 15. — Eden, the Great Shipping Melon. ficult to get the vines to live, and it is best to plant the seed in bottondess boxes or in cans. These can be removed to the field, wdien the weather is cloudy or late some afternoon, and the plants transferred to the ground without disturbing the roots. The advan- tage of this practice is questioned by some, who claim that the melons are no earlier than thev are when Fig. 16. — The Ponce de L«on Cantaloupe. the grower waits until the weather is warm enough to plant the seed in the field direct. At the Arkansas loam. The land should be well prepared, by plowing Experiment Station, however, it is said that by start- The Garden is a Good Recreation Spot for the Business Man. 75 ing the melons under glass, the crop came off from lo to 20 days earlier. When the melons are planted out of doors, the rows for cantaloups should be six feet apart, and the hills three feet in the row. It is the custom to plant from ten to fifteen seed in a hill. Muskmelons and canta- loupes should be fertilized with well-rotted barnyard manure, or 500 pounds of commercial fertilizers, a.s recommended in the Fertilizer Department of this book. As soon as the plants are up and past the seed leaf they can be thinned out, say to the three largest in the hill, and later thinned to the two strongest plants. Cultivation should be shallow. After the Varieties for Home Market — Early Hackensack, Emerald Gem, Paul Rose, Kinsman, Queen, Mont'-eal Green Nutmeg, Bay View. For enemies to muskmelons see Diseases of Garden Plants, also the Insect Department. Fig. 17. Fig. 18. runners are about two feet long, it is a good plan to sow broadcast thinly, with some kind of field peas, and sweep out with long sweeps about five times to the middle, or a cultivator witli three sweeps on run- ning three times The vines should then be placed in as nearly a natural position as possible, which should finish the cultivation. The melons at present in favor for shipping are mostly of small or medium size and high quality. A good shipping melon should possess the following points: i, productiveness; 2, firmness; 3, high quality; 4. uniformity: 5, attractive appear- ance; 6, keeping quality. Firmness results primarily from a firm rind, and secondly, from firmness and thickness of flesh, or smallness of cavity. As to quality, reputation for quality will sell the melons from a given region, at good prices, when otherwise they would prove a drag on the market. Among melons grown here, the following are con- sidered best for shipment. The varieties are named in the order of preference: First Choice — Golden Netted Gem, Rocky Ford. New Jersey Improved Button Strain of Extra Early Jenny Lind, Early Netted Gem. Second Choice — Matchless, Burpee's Melrose, Jer- sey Belle, Baltimore Market, Jenny Lind, Cosmopol- itan, Champion Market, Wood's Perfection, Osage Long Island Beauty, Large Baltimore. MUSTARD. Mustard is grown for greens mostly in the South, but IS grown some tor seed. It requires a warm, rich soil, preferably a sandy loam. It is sown either broadcast or planted in drills. If broadcast, eight quarts of seed per acre are required. It requires about the same cultivation and fertilizers as turnips. WHin Velvet OKRA- Fig. 19. OKRA OR GUMBO. Okra is a Southern plant, and is grown without 76 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASUI^E. much difficulty, and thrives in all garden soils. It is planted about the same time as snap beans, and the cultivation is about the same as cotton. The rows are usually three or four feet apart, and the plants should be from one to two feet apart in the row. The seed should be covered about one inch deep and planted when there is a good season in the ground, as the seed are hard and slow to germinate. The green pods are used for cooking as long as they snap easily. ONIONS. Onions are coming to be one of the best paying vegetable crops in the South. Up until a few years ago little attention was paid to them except for local consumption, but now many growers are making splendid profits raising and shipjiing them, especially in the extreme South where the Bermuda onion is grown for early shipment in April and May. There are three methods of growing onions which we will describe : First, with sets, second, by sowing in the fall and transplanting early in the spring, and Fig. 20.— White Multiplier Onion Sets. third, by sowing the seed in the open ground in the spring as soon as the weather will permit. Onions for sets are grown principally for bunching, and sold green to supply our spring market : they are not suitable for ripe dry onions, as they will not keep, al- though we have kept the Pearl variety through the summer for home use. Sets can be grown in the South as well as in the North, and are much preferred. The seed should be sown on very thin soil, too poor to produce weeds, and sown very thickly in the row, so as to produce very small bulbs ; they ought not to be much larger than a pea. From seed sown in March or April, the sets will be ready to pull in July when they can be laid by to plant in the fall for the young spring crop of bunch or green onions. It would be well to apply a dressing of chemical fertilizers to the soil devoted to growing sets, applying at the rate of 400 lbs. per acre, and this should be applied some- time before sowing the seed; this gives the fertilizers a chance to be assimilated with the soil. Fig. 21. — Bermuda Onions just arrived from L,a Fourclie, La. Another good method that is practiced by some, is to sow the seed in shallow boxes in the hot-house then transfer them to the cold frames later, then transplant to open ground in the spring as soon as the weather will permit. There is some work attached to this method, and the work should be well done, but no more than planting the sets, and is less costly if you have to buy your sets. By following this meth- od you can produi^e onions that will grow to large size, and ripen suitable to supply home markets or ship to more distant sections. Another method is to grow the seed in February Or early in March in open ground where you expect to mature the crop, but this method requires high cul- ture and well prepared soil, and in fact either method requires this, but the latter method must not want for any cond'tions that 'are required to force an early growth, and grow the crop to maturity. A clay loam or a mucky soil is suitable for onions ; in preparing the soil, it should be plowed deep and fine, so as to leave no lumps, finishing with a heavy roller to firm the soil, as onions form bulbs on the surface, onlv the roots penetrate the soil. This rule applies whether you follow either method. The best soil for onions is a rich, well-drained loam. Heavy clays, hillsides and stony lands should not be planted in onions. Muck lands that have been in cultivation for three or four years produce excel- lent crops of onions. The land that onions are plant- Complain of Hard Times. Some Folks Leave the Garden to the Children, and n ed on should have been in some heavily manured, hoed crop the preceding year. It is a mistake to plant onions on weedy land, or on land that is run down. Land for onions cannot be made too rich. The more manure you place under your onions the better crop you will make. If you are in the onion business, remember that fertilizers pay. Use anywhere from 40 to 50 two-horse wagon loads of stable manure, and from 500 to 1500 lbs. of commercial fertilizer, as di- rected in tlie Fertilizer Department of this book. Then during the growing season, the most successful growers apply from 250 to 500 lbs. of nitrate of soda, applied broadcast in three or four applications. Re- member that fertilizer applied to onions is not lost, Fig. 22. — Tliree Globe Onions. for you do not have to rotate onions, but can grow them from year to year on the same land. Onions are planted in rows from 12 to I4 inches and about 4 inches in the row in garden culture, whether you plant sets or sow the seed and thin to a stand. On an extensive scale it might be well to wi- den the rows to admit of horse culture, but with the improved implements for hand work, this crop with high fertilizing, will pay for close planting and hand culture. Some growers lay off their land slightly ridged, but we prefer a level, but are careful to firm the soil before planting. Cultivation should begin as soon as the young plants are seen. The soil should be loosened on both sides, and thrown slightly away from the plants. Throughout the season, the crop should be hoed whenever weeds appear, or the ground becomes hard. Of course shallow cultivation should be given. After the bulbs begin to form cultivation should not be so frequent. As soon as the onion is mature, the stalks become weak just above the bulb and the top falls over to the ground. When this occurs the crop is ready for harvesting, even though some of the tops are green. They can then be pulled, but should not be allowed to dry in the sun, as it is liable to scald them. .As a rule, the onion crop in the South ripens at a time when rains are frequent, consequently they should be cured under a shed. Here they should be spread out in slat trays on shelves so that the air can circulate through them freely, and in this position they will keep until they can be marketed. When ready to market trim off the tops and roots and pack in crates, assorting them to a uniform size. The dark red and yellow va- rieties are often shipped in sacks. A dry loft is a good place to keep them. Within the last few years what is known as "The New Onion Culture," has come into practice. The seed are sown in cold frames in Novemberor Decem- ber under glass in rich soil and the plants transplant- ed to open ground in February or March, when they are about the size of a good quill. While the cost is a little more for transplanting them, yet it is claimed that the saving in work afterwards, thinning, etc., the gain in growing larger crops, more onions of a mar- ketable size, more than pays for the extra cost of transplanting. For enemies to onions, see Diseases of Plants, also the Insect Department. PUMPKIN. The pumpkin is grown for both man and beast, and is quite a paying crop, especially when grown with some other crop. It is quite a splendid crop to grow ' in corn fields. As a food for dairy cows, it is said to be equal to ensilage. If the land is very fertile and the vine grows very rapidly, the pumpkins cannot be 78 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. planted closer than ten or twelve feet apart. Six or cig'lit seed should be planted in a hill, and two of the best plants allowed to crrow. The crop is grown with comparatively little work, and brings in good returns when marketed, as the demand for them is increasing. should not be grown in the summer time, as they will be stringy and tough, which renders them unfit for use. Winter radishes can be planted from the first When grown with corn they do not need extra fer- tilizers or work other than given the corn. They should be planted in April, or when the soil gets warm. RADISH. The radish is a quick growing, early season garden crop. It grows best in cool weather and must contin- ue until it is mature or it will not be tender. The crop is quite frequently grown in hotbeds or cold frames in the early spring. The seed hawing been sown in January or February, five or six weeks after planting the crop should be ready for use. The rows should be from a half to a foot wide, and the seed should be covered about a half inch deep. One ounce of seed should plant a hundred feet of row. They Fig. 24. — Rosy Gem Radish. to the last of September. The Rosy. Gem, or White Tipped Scarlet Ball is a popular variety, also the Half Long Deep Scarlet, also French Breakfast are popular. Fig. 2.5. — Improved American Rutabaga. RUTABAGAS. The rutabaga is also known as the Swedish turnip- Have a Good Fence Around the Garden to Keep the Chickens Out. 79 The root is a large fleshy bulb and is produced the first 3'ear, while the seed are not produced until the second year. Rutabagas do best on rich, well pre- pared loam soils. The crop is grown both for man and stock. Every farmer would find it to his interest to devote an acre or two to the rutabaga crop. The rows should be two feet apart, and should be planted from June to August, and harvested before freezing weather. It requires about two and a half pounds of seed per acre. The crop should be cultivated much the same as white turnips, but more care should be given to early thinning. The plants should be left no near- er than ten inches apart in the drill. The American r>rown seed give best results. plants being 8 or lo inches apart in the row. The plants should be kept free from weeds. When in bloom it is ready to cut. The roots should be protect- ed during the winter with straw mulch. SALSIFY, OR VEGETABLE OYSTER. Salsify, or vegetable oyster, is a hardy oiennial plant. The root is similar to the radish. It requires a deep, cool soil and the entire season to mature in. The seed should be planted in drills from one to two feet apart, and the plants thinned out to four or five inches apart in the row. The seed should be sown very early in the spring and covered an inch deep. One ounce of seed should plant a row 70 feet long. The roots may be dug in the late fall, or they may be allowed to remain in the ground all winter, digging as required. The roots when cooked have the flavor of oysters. fe&i SQUASH. Squashes require a warm, fertile, sandy soil. They are grown in hills about four feet apart each way for the summer or bunch varieties, and for the trailing varieties eight feet apart each way. The plant is quite Fig. 26.^Salsify. Gold«n Custard Squash. SAGE. Sage is a perennial garden shrub which is used for seasoning sausages, meats, and for other culinary purposes. The plants are generally started in a hot- bed, then set in rows eighteen or twenty inches apart. sensitive to frost and therefore should not be planted out of doors until the danger from frost is past. From eight to ten seed should be planted in each hill, and' after the danger from bugs is past, these may be thinned down to three plants. The seed should be covered one inch deep. The hill should be well ma- 8o TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE, nured with a good shovel full of well rotted manure or compost. Summer squashes should be eaten before the skin hardens, and winter squashes may also be eaten in this state, but if you desire to store winter squashes they should not be pulled until the skin hardens. Af- ter they are pulled, which should be before the first frost, they should be allowed to stand in the sun for a few days, covering them up at night with vines and other litter to protect them from the frost. Care must be taken that the skin be not bruised in handling them, or they will be likely to decay. SWEET CORN. Sweet corn is grown mostly for a vegetable and al- so for canning before the kernels are hard. It is claimed 'that sweet corn does not do as well in the South unless the seed are secured from the North each year. This, however, is a mistake, and if we could procure Southern grown seed, or save our own seed we would be much more successful. Sweet corn is grown and cultivated like field corn, except that it requires more intensive cultivation and richer soil for the best results. It should be planted in warm soil that has been well prepared and heavily fertilized by the use of stable manure. It will not stand as much cold as field corn. However, you can take some risk, as early corn brings the best price. Be sure to use plenty of seed, for if the ground is cold part of the seed will be likely to rot. It should be planted at the earliest possible moment after danger from frost is past and continuous plantings made every ten days thereafter to afford a succession until late in the fall. The rows should be about three feet wide and the stalks allowed to- stand from one to two feet apart in the drills. Cultivate shallow until corn is in the roasting ear. SWEET POTATO. For directions for growing both sweet and Irish potatoes see Field Crops, under head of Potatoes. TEA. Indeed if this be true, and there is no reason why it should not come to pass, there is nothing in the world that can keep the South down. As it is, all the tea used in the United States is imported, and for the South to corhe forward and furnish our tea as she is doing in furnishing our cotton, sugar and rice, there is nothing that can keep her from being the richest part of the world. Tea requires a moist climate, and the temperature should seldom go below 25 deg. Fah. It is propagated from seed sown in the nursery, and when about a foot high transplanted. The seedlings are set from four to five feet apart each way. It is al- lowed to then grow about four feet high. Tea comes into full bearing when it is about six years old. The tea of commerce is the immature leaves of the tea plant which have been dried. The leaves are first withered in the sun by artificial heat, and then rolled to give them a twisted shape, then fermented to bring out the peculiar tea flavor, and then fired by spread- ing in thin layers and allowed to dry in the sun or by artificial heat. For more complete information on this subject we refer you to Report of Agriculture No. 61 issued b}' the U. S. Department of Agriculture. These bulletins are distributed free. TOMATOES. Tomatoes are used more in canning than any oth- er vegetable. They can be grown in almost any part of the United States. As a rule plants are grown from Fig. 2S. — Matchless Tomato. Experiments made at Pinehurst, S. C, on a planta- seed started in a hotbed or flats in the greenhouse, tion of 50 acres planted in tea indicate that tea cul- They may also be started in the kitchen window, ture can be made a profitable industry in the South. Growers should select their seed each year from per- Seed that are Cheap in Price are as a Rule Cheap in Quality. 8l feet fruit whenever this is possible, as much finer to- matoes can be grown from such seed than from those usually purchased. Tomato plants should be started early. Most e.xperiment stations agree that plants should be transplanted twice. Rich soils especially prepared should be used in the flats or hotbed. Scrapings from the horse lot, piled up and rotted and then run through a common screen are excellent. Pack this soil in the flats, wet thoroughly, then sprin- kle your seed over evenly, and sift on enough fine soil to cover and place on the benches. They should begin to come up in from three to five days. The young plants should be given plenty of light and air Fig. oil. — Ijwari Tiniiaiiirs Crown on Soul ln-iu Rurallst Farm. Atlanta, Ga. and kept well watered. You want to secure strong plants, and it is essential that they be kept growing all the time. Within a month or six weeks after the plants come up, they are ready for transplanting. They should be set four or five inches each way in the cold frames, or they can be placed in tin cans, ber- ry boxes and the like. The soil in the beds should be rich. Continue to .give them plenty of air and sun- shine and stir around them once a week with a hand weeder. The plants should be twelve or fifteen inch- es high before they are transplanted to the field, but be sure that all danger of frost is past before they are removed to the open ground. In this last transplant- ; ing cut out a square of earth and remove with the plant so as not to disturb the roots of the plants. Wet the bed thoroughly before beginning this opera- tion and remove to the field in a spring wagon. A rich sandy loam which has been heavily manured the previous year for some vegetable crop is the best place for tomatoes. Then apply from 500 to 1000 lbs. of a high-grade fertilizer per acre in the drill. Set the plants three feet apart in rows which should be five feet wide according to the fertility of the land. A light mulch of straw or hay is sometimes used under the plants to keep the fruit off the ground. Some kind of support will have to be used to hold up the vines, for they will not be able to support themselves. Tomatoes are easily injured by handling, so in placnig them on the market great care should be ob- served that only sound tomatoes are gathered, and that these are not bruised by rough handling. If ap- plications of 50 lbs. nitrate of soda per acre is given when the fruit first begins to set it will add much to the size, quality and earliness of the crop. Cultiva- tion should begin almost immediately after setting the plants and continue as long as possible without injury to the plants. Chalk's Early Jewel, Dwarf Champion, Living- ston's Beauty, Matchless, Imperial, etc., are good varieties. For enemies to tomatoes see Diseases of Plants in this chapter ; also the Insect Department. TURNIP. The turnip is grown in the United States principal- ly as a table vegetable, and is used very little as a stock food. Tlie seed may be sown either very ear- ly in the spring and an early crop secured, or in x\u- gust and September and a winter crop produced. The Fig. 31. — Early White Flat Duteli. Early Purple Red Top. 82 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. plant is not sensitive to frost, and grows best in cool, moist weather. They may be sown broadcast or they may be drilled in rows about a foot and a half or two feet apart. The plants are thinned from 4 to 8 inches in the row arcording to the variety sown. The White Egg-, White Flat Dutch, Purple Top Globe, and Snow White are excellent varieties. WATERMELON. The watermelon is grown very largely in the South, not only for home consumption but for shipment. It is a native of Africa and many fortunes have been made and lost growing this delicious melon. Water- melons should have a well-drained, sandy loam. They do well after cowpeas or velvet beans and should nev- er be planted on the same land more than once in five years, but should be rotated with other crops. An old straw field is an excellent place for melons, and if you desire them extra early select a southern slope. Prepare the land well by deep plowing, and if the land is rough this should be done in the fall. Then m the spring lay off your rows ten feet apart and bed out to a center furrow. If the land is very poor it is a good idea to broadcast with barnyard manure be- fore bedding out. Now lay off rows at right angles across these beds every eight or ten feet and put in a good shovel full of well rotted compost in the checks. Add to this a handful of high grade fertilizer, mix this with your manure and soil, and mix thoroughly with a hoe. When danger from frost is past plant eight or ten seed in a hill, an inch deep, firming the soil over the seed. After the plants are up and have started to grow, thin to 3 plants in a hill and later, after danger from insects is past, thin to one or two of the strongest. In cultivation, work the soil back towards the row, and after the first plowing cultivate very shallow, keeping it up until the vines begin to set fruit, after which cultivation should cease. At the last plowing it is a good idea to plant a row or so of cow peas in the middle to help shade the melons. Fig. 32.— A Tempting Slice. Fungus Diseases of Garden Plants ASPARAGUS RUST. This disease appears on the seedling and on neg- lected plants about the first of June. After a little, slits are formed in the bark from which the rust pro- trudes. It has been the practice to cut and burn the affected parts. While this practice will get rid of the disease the plants are often injured. You are apt to', see rust proof varieties advertised. These varieties while they are not subject to rust, still are sometimes Prepare Your Land Well for the Garden. 83 affected. One of the best remedies is to spray with Bordeaux mixture. The plants may be sprayed with 1 power spray where asparagus is raised over large areas. ANTHRACNOSE. Anthracnose appears on the bean pods in the form ,bf dark colored pits, and spreads rapidly from pod to pod. The disease passes the winter in the bean, and ijtfvhen it is planted the next spring, the plant soon tives evidence of the disease and shrivels up and dies, br fails to develop. The disease also affects cucum- jers, pumpkins, and muskmelons. It may be check- ed by spraying with Bordeaux mixture when the dis- [;ase first appears. If it secures a hold the diseased 'portion should be removed and burned. It is a good dea to soak beans in hot water at a temperature of 1|l49 deg. Fah. for 5 minutes before planting, or at 130 leg. Fah. for 15 minutes before planting, which will cill the fungi that are likely to be on the seed. RUST. Rust attacks more vegetables than perhaps any oth- hr fungi. It forms small brown spots on the foliage jind these spots frequently change from brown to )lack. The disease appears on the inside of the leaf md works outwards, and for that reason it is diffi- ■:ult to administer a treatment. The diseased parts Ihould be removed and burned, and the plants spray- d with a diluted Bordeaux mixture. BLACK ROT OF CABBAGE. This disease has come into prominence within the jast few years, and is now a serious hindrance to cab- )age growers in many States. On account of its eriousness, it will be treated in more detail than [nany of the other diseases. It appears on the plant ^t any stage of growth and is characterized with the iiollowing symptoms: dwarfing, or one-sided growth :)f the heads, or if the disease is very severe and be- ^an early in the growth of the plant, the plant will fail lio head at all. It is frequently the case that the plant dies liltogether. Sometimes the head rots and falls off. The |:ause of the disease is a yellow bacteria which enters he plant above the ground through small openings snown as water pores. As yet there is no evidence liivhatever that the organism can enter the plant through the root system. The disease is not confined to cabbage, but it affects all members of the mustard famil}^ It has been found on turnips, causing a brown internal rot, also it affects cauliflowers, kale and rape. It is easily spread by animals going from one field to another, also from manure of animals that have been fed on plants affected with the disease. You can readily see the importance of destroying and not feed- ing affected plants. The parasite lives in the soil during the winter, and therefore makes it imper- ative not to plant cabbage or other plants of like na- ture on infected ground. So far no remedy has been found for this trouble that is any good. The only thing to be done is to prevent the diease from spread- ing. The following from a recent bulletin of the U. S. Department of Agriculture will be found quite help- ful. "i. Plant the cabbage on land where the disease has never appeared. When the plants are ready to set out inspect the seedbed very carefully, and if any cases of the disease are found reject all of the plants and set from some other bed. One cannot afford to run any risk of infecting his land by the use of seedlings from suspicious beds. It would be better to plant some other crop than to take this risk. A good prac- tice is to strew the land to be used for seedbed with straw or dry brush and burn it over before plowing. The seedbed should be made in a different place ev- ery year. "2. Set the plants on land which has not been in cabbages or other cruciferous plants for some time. If it is impossible to avoid following cabbages by cab- bages, at least take the precaution to plant only on land which has never suffered from the disease. To follow any other course is simply to invite trouble. The practice of planting cabbages after cabbages for a long series of years also invites other parasites and must, as a rule, be considered very bad economy. "3. As a matter of i)recaution avoid the use of stable manures, since these may possibly serve as means of carrying the disease into uninfested fields, that is, through cabbage refuse fed to animals or thrown in- to the barnyard or onto manure piles. As far as pos- sible make use of commercial fertilizers in place of barnyard manures, both in the seed bed and in the field, at least until it shall have been shown conclu- sively that there is no danger in the manure pile. Too much stress cannot be laid on the necessity of keep- ing the germs out of the soil, and consequently on the 84 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. avoidance of practices which, if not absolutely prov- ed to be dangerous, are at least questionable. "4. Do not turn animals into diseased fields and then allow them to wander over other parts of the farm. Cattle or other stock should not be allowed to roam in cabbage fields where this disease prevails. "5. All farm tools used on infected land should be scoured bright before using on uninfected land. The transfer of soil from infected to healthy fields ought in all cases to be reduced to a minimum. "6. Keep up a constant warfare against insect ene- mies, especially the cabbage butterfly and the harle- quin bug. "7. As a palliative remove badly affected plants from the field as fast as they appear. In early stages "9. Store cabbages from diseased fields only when it is impossible to sell them in the fall, and in such cases take particular care to reject all heads showing any trace of black in the stump and to keep all parts of the houses below 40 deg. Fah. If any affected heads are stored they should be put by themselves in the lowestj coolest part of the house.'' CLUBFOOT. This disease is quite common to cabbage and kin- dred plants, such as turnips, radishes, etc. It may attack the plants at any time, and cause them to ap- pear sickly. The disease sometimes appears in the roots and causes the whole root system to become :J3. — Garden of Dr. K. L. McChirg, Atlanta, Texas of the disease — i. e., while it is still confined- to the margins of the leaves and has not yet entered into the head or stump — go over the fields systematically about once every ten days and break off and remove all the affected leaves. Do not throw this refuse into cultivated fields or into ditches from which it can be washed to other fields or on roadways to be tracked about. It should be burned or put into a deep pit in some fence corner or other out-of-the-way place. "8. Weeds which harbor the disease, especiallv the ■wild mustards, must be destroyed systematically. one mass of diseased tissue. Spraying seems to do no good. An application of air-slacked lime, however, sometimes helps, if put on at the rate of 75 bushels per acre. The disease sometimes remains in the soil for a year or more, and we would therefore recommend the wide rotation of crops, and the removal and burn- ing of all affected plants. LEAF BLIGHT. Leaf Blight attacks many plants, especially of the Buy the Very Best Seed, and a Plenty of Them. 85 ^ mustard family, such as cabbages, turnips, radishes, I etc. This disease causes the leaves to discolor and fall off. It may be controlled by spraying with Bor- I deaux mixture. Perhaps it is a different form of i Leaf Blight that attacks celery than that which at- I tacks the plants above referred to. Some claim that i the form that attacks celery flourishes most in dry j weather, while others claim that dry weather is death I to it. It is treated in the same way that ordinary Leaf I Blight, that is, with a fungicide, such as Bordeaux mixture. DAMPING OFF. This disease attacks many plants. The stem de- ' cays near the surface of the ground and the plant falls off. There is little that can be done for this dis- ease, except to pick all diseased parts and burn them. See also that the land is well drained, and the soil about the plants kept stirred. A liberal application of lime will sometimes help. POWDERY MILDEW. fi || Powdery Mildew affects plants that produce much (vine. The fungus grows on the surface of the leaves I forming a fine powder. It also affects the stem of plants. It may be checked by spraying with some ' fungicide such as Bordeaux mixture in a diluted form. DOWNY MILDEW. This disease appears on cucumbers, onion, pump- kins, squash, watermelons, etc., and appears as yel- low irregular spots on the leaves, which are soon en- tirely covered. The disease may be controlled by spraying with Bordeaux mixture every ten days. TOMATO BLIGHT. Tomato blight appears as sudden wilting of the vines. The small roots decay and the vine soon dies. Diseased plants should be dug up and destroyed. A wide rotation, never planting on the same land more than once in four years, and the liberal use of lime on land intended for tomatoes is the best remedy. TOMATO BLACK ROT. This black rot affects the fruit, a black spot appear- ing on the seed end before the tomato begins to ripen and gradually enlarging until nearly half the fruit is affected. The best remedy is to avoid the direct use of fresh stable manure on this crop and frequent spraying with Bordeaux mixture, which is made as follows : Into a 50 gallon barrel pour 30 gallons of water and suspend in it 6 pounds of bluestone in coarse sacking. Slack 4 pounds of fresh lime in an- other vessel, adding water slowly to obtain a creamy liquid free from grit. When the bluestone is dissolv- ed add the lime milk slowly, with water enough to fill the barrel, stirring constantly. Apply this mix- ture with an ordinary sprinkling pot about once ev- ery two weeks until the blight has been gotten rid of. Quantity of Seed Required. SEEDS NECESSARY TO PRODUCE A GIVEN NUMBER OF PLANTS AND SOW A GIVEN AMOUNT OF GROUND. Quantity per acre. Artichoke, i oz. to 500 plants '; lb. Asparagus, i oz. to 200 plants 5 lbs. Barley 2 • -^ bu. Beans, dwarf, i quart to 150 feet of drill . . 1^4 bu. Beans, pole, i quart to 200 hills '■/.: bu. Beet, garden, i oz. to 100 feet of drill 10 lbs. Beet, Mangel, i oz. to 150 feet of drill 6 lbs. Broccoli, I oz. to 3,000 plants 5 ozs. Broom Corn 10 lbs. Brussels Sprouts, i oz. ro 3,000 plants 5 oz. Buckwheat J^ bu. *Cabbage, i oz. to 3,000 plants 4 oz. Carrots, i oz. to 250 feet of drill 2^ lbs. *Cauliflower, i oz. to 3,000 plants 5 oz. *Celery, i oz. to 10,000 plants 4 oz. Clover, Alsike and White Dutch 6 lbs. Lucerne, Large Red and Crimson ... 15 lbs. Medium 10 lbs. 8C) TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. *Colards, i oz. to 2,500 plants 6 oz. Corn, sweet, i quart to 500 hills 8 qts. Cress, I oz. to 150 feet of drill 8 lbs. Cucumbers, i oz. to 80 hills i>4 lbs. Egg Plant, I oz. to' 1,500 plants 4 02. Endive, i oz. to 300 feet of drill 3 lbs. Gourd, I oz. to 25 hills 2>4 lbs. Grass, Blue Kentucky (cleaned seed) 2 bu. Hungarian and Millet Yi bu. Mixed Lawn 3 bu. " Orchard, Perennial Rye, Red Top F'owl Meadow and Wood Meadow 2 bu. Garlic, bulbs, i lb. to 10 feet of drill 2 bu. Hemp V2 bu. Kale, I oz. to 3,000 plants 6 oz. Ko'hl-Rabi, i oz. to 200 feet of drill i>4 lbs. Leek, I oz. to 250 feet of drill 4 lbs. Lettuce, i oz. to 250 feet of drill 3 lbs. Melon, Musk, i oz. to 100 hills i,H lbs. Melon. Water, i oz. to 25 hills \V2 lbs. Nasturtium, i oz. to 50 feet of drill 10 lbs. Oats . 2>4 bu. Okra, I oz. to 50 feet of drill 10 lbs. Onion Seed, i oz. to 200 feet of drill 4 lbs. " " for transplanting 2j^ lbs. " for sets 60 lbs. " Sets I quart to 20 feet of drill 8 bu. Parsnips, i oz. to 250 feet of drill 5 lbs. Parsley, i oz. to 250 feet of drill 8 lbs. Peas, garden, i quart to 160 feet of drill .. i>'2 bu. " field or cowpeas, broadcasted 2 bu. Pepper, i oz. to 1,500 plants 4 oz*^ Potatoes 9 bu. Pumpkins, l quart to 300 hills 4 qts. Radish, i oz. to 150 feet of drill 8 lbs. Rye ^Yi bu. Salsify, i oz. to 60 feet of drill 8 lbs. Spinach, i oz. to 150 feet of drill 10 lbs. Summer Savory, i oz. to 500 feet of drill .... 2 lbs. Squash, summer, i oz. to 40 hills 2 lbs. winter, i oz. to 10 hills 3 lbs. Tomato, i oz. to 2,000 plants 4 oz. Tobacco, I oz. to 5,000 plants 2 oz. Turnip, i oz. to 250 feet of drill , .... Ij4 lbs. Wheat I to 2 bu. *The above calculations are made for sowing in the spring; during the summer it requires double the c|uantity of seed to give the same number of plants. NUMBER OF PLANTS OR TREES TO THE ACRE AT GIVEN DISTANCES. Dis. apart. No. Plants. Y2 foot 174,240 1 foot 43.560 i>4 feet 19..360 2 feet 10,890 2.Y2 feet 6,969 3 feet by i foot i4>520 3 feet by 2 feet 7,260 3 feet by 3 feet 4.840 4 feet by i foot 10,888 4 feet by 2 feet 5.444 4 feet by 3 feet 3,629 4 feet by 4 feet 2,722 5 feet by 5 feet 1,742 6 feet 1,210 7 feet 889 8 feet 680 9 feet 573 10 feet 435 IT f^et 360 12 feet r*. 302 15 feet 193 t8 feet 134 20 feet 108 25 feet 69 30 feet 49 GATHERING PEACHES. Book III. Fruit Department Edited and revised by P. J. BERCKMANS, AUGUSTA, GA. Poultry make good scavengers and insect gatherers, when placed in the orchard. 89 Fruits and Nuts. APPLES. Apples are raised in most of the States. While apples are not raised so extensively in the Southern States as in some other States, still apple growing has been quite a profitable industry in the upper sec- tions of the Southern States. Virginia, West Vir- ginia, Tennessee, Georgia, Western North Carolina, and the Ozark section of Arkansas produce excel- lent apples. set out in the fall, as more satisfactory results are obtained, than when trees are planted late in the spring. In the Southern sections, vegetation al- though inactive in winter for the formation of leaves and new wood, is never so, as to new roots. A tree transplanted during November or December, will by the ensuing spring have formed sufficient new roots to give it a firm hold in the ground and will grow more rapidly when active vegetation begins in the sprmg than trees planted in March or April. This ir r- Fig. 1. Apple Tret's in Siiiilh Bros.' Nurseries, Concord, Ga. The ideal location of an apple orchard is on a gen- tle eastern or northeastern slope which has full wa- ter drainage. Some varieties, like Shockley, succeed well in sandy loams. Low, flat meadow loca- tions should not be used for an apple orchard. Hard wood timber lands, limestone soils and loamy clays are especially desirable for apples. Of course apples for home consumption can be grown almost anywhere in the United States where farming is car- ried on at all. Trees one and two years should be set out, rather than use older stock. They should be rule holds good for all deciduous fruit trees. The trees should be planted from thirty to forty feet each way according to the quality of soil. For this climate, experience has taught us that one and two year old trees of thrifty growth are the most desira- ble. One should bear in mind that such trees can be removed from the nursery with all their roots ; whereas a four or five year old tree can not be taken up without cutting away a large portion of them. Success in transplanting is increased according as at- tention is paid in selecting well-rooted trees, instead 9° TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. of heavily-branched one. Give as many sound roots, and as little head to a tree as possible. Preparation of the Tree. Before planting, remove all broken roots, cut back one year peach or apple trees to a naked stem one and one-half or two and a half feet high, leaving no side branches. Two year old trees should have their branches cut back to one-half their length or more, the lower limb less fhan those above, cutting in shorter as you go upward, and leaving the leader the longer. Plant as deep as the tree was standing in the nursery row, excepting dwarf pears and cher- Fig. 2. — One-year-old tree with Line to Show Where to Cut Back (U. S. Dept. Agr.) ries, which should be planted sufficiently deep to cover the stock from 2 tO' 3 inches. It is best to al- low the tree to form its head in its permanent place rather than in the nursery row. To insure the earliest crop of fruit after trans- planting, always select one or two year old trees. In planting the roots should be placed in their natural position, and the dirt trampled around them tightly. All plants and trees that are transplanted should be set a little deeper than they were originally in the nursery. Contrary to some people's belief, an ap- ple orchard should be plowed deeply every year, be- Fall and For the first four or five years crops such as potatoes, small fruits, cotton, corn, etc., may be grown between the rows of apples. Small grain crops should never be planted in an orchard unless it is desired to throw an overluxu- riant orchard into bearing, or where the ground is not well drained, and this is the only plan of evapo- rating the water. Horticulturists advise cultivating the crop until June or July, and then seeding down the orchard with some leguminous crop, such as vetch, cowpeas, etc. In fertilizing orchards, potash is the element most- ly used. If you have a small farm, this can be best supplied with unleached wood ashes, using from 40 to 50 bushels per acre each season. If you have not enough wood ashes, you may use from 500 to 700 pounds of muriate of potash. Nitrogen in a great many cases is especially desirable, as it promotes the growth of wood, and it rejuvenates old worn-out or- chards. It can safely be used in all old orchards, for they are always in need of nitrogen. If a ma- ture or bearing tree does not make a foot or more growth upon all shoots per year, or when the tree matures in season and the leaves have a yellowish appearance, it is a sure sign that nitrogen is needed. But on the other hand, if the tree makes a vigorous growth each season, and has large leaves which are dark in color, this is a sign that the tree has plenty of nitrogen, and the use of any more nitrogen should cease, as this will be of damage rather than a benefit. When the trees have a sufficient amount of nitrogen the leguminous crops should not be used. Apples should be gathered when they have at- gmnmg when the trees are first set out. Fig, winter plowing is as a rule advisable. 3. — Two-year-old Tree with Lines to Show Where Cut Back at Transplanting. (U. S. Dept. Agr.) to The Doctor has Little Business in the Home Where Fruit is Eaten. 91 tained their largest size, and not wait until they ma- ture on the trees, as tliey will keep much better, and develop a better flavor to gather early, than to wait for their maturing on the trees. Where apples are stored, they should be free from currents of air, and storeroom should be kept as cool as possible. Ap- ples that are bruised should not 'be stored, as they not only soon decay, but cause others to decay also. Apples should be picked from the tree by 'hand, and not knocked down with a stick. Apples that do not find a market as such, can be turned into profits by evaporating, preserving, ap- ple butter, etc. The feature of by-products in ap- ples is quite an important one, for the profits or loss comes in these small matters. Alany farmers find it profitabe to make apple cider and vinegar. Let the farmer see to it that nothing is wasted in the way of fruit. W it will not sell change its form and make it sell. For twig blight, see Pear Blight, for Brown Rot, see Brown Rot of Peac'h. All insects are treated un- der the Insect Department, such as moths, apple tree borers, etc. BLACKBERRIES. Blackberries grow wild, but the improved varieties have been cultivated to considerable extent through- out some sections of the South. There is money to be made in the cultivation of blackberries as well as other berries and fruits. The blackberry has grown wild for a long time, and are free as a rule to any one that will pick them, hence the public fails to recognize the value of cultivated blackberries. The valued of the cultivated blackberries over those growing wild in fence corners, is recognized because of their commercial value. The public is realizing the superiority of the cultivated berries over the wild berry as the better market price fully attests. They should be planted on a rich, deep loam soil, which is well drained. The land should be as thor- oughly prepared as possible, and the fall is the prop- er time for this preparation. About the same fertil- izer should be applied to blackberries as is applied to Other garden crops. They are propagated by using root cuttings, or by tips for dewberries. These cut- tings can easily be made by cutting the roots in two inch lengths. They should be set out in March or a little earlier. The rows should be six feet apart, and the plants put three to four feet apart in the row. The blackberry must be cultivated, if you hope to have results. But you say that the black- berry grows wild without cultivation. Granting that this is true, yet we want to produce a superior berry, and this can only be done by cultivation, prun- ing, and fertilization, and by planting the best im- proved varieties. Cultivation should extend through the season, and should be sufficient to keep down fhe weeds, and keep the ground thoroughly stirred. Pruning is quite important in raising blackberries. The object of pruning is to force the plant to assume a strong, stocky form that will be self-supporting, requiring no artificial assistance from trellises or stakes, and also to cause vigorous lateral shoots to put forth, on which the crop is mainlv set. There- fore, as soon as the suckers have reached the proper height in early summer, after the fruit is off, it is the practice to top them back, but the proper height is still an unsettled question. Many growers top at one and a half feet, a large number at two feet and a half, some at three feet, and a few at a still greater Fig. 4. — Rooted Tips of Blaclicap Canes. height. In this section it is probably advisable to top at two and a half feet. All shoots coming up in the proper position along the row should be topped as they reach this height, until an average of some five or six canes to the yard has been secured, after which all others should be treated as weeds and cut out unless required for propagation. Where young shoots, however, are observed to be 92 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. affected with either Orange Rust or Anthracnose, they should be taken up bodily and burned, no mat- ter how ugly a gap in the row such destruction may leave, and the grower would do well to thin his canes with an eye more to the eradication of these two maladies than to the production and maintenance of a symmetrical and sightly row. Theoretically, a plat should be kept in stools of five or six canes each, some three feet apart in the row, but this will be found almost impossible to ef- fect in practice, and hence the advice given here is to preserve a number of canes approximating five or six to the yard, as stated, located in the most con- venient spots along the row, as they chance to pre- .sent themselves. Thus the original site of each stool will soon be lost, and the row will take the form of a short, stocky hedge. This is the only practical method of treatment. Trellising in various forms has been fully tested, and has proven superfluous and impractical with blackberries when properly pruned, though advisable with dewberries, as will be noticed under the proper head. During the winter, the dead canes — those that have borne previous summer — should be removed. A piece of hoop iron, bent in the form of sugar tongs, and a pair of ordinary pruning shears are the best implements for this purpose. Just before growth commences in the spring, the laterals that formed on the topped canes of the pre- vious summer should be shortened in about one-third. This may be done with either pruning shears or or- dinary hedge shears. The yield varies, being anywhere from 20 to 100 bushels per acre. The first year a moderate crop will be produced and by the third year, they should be matured and producing full crops. CHERRY. The cherry should have a rather rich, warm soil. Perhaps a dry gravelly or sandy loam is about as good soil as can be secured. Cherries are propagat- ed by budding and grafting. They should be set in the orchard when from two years old. The sour va- rieties should be planted 18 feet each way, and the sweet varieties 30 feet apart each way. Cherries be- gin to bear in two to three years. The tops should be started from three and a half to four feet from: the ground. The cherry orchard should be cultivat- ed clean until the fruit is ripe, after which it may be planed in cotton, potatoes, etc., but no grain. Do not use too much of nitrogenous manures. As a rule, cherries are short lived throughout the middle sections of the South, and succeed there only occasionally. They, however, thrive in the upper or mountain sections, where several orchards have yielded good crops. The only cherry that may be called hardy in the middle sections is the common Mozello. CHESTNUTS. The growth of chestnuts for profit is a new indus- try. Native chestnuts grow in the limestone sec- tions of the South, and find ready sale. The larger the nuts, the better the price paid for them. Chest- nuts are propagated by planting the seed, and the seedling later grafted or budded with improved va- rieties. Nuts intended for seed should not be al- lowed to dry out, for they will not germinate. When kept over winter for spring planting, they should be preserved in a box buried about si.x inches deep in the open ground and alternating in single layers with moist sand. Chestnuts have a long tap root,, which makes them difficult to transplant, therefore they should be planted where they are wanted if possible. Where you have native chestnuts, they can be cut down, and the sprouts when they grow tO' two or three inches in diameter can be grafted with new and improved varieties. Commercially, the cherry is not much grown throughout the South, but for home consumption, every family should have a few cherry trees. Cher- ries are divided into two groups or classes, the sweet and the sour cherry. The sour cherry is grown more than any other, because it is more resistant to sum- mer heat. DEWBERRY. The Dewberry is of the blackberry family, that has recently come into cultivation. Its fruit is from ten days to two weeks earlier than the blackberry. They ripen just between raspberries and blackber- Many Men Make a Living on a Few Acres of Strawberries. 93 ries, and therefore there is a great demand for them. It is handled very much on the same plan and prin- ciple as the blackberry. Dewberries are propagat- ed by what is known as tipping, i. e., by the end of the young canes, and can be grown on any clay soil, also light or sandy soils, if the land is well fertilized. They are usually planted six feet each way in checks, and are planted any time from December to March, provided the ground is not too wet. Prepare stakes during the early fall to stake all that you planted the previous winter, or spring. These should be seven feet long, and they should be driven in the earth about twelve or fourteen inches deep. As soon as the buds begin to swell, the canes of the dew- berries should be tied to the stakes, using three strings to each one. Another method is to use stakes three feet out of the ground, nail a wire on top and train the canes over these. About sixty crates, each crate 'holding thirty-two quarts, may be produced per acre, and after deducting all expenses, crating, packing, freighting, and all such expenses, they aver- age a net profit of $i.OO per crate. As to the enemies of the Dewberry, see Insect Department in another part of this book. CHINKAPIN. This is a dwarf chestnut and grows wild. So far as has been learned there is only one improved va- riety under cultivation. FIG. The fig is grown in all of the Southern States, and usually thrives in good soil. It has not received the attention in the South that it should. This is due to three reasons: There has been until recently a very slight demand for figs, but now this is increas- ing. It can be cultivated as an orchard crop, but some difficulty is connected in shipping the fruit to distant markets. If shipped in refrigerating cars and carefully packed in pint cups, t'his difficulty is lessened and good prices are realized in East and Northern markets. However, if handled with care fhey will sell readily in our local markets. As a rule, figs will not last over twenty-four hours after they are gathered. To be good for eating purposes, it must ripen on the tree and can not be gathered prematurely like the peac'h or plum. A rainy sea- son through the ripening season means ruin, for the fig insists upon taking its moisture through the soil, and not have it poured on it. The fig through- out the South has never been planted in orchards to any extent, but every family, especially in the sec- tions that can be cultivated away from the moun- tains, will gain much by having several trees in their backyard. They are very shallow feeders, and to disturb their root system in the orchard with the plow, means their destruction. The best soil for figs is a well-drained loam well supplied with lime, potash and phosphoric acid. The figs are propagated from hard wood cuttings of the previous season's growth. The cuttings are made and handled like grape cuttings. Cuttings in the South may be set out in March. Bulletin No. 6l of Georgia Experiment Station, says: "The fig grows so readily from cuttings, and therefrom produces bearing wood in such a short time that it would be useless to consider here any other method. While it also responds tolerably to grafting, little is gained thereby, since the same scion, used as a cutting, would produce fruit on its own roots almost as soon, certainly bearing a small crop the second year, if a vigorous variety. Where this is not the case, graft- ing may be resorted to, but the fig does not take kindly to "stubbing back" and the probability of its advantageous employment is such a remote contin- gency that it may well be ignored. "Cuttings may be taken either in late winter, just before the sap starts and after all danger from se- vere frost is past— in w'hich case they may be at once set out in the nursery row, with the terminal bud even with the surface — or they may be cut ear- lier in the winter, bundled and buried, as with grape cuttings. In either event the cuttings should be long— ten inches or a foot — with several joints or buds, and in diameter from the size of a lead pencil to that of the little finger. The latter size generally making a thriftier growth. Long cuttings stand a better chance to strike root than do shorter ones, as they are most likely to reach permanently moist soil. "Cuttings may be sometimes planted to advan- tage in the place the tree is to permanently occupy. If the conditions are favorable and the cuttino-s grow off promptly it should attain the heig^ht, the first season of from three to six feet. A few fio-s may be obtained the first year from Brown Turkey and Green Ischia, and the third season a good crop should result if the tree has not been cut back by 94 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. frost, as is frequently the case in our climate. In this event it is customary to remove the injured wood, cutting clear to t'he ground, if badly frost-bit- ten, and starting a new stool of canes from the root. It is not uncommon, with prolific varieties to find the cuttings covered with young figs in the fall of the first 3'ear, these are not "brebas," although the first and only crop of that season, because they are necessarily borne on the new wood, and they are sometimes cut off prematurely by frost. "If either a cutting or a rooted plant from the nursery fails, when set out in its permanent place, to grow off well at the start, it is useless to leave it and endeavor to bring it out by subsequent atten- tion, such as manuring or cultivation ; it is unlikely to ever develop into a vigorous plant, something is radically wrong with its vitality, and it is better to grub it up and replant. In transplanting, only the most healthy and vigorous specimens from the nur- sery should be selected — and this is one advantage in using rooted plants. On the other hand, a year's time is frequently saved by employing cuttings. Only the less vigorous need be replaced. In or- chard planting, however, it is somewhat difficult to protect the cuttings placed in situ during the earlier stages of their growth, and this consideration often induces the owner to select rooted and therefore larger and more conspicuous plants. "In 'handling fig cuttings and rooted plants for both home use and shipment, neither the cuttings nor the roots should be permitted to dry out. If so, they are worthless, for they never recover their moisture like other plants." The "Smyrna Fig" is the commercial fig of the countries east of the Alediterranean Sea, and is the dried fig of commerce of this country. Bulletin No. 61 of Georgia Experiment Station says : "They are, as their name indicates, of Asiatic . origin, and to Syria, Asia Minor, Northern Africa and Greece, their cultivation is to-day practically con- fined. The figs so widely distributed throughout It- aly, France, Spain and Portugal are almost entirely the "Domesticated" or mule type. " 'Smyrna figs' contain only pistillate or female flowers. These, if pollinated artificially swell and grow, developing into the finest figs known to com- merce. Unpollinated, they shrivel and drop off. Pollinated 'Smyrna' figs dry readily in even a semi- humid climate like that of California, and present, even in Florida and South Georgia, our only chance or hopes (albeit a slender one) of ever developing this branch of the fig industry. 'Mule' figs only dry successfully in a rainless season, and here their profitable manipulation would .be impossible ; that is to say, the product, as compared with Asiatic, Eu- ropean or even California dried figs, would be found so inferior that the attempt would have to be Fig. 5. — Fruit and Foliage of Fig. abandoned. This being the case, it is altogether un- necessary to enter into a detail of the process of drying in this Bulletin. Pollinated 'Smyrna' figs ac- quire a rich, aromatic, nutty flavor that is exquis- ite in the fresh product and extends to even the dried article. The finest grades of commercial dried figs are all of the 'Smyrna' class. Quite recently their culture has been successfully introduced, on a small scale, into California — the pioneer in this work being George C. Roeding, of the Fancher Creek Nursery, at Fresno. Yet without the close compan- ionship of the next class — 'Caprifigs' the 'Smyrna' fig would be absolutely valueless, as self-pollination is of course impossible. "'Caprifig,' or Wild-figs' (literally 'Goat-figs') were evidently the prototype of t'he entire race. They rarely develop edible quality and their prov- ince in nature is apparently to serve as pollinators for the pistillate group. This they effect in a most peculiar manner. The 'Caprifig' with its first crop, or 'Profichi' (referred to more in detail further on) whic'h is the one used in artificial pollination, bears three kinds of flowers. First, Staminate or Male, clustered in a compact mass around the interior rim of the 'eye' (sometimes termed the 'ostiolum' or 'lit- tle mouth') their anthers or pollen case blocking See that all fruit is well Packed Before Shipping. 95 the exit like a screen of brushwood. The rest of the interior of the receptacle bristles with 'Gall' flowers but there are no Pistillates. In the base or false ovary of the Gall flowers, which are merely degenerate pistillates, the egg of the Blastophaga grossorum or 'Fig Wasp' — a minute insect — is de- posited, hatches and develops to maturity. The wingless males emerge first and with powerful man- dibles cut into the flowers containing the female wasps partially release and impregnate them. The gravid females shortly complete the liberating, and being winged, at once seek to escape for the instinc- tive purpose of ovipositing. They emerge from the eye of the 'Caprifig' after squeezing through the mass of pollen covered anthers protecting the exit and seek other fruit in which to lay their eggs. Nat- urally they would enter the nearest 'Caprifig' in the proper stage of development. But meanwhile, if the 'Caprifig' containing the colony has been plucked from its stem and suspended from the branches of an adjacent 'Smyrna' tree, the female, on emerging, forces her way into a fruit of the latter class, losing her wings in the process, and at once begins a fran- tic scramble around the interior, searchinsf for the anticipated Gall flowers, in which to oviposit. I-"ailing, necessarily, to find them, and incapable of again taking flight, she finally curls up and dies heartbroken, but not until she and her companions between them pretty thoroughly pollinated every fe- male flower in the cavity with the plentiful store of pollen conveyed from the 'Caprifig' — therebv in- suring the development of the fruit. "It is in this way that 'Smyrna' figs are artificial- ly pollinated. The process is termed 'Caprification,' and required, of course, for its own conduct, the par- allel cultivation of a sufficient number of 'Caprifig' trees to furnish the necessary quantity of Blasto- phaga to pollinate tiie crop of Pistillate 'Smyrna' figs. It is estimated that some 400 females, on an average, emerge from a normal 'Caprifig' and from 50 to 100 figs per tree are needed for the thorough pollination of the crop, while the proportion of 'Cap- rifig' trees to 'Smyrna' trees, should be for thor- ough work, according to Eisen, about i to 50. "Seed of pollinated 'Smyrna' figs (even when dried) are capable of germination, and from their planting it is impossible to originate new varieties — a field of work that at no very distant day may offer an inviting opportunity to the patient experimenter in this section of the South. Yet it should be noted that all 'Smyrna' seedlings are not 'Smyrna' figs, but true hybrids, with the hybrid tendency to revert more or less to the male parent — the 'Caprifig' — this greatly reducing the chance of obtaining a valuable product in the progeny." The fig can be crowded more than it would seem possible. It is only necessary to give sufficient dis- tance between the rows for passage between them, and the trees may be crowded in the rows so close that the top branches of the trees touch. It may be safe to say that the trees may be placed anywhere from 10 to 15 feet apart, up to 20 by 20 feet apart for orchards, depending, of course, upon the loca- tion, and the size the bush grows. Where they are placed close together, they should be fertilized ac- cordingly. The best fertilizer for figs, is barnyard manure, supplemented when the trees are bearing by an addi- tion of phosphoric acid and potash, using five pounds of acid phosphate and two pounds muriate of potash broadcast will be of sufficient quantity. Figs where they are to be shipped should be packed in 24 quart berry crates, (as shown in illus- tration) for nearby markets. There are many cities and towns in the South that will consume all that will be grown for many years. GRAPE. Planting the Grapevine. The grape is one of the surest fruit crops grown anywhere in the country. A great deal of money has been made raising grapes, and as t'hey are al- most sure to bear, it is quite a safe crop. Vines of most varieties commence to bear the second year af- ter planting in the vineyard. They are easily 96 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE- grown and do well on almost any soil. There are upwards of three hundred varieties grown in the United States, but all varieties in cultivation that are of any importance as market sorts, may be re- duced to fifteen or twenty. The selection of the site of the vineyard is of great importance, and therefore should receive the greatest care and consideration. Nearly any soil will grow grapes at least to some extent. The best soil, hov^ever, is a light sandy or gravelly one, on high elevation and exposed to the south so that there will 'be little danger from frost in the early ■winter. The soil should be well drained, and wet lands are not desirable for grapes. Limestone soils are very desirable. The best vines are strong, one year old plants from the cutting or layer, and with plenty of root. Before planting the top shoultl be cut back to two buds, and the root lo one foot in length. The grape is propagated by layers, or cuttings and grafting for a few growing- sorts. Pig. 7. — Tlie Kuilfin System of Grape Training. The growing of grapes from seed has given us our best variety, but the practice is only intended for experimental purposes. If you desire to raise from seed, select the seed from some very good va- riety. Choose the very best bunches, and then the very best berries. Take the seed from these berries and sow in the early spring in well pulverized clay soils in rows about one foot apart, placing seed one inch apart in drill, and cover three-quarters of an inch deep. When the young plants appear, keep them clean and well cultivated through the summer. In the fall take them up carefully and transplant the most promising plants in rows 5 to 6 feet each way, in good soil, then stake them, and carefully prune back the following winter. Seedlings may begin to bear fruit in three years. Should any of them show signs of disease in the leaf, pull them up, as it is use- less to keep them. The easiest and most simple way of propagation of the grape is by cuttings planted in the ground. While this plan will not succeed with all varieties, yet it will with most, and prove quite successful. It is done by selecting the best ripened wood of medi- um size and cut in lengths of from 9 to 12 inches, cutting close below the lower bud, and about an inch above the -ipper. They should be kept in the cellar during the winter or bury them in finely pul- verized soil, keeping the upper end downward. In the spring as soon as the ground is dry sufficiently, the bed should be prepared for the cuttings. The cuttings should be placed in this bed from one to two inches apart, and the rows from one to two feet apart. They will grow from one to two feet the first year. In the fall they should be taken up and set in the vineyard, as a good one year old vine is best. But a simple plan is to plant the cuttings in well prepared land in rows 3 to 4 feet apart and the cuttings four to six inches in the rows. All varieties of the grape may be increased by lay- ering. To layer a vine, s'horten in the canes of last season's growth to about one-half their length, then early in the spring, thoroughly pulverize the ground around them. Make a small furrow about T:hree inches deep, and bend down the canes, and fasten in it by the use of pegs. The canes may thus be left until the following winter and transplanted in per- manent places. Layering is practiced with varieties that do not readily grow from cuttings. When grapes are grafted, take a strong growing two or three years well established vine and use the cleft grafting method, inserting the graft four to six inches below the soil and hill up the graft with soil after having wrapped the cleft part with some thread that will decay in a month or two. do not use wax cloth, as this will eventually cut in the stock and injure it. The land should be thoroughly prepared by plow- ing and harrowing, before setting out a vineyard. The vines are usually planted six feet one way and eight feet the other. Some varieties, like Delaware, may be planted closer than this. It is better tc use rooted plants, as cuttings are unsatisfactory. You should see to it that the plants are first-class in ev- ery respect. The best are always the cheapest. Plant- ing can be done in the fall and in the spring when- Your Fruit Will hz Treated Like Every One Else's by the Railroads. 97 ever the ground is in good shape for work. The crown of the vine should not be planted too deep, as the grape roots naturally run very near the surface. Three or four inches is deep enough for the crown, but the roots should be put down in the soil, as shown in illustration. (See Fig. No. 6.) It is some- times the practice to put the roots on the sloping side of the furrows with the crown four inc'hes deep. The grape does not require a great amount of fer- tilizer. Phosphoric acid, and potas'h are the greatest need with the grape. The following is a very good general formulae for grapes: 500 pounds of Fine ground bone, 300 pounds of Sulphate of potash, Or the following: 200 pounds of Nitrate of Soda, 200 pounds of sulphate of potash, 400 pounds acid phosphate, Of course the fertilizer should be varied according to tlie particular ground that is used. The first two years, some hoed crop, such as peas, beans, etc., may be grown in the vineyard, but clean cultivation is preferable. There are maiiv methods of training grape vine, but perhaps the best is to train on a trellis made of two or three wires. The top wire should be about five feet from the ground, the bottom wire two feet from the ground, and the other wire midway between these two. For enemies to grapes, see Insect Department, and Diseases of Trees and Vines in this chapter. MULBERRY. The improved varieties of the mulberry are grown quite considerably throughout the South, for feeding poultry and hogs, the fruit 'has no other commercial value. The best variety for these purposes are, first Hicks, and second Stubbs and Downing. The Hicks produces fruit during a period of six to eight weeks. The Stubbs is the best for fruit as a feeder for silk worms. At present the world's supply of silk is se- cured from Europe and Asia where they have cheap labor. Mulberry is propagated by cuttings of the ripe wood or of roots. Early spring grafting with entirely dormant scions is the most successful meth- od of grafting the mulberry. When the fruit is ripe it drops from the trees, 'and may be gathered by shaking the trees, and allowing the mulberries to fall on a sheet. The mulberry has another value, in that birds are very fond of them, and it frequently pays to have one or two mulberry trees to furnish food for the birds, for by doing so, you can protect your valuable fruit. Fig. a. — New Aiueriican Mulberry. Fig. 81/2.— Downing Mulberry. ORANGES. Excepting the apple and peach, the orange is the most important fruit grown in the United States, but its area is confined to localities where 'heavy frosts do not prevail, therefore the citrus fruit belt may be considered to be only in the extreme South- ern part of the United States. As varieties are not certain to come true from seed, budding must be resorted to if one expects to have such fruit as the market demands. Good plump seed selected from home-grown fruit may be used for producing seedlings for budding or for growing in the orchard for fruit. Seed intended for propaga- tion should never be allowed to dry out. Ift'hey are not planted immediately, the seed should be mixed with moist sand, and allowed to stay until warm weather comes in. The seed should be ready to be transplanted to the nursery the following spring. The trees should be planted in the nursery from a foot to a foot and a 'half apart. Then by the next spring the seedlings will be ready for budding. Bud- ding, though sometimes practiced in the summer and fall, should be done when the trees are in full sap. After they are budded, the trees should remain in the nursery from one to two years. The trees should be set out any time from December to March ist. Tlie land should be prepared by thorough working. Some growers advise breaking the soil a foot deep, and then using a subsoil plow breaking it still deep- er. As to the distance the trees should be apart, it 98 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. is a difficult matter to lay down any general rule. The distance varies according to the variety grown, the method of pruning and richness of soil. How- ever, (although circumstances may call for different distances), seedling trees should be placed from thirty to forty feet apart each way, semi-dwarfs like the Mandarin eighteen to twenty-four feet apart each way and tlie dwarfs about lo feet each way. When the trees are first set out it is the common practice to cut off a large part of the top, leaving only short stubs or branches. In growing oranges, the object is to pro- duce a vigorous and heall'hy tree. If the soil is fer- tile, and is resistant to drouth, a great deal of culti- vation will not be nece:-,/,ary. Tf on the, other hand. the soil is thin, although well fertilized, it will be The orange tree requires but little pruning after the removal of the undesirable and dead branches. PEACH. Commercial Peach orchards began to be planted to a limited extent in Georgia and South Carolina about 1854, but it can be said that the industry really began on an extensive scale immediately after the Civil War, until now millions of trees are in full bearing and yield fruit of a quality that commands tl.e very best prices. On account of is iinportance, we go into the culture of peaches in detail, and espe- cially for commercial orcb.ards. There are a great manv kinds of soil where the Fig. 9.— Budded Orange Grove. BrroU Farm, Plymouth, Fla. quite necessary to give inorough and frequent culti- vation. A good supply of vegetable matter, or hu- mus, can be given by growing some leguminous crop, like a vetch or cowpea, when the trees are ma- turing their annual growth. An excellent fertilizer is a compost of muck and lime spread broadcast To protect the trees from frost some provision, which shall be ready for use at all times should be made. If the trees are rrown close to the f^round, conrsc hay, reeds, brush or similar material can be quickly piled up around the trunks and in among t'he branches with but little expense. Other methods, such as smoking, b^- using p'les of rubbish, are re- commended and used with good results. peach will grow successfully. Good orchards may be grown on stony and gravelly poor soil, as well as on fertile loams, and very light pine sands, on lime- stone soils ; on stiff red clay lands, and even on beach sands so light as to be blown about by the winds. To lav down a general rule, it may be said that peaches prefer a light, well-drained sandy or loamy land with a clay subsoil, although some very fine or- chards have been grown upon stiff clays, and deep sands. JMuck lands, and soils 'that retain the mois- ture, and in fact, all wet lands should not be used to plant peaches. In selecting a place for an orchard one thing of importance is to select a place where vou can reach tl-e markets. There are thousands of Plan Your Work in the Orchard, as you do Your Other Work. 99 acres of land throughout the South that would grow fine peaches if transportation facilities were availa- ble, but it would be unprofitable to plant peaches if they cannot be shipped. A peac'h orchard should be close to a main line of a railroad, so that they can be readily shipped to the markets. Also select the best part of the farm for the orchard. Some parts of a farm are better suited for peach growing than , others. As a rule higher lands are to be selected rather than the lower. A hillside with a Northern exposure is better than one with a Southern expos- ure, this being due to the fact tliat the Northern ex- posure will retard the opening of the blossoms, and in this way orchards w'ill escape the late spring frosts. After the site of the orchard has been chosen ; a se- lection of the varieties made, therefore, a proper pre- paration of the land should be the first point consid- ered. PREPARATION OF THE LAND. If the land is fresh and has just been cleared, it should be cultivated at least two years in cotton or some other crop adapted to the locality. Should this new land be too rich for peaches, the fertility could be reduced by planting it in corn or some other ex- haustive crop for a year, however, if it is old and worn out, it should be restored tO' a state of fertility before setting out the trees. The land should be broken up to the proper depth with a two-horse plow: followed with a sub-soil plow if necessary. Sow in crimson clover, cow peas, or plant potatoes, or some other crop w'hich will require fertilization. In late winter turn under the cover crop. Excellent results have been derived from the following treat- ment : stable manure or applying good commercial fertiliz- er. Plow under the clover in May, subsoil, and sow in peas. All peach lands should be thoroughly and deeply plowed, because after the trees are planted,, and are in growth, they can not be plowed deeply- All places in the orchard where the top soil has been washed away, should receive careful and special at- Fig. 10.— Proper Method of Pruning Peach-trees Whe» in the Orehard. Tree oo the left ready for planting (after Taft.) Set After the land has received the proper plowing and sub-soiling broadcast or drill in peas in May, using one bushel to the acre, 150 to 200 pounds of good fertilizer per acre will materially increase the growth. In February or March break up the pea vines by running over the ground with a Cuttaway Harrow, then turn under with a good turn plow. As the depth of the top soil has been increased, the land can be plowed to a greater depth than at the pre- vious plowing: stvbsoil again, if necessarv, and in No- vember your land is ready for the orchard. Another excellent mode of preparation is to sow crimson clover in September, first broadcasting with tention : such places are devoid of humus, and this; must be supplied by a liberal application of stable manure or compost, and should be put in peas and clover, which must be plowed under in March. In two years' time, by treating as above mentioned, these depleted parts of the orchard can be made very fertile. PLANTING. Check off the land at the proper distances, using a good two-horse turn plow. At the intersections dig a hole two feet square, throwing the top soil to one side, use a liberal amount of well decani.posed stable lOO TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. manure to each hole, have this thoroughly incorpor- ated with the soil ; if stable manure is not available then use from i to 2 pounds of bone meal, or the same quantity of mixture of two parts acid phos- phate to one part cotton-seed meal. When using chemical fertilizers the best results are attained by first setting the tree in the hole, fill up the hole one- half its depth, and then apply the fertilizer, but mix- ing it thoroughly wit'h the soil, firm the earth well about the roots of the tree and level off. CULTIVATION. After the trees have put out a growth of i 1-2 to 2 inches, rub off all but three growths, and these should be so distributed about the tree that it will be well balanced. The early rubbing off of the sur- plus growth can not be too thoroughly emphasized ; it is a great saving of time to do this rubbing off be- fore the young growth becomes tough. It is also not so severe a shock to t'he tree. The trees should be gone over once or twice during the growing season, and all superfluous growth ruljbed out. If these growths are allowed to attain some length it is then necessary to use the pruning knife, which is necesp sarily a slow and more expensive operation. Keep the orchard thoroughly cultivated, and the trees free from grass and weeds, drill in 3 to 4 rows of peas in the orchard ; leave at least 4 feet between the peas and trees. Cotton, melons, or other hoed crops should also be planted in the orchard, but if the land is poor, use peas. Let t'he vines remain on the ground and turn under in February or March with a one- horse turn plow. Great care must be exercised in plowing, especially the first strip near the trees, oth- erwise the roots will be injured. The depth of the plowing can be increased as the distance from the tree is increased. The Cutaway and Acne Harrows and weeders are the best and most economical tools for sub- sequent cultivation. The question has frequently been asked how often an orchard should be cultivated; the answer to this is, whenever needed, frequently an or- chard is gone over with the harrow and weeder as many as 20 times during a season. T'he ground should 'never be allowed to bake or become hard. Frequently beating rains will harden the ground; in this case the Acme or Cuttaway Harrow should be used to break the crust, but the cultivation should be shallow. During the fall and winter hogs could be pastured in t'he orchard, but under no circum- stances should horses, mules or cows be allowed to run at large. FERTILIZATION. For the first two years the growth of the orchard should be stimulated as much as possible by an abundant supply of phosphoric acid and nitrogen, but care should be exercised not to give an excess of nit- rogen. This is readily distinguishable by the vigor- ous growth, and the dark green color of the leaves. An excess of nitrogen will also produce an exuda- tion of sap, and immature the ripening of the twigs, which are frequently winter killed. When the tree shows a pale color it indicates a lack of nitrogen. In such cases an application of stable manure is Fig. 11.— PeacU Yellows (U. S. Dept. Agr.) beneficial. A most excellent chemical fertilizer to use at this period is a mixture of 1,200 pounds of acid phosphate, 400 pounds cotton-seed meal, and 400 pounds muriate or sulphate of potash ; apply broad- cast or in furrows on opposite sides of the tree at the proper distance from 2 to 4 pounds of this mix- ture according to the size of the tree. When the bearing period is reached, potash is needed ; this can be supplied in the form of muriate or sulphate of pot- ash. As the tree increases in age the quantity of this fertilizer per tree can be increased ; it is best applied Some hoed crop will help Young Orchards. lOI in February or March, or just before active root growth commences. Hard wood ashes when obtain- able is a most excellent and economical fertilizer. A bearing orchard should be given clean cultivation, which should be continued until the fruit is harvest- ed ; after that time, if practicable, drill in peas and continue the cultivation until middle of August or first of September. Many orchards do not require fertilization annually, but should be kept thoroughly and constantly in cultivation from spring until mid- dle of August or I St of September. If the trees re- ceive too much phosphoric acid and nitrogen the growth will be excessive, the fruit will lack color, and it will be very susceptible to Brown Rot ; in this case ashes or potash fertilizer should be liberally ap- plied. the fruit. Should the trees have a rank or vigorous growth the surplus wood should be removed. The pruning should be done annually. Great care must be exercised in leaving a proper quantity of fruiting wood. Frequently a peach crop is materially re- duced by an ignorant cutting away of too many fruit buds. BORERS. In early winter the earth should be removed from about the body of the tree down to the crown, all gummy exudations scraped off; for this purpose use a tool somewhat hke a farrier's knife. All borers should be carefully taken out, then apply the follow- ing wash, which is excellent to prevent the attack of the borer: Fig. 12,— Orcliard near Fort Valley, Ga. PRUNING. Upon proper and intelligent pruning will depend in a great measure the success of your orchard. In this section trees should be headed low when set out, I to I 1-2 to 2 feet above ground being the best height. The tree having been set to three limbs so that it is well balanced, i-2 to 1-3 of the previous year's growth of these limbs should be removed dur- ing the winter, and tree pruned so that it will have a broad open head, thus admittin-:^ light and air to I bushel of quick lime, 20 pounds of sulphur, I gallon coal tar, 50 gallons water. Mix tar and sulphur in 10 gallons of water in bar- rel, add lime, keep well stirred. When entirely slack- ed dilute to 50 gallons. Apply with a brush to the body and large limbs of the tree. In February draw the soil up to the tree, forming a cone about 6 inches above tke level. The above operat'on should b^ re- peated annual'". 102 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. THINNING. This is a most deceptive occupation. It should be started when the fruit is about 1-2 inch in diameter, and at that time we do not realize that these little peaches will attain a diameter of i 1-2 to 2 1-2 and frequently three inches, consequently the thinning process is not always sufficiently severe. Some va- rieties should be so thinned that when the fruit ma- tures there should be at least 4 to 6 inches between each specimen; this may seem unduly severe, but it will give you better financial results, and at the same time add to the healthfulness and life of the tree. Your entire crop of fruit will be of a merchantable size, and you will not have a lot of undersize and worthless fruit. All peaches removed from the tree should be carried to the dump and burned, as in this manner you will destroy thousands of Curculio in the embryotic state. Thinning the fruit in connec- tion with proper pruning and cultivation will keep the peach orchard up to its standard, and barring frost and storms there is no reason why the peach orchard should not produce a good crop annually and not have off years. CURCULIO. This pest is the cause of the loss of many car loads of fruit annually, and we should wage vigorous war- fare against him. Wild plums, crab apples, and haws are excellent feeding for this insect, and the ■careful cultivator will see that such trees are remov- ed from the vicinity of the orchard. It is well to re- move all woods adjoining the orchard, but if this is not practicable you should burn off the woods in late winter, so as to kill all the undergrowth. The only practical mode of destroying the Curculio is to jar the trees, catching the insects on cloth covered frames especially made for this operation. The best time to jar the trees is early in the morning and late in the afternoon when the Curculio is dormant. The jar- ring should commence as soon as the fruit is set, and should be continued as long as necessary. Spraying for Curculio is not entirely successful, but if 2 lbs. of arsenite of lead added to 50 gallons of Bordeaux is used when spraying for Brown Rot many Curculio will be desctroyed. BROWN ROT. The following treatment has given good results: 1st. Remove all mummified fruit, sTiould there be any on the tree. 2nd. Before the buds open spray with Bordeaux 4-6-50. 3rd. When in full bloom prune out all twigs and blossoms affected with Rot. 4th. When fruit is well set, spray with Bordeaux 3-9-50. 5th. Ten days later Bordeaux 3-9-50. 6th. Ten days to two weeks later Bordeaux 3-9- 50. The same spray should be continued at intervals of ten days to two weeks until the fruit begins to ripen. If the Bordeau.x is carefully applied there is no material injury to the foliage, but if milk or lime is used three days after an application of Bordeaux the shot-holding of the foliage will be greatly re- duced. Many orchardists do not believe in spraying, as the results obtained have been unsatisfactory, and in many instances the results have been fatal to the trees. Not infrequently the spraying is intrusted to the most trifling and most careless help on the farm, whereas, this should be done by the most careful and intelligent man. The spray should be thoroughly distributed over the tree, but not in such copious showers that the liquid will drip from the leaves, not run down the trunk of the tree in streams. Spray properly, or omit it altogether. Another most im- portant feature in reducing the ravages of Brown liot and visitations of Curculio is the removal of all fallen fruit. During the harvesting season the or- chard should be gone over carefully at least twice a week and all fallen fruit gathered up and carried to the dump and burned. After the crop is harvested it is well to go o\'er the orchard and cut out all twigs showing the effects of Brown Rot; these twigs like the fruit should be cremated. The above is taken from the transaction of the Georgia State Horticul- ture Society, prepared by Mr. P. J. Berckmans. All preparation of the orchard should be done in advance of the arrival of the trees. The selection of the trees is quite important. It is not necessary that they be large, but the trunks should be smooth and well grown, and the roots abundant and as little in- jured as possible. Before you give your order for trees, have a written agreement with the agent nur- sery covering each of these points. Make him spe- cify that they should come up to these requirements Don't let the Insects Get Started. 103 and state them. Remember that a few stress that are poor in quality means more than the price you pay for them, for they mean the land, cultivation, and other expenses that are not touched by the amount you pay for the tree. Nearly every State has enacted laws which compel every nursery man to have his trees inspected annually by duly appoint- ed State entomologists, who can not deliver a certifi- cate if trees are infested with scale insects or fungous diseases of an injurious nature, and further that all trees must be properly fumigated in a thoroug'hly well constructed house, with hydrocyanic gas before shipping. Failure to receive a certificate of inspec- tion forbids the sale of all nursery products and transportation companies can not accept any pack- age unless a certificate of State Entomologist is at- tached thereto. This is a protection for tree buyers and prevents diseased trees to be sold under penalty of a misdemeanor. The greatest care should be ob- served that they be not infested with borers, scale insects, etc. It is better tO' pay two prices for a tree of assured character, that it is to accept trees as a gift of doubtful character. In the selection of the variety, common sense should prevail. For instance in Georgia for the past few years, there has been more Elberta trees planted than of other varieties. As Elbertas ripen about the same time, there is often a glut of these in certain sections. Now the wise peach grower will plant some other varieties that will come in earlier or later than the Elberta. In order to get those that will pay commercially, the peach must have as many good points as possible. For instance, the trees must be productive, the fruit must be of good size, and fine : color, and superior flavor, and must be firm enough to stand shipping. ' Fifty to one hundred pounds of nitrate of soda or its equivalent in some other material per acre is as I much nitrogenous fertilizer as any orchard should have, and some orchards no not need any nitrogen j at all. Additional information can be had on the subject by reference to the chapter on Fertilizer 1 found in another part of this book. One great trouble with peaches in the South, is ' that fhey bloom during a warm spell in early spring, and then, comes a frost and kills the fruit. For that reason the crop is not as safe and sure as some other ■crops. The Missouri Experiment Station found that if peach trees are thoroughly whitewashed, that fhe trees absorb less heat on sunny days, and that the buds remain dormant, while the trees around them which were not whitewashed, bloomed. This is worth trying and may mean much to the peach grower. Picking and packing peaches require the personal supervision of the grower. You can not trust these matters to hired help unless you are there to look af- ter it yourself. A peacli should be picked and pack- ed with as much care as an orange. They should not be poured from basket to basket, as this will surely bruise them. More attention needs to be giv- en to picking peaches. If you pick a day too early the peaches are too green, and if you are a day too late they are over-ripe. If growers would give more Fig. 13. — Shipping Packages for Figs. (24 qt. crate.) attention to the picking, packing and shipping of their fruit, t'hey would certainly get better results. Some shippers make the mistake of shipping in too large crates or baskets. The best package is the six basket carrier crate. For the diseases of the peach see diseases of Fruit trees in this chapter. PEAR. The pear is one of the most delicious fruits grown. As a canning fruit, they are equally as desirable as peaches. On account of blight it is not grown so much as it otherwise would be. Pears, like most fruit, are propagated by budding upon seedlings dur- ing June and August. They will grow successfully on much heavier lands than either the peach or the apple, but succeed best on clay, or clay loams. The pear orchard should be well-prepared by deep, thorough plowing. Standard trees are set 18 to 22 feet apart, and the Dwarf 12 to 16 feet apart. The pear orchard should be cultivated similar to the peach orchard. Before the crops commence bearing some crops can be planted in the orchard, suc'h as pota- toes, cabbages, peas and beans. The pear tree begins bearing from five to eight years after planting, and 104 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. should continue to bear for fifty years, unless disease attacks it. As to fertilizers, if the soil be good, pears do not require any fertilizer until they commence to bear, when phosphoric acid, and potash should be applied. Leguminous crops are better than an appli- cation of nitrogen. Wood as'hes and grojnd bone are preferable to ammouiated manures. The practice of thinning pears is quite important, and should be practiced as regularly as for peaches. Thinning prevents them from overbearing, also im- proves the quality and size, and tends to make the tree bear each year. This is especially required for the Keiffer. Where the tree overbears, fhere is a tendency towards the tree failing to fruit every year. Pears should be picked before they are ripe, and be allowed to ripen in a closed room. They should be picked when they reach their full size, and a very slight color begins to s'how, and be carefully picked by hand. Varieties like the Clapp, which rot at the core as soon as it is fully matured, should be picked one week before tliey would mature on the tree. As to the variety which sb.ould be planted, tliis de- pends upon their prospecti\-e use If needed for home consumption many varieties of known good quality will be desirable, but if for market few sorts, except Keiffer and LeConte will pay. The Keiffer is grown more than any other commercially, as it is very valuable for canning and produces large crops at an early age of the trees. For enemies to the pear, see diseases of trees found in another part of this work. PECAN. The Pecan is tlie most important native nut tree in the United States. The tree belongs to the Hickory genus and grows wild in the rich bottoms of Ken- tucky, Louisiana, Texas, and south-east to_ Georgia. The bulk of the pecans of commerce are gathered from seedling trees, but orchards of grafted sorts are being set out throughout the South, and are provmg quite profitable. Pecans are propagated from seed, but only about fifteen per cent, come true to the pa- rent form, so most growers are budding or grafting pecans, but with a smaller proportion of success than with other fruits. They are quite difficult to bud or graft, and hence are very expensive, but in the end it pays much better to have the grafted or budded stock. You can then be sure to get what you want. After the pecan nut is planted it will take the tree two years to be ready to place in the permanent or- chard, and if budded or grafted, it should remain in the ground a year longer before being transplanted to its permanent orchard. The trees may be transplanted any time after the leaves drop in the fall and before the buds swell in the spring. It does not injure the tree to cut the tap root, and some growers recom- mend the cutting off of the tap root so that the tree will bear earlier than it otherwise would do. In transplanting trees of any kind the top should be cut back so as to put the young tree in good shape, and the amount of cutting back should be made to bal- ance the loss of roots. Few trees are injured by be- ing cut back severely. On very rich soils, pecan trees tend to grow wood rather than nuts. Sandy loam soils with a good clay subsoil has been found to give excellent results. Land that is suited to the cultivation of corn and cotton will grow good pecans. On poor soils, the trees should stand 40 feet apart each way, and on richer soils, and bottom lands they should be from 50 to 60 feet apart each way. The pecan orchard will require about the same care as other fruit or- chards. The pecan seedlings do not begin to bear fruit until the trees are ten years old, but grafted trees usually give their first crop wdien four years old. Few trees respond more readily to heavy and regular fertilization.. Trees 5 years old which were regularly supplied with washings of barnyard have been known to bear fruit. The nuts retail in the market from 5 to 50 cts. per pound. An extra large variety has been known to command $1.00 per pound in New York City. JAPANESE PERSIMMONS. The Japan persimmon is thoroughly adapted to the Cotton Belt. It does especially well in the coast region. The tree is a vigorous grower, an early and prolific bearer. As it is apt to overbear the fruit should be thinned out, leaving only a number com- mensurate with the size of the tree. The fruit va- ries in color and shape. The dark-flesh varieties are never astringent, but the light-fleshed should never be eaten until soft. The flesh also varies in color; in the pointed varieties it is usually deep orange; in these it remains solid and quite astringent until Cut off all Dead Parts of Trees. 105 I November, but become soft and edible after being ! house-ripened. In the round varieties, those having dark-brown flesh are edible while still solid, while most of these with orange flesh should be allowed ! to become soft before being eaten. The fruit of near- I ly every variety begins to color when half-grown, but should be allowed to hang on the tree until just j before a frost is expected, or in case of early ripen- ; ing varieties, when fully soft. If gathered before a frost, there is a slight astringency next to the skin, but this disappears after being kept in the house for a few days or weeks. If allowed to be sligTitly touched by frost the flavor is much improved, but the fruit will then not keep many days. Gather the fruit before frost, if intended for keeping; some va- PINEAPPLE. The pineapple and frost are bitter enemies. For this reason the commercial culture of pineapples is limited to Southern Florida where the temperature varies from y^ deg. to 76 deg. F. The pineapple is propagated from offsets from the parent plant. As a rule t'he suckers or offsets that grow near the base of the plant are most desirable to use in propagat- ing. In using these suckers, you can secure fruit much earlier than when you use slips, or offsets that are produced at the base of the fruit, for fhese require eighteen months or two years to produce fruit. In Florida the soils upon which the pineapple grows best is a fine sand which is exceedingly poor Fig. 14. — Pineapples as Grown in Florida. rieties will remain sound until January or February. The flesh is soft, rich and sweet, and of a slight apricot flavor. Some varieties will be perfectly seed- less during one or more years, and again every spec- imen will contain more or less seeds the following season. The best varieties are as follows in the order of maturity: Zengi, Migro-Tan, Maru-Gata, Aoong, Hi- yakume, Okame, Hachaya, and Tsum-no-ko. Trees of the early maturing sorts do not grow as tall as those of the late sorts. in plant food. "Hickory Scrub" is considered the best land for pineapples and this will analyze from 94 per cent, to 99 per cent, pure sand, under whic'h is a layer of yellowish sand. One of the most im- portant matters is that the land be well drained. It is not so important as to w'hat kind of soil you use, as it is how well that soil is drained. Pineapples will stand drouth considerable, but they cannot stand water. The Florida Experiment Station has con- ducted several experiments to determine the fertili- zation question in connection wit'h pineapples. As a result of these experiments it is suggested that if the io6 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. pineapple plants are set in July or August a handful of fertilizer composed of three parts cotton-seed meal and one part fine unleached tobacco dust should be immediately dropped into the bud. This furnished plant food, and prevents them from filling with sand. Then later, say in October or November, 680 pounds of blood and bone and 500 pounds potassium magne- sium carbonate should be applied. As soon as the danger of frost is over, this same application should be repeated, say in F'ebruary. Then just before the beginning of the rainy season from 1000 to 2000 pounds of blood and bone and from 750 to 1500 of potassium magnesunn carbonate should be applied. This same application should be repeated in October or November. The plants should be set in rows 30 inches wide and from 15 to 18 inches apart. Very little cultivation is necessary. It will be well enough to 'hoe them sufficicntlv to keep the weeds down. In the past few years pineapples have been grown under sheds. The sheds are built seven or eight feet high, and are covered with laths three inches wide, leaving a space between them equal to the width of a lath. These sheds protect them from frost, also from the very hot sun. The cost of production is not so high as it used to be, and the value of the market fruit is much greater than it was a few years ago. PLUMS. There is no more delicious or nutritious fruit than the plum, of which numerous varieties grow in the U. S. The European varieties which have been do- mesticated, are represented by the blue, red and yel- low plums and prodace excellent fruit. The great objection to t'he European plum is that they are sub- ject to the attack of insects and fungus pests, and cannot be grown unless they are given careful atten- tion. This group grows best on a deep moist loam, but they will grow on many other soils. They should be so planted as to allow full exposure to the air and sunlight, which will do much to prevent the rotting of the fruit and the growth of black rot. Ecw varie- ties of this group succeed except in restricted locali- ties. The second group are the Japanese plums which have become quite popular in the last twenty years, and are planted quite extensively. They are nearly all of vigorous growth and are precocious bearers. The fruit varies as to quality, some varieties being most excellent. Nearly all varieties are prolific bear- ers. They thrive in the same soil as the peach, and are subject to the same insects and fungus diseases. However, on acount of their bearing so much young- er and being more reliable than the European sort, they can be more profitably grown. They sTiould be so planted as to get the full benefit of the sunlight and air, as th.ey are subject to brown rot and black knot. The same method of pruning the peach ap- ])lies to the Japanese plums. The third group consists of American or native va- rieties of plun;s. Some varieties like the White Goose or the Chickasaw type are very prolific, pro- ductive and free from disease, and are well suited to the South. In order to get the best results from plums, it is necessary to cultivate the orchard. They should al- so be fertilized, using t'he same fertilizers and the same cultivation that you would use in growing peaches. The soil that is best adapted to plum growing is a heavy clay soil. However, plums will grow in a wide range of soils. The trees should be set 15 feet apart each way and either in the fall or spring. Trees should be one and two years old when set out. The Wild Goose will be expected to pro- duce some fruit when two years old. All broken and injured roots should be trimmed off before setting out, and the top trimmed to a whip alxmt two or three feet long. The tree should be planted a little deeper than it stood in the nursery. Overbearing in the Japanese and American groups is quite a com- mon fault, and therefore it is very important that they should be t'hinned. I'ruit growers should real- ize the importance of thinning fruit. By doing so, much larger fruit will be produced, and also you will get much more regular crops by thinning early if much fruit is set. QUINCE. Commercially the quince is not much grown. It cannot be eaten without cooking, and has little value except for preserving purposes. It makes perhaps t'he best preserves of any fruit, and in this consists its value. It has very little value as a shipping fruit, for the slightest bruise or scratch injures it. A few quince bushes are usually planted in gardens, but verv few orchards are in existence in the South. The Insects are the great enemies to fruit. 107 quince is propagated by hard wood cuttings taken in the fall or winter and placed in the sand. These cuttings should be a foot long. In the early spring, the cuttings after having been in the sand a couple of months, may be planted out, and remain in the Fig. 15. — 'Outlines of Prineiiial Varieties of Quinces. nursery for two or three years before planting out in the orchard or garden. The best soil for the pro- I duction of the quince is a deep, rich, moist loam. The trees should be planted 10 feet apart each way j or perhaps 12 feet each way, depending of course up- [ on the fertility of the soil. Nitrogenous manures I should not be too freely used. The fruit should be I gathered when it turns yellow, when t'he whole crop { may be gathered. They must be handled with a great deal of care, as the slightest scratch will cause the skin to turn brown. The fruit may be kept for a month in a cool cellar. RASPBERRY. The raspberry is grown most everywhere in gar- dens, but it is not grown for the market as exten- sively in the South as in the North-eastern States and on the Pacific Coast. There are two classes of raspberry grown in this country, the black cap varie- ties and the red. The black is sometimes of more commercial importance than the red, as it stands s'hipping better, and bears heavier. The reds are ! relished more than the black. The red raspberries are similar to the blackberry and are propagated in the same way, by root cut- tings or from suckers thrown up from the roots. It delights in a cool, moist location, but grows in almost every kind of soil. The land should be fertile if you expect large fruit. Barnyard manure should be used as a fertilzer and should be used liberally. There can be no definite rule laid down concerning the dis- tance the red raspberry should be planted. Different growers, and different varieties and different meth- ods cause a wide variation in the distance between the bushes. In very rich soils, it is perhaps best to have them in six feet rows and the bushes placed four or five feet apart, but in poorer soils three by five feet would not be too close. Raspberries will stand our coldest winters, but unless kept well cul- tivated during summer, excessi\-e heat will injure them. The raspberry should be cultivated shallow, as it is a shallow feeder and working; too deep is lia- ble to injure the plants. It is best to pick the fruit in pint baskets every day. They should not be pick- ed while wet if possible to avoid it. As soon as they are picked they should be sent to the market at once, as they quickly spoil. The black raspberries arc much better shippers than the red, and therefore are grown a great deal more commercially than the red berries. They are propagated by burying the tips of growing canes shallow, late in the summer, as shown in the illustra- shallow, late in the summer. The habits and growth of the blackcaps differ widely from the red berries. The black raspberries gi'ow if hills, and do not throw up suckers. Thev mature a little earlier than the red raspberries and are planted either 4 feet apart in rows, rows 5 feet apart, or 3 feet apart in rows, rows 6 feet apart. The end bud should not be planted more than two inches under the surface, but the roots should be planted down in the moist soil. The culture is about the same as for blackberries. STRAWBERRY. The strawberry is quite an important berry through- out the South. Over 200 bulletins from the differ- ent experiment stations have been issued, thus show- ing the importance of this fruit. Perhaps there is more money made out of strawberries than any oth- er crop. It is a crop that requires more skill in grow- ing and more shrewdness in marketing than any other, but when it is carried on as it should be, you need have no fear as to results. In exceptional in- stances $200.00 to $300.00 per acre have been realiz- ed. It is better for strawberry growers, that grow io8 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASUI^E. for t'he market to get together, so that they can co- operate in buying 'boxes, crates, fertilizers and the securing of the best shipping rates, etc. Before be- ginning to raise strawberries there are several ques- tions that you must answer. For what purpose are you going to raise strawberries? Do you want them for your family, or do you want to raise them for the market? i\nd then when you have decided these questions, there are others to be considered. In the next place, if you are going to raise them for mar- ket, are you to raise t'hem for the local market, or to ship? This question is important, for if you raise them for the local market you will want to get a va- riety that will do well in your locality, one that will ripen at a time to command the best prices and a quality that will be in demand by your customers. It takes more time and money to produce a berry of the best quality than it does to produce a berry of poor quality. If you desire to ship your berries, you will have to select in many cases, an altogether dif- ferent variety. It must bear sliipping well, be of best quality, large size, and good appearance. So you can readily see that there are several things that are to be determined before you are to go into the straw- berry business. .As to the soil upon which to raise strawberries, it is quite difficult to lay down a general rule. In Florida the best strawberry soil is a good flat wood soil. Next best is a hammock or "Bay-head." The soil must hold moisture well but not be soggy. Light sandy soils well fertilized good for an early crop, yield well, if you are in position to irrigate. Any land that will grow good corn will grow strawber- ries. The soil for strawberries should be well prepared. In fact, you cannot overdo the matter of preparation of your strawberry ground. It sliould be broken deeply and plowed in the fall, before the plants are set out. After the ground has been thoroughly broken, heavily manured with barnyard manure (from ten to twenty loads per acre should be put on,) the plants may be set in rows from three and a 'half to four feet apart. The plants may be set out in the fall or spring, (but fall planting is recommend- ed for the middle South) and should be from eigh- teen to twenty inches apart. They should be care- fully planted so that the crown is just above the sur- face level.^The same bed should not be used to pro- duce plants and fruits. Let the energy o[ one bed be devoted to one purpose. You can secure much larger berries if you grow berries and not plants in the same bed. Never take up the plants and reset them, that is, after taking up plants, never reset the ones that have been bearing, but use the plants that ar? made from the runners. One plot of ground should not be used longer than tliree years for strawberries, and to secure the best results, it should not be used that long. After the plants bear two or three crops, they loose their vitality, and cease to bear. The plant soon after it is planted in the spring should be mulched 'with straw as it keeps the weeds down, al- so retains the moisture. Fig. 16.— Planted Too Deep. Fig. 17.— Planted Too High Fig. IS.— Planted Just Right. There are several Systems of Planting Strawberries. The Hill System. This consists in setting the plants in rows three feet apart and placing the plants one foot apart and keeping the runners cut off.. The runners, of course, should be cut off as soon as they start out, and makes t'hem easier cultivated, mulched and harvested. There is a modification of this sys- Don't fail to work the orchard. 109 tern called the Hedgerow system in which the plants lare placed two and a half feet by two feet and the Iplants treated in the same way, except the plants are jallowed to fill in the space at eig'ht to ten inches apart. Wide Matted Row. This system consists in plant- ing the rows from three to five feet apart varying ac- pording to the fertility of the soil, and letting the runners grow over the space between the rows. ! The following cultural directions will apply to nearly, all sections of the South: The strawberry adapts itself to almost any soil which is not too wet or arid, but it will do best on a deep, rich, sandy tender, and more susceptible to being burned out during the hot, dry summers. Plants set out after t'he fall rains will yield a fair crop of fruit during the following spring, but a large crop cannot be expect- ed until the second year. It is undesirable to let the plants remain after the second year, and more profi- table to plant every 3^ear, so that one field may take the place, as the other is plowed up. Set the plants in rows, three by one foot, thus one acre will require, 14,520 plants: For the South we advise matted rows in preference to stool cultivation, as the former is more resistant to long drouths. After the crop is gathered, keep t'he soil well stirred and always free from weeds. Remove all runners as fast as they ap- pear; this will increase the size of the plant and also strawberries gro-wn by J. W. Goree, Wliitewright, Texas. jpam. The land should be thoroughly prepared by lleing broken up with a two-horse turn plow, first [pplying from fifteen to twenty-five two-horse loads f well decomposed manure to the acre ; a top dress- ig of hard-wood ashes, (thirty to fifty bushels,) luriate of potash (300 to 400 pounds,) or bone meal 500 pounds,) should be applied per acre during ebruary. Avoid nitrogenous fertilizers just before le blooming period, as these will induce a strong ine at the expense of the fruit; the plant is also )rced into a very sappy growth, which will make it the quantity of the berries produced. We have test- ed hundred of varieties of strawberries and find few that will give general satisfaction. Locality has a great influence upon the success of this fruit and therefore we cannot depend upon the same variety thriving equally as well in different soils and locali- tes. Mulching. After a thorough working of the soil in the early spring, a thin covering of straw or leaves should be placed around, but not over the plants. no TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. Let this mulc'hing remain during the fruiting period, then remove. Keep the beds well cultivated and free from weeds, during the balance of the year. Sex of blossoms. The blossoms of most varieties are perfect, or bi-sexual, and are termed staminate, but some varieties, destitute of stamens are imper- fect and are termed, pistillate. The latter are, as a rule the most productive if planted near perfect flow- ering sorts ; otherwise they will not produce fruit. Plant three rows of a good pistillate variety, and then three rows of a perfect or staminate sort, etc. Hoffman, Lady Thompson, Michel and Tennessee Pro- lific are good pollenizers, but care must be taken to keep the runners of each variety from encroaching upon others. The strawberry is a very perishable fruit, and therefore requires the greatest care in handling. The picking should be done early in the morning or late in the day when possible. The fruit should be re- moved to some cool place immediately, but should not be placed on ice, if possible to avoid it. They are almost universally marketed in quart baskets. Picking strawberries is one of the greatest problems t'hat confronts the grower. Some growers employ men, some boys, and some women. Perhaps the best results are obtained where women are employed to pick. One of the greatest, if not the greatest thing, in handling strawberries is to present them on the market in the very finest condition. When that is done, little trouble will be experienced to find a sale. It is much better, if you can get the pickers that will do so, to assort the fruit as it is picked. Great care must be exercised not to bruise the berry in picking or packing. By having large and small berries in the same box, the price realized will be less than if the fruit is properly graded. Put the large berries in one box and the smaller in another, and let the fruit at the bottom of fhe box be of the same size as that which is on top. Mix sizes bring only the price of the smaller ones. The smaller size rules. As to varieties, not all be as equally successful in every section, but the following have given the best results, as a rule, Lady Thompson, Brandywine, Wilson's Albany, Hoffman, Haverland, Sampler. FUNGOUS DISEASES. Diseases commonly known as rusts, blights, rots. mildews, etc., are known to botanists as fungous diseases. These fungous diseases are parasitic plant growths, t'hat grow on other plants, thus weaken- ing the host plant, upon or in which they grow, and causes them to cast their leaves, the fruit to become spotted or decayed, or the trunk or branches to be- come injured. These plants tliat cause so much trou- ble are very minute, and are frequently invisible to the eye. Most of these plants are more prevalent during moist and heat periods, although some, like the apple scab, grow in rather cold weather. Anything that will destroy a fungous plant is call- ed a fungicide. In growing fruits or vegetables it ■becomes absolutely necessary to use fungicides ac- cording to formulas given hereafter. THE APPLE SCAB. The apple scab attacks t'he fruit and leaves of the apple and pear trees. It is an olive green spot fun- gous that grows during moist, cool weather. It feeds only on the skin' of the leaves or fruit, often causing ; the leaves to fall off during t'he summer. It does not disfigure the fruit unless it attacks it early in the season, when it will cause the fruit to fall off also. Its main effect on the fruit is to disfigure it, and de- , stroy its keeping qualities. The spores in this dis- ease are very minute and can only be seen by very close observation, and are often carried long dis- , tances by the wind. | Remedy. Spray with Bordeaux mixture when the ,1 buds are swelling, and copper sulphate solution after J the fruit is nearly grown. j CEDAR APPLE FUNGOUS OR RUST. This disease is caused by a fungous which spends part of its life on the cedar. The disease causes small yellow spots on the under sides of t'he leaves, and sometimes on the fruit. Sometimes the leaves and fruit fall off. The disease attacks apples, pears,, and quince. Remedy. Where it is impossible to gather the ,j. cedar apples, and destroy them, the best thing to dO' is to cut down all cedars growing near apple trees.. Bordeaux mixture used as a spray in early spring' before vegetation starts is advisable. The Orchard Needs Fertilizers. Ill BLACK ROT. Blackrot is a disease that attacks the apple, pear and quince. The dying of the end branches, the dead patches of bark found on the branches and trunk are caused by this disease. It also attacks the fruit, and will be known by discolored patch and SDOts on the fruit. The injured parts are nearly black in color and studded over with pistulcs or bead-like projections in which the spores are produced. If it attacks the fruit, it finally cracks open and hangs on the tree over winter. Remedy. The tree should be sprayed with a solution of copper carbonate beginning soon after the fruit sets, and repeating if necessary two or three times. If trees are sprayed with Bordeaux mixture there will be less trouble with black rot as it acts as a pre- ventative. LEAF BLIGHT OR LEAF SPOT. This disease attacks the pear and quince, affecting the fruit, stems and leaves. The disease appears as soon as the leaves appear, and sometimes later, if the season is dry. It first appears as minute red dots about one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter which af- terwards grows to an eighth of an inch in diameter. These cause the leaves to fall off frequently in the summer, it also attacks the fruit, causing it to crack. At first the spots are red and then turn black. On the quince the leaves may turn yellow before t'hey fall off. Sometimes a second crop of leaves appear and eren blossoms, but the wood, (at the end of year,) that year's growth bccomet hard and is considered dead, fails to ripen, in which case the tree is liable to injury during the following winter, or to an attack of fire blight during the following summer. j Remedy. By using everal applications of Bor- Ideaux mixture, the disease can be controlled in a great leasure. FIRE BLIGHT. This disease attacks apples, pears and quinces, al- though the pear is more subject to it than either of the other two. The disease is bacterial, and is some- thing similar to the yeast plant in habit of growth, ind develops very rapidly in moist, warm weather. It is a one-cell plant, this cell enters the tree in some soft part, per'haps the pistils of the flower, or some broken place on the bark. The disease is frequently transmitted from one part of the tree or flower to an- other by bees and other insects. The disease may not be noticed until t'he leaves are seen to wither on the branch or branches attacked. Sometimes it only at- tacks a small branch, while at other times, the whole tree will be affected. Remedy. The diseased part should be cut off as soon as the disease appears, as far back as the wood seems to be affected, and the part cut off burned. This is about the only thing that can be done. Every- thing possible to give the tree a vigorous growth should be done. PEACH SCAB OR BLACK SPOT. This disease is causea by excessive moisture espe- cially in close weather. It is more prevalent on low lands than on high lands, for the trees on high land are exposed to sunlight and air. When the fruit is at- tacked early in the season the growth is checked, the fruit falls off and sometimes cracks. If it spots the fruit, the sale of the fruit is injured. Remedy. Spray with a solution of Bordeaux mix- ture just before the leaves appear in the spring, using strong Bordeaux, (4-4-50) and when t'he leaves have opened, with a weaker solution, (4-4-200) will prevent the attack. It is a good idea to spray .again after the leaves have unfolded and then once or twice in the latter part of July and the first of August. Paris green should not be used on peach foliage, but arsen- ate of lead may be safely used. BROWN ROT. This disease attacks peaches, and plums and is one of the most serious affecting these fruits. It causes the fruit to rot and quite frequently attacks the twigs, doing serious harm. The diseased fruit turns brown, dries up and becomes covered with a gray fungous covering. The peaches that are dried up on account of this disease frequently remain on the trees all the winter, and should be removed and burned to pre- vent the disease being held over. Remedy. Spray with copper sulphate before ftuds swell, and with Bordeaux mixture before flowers open and again with Bordeaux when fruit is set. Repeat this at intervals of 10 to 14 days. Dusting the flowers I 112 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. with sulphur when fruit is half grown, and repeated every lo to 14 days is advisable if Bordeaux mixture is not used. PEACH CURL. In seasons when the weather is warm and is fol- lowed by a very low temperature, the growth of the leaves is so checked, that this fungous finds the right conditions within which to grow. The leaves be- come short, thickened, and finally drop off, to be fol- lowed by another set of leaves a little later on. The disease is not very serious if the trees are healthy and in a good vigorous condition. Remedy. Spray with Bordeaux at least two weeks before the fruit buds open ; only one application is necessary to prevent this disease. If spraying has not been done and the disease appears, continuous cultivation and the application of nitrogenous ma- nures will throw off the diseased leaves and save the fruit crop. In case of San Jose scale in the same or- chard the lime, salt and sulphur wash may be used effectively against both scale and leaf curl at one spraying. PEACH YELLOWS. The exact nature of this disease is not fully under- stood, for no specific fungous or bacterial germs or growth have been discovered. The disease will be recognized by the premature ripening and high col- oration of the fruit, which is spotted with red in the fles'h. New buds develop on the trunk and branches and the winter buds sometimes unfold in the fall. Sometimes only one branch will be affected, but un- less it is remedied, the whole tree will be killed. The disease is very contagious and its spread should be prevented by the immediate removal and burning of all affected trees. On account of its cause being un- known there is little use of trying to doctor up the sick trees. It will be cheaper in the long run to re- move and burn the trees, for you run the risk of los- ing many by trying to save one. Fortunately this disease is seldom found in the South. PEACH ROSETTE. This disease is very similar to yellows. Small leaves are produced in small bunches of a yellow cast. It should be treated in the same way as yel- lows. BLACK KNOT, BLACK WART, ETC. Black Knot attacks plums and cherries. Many plum trees of European varieties are destroyed by this fungous. Affected branches swell on each side until the bark bursts, exposing a brown spongy mass. The spores which cause the trouble, enter the tree at some soft place and grow very rapidly, and soon cause the death of the trees. Old knots are black and dry. Remedy. — If the trees are badly affected by t'he dis- ease, the trees should be dug up and burned, as t'he disease rapidly spreads. Spraying with Bordeaux mixture (4-4-50) will help to hold the disease in check. SHOT-HOLE FUNGOUS. This disease appears as red circular spots that come on the nearly grown leaves. It attacks all plums, and will prove very destructive unless stop- ped by spraying. After a while the red or brown part of t'he leaf drops out, leaving a hole there, from which it gets its name. Remedy. Spraying as you would for Black Knot. PLUM POCKETS, PLUM BLADDERS. This disease attacks the fruit while it is young. It is death to plums, causing them to swell to their nat- ural size within a few days. They are first green or yellow and then as the spores develop on t'he outside they turn a grayish color and then a dark brown. The interior of such diseased plums is hollow. All leaves and fruit from diseased trees should be remov- ed and burned as soon as they fall, as the disease is very contagious. It is also recommended that tTie ground under the trees be sprinkled with air-slacked lime to prevent the disease from spreading. Remedy. Spray the tree with standard Bordeaux mixture before the buds swell. ANTHRACNOSE, SCAB, BIRD'S EYE ROT. This is a disease of the grape vine and attacks the Plow the Orchard in the Spring. 113 green parts of the vine during the growing season. Black or brown spots often appear on t'he leaves and the diseased tissue often cracks, leaving ragged 'holes. The disease appears on the fruit as brown spots with a narrow darker margin. Some varieties are more liable to attack than others, those containing Euro- pean blood, that is, those originating from crosses of European and American varieties, being more likely to be attacked than some of the native types. Remedy. The vines should be sprayed with Bor- deaux mixture before the leaves unfold, and two or three times during May or June will do much to keep the disease under control. Another Remedy. \Vash the vines with a solution of copperas in winter and spring. In addition to this in the summer regular sprays of Bordeaux may be used. Dusting with flowers of sulphur so soon as fruit is set, and repeated every ten days until fruit is coloring is advisable. BLACK ROT. This disease attacks grapes and first makes its ap- pearance known by brown or black spots on the leaves or shoots. Then the berries are attacked, and become black. In the center of the diseased spot may be found numerous black pistules which contain the spores of the fungous. Remedy. Thorough spraying must be done to keep the disease in check, using the standard Bordeaux mixture. tant that everything be done to secure a vigorous growth of the vine. Another Remedy. Spray with Bordeau.x mixture, just before, and after flowering. POWDERY MILDEW. This disease attacks the leaves, new growth ant berries of the grapes in the midsummer. The affect- ed parts are covered with white threads, by which the disease may be distinguished from Downy Mildew. This disease is a little similar to Downy Mildew, but it does not appear until after Downy Mildew. Remedy. The same treatment as for Downy Mil- dew. ANTHRACNOSE, CANE RUST. This disease is similar to Anthracnose, and attacks the raspberry. It appears on the young canes of the raspberry as small, round, light spots, with a purple ring. It appears in June or July and attacks the leaves sometimes. It is more damaging on old plan- tations than on those just settled. Remedy. Spray with copper sulphate solution be- fore buds break, then with Bordeau.x mixture just be- fore the leaves unfold, and once or twice after the leaves have opened, but before the fruit has set. The affected parts should be cut off and burned. CANE BLIGHT. DOWNY MILDEW OR BROWN ROT. This is a disease of the grape and affects the leaves, young wood, blooms and the berry. In moist, hot weather the disease is likely to do serious harm unless the vines are sprayed. On the leaves it ap- pears as green-yellow spots on the upper surface and with w'hite spots on the under surface. Then the white surface disappears and the leaves turn brown and dry up, In the gray rot the berry is covered with white powder. Such varieties containing for- eign blood, such as Delaware, Brighton, Rogers, Hybrids, etc., are especially subject to this disease. Remedy. Spray with a solution of copper carbon- ate before flowering and after flowering, then at in- tervals of from two to four weeks. It is quite impor- 9 This disease usually appears late in the summer, say in August. It appears in the form of a light brown spot attacking the lower leaves and working upward. If this loss of leaves occurs early in August, the damage is quite serious. Remedy. Use the same treatment as for Anthrac- nose. This disease affects the raspberry and the black- berry, and appears in the spring, attacking the leaves and canes. The attack is followed by large masses of yellow or golden spores, and finally the part at- tacked dries up. The spores, it is supposed, germin- ate in the summer and fall and grow in the tissues near the ground in the spring. Remedy. This disease is on the inside of the plant, 114 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. consequently spraj'ing does little towards killing it after it has appeared. The best thing to do is to gather and burn all the affected parts, and after t'he fruit has been gathered in the summer, spray two or three times with Bordeaux mixture to prevent new spores from forming, and doing damage for the next year. There is another modification of this disease, called the Fall Orange Rust that appears in the fall instead of the spring. The same treatment as for this disease is recommended. Fig. 19. — Bud Stick with Bud Prepared for Insertion. STRAYBERRY LEAF BLIGHT. This disease attacks the strawberry, and makes it- self known by the reddish or brown spots that come so abundantly on the leaves in the spring or summer. This fungous grows very abundantly in warm, moist weather. Remedy. The best method or remedy is to dip the leaves of t'he plant in Bordeaux mixture before they are set in the spring, and then spray the plants after- wards several times. It is a good idea to spray in the spring just before the plants bloom. MILDEW This fungous attacks the strawi.jcrry plants and is a light grayish growth of the plant. It injures the berries. Remedy. The disease may be controlled by using Bordeaux mixture, or by dusting them with sulphur. BUDDING AND GRAFTING TREES. The practice of budding and grafting trees is that of changing the variety of a plant, or in some cases changing the plant altogether. For instance, if a fruit grower has a certain variety of peac'hes, of which he wishes more of the same variety, he can- not plant the seed of that variety and get it at all, but the small seedling tree must be budded or graft- ed. Grafting and budding are practiced for the same reason, but are different processes. Nearly all fruit trees t'hat are planted are grafted or budded trees. The [ilant on which the grafting is done is called the stock, and the part inserted in the stock is called the scion or bud. The scion as used for grafting refers to a twig consisting of one or more buds, the detached Fig, 20.— Tile Bud Inserted and Secured. bud is used for budding. The fundamenal principle in grafting is to bring the cambium layer, (which is the growing tissue between the bark and the wood) of t'he scion and the stock in contact with each other, and to keep them in contact until they unite and grow to- gether. There are several methods of grafting which will be discussed here; budding, scion .grafting, and grafting' bv .TP'^ronch. c^c. Don't Fail to Prune Your Fruit Trees. "5 Budding is practiced with peaches, cherries, plums, and most stone fruits, apples, pears, etc. It consists in slipping a single bud under the bark of the stock. Budding may be done almost any time during the summer from June to September. June budding is done durmg June or early July. The work has to be done whenever there is a good flow of sap in the stock, and the bark can be separated easily. The stocks on which the buds are inserted should be as large as an ordinary lead pencil or a little larger. Peach stock as a rule are large enough the summer after they are planted, but stocks of all t'he other classes of fruit nnist be grown one year before. The buds are taken from twigs of the present season's growth, from a variety which it is desired to propa- gate. Select thrifty, vigorous twigs on which the buds are well developed and immediately trim off all the leaves except about a quarter of an inc'h of the stem of each. These leaf stems are a great conveni- ence in handling the bttds. If the twigs must be kept more titan a short time they should be wrapped in a wet cloth to prevent them from becoming dry and wilted. The only tool qeeded for the work is a sharp knife, and the knife must be very sharp so that it will make a perfectly smooth cut. Almost any good knife will do, but the most convenient form is one in which t'he edge makes a straight slope to the back at the point. When much work is to be done it will pay to buy a regular "budding knife," which will cost about fifty cents. One also needs a supply of the material. Raf- fia sold by all seedsmen and nurserymen, w'hicb is the best for peaches. A soft cotton yarn is very satisfactory and is used cjuite frequently. When ready for work wipe the sand and dirt from the stock at a place near the surface of the ground where a smooth, straight place can be foiuid. The cut" for the bud is made T-shaped, the cross cut being made first, and from one-half to three-fourths of an inch in length. Then make the perpendicular cut about an inch in length, and with a slight twist of the knife loosen the bark at the top of the cut. These cuts should barely go through tlie bark, and not into t'he wood. Fig. 19 shows t'he cut at a and the loosened bark at b. Then cut a bud from the twig, beginning tHe cu? about a half inch below the bud and continuing it half an inch above, as shown in Fig 20. This cut should be made so deep as to take a thin slice of wood with the bud, but too much wood should be avoided. Handle t'he bud by the short piece of leaf stem, and slip it gently under the loosened bark, bring the top of the bark above the bud down so that it will just fit the cross cut in the stock. The tieing should be snug but not so tight as to cut the bark. Begin at t'he bottom of the bud, bringing the first turn over the end of yarn to hold it fiom slipping, and then make three or four turns below, Fig. 21.— Cleet Grafting. and as many above the bud, being careful that the string does not come exactly over the bud, and that the loosened bark at the top of the cut is brought back into place. Fasten by making a loop, or by put- ting t'he upper part of the string into a slight cut made an inch or two above the bud. In two or three weeks the buds will have "taken" or died, and the tic should be removed. Nothing more needs to be done to September buds until t'he next spring, when the tops of the stocks should be cut off just above the bud. If the budding is done in June, the tops should be removed as soon as the buds begin to grow. GRAFTING. Grafting is practiced in many ways, but the more common ways are cleft, and whip or tongue grafting. Cleft grafting is done early in the spring, and is prac- ticed with large bunches. The scions are taken from the previous year's growth. Perhaps it will be well to explain what is meant by cleft grafting. This term is applied when the branch is sawed off, the ii6 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. stock made smooth with a knife, and split a little way with the chisel, and the scion^ after 'having been cut wedge-shaped inserted in the cleft, carefully ad- justing the inner bark of the scion to that of the stock. As a rule a scion is placed in each cleft, and if the stock is too large two scions are placed in each. Some- times it happens that fhe pinch of the cleft is too strong for the scions, which can be remedied by in- serting a short wedge. After the scion is inserted, the whole wound is coated over with grafting wax, whic'h must entirely exclude the air and moisture. The se- cret of success lies in making the inner bark of the Fig. !— Side Gnttmg. scion fit exactly against the inner bark of the stock and holding it there tightly, and excluding all air and moisture until there is complete union and the wound healed up. The following method which is termed side "bark grafting is recommended. All the tools necessary are a fine s'harp saw, and a keen cutting knife. Saw off the stock wherever desired, and with a knife, split the bark- about three quarters of an inph on opposite sides, as shown in Fig. 22, prepare scion by making a straight clean cut on one side only, as shown in Fig. 22. Then scrape the outside bark from the point of the scion as far up as the scion is set in the stock. Slip the scion down between the bark and wood of stock and cover well with wax. This method makes a better contact with the inner bark than cleft grafting does. The scion starts quicker and makes a stronger union and is less liable to split down. WHIP OR TONGUE GRAFTING. Whip or tongue grafting is employed in grafting seedling apples. The stock, and the scion should be the same size in whip grafting. The different steps in the progress are shown in illustrations : See Fig. 23. The parts are held in place by a piece of cotton yarn or thread. In grafting by approach or inarching two branches from the different trees are brought together and united without detac'hing either branch from the original plant. This is done by cutting a piece of bark in the branches and bringing them together so that the cambium layer of one will come into close contact with the cambium layer of the ot'her. The branches are then bound together at the place of con- tact and waxed. After the union of the two is com- plete, the branch from the stock or mother plant is cut off below and above the place of union. This method is but little used except for such plants (es- pecially evergreens) as do not succeed by the former processes of grafting. FiE -Tongue or Whip Grafting. In all this work, wax must be used. The follow- ing receipt for making wax is given, and has been highly recommended: To four pounds resin and to one pound of beeswax add one pint of linseed oil. Put it in an iron pot and heat slowly, thoroughly mixing the same. Pour out into cold water and pull by hand until it assumes a light color, work into sticks, and place in a cool place until wanted. In using this wax, oil the hands, work the wax until I'.Iake the Farm Pleasant for the Ycun?;sters. 117 soft and press it tig^htly around the graft and thor- oughly cover the cracks. If the day be very warm when using, it is frequently better to wet the hands in cold water. TREE PRUNING. There is no subject of more importance to fruit growers than tree pruning. In order to do this ju- diciously, there are some general principles that are necessary to be understood. When a branch is cut off from a tree a wound is made. If the tree be in good health efforts will be made by the tree to heal that wound immediately. The bark, which is the protective covering of the tree, is gone, and the wood is exposed to decay. After a few years the wound will be frequently healed over. There are certain conditions that must be complied with before the wound will heal. Small wounds, other things being equal, heal more rapidl}' than large wounds. It is a well established fact that some parts of the tree grow more rapidly than other parts. Tliose branches directly in contact with the main food supply, receive more food than other branches not as favorably located. Bent and twisted 'branches do not grow so rapidly as straig'ht branches, either in length . or thickness. So these things being true, we can lay down the principle that those parts of the tree receiv- ing the most food suppl}' will heal the quickest. It is also noteworthy that a branch of any size cut off a few inches or more from the trunk of the tree does not usually heal over as rapidly as it would were the wound right at the trunk of the tree. \\'ounds on young trees or those growing vigorously heal more rapidly than wotmds on a mature tree. Wounds heal very rapidly on apple, pear and most of our shade trees. Wounds made on peach, plum, cherry and on the pine and other cone bearing trees are verv slow to heal. Wounds heal more rapidly when the trees are abundantly supplied with food. The stub, which is a piece of limb cut a few inches from the trunk of the tree, should never be left, for it is impossible for the wound to heal. Not only does it fail to heal, but decay sets up. Perhaps an illus- tration will help to understand the matter. Fig. 24, line 3, shows where the cut should be made to remove the branch. It is true a larger wound is made, but it will heal faster and better than it would if made away from the trunk or large branch. In other words, make the cut close to the part that is to remain and in making the cut hold the saw parallel to the branch or trunk from which the branch is re- moved. The cut should be made as smooth as possi- ble. No ragged or rough edges should be left. Never use an ax in pruning trees. It is far better never to cut off a branch, if it must be done with an ax. In removing a branch sometimes the weight of the branch causes the wood to split. If the branch be heavy saw it off a foot or two from the trunk of the tree, and then saw it off at the proper place. This will take more time but it will be far better than splitting it, and causing an ugly wound that may never heal. Fig. 24.— WTiere to cut and How tb Prevent Splitting. Cut in order of Numbers. A great many people do not know how to hold the shears to prevent them from bruising the tree. In making the cut, the cutting blade of the shears should work against the part of the tree or vine that is to remain, while the bruise is made on the part that drops off w'hen the cut is finished. See illustration. Fig- 25. When a wound is made by cutting off a branch, it ii8 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. leaves a part of the surface unprotected and bactefria enter and cause the wound to rot. The knot rots out and this leaves the heartwood exposed and it alsO' is apt to rot out, leaving the tree hollow. But all this can be prevented by placing something over the wound when it is first made that will prevent decay from taking place. Many things have been suggested and used to protect such wounds, such as tar, graft- ing wax, shellac and paint. Tar does well in most cases, 'but it sometimes prevents the healing of the wound. It should never be used on peac'h, plum, cherry or other stone fruit trees. Grafting wax is a good covering, but it frequently curls up around the edges and drops off. And then again grafting wax is often removed by the bees, leaving the surface ex- posed. Shellac often cracks and splits off. Of all substances that have been used from time to time, no material so nearly fills the bill of a good dressing for tree wounds as a pure lead paint made up with oil. It sticks well, does not crack or cliip off and is easily secured. The wound should be painted as soon as it is made. This applies to any wound where the cam- bium layer, which is the part between the bark and the wood, is exposed. While the paint does some good, remember t'hat it is inefficient when the wound is made five or six inches from the trunk of the tree. It is desirable that the wound be covered over as quickly as possible. on the farm and in the orchard and garden at this season and time is available for work. Wounds made at this time heal well. If it cannot be done then, the trees should be pruned in spring, just after they are .well out in leaf, but in all cases preference is given to the early spring period. Pruning sbould be a part of the regular care of shade and fruit trees. A regu- lar time each year should be set aside for this work, and the latter part of February or early March would suit most sections of the middle South. What to do With the Wood Removed. "Usually the branches which are cut from trees and vines are hauled into an old field, the edge of a wood or rome similar place, thrown into a heap and left. This should not be done. Frequently t'he branches are infested by insects and diseases. These may again find their way back to the growing trees. They are a menace to the health of the trees from which t'hey come, as well as to all other trees in the vicin- ity. Instead of disposing of the trimmings as indi- cated, they should be piled and burned in some place convenient for the purpose. Then the insects and fungous spores will be destroyed completely." Special directions are needed in the pruning of each class of fruit trees. We give such directions as are within the scope of this book. When to Prune. One of the Bulletins recently issued contained the following, and we reproduce it: "The pruning should be done at a time when the 'healing process may be- gin at once, or soon after the cut is made. For this reason alone the autumn and early winter months must be excluded. Growth will not begin until spring and in consequence five or six months might pass before the formation of callus starts. But there is an- other reason. The bark and wood in cold regions freeze, and t'he cambium layer may be injured and the wood will dry out and check. "It is not advisable to prune trees during the time w'hen growth is just starting in spring and the sap is in active motion. For at this time it will be well nigh impossible to protect the wound. The neces- sary coat of paint will not stick to the surface wet with sap that has bled from the tree. "Then the best time to prune is in the early spring before growth starts. There is usually less to be done Apples. When planting one year old apple trees, cut the stems back to 2 or 2 1-2 feet and remove all side branches. The object of this is to give the trees a permanent low body in order that the body being shaded by the head will prevent sun scale to whic'h high bodied trees are very liable to in the South. Two year old trees as received from nurseries 'have usually been cut back the first year and their branches should be cut back to half their length. It is advisable that the heads should allow light and air by not being too crowded. After the third or fourt'h year all that is necessary is to cut back all branches that grow too tall, to one-half, so as to keep all the heads in uniform shape. Do not let one. branch over- weigh the ot'hers. Peach. Directions for pruning peaches are given under the Fruit is Cheap if Raised on the Farm. 119 head of Peaches, in the main part of this chapter. Pear. The same directions for the apple tree apply to the pear. plums. Same directions for pruning peaches apply to plums. Spraying. Tlie subject of spraying is thoroughly treated and considered under the head of Insects. We refer you to the Insect Department for information concerning this subject. FRUIT ON THE FARM. Every farmer should have a fruit orchard on his farm. Many farmers wonder why it is that their children do not like the farm. If the farm is made as attractive as it should be, and as it can be, this cjuestion will be solved. Where a farmer makes the effort to make his farm attractive, the children will be attached to it. Every farmer in the South can grow some kind of fruit, and should grow more than one class, but include apples, pears, peaches, plums and small fruits. It is of the utmost importance that farmers look after this department. It is the only way that the farm can be made attractive to the children. And then we must also consider the ex- pense account. When we have fruit on the farm, a great deal is saved in actual living expenses. With a good vegetable garden, fruit orchard and a poultry yard, no farmer can be starved. How often is it the case that the entire meal is made from these three sources. Yet 'how often do we hear men say that they have not time to look after the fruit. Now, we do not believe, as some people do, that fruit does not need attention, for we know that it does, but at the same time, it is claimed and justly so, that no time or money pays better than that which is expended in planting and looking after the fruit trees. A great deal of the canned fruit that is placed upon the mar- ket has preserving solutions added to it. But if one does not grow the fruit, he must either buy it and can it, or he must buy it ready canned. Now if he would devote a little time and money to the growing of a fruit orchard himself, he would save the neces- sity of buying canned fruit, which will cost him much less. The lack of suitable land need not deter any- one from planting trees, for you can always find a suitable place on some spot of the farm. It may be that you have nothing but an old hill-side, but you can get fruit from that place. Dig a large hole, say three feet in diameter and three feet deep, then take your wagon and haul from some bottom or some low place some good earth, mix this well with barnyard manure well decayed and use a liberal proportion in each hole. You can grow an orchard, if you will try. And this work can be done when you would not do any work otherwise. One acre is enough to grow a great deal of fruit on, and can have some to sell as a rule. The following list and number of trees may be placed on one acre of ground. Now this list is not suitable for all sections of the South, for some fruit will not grow in some sections, while it will grow in other sections. If any of the fruit that is placed in this list will not grow in your section, substitute a fruit that will grow. One or two vines of Muscadine grapes should be planted in the coast and Piedmont sections. 16 Plum — One row, 15 feet for the row, 13 feet apart in the row. 32 Peach — Two rows, 15 feet for the row, 13 feet apart in the row. 16 Cherry (sour) — Two rows, 20 feet for the row, 26 feet apart in the row. 16 Apple — Two rows, 20 feet for the row, 26 feet apart in the row. 16 Pear — Two rows, 20 feet for the row, 26 feet apart in the row. 20 Fig — One row, 12 feet for the row, 10 feet apart in the row. 45 Blackberry — One row, 4 feet for t'he row, 4 feet apart in the row. 45 Dewberry — One row, 4 feet for the row, 4 feet apart in the row. 20 Grape — One row, 10 feet for the row, 10 feet apart in the row. 1050 Strawberry — Five rows, 3 feet for the row, 4 feet apart in the row. J20 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE INCREASING THE SIZE OF THE FRUIT. Good size and large fruit bring the better price and sell more readily in the market than small size; fruit. In fact, small size fruit is most always sold at far below its real value. There are three chief things, says "Farmer's Review,*' that the orchardist can do to help his trees to produce large fruit. One of these things is to give good cultivation. The system of cultivation should be thoroug'h and should be continued year after year, and as often each season as it is necessary to keep the weeds down. It is surprising how quickly the weeds will take possession of the young orchard after the cul- tivator has stopped its work. In an old orc'hard the weeds do not bother so much, as t'he shade of the trees does not encourage their growth. The best method is to plow the land in the spring, if the orchard is young. Then put in the cultivator and later the harrow, keeping up the cultivation 'till the middle of the summer at least. During this time the fruit is increasing in size, and so are the buds for the fruit crop of next year. The land being kept free from weeds will be in shape to receive the air and t'he moisture, and the roots will get the benefit of both. The fruit on the tree will, therefore, have sup- plied to it the plant food in the soil to the extent that the roots can take it up. with the assistance of the water. Later in the season, cow peas or even field peas, or soy beans, should be planted and used for winter covering. If vetches can be grown so much the better, but the seed of the vetch is expen- sive. In the spring this winter covering should be plowed under a-nd the old regime recommended. Un- less the land is very ric'h, stable manure should be used, as this will help keep up the supply of plant food in the soil, which must go into the fruit. The second great means of increasing the size of the fruit is pruning. This is a matter that is too much neglected. Nearly all orchardists prune, but a good deal of the work is done in a very unscientific manner. The work can be done at a time when there is little else to be done. The third great means of improving the fruit is thinning. This is coming extensively into use with our tree fruits where it is desired to produce fruit of a good size and appearance. The thinning of plums and apples has been practiced to some extent by the horticulturists in our agricultural colleges, and has given good results. The practice has not, however, become common with t'he people. It is otherwise with peaches. They have been thinned more exten-' sively than have other fruits and with greater re- turns. The peach is largely water anyway and fhe taking away of half of the crop on the tree results in a very pronounced development of the remaining part. FRUIT NOTES. Neither the doctor nor t'he sheriff will have any professional errand on the farm where there is plen- ty of fruit raised. No one has failed as a fruit grower as long as he was willing to keep trying. No man was ever so poor that he could not set a few trees, and prune them, nor so poor that he could not plant a few seed and cultivate t'hem. There are few kinds of fruit that poultry will in- jure when it is growing. Therefore they make good scavengers, and insect gatherers among all kinds of berries, grapes and plums. Every farm porch should have some climbing vines, roses, crimson rambler, red, yellow rambler, jasmine, purple flowers; red or white honeysuckles. Close-netted woven wire, the riglit width is the best protection for trees from mice and rabbits. The right length may be measured and cut, and then it can be bent around a roller for the rig'ht shape. Nearly all orchard trees that are thrifty put out more branches than should be permitted to grow. An orchard should be gone over once a month during the early part of the season, and all of the sprouts rubbed off while it may be done with the fingers. Large sprouts and limbs sap the vitality of the tree. It pays to 'have wood ashes and spread them by the wagon load in the orchard. It is important with everytiiing that is set that it Fruit Ccn Always be Used. 121 should have a good start while it is growing. Every tant items. Fruit is worth double the money, if it is condition possible should be given to make it start within easy wagon reach of the customer. This off promptly. should always be considered when seeking a location. In the spring is the best time to give t'he orchard a shallow plowing. It loosens the soil, destroys the insects, and makes the trees grow. Very frequently it pays to undertake to grow un- desirable fruits and vegetables almost entirely un- known in the vicinity in which one lives. In this way, a good trade may be built up. Some orchardists claim that at least six things are necessary for a good orchard — climate, soil, location, well prepared setting, the right kind of fertilizer, and proper care. To have a good market is one of the most impor- The cultivator is worth more in the young orchard than guano. Better plant some crop like cotton or potatoes among your peach trees, whic'h will require clean cul- ture, and not be exhausting to the soil. Then fertil- ize it well. This will pay on the crop and help the land and the trees. To prevent borers, whitewash the trunks of your peach trees with coal tar and lime ; tliree gallons coal tar and one bushel of lime to fifty gallons of water. The odor of the tar prevents the fly from laying the eggs on the trees which produces the borer. I- N. Fig. 25. ajiowing How n> llukl iliu Shears in Pruning. Dutch Hyacinth. 122 Book IV. Floral Department. . . . EDITED BY . . . H. G. HASTINGS, FLORIST AND SEEDSMAN, Member Southern Florist Association. ATLANTA, GEORGIA. 123 124 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. Flowers around the Home. A PLEA FOR MORE OF THEM.— BEST RIETIES AND BEST METHODS OF CULTURE. VA- We believe the time has come to make a plea for beautifying the surroundings of Southern 'homes, es- pecially the surroundings of the farm homes. It has been the writer's good fortune to travel over our broad land from Maine to California during the past dozen years, and he must confess that what has .surprised and pained him most was the absence of flowers and shrubbery around the farm homes in the South, as compared with other sections. We live in a part of our country that for ease of growing flowers cannot be equaled, yet the ones we have are few. In the years following the Civil War, yes, up to a few years ago, there was the excuse of poverty, the grinding poverty following the devasta- tion of war and the attempts at re-adjustment fol- lowing. All that has passed. The South has come into her own again and is growing in wealth by leaps and bounds, a wealth that finds its way into the hands of those who produce it. In many places are flowers and shrubbery unex- celled, and they grow to perfection, ^^'hy not all places? The time has come when we owe it to our families and to our own self-respect '".o beautify our homes and surroundings. It's well to spend fifteen to 'twenty dollars or more for a new plow or culti- vator to do better work, and it is also well to spend a dollar or two or more a year for flower seed and plants to beautify the home surroundings. It is due' to the wife and the daughters to give them attrac- tive surroundings, and having a home with suc'h surroundings, will go a long ways towards keeping those boys and girls on the farm when the attrac- tions of town and city life pull them away. A yard full of roses, flowers and shrubbery, and neatly bor- dered walks and green grass, make you proud to be known as its owner. The possession of such a place satisfies the desire that every woman has for the beautiful. It gives employment to her in the care of the flowers that is a welcome break in the regular duties of the home and makes her 'happier and more contented. The possession of a "beauti- fied" place gives its owner standing in the commu- nity, and last, but not least, it adds to the actual cash value of the place many times the cost. Do not think that we are advocating the expendi- ture of large amounts of money. We are not. It don't take much. The selling price of ten to twenty pounds of cotton every year invested in flower seed, plants or shrubbery will work wonders in the appearance of half of the Southern farm homes, and who among the readers of this book is so poor that he cannot afford to turn over to the wife or daugh- ter the small amount necessary to make a start tow- ards making your home surroundings such as you will be proud of? FLOWERS FROM SEEDS. It is not our intention to give a long and confus- ing list, but rather to give one of the more easily cultivated, yet satisfactory kinds. The direction^ given as to time of planting, varieties and methods of culture are based on seasons and soil such as are generally found in the middle South. Planting north or south of that section must be varied accord- ing to your location. If your soil is a- peculiar one, you may have to do a little experimenting with va- rieties to find out just what will do the best for you. Flowers from seed are divided into two general classes, the annuals, such as Petunias, Balsams, Nas- turtiums, etc., blooming the first season and the bi- ennials and perennials, which usually do not bloom until the second year after planting, but are of more permanent nature, lasting two or more years. Of this latter class t'he Carnations and Dahlias are an example. Based on northern conditions, these do not bloom the first year, but in the middle or lower South they will almost always show more or less bloom in late summer and fall of the first year, but do not reach perfection until the second year. The annual varieties are t'he most generally planted, as they show results quickly, still the real lover of flowers will not neglect the biennials and perennials. HOW TO SOW FLOWER SEED. With few exceptions, flower seed are small, and Money Invested in Flowers is Never Lost. 125 sowing them by the inexperienced often results in failure, either partial or complete, because a few simple rules are not followed out. There is nothing mysterious about success with flowers. It requires care and a little common sense. With these, failure is almost impossible. It is work that cannot be left to a negro farm hand or laborer. It must receive careful attention. By observing closely the follow- ing rules for sowing flower seed you will have little cause for complaint or failure. The Soil. — A mellow loam, which is a medium earth between the extremes of clay and sand, en- riched with a compost of rotten manure and leaf mold, is adapted to t'he generality of flowering plants. Previous to planting flower beds or borders, care must be taken that they are so arranged that the jlground may be a little elevated in the middle; that Ithe water may run off, and that the plants may show !off to better advantage; I Planting the Seed. — Make the surface as fine and jsmoofh as possible. Cover each sort of seed to a jidepth proportionate to its size ; the finest, like Petu- Ijnias, etc., should be merely sprinkled on the surface lOf the ground, and barely covered with finely sifted, lilight, mellow soil ; press the soil down firmly over jthe seed with a brick or a short piece of board. For illarger seed the depth should be regulated according "to the size of tlie seed, those of the size of a pin head |one-half inch deep, and those the size of a pea three- jfourths of an inc'h or more. Procure a bit of lath I (it would be 'better if planed smooth) about two feet long, press the edge down into the soil evenly, so as to make a groove as deep as the seed is to be planted, scatter the seed along this, allowing 4 or 5 lof the larger to i or 20 of the smaller seed to the space one plant is to occupy when grown. Cover jithe seed by pressing t'he earth over it, then turn your lath flatwise and press the soil down firmly. ton light, sandy soils flower seed should be covered (twice the depth that they should be in stiff or heavy clay soils. Sowing in Boxes. — Almost all flowers will stand (transplanting. Many of them grow better for hav- ;jing been transplanted. In sections liable to late tepring frosts, or where drouth comes in spring, it IS advisable to sow seed in shallow boxes which can be placed in a warm sunny window or on a porch. This is always advisable with the expensive seed and those of a tropical nature, such as Coleus, Salvia, etc. These need a warm soil to start the seed. Sow the same as in open ground, and keep the soil moist, but not soaking wet. If surface of soil shows ten- dency to cake or crust, scratch it lightly to break the crust. Small seed cannot force their way through a crusted surface. As soon as the plants reach a heig'ht of 2 or 3 inches they may be trans- planted to open ground, taking as much earth from the box as possible with each plant so as not to dis- turb the roots more than is necessary. AGERATUM. A favorite garden flower for the South. It is a native of Mexico and easily stands long, hot sum- mers. Can be grown anywhere in the South suc- cessfully, and stays in bloom all summer and fall. Sow seed in open ground beds early in April or earlier in boxes. Plants grow i to i 1-2 feet high with light green foliage, surmounted by clusters of tassel-like flowers. Very quick growth and profuse bloomers. It comes in two colors, blue and white. — Annual. ALYSSUM. Very free flowering annual beginning to bloom in earliest spring and continuing until hot weather. Seed may be sown in open ground January to March. Makes an excellent border plant, growing 8 to 10 inches 'high. The most commonly used variety is what is catalogued as "Sweet Alyssum." The va- riety known as "Little Gem" is a very dwarf one, growing only 3 or 4 inches high and when in full bloom the plants are literally covered. The "Little Gem" is especially desiral)le for border work. All the varieties are pure white. ABRONIA. More commonly known as the "California" or "Land Verbena" and especially well adapted to the sandy and lighter soils of the lower South, as it is a trailing plant that grows well in rather dry open soil. Seeds should be sown in open ground where plants are to stand, about April ist. There are nu- 126 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. merous varieties of Abronia, but they are usually of 3 inches high and may be transplanted into beds in yellow and pink shades. tlie open. In this way t'hey can be brought into bloom in early June. They are also good fall bloom- ers and with this in view seed can be sown in May and June.- The Aster grows luxuriantly in any good garden soil and the quantity of bloom from even a small bed will well repay yon. Extra large flowers can be made by disbudding and only leaving a few blossoms on each plant. Fig. 1. — Abronia, or Sand Verbena. AMARANTHUS. A class of annual plants grown both for the foli- age and showy flower clusters. They grow quickly and may be sown in open ground in March or April. There are four varieties in common use; Amaran- t'hus Candatus, or "Love Lies Bleeding,"' has plants of stiff, erect growth, 2 to 3 feet high with sprays of rich, crimson flowers. Amaranthus Tricolor, or "Joseph's Coat," has a single erect stalk and bril- liantly colored leaves when full grown. The rich, yellow and red markings are very distinct, contrast- ed with the deep green foliage. Amaranthus Cruen-- tus, or "Prince's I'^eather," comes froin Asia. Tall growing wit'h purplish green leaves. Heavy feath- ery heads which droop, giving a beautiful effect. Amarantlms Salicilolius, or "Fountain Plant," grows 2 to 3 feet higli, branching freely and of pyramidal shape. The slender branches grow with a drooping habit, producing a graceful effect like the spray of a fountain. ,We do not recommend planting any of the Amaranthus in t'he lower South. ASTERS. These are favorites everywhere, a sort of early summer substitute for the Chrysanthemum. In the middle and lower South every effort should be made, if perfection is to be had, to start them early so that the blooming stage may be reached before t'he ex- treme heat of midsummer arrives. Seed should be sown in shallow boxes in the house in February or first of March. By time danger from frost is past, usually the middle of April, the plants will' be 2 or Fig. 2. — Asters. The varieties of Asters are almost innumerable and it is usually the most satisfactory to- buy genei al mixtures sold by the different seedsmen. The principal and most highly improved types are tlu- Chrysanthemum and Paeony Flowered. Victoria. Comet, Triumph and Branching. All of these can be had in various colors. He Who Makes Home Happiest Succeeds Most. 127 ANTERRHINUM OR SNAP DRAGON. Fig. 3. — Antirrhinum, or Snapdragon. An old-fashion flower that has been greatly im- proved in recent years. Seed sown in early spring will produce some flowers the following fall and will reach perfection the following year. Comes in va- rious colors. Sow seed in open ground in ^Nlarch and April. BALSAM, (Touch-Me-Nct, or Lady Slipper.) An interesting flower furnishing plenty of flowers in the bed and when the seed pods form are a source Fig. 4. — Camellia Flowered Balsam, or Lady Slipper. of almost endless amusement to the children. These seed pods burst, wlien fully rijie, at the slightest touch, scattering the seeds in all directions. A few plants of these, at least, ought to be in every gar- den. Most easily grown and the wax-like flowers produced so abundantly show elegant s'hades of color and markings. There are numerous varieties, the best of which are the Camellia Flowered, Rose Flowered and Double Spotted. Seed should be sown in open ground as soon as danger of frost is past or earlier in protected boxes. For best results and full development the plants should stand about a foot apart in the beds. BELLIS PERENNIS, (or Double English Daisy.) Fig. 5.— Bellis Perennis. or Double Daisy. Suited best to cool, moist locations and is not re- commended for the lower half of the South. Seeds sown in October will bloom the following spring; spring sown seed the next fall. After once estab- lished they bloom in both fall and spring for many years and in general should have the same treat- ment as violets. CARNATIONS. A famous florist's flower and a favorite e\ery- where, easily grown from seed, if sown in either boxes or carefully protected beds. Transplant to open ground when the young plants are 4 to 5 inches high. The Double German (comes in mixed colors) and the French Grenadin (scarlet) 'do not reach perfection until the second season. During the past few years three distinct new varieties have been introduced which bloom in 4 to 5 months from seed. These are the Marguerite, the Grant Mar- guerite and Chaband. For quick results in bloom i2<: TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. use these latter varieties althoug-h they are neither as double or sweetly scented as the German. M' ■ Fig. 6. — Carnation Pinlis. CACALIA, (Tassel Flower.) Curious flowering plants growing 14 to 18 inc'hes high and producing little red and yellow tassel-like flowers. Seed should be sown in beds in open ground as soon as danger of frost is past. CANNAS. A splendid plant for decorative effect in all parts of the South. A quick grower with large tropical looking leaves, and among the later introductions arc many fine flowered varieties. The canna in its earlier days was known as "Indian Shot" and at that time had no value except for its foliage, but with use of large flowering French varieties it furnishes both the decorative effect as well as being worthy of cul- tivation for its various colored orchid-like bloom. Cannas can be grown from seed, but the quickest and most satisfactory way is to obtain the roots of ,\he best varieties (obtainable from florists and many sieedsmen) and plant them in well manured soil in iVlarch and April. These roots should be placed 12 tQ 15 inches apart each way and covered about three iijches deep. After t'he plants appear above ground kfeep the surface of the soil worked and free from gl-ass and weeds. The different varieties grow from 3 to 7 feet tall and will continue to bloom until kill- ed by frost. If the roots are protected from freez- ing they will last for years. A covering of leaves several inches deep or coarse stable manure or litter will carry them through any ordinary winter in the central South. If you wish to grow cannas from seed you should sow seed in boxes of finely sifted garden soil in Feb- ruary and March and keep the box in a warm sunny place. T'he seeds have an exceedingly hard outer covering which should be filed through before plant- ing. If not cut or filed through canna seeds will fre- quently remain dormant in the ground for several years without sprouting. Large Flowering French Cannas. As soon as the young plants show 4 or 5 leaves they may be transplanted to open ground and tre;»t- ed the same as plants from the roots. If a fine tropical effect is wanted there is nothing that will give it so quickly and at suc'h little expense as the canna. COLEUS. I The coler.s cr.n almost be called nature's paint box. Don't Buy Seed Because They Are Cheap. 129 Grown only for their various colored leaves which make a splendid display. Millions of coleus plants are used each year in bedding in city parks and as it is so easily and quickly grown there is no reason why the dwellers in the country should not enjoy them. The coleus is a plant of tropical nature and Fig. S.— Bybrid Colens. cannot well be carriefl through the winter except in green-'houses. The plants can be obtained of any florist in the spring or can be grown from seed which should be sown in boxes in February or March and kept in a warm sunny window. Seeds should not be covered more than one-eighth of an inch with very finely worked soil. The young plants when once up should never be exposed to cold. As soon as danger of frost is past transplant to open ground. The Coleus, like the canna, delights in warm, sunny sit- uations and usually the warmer the sun the more highly colored will the leaves be. CHRYSANTHEMUMS. Another specially good plant for the South, and •while it can be grown from seed, yet it is almost al- ways advisable to purchase named varieties from florists. There are something like 3,000 varieties, of all sizes, shapes and colors and the lover of flowers can c'hoose their own varieties in color and style. The young plants should be set in the open ground where they are to stand as soon as danger of frost is past. Left to themselves they will produce large numbers of flowers from one to three inches in dia- meter. Most of us have seen the fancy "exhibition" blooms of the chrysanthemum, six to eight inches in diameter. These are easily obtained by high 'cul- tivation and the practice of "disbudding" by which means the whole strength of the plant is thrown in- to one or two blooms. For general yard culture this is not advisable and is only used to produce extra large flowers. In growing c'hrysanthemums from seed the same care should be taken as with coleus. Usually the plants will not bloom until the second season. The chrysanthemum is perfectly hardy in the cen- tral South and the roots will stand through the win- ter without protection. The clumps of roots should be taken up and divided every two or three years, however, if the plant is to be kept up to the stand- ard in quality of the bloom. Fig. 9. — Japanese and Chinese Chrysanthemums. COSMOS. Very handsome, free flowering, annual plant, thor- oughly adapted to all parts of the South. Usually grow 4 to 5 feet high with finely cut foliage. Flow- ers are borne freely from August until frost and show various sliades of color ranging from crimson to white. Sow seed broadcast in open ground as soon as danger of frost is past. Keep free from weeds ''and grass. Beyond this they need no special treat- ment and if the flowers are left uncut they can 10 130 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. usually be depended on to re-seed themselves for the next year. rig. 10.— Single Flower of Cosmos. DAHLIA3. No flower in recent years 1 as r'.-own r^reater im- provement than has the Dahlia and it is adapted to all parts of the central South. The introductions of the last seven or ei.^ht years produce flowers of the largest size and striking bril- liancy of colorinr^ ar.d the more we see of the im- ■**v««:* Fi:;. 11— DouMe Dahlia. proved strains the more pleased we are with the Dahlia and are confirmed in our belief that it will rival the Clirysanthenumi. Dahlias are generally ^rown from roots, which can be purchased from fiorists under name or color so th:'.t }-ou know what you nre getting both in form and color. They are easily grown from seed, usually bloom- ing in the fall of the first season. Seed should be sown in shallow boxes in the house in February or March and kept in a warm, sunny window. When plants are 3 to 4 inches high and danger from frost is past, transfdant to open ground, two to three feet apart. Plant in rich or well manured soil and keep free from weeds and grass. When frost kills the tops, cut them off near the ground and cover with 6 to 8 inches of coarse ma- nure, leaves or grass. This mulch should be weight- ed down with a li.tle dirt to keep from blowing away during windy weather in winter. Such protection is ample to protect them in any ordinary winter in the central South. The most satisfactory varieties are the double sorts, although some prefer the single ones on account of their greater freedom of blooming. No collection of flowers in the South is complete without at least a few dahlias of the best varieties and they will well repay the small expense and trouble. DIANTHUS OR GARDEN PINKS. Popular everywhere and with cvcry1)oi!y and can be grown successfully anywhere South. They bloom freely from early spring sown seed the first season. but larrer and better blooms come the second vear. ^^ Fig. 12. — Mixed Dianthus or Garden Pinks. Don't Fail to Give the Ladies all the Help They Need in the Flower Yard. 131 No trouble, as they need no protection in winter. Seed should be" sown as soon as the trees start to bud in the spring, covering the seed not over 1-2 inch, \\nien well up, say 4 inches high, transplant to the borders or beds where thev are to remain. I There are dozens of varieties, all of them pretty and many of them showing most beautiful markings. ( Most seedsmen make up mixtures containing a do?- ; en or more of the best varieties and unless you want I some special color it is usually best to buy seed in these mixtures. If a double white pink only is want- ed, purchase Dianthus Chinensis Alba, as listed in most catalogues. There is hardly a flower that will give more lasting and satisfactory results than the Dianthus or Garden Pink. inches apart. Comes in two colors, blue and white. HELIOTROPE. A garden favorite, easily grown from seed, but not adapted to open ground bedding except in partly shaded locations. Heliotrope is better adapted to pot or box culture to be kept on porches. Seed should be planted in boxes in February or March and kept in warm, svniny situations. Seed s'hould not be covered over 1-4 inch. Flowers are exceed- ingly fragrant, a single spray often perfuming an en- tire room with a most delicate perfume. HOLLYHOCK. DELPHINIUM, r Larkspur.) I For the central South only, as it does not do well I toward the Gulf. This is a quick growing, very free II flowering plant in various colors, which come in both I doubles and singles. Seed should be sown in earliest I spring in open ground beds and when well up should j be thinned out to about 10 inches apart for best re- { suits. They . lake a pleasing display and are very Jl satisfactory. ESCHSCHOLTZIA, (or California Poppy.) ij A most popular bedding plant, as it stands hot sun well. Sow seed in spring as early as ground can be worked, scattering seed thinly over the surface and |i raking in very lightly. They grow quickly and are '' fairly covered with large showv flowers and make a most brilliant display in open ground beds. GAILLARDIA. Well adapted to our section and often called "Blanket Flower."' It thrives on poor and rather dry soils and the plants are covered with large, showy flowers of many colors all throug'h the sea- son. Sow seed in early spring, broadcast in beds, covering seed lightly by raking in. FORGET-ME-NOTS. Favorites all through the central South for either i .borders or beds. Sow in open ground as early as it I is possible to work it. When well up thin out to 5 Hollyhocks. Adapted to central South, but not to the Gulf Coast section. Easily grown from seed, but does not bloom much until the second season. When once well established they will last for years. Seed should be sown in early spring in boxes or protect- ed beds and when 6 to 8 inches high they should be ,-,2 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. transplanted to w'here they are to stand permanent- and grass and you will have a mass of flowers. T^» !y, placino- them I 1-2 to 2 feet apart in the row. tall African varieties are best, growing i i-2 to 2 They grow 5 to 6 feet tall and are fairly covered feet tall with finely cut foliage. The French varie- with blooms of various colors, ranging from white to ties have smaller flowers of deeper color and fre- deepest crimson. We do not consider the old single quently do not grow over 6 inches high and are gen- varieties of much value, tut the double varieties in- erally not considered so desirable as the African, troduced in recent years are well worth the atten- tion of everv lover of flowers. IBERIS OR CANDYTUFT. A well-known favorite North, but only adapted to the hill and mountain sections of the South. Seed should be sown as soon as ground can be worked in spring and thinned out to 4 or 5 inches apart when well up. Hot, dry weather destroys the beauty of the bloom and unless it can be planted early it is best to let it alone. LANTANA. Easily grown from seed and good for all parts of the South. It is a strong growing plant, almost a shrub in Florida and Gulf Coast sections. Sow seed in boxes, in warm, sunny window in March, trans- planting to open ground as soon as danger from frost is past. They will begin putting on verbena- like bloom in June and July, which will continue un- til frost. MARVEL OF PERU. Also known as "Mirabilis," and "Four O'Clocks." It is a very showy, free flowering annual, which gets its name from its peculiar manner of remaining open only during the hottest part of the day, the flowers closing tightly about four o'clock in the afternoon. Flowers all the way in color from white to carmine. Sow seed in open ground when danger of frost is past and ground is warm, thinning out when well up to one foot apart. They grow 2 to 3 feet tall and branch out freely. MARIGOLDS. An easily grown favorite for those liking yellow and orange colored flowers in abundance. They do splendidly anywhere in the South. All the culture necessary is to sow seed in any good garden soil as soon as danger 'of frost is past ; keep clear of weeds Fig. 14. — African Marigold. NASTURTIUMS. These might well be termed "Everybody's Flow- er," for there is nothing of easier culture or that will reward the sower in the South with such a wealth of bloom of brilliant and gorgeous shades of color from early summer until frost. No flower garden is complete without them and no one hardly is so poor that a nickle or a dime can not be invested in a packet of seed. We don't know of a flower listed in any seedsman's catalogue that will give so great re- sults for the little time and money spent as Nastur- tiums. Sow seed thinly in any good garden soil when leaves are well out on the trees, covering seed 1-2 to 3-4 of an inch. When well up, thin out the Dwarf varieties to 10 inches apart and tall varieties to 6 inches. The Dwarf varieties are of rather low grow- ing, bushy form, the tall varieties are essentially climbers and should be placed where they can have a chance to climb or at least be supported. It is usually best to buy the "Mixed" nasturtiums, which can be had of any of the larger seedsmen in both the Dwarf and Tall varieties. If you are only going to plant one kind of flowers let that be Nasturtiums. Make Home as Beautiful and Attractive as Possible. PANSIES. PETUNIAS. 133 These are always favorites, but for best results in ze of fiowers and richness of coloring the seed j should be sown in September or October and the I young plants covered during severe winter weather iwith leaves or litter which should be removed when I warm spring days come. The plants make little I growth during winter, but attain size quickly in ear- ly spring and are soon covered with flowers which continue until hot weather. The advantage of fall Fig. 15. — Extra Large Pansy. sowmg is that the plants get to full size and perfec- Htion during the cooler weather, which the spring [jlsown seed do not have a chance to do. There is a great difference in quality of pansy iseed, ranging as it does in price from 5 to 50 cents ijiper packet. The difference usually lies in the size jlicf t'he flowers and richness of coloring. These high i priced varieties should only be bought by experts or jjithose wishing to produce specially large flowers. |l0ur experience has been that the average person I can get just about as much satisfaction out of such ''strains as "French Mixed" and the "English Face" pansies selling at 10 and 15 cents per packet as from iilthe more expensive kinds. The so-called "Fine Mix- ,ed" pansy usually sold at 5 cents are almost invaria- ;ably small flowered, lacking both large size and good <\ Icolors. Another splendid plant for outdoor beds, some- thing that will last all summer and most easily grow. Seed should be sown in good garden soil when leaves start on the trees in spring. Scatter seed very thinly in the beds and barely cover with earth, as seed is almost like fine dust. They can al- so be started earlier in boxes in the house and trans- planted. Many prefer what are known as "solid colors," which are found in the best mixed strains. With us, we have always preferred t'he so-called "Striped and Blotched," as this gives much greater variety in the markings and beauty of the flowers. I'he "Giant Fringed" introduced in recent 3fears, are most beautiful, but have none of the vigor and har- diness of the more common sorts. These above mentioned are all single varieties. The Double Pe- tunia is most beautiful, but not over 50 to 60 per cent, come double from seed, and as the seed of the double is very expensive and also delicate, we con- sider it best to buy plants of t'he double varieties from florists rather than attempting to grow from seed. Fig. 16. — Single Petunias. PHLOX DRUMMONDII. Easiest grown of all annual flowers in the South and one of the best. Seed should be sown as early as soil can be worked in spring, .sowing broadcast, thinly in the beds and covering by raking in lightly. Xo flower grown gives so wide a range of colors or variations nor is so good for early display bedding. Beds of phlox, if left unpicked will usually re-seed themselves and come up next year. It is fully adapt- 134 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. ed to any part of the South and all varieties are good. What is known as "Phlox Grandiflora" gives flowers nearly twice the size of t'he other varieties. hottest part of summer, continuing until killed by frost. It delights in the warmest and sunniest sit- uations. Sow seed in open ground when leaves on the trees are in full leave and the soil becomes warm, or may be started earlier in boxes and transplanted when danger of frost is past. For full development plants should be set i8 to 20 inches apart each way. I Fig. 17. — Phlox Grandiflora. RICINUS OR CASTOR BEAN. While not properly a flower, the ornamental varie- ties are very useful for planting' for decorative pur- poses with their tropical appearance and quick growth from seed. A plentiful supply of these grown near a house is said to keep away mosquitoes. Although we can not vouch for the truth of this mosquito statement, we do know that it makes a splendid de- corative plant in yards or on lawns. POPPIES. We like poppies with all their gorgeous display of color in late spring and early summer. We must confess our inability to make a success of them from seed sown in late spring. Best results have been obtained by sowing seed November to February. The seed sown at that time does not come up until spring, but that early sown seed gives good bloom where the others don't. The poppy finishes bloom- ing in June with us. Seed is fine as dust and should be sown thinly broadcast and raked in very lightly. SALVIA SPLENDEUS, (Scarlet Sage.) Universally popular in the .South for a bedding plant to furnish a blaze of brilliant scarlet in the Fig. IS. — Double Poppies. SWEET PEAS. Not generally successful in Florida and the sandy soils along the Gulf Coast. In the central Soutli they are a perfect success when rightly planted. Our methods here near Atlanta are as follows : In Jan- uary or February, dig out trenches or rows to a depth of 15 to 18 inches. Fill this up to within 6 or 7 inches of the surface with a mi.xture of thor- oughly rotted manure and top soil. Never use fresh manure. If you do your sweet peas will he a fail- ure. Sow the seed at the rate of i ounce of seed to every 8 or 10 feet of row and cover about 2 inches. You need not be afraid of freezing, as they have al- ways proved hardy and resistant to cold here. As the plants grow, fill in the trench until even with the surface. Support must be given, as they grow 4 to 5 feet high. For this we 'have never found any- thing better than the ordinary wire netting used for Not Every Man that Raises Corn and Cotton is a Successful Farmer. 135 fencing in poultry yards. As the plants grow, keep the soil near them cultivated and by the end of May the flowers will begin to appear. If kept closely picked, the blooming period will last 6 or 7 weeks and you will be well repaid for any trouble you have taken. The worst enemy to success with sweet peas is the short period of hot, dry weather that usually comes in May or June. If seed is planted in trench- es, as described above, the roots are down below the reach of any ordinary drouth and will not be af- fected and you will have an abundance of bloom. If seed is planted within 2 or 3 inches of the surface the vines usually "fire" and die before blooming size is reached, from late spring drouth. Now, as to varieties. It is usually best to buy the "Mixed Sweet Peas." The largest seedsmen make up blend- ed mixtures giving a great variety o£ colors. These Fig. 19. — Sweet Peas. mixtures are usually sold at prices of 10 cents per ounce. Or 60 to 75 cents per pound and you can usually depend on these to be good. Don't buy the cheap mixtures sold at from 30 to 50 cents per lb. They are usually made up of the poorer colors and : discarded varieties. ilar culture to "Dianthus" described on a preceding- page. Very few .flowers appear the first season, but they are in their prime the second season. They come in various colors and in double and single va- irieties. A\'e prefer the single varieties as showing the most perfect development and greatest beauty. Very satisfactory in the central South. VIOLETS. A favorite Southern plant blooming in late fall, winter and early spring. Makes a splendid border plant and is most easily propagated by dividing the roots of well grown plants. Easily grown from seeds, however, and should be sowed and grown according to directions given for pansies. VINCA. An almost unknown flower, yet for bedding in the South, especially the lower South, it has few equals. Seed should be sown as soon as danger from frost is past. They will begin blooming in early summer and continue until frost. The bloom is shaped like p'hlox, but is two or three times as large. Comes in several colors. VERBENA. Fig. 20. — Mammoth Flowered Verbena. SWEET WILLIAM. Seed should be sown in early spring in boxes, or later in open ground. Is very easily grown, but seems to do best in partly shady situations. Plant- A member of the "Pink" family and requires sim- ing of this is not advised for the sandy soils of the 136 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. Gulf Coast. They begin blooming early and con- tinue until midsummer. ZINNIAS. We don't like Zinnias as an individual flower, but for massing in beds to produce a brilliant display there are few flowers that equal it. Seed should be sown thinly broadcast as soon as frost is over, in a well worked up garden soil. Should be kept weed- ed until plants are 6 or 7 inches high, after which thev need little attention. The rather coarse, but brilliant flowers are produced in the greatest profus- ion from early summer until frost. Zinnias come in two classes, each with mixed colors. These are the Tall and Half Dwarf. The Tall have always given best results with us. CLIMBERS FOR PORCHES AND TRELLIS. In the preceding list only such flowers as are used in bedding or borders have been mentioned, with the possible exception of the Tall Nasturtium which will, if properly trained and given support, grow 7 or 8 feet high. The writer has frequently seen Tall Nas- turtiums in California reaching up above the sec- ond story of houses, but conditions are not right for such growth with us. Here in the South we live in a "sun" country and during the summer months that sun is both glaring and hot. Scores of houses will be found in every community where not a trace of a green vine is found to protect the house or porch from the heat and glare of the sun. Two hours' work, a few cents' worth of seed of almost any of the numerous climbers mean shade, a relief from glaring sun, a cooler and more comfortable home for yourself and family. In gen- eral, almost all seeds of climbing plants should be sown where plants are to stand. Ground should be deeply spaded or broken up as early as possible and seed planted as soon as danger from frost is over. As they begin to run, support should be furnished either w-ith wires or strings. We .have vines on our porches each year and have permanent supports of poultry fencing, commonly called "c'hicken wire." This makes a good support for any of the climbers, is inexpensive and lasts for years. ARISTOLOCHIA OF DUTCHMAN'S PIPE. A good climber of tropical origin, well adapted to porches and trellises. Grows rapidly and has large, dark green leaves. Needs rich or well manured loamy soil, also plenty of sunshine. Flowers are 3 to 4 inches across, white and purple blotched, and the shape of a pipe. In buying seed of this get the variety known as "Elegans." Flowers of the other varieties have a disagreeable odor. BALLOON VINE. An interesting climbing annual from India where it is a general favorite. Foliage is rather open, has small white flowers which are followed by small fruits resembling miniature balloons. Sow seed where plants are to stand in April or May. BALSAM APPLE. A quick growing climber with finely cut ornamen- tal foliage and interesting and valuable fruits that are highly prized in many sections for their medi- cinal qualities. It also furnishes considerable amuse- ment for the children, for the bright orange colored fruits when fully ripe only need the slightest touch to cause them to burst, throwing the seeds in every direction. CYPRESS VINE. 'Cypress Vine (Climber.) The most graceful of all vines and easily grown anywhere South. For trellises or covering trunks of dead trees it is unexcelled. It has finely cut, almost fernlike foliage, perfectly adapted to ornamental work and it is always covered with the small star-like scarlet and white blossoms. If planted thickly in good soil it will make a fairly dense growth. Better Have Less Money, and More Love in the Home. 137 JAPANESE MORNING GLORIES. The writer knows he is apt to run up against a snag when he mentions morning glories in some parts of the South where the common Morning Glory or Convolvulus Major has escaped from cultivation and becomes a pest in the fields. This is not apt to happen with the Japanese, as it does not seem to "run wild." Certainly it is well worth cultivating. With anything like a chance in good soil the Jap- anese will grow 20 to 25 feet high, furnishing a dense all parts of the South. A rapid grower, quickly at- taining a height of I to 20 feet, if planted in good soil, and is covered profusely with reddish, violet purple bell-shaped flowers. Fig. 22. — Imperial Japanese Morning Glories. shade that will protect your porches perfectly from the sun. In addition to the shade, the flowers are double the size of the common morning glory and nowhere will one find so great a variety of colors, shade and markings as in the flowers that are borne So freely. Some 30 distinct shades and markings have been noticed in recent years in the Japanese. Of the easiest possible culture, they stay with you until frost, furnishing an abundance of bloom and perfect shade for any porch, arbor or trellis. Seed should be sown in April where plants are to stand, allowing one plant to every 6 or 8 incites. Cover seed about one-half inch and as soon as plants begin to run give proper support. CORBEA SCANDENS. A favorite climber from Mexico, well adapted to Fig. 23.— A Single Flower of Cobea Scandens. This is a delicate plant that will not stand cold and seed should not be planted until the native trees are in full leaf. Seeds are thin and fiat and in plant- ing should be set on edge and covered not more than a half inch. Can also be sown in pots or boxes ear- lier if care is taken not to disturb the roots in trans- planting. JAPANESE HOP, (Hamulus Japonicus.) A very rapid growing, very satisfactory annual climber that is beautiful in appearance and furnishes good shape. Fine for coverinof porches, trellises or unsightly fences. Sow in early spring. MOONFLOWERS, (Ipomea.) The Moonflowers are popuar everywhere South both for bloom and the dense shade that they form. They are of quick enough growth to shade any two- story porch and the immense flowers are always a source of enjoyment. There are many varieties of Moonflowers, but in our opinion there are only two worthy of general planting, the Ipomea Grandiflora Alba or White Mexican Moonflower and the Ipomea, Heavenly Blue. They are both strong growers, fur- 138 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. nishing dense shade. The Grandiflora Alba pro- duces immense pure white flowers; the Heavenly Blue has large, intensely deep, sky-blue flowers. They are both essentially night blooming plants, the flowers opening about sunset on clear days and re- maining open until 8 or 9 o'clock the next morning. In cloudy days they remain open most of the day. No one who has not seen the moonflowers in full bloom can appreciate fully their beauty. They are very sensitive to cold and seed should not be plant- ed in open ground until danger of frost is past. Seeds of the Gran'diflora Alba are large and very hard and to get a successful germination this hard outer covering should be cut or filed through before Such, if anywhere near complete, would fill two or three books of this size. It has been our purpose to give the reader briefly a list of the best_ and easiest grown varieties that are suitable for planting in our section and such only that can be easily obtained. We do not know of a single variety named that can not be obtained of any of the leading reliable seeds- men of the country. In flower seed buying, as well as vegetable seed or field seed buying, our advice to you is to buy only of reliable seed dealers. There are many of them in our country and you have only to choose whic'h one you will buy from. ABOUT SEED BUYING. Fig. 24. — White ilooutlowiT. planting. Can be planted earlier in pots in the house and when 5 or 6 inches high can be transplanted to open ground. The Ipomea Setosa or Brazilian Morn- ing Glory is another of this family, easily grown from seed and which will grow 40 to 50 feet high in a season with any chance. The flowers of this are often 5 inches in diameter and of a bright shade of lavender pink. All moonflowers or Ipomeas make dense shade and are good for that purpose as well as for flowers. ALL EASILY OBTAINED. It has not been our purpose to furnish a complete list of flowers grown from seed or their culture. The writer of this chapter on flowers is a seeds- man and has been engaged exclusively in that busi- ness, together with the growing of plants and fruit trees, for the last 20 years and it may not be out of place in a book of this kind to say a few words to you about buying seed, plants', bulbs and fruit trees. During the last ten or twelve years there has arisen in this country a class of dealers in this line of goods that are a disgrace to this particular line of business and whose business success depends entirely on their ability to cheat the intending buyer, or as they term it, "catching suckers." For instance, they will ad- vertise broadcast in certain papers something like this: "200 kinds of Flower Seeds for 15 cents." The im- pression they seek to give is that you will get 200 different packets of different kinds for that price. What you really get is one packet of mixed flower seed that may contain 200 different kinds, or it may contain 20, for all you know. You will also see ad- vertisements of 50 bulbs for 25 cents and otlier things equally as enticing. Now, these men are not in business for their health only, nor arc they doing business at a loss, and 3'ou may rest assured that you are going to" be the loser and not they when you ■^efi'd your good money for something that looks very cheap. The same thing holds true all through the list of seed, plants or bulbs. Good, honest goods are only sold at about a certain standard of price. If lower than that something is the matter with the seeds. If you see a seed catalogue with pictures in it showing pumpkins, or watermelons as big as a barn, an ear of corn that it takes a double team to haul or other things in like proportion, any firm making such representations either in word or by picture is a good firm not to send orders to. A good Don't Scold the Children for Loving Flowers. Its Natural. 139 honest article, both as to quality and quantity, is worth an honest and fair price and you can't buy it for less. Such practices hurt both ways. The seed-buyer, be it man or v/oman, sees one of these alluring ad- vertisements in some of the cheap "mail order month- ly" story papers that are scattered broadcast through the country, more especially to farmers' families or they get hold of some of these highly sensational catalogues. They send off their good money for some of these wonderful bargains. When the seed come they usually are disappointed and at once jump at the conclusion that all seedsmen, florists or nur- serymen are swindlers and t''hat they will get the same outrageous treatment from all of them. No one condemns these undefendable practices in the seed trade as strongly as do the best seedsmen of the country, but we all recognize that these swind- ling concerns are going to keep on doing business just as long as they find victims that will "bite at their bait;" just so long as victims will continue to send the 10, 25 or 50 cents to them. There are swindlers in the seed, plant and tree business as in other lines. The buyer is fhe one who must use his judgment in buying. The best guide is common sense and when you see unreasonably low bargains advertised or representations by pictures that are lies on the face of them, its time for you to send your money to some one else for supplies of this kind. FLO'WERS FROM BULBS. The flowering bulbs and roots represent a distinct class of plants and these may again be divided. intO' two classes; first, those to be planted in late fall and early winter for earliest spring blooming and, sec- ond, the ones to be planted in spring for summer blooming. The bulbs for fall planting are the most important, almost all of them blooming in early spring. There are hundreds of varieties of these, but the most important are the Dutch and Roman Hyacinths, Tulips, Narcissus and Crocus. Tulips are not very satisfactory south of middle Georgia, but all of the others can be planted with reasonable expectation of success as far down as the north line of Florida. OUT DOOR CULTURE. With Hyacinths. Tulips, Crocus and Narcissus we have always had best success in this latitude (At- lanta) by planting in open ground during Decem- ber. Earlier planted bulbs are too apt to start up above ground during the warm spells that come so frequently during our winters and then get cut down with a March freeze, weakening the plant to the det- riment of the bloom. All bulbs should have a good rich garden soil for best results and before planting, unless soil is very rich, well rotted stable manure or bone meal should be thoroughly mixed with the soil. Never use fresh manure in fhe soil with any kind of bulbs. It will almost always destroy the bulbs if brought in direct contract with fresh manure. It is well, when preparing soil for these bulbs, to remove the top soil to a depth of about 5 inches, then apply the manure or whatever fertilizer is to be used, mixing it thoroughly with the soil. Level this bed evenly, then cover with about an inch of top soil. Be careful to have the soil well firmed down and level. Set the bulbs firmly on this layer of top soil and then fill in the bed with good garden soil, cov- ering the bulbs some 4 inches, l-'irm t'he soil well over them and they are 'then ready to form roots, ready for spring blooming. In our climate the great danger with Hyacinths and, in fact, all fall planted bulbs, is that they are apt to start up above ground during warm spells that come during winter. This too early starting can be largely prevented by cov- ering the bed with either leaves or coarse stable straw. In the purc'hase of Dutch Hyacinths the average flower grower can get just as good results from bulbs costing 50 to 60 cents per dozen as from the fancy named varieties sold at 10 to 25 cents each. Also avoid buymg so-called "Dutch Hyacinths" sell- ing at from 30 to 40 cents per dozen. These are usually the small "Dutch Romans" that are almost worthless in t'.-e hands of any but experienced flo- rists in greenhouses. The Roman Hyacinth is largely a variety for in- door pot culture and for that purpose it is one of the best, and in the lower parts of the South does well for out-door planting for February and March blooming. For open ground culture plant in same manure as described for the Dutch Hyacinths. We would advise the use of the. White Romans only. There are pink and blue varieties but the colors are not distinct or well marked. The White Roman I40 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. Hyacinth is a most delicate and beautiful flower Daffodils and what are commonly called Jonquils with a delicate fragance. Tulips are not well adapted to either pot or in- door culture and should only be used for out-door bedding, where beautiful designs can be produced by the use of the various colors. Soil for beds should be prepared in a similar manner to Hyacinths, but the bulbs should only be covered from 2 1-2 to 3 in this section. They are almost all suitable for out-door culture and should be planted in open ground during Nov- ember and December, giving the same general treat- Fig. 25.— Single Early Tulip. Fig. 26. — NarcisEi'.s Grandiflnra or Paper "White Narcissus. inches. This means that the top of the bulb is to be covered that much. The best varieties in single tulips are Cardinal's Hot for scarlet ; Chrysolora for yellow; LTmmacuIee for white; Duchess of Parma for orange red; Cottage Maid for pink. In the dou- bles, greater variations of color are found, but we cannot advise extensive plantings of same, as so many of them do not open perfectly. THE NARCISSUS FAMILY is a most extensive one and covers the Narcissus Grandiflora or Paper White Narcissus, the Chinese Sacred Lilies and all the hundreds of varieties of ment as for hyacinths. Any of these can be brought into bloom almost any time during the winter with pot or water culture, w'hich ' will be treated a little further on. Any of the Narcissus family of bulbs can be left in the ground anywhere in the middle South and will multiply freely. For keeping up the size and cjuality of the flowers, however, the clumps of bulbs that form should be dug up and separated every two or three years. CROCUS. This is the earliest spring bloomer with us. They can be planted in rows for border work any time Many Southern Farmers Could Make Their Homes More Attractive if They Would. 141 during the fall, but the most charming effects are obtained by planting clusters of from four to six of them all over the lawn. They bloom in March with as, maturing quickly and then disappearing to be seen no more until the following spring. They can be had in four separate colors ; white, purple, yellow and blue together with striped ones. In buying these get the so-called Mammoth Crocus, as the Idooms are about double the size of the old sorts. Bulbs should be covered about 2 inches and do not need to be as carefully planted as other bulbs. A blunt stick driven down a couple of inches in the lawn is suffi- cient to drop a bulb into and co^'er. BULBS— POT AND WATER CULTURE. One great advantage with the use of bulbs is that you can have the flowers almost any time during the winter with a little care. For this purpose the kinds best adapted are the Dutch and Roman Hyacinths, Narcissus Grandiflbra, Chinese Sacred Lilies and Freesias. All of these can be grown to perfection in flower pots filled with any good garden soil mix- ed with about one-third sand. Bulbs like Dutch Hyacinths, Narcissus and Chinese Lily can be plant- ed at the rate of 3 bulbs in a 6-inch flower pot ; Ro- man Hyacinths 4 or 5 to a 6-inch pot and Freesias from 8 to 12 bulbs. Dutch Hyacinths (pot culture) will bloom in about 3 months ; Romans in 8 or g weeks; Narcissus and Chinese Lilies in 5 to 7 weeks from time of potting. Fill the pots aliout two-thirds full of soil, place the bulbs in and then finish filling in with soil to within 1-2 inch of top of pot. After planting, tlior- oughly water until the soil is wet, then put the pots away in a closet or some other place that is dark. Examine every few days and give sufificient water when necessary to keep the soil moist, but not too wet. In two or three weeks usually a shoot will show at the surface of the soil in the pot. When this shows they can be brough out and kept in any room in the house where there is light most of the day, but it is not well to keep them in direct sun- light in windows until they show signs of blooming. Two things will have to be watched closely; first, to see that the soil is kept moist but not soaking wet ; second, that they are kept from freezing during cold winter nights. With a little trouble and starting a few pots every two or three weeks you can keep up a succession of flowers all during the winter when there are no flowers out-of-doors. If color is want- ed, this can be obtained with the various colors of the Dutch Hyacinths, such as pink, dark red, light blue, dark blue or purple. The single Dutch hy- acinths usually give better results in pot culture than the double. Yellow color can be had by t'he use of the Von Lion Narcissus. Then there are the White Dutch Hyacinths, White Roman Hyacinths, Paper White Narcissus and Chinese Lily. The Freesia is one of the most delicate and fra- grant of all flowers, but for successful growth it should be potted in September or October in a soil containing at least one-half sand and grown very slowly. Once in bloom it lasts for weeks and well repays one for the extra trouble. In recent years the water culture of bulbs has been developed and it is certainly a most interest- ing and satisfactory method for growing the Chinese Fig. 27.— Chinese Sacred Lily (Water Culture.) Sacred Lily and the Narcissus Grandiflora or Paper White Narcissus. It can be done by any one suc- cessfully. Take any ordinary glass fruit dish any- where near 6 inches across and fiU the bottom of it with small rocks or pebbles. The only object of t'he use of rocks is to hold the bulbs in an upright posi- tion and give the roots something to twine around. 14-2 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. In the size dish or bowl described place 3 Oiinese Lilies or 5 or 6 Paper White Narcissus in an up- right position among the rocks and then fill up part way with water. The bulbs should not be more than half covered with water at any time. Set the dish away in a dark place until the roots begin to make a good growth. When these start bring out into the light and as soon as they show signs of bloom- ing, place where they can get plenty of sunlig'ht. The water should be changed every three or four da3S by pouring off the old and putting in fresh. Keep them rather cool so as not to force too rapid a growth. The two most important things in water culture is to keep them from freezing and keep the water fresh. It is a' most interesting process and the bulbs will produce as good flowers in water as in soil. Paper White Narcissus cost about 40 cents a dozen; good Chinese Lily bulbs about $1.25 per dozen so that the trial is not an expensive one and you will be more than pleased with the result. BULBS FOR SPRING PLANTING. Under this head properly comes Tuberoses, Glad- ioli, Dahlias, Cannas and Caladiums. There are man)- other bulbs and roots that could be named, but as it is the purpose of this work to cover onl}' such as are sure to be satisfactory and are easily obtain- able; we will omit all except these. TUBEROSES. These will grow to perfection in any good garden scil in any Southern State. Use only what florists call No. I bulbs which usually cost from 30 to 40 cents per dozen. These larger size bulbs will al- most invariably bloom the first year, while the smaller, cheaper bulbs will seldom bloom until the second j^ear. These bulbs should be planted any time from Februar}' up to June in open ground, our preference being March in this section. The large bulbs are from 3 to 4 inches long and should be placed in an upright position so that the top of the bulb is from i to i 1-2 inches below the surface of the ground. The young shoots will appear above ground shortly after warm weather sets in and by mid-summer will throw up a tall stalk bearing from 10 to 20 perfect flowers of the most exquisite fra- grance. As these flowers open they can be picked off one or two at a time leaving the full strength of the plant to go into the production of the others. It is a most popular flower here around Atlanta and from 40,000 to 50,000 bulbs are planted each year in private gardens. The bulbs hold in perfect condi- tion through the winter in the lower South, but are rather uncertain as to bloom the second year, hence it is better to obtain new bulbs every year if you wish to be sure of flowers. Figure 28. GLADIOLI. Comparatively little known South but a perfect success anj'where in our climate and worthy of planting by any one. In hardly any flower can be had such a splendid display of fine color with so little trouble as with this. All shades and colors can be found from pure .white to deepest scarlet, many of the varieties being most beautifully shaded and blotched. Gladioli do best in rather sandy soil Intt any, loose garden soil will produce them satisfactorily, the only thing to be avoided is planting them in stiff clay. The bulbs are from i 1-2 to 2 inches in diameter and are flattened. The top of the bulb should be No Reason Why the Farm Should Not Be the Most Beautiful Place in the World. 143 about 2 inches below the surface. The growth is rapid after the roots once put out and each stalk produces 10 to 15 perfect,, almost lily shaped flow- ers. They require nothing after once being started, except to keep the surface of the soil stirred and free from grass and weeds. New bulbs should be planted each season as they, like the Tuberoses, are uncertain as to blooming the second year. As to varieties, there are hundreds of distinct, named kinds selling from 5 cents to $1.00 each, but unless you are a specialist in growing them you can get just about as much enjoyment and satisfaction out of the "Mixed Gladioli" sold at 25 to 35 cents per dozen by reliable seedsmen and florists as from the fancy named kinds at much higher prices. Any sold at less than above prices are apt to be small, in- ferior bulbs and mostly of solid scarlet color, the scarlet being the most common. You will find the gladioli very satisfactory and there should be thou- sands of them planted where there is only a dozen or so now. CALADIUMS. More commonly known as "Elepliants' Ears." Not a flowering bulb but a splendid plant for mak- ing a tropical effect. Bulbs should be planted any time after danger of freezing is past in either natu- rally moist soil or else where an abundance of wa- ter can be given all during the summer. Bulbs should be placed so that the top of bulb is about 3 inches below the surface. The bulbs can be had in i several sizes, ranging in price from 10 to 15 cents >. each. The richer the soil and larger the bulljs the larger will be the leaves and the larger the leaves I the finer the appearance of the plant. One of the li best ways is to make a circular bed about 3 feet in ' diameter. Plant 5 medium sized bulbs around the I edges, equally distant from each other, then one || rather large bulb in the center. I These bulbs can be carried safely in the ground (through winter in the middle and lower South pro- Jviding the dead leaves are cut off after frost kills them, then a coating of 5 or 6 inches of fresh stable limanure and leaves is put over them and left undis- jiturbed until the ground stops freezing in the spring. iThe bulbs are very susceptible to freezing and once Ijthe crown of the bulb freezes it rots. Protected (during each winter the bulbs if left, continue to in- jcrease in size for years. CANNAS AND DAHLIAS. The right methods of cultivation of both of these will be found under their respective heads earlier in this chapter in that part devoted to the growing of owers from seed. THE ROSE, THE QUEEN OF FLOWERS. The South is the home of the rose and nowhere in the world can they be grown to so great perfec- tion as here,^ especially so in the clay soils of the middle South. In making this statement we refer more especially to what zrz ^Q-r\er3.\\y termed the Fig. 29. — EverlJluomiEg Rose. — ^Kaiserin Augusta Victoria. monthly or "Everblooming" Roses. The everbloom- ers, broadly speaking cover the Tea and Hybrid Tea Roses. Most of the climbing varieties are sat- isfactory also, being used to cover porches, trellises, etc. We cannot advise the use of the ^'"Hybrid Perpetual" varieties, as very few of them are adapt- ed to our climate. Paul Neyron is an exception to this rule and does well. The value of the Hybrid Perpetual class is largely its ability to stand North- ern winters without being killed and we do not have to meet those conditions, hence it is better to con- fine our plantings to varieties that give an abun- dance of bloom almost from frost to frost. Rose growing in the South is not the difficult matter that many lovers of flowers consider it. No-' 144 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. where on earth will roses grow more profusely nor to greater perfection than in our section. Successful rose growing is entirely a matter of fol- lowing a few simple rules. The first of these is to get varieties adapted to this section; two-year-old, open ground, Southern grown plants being prefera- ble. The second is thorough preparation of the soil before planting. The third is frequent cultivation and close pruning to keep the plants in blooming condition. Fig. 30. — White Everblooming Rose — The Bride. water before the roots start well. These pot grown small roses are, of course, much cheaper than the open ground grown ones and can be had at 75 cents to $1.00 per dozen, w'hile the latter cost $2.50 to $3.00 per dozen. Another point. Don't buy roses, fruit trees or in fact, anything of this class from trav- eling agents. There are some honest agents of this kind, but they are so few that it is hardly worth while to consider. With few exceptions the best and most reliable nurseries will not sell trees or plants to traveling agents. In buying this class of goods buy direct from the growers. TIME OF PLANTING. Open ground plants usually become dormant be- tween October 15th and November ist and stay in that condition until March ist. They can be trans- planted any time while the plants are dormant. The earlier they are transplanted after they become dor- mant the better. Our soils remain warm enough all through the winter to promote root growth while the tops remain dormant, thus giving a root system by the time the spring growing season comes in and enabling the plants to make a vigorous growth at the start. The earlier the transplanting is done the greater the growth of roots during the winter, For this reason we advise planting at the earliest possi- l:)le date after heavy frosts. Pot grown plants should all be transplanted in spring, except in Florida and near the Gulf where fall planting is best. We advise the use of the open ground grown plants because they are better and stronger than the small pot grown stock. The plants are a year older, are 'hardier, having been fully acclimated to outdoor conditions, and if planted out during the fall and early winter, will give plenty of bloom the follow- ing spring and summer, thus saving a year in ob- taining results from your plantings. The use of these open ground grown plants relieves you of the necessity of the close care that has to be given the small, pot grown stock from greenhouses. We have had many years' experience in rose growing and planting in the South, and each year's work confirms us in t'he opinion that open ground grown roses are by far the best for the South. If you are willing to or prefer to use the small pot grown plants you should plant t'hem out in early spring, watching them closely to see they do not die from lack of SOIL PREPARATION. Many failures are the result of lack of preparation of the soil before planting. In the clay soils which are present in most parts of the Central South, the subsoil is stiff and hard and in no condition for the tender new roots to penetrate it. This must be thor- oughly dug up and pulverized to the depth of 18 inches. A supply of well rotted stable manure should be used, mixing it thoroughly with the soil below where the roots of the new plants rest. If t'he rotted stable manure is not obtainable, bone meal worked into the soil at the rate of 2 to 2 1-2 pounds for each plant is the best substitute. Which- ever is used mix thoroughly with the soil. It will also be found advisable to dig out the subsoil below where the plant is to stand and fill it in with woods earth, or if that is not obtainable, use t'he surface Most Flower Seed Are Small, and Have to Be Dealt with as Such. 145 soil from your own yard. Woods earth, which is largely decayed vegetable matter, or the surface soil is more fertile and looser than the subsoil and easier for the roots to penetrate, and for these r>asons It is advisable to use either oiie or the other. Never use fresh manure beneath the surface in a rose bed. It makes t'he soil "thirsty" and easily affected by drouth. If fresh manure is used at all use it as a surface mulch, putting it on several inches thick up around the plants after they have been set. The winter rains will carry much of the fertilizing value of the manure down to the roots, and by spring the manure will usually be decomposed enough so that it can be spaded or worked into the soil a id be benefi- cial instead of injurious. is done after 'heavy frosts have come and rendered the plant dormant, the better growth they will make the following spring. The plants, as thev come from the grower, usually have most of the top left on. Before transplanting, Fig. -Everblooming Rose. — Helen Gould. about one-half of this should be trimmed off. It is hard for' many to cut the plants back, but it practi- cally insures their living and making a good growth the following season. We do not favor pruning the roots except in cases where they become bruised or broken in handling. AVhere this has occurred cut off the injured or bruised parts with a sharp knife. Plants should be set so that the crown of the roots will come just below the surface after the soil has been pressed down until it is firm. Roots should be placed as near the position they formerly grew in as possible and the soil pressed closely and firmly around the roots, preferably by hand. Then fill in the hole until even or slightly above the surround- ino- surface and then firm all the soil around® the plant by tamping. Do not transpknt in clay soils when the soil is wet enougli to be sticky or muddy. The firming of the soil necessrry to get it close As stated previously, the earlier in the season this enough to the roots would be injurious when the soil 11 aUitpc uii.l Form 0/ o'ocilet Roses. Have your soil worked down fine, free from lumps and trash of all kinds, so that it will pack easily and closely around the roots. TRANSPLANTING. 146 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASyRE. is too wet. In the sandy soils in Florida and along the Gulf, it is advisable to plant when the soil is wet, directly after rains, but in any of t'he stiff clay soil sections drier conditions must be had. When- ever roses have been planted it is advisable to pour on one bucket of water to each plant. No matter how carefully the soil has been pressed down, the water will carry the particles of earth more closely against the roots than can be done any other way. After watering scatter a little dry earth over the wet soil. This dry earth mulch will prevent the baking and crusting of the wet soil beneath. CULTIVATION. If roses are to be kept in good condition, they must be cultivated frequently; the surface of the soil kept from baking or getting hard and crusted, and the bed kept free from weeds and grass. This is best done by frequent rakings, deep enough to break any crust that may be formed by heavy rains. Keep t'he surface of the soil loose. It promotes growth and prevents drying out of the moisture below. The use of stable manure is good during the winter months as a mulch on the surface. For fertilizing with commercial fertilizers there is nothing better than ground bone or bone meal, as it is usually call- ed. This is not a quick acting fertilizer, but it furnishes a continuous supply of plant food during the season. If a quick acting fertilizer is wanted, any good vege- table fertilizer will produce the results. We prefer, for clay soils, one containing about 8 per cent, phos- phoric acid, 4 per cent, nitrogen and 4 per cent, pot- as'h. This is a complete plant food and should be sprinkled lightly around the plants on the surface and raked in. This should be done every two or three months during the growing season. TRIMMING AND PRUNING. If the bloom is kept cut off closely and long stems cut with the bloom the plants will be kept in good condition for almost continuous blooming. Early in spring it is advisable to cut out any dead wood that may be on the plants or any wood that looks old and hide-bound. The object of close trimming and pruning is to encourage the growth of the new wood and new shoots from the roots. Old wood does not produce good bloom. In cutting bloom cut in bud. It takes too much of the strength of the plant to carry the flower to full maturity. If you want to keep plants in good condition give them personal attention. Don't leave it to servants, or if you have them do the actual work, stand over them and see that it is done right. It is not safe to trust the majority of them without directly supervis- ing the work. WATERING. All sections have dry times and drouths when it is advisable to water the plants. Many people do more harm than good by giving a light surface wet- ting daily. Once or twice a week is better. An inch or so of the dry surface should be drawn away from the plant leaving a basin-like depression into which should be poured from a half to a bucketful of wa- ter. .A.fter this has soaked in cover the wet spot with the loose earth previously drawn away. This prevents baking and crusting of the soil. In cities where water works are in use the whole surface of the rose bed should be thoroughly saturated once a week, the watering being. done late in the afternoon. The following morning rake the bed thoroughly to prevent crusting and running together of the soil in the hot sunshine usually present during times of drouth. If these few simple instructions are followed there will be little or no difficulty experienced in growing roses to perfection ; in fact, you will be surprised to see how little effort will produce splendid results in rose growing. It is not advisable in a book of this character to give a list of varieties that should be planted always, for there are new introductions every year and a list of this kind is always changing, new and better va- rieties superseding the old. The writer's stand-bys in the rose garden at this time, among the ever- bloomers is as follows. All these have been grown three to four years or more and have given us en- tire satisfaction: In white varieties, Bride, Kaiserin Augusta Victo- ria, Snowflake or JMarie Lambert, White Mamon Cochet: in pink varieties, Duchess de Brabant or Countess Le Barthe, Bon Silene, Catherine Mermet, Bridesmaid, Pink Mamon Cochet, Pink La France; in yellow. Mile. Franciska Kruger, Perle des Jardins, Eloile de Lyon, Safrano, Marie Van Houtte, Souv, De Pierre Notting; in red; Meteor, Papa Gautier, Dcn't Fail to Make Arrangements for the Flowsr Yard in the Spring. 147 Triomphe de Pernet Fere, Helen Gould or Baldwin, Andre Schwartz and Gruss an Teplitz. All of the .above are Teas or Hybrid Tea varieties and are "everblooming." In Hybrid Perpetuals the "Paul Neyron," an immense, free blooming rose is desira- ble. In climbers the yellow Marechal Neil is the best, followed by Chromatella or Cloth of Gold, J as. Sprunt (cherry reel), Lamarque (white with lemon -centre), Reine Marie Henrietta (bright red), Solfa- terre (deep sulphur yellow) and ^Irs. Robt. Peary i(pure white). The Crimson Rambler is a good porch or pillar rose, covered with a mass of crimson flowers early in spring only. The other Rambler roses have little value in the South. At least a dozen roses ought to be a fixture with every home. There should be more if you can afford to buy them. They are fairly per- manent, for with fair treatment they last for years, getting larger and better every season. You can't have too many of them and when times are prosper- ous the small amount necessary to buy the necessary plants and seed can be taken without any one feeling it. The time to .begin beautifying our home sur- roundings is now. Fig. 33. — Tne Giant Rose— Paul Neyron. ^ •^flhir'-i ""'y^-^; cow PEAS.— UNFERTILIZED ON RIGHT; P^ERTIUZED ON LEFT. EXPERIMENT FARM, SOUTHERN PINES, N. C. 14S Book V. Fertilizer Department, EDITED AND EEVISED BY PROF. W. F. MASSEY, Formerly Professor of Horticulture and Botany IST. C. College of Agri- culture and Mechanical Arts; former Editor of ""Ptactical Farmer/' Phila. Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science, of the American Breeders' Association and the iSTational Geographical Society of Washington, Lec- turer at Farmers' Institutes in various States, and Contributor to the leading farm papers, SALISBURY, MD. 149 ISO TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. Introduction. The use of commercial fertilizers has become a ne- cessity in modern agriculture with the depletion of the natural store of plant food in the soil. This is es- pecially the case in the South, where the careless cul- tivation of cotton year after year on the same land has so reduced the fertility of the soil that the application of fertilizer has been deemed essential for every crop grown. But there is a wise and a wasteful way in whic'h fertilizers are used. The prosperity of any coun- try- depends largely upon the ])roductivity of the soil, and that country which produces the largest crops in excess of its home need will always take the lead of one which merely supplies its home consump- tion. What is especially needed in the South is the in- creased production per acre rather than a continua- tion of the practice of going over a large area for t'he crop that should be grown on one-tenth the area. Long and exhaustive tillage will reduce the produc- tivity of any soil and the problem before the South- ern farmers to-day is how most economically to in- crease tlie yield of the staple crops per acre. The old practice of planting cotton after cotton continuously with the aid of a little dribble of fertilizer in the fur- rows must give place to a wiser system and a more liberal use of the fertilizers in the proper place. The fact is that no soil originally fertile and of a good me- chanical composition ever is entirely worn out. Na- ture all over the South has restored old fields by a growth of broomsedge and old field pines, so that when cleared of pines the land is found to be fertile again through a pumping up of plant food from the subsoil by the long tap-roots of t'he pine trees and the restoration to the surface of the organic matter that the careless cultivation has deprived the soil of. The soil was not worn out, but simply made unproductive through the shallow scratching of the surface with the one-mule plow, while right below was an une.x- liausted subsoil from which the pine tree brought fer- tility again to the surface. We can learn hence from the old field pines les- sons regarding the restoration of our soils. Of course we cannot afford to wait for nature to do this work for us through the agency of the broomsedge and the pine. The farmer must learn that his soil is a great store of plant food entirely inexhaustible if properly treated, and the proper use of fertilizers is one of the most efficient aids in its improvement, while the improper use of these plant foods has been the means of reducing its productiveness till it is common to say that the soil is worn out w'hen it still has an abundant supply of plant food if properly aided in bringing it out. If one simply draws on the land without restoring any plant food that may have been taken out by the crops, or not using any means for getting at its reserve store of plant food the availa- ble store of plant food will become exhausted, at least that w'hich is available by the methods employed. A man having a deposit in bank' can draw checks on it so long as he keeps his deposit good, 'but if he draws without renewing his deposit he will soon reach the time when his drafts are dishonored. It is the same wav with t'he soil. The soil is the farmer's bank and if he wisely treats it he can continue to draw in- creasing drafts without exhaustion of the deposit. All crops grown take from the soil in different amounts the various materials that are needed for their perfection. In some soils, especially such as are de- rived from the decomposition of potassic rocks like our granite, some of these materials seem to be in in- exhaustible quantity and it is said that these soils do not need applications of mineral matters except phos- phorus. While it is true that in such soils potash does exist in very large amounts, it is in the form of an insoluble silicate or sand w'hich becomes soluole very slowly through action of the carbonic acid that is brought to it in the rain water, and it is often wiser to use an application of potash in the fertilizer then to depend on that in the soil. The plant foods that are most commonly deficient in our old cultivated soils are phosphorus, nitrogen and potassium. These are pure elements, and we cannot use a pure element as a fertilizer. Nitrogen is a gas that is mixed in the air, and we must get it in combination with some- thing else before we can get it in the soil in such a shape that the plants can get it. Just how this can be done we will explain later. Phosphorus in a pure state burns up as soon as exposed to the air, and Study to See What Your Land Requires. 151 hence we cannot use pure phosphorus. But we can get it in combination- with lime in the form of phos- phoric acid in our phosphoric rocks, and it is phos- phoric acid that we use as a fertilizer. Potash, as I have said, exists in all clay soils, and is found in hard wood ashes in very availal^le shape. The most readi- ly available source for potash, which is the oxide of the metal potassium is in the potash salts that are im- ported from the salt mines in Germany. These are all readily dissolved in the soil. Nearly all of our soils are the result of t'he decomposition or breaking down of the rocks and the transportation by water of the pulverized material and spreading them over the old rocks to form our soils of to-day. In soine instances the soil is not formed from the rocks that lie below it. In Northern sections of the country where the an- cient glaciers moved over the surface for untold ages, the soil is made up of materials transported by the ice from distant regions. And in the South here and there there are so-called limestone soils which lie on top of the old limestone that was formed under water of lakes, and on top of this rock an accumulation of vegetable decay has taken place, and a deep and fer- tile soil has taken the place of the ancient lake. This soil has not any connection with the rock below in its composition and is apt to be more deficient in lime than a soil made up of the rock decomposition, and it has been found that lime has a very great and beneficial action on such soils. Lime is one of the es^ sential matters for plant growth, but in most soils there "is an abundance of lime for all purposes of plant food. And yet it 'has been found that lime, even on such soils has a special value in sweetening the soil and in rendering plant food that is in an unavailable state available to the plants. Lime renders a heavy clay soil lighter by gathering t'he fine particles togeth- er in small lumps, and in a similar manner it makes a very sandy soil closer by gathering the sand together after the manner of mortar. Lime also acts on. the vegetable matter in the soil and releases the ammonia so that the minute plant forms called bacteria can ; carry on their work and bring the ammonia into the form of a nitrate, which is the only form in which the 'plants use nitrogen. We have said that soils of a good mechanical make- up do not become worn out. But to get at and keep up their productivity we must thoroughly plow and pulverize them. A mass of phosphate rock may lie ji for ages on the soil and have little if any effect on its productiveness. But if we pulverize that rock to a fine powder and mix it with the soil the action of the carbonic acid of the rain water, which is the greatest decomposer of nature, has an opportunity to act on each small particle and it is dissolved so that plants can use it and get the phosphoric acid it contains. In manner a hard lump of clayey soil will not give up its plant food till pulverized by the implements of cul- tivation so the water and air can act upon it and make its plant food available. Plants take food from the soil by the very fine hairs on the extremity of their roots just back of t'he root cap that forces its way through the soil. If you will take a few garden beans and place them in a saucer on a few thickness- es of blotting paper made wet with water, and then cover t'he .saucer with a pane of glass and put it in a warm place, the beans will soon sprout and throw out white rootlets ori the paper. By examining these roots you can see that the extreme tip is bare and pointed and is called the root cap. This root cap is continually renewed so that as the outer part is worn in pushing through the soil it is contin- . ually renewed from be'hind. Just back of this root cap you will see that a portion of the rootlet is cov- ered with a velvety coat of very fine hairs. As the root pushes forward through the soil new 'hairs are continually formed just back of the root cap, and the old ones die off. These root hairs are the only part of the root engaged in taking food from the soil, and as they are all of microscopic size it is evident that all the food used by the plants must he completely dis- solved, since the root hairs cannot take in anv solid substance. It is also easy to see that on t'he perfec- tion of these root hairs the ability of the plant to get foods depends. Hence if we tear off the tips of the roots with the absorbing root hairs by running a plow through our corn, we are depriving the corn of the power to get the food it needs till it makes new fibres and new hairs, for the corn and the cotton plant send their roots far and wide through the spaces be- tween the rows. Deep breaking and thorough pulverization of the soil are essential to the dissolving of the plant food in the soil, but shallow and frequent cultivation after- wards is needed for the perfection of the crop. One piece of land may have just as much plant food in it as another right alongside of it, and yet through im- perfect preparation and improper cultivation it may be far less productive than the other piece that is well plowed and properly cultivated. No matter 'how much 152 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE plant food a soil may contain, if it is not made availa- ble it will not be a productive soil. COMPOSITION OF SOILS. Soils vary chiefly in their mechanical composition, and different terms are used to describe them. When sand predominates the soil is called sandy. When more clay is mixed with it it becomes a sandy loam, and when still more clay, a clay loam, and w'hen there is a small proportion of sand to clay it becomes a heavy clay soil. In sections where the limestone comes to the surface and its decomposition affects the soil, the soil will contain a great deal of lime in the form of carbonate of lime. The mineral matters other than clay and sand consist of various compounds of lime, potash, phosphorus and other thing's with sulphuric acid, phosphoric acid, carbonic acid and nitric acid, wit'h oxides of iron and potassium and chloride of so- dium or common salt. when the soil is but a few degrees above the freezing point, while Indian corn under the same conditions will rot. Aside from the clay, sand and mineral matters the soil must contain a portion of decayed organic matter, that is, matter that has once formed the or- gans of plants and animals. This decayed organic matter when reduced to a black mass is called hu- mus, and it is of great importance in the cultivation of the soil and in the supplying of moisture to the plants. A soil that abounds in this humus is made darker in color, and 'hence absorbs and retains heat better, and is therefore a warmer soil. It has been found, too, that humus retains moisture longer than any other matter in the soil, and that a soil abound- ing in humus dries out more slowly than one w'hich is destitute of it. A soil newly cleared from the for- est has a large percentage of humus, and we all know that such a soil stands a drouth better than an old soil that 'has become depleted of humus. It does not wash into gullies like the old soil either, and not 'till h Fig, 1. — Unfertilized. (Eiglit weelcs old.) Fertilized. Fig. a. — Untertilizcd. (Twelve weeks old.) Fertilized. Water exists in soils in two forms. First, that which in any soil adheres to each particle of the soil in the form of a film of moisture, and also in the form of permanent water. The need for drainage is to get the permanent water table in the soil lower down from the surface so as to admit the air and the film water, for standing water shuts out the air and renders the soil cold, and to have plants thrive their roots must have the o.xygen of the air, moisture in the form of films and a proper degree of heat suited to the plant growth, since some plants need less 'heat than others. A garden pea will germinate and grow long cultivation and a failure to keep up the supply of humus has caused the soil to run together does the washing begin. This decayed organic matter al- so contains the plant food that the plants that made it took from the soil, and hence a new soil is always a more fertile soil. The humus also forms certain humic acids wliich act on other matters in the soil and render them available to crops. We see then the great importance of keeping up by systematic ro- tation of crops the organic matter that makes this valuable humus, and thus retaining the cTiaracter that made the new ground more productive. Deep Plowing is Necessary to Keep Land in a Fertile State. 153 The retention of film moisture in the soil by this humus is one of its most valuable characteristics. In a soil abounding in humus we can use the commer- cial fertilizers in much larger quantities than in a soil that dries out quickly, simph- because the fertilizer will be dissolved, w'liile in the old dry soil a similar amount of fertilizer applied would really damage the crop in dry weather, burning the roots instead of be- ing dissolved. The uniform supply of moisture then during the long dry spells we are apt to have in the Sotith is one of the greatest arguments in favor of a systematic rotation of crops that will keep up the supply of humus in the soil. Having lightly touched on the various forms of plant food we will now take up each of the most important which are apt to be deficient in our old cultivated soils. NITROGEN. As we have said, nitrogen is in its elemental form a gas, and in order that plants may get it in the soil I it is necessary that it be put into combination with ; other matters. The air is four-fifths nitrogen in its gaseous form. It is mixed in the air, but not com- I bined with ox3'gen so that we can breathe it, for we I could not breathe pure oxygen, as that would cause j every thing to burn up at once. Nitrogen then is to dilute the air for animal and plant life. Green plants , -use nitrogen only when it has been brought into com- il bination in the soil with lime, potash or sodium, through first being brought into the form of nitric ij acid, which at once seeks one of these bases to form a neutral salt. All the decayed organic matter in the i soil contains nitrogen in the form of organic matter. I Certain minute and invisible forms of plant life (to the naked eye) attack all vegetable matter buried in the soil and cause it to decay. These release the am- monia that the plants contained. Then another form of these myriads of microscopi-c plants called bacte- ria, which swarm in a soil having an abundance of Tiumus live on the ammonia and they change the am- monia into a nitrite. Then a third form lives on the ; nitrite and its work results in the formation of nitric acid, and this acid at once combines with lime, potash or other mineral base that may be present in the soil, and the result is a nitrate which is at once available to plants. The immediate effect of nitrogen in the form of nitrate of soda when used as a fertilizer, is due to the fact that it is already in this nitrate form and can be used at once, and must be used at once or it will be washed from the soil. Plants use nitro- gen in varying percentages' according to the crop grown. The value of nitrogen in plants is due to its effect in promoting rapid growth. If there is an ex- cess of nitrogen in the soil over the due amount of phosphorus and potash needed, there will be a rank growth but small fruitage, for the mineral elements are essential to the ripening of fruit and the perfec- tion of sfrain and seed. GETTING NITROGEN FROM THE AIR. It has long been known to farmers that clover, cow peas and other members of the family known as leg- umes or pod-bearers did in some way increase the fer- tility of the soil. But just how they did it was long a matter of conjecture. ;\Iore recent study of these Fig. 3. — Tubercles on Clover Roots. plants by scientists has demonstrated the way in which they do this. On the roots of these legume plants were found certain little knots or nodules. It was found that when these nodules were on the roots that the plants did acquire nitrogen more than they could get from the soil, and that when there were no nodules the plants did not acquire any surplus nitro- gen. It was evident then that in some way these nodules were the means for the acquisition of nitro- ^54 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. gen by the plants. Further study in the microscopic laboratory revealed t'he fact that these nodules were formed by certain of these soil bacteria that lived as parasites on the roots of the legumes. These minute plants were of the nature of nitric ferments and they oxidize the nitrogen of the air that penetrates the soil and nitric acid is the result. This at once seeks a base such as lime or potash in the soil and the plants take up the nitrate formed just as they take the ni- trate formed by the other nitrifying bacteria that live on organic decay. We, therefore, can easily see the importance of the legumes, especially our cow peas, to the farmer, for they not only get for him free from the air the nitrogen that costs so much in fertilizer, but furnish the organic decay for the other soil bac- teria to go to work on and render available to other crops the following season. It also shows that these legume crops do not need an application of nitrogen in a fertilizer, since they can get all they need and more from tlie air. In fact, it is worse than useless to apply a nitrogenous fertilizer to them, since when this is done they will use the fertilizer and will not get from the air \^at they would get if compelled to do so. None of our cereal crops nor cotton belong to this family of plants and hence the importance of put- ting some of the legumes into our rotation to avoid the purchase of nitrogen for ti.e sale crops. ]\Iuch lias been said of late about inoculating the soil for the various bactoria that live on the roots of legumes, and artificial cultures have been sent out dried in cot- ton. It has been found, however, that these artificial cultures do not readily grow in the soil. The De- partment of Agriculture at ^ .'as'hington is now mak- ing and sending out these cultures in sealed glass tubes with directions for use, and these will probably be more effective than the dried bacteria. But it is useless to try to inoculate a sour soil, for t'he bacte- ria nor the legumes will thrive on such a soil 'till sweetened by an application of lime. Nor is it of any use to inoculate a soil that is already ric'h in nitrogen, for in such a soil the legumes will use the soil nitro- gen and will not make nodules on their roots. By far the best way to inoculate a soil for alfalfa or other legumes is to get soil from a field where the plants have already been successful and have made nodules. Scatter 200 pounds per acre of such a soil over the field and the results will usually be better than with the artificial cultures. It is useless to inoculate a soil in which phosphoric acid and potash are wanting, for these are very necessary to any plant, but especially to the legumes, which, while they get nitrogen from the air mvst be abundantly supplied with the mineral matters, since th^y are greedy consumers of these. The cereal crops are not nitrogen collectors and in this respect differ from the legumes. An experiment made at the Georgia Station showed that wheat, bar- ley, beans and luzerne (alfalfa) were planted on the same field without an application of nitrogen, with nitrogen at rate of 18 pounds per acre and with 31.5 pounds and 45 pounds with the following results, phosphoric acid and potash being furnished in all cases in like quantities. No Nitrogen ISl lbs. N. 31.5 lbs. N. 45 lbs. N. Barley 100 IGl 220 272. Wheat laS 212 270 316 Beans 935 938 961 883 Luzerne 970 983 lOOO 994 Showing that when the legumes, beans and alfalfa, received heavy applications of nitrogen they did not acquire an extra amount as they did when no nitro* gen was applied. While it is believed that there is little specific dif- ference in the various bacteria that live on the roots of legumes, some of them have become so altered in Uieir haliits that they prefer certain plants to others and the bacteria that inoculate one form of legume will usually fail to affect another species. Hence it is important to have the forms that live on the special I)lant to be grown. But it must be remembered that these bacteria themselves have no nitrogen and do not add nitrogen directly to the soil, and are hence not to be considered in the form of fertilizers, but as plants which through their ability to oxidize the free nitrogen of the air enable the legumes to get it in a form in whic'h they can use it. PHOSPHORUS. The element phosphorus is one of the most vitally important elements in plant life. While, as we have said, phosphorus cannot be used as a pure element, we can get it in the form of p'hosphoric acid associat- ed with lime, forming a phosphate of lime. In its natural form in the rocks it is in a form not soluble in water. But when finely pulverized and mixed with the soil it does finally become, through the ac- tion of the carbonic acid in the rain water, available to plants. Soils will hold on to phosphoric acid 'till called for by plants, and it does not leach away from A Great Deal of Plant Food Washes Off the Land. 155 e soil like the nitrates do. But as all our cereal ops use it in large amounts in the ripening of the ain, it has been found that our old cultivated soils e more deficient in phosphates than in any other rm of plant food except nitrogen. We get phosphoric acid from animal bones and pm t'he phosphatic rocks. Some manufacturers try I make the farmer believe that the phosphoric acid pm animal bones is a better article than that from ije rock. But this is a mistake. Phosp'horic acid is lie and the same thing, no matter from what source, d the only thing to consider is its availability. In w bone meal it is insoluble, but owing to the speedy cay of the bone meal in t'he soil .it becomes availa- e more quickly than that in the pulverized rock or Fig. 4. — Yield Iroui l-ln acre. No FerUlizer. yj From farm of T. J. Adams, Edgefield, S. C. pats" as it is called. The phosphatic rock found rSouth Carolina, Florida and Tennessee furnishes the jeapest source of phosphoric acid on the market, render the phosphoric acid immediately available l|; pulverized rock is dissolved in sulphuric acid, I king what is known on the market as acid phos- Ijjate. For immediate effect on the crops this is con- ^J'ered best. But it has been found that long con- t|ued use of acid phosphate brings about an acid iljidition in the soil that is detrimental to the growth tclover and ot'her legumes. Not that the acid does KfS directly, for a well made phosphate has no free ^;d, and manufacturers avoid an excess of acid, as i makes the article sticky and hard to drill. But it ! tound that when the acid phosphate is applied the p^ps take up the phosphoric acid and set free the sulphuric acid, which at once unites with- the lime carbonate in the soil and forms plaster or the suj- phate of lime, which does not sweeten the soil as the carbonate does, and this robbing of the soil of lime;, brings about acid conditions and a need for fresh ap- plications of lime. Practical meix are rapidly coming to the conclusion that for the permanent benefit of the land it is better to use the pulverized rock in lib- eral amounts. Experiments made at the Maryland Station show that t'he pulverized rock gave better and more permanent results than the acid phosphate. The average super phosphate or acid phospliate con- tains about 14 per cent, of phosphoric acid, but some rock makes an article as high as 16 per cent. It has been found too that on a soil deficient in phosphoric Fig. 5. — Yield from 1-10 acre, from Fertilizer containing per cent. Phosphoric Acid. :; per cent. Nitrogen, a per cent. Potash. Fom farm of T. J. Adams, Edgefield, S. C. acid and potash an application of either alone will have little result, and that for the best results both are needed. The office of potash in the plant seems to be to encourage and promote t'he formation of starch, while phosphorus is engaged in the transfer of the starch to the points where it is needed. POTASH. Starch is formed in plants through the assimila- tion of carbon from the carbon dioxide in the air by the green matter in the leaves. But it has been found that this process is checked and little starch is formed if potash is deficient, and no growth what- ever is made if it is entirely absent. Hence, though IS6 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. po'.ai.h contains no starch, it is essential to tlie for- mation of starcli and to plant life, and starch is the primary form in which all t'he structure of plants is made up, the starch being transformed into various other substances to make up the tissues of the plant. Starch is also a storage form of food for the future use of the plant. It is stored by p'hosphoric acid in the tubers of the potato, and t'here keeps unchanged 'till the potato sprouts. As soon as sprouting takes place there is a ferment formed that changes the starcli into a sort of sugar that the plant can use as food. Starch as starch is not digestible by plants or animals. We have in our saliva the same ferment that changes the starch in food to glucose and ena- bles us to digest it. 'Now as starch is so important a matter in the plant economy it is important to un- derstand t'he means for making and using it in the perfection of the crop. If the soil is rich in nitrogen but deficient in phosphoric acid and potash, potatoes will make rank tops and very small and few tubers. Grain will grow rank and have weak straw that will fall and lodge. Hence we see the importance of hav- ing a due percentage of p'hosphoric acid and potash in the soil, and if they are def cient to apply them in the fertilizer. An excess of nitrogen makes the cot- ton plant long limbed and "weedy" and a small fruit- age in proportion to growth. But when this rank growth is supplemented with a due percentage of phosphoric acid and potash, the rank growth is no disadvantage and the plants will fruit heavily. Potash is the oxide of the metal potassium. Tf IS one of the component parts of all vegetable matter, and in burning wood we find in the ashes a large per- centage of potash associated with a still larger per- centage of lime and a small percentage of p'hosphoric acid. Hence ashes, particularly those from hard woods, are a valuable source of potash. The ashes of corn cobs are still more valuable, and those made from cotton-seed hulls are the most valuable of all. Potash exists more plentifully in clay soils than any other of the important elements of plant food. But it is in the form of an insoluble silicate, which is slowly made available to plants by the carbonic acid in rain water. Applications of lime will release pot- ash mere rapidly, and in some cases it may be found cinaper to get at it in this way than to apply potash in I'ne fertilizer. But as a rule, even on soils that liavt an aSundance of potash in the insoluble form it will pay to use some potas'h in the fertilizer, especial- ly for those crops like potatoes, legumes and tobacco need large percentages of available potash in the soil. The most readily available source for potash is the potash salts imported from Germany under the names of kainit, sylvanite, etc. But since in the crude salts there is but a small percentage of potash in propor- tion to the salt associated with it, the German com- panies have concentrated the potash in the form of muriate and sulphate in which there is 50 per cent, of actual potash, w'hile in kainit there is but 12 per cent. Hence the more concentrated article is usually the cheaper since the farmer has to freight but one- fourth as much to get what potas'h he needs. It has been found, however, that kainit, by reason of the large amount of common salt it contains, has a spe- cial value on some soils in the South in preventing rust in cotton, and it is, therefore, largely used in cot- ton fertilizers. Bottom soils and ret aimed swamp lands usually need no application of nitrogen, but are apt to be very deficient in potas'h. Light sandy soils an-e a-lso defic'ien-t in potash, and even on tlie heavy clay loams it will usually pay for some crops to use a liberal application of potash. Potash and phosphoric acid are essential to the success of the legume crops, and the deficiency of these in the soil is the common cause of the failure of peas, clover and other legumes. If well supplied with phosphoric acid and potash the legumes will get all the nitrogen they need from the air, and will leave the soil richer in nitrogen for the following crop. Prof. Wagner, one of the best authorities on potash, says: "On the strength of what is known up to to-day on that subject, I can lay down the following general principles: "I consider it as suited to the purpose to fertilize witTi potash (kali) not only all plants intended to be used on the farm as food for animals, but also all ce- reals, which furnish straw, in quantities not merely sufficient for the production of a maximum crop, but with enough to induce the plants to take up an ex- cess of potash (kali). Animal food rich in potaslil (kali) gives manure rich in potash (kali) and the potash (kali) of tV? manure is for some plants mosti advantageous. For potatoes and sugar beets, give the potash (kali); in form of stable manure, and apply potash (kali) to the crop preceding or else fertilize witli muriate oi potash in the fall. On loamy soils potatoes stand dik-ect potash (kali)j fertilization better than on sandy soils. Plants Need Food the Same That Animals Do. 157 Among the cereals oats require tlie least, barley the argest quantity of potash (kali.) To tobacco apply the potas'h (kali) only in form of ulphate. 1. All leguminous plants such as peas, beans, lu- ins, clover, seradella, lentils, esparsette should be endered nitrogen-hungry, so that they may draw to 'be utmost extent upon the nitrogen supply of the tmosphere, and this is effected by potash (kali) hosphate fertilization. 2. For the nitrogen consumers the requisite amount f nitrogen should be secured from the cheapest pos- ible source, the atmosphere. Extensive cultivation f leguminous plants, fertilized by potash (kali) phos- hates, and their use as nitrogen-fertilizers effects his. 3. As far as nitrogen, procured without cost from tie air does not suffice, the nitrogen-consumers should e supplied with the requisite amount of nitrogen, ufficient for the production of a maximum crop. 4. Whatever nitrogen has been secured from the ir by green cattle food, and passes on into their ma- jure, should be preserved from losses. This is af- 'ected by spreading potash (kali) salts, containing pagnesia, either in the stable or the dunghill. ],| 5. Whatever nitrogen has been secured by the soil illy way of stubbles, roots, etc., of leguminous plants, pould also be protected from loss, which is done by hlanting after fruits, or leguminosae, for fertilization j'lone, properly fertilized with potash (kali) phos- ihates. 6. All nitrogen furnished to- the crop by the soil, jy the stable manure, or by commercial fertilizers, iiould be induced to produce the highest effect, which gain is affected by liberal fertilization with potash kali) phosphates. I 7. Wherever lime is deficient, the soil should be jpplied with it, so that the potash (kali) salts may avelop their whole efficacy." I It has been found that certain forms of potash are 'etter suited to certain crops than other forms. To- ipcco grown by the use of the muriate of potash chloride) is of inferior quality, and only the highest rade of the sulphate should be used on tobacco. Irish potatoes too are dryer and more starchy when pe sulphate is used. But in the growing of the early otato crop in the South for the Northern market, the iiuriate is commonly used, since this crop is not ex- iccted to be particularly dry and mealy. Crops in hich sugar is an important ingredient, are better from the use of the sulphate, such as strawberries, sweet potatoes and other things of like nature. Ev- ery farmer should carefully save and apply all the wood ashes of the farm, for they are not only a val- uable source of potash, but, as we have said, contain a very large pei-centage of lime, which will act in re- leasing potash in a clay soil. For the plant food they contain hard wood ashes are worth from $8 to $10 per ton if they have been kept dry. What we have said in regard to the various forms of plant food in fertilizers shows the importance of having a well balanced fertilizer in the soil. It is es- sential that the crops shall be supplied with nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash in dnc proportions for the best success. A fertilizer containing these is called a complete fertilizer and the proportions of each in the fertilizer will depend on the nature of the soil and its needs and also on the character of, the crop grown. But we have found that in all general farming with grain or cotton, where a proper rotation of crops is used and the legumes are brought in frequently, the farmer never needs to buv an ounce of nitrogen- for he can get all that he needs through tlie growth of tlje legumes, and by applying the mineral elements, ppj:- ash and phosphoric acid, liberally to the legumes,, p.^^s or clover, he can not only get his nitrogen without cost, but can make a profit in the feeding of stock on t'he legume hay. Since nitrogen is the most costly part of a fertilizer, it is evident that by adopting this practice the farmer can use the cheaper forms more liberally, and when they are applied to the crops that feed the soil in nitrogen and feed the stock at the same time he is making the best possible use of this fertilizer outlay. Neglecting this rotation and the growing of legumes he is cornpelled to use a com- plete fertilizer and to buy the costly nitrogen that he could get without money and without price. Few farmers realize that by far the larger part of every plant does not come from the soil at all, but from the air. Take a large green stalk of corn and cut it up and weigh it. Then dry it thoroughly, driv- ing off all the water by heat as a chemist would in his dry bath. Weigh it again, and you will find that it has lost a great deal. It has lost water. Now burn this dried plant 'till every particle is changed to a white ash, and you can liold what is left of the corn stalk in your hand. These ashes represent what the plant got from the soil, except the nitrogen you have driven off and the water, and these came originally 158 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. from the air. You say tliat you have destroyed the stalk. No, you have simply resolved it into its original elements. The lime, potash and phosphoric acid are in the ashes, and the structure of the plant, the car- bon di oxide and water have gone back to the air from Which they came. HOW PLANTS GET FOOD FROM THE AIR. Sprout a potato in a dark cellar after weighing it, it will make long white sprouts, but will gain noth- ing, for the sprouting is only the transfer of matter already formed in the potato. But sprout it in the sunshine and you will see that the sprout turns green and the potato gains weight. This green color in vegetation is one of the most important matters in plant growth. Tlie leaf of every plant has especially on the under side myriads of little openings invisible to the naked eye. These openings have the power to open and close like a pair of lips and are the mouths or breathing pores of the plant. When the sun shines, and at no other time, these mouths open. The air can then enter into the interior loosely arranged cells of the leaf. There is always in the air a minute percentage of carbon di oxide or carbonic acid gas. This is composed of two parts oxygen and one part carbon. The green matter of the leaf has the won- derful power to break up this combination and the plant takes the carbon and throws off the oxygen and thus purifies the air and gets at the same time the carbon it needs. Then with this carbon and the wa- ter that comes from the soil, the plant makes starch and all the compounds known as tarbohydrates, which are used by the living matter of the plant to build up its stnvcture. Nitrogen is an essential ele- ment of the living matter itself, and this it gets from the soil except in the case of the legumes when by the aid of the bacteria on the roots they get it from the air. Plants get from the soil through the fine root hairs we have mentioned the mineral elements or ash elements as they are called, dissolved in the soil water, and these are tak-en to the leaves and there all the material for growth is formed and transport- ed to where it is needed to make new growth. Tops and roots and stem are all formed of materials elab- orated in the leaves, and whatever the leaves are that will every other part of the plant be. The roots of plant.s Have a power to select what they want from Jhe iOi\ and in the proportion they want it if it is available. The oak tree and the pine will grow ir the forest with their roots interlacing in the soil, hul manufacture oak material and the pine pine material, The so-called sap that rushes up in spring through the so-called sap that rushes up in spring through the trees is not sap but merely soil water with plant foot dissolved in it. Growth comes entirely from thi leaves in every direction. As all plant food in thi soil must be dissolved before plants can use it, the im Fig. C. — Illustrating the formation of starcli. portance of a due supply of film moisture is evident Plants get all their carbon from the air and neve from the soil. They never use ammonia or any othe form of nitrogen 'till it has been transformed into i nitrate through the action of the soil bacteria. Whil all the hig^her forms of plant life get carbon solel; from the air, the bacteria that carry on the work o changing ammonia into a nitrate have the power t( get carbon in another way. It is found that in a soi abounding in organic matter containing nitrogen tha an application of lime carbonate promoted the activ ity of the bacteria, and it was finally discovered tha they have the power to get their carbon from the liini carbonate, which the higher plants can not do. Thi followinsr table will be of interest and value. Don't Depend Upon the Other Man's Idea. 159 Potash Phosphoric (Kali) Acid Nitrogen K,0. P2O, N. Wbeat 58 45 Ill Rye 76 44 S7 -Barley 62 35 78 Oats 96 35 89 iCorn . 174 G9 146 iKice 45 24 39 ■Sorghum 71 68 129 jBuukwheat 17 40 63 iPea (pisum sativum) .... G9 39 153 Horsepea (Vicia faba) . . . . 1G9 64 254 87 62 297 jLupine, green, for fodder . . 03 46 219 ,1 luteus) 80 37 155 . 192 . 200 55 44 119 Bugar beet, beet-root 95 . 426 74 187 fcarrots . 190 65 166 . 201 53 166 porn, fodder, green . 236 66 122 . 29 18 37 Clover, green (trifolium . 154 46 171 uUL-erne (medicago sativa) . . ISl 65 289 ''Clover (trifolium repens) . 58 29 89 j|fted Clover (trifolium I incarnatum) 57 17 95 Ililsparsette . 103 36 239 jperadeila j/e-tch (Vicia sativa) . 196 57 128 . 113 35 149 ;lape . 124 79 154 'oppy 92 30 87 iemp (cannabivs sativa) . . 54 34 jJotton 35 32 110 Sops . 127 54 200 ' tobacco . 148 32 127 lugar cane . 107 37 518 Sorghum (Sorghum saccha- . 5C1 90 440 i Vhite cabbage . 514 125 213 1 'auliflower . 265 76 202 /ettuce (lactuca sativa) . . 72 17 41 iliucumbers . 193 94 142 ►nions 96 49 96 THE SPECIAL VALUE OF BARN-YARD MANURE. While the commercial fertilizers furnis'h the essen- al elements of plant food in a more readily availa- le form than barnyard manure and in larger amounts cr ton, we have found that barnyard manure has a uality that commercial fertilizers lack. The manure arries with it a large amount of organic matter. This organic matter tends to increase the humus in the soil, and to render it more retentive of moisture, and hence better able to withstand drouths. It also serves to make the soil more mellow and more easily worked, and from its slower availability it lasts long- er in the soil than fertilizers. But if, as we have suggested, the mineral fertiliz- ers are used for the encouragement of the growth of the legume crops, get'ting nitrogen from the air and furnishing the organic matter in the soil and for the feeding of stock and the making of more barnyard manure, we can through their use accumulate humus in the soil more cheaply and rapidly than by depend- ing on barnyard manure alone. This does not mean that we should neglect the manure, but does mean that we should have more of it through the growing and feeding of the forage raised by growing the leg- ume crops. The organic matter and the nitrogen left' in the roots of peas is gotton there more cheaply than by hauling and spreading it, but the crop itself should always be utilized and the resulting manure carefully saved, for no matter what the money crop of the farm may be, the keeping and feeding well of live stock lies at the very foundation of all successful ag- riculture. The following table taken from Bulletin No. 22, Special Georgia Experiment Station : 1,000 POUNDS OF CONTAIN POUNDS. Lime Pot- Nitra ash. gen. 1.00 0.04 4.00 4.00 1.50 15.00 Phosphoric Acid. Crab grass (green) . . . 0.75 Crab grass (dry) .... 2.50 Ordinary weeds (aver- age approximate) . 1.00 Oat straw 2.00 Wheat straw 2.00 Corn stalks 3.00 Corn cobs 0.60 Cotton stalks, bolls and leaves 3.00 Cotton hulls 2. SO Oak leaves (dry) .... 2.60 Pine straw 0.70 Pine wood (sawdust) . . 0.07 Oak wood (sawdust) . . 0.50 Cotton seed 10.00 Cotton seed meal .... 25.00 Peavines (green) .... 1.00 Peavines (dry) 5.20 Clover (green) l.OO Clover (dry) 3.80 Cowpea roots (green) . 1.50 Clover roots (green) . . 1.25 Muck as it exists in swamps is black humus result 3.00 0.75 10.00 4.00 12.40 6.20 3.00 5.10 5.90 5.00 6.00 3.20 1.00 O.GO 5.00 16.00 15.00 14.00 3.00 7.80 7.50 20.00 1.70 10.00 2.00 0.3O 6.00 1.20 0.08 5.00 2.00 1.40 10.00 2.00 12.00 30.00 6.00 17.50 67.50 3.00 3.10 2.70 15.00 14.50 19.50 4.00 4.90 4.30 17.00 22.00 20.70 4.00 4.50 4.10 4.00 5.00 5.20 i6o TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. ing from vegetable decay. In the condition as dug from t'he swamp it is sour and comparatively useless. But if piled in layers over winter with lime or ashes the resulting compost is a valuable material for ap- plying to the land. The dried muck will also make a valuable absorbent in the barnyard, but raw, wet muck should never be hauled directly on the land, be- cause of its acidity which is 'harmful rather than bene- ficial. But when sweetened with lime or ashes and frosted over winter it is a very different article. The value of stable manure is great, both as a me- chanical manure, and as containing plant food. It consists of the excrement and urine of stock and cat- tle mixed vvith straw, leaves, cotton hulls, saw dust, etc. Animal matter, such as the excrements, decom- pose more rapidly than vegetable matter, and when mixed with vegetable matter causes it to decompose faster t'han it would do otherwise. It is hard to get at the amount of plant food in stable manures, for it is so different. The following table represents per- haps an average, which is taken from Bulletin No. 22, Special, Georgia Experiment Station : I CONTAIN POUNDS 1,000 POUNDS OF I Phosphoric I Acid Potash Nitrogen Stable manure (fresh) . . Stable manure (rotted) . . 5.00 5.00 On the basis charged for commercial fertilizers' it is estimated that the average value of manure annu- ally produced by each horse or mule to be $27.00; by each head of cattle, $19.00; by each hog, $12.00. It is hardly probable that near as good results are ob- tained in practice, and too sad to say it, many farm- ers lose the w'hole amount, because they do not take care of it. The urine is the most valuable part of the excrements of animals as it is especially rich in potash and nitrogen. It should be put upon t'he land as early as possible, and not allowed to stand in the rain and sunshine. It is a good plan to clean out the stalls often and place the manure on the land imme- diately. If this can not be done, have a shed, and place it under there and take care of it. It should not be exposed to the sun or rain any more fhan pos- sible. However, it does not lose anything when spread upon the fields. Before putting it upon th< fields, the fields should be plowed immediately be fore, as the freshly plowed soil will absorb the es caping ammonia. Lime and stable manure shoul never be mixed ; as the lime sets the ammonia free an^ it goes off into t'he air. COTTON SEED. Unless farmers are able to get a very high price fc their cotton-seed it will not pay them to sell thet and buy fertilizers. It is risky because they are li; ble to get cheated ; for when you use cotton-seed, yO| know w'hat you are using, but when you use a con. mercial fertilizer you do not always know what yo are using. If you get 1,500 pounds meal for a ton (j cotton-seed, you may exchange, but if not, put yoi.i seed under your crop. There is about 750 pounds (, meal in a ton of cotton-seed. T'he oil in the seed , of no value as a fertilizer. The hulls have a litt plant food value, and are quite valuable as a mechai ical manure. 2 LIME. The action of lime on land is not clearly und^ stood by chemists, but it is known that a moder; amount of lime on land has a beneficial effect. Li is of special value where there is a great deal of v etable matter, as suc'h land is inclined to be too ac and lime corrects the acid condition. The quantil of lime applied depends, of course, upon the charffl! ter of the soil. Too much lime is a detriment to tT land. As a general rule from 40 to 50 bushels pi' acre after being slacked is about the right amou ; Where the land contains a great deal of vegetal.f matter, such as muck land, and lands where a lar- amount of vegetable matter has been turned over, I' where lands are not properly drained, and inclined > be sour, as much as from 100 to 200 bushels per i may be applied. In England many years ago, wIk- land was not properly drained a great deal of li: was used, but since the land has been drained, v( little lime is used. It is not necessary to apply li every year ; once in every three or four years is s ficient. The effect of lime is different on differ' crops. It has proven to be of much help to can loupes, where it seemed to be a positive hurt to \ termelons on the same land. It will be of help wheat, but its effect will not be noticeable on rye. 1 Plant Cow Peas in Your Corn. i6r using lime it should be slacked in such a way that the air will not get to it any more than possible. Some farmers scoop out a hole in the field, and place four or five bushels in there and cover it with dirt. The dirt slacks the lime if it is moist. If the dirt is not moist enough, water is placed on the lime just before it is covered up. LAND PLASTER. Land plaster is a combination of 33 per cent, lime, 46 per cent, sulphuric acid, and 21 per cent, water. ' The action of land plaster is not well understood. It appears to have an indirect action on the plants, and by some is highly recommended. It is of special val- ue on peas, vetches and other leguminous plants. Some authorities claim that it pays on all crops, but e.xper- iments made at some of the stations do not prove red clay land, which contains a large amount of po- tential potash, than it will on sandy land which con- tains a comparatively small amount of this element. The sandy soil requires more potash in the fertilizer to give the same results. This shows again very clearly tlie necessity that the farmer study his soil so that he may be in a position to apply his fertilizers intelligently. Land plaster may seem to sterilize a soil, by help- ing to exhaust its supply of potash. An application of this element in the shape of kainit, muriate, or sul- phate of potash would correct the trouble. FISH AS A FERTILIZER. On the coast where fish are plentiful, that is, what is called, "trash" fish, t'hey have been found to be very beneficial as fertilizers. Many fis'h are caught JPig. 7.— Cotton Field. No Fertilizer. Yield 740 lbs. Seed ; ■ Cotton per acre. Phillip l^e, Gilt, N. C. |{ jfthis assertion to be correct. We see very little rea- ison for the Southern farmer to buy land plaster, fwhen he can get all he needs of this element with his ij^cid phosphate. if When it is understood that acid phosphate is one- '■]half sulphur of lime, or land plaster, and that it costs practically nothing when one is purchasing phosphor- 'C acid any way, the talk about the use of land plaster will, we think, subside. The effect of this land plaster in a fertilizer com- posed largely of acid phosphate by making potash ivailable in the soil accounts in a measure for the jact that such a fertilizer will give better results on <3^ t ■^ T-^}^^:^J'}c4>-^-^^' i^mmi mi-f Fig. a. — Cotton Field. Treated with Fertilizer, containing S per cent. Phosphoric Acid, S per cent. Nitrogen, 6 per cent. Potash. Yield 1120 lbs. Seed Cotton per acre. Phillip L.ee, Gift, N. C. that have no value in the markets, and these are used to make fertilizers. Dig out a hole say eight or ten feet square and two or three feet deep, place in a lay- er of fish about eight inches thick, and cover over with a layer of sand or dirt, and pack tightly, then place another layer of fish and sand as before, and keep on until you are about three feet above the ground, and then put on a very heavy layer of sand, and be sure that it is tight all around. Leave it there for six months, and then dig out whatever is needed. This fertilizer is of great value on truck farms, and is said to do the crops more good than a fertilizer that 12 1 62 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. would cost $40.00 per ton, especially for beans. The these materials on hand he must make a fertilizi fish that have no sale in t'he market, if properly used that will have 12 pounds of plant food to the hu: as above directed,, are said to be worth as much as dred, or 240 pounds to the ton. He figures out th; those that are sold. with the material on hand he gets this formula:' FERTILIZER FORMULAS. It is a very difficult thing for a great many farmers to work out fertilizer formulas. An d>-2-2 fertilizer is used more for cotton perhaps than any other. But many farmers do not know what "8-2-2" means. It means that the fertiliser of that formula has 8 per cent, phosphoric acid, 2 per cent, potash and 2 per cent, nitrogen. But some do not know what we mean when we say that the fertilizer contains 8 per cent, phosphoric acid. When we say that a fertilizer analyzes 8 per cent, phosphoric acid, 2 per cent, pot- .ash, and 2 per cent, nitrogen, we mean that one hun- dred pounds of this fertilizer has in it 8 pounds phos- phoric acid, 2 pounds potash and 2 pounds nitrogen. In 100 pounds of fertilizer that analyzes 8-2-2 there are only twelve pounds of plant food in it. That leaves 88 pounds of matter and the question comes, What is this 88 pounds? It is what is known as a "filler." A "filler'" is any substance that is put into a fertilizer, or exists there naturally, which is not a plant food. There are two kinds of fillers, natural and artificial. A natural filler is one that is placed there by nature. For instance, in cotton-seed meal, it is not all nitrogen, indeed only a small part of it is nitrogen. There is some phosphoric acid, and some potash, and other matters in a small quantity. The artificial filler is one placed there by man, for the purpose of reducing the total percentage of plant food contained in the fertilizer. The material used for ar- tificial fillers are numerous, such as sand, powdered cinders, slate, marl, gypsum. These fillers have no value as plant food, and are only valuable as fillers. But why are they used, asks some man. To show the use of artificial fillers, suppose a fertilizer factory gets an order for a fertilizer that will analyze 8-2-2. He does not happen to have on 'hand cotton-seed meal, kainit, and South Carolina phosphate, but in- stead he only has the highest price goods on the market, such as Florida phosp'hate, which contains 20 per cent, available phosphoric acid ; nitrate of soda which contains 16 per cent, nitrogen ; dried blood which contains 14 per cent, nitrogen ; sulphate of ammonia with 20 per cent, nitrogen ; muriate of pot- ash which contains 50 per cent, potash. Now, with 825 pounds of 20 per cent, acid phosphate will give li pounds acid. 215 pounds of 14 per cent, dried blood will give 30 poum Nitrogen. 75 pounds of 16 per dent, nitrate soda will giv« 12 poum Nitrogen. S5 pounds of 59 per cent, muriate of potash will give ^ pounds Potash. If a man wanted an 8-2-2 fertilizer he would wai 8 pounds of available phosphoric acid in every hui dred pounds of the fertilizer, which would mean th; he wants 160 pounds in phosphoric acid in a ton. Tl analysis given above makes it 165 pounds of plio phoric acid, and this is thrown in to be sure that will meet the test. He wants two pounds of nitn gen in each hundred, or 40 pounds of nitrogen in ton of the fertilizer. He wants 2 pounds of pota.- in a hundred pounds of fertilizer, or 40 pounds in ton of fertilizer. The dried blood and nitrate of soi will make 42 pounds of nitrogen as shown above, ar the muriate of potash will give 42 pounds of potas But when we add up, we find that we have only uS' 1,200 pounds of acid phosphate, dried blood, nitra of soda, and muriate of potash, all together. Now this 1,200 pounds of fertilizer he has the 160 poun' of phosp'horic acid that the formula called for ai' the 40 pounds of nitrogen and the 40 pounds of p( ash that the formula called for, but in all he has b'i 1,200 pounds of fertilizer. In fact, he has given yoi; little more than is called for. But he can not sell tlj 1,200 pounds of fertilizer to you for t'he same pn^ that he could if it only analyzed 8-2-2, for it will 2! alyze more than that, and these chemicals that we| used cost him more than they would had they be such that it would had 2,000 pounds-been required produce an 8-2-2 fertilizer. In other words, the che icals are stronger, and, therefore, more costly. • fact, the farmers require a ton of fertilizer that v analyze 8-2-2, and instead of taking this 1,200 pour of fertilizer and using it over the same ground, uses the ton over, he has the factory to haul in { pounds of slate, cinders, and other worthless trJ and mixes with this 1,200 pounds of fertilizer. WTi the fertilizer is analyzed after the cinders are mi? with it, it analyzes available phosphoric acid 8:25 1| You Should Study the Fertilizer Question. 163 cent., nitrogen 2:10 per cent, and potash 2.12 per cent. The man who has lost is the farmer, for the factory is going to have him pay for hauling those cin- ders, and mixing them in, and they must pay the railroad freight, so the farmer has lost. Now would it not have been better for you to have bought 1,200 pounds that would analyze 13:75 per cent, available phosphoric acid, 3.50 per cent, nitrogen, and 3:54 per cent, potash. The only difference between the two is that in getting a ton that analyzes 8-2-2 and 1,200 pounds of 13.75, 3.50 and 3.54 is that you save the expense of mining, pulverizing and freighting, mixing the artificial filler, such as cin- ders, and this, remember, is 800 pounds, and then the freight on the 800 pounds of filler from the factory to your railroad station, and then the hauling it out to your home, and handling it. It would have been much better to have bought 1,200 pounds, and mixed in the 800 pounds when you got home, say, mix com- post, or if nothing better, sand. The analysis of the percentages of plant food contained in fertilizer in- gredients is figured on the ton basis, 'hence a 16 per cent, acid phosphate means 16 pounds of phosphoric acid to the 100 pounds, or 320 pounds to the ton. Kainit runs 12 1-2 per cent, actual potash and will give you 50 pounds potash in 400 pounds of the ma- terial. Muriate of potash contains 50 per cent, potash. Nitrate of soda contains 20 per cent, of ammonia or 20 pounds of ammonia in each 'hundred pounds. Cotton-seed meal contains 8 per cent, of ammonia and in 500 pounds of meal you have 40 pounds of ammo- nia. Now if you want a mixture to contain 2 per cent, of ammonia in mixing a ton, use 500 pounds cotton-seed meal, whic'h will give you 40 pounds of ammonia or 2 per cent, in 2,000 pounds. If you want 8 per cent, of phosphoric acid, then use in the mixture 1,000 pounds of acid phosphate analyz- ing 16 per cent. To get 2 per cent, potash in a ton use 320 pounds of kainit or 80 pounds of muriate of potash. The analysis of fertilizers is so important, and gives so many farmers trouble, t'hat we will give another example. Suppose for some reason that you want a fertilizer that will analyze 4 per cent, nitrogen, 6 per cent, potash, and 7 per cent, phosphoric acid. This means that every hundred pounds of fertilizer you prepare will contain 4 lbs. nitrogen, 6 lbs. potash and 7 pounds phosphoric acid. In the 200 pounds of fer- tilizer you would need double that amount, or 8 pounds nitrogen, 12 pounds of potas'h and 14 pounds of phosphoric acid, 100 pounds 14 per cent, acid phos- phate would furnish you the necessary available phos- phoric acid, and 24 pounds of muriate of potash will supply the 12 pounds of actual potash. This leaves 76 lbs. to complete your 200 pounds in whic'h you must have the 8 pounds of nitrogen, and as cotton- seed meal only contains about 7 pounds to the hun- dred, you would not be able to get this nitrogen from the meal alone ; but must use either high-grade blood or nitrate of soda, at least in part; as the blood con- tains about 16 per cent, of nitrogen, or 16 pounds to the hundred, 50 pounds of it would furnis'h you the 4 per cent, nitrogen you need to make your fertilizer complete. You could then add 26 pounds of dirt to complete 200 pounds. If you use cotton-seed meal, the 76 pounds will only contain about 5 pounds of nitrogen ; so that your fertilizer will only analyze 2 1-2 per cent, of this element. Nitrate of soda con- tains about the same per cent, of nitrogen as blood, and can be substituted for blood, but would not be as lasting. If you must use meal, acid phosphate and kainit, you would not be able to make a fertilizer analyzing as iiigh as you desir-^ ; as. these materials do not carry the sufficient amount of the necessary elements. In using these it will be necessary to re- duce the analysis pro rata and use more of the fertil- izer per acre. You can figure out per cent, very easy when you understand that kainit carries 12 pounds or 12 per cent, of potash to the hundred ; cotton-seed meal 8 pounds or 8 per cent, of ammonia equal to about 7 per cent nitrogen, and acid phosphate 14 per cent, carries 14 pounds to the hundred of p'hosphoric acid. In making a fertilizer we take the requisite amount of the different materials carrying the plant food we wish our fertilizer to contain, always remembering that the number of pounds of each kind of plant food put in must be divided by the total number of pounds of fertilizer mixed up to give you the analysis of the whole. CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF THE SOIL. It was at one time t'hought to be of great value to a farmer for a chemist to make an analysis of the soil, and see in what the soil is deficient. It has been demonstrated that this idea is not of so much prac- tical importance when it is tested. For instance, it was found by chemical analysis that a certain soil i64 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. contained about one-tenth of one per cent, phosp'hor- ic acid, or calculating to a depth of nine inches about 3,000 pounds of phosphoric acid per acre, and yet the crop on that land was suffering for phosphoric acid. The truth of the matter is, that the phosphor- ic acid that was on the soil was not available for the plant roots. So a chemical analysis may show that the soil contains a sufficient quantity of a plant food, when actual test by experience proves that the land is in need of that very plant food. For a plant food to be of any service to the plant it must be soluble in wa- ter. You may experiment with your land and deter- mine in what manner just what the land needs. The following plan has been suggested, and will prove of much benefit to the farmer if they will try it: [)fffBffla^|«jlHffW|W »ffl pi ]BUw%^^^KtJI L ^w^. ^^Miu^Pijfftf aJ BHSf 'iw&.^|3pri^JtSt niRTv^fltfVB Si!^?^T*'jiirml si^Ll^ii^ AysSv^-^t^^^^M ^^^^9» ^iKffnn ^^|^^^^^^^Sg^^|%|^*^K %k!^j^ uyMj^a grw^^li3^^ig]|^K|0^« »^f^^SS I^^Oh ig^£^&^' ^<^^^*^-fliU^^H||7/!r^B£w<^jHKS h*J ^."^^^Hfc^^iwB wit, ' ' '^"IV^Si vvLLJ^^^'^^'''^m^^^£Sift AH|uiS?B k'^^iIIk P* -^^iM^^^^PiffiM fflwi^n! II^mNS: Fig. 9. — Cotton Field. No Fertilizer. Yield 5S1 lbs. Seed Cotton per acre. J. M. Jones, Bourntiam, Miss. Fig. 10. — Cotton Field. Treated with Fertilizer^ containing S per cent. Phosphoric Acid, 'i per cent. Nitrogen, 6 per cent Potash. Yield, 1,520 lbs. Seed Cotton per acre. J. M. Jones, Bournham, Miss. METHOD BY WHICH THE FARMER MAY ANALYZE HIS OWN SOIL. First, select a piece of ground as level as possible, so that rain may not wash the fertilizer from one plot into an adjoining plot. Secondly, for t'he purpose of the experiment, mark off ten plots, each just one- tenth of an acre in area. If convenient make the plots long and narrow, say one hundred and thirty- six feet long by thirty-two feet wide; these dimen- sions would enable you to have eight long rows, four feet apart, in each plot. Any other shape of plot will answer, only be careful to lay off t'he plots so that they shall each contain one-tenth of an acre, or 4.356 square feet. Separate the plots from each other by paths at least three feet wide, so that the effect of No. 1. — ::o fertilizer. No. 2.^143 poi'.r.d3 of cottonseed me;il. No. 3.- — 200 pounds of 14 per C3_t. acid phosphate. No. 4. — SO pounds of kainit. No. 5. — No fertilizer. No. G. — 200 pounds cf r.cld i;hoEph;ite and 143 pounds of cottonseed meal. No. 7. — 113 pounds of cottimseed meal and SO pounds of kainit. No. S. — 200 pounds of .acid phosphate and SO pounds of kainit. No. 9. — 200 pounds of .acid phosphate, SO pounds of kainit and 143 pounds of tottonseed meal. No. 10. — 500 pounds air-slaked lime. In many of our Georgia soils lime is sadly lacking, and it may be just the thing needed by the soil, in conjunction with certain other fertilizers. To discover Do You Know What Your Fertilizer Contains: 165 if this be the case, after having fertilized plot No. 2, mark of a strip 2 1-2 feet in width diagonally across the plot, that is, running from one corner to the op- posite corner. Apply to this strip 50 pounds of air- slacked lime, and work it in well with the soil and other fertilizer with a rake. Do the same with each of the ofher plots, omitting No. 10. Then when the crop begins to grow, if lime was specially needed by the soil in any of the plots, you ought to notice a marked superiority in the two and a half foot strip ■which runs diagonally across all the rows in all nine plots. In the above fertilizers it is presumed that the acid phosphate is the kind most usually sold, containing 14 per cent, of available phosphoric acid, so that 200 pounds supplies 28 pounds of actual phosphoric acid to the plot. The cotton-seed meal is presumed to contain 7 per cent, of nitrogen so that 143 pounds of it supplies 10 pounds of nitrogen to the plot, and the kainit to con- tain 12 1-2 per cent, of potash, so that 80 pounds yield 10 pounds of potas'h to the plots the kainit is applied to. In applying the fertilizers observe the following precautions: Sow each fertilizer on the plot to which it is to be applied broadcast, using your best care and judgment to distribute tlie fertilizer evenly over the . entire plot. In order to get an even distriljution it is best to sow in such Cjuantity that you will have to go over each plot at least twice to get all the fertilizer distributed. Take care not to sow while the wind is blowing, as it may blow some of the fertilizer on to the adjoining plots. After sowing, harrow the ground, and then it will be ready for you to plant. Plant thick enoug'h to insure a perfect stand. Treat all the plots exactly alike, except as to the fertilizers applied.' Prepa;re' the ground in each plot the same, plant the cotton all at the same time, and always cul- tivate the same and at the same time each day. Take pains to have the same number of plants in eac'h row. It will be well to' keep a notebook with a page for each plot in which to record your observations. In this book record: 1st. The kind of fertilizer applied to each plot and the amount applied, on the page set apart for the respective plots from 1 to 10. 2nd. Note down the date tlie cotton was planted. 3rd. Note the date the cotton came up in each plot. 4th. When the cotton is about two inches high on fhe plot containing no fertilizer, note the height and appearance of the other plots. 5th. After you have thinned out to a uniform stand, record the number of missing plants, if any, in each plot. Of course, use every endeavor to have the same number of plants in each plot, but in case of accident to some, be sure 10 put down t'he number missing in any plot so as to make allowances. 6th. Record any other observa- tions of interest during the growth of the crop on the different plots, such as the comparative dates of blooming, number of bolls to the stalk, date of open- ing of the bolls, height of the stalks after maturity of t'he plant. 7th. Keep the seed cotton from each plot to itself, weigh it by itself, and record the weight of the seed cotton from plot No. i on page No. i, and so on with the others. When you have picked and weighed the last pound of cotton, then you will, I think, be able to decide for yourself what fertilizer or combination of fertilizers your land requires. Of course, if you haye a bad season, very dry or very wet, you will not be able to decide so well, and in that case repeat the experiment another year. In this way you can analyze your own soil and do it better than the best chemist in the world can do it for you, because you have appealed to the soil itself ; you have spoken to it in tlie language of nature, and it has replied in the same mute, but eloquent tongue, demonstrating the truth of her answers before your very eyes. The above is taken from Bulletin No. 42 Georgia Experiment Station. You can form some idea of what your soil needs by the way your crops grow. If the plants are dark green and grow off rapidly it shows that ammonia is abundant, and if they are pale or yellowis'h in appear- ance ammonia is needed. If the plant seems weak and easily affected by disease, potash is needed, also when crops do not fill out well, or the lint on cotton- seed is light,- potash is lacking. Phosphoric acid makes the plant fruit early and heavily, and has a general tendency to bring crops to early maturity. \\'hite lint cotton contains very little plant food, t'he principal element of which it is composed is potash, and if we want a heavy yield of lint cotton we must be sure this element is well represented in our fertil- izer. , For the benefit. of the farmer who can not work out the formula, we give several here for different crops. The average farmer believes in a fertilizer that will analyze 8 per cent, phosphoric acid, 2 per cent, nitrogen, and 2 per cent, potash. The follow- ing formulas will come up to t'hat anal-sis: i66 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. No. I. Acid I200 lbs. Cotton-seed meal 600 lbs. Kainit 200 lbs. If you wish to substitute cotton seed tor the meal, you will use : No. 2. Cotton Seed 1200 lbs. Acid ..600 lbs. Kainit 200 lbs. No. 3. Acid Phosphate, (14 per cent.) 1150 lbs. Cotton-seed meal 500 lbs. Kainit 320 lbs. Total 1970 lbs. No. 4. Acid Phos. (15 per cent.) 1 100 lbs. Cotton-seed meal 500 lbs. Muriate of Potash 80 lbs. Filler of Dry Sand 320 lbs. Total 2000 lbs. No. 5. Acid Phos. ( 16 per cent.) 1000 lbs. Dried Blood 250 lbs. Muriate of Potash 80 lbs. Filler of Dry Sand 670 lbs. Total 2000 lbs. No. 6. Acid Phos. ( 16 per cent.) 1000 lbs. Nitrate of Soda 200 lbs. Muriate of Potash 80 lbs. Filler of Dry Sand 720 lbs. Total 2000 lbs. The analysis of the above four last fnrmulas when mixed with shovels and hoes would be a^ follows: Phosp'horic Acid 8.00 per cent. Ammonia 2.00 per cent. Potash 2.00 per cent. Total 12 .00 per cent. Or in other words, a regular S-2-2 complete Com- mercial Fertilizer containing 240 pounds of plant food to the ton. ' Fertilizers that will analyze 9-3-4 are quite popu- lar and the following formulas will analyze that pro- portion. These formulas are suitable for cotton, as a general rule : No. 7. Acid Phosphate (16 per cent.) iioo lbs. Cotton-seed meal 750 lbs. Muriate of Potash 160 lbs. Total 2010 lbs. No. 8. Acid Phosphate (15 per cent.) 1250 lbs. Dried Blood 375 lbs. Muriate of Potash 160 lbs. Filler of Sand 215 lbs. Total 2000 lbs. No. 9. Acid of Phosphate (20 per cent.) 900 lbs. Cotton-seed Meal 750 lbs. Muriate of Potash 160 lbs. Filler of Sand 190 lbs. Total 2000 lbs. The above t'hree formulas when mixe(' will analyze as follows: Phosphoric Acid 9.00 per cent. Ammonia 3.00 per cent. Potash .1..00 per cent. Total 16.00 per cent. We also give another list of formubs which are ex- cellent for cotton. No formula can be said to have any special value over the others. The farmer should use the one that he can get the easiest. Each one will analyze 20 pounds nitrogen, 50 pounds of phos- phoric acid, and 15 pounds potash in the whole for- mula. No. ID. Muriate of Potash 30 lbs. Acid Phosphate 334 lbs. There is no More Profitable Study Than Plant Growth. 167 Nitrate of Soda 125 lbs. No. II. Muriate of Potash 20 lbs. Acid Phosphate 281 lbs. Cotton-seed meal 286 lbs. No. 12. Cotton-seed Hull Ashes 45 lbs. Acid Phosphate 261 lbs. Cotton-seed meal 286 lbs. No. 13. Wood Ashes (unleached) 164 lbs. Acid Phosphate 261 lbs. Cotton-seed meal 286 lbs. No. 14. Kainit , 64 lbs. Acid Phosphate 273 lbs. Cotton-seed meal 143 lbs. Cotton seed 13^ bus. No. 13. Acid Phosphate 266 lbs. Nitrate of Soda 13 lbs. Stable Manure 4000 lbs. [ No. 16. Muriate of Potash 30 lbs. Acid Phosphate 334 lbs. Dried Blood 167 lbs. No. 17. Muriate of Potash 10 lbs. Acid Phos. with Pot. (2 per cent. K Cotton-seed meal 286 lbs. No. 18. Kainit 58 lbs. Acid Phosphate 300 lbs. Nitrate of Soda 70 lbs. Stable Manure 2000 lbs. No. 19. Muriate of Potash 20 lbs. Acid Phosphate 300 lbs. Nitrate of Soda 64 lbs. Cotton seed 13J4 bus. No. 20. Kainit 45 lbs. Acid Phosphate 264 lbs. Cotton seed 2O 2-3 bus. Commercial Fertilizer to analyze as below: Available Phosphoric Acid 10.00 per cent. Ammonia 4. 85 per cent. Use 500 pounds per acre. The formulas from 10 to 20 inclusive are intend- ed for land tliat is about worn out. For cotton on the red hills, and the soil similar to red hills, we would advise that you use the following: No. 21. Acid Phosphate, 16 per cent iioo lbs. Cotton-seed meal y-,'. .-.,. 750 lbs. Muriate of Potash 80 lbs. Total 2000 lbs. In mixing your fertilizers weigh out the required amount of each ingredient necessary to make a gi"en part of one ton, say 500 pounds. Mix Vv^ith hoes or shovels on a tight floor or on a snioot!;, hard place on the ground. For gray soil with clay near the top of the ground, the following makes a good fertilizer for cotton: No. 22. Acid Phosphate 1 125 lbs. Cotton-seed meal 750 lbs. Muriate of Potash 125 lbs. This formula when mixed, will analyze as follows: Phosphoric Acid 9.00 per cent. Ammonia 3.00 per cent. Potash 3.00 per cent. For sandy soils: No. 23. 80 to 120 lbs. cotton-seed neal ptr acre. i68 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. i6o to 240 lbs. acid phosphate per acre. 40 to 60 lbs. kainit per acre. 280 to 420 lbs. total per care. For the level lands of the Southern long leaf pine region : No. 24. 60 to 120 lbs. cotton-seed meal per acre. 120 to 240 lbs. acid phosphate per acre. 60 to 80 lbs. kainit per acre. 240 to 440 lbs. total per acre. For any well drained soil on which cotion is known to be especially liable to black rust: No. 25. 120 to 160 lbs. cotton-seed meal prr acre. 80 to 120 lbs. acid phosphate per acre. 80 to 120 lbs. kainit per acre. 280 to 400 lbs. total per acre. For red bottom land, the following makes an ex- cellent fertilizer for cotton: No. 26. Acid Phosphate (iS per cent.) "7 '^s. Cotton-seed meal 500 lbs. Nitrate of Soda 100 lbs. Muriate of Potash '. 75 lbs. Total 1452 lbs. The above would analyze 10.50 rhosnhate, 3. 51 nitrate, 3. 10 potash. I would apply the whole amount o: ihe above for- mula entirely and apply about 250 pounds to the acre i;i the furrow, with the planting seei.;, at fhe time of planting. All the ingredients, except the nitrate of soda, should be applied at least two weeks before planting time; but the nitrate of sor'a should not be applied so long in advance. For worn cut creek bottoms, we recommend the following for cotton : No. 27. Acid Phosphate (14 per cent.) 100 lbs. Cotton-seed meal 700 lbs. Muriate of Potash 75 lbs. Use 400 pounds or more per acr'. The fertilizer should be applied about two weeks before planting. , WHEAT FERTILIZERS. The fertilizer anah'ses as given abo\ e are good for wheat on the same kind of lands, except that the acid phosphate should be decreased to one -half of what is given for cotton. Also when using these fertilizer?, the nitrate of soda should not be mixed with the oth- er ingredients, but it should be reserved and applied as a top dressing in the spring. The Experiment Station at Boiiregard, France, gives the following formula for wheat : No. 28. Acid Phosphate 350 lbs. Sulphate of Ammonia 130 lbs. Muriate of Potash 90 lbs. This should be applied when the wheat is sown, and is enough for one acre. Early in the spring 90 pounds of nitrate of soda should be applied as a top dressing. The following is a general formula fcr wheat, oats, and other small grains, and grasses: No. 29. Cotton-seed meal 800 lbs. Acid Phosp'hate 1000 lbs. Kainit 200 lbs. Use 200 to 600 lbs. per acre.' No. 30. Acid Phos. (20 per cent.) 900 lbs. Cotton-seed meal 1000 lbs. ]\Iuriate of Potash 120 lbs. Total , . . 2020 lbs. 9-4-3 Formula. No. 31. Acid Phos. (16 per cent.) 1125 lbs. Dried Blood 500 lbs. ]\Iuriate of Potash 120 lbs. Filler of Sand 255 lbs. Total , 2000 lbs. These formulas when mixed wi'I j-.na'vze as fol- lows : Not How Much, But How Well You Cultivate Means Success. 169 Phosphoric Acid 9.00 per cent. Ammonia 4 .00 per cent. Potash 3- 00 per cent. Total 16. oc per cent. Top dress wheat and oats in the month of March with 75 pounds nitrate of soda broadcast per acre. CORN FERTILIZERS. Most farmers are of the opinion th-it corn does not need fertilizers, and hence they use all their money to fertilize cotton and buy corn. If they would put more fertilizers to corn, and give it better attention they will come nearer paying out of debt than some of them are doing now. The followmt'' formulas are offered as general formulas : No. 32. Cotton-seed meal 200 lbs. Acid Phosphate 1600 lbs. Kainit 200 lbs. Use 200 up to 1000 lbs. per acre.' No. 33. Acid Phos. (15 per cent.) 1250 lbs. Dried Blood 375 lbs. . IMuriate of Potash 80 lbs. Filler of Sand 295 lbs. Total 2000 lbs. 9-3-2 formula. No. 34. Acid Phos. (16 per cent.) 1125 lbs. Cotton-seed meal ." 750 lbs. Muriate of Potash 80 lbs. Total 1955 lbs. These formulas when mixed will analyze as fol- lows : Phosphoric 'Acid ,.....- g . 00 per cent. Ammonia 3- 00 per cent. Totash 2 . CO per cent. Total I.}. 00 per cent. For corn on the average worn ar.d so-called "ex- liausted" upland soils: No. 35. Acid Phosphate (14 per cent.) looo lbs. Cotton meal (2 1-2:7:1 1-2) 1250 lbs. - Muriate of Potash (50 per cent.) 30 lbs. (Or Kainit: 12 1-2 per cent., 120 lbs. Total 2280 lbs. This would analyze as follows : Available Phosphate Acid 7-50 per cent. Nitrogen, (equal to ammonia 4.65) 3.83 per cent. This is relatively the same as 10:5:2. 1 he mixture would be rendered more prompt in effective action by substitution in place of 40 pounds of the cotton meal, about 200 pounds of nitrate of soda. The practice is to apply about 20 to 30 pounds of nitrate per acre at t'he time of planting, scattering a small pinch of it not nearer than three to four inches of seed corn. For corn on well improved upland, or on old bot- tom land, or fresh lands : No 36. Acid Phosphate (14 per cent.) 1000 lbs. Cotton meal (2 1-2:7:1 1-2) 870 lbs. Muriate of Potash (50 per cent.) 30 lbs. (Or Kainit: 12 1-2 per cent., 120 lbs. Total . , . : 1900 lbs. This would analyze about as follows: Available Phosphoric Acid 8.50 per cent. Nitrogen (equivalent to ammonia 3.90 3.21 per cent. Potash (c2o) , 1 .47 per cent. On freshly cleared soil, or well improved old up- lands, or cotton, if only a light ^application is intend- ed the potash may be left out entirely and the cotton meal still further proportionately reduced in quantity. In view of the caution against app'ying a large quantity of commercial fertilizers to corn, it may be stated that 300 pounds of the above formula may be considered the maximum amount for one acre of land. For water melons and sweet potatoes apply the following fertilizers : 9-3-9 formula. No. 37. Acid Phosphate (20 per cent.) 900 lbs. ijo TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. Cotton-seed meal 750 lbs. 800 lbs. Acid Phosphate ; 13 per cent. Muriate of Potash 360 lbs. 200 lbs. Nitrate of Soda. ,1 •?oo lbs. Muriate of Potash. Total 2010 lbs. -^ . , This will give you ammonia 5.9 per cent; phos- 9-3-9 formula. phoric acid, 0.4 per cent.; potash, 7 pei cent. No. 38. No. 44. Acid Phos. (16 per cent.) 1125 lbs. Dried Blood 375 Ibs- Phosphoric acid, 7 per cent. Muriate of Potash 360 lbs. Potash, 8 per cent. Filler of S?.nd 140 lbs. Cotton-seed meal, 800 pounds. ■ ^Q^^j 2000 lbs. ^""^^ Phosphate (high grade,) 900 lbs. Muriate of Potash, 300 lbs. 9-3-9 formula. This will make a ton of the above fertilizer. Mix No. 39. thoroughly until the whole mass is of an even color Acid Phos. (15 per cent.) 1250 lbs. throug'hout, being careful to pound up all lumps. Nitrate of Soda 300 l^s. jf you can apply your fertilizer two or three weeks Muriate of Potash 360 lbs. i,-, advance of planting, use the fertilizer without the -potal 1910 lbs. cotton-seed meal, but if you have to plant and fertil- ize at the same time, use the one containing the cot- These formulas when mixed will analyze as fol- ton-seed meal. lows: FRUIT TREES. Phosphoric Acid 9.00 per cent. Ammonia .S-f^'O per cent. , r •,• r r •. u a ^ „ . ^ A gfood fertilizer for fruit trees can be made as Potash 9.00 per cent. , ,, follows : Total 21 .00 per cent. No. 45. xjq q iooo lbs. cotton-seed meal. 300 lbs. nitrate of soda. Acid Phosphate 800 lbs. ,, • 1 u u * ^ 700 lbs. acid phosphate. Muriate of Potash 200 lbs. Nitrate of Soda 400 lbs. TOBACCO FERTILIZER. The subject of fertilizers for tobacco is treated un- Acid PhosDhate (14 per cent.) 1000 bs. ^^^ ^^^^ j^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^^^ growing, as it is of so much Cotton m.^al 500 bs. importance, it is thought best to treat that subject Nitrate of Soda 250 lbs. i ..1 .. 1 j , . ,, under that head. Sulphate (or muriate of Potash) 250 lbs. Total 2000 lbs. FERTILIZERS FOR TRUCK FARMING. No. 42. The truck farmer must get his crop in early if he Cotton-seed meal 600 lbs. expects to make a success. It is of great importance Acid Phosphate 1000 lbs. therefore that he use the very best grade of guano. Kainit 400 lbs. The farmer who is dependent upon early crops may Use 600 to 2000 lbs. per acre. afford to buy poor fertilizers, but this is doubted, but the truck farmer must not be content. When we No. 43. speak of a high-grade fertilizer, of course, it is un- 70 lbs. Cotton-seed meal. derstood that we mean one that is available at once, Some Land Requires One Kind of a Fertilizer. Some Another Kind. 171- md not one that will be available next month or next /ear. The all round garden fertilizer should have ibout 20 per cent, phosphoric acid, from 10 to 14 per ;ent. nitrogen, and from 40 to 50 per cent, potash. The following table gives the amount that should be i.ised in an area smaller than an acre, for the average Tardener does not want to figure on t'he acre. FRUITS. Pounds per plant ^.pples (3I.Tckberries Cherries . . . . ;_'ranberries . liJurrants . . . . IJooseberries lirapes jl'eaches . . . . ^ears ^^lums j3uinces .... ,|taspberri«s . ijtrawberries 5.5 0.4 4.5 0.25 0.25 0.25 1.3 5.0 5.5 4.5 2.25 0.25 0.4 Pounds per Square Rod 3.8 4.4 5.G 3.1 3.S 3.8 5.0 C.25 3.8 5.6 4.4 5.0 10.0 Pounds per acre COO 700 900 500 COO COO SOO 1000 GOO 900 700 SOO IGOO j The following formulas are said to be excellent for I ruck growers : j For celery: 7 per cent. Ammonia, 5 per cent. Avail- iible Phosphoric Acid, 8 per cent. Potash. No. 46. 300 lbs. Nitrate of soda. 800 lbs. Fish scrap 600 lbs. Acid phos. 13 per cent. 300 llis. Muriate potash. 2000 lbs. WILL YIELD C.9 per cent. Ammonia » 5.5 per cent. Avail. Phos. Acid. S.O per cent. Potash No. 49. 300 lbs. Nitrate soda COO lbs. Fish scrap 800 lbs. Acid phos. 300 lbs. Muriate potash 2000 lbs. WILL YIELD 5.S per cent. Ammonia ^ G.8 per cent. Avail, phos. acid 7.9 per cent. Potash No. 50. 200 lbs. Nitrate soda 900 lbs. Fish scrap 600 lbs. Dissolved bone black 300 lbs. Muriate Potash 2000 lbs. WILL YIELD G.4 per cent Ammonia ^ 6.G per cent. Avail, phos. acid 7.8 per cent. Potash No. 51 220 lbs. Nitrate soda 500 lbs. Dried Blood 970 lbs. Acid phos. 14 per cent. 310 lbs. Muriate potash 2000 lbs. WILL YIELD 6.1 per cent. Ammonia ^ G.8 per cent. Avail, phos. acid S.O per cent. Potash No. 52. 300 lbs. Nitrate soda GOO lbs. Tankage SOO lbs. Acid phos., 13 per cent. 300 lbs. Muriate potash 2000 lbs. WILL YIELD 5.4 per cent. Ammonia > CO per cent. Avail phos. acid S.3 per cent. Potash No. 47 , 250 lbs. Nitrate of soda i GOO lbs. Dried blood 850 lbs. Acid phosphate, 13 per cent. 300 lbs. Muriate potash 2000 lbs. WILL YIELD 7.2 per cent. Ammonia > 5.5 per cent. Avail, phos. acid 7.8 per cent. Potash No. 53. 300 lbs. Nitrate soda 600 lbs. Tankage SOO lbs. Acid phos.. 13 per cent. 300 lbs. Sulph. pot. H. G. 2000 lbs. WILL YIELD 5.5 per cent. Ammonia ^ G.4 per cent. Avail, phos. acid 7.8 per cent. Potash For Irish potatoes: 6 per cent. Ammonia, 7 per pent. Available Phosphoric Acid, 8 per cent. Potash. No. 48. 300 lbs. Nitrate of soda 600 lbs. cotton seed meal 800 lbs. Acid phos. 300 lbs. Muriate potash 2000 lbs. WILL YIELD 5.4 per cent. Ammonia >■ 7.2 per cent. Avail, phos. acid 8.1 per cent. Potash For beets and lettuce: 6 per cent Ammonia, 5 per cent. Available Phosp'horic Acid, 8 per cent. Potash. No. 54, 300 lbs. Nitrate soda •> SOO lbs. Cottonseed meal 600 lbs. Acid phos., 13 per cent. 300 lbs. Muriate potash 2000 lbs. WILL YIELD C.2 per cent. Ammonia ► 4.9 per cent. Avail, phos. acid S.5 per cent. Potash 172 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. No. 55. 200 lbs. Nitrate soda 8U0 lbs. Fish scrap 700 lbs. Acid phos., 11 per cent. 3no lbs. Muriate potash 2U00 lbs. WILL YIELD 5.9 per cent. Ammonia > 5.4 per cent. Avail, phos. acid 8.5 per cent. Potash For cabbage, cauliflower, cucumbers and melons: 6 per cent. Ammonia, 5 per cent. Available Phos- phoric acid, 6 per cent. Potash. No. 56 300 lbs. Nitrate soda 750 lbs. Cottonseed meal 700 lbs. Acid phos., 11 per cent. 250 lbs. Muriate potash 2000 lbs. WILL YIELD CO per cent. Ammonia ,■ 4.8 per cent. Avail, phos. acid 7.1 per cent. Potash For Spinach : 5 per cent. Ammonia, 8 per cent. Availa- ble Phosphoric Arid, 6 per cent. Potasli. No. 57. 200 lbs. Nitrate soda 650 lbs. Fish scrap 920 lbs. Acid' phos.,' 14 per cent. 230 lbs. Muriate Potash 2000 lbs. WILL YIELD 5.2 per cent. Ammonia » 7.7 per cent. Avail, phos. acid 6.0 per cent. Potash No. 58. 300 lbs. Nitrate of soda 500 liis. Cottonseed meal 1000 lbs. Acid phos., 14 ]]er .\ cent. 200 lbs. Muriate potash 2000 lbs. WILL YIELD 5.0 per cent. Ammonia , 7.6 per cent. Avail phos. , acid 5.6 per cent. Potash For radishes and turnips: 5 per cent. Ammonia, 7 per cent. Available Phosphoric Acid. 8 per cent. Pot- ash. No. 59. 250 lbs. Nitrate soda 550 lbs. Cottonseed meal 900 lbs. . Acid" .phos. 13 per. cent. 300 lbs. Muriate potash 2000 lbs. WILL YIELD 4.6 per cent. Ammonia , 6.5 per cent. Avail, phos. acid S.3 per cent. Potash For asparagus: 5 per cent. Ammonia, 7 per cent. Available Phosphoric Acid, 8 per cent. Potash. No. 60. 200 lbs. Nitrate soda 700 lbs. Cottonseed meal 800 lbs. Acid phos., 13 per cent. 300 lbs. Muriate potash ■^ 2000 lbs. WILL YIELD 4.0 per cent. Ammonia ^ 6.1 per cent. Avail, phos. acid 8.4 per cent. Potash For eggplant and tomatoes : 5 per cent. Aminonia, 6 per cent. Available Phosphoric Acid, 7 per cent. Potash. No. 61. 200 lbs. Nitrate soda > 700 lbs. Cottonseed meal 840 lbs. Acid phos., 13 per cent. 260 lbs. Muriate potash 2000 lbs. WILL YIELD 4.9 per cent. Ammonia ^ 6.3 per cent. Avail, phos. acid 7.4 per cent. Potash For onions: 5 per cent. Ammonia, 5 per cent. Avail- able Phosphoric Acid, 8 per cent. Potash. No. 62. 200 lbs. Nitrate soda WILL YIELD 750 lbs. Cotton seed meal 750 lbs. Acid Phos., 11 per cent. 300 lbs. Muriate Potash 2000 lbs. 5.1 per cent. Ammonia > 5.1 per cent. Avail, phos. acid 8.5 per cent. Potash For sweet potatoes: 3 per cent. Ammonia. 7 per cent. Available Phosphoric Acid, 8 per cent. Potash. No. 63. 100 lbs. Nitrate soda - 400 lbs. Fish scrap WILL YIELD 1180 lbs. Acid phos., 11 per 3.5 per cent. Ammonia cent. s. 7.8 per cent. Avail, phos. 320 lbs. Muriate potash acid 8.3 per cent. Potash 2000 lbs. ■ No. 64. 100 lbs. Nitrate soda ."^no lbs. Cottonseed meal 1100 lbs. Acid phos., 13 per cent. 300 lbs. Muriate potash 2000 lbs. WILL YIELD 3.5 per cent. Ammonia > 7.S per cent. Avail, phos. acid 8.3 ijer cent. Potash No Farm is Complete in the South Without a Part of it Sown in Cow Peas. 173 For beans and peas: 3 per cent. Ammonia, 7 per up 'his fertilizers. That it will pay him there can be no doubt. He can mi.x it at times wlien he can not do other work, and then he knows exactly what he cent. Available Phosphoric Acid, 7 per cent. Potash No. 65 100 lbs. Nitrate sod.i 450 lbs. Cotton.seed meal 1200 Jbs. Acid phos., 11 per cent. 250 lbs. Muriate potash 2000 lbs. WILL YIELD 2.9 per cent. Ammonia > 7.1 per cent. Avail, phos. acid 6.9 per cent. Potash HOME-MADE FERTILIZER. The formulas for the different fertilizers have been given in detail. It seems that any farmer with com- mon sense ousfht with tliese formulas be able to mix is using if he mixes it himself. A man by mixing his own fertilizers can save about one-third of the cost. Figuring at that rate it will not take many tons to run away up yonder in the saving. Sometimes it will be necessary for farmers to buy the cTiemicals togeth- er, so that they can get it in car load lots, but it will beat paying the fertilizer man all the profits. COMPOSTING. That composting is important there can be no doubt. It will pay every farmer to compost. It is very simple, and every farmer can make a compost if he desires. Tobacco Fertilized. Tobacco Unfertilized. -.-■3-^ ■,. ^■-;. Tree Sprayed wltti Bordeaux Mixture. Tree not riprayed. Book VI. Insect Department, EDITED AND REVISED BY R. I. SMITH, Formerly State Entomologist for Georgia, Formerly Assistant Entomologist Maryland Agricultural College. Entomologist for the North- Carolina Experiment Station, Raleigh, N. C. 176 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. Scale Insects Affecting the Peach THE SAN JOSE SCALE. This is by far our most destructive scale insect, and one that every fruit grower should learn to recognize, as it mav attack pear, plum, apple, apricot, quince, persim- mon, currant and other tree and bush fruits as well as the peach. It has been demonstrated without a doubt that this scale can be controlled in infested orchards, and it therefore behooves every fruit grower to learn to rec- ognize this pest and be prepared to fight it from its first appearance. By doing so much damage and loss will be avoided. Historical. — The exact origin of the San Jose scale was for a long time in doubt, though up to the year 1901 it was generally supposed to be a native of Japan or some Eastern country. During that year. Prof. C. L. jMarlatt made an extensive trip through Japan and after making a careful investigation, came to the conc'.usioni that its native home must be elsewhere. His investiga- tion extended into China and there in the Northern por^ tion was found the native home of the San Jose scale. In the United States the San Jose scale was first dis- covered at San Jose, Cal., in the early seventies and soon spread to several orchards in that vicinity. In l88o the insect was studied and described by Prof. Comstock, then Entomologist of the United States Department ofi Agriculture. Several years later, in 1893, this insect was' discovered in an orchard at Charlottesville, Va. This dis- covery lead to an investigation revealing the fact that the San Jose Scale had been imported into some Eas- tern nurseries, probably in New Jersey, five of six years previous to 1893, and from those nurseries it had been widely distributed over the eastern fruit growing States. When discovered at Charlottesville, many other points of infestation occurred and it soon became apparent that extermination would be impossible. Hence every ef- fort was directed towards finding a method of killing the scale in the infested orchards. These efforts have been crowned with success, so that now in the South as well as elsewhere, scale infested orchards are sprayed each year with every assurance of success. Description. — The San Jose scale is so small that any description must be largely general in its nature. The full grown individuals are only about 1-16 inch in diameter, hardly the size of a small pin head. Its char- acteristics, shape and coloring can only be detected ac- curately by the use of a good hand lens, and when exam- ined closely much variation will be noticeable between individuals. A full grown female San Jose scale is ashy-gray in col- or, almost round in outline, and in the center of the up- Flg. 1. — Twig with Sau Jose scale of all ages; magnified five times. (After Alwood, Vir. Crop. Pest. Comm., Spec. Bull., No. 45.) per surface of the scale there is a small dark colored ring surrounding the nipple. This nipple is characteristic of all scale insects belonging to this same family, its lo- cation and color often being a help in determining the exact species. The nipple is formed in part by the first molt or cast skin of the young insect while the subse- quent scale formation is due largely to secretions from the body of the insect, these secretions gradually hard- ening when exposed to the air. Close examination will reveal two or more quite distinct rings around the nip- ple. These rings are developed when the insect under- goes its second, third or fourth molt. The resulting scale is slightly conical, sloping evenly in all directions. The above is a description of the outward appearance Insects are the greatest enemies to the fruits of the South. 177 ►f a full itions. ;idely d grown female scale formed under perfect con- When crowded on a branch they often assume iffering shapes. Fig. 2. — Old San Jose scale with true insect exposed, to right. (After Alwood, Vir. Crop Pest Comm., Spec. Bull., No. 45.) II This mature scale as described above conceals the :ody of the true insect underneath. By using a pin or ,|nife point the hard scale may be lifted revealing the range-yellow body of the female insect. Fig. 2 ;The male San Jose scale differs from the female by kving an elongated growth to one side. In size the, I'jiales are smaller and often darker in color and the cen- tal nipple and first ring will be noticed at the anterior lid of the elongated scale. Fig. i represents the com- arative size and shape of the male and female scales as iiey appear on an mfested twig. i Life History. — Speaking specifically cf the life his- >ry of the San Jose scale, the females, when from 33 to IjiO days old, begin to give birth to living young. Eggs ||"e never deposited by this species. The young scale isects are almost microscopical in size, having oval jiaped bodies of a bright yellow color. Soon after birth |iey commence moving about looking for a place to set- le and commence feeding. Often from 12 to 24 liours re resumed before they settle down and insert the mi- ute beak with which the juices of the plant are sucked p for the nourishment of the young insects. After these :oung scale insects once settle and commence feeding neir position is never changed, e.Kcept in the case of the male which changes to a winged form. At the end of twelve days, according to Dr. L. O. Howard, Foot note (U. S. Dept. of Agr.", Bureau of Ent., n. s. Bull, No. 3.) the first molt occurs, going to make up the nipple of the subsequent scale as already described. Up to this period the two se.xes are exactly alike. When this first molt occurs the insect under the scale changes in ap- pearance, the legs disappear, and the little insects look like yellow flattened balls. At from 18 to 20 days the second molt takes place, and from then on the males and females differ widely in appearance. The males begin the development of the elongated scale covering while the true insect underneath changes to a pupa from which there emerges at the e.xpiration of 24 to 26 days the adult winged male as shown in the illustration. (Fig. 3.) The female insects take longer to become fully mature. Fig. 3. — San Jose scale, adult male — greatly enlarged, (Af- ter Howard, Yearbook, 1S94, U. S. Dept. of Agr.) Dr.- Howard places the time at thirty days. At this age the body of the female contains quite well developed em- bryonic young which begin to make their appearance from the 33rd to the 40th day. These minute young insects seek a feeding place as already described. Examination for a scale infested tree during summer will show insects of all sizes, from newly born larvae to full developed males and females. Each adult female may give birth to from 300 to 400 young, covering a pe- riod of possibly two weeks; hence the first born may be past the first molt when the later ones appear. There are at least five generations each season in the South. It should have been stated that the males and fe- males are nearly jet black except for the central nipple, until about one-half grown, the ashy-gray color appear- ing later. These perfectly round, nearly black scales, having a prominent nipple surrounded by a slightly grayish ring, are very characteristic and easily distin- guished from nearly all other scale insects. 13 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. How the Insect Passes the Winter and How to De- tect it. The winter stage is passed by the San Jose scale as hah' grown or nearly mature individuals. Most of the mature females perish from cold and exposure to the weather. During winter a badly infested tree will pre- sent a gray appearance, described by some as looking as though coated with wet ashes. The old dead scales may be packed closely together and piled on top of one another. This color will be relieved in places by the black, circular, half-grown scales as described above. The greater number of young scales will be found on the less thickly coated portion of the infested limbs and around the base of young shoots and branches. By drawing a knife blade or thumb nail along an infested branch an oily, yellowish fluid will exude, caused by crushing the soft-bodied insects under the scales. An- other characteristic feature of th.e San Jose scale is that it causes the bark to turn red at the point of attack. This is especially noticeable on the young wood of the peach. The bark turns red nearly or quite to the wood, as determined by shaving ofif a thin section. Isolated scales may cause a red blotch, in diameter several times the size of the scale itself. The bark of infested peach- trees often shows a marked depressed or pitted appear- ance, explained by the fact that the bark nearly ceases growth at the e.xact point of attack, while the surround- ing tissue continues to increase in volume. Peach trees badly infested w^ith scale often commence to die the sec- ond year, though sometimes when irfested at the age of two or three years they will survive for several years afterwards. Wherever orchards are watched closelv, this dying may be prevented by proper remedial treatment as described in the next paragraph. Remedies. During the many years that remedies have been test- ed against the San Jose scale, almost everything having an insecticidal value has been tested. The whale oil soap treatment has been given a thorough test in Geor- gia and other States, and, while giving more or less satisfaction, it has proved to be too expensive for gen- eral use. Kerosene and crude petroleum in mechanical mixture and as emulsions were used in Georgia quite extensively during the early fight against the San Jose scale. Both were tested thoroughly by Prof. W. M. Scott, first Entomologist for Georgia. He found that the use of either kerosene or petroleum was attended with some danger of killing the sprayed trees — largely on account of careless labor — hence, their applicatioi has been practically abandoned except in the case o kerosene which is still recommended for summer treat nient as mentioned farther on. Caustic soda has beei carefully tested, as well as many patent scale washes cal culated to kill scale, but proving to be of very littl value. Results obtained from the use of Lime-Sulphur- Sal washes have demonstrated without any doubt that ii them a safe and reliable remedy for the scale has beei found. I :i Winter Treatment.— For winter treatment of scali mfested trees, the following wash is recommended to b'i used as a spray, applying it with a spray pump to ever' tree in infested orchards. This recommendation is base j on the experience of large orchardists who have teste,' this wash on thousands of trees with most excellent n suits. Lime-Sulphur-Galt Wash. Formula — Lime 20 pounds. Sulphur 16 pounds. Salt 5 pounds. Water to make 50 gals. Mix the sulphur into a thin paste with a small amour of water and then add it to about 15 gallons of boilin water in a kettle (or in the boiling tank if steam is usee and stir thoroughly. While this mixture is at the boi ing point, add the stone lime, which will immediate] commence to slake, causing violent ebullition. Whi the lime is slaking, much of the sulphur will be dissolvei as will be evident from the rich amber color resultinj The lime should be stirred frequently while slaking an water added as necessary to prevent burning or to violent boiling. After the lime is through slaking, ad the salt and continue the boiling for at least 35 mil utes or longer, if it seems necessary, to dissolve all tl sulphur. This wash, when properly prepared, should be a dirl yellowish green color when agitated, but if allowed ( settle, a clear amber colored liquid will appear on tl surface. There is always a residue which settles qui readily, necessitating frequent stirring, or better, co stant agitation while in the spray tank. A wash of th kind should be strained through a wire screen or heai burlap to remove all large particles of lime or other fc eign matter that would tend to clog the spray pum It is essential to have a large per cent, of what may 1 There are very few plants that do not have insect enemies. 179 termed the residue, forced through the pump and onto the trees as it plays an important part toward kiUing the scale. Lime-Sulphur Wash. Formula — Lime 20 pounds. Sulphur 16 pounds. Water to make 50 gals. This wash is made in the same way as the one just mentioned, simply lea ^ out the salt. The lime and sulphur wash proved .1 our experiments practically as effective as the wash, including salt. Some reliable are perfectly dormant. They can not safely be used af- ter the trees bud out in spring or at any time during summer. Badly infested trees should be sprayed twice during winter and when this is done, once in December and again in January or February, San Jose scale may be practically exterminated. Trees only slightly in- fested are usually sufficiently protected by one thorough spraying during January or February of each year. Equipment for Boiling and Spraying. For small orchards the lime-sulphur washes can be prepared in iron kettles, arranged over a brick arch. Pig. 4. — A simple steam boiling outfit for preparing lime-sulplmr washes: B. boiler; ss, steam pipes; gg, globe valves; 1, 2, 3, and 4, 50-gallon barrels; xx, pipes for drawing off mixture after boiling; F, large pipe carrying liquid from pipes XX to wagon tank or spray-barrel; a, lower end or steam pipe with cross-arms and one-eighth inch openings for escape of steam; P, platform G feet above ground; j, pipe supplying water from elevated tank or steam jet; h, water hose for carrying clear water to 1, 2, 3, and 4. (After Newell, Ga. St. Bd. of Ent., Bui. 21.) authorities, however, still insist that the salt is essential, so it is deemed best at this time to offer both formulas and let individual preference decide which to use. Either one has proved thoroughly effective during the past two seasons. The lime-sulphur washes as recommended are intend- ed primarily for winter spraying work while the trees For convenience, where there are many trees to be .sprayed, these kettles should be of not less than 60 gal- lons capacity. While it is possible with two such ket- tles, or even one, to prepare the wash for a good sized orchard, still the use of steam for boiling is so mucn more rapid and economical that the average orchard- ist will find it profitable in the end to equip himself i8o TILLING THE 30IL FOR PZ^OFIT AND PLEASURE. wiili a steam boiiing plant. The size and capacity of mis plant will depend mainly upon the size of the orchard. A Ijoiling outfit of this kind is shown in fig- ure 4, to give an illustration of the general plan followed in arranging tanks, pipes, etc. The individual will read- ily modify this plan to suit his own conditions and fa- cilities. In the first place, it is important that this plant be lo cated in or near the orchard, or at some central point which is accessible to the orchards to be sprayed. It is equally important that the outfit be located at a suitable water supply. If water from an elevated tank or from town waterworks can bo utilized, so much the better. Failing in this, the plant should be located at a spring, well or stream of clear water, in order that the water may be delivered to the boiling tanks by a steam jet, thus saving the time and labor necessary to handle it with buckets. An equally important point is to have the elevated platform, upon which the boiling tanks are lo- cated, at least six feet above the ground, so that the mixture after being boiled, can be drawn off directly into the spraying tanks or barrels. Almost any boiler of sufficient steaming capacity can be utilized for fur- nishing the steam. Boilers located at cotton gins, saw mills, etc., are often made use of by placing this boiling outfit near them and making the necessary connections. Portable boilers, such as are used for sawing wood, or as traction ene'ines, can be utilized to good advantasfe. For a small boiling outfit a good steam feed cooker will answer the purpose very well. For boiling the mixture, either barrels or tanks can be used. If tanks are decid- ed upon, these should not exceed 150 gallons capacity under any circumstances. The larger the boiling recep- tacle the more stirring will be necessary. Upon the whole it is usually better to use a large number of 100 gallon tanks or of 50 gallon barrels than to use fewer and larger tanks. Added convenience in preparing small amounts of the wash is also secured where bar- rels are utilized. A separate globe valve should control the steam supply to each barrel or tank. Particular at- tention is called to the cross-arms "A" in the figure. These cross-arms deliver the steam at several points near the bottom of the barrel and this assists very mate- rially in keeping the mixture stirred up. The cross- arms have one-eighth inch holes bored in them for the escape of steam. Each barrel should have its outlet pipe controlled with a gate valve. It is convenient to have all the outlets open into a common discharge pipe as shown in the figure. In this way, the material can be drawn off from any one, or from all of the tanks at one time. Tlie spraying outfit to be used will depend largely upon tlie size of the orchard to be sprayed. In the case of very large commercial orchards, wagon tanks, hold- ing from 200 to 250 gallons, should be used. These tanks can be purchased from one of the manufacturers of good spraying apparatus at prices ranging from $10.00 to $20.00, and these tanks can be used upon any ordi- nary farm wagons. For winter work, wagons with broad tires are preferable. The necessary pump, hose, extension pipes and nozzles to go with such a wagon tank, will cost from $12.00 to $20.00, depending upon make, etc. For small orchards of 10,000 trees, or less, barrel pumps answer well. Good pumps of this style, mount- ed in barrels of 50 gallons capacity, complete with hose, agitator, extension pipes, and nozzles, can be purchased at from $14.00 to $20.00 each. It is only necessary to place such a pump in a light wagon and it is ready for use. For winter spraying every pump should be equip- ped with two leads of hose, each not less than twenty feet in length. Where the trees are planted far apart, 30-foot lengths of hose are even better, enabling the men to get around the trees readily and to good advan- tage. Each line of hose should have fitted to it a 6-foot extension rod, at the end of which is the Vermorel or Mistry nozzle. These extension rods are readily made by any blacksmith from quarter-inch gas pipe. A stop- cock at the lower end of this extension rod (at its junc- tion with the hose), is also a great convenience, in or- der that the operator may turn off the flow without hav- ing to reach or handle the nozzle. We have heard some complaints about the difficulty of spraying with the lime-sulphur washes on account of the hands and face becoming sore as a result of the caustic properties of the wash. If extension pipes, long leads of hose, and reasonable care are used, there will be but a minimum of difficulty from this source. . Where extension pipes, or suitable substitutes therefor, are not used and the oper- ator must work with his hands actually holding the nozzle itself, sore hands will result as a matter of course. The long leads of hose enalile the operator to work at some distance from the wagon, so that the spray is not blown upon the team or upon the man working, the pump. If the hose connections are kept tight there is no reason why the workmen should continually have their gloves and clothes saturated with the mixture. The cheapest leather gloves obtainable, thoroughlv sat- urated before use with lubricating oil, will be found the cheapest and most serviceable. The faces of the work- men can be protected by canvas masks if necessary, and the caustic action of the wash may be lessened by lib- Quails are worth more to gather insects than for the market. ISI eral applications of vaseline or petroleum to the skin. Precautions of this kind are almost an absolute neces- sity when colored laborers are efnployed, as they will ■usually persist in spraying against the wind anyhow, in spite of all advice that may be given them. Suitable strainers must be provided for all pumps, and the wash as it comes from the boiling tanks, thoroughly strained before being placed in the spray ,tank. Copper strainers can not be used for this purpose. The strain- ers must be of iron or brass. nary copper knapsack pump can not be used, as it will be eaten up in a few days' time. Iron vessels and ap- paratus should be used as far as possible. The wash acts slowly upon brass, but its action upon the better makes of barrel pumps will not be appreciable if these latter are thoroughly rinsed out with clear water each night. At the close of the spraying season, of course the entire pump should be thoroughly cleaned, all parts well oiled and the pump kept under suitable cover until a<7ain needed. ' Fig. 5. — A Suitable Spraying Outfit for a Medium-Sized Orcliard. (Eclipse pump mounted in b.irrel, two leads of 20-foot hose, 6-tt. iron extension rods and single Vei-morel nozzles). (From Ga. St. Board of Ent., Bull. 14.) I For small or family orchards a bucket pump and a two gallon pail will answer the purpose. Such a buck- jet pump should always be ecptipped with not less than ten feet of hose if anything larger than small shrubs are to be sprayed. With the short 3-foot piece of hose us- ually 'furnished by the manufacturers with these pumps, it is impossible to properly spray an average sized peach of plum tree. These bucket pumps can be bought at I prices ranging from $6.00 to $9.00. ' In handling the lime-sulphur mixtures, copper vessels tand apparatus must be entirely avoided, as the wash has |a marked corrosive action upon the copper. The ordi- Summer Spraying for San Jose Scale. Orchards properly treated during winter will seldom require summer spraying so far as the San Jose scale is concerned. Sometimes, however, a new infestation may be discovered in late' spring or summer, and in or- der to prevent the scale from multiplying so rapidly through the sunmier months, the trunk and main limbs of the infested trees may be treated with the lime-sulphur wash prepared as for winter spraying. It can be applied with a mop or large brush or a spray pump may be used if care is observed to prevent the spray from being thrown on the foliage. A wash of the strength recom- l82 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. mended will burn peach foliage severely and often kill back young, tender shoots. Kerosene Emulsion as Summer Treatment. In view of the results obtained by various experiments it is deemed safe to recommend the use of kerosene emulsion as a summer treatment for San Jose scale; provided, however, that the work be done strictly ac- cording to direction with emulsion properly made, so that the kerosene will not separate in the spray tanks. Stock solution — Kerosene Emulsion. Kerosene 8 gallons. Hard Soap 2 pounds. or Whale Oil Soap 4 pounds. Water 4 gallons. Place 4 gallons of water in a 15 or 20 gallon kettle, bring this to a boil and in it dissolve the soap. Remove this soap solution — while boiling hot — from the fire and add 8 gallons of kerosene, after which the mixture must be violently agitated for about ten minutes. As the kerosene and soap solution combine a smooth, creamy emulsion will result, the bulk will increase somewhat, and when properly prepared the resulting emulsion will remain without separating for several weeks. This emulsion is most readily made by using a small force pump, having a direct discharge and throwing a one- eighth inch stream, pumping the solution back into it- self with considerable force. After ten minutes pump- ing, the emulsion will be perfect. Soft water should be used for making emulsions, but if such water is not readily obtainable, hard water may be broken by the addition of a little lye and can then be used with safety. Persons making emulsions for the first time should be sure to agit.Ve the mixture as directed, otherwise while it may look thoroughly mixed it may soon separate when allowed to stand. The stock solution riiay be diluted to any required strength. For summer treatment, I would recommend using an emulsion containing 20 per cent, of kerosene. In the experiments referred to above, 25 per cent, emul- sion was employed without injury to the trees, but the 20 per cent, strength was almost equally effective; 20 per cent, emulsion kills nearly all the scale when applied during the summer months; 15 per cent, emulsion has often been recommended, but it does not always give satisfactory results. It is not advisable to spray trees with nearly ripe fruit, as the fruit absorbs the kerosene and may taste so strong when ripe, as to render it un- salable and unfit for home use. PUTNAM'S SCALE INSECT. Of the scale insects occurring in the South, this is perhaps the species most closely resembling the San Jose. Fortunately, this scale is by no means as destruc- tive and not at present one to be seriously feared. It is well, however, to know what scale insects may occur in the peach orchards, as by watching constantly for all species the more destructive forms will be discovered. In New York State, Dr. E. P. Felt records this scale as being the most common species of AspiJiotus on fruit trees and shrubs in that State. In Massachusetts, it has been reported as being particularly destructive in an apple orchard. In Virginia, this scale is quite com- monly mistaken for the San Jose. Description and Life History. — Putnam's scale in- sect is in many respects similar to the San Jose scale, and hence a comparative description only will be given. The adult female scale is slightly larger than the San Jose, being about 1-12 inch in diameter. In color they are dark gray, and the nipple is reddish colored and slightly to one side of the center. The male scales are dark gray with the reddish nipple showing prominent- ly. Like the San Jose scale, this species passes the win- ter as partly grown individuals, but according to Dr. E. I'. Felt, (Bull, N. Y., State Museum, Xo. 46), they are usually more nearly mature than the over-working San Jose scales. In Spring, the males and females com- plete their growth, the former emerging as small wing- ed individuals and the latter depositing eggs under the protecting scale. Dr. Felt states that only one brood develops in New York, but in the South there are prob- ably at least two. The rate of reproduction of the Put- nam's scale is slow compared to the San Jose scale, which is fortunate, as otherwise it might be a very de- structive insect. Remedies. The over-wintering, partly grown scales may be killed by an application of the lime-sulphur wash as recom- mended for the San Jose scale. If the infested trees are sprayed during winter, no summer treatment will ordi- narily be necessary. But if numbers of young crawling insects are observed during summer, they may be de- stroyed by the kerosene emulsion treatment as recom- mended on this page. The State pays men to look after insects. 183 CHERRY SCALE. Historical. — This scale insect was first described by rof. W. G. Johnson, in 1896, it having been discov- ■ed by him in Illinois in 1894. It frequently occurs on ild cherry and was for that reason given the name, herry Scale. Prof. Johnson, writing in 1896* (*U. S. •ept. of Agr., Bur. of Ent., Bull. No. 6, p. 75), stated lat it was not an uncommon thing to find 7 or 8 year Id cherry trees in Illinois literally covered with this be considered at present, as a particularly destructive scale insect. In the majority of orchards, where it has been discovered, parasites have apparently succeeded in holding it in check sufficiently to avoid the necessity of spraying, as must always be done to control the San Jose scale. Description and Habits. — The Cherry scale,, like Putnam's scale insect, is closely allied to the San Jose, and to the novice it is not easily distinguishable. The ilFig. 6.— Cherry scale: 1, two male scales, very much enlargea; 2, twig infested with grown scales, natural size; 3, por- I *ion of 2, enlarged; 4, full grown female, much enlarged; 5, half grown scale, greatly enlarged. ( (After E. P. Felt t ■ N. Y. State Bull. No. 46.) destructive scale insect. At the same time, he stated that many parasites were known to attack this species, and his fact may explain why the cherry scale is no :iniore destructive in Georgia at present. I In the South, the cherry scale is found in greater or 'less numbers in nearly every old peach orchard, but in connection with this wide distribution, it should be jstated that the cherry scale has not been, and can not full grown female scale, as well shown in the illustra- tion, (Fig. 6,) is nearly round; natural color yellowish gray; scales rather flat and about -1-12 inch, in diameter. Near the center of the scale, but always somewhat to one side, is the reddish nipple or exuvia. The male scales are elongated, smaller than the fernales, and the nipple at the anterior end is bright orange red. This bright color is especially prominent when the scales 1 84 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. have been handled, ruljbing off the thin outer surface covering. The Cherry scales spend the winter as partially grown individuals, completing their growth in early spring, and unlike the San Jose scale, the females deposit eggs from which little lice hatch, similar in appearance to the young of the San Jose. Just the date when the first young appear in from the eggs of the first brood is not definitely established. There are probably as many as three generations each season in the South. On scale infested trees, young crawling lice may be found dur- ing almost all of the summer months. Remedies. The remedies recommended for the San Jose scale are equally effective against the Cherry scale. While spray- ing is not generally practiced against this insect, the writer has observed orchards where spraying would be advisable. The winter spraying should suffice if thor- oughly done, and in that event summer treatment will not become necessary. WEST INDIAN PEACH SCALE. This scale insect deserves more than passing atten- tion, as it is capable of doing great damage, its import- ance in the South being second only to the San Jose scale. Historical. — The West Indian Peach Scale is known to occur in many countries among which may be men- tioned England, Italy, Australia, Japan, China, South Africa, Panama and the West Indies. It is supposed that the native home of this insect was either Japan or the West Indies, and from the latter place it has derived the common name, West Indian Peach scale. In the United States this scale is known to exist in Massachu- setts, Washington, D. C, Ohio, Florida, Alabama and California, as well as in Georgia. In 1899, Prof. W. M. Scott reported that about 10,000 trees were utterly de- stroyed at Irby, Ga. With our present knowledge of the destructive powers of this insect, it is well to keep a sharp lookout for fear it may increase to destructive numbers. All fruit growers should be prepared to rec- ognize this scale at a glance. By exterminating any newly discovered infestation, the possibility of a recur- rence of the calamity at Irby will be reduced to a mini- mum. Description and Life History. — A glance at Fitr. 7 will show the reader that this is an insect quite differ- ent in appearance from the preceding forms mentioned ng. 7. — West Indian Peach Scale: a, branch covered with male and female-scales — natural size; b, female scale; c, male scale; d, group of male scaies — enlarged. (After Howard. Yearbook, 1894. U. S. "Oest. of Agr.) Fig. S. — West Indian Peach scale: Adult male — greatly en- larged. (After Howard, Yearbook, 1894, U. S. Dept. of Agr.) above, the chief difference noticeable being the wide variation between the male and female scales, and the shape and color of the former. The adult female scales are gray and not readily noticeable. The nipple i-s al- ways to one side of the center and characterized by be- ing ridged and comparatively large. The females us- ually cluster on the trunks of infested trees. The males are most prominent, being white in color, elongated, parallel sided and having the exuvia or nipple situated at the anterior end. They prefer to cluster near the base of large limLs and when abundant, give the tree a white-washed appearance. Concerning the life history, Dr. L. O. Howard writes as follows* (* Yearbook, Dept. of Agr., 1894, p. 267:) "During the winter this insect is found in Washington, D. C, only in the condition of the mature female. The Farmers should protect their birds by all means. 185 eggs are developed early in May, and the young larvae hatch by the middle of the month. The males (see Fig. 8), begin to issue the middle of June and impregnate the females, and the latter begin egg-laying by the end of the month. The second generation is full grown by the middle of August, and the third egg-laying begins at this time. In this latitude the development is com- paratively regular." Remedies. Winter spraying with the lime-sulphur wash will be found effective, and this is probably the best remedy, though summer treatment with kerosene emulsion or whale oil soap solution, just after the young have hatch- ed, may at times become necessary. Whenever a fruit- insect itself forms the scale and when examined closely it will be observed that the outer body wall is hardened, but not separate from the insect within. The nearly mature female lecanium (Fig. 9,) is hemi- spherical, somewhat elongated, brown in color and quite hard in texture. The nearly grown scales may be found clustered on small twigs and branches during winter when they are readily seen. When spring ar- rives these insects commence to grow and soon the females deposit eggs. The male scales change to a winged insect, but on account of being so small and liv- ing only a short time, the adult males are seldom ob- served. The eggs may be found in the hard scale, which, when crushed, appears to contain only a powdery substance. The female insect shrivels up in the shell Fig. 9.— Peach Lecanium: Newly liatched larva on rigbt; un impregnated female next; full grown females on twig- natural size. (After Howard, Yearbook, 1S94, U. S. Dept. of Agr.) grower discovers any infested trees, they should be im- mediately dug up and burned, while the surrounding trees should be given a thorough winter spraying. PEACH LECANIUM. This scale insect, quite unlike the forms just men- tioned, is a native European species. It has become es- tablished in some Southern orchards and in certain in- stances quite severe infestations have been reported. , Description and Life History.— Unlike the San Jose scale and closely allied species, this scale insect does not develop a specific hard, scaly covering. The lecaniums are known as itakcd scale insects, often called "soft scales." "Turtle-back scale" is also a common ap- pellation and one quite suggestive of the appearance of the peach lecanium and other closely allied species. The and practically disappears when the eggs are developed. From these eggs, young lice appear, probably for the most part during June. A youn^ lecanium larva is shown in the figure. When the insects are abundant on peach twigs, a per- ceptible amount of honey dew is frequently secreted. This sweet substance gives rise to a smut fungus which often covers the bodies of the scales, destroying many of tliem. Remedies. It has usually been considered that the best time to destroy the peach lecanium and other lecaniums is Just after all the eggs are hatched in early summer. This may be done provided the orchardist will observe the date of hatching and prepare to spray the trees soon thereafter. The unprotected young will succumb to a 1 86 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. treatment of 15 per cent, kerosene emulsion or to whale oil soap, one-half pound to one gallon of water. Gener- ally speaking, such spraying should be done in the South about the middle of June. Such work will sel- dom be necessary, however, wherever orchards are sprayed thoroughly with lime-sulphur wash during win- ter. PLUM PULVINaRIA. The Plum Pulvinaria belongs to the class of scale in- sects known as "soft scales." While somewhat closely insects commence to grow and develop the white cot- tony growth which constitutes the egg sac, and is a very conspicuous object. As the females near maturity a close examination of an individual would reveal a small brown, hardish bodied insect at one end of the cottony sac. In the sac would be found numerous mi- nute eggs. These eggs hatch in early summer and the young crawl out on the foliage and there develop into the adult form as described above. (Fig. 10.) Before the foliage falls, the partly grown females have fastened themselves to the limbs and branches, there to pass t':e winter. Fig. 10. — Plum Pulvinaria: Un foliage as found during summer. (From Photo.) related to the Lecanium scale, just mentioned, it differs much in appearance from the lecaniums proper. Description and Habits. — The winter is passed by the half grown female scales on the branches and twigs of infested trees. In the winter stage, they are not par- ticularly conspicuous. In spring, these ever-wintering Remedies. The winter spraying measures advocated for San Jose scale are effective against this pest also. BORING INSECTS ATTACKING THE PEACH. General Remarks. — Peach trees in the South are It is a great loss not to spray your trees in the proper time. 187 attacked annually by boring insects causing considera- Ible damage, much of which could generally be avoided Iwere these insects more familiar to the fruit growers. The common peach-tree borer, which works at the base 'of the trees, is known by nearly all fruit-growers, but |many do not know the life history of the insect and itherefore do not know how to fight it intelligently. The following description with remedial suggestions, is in- tended to be of value by causing greater familiarity with 'this insect. The fruit-tree bark-beetle should also be imade the object of study and watched for each year, and lalso the peach-twig borer with which many fruit grow- •ers are familiar. In general, it may be said that the ipeach-tree borer is one of the worst enemies of the I'peach in the South, though the other boring insects imentioned herewith cause considerable damage in cer- tain years. THE PEACH-TREE BORER. Nearly one hundred years ago the peach-tree borer was described, and since that time it has been more or less familiar to fruit growers in the Eastern and Middle jStates. Before the introduction of the peach into the 'I United States this insect probably lived in wild cherry Sor plum. It has been determined that the peach-tree borer is a native of the Eastern States and has followed I the peach wherever it has been planted in the Middle 'and Western States, until now peach growers in all I parts of our country east of the Rocky Mountains are ''generally familiar with the work of this important peach- Itree pest. General Description. — The gummy discharges about the base of peach-trees, caused by the larvae of the peach-tree borer, is a well-known sight to every fruit- grower. All stone fruits, such as peach, plum and cher- ry, throw out this copious mass of gum when injured in any way, and the peach more particularly. Discharges of a brownish gummy mass, more or less mixed with borings, earth and larval excrement, when occurring at the base of peach or plum trees, indicate the presence of borers underneath. These masses of gum often ex- tend entirely around the base of badly infested trees, but being close to, or beneath the surface of the soil, they may be overlooked for some time unless the earth IS scraped away from the trees. The adult peach-tree borers resemble wasps in size and shape, being sometimes mistaken for them. The sexes differ so much in aDpearance that one would hardly take them to be the same species. The adult moths are shown in Figure 11, a and b, where the dif- ference in size can be noted. The female moths have the fore wings blue, covered with scales, while the hind Fig. 11.— Peach-tree Borer: a, adult female; b, adult male; c, full grown Irava; d, female pupa; e, male pupa; f, pupal skin partially extruded from cocoon — all natural size. (After Marlatt, U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bur. of Ent.. Circ. 54.) wings are transparent, resembling those of the males. Both sexes are steel-blue in general body color, but the abdomen of the female is marked with a broad orange band which is absent on the body of the male. The adult moths appear mainly during the last part of August and the first half of September, as stated farther on, and the females soon commence to deposit eggs. From these eggs minute worms hatch and soon begin to bore into the bark near the ground, causing an exudation of gum as mentioned above. When full grown the worms or borers are about one inch in length, yellowish white in color with the head and first body segment brown. (Fig. II, c.) When full grown the larvae leave their chan- nels in the trees and construct a cocoon at the sur- face of the ground, near the base of the tree from which they emerged, and change to a chrysalis, or ])upa, in the cocoon. From the cocoon the adult moths issue, escaping from the pupal skin, which is usually left attached to the cocoon as shown at Fig. II. The above is a very general description of the peach-tree borer and its work. A more specific dis- I'cussion of the life history follows, as it has a direct bearing on the method of treatment and should be well understood. Life History. — Starting with partially grown lar- vae (borers) as found during winter in infested peach trees, we will follow out the entire life his- tory of the peach borer. The writer is indebted to Prof. H. N. Starnes, of the Georgia Experiment Sta- i88 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. t^on, for the facts pertaining to the life history of this insect. Prof. Starnes' observations show that the larvae are about one-half or two-thirds grown at the approach of spring, having fed until late in fall and probably remained in a hibernating state during a portion of the winter. During the spring and early summer the larvae complete growth, and it is during this feeding period that a great part of the injury is inflicted on the infested trees. When full grown the larvae leave their channels in the wood and proceed to construct cocoons near the sur- face of the ground at the base of the trees. These cocoons are dirty brown in color, depending some- what on t'he color of the soil. They are about one inch in length. (Fig. ii.) By far the largest number of larvae leave their channels during the latter part of July and the first part of August, though some individuals come out earlier and some later. Immediately after construct- ing their cocoons the larvae pupate, c'hanging to the pupa or chrysalis, which is a shiny brown object of the shape illustrated at d and e in I'ig. ii. The pupa stage lasts from three to four weeks, when the cliangc to the adult takes place, and there emerges the adult moth as already described. The cocoons with the pupal skin extruded (Fig. ii) are easily found about the base of infested trees. Considering that the great majority of larvae spin cocoons and pupate during the month of August and that the adult mot'hs emerge in at least four weeks thereafter, it is evident that most of the adult moths will be found during September. Prof. Starnes states that the majority of moths — in the latitude of Grif- fin, Ga.— emerge between August 26th and Septem- ber 15th. Soon after emergence mating takes place and oviposition soon follows. Tlie eggs are very small, oval and light brown in color. They are deposited by the females on the trunk, mainly close to the level of the ground, but at titnes high up on the trunk and even on the lat- eral limbs. Quoting Prof. Starnes: "The eggs are practically all hatched by October iStli, and the young larvae, which are at first very minute, drop to the surface of the ground and begin to channel into the interior of the tree, where they remain througliout the winter, dormant a small part of the time, but feeding vigorously throughout fall and spring and well into the summer." This point about the egg-laying and hatching, and the manner in which the young larvae bore into t'he trees is of great importance, as on it hinges the best methods of treatment. Remedial Measures. Now that we are familiar with the true history of the peach tree borer it is evident that some of the time-honored recommendations for preventing the borer must be modified or changed somewhat. The life history, as stated above, is based On work done near Griffin, Ga., and there is a probability that the exact dates may vary in different parts of the South. However, this variation will not be sufficient to in- terfere with general recommendations regarding the proper treatment for this insect. Any suggestion made in this article must of necessity be somewhat general in its nature to admit of being applied in all parts of the South. The principal valuable preventive and remedial measures will be discussed under separate heads, based largely on the life history of the insect as al- ready described. (i) Wrapping. — Trees may be wrapped about the trunk wil'h brown paper or newspaper, to a height of eighteen inches. This wrapping should be fas- tened about the top with small wire or stout twine, to prevent larvae from entering under the paper from above. The wrapping should be put in place by August 1st, at the latest, as it is intended t» hjii- der the first born larvae from reaching the trunks of the trees. Tarred paper might be employed, but as it is only intended to remain for three months some cheaper paper will answer about as well. (2) Mounding. — After the paper covering is in place the soil should be immediately mounded about the base of each tree, ten inches hig'h, covering the lower portion of the paper. Where trees are treat- ed in this way the larvae hatching from eggs high up on t'he trunk and main limbs, after dropping to the top of the mound, will be forced to reach the trees through the paper wrapping, and at a point ten inches above the level of the ground. Before the lit- tle larvae succeed in affecting an entrance, many will be devoured by ants and birds. Ants are often our best friends by capturing many little borers soon after hatc'hing and before they have been able to tunnel under the bark, where they would be pro- tected. See to it that the weevils (3) Worming. — After the above treatment, wrap- ping and mounding, has been attended to by Aug- ust 1st, as recommended, it might seem that tlie trees would be thoroughly protected. That is not always true, however, as som.e larvae may get down under the paper wrapping from above, and some rr.ay succeed in forcing an entrance throu-h the pa- per at the surface of the mound. I'or these reasons alone, worming should begin the last week in Octo- ber, for it has been shown that nearly all the eggs " are hatched by October 15th. The reason for worm- ing at this time is to get as many young larvae as possible before they have injured the trees. Worm- ijing at this time will necessitate removal of the paper iwrappings, and leveling of the mounds. In fact, to Ijjleave the paper on longer in any event, would be to ! offer protection to the young borers underneath. A [jknife will not be required for worming, as a great jper cent, of the larvae present will be on the surface Ipf the bark feeding on tender spots and covered with I la mass of gum mingled with excrement and borings. I [This gummy mass together with the worms beneath, |may be scraped off with a curved bill-hook arrange- J-nent, bluntly pointed at one end and provided with a jjdouble edge which should not be sharp— about like a hill table knife. This hook may be heavy enough o serve for digging and cutting if desired, and hould be provided with a substantial handle about welve inches long. With such a hook trees can be vormed rapidly. The majority of the young borers vill be found on the tree trunks several inches above rnnnd and being for the most part on the surface, Ikv may be easily scraped off. Ihe hook mentioned above is one recommended y Mr. C. M. Porter, of Douglas, Ga., and the writer leheves that no better implement has been devised jr this work. (4) Caustic and Deterrent Washes.— After worm- ig in fall some form of caustic wash should be ap- hed to the tree trunks to kill the larvae which have en exposed, but remain on the trunk, and to pre- ■nt the dislodged larvae from re-entering the trees. appears to be somewhat doubtful about a wasli ^plied earlier in the fall preventing the adults from positing eggs. Prof. Starnes reports that eggs are id on the lateral branches; this habit has also been >served by the writsr. I have seen moths deposit :gs on the leaves of nurserj stock at least three ct above the ground. Washes of a deterrent na- do not get into^j^SJi, ^Jrn. 189 ture 'a"pprfeid'TtQ. peach tree trunks before the moths appear would probably cause more eggs to be laid higher ui), and unlejs the wash applied is capable of repelling the little larvae wh^ katc'hed, it would be of little value. Lime-Sulphur-Tar Mixture. — A wash that has [.rovLH fairly satisfactory, having both deterrent and caustic properties, is one first recommended by Prof. W. M. Scott. It is made as follows: Slake one bush- el of lime with a small amount of warm water. While the lime is slaking add ten pounds of sulphur, previously stirred into a paste. To this mixture add one-half gallon of gas tar and then dilute with water to about 50 gallons. This wash carries sufficient lime to form a good coating over the bark, while not being thick enough to flake ofif badly when dry. By adding two pounds of Paris green to the above we have a deterrent, caustic and poison wash. Hale's Borer Wash.— Mr. J. H. Hale, President of tlie Hale Georgia Orchard Co., recommends the fol- lowing wash : Two quarts of strong soap and a half pint of crude carbolic acid, with two ounces of Paris green, are thoroughly incorporated in a bucketful of water, and enough lime and clay added to make a thin paste.* A wash of this description, if applied about July 15th, would act as a deterrent and poison. To be most thoroughly effective it should be applied to the trunk and main limbs and be replaced when loosened by rain. Prof. Starnes reports that he cannot recommend any one wash in view of his experience with many different formulas. For applying to trees just after fall Worming he recommends the following: Lime and Potash Wash. — A simple mixture of thick whitewash and ball potash — i 1-2 pounds lime, 2 1-4 ounces caustic potash to the gallon of water. It is quite probable that the lime-sulphur mixtures recommended for San Jose scale treatment may be used with good success. They certainly possess the caustic property necessary to kill young borer lar- vae and by adding a little more lime than the scale formula calls for, it would cover tree trunks suffi- ciently to act as a deterrent to both the adult moths and the larvae. Summarizing the remarks regarding borer washes, none are worthy of unrestricted recommendation. The best time to apply any wash is just after the *Formula from Cir. 54, p. 4, Bur. of Ent., U. S. D. A. 190 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. fall worming. If washes are applied earlier and be- fore the trees are wormed they should be sufficient- ly thick and caustic to repel larvae which attempt to enter the trunks of the trees. (5) Spring Worming. — In view of the informa- tion now at hand regarding the life history of the peach-tree borer it does not appear advisable to de- pend on spring worming. The borers are all under the bark in spring and must then be removed with a sharp knife or killed in their burrows with a wire probe. Where other measures have not been prop- erly attended to, spring worming may be necessary and beneficial. It would at least tend to reduce the numbers of adults appearing in fall, and prevent much injury during summer months. In general it would seem preferable to devote considerable tune and work to the fall treatment as already described, and if some borers have escaped they should be dug out in early spring. A caustic wash may be applied after the spring worming, but it will only destroy larvae which have been exposed but not actually killed. Best rcFults in controlling peach borers will be ob- tained only when the various remedial measures — as suggested — are combined, and each feature of the work given careful attention. THE FRUIT-TREE BARK-BEETLE. (Known also as shot-hole borer.) Historical.— This insect is a native European spe- cies. In the United States it was first noticed in 1877 in New York, where it was attacking the peach. No doubt many other localities were infested at the same period though not then discovered. It has now been found in all the Eastern States and at least as . far west as Kansas. This insect has been known to injure the following fruits: Plum, cherry, apricot, nectarine, apple, pear and quince, as well as the peach. Habits and Nature of Injury. — Early writers usu- ally held to the opinion that t'he fruit-tree bark-bee- tle would not attack perfectly healthy trees, and some who will still assert that the first writers were correct. The weight of evidence is conclusive, however, that t'he bark-beetles first attack weakened and dy- ing trees, but often when numerous, turn their at- tack to trees which are apparently in good health. As appropriately stated by J. M. Stedman* : "It is very largely a matter of opinion when one pro- nounces a tree perfectly healthy that has become infested with this pest, but no doubt one should re- gard a tree as healthy when there is absolutely no reason to suspect anything different except that it has now become attacked by this insect." The fruit-tree bark-beetle works for the greater part of its lifetime under the bark of the infested tree. A tree in wliich this insect has been breeding; F'ig. 12. -Work of Fruit-tree Barkbeetle in twig- size. (After Cliit., U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bur. of Ent, Cir. No. 29.) -natural Will show many branches like Fig. 12, illustratin! the nature of the work under the bark, as well a the outward appearance, showing the holes madi- ^ the adult beetle. Young peach trees often cl mence to wither and dry up towards the end of tli limbs before any other sign of borers is discovi • When that occurs the insects will often be founil .- neath the bark as described farther on. Description. — The adult fruit-tree bark-beetle i^ small cylindrical beetle, about one-eighth inch lengt'h and only about one-third as broad. They n uniformly black in color except the tips of the elyt or wing covers and a portion of the legs, which a dull red. Fig. ■13-a illustrates the peculiar punctv tion on the thorax and wings, and the peculiar bin shaped abdomen is well shown in Fig. 13-b. T ''Missouri Agri. Expt. Sta. Bull. No. 44. It is a great crime to waste anything after it is safely housed. 191 young borer or grub is w'hite except for the brown head, as illustrated at d. The pupa — the form as- sumed by the larva just before changing to the adult beetle — is pictured in the figure at c. Winter Stage and Life History. — The winter is passed by this insect in the larval or grub stage in their channels under the bark. In spring about the middle or latter part of March, the parent beetles eat their way out from under tlie bark, making lit- tle holes scarcely 1-16 inch in diameter. These pa- rent beetles soon commence to bore into the trees, and begin the construction of an egg chamber which is nearly always formed in the direction of the long axis of the limb, or nearly so. They seem to prefer to enter at the base of the limbs, or at the forks Fig. 13. — Fruit-tree Bark-beetle; a. adult beetle; b, same in profile; c. pupa; d, larva; all magnified about ten times. (After Chit., U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bur. Bur. of Ent., Circ. No. 29.) made by lateral spurs, and often at the base of buds near the extremities of the small branches. The beetles are frequently found, on badly infested trees, entering the trunk nearly to the base of the trees. The egg chamber is formed partly in the cambium layer and partly in the wood directly beneath. An egg chamber varies from one inch or less to an inch and a half in length, and as it is formed minute side pockets are constructed to each side, in which eggs are deposited. It is supposed that each female lays about eighty eggs. The minute grubs hatc'hing from *hese eegs burrow at right angles to the egg cham- ber. When a limb is badly infested these channels "'■ncs and re-rrns^ one another, rntil the cambium l^ver of bark, and t'he wood iu=t beneath, is reduced almost to powder. The typical ege chambers and side galleries are well illustrated in Fiar. I4- The vnnng grubs continue to feed as described until full grown when they make a slightly deeper burrow and there change to the pupae from which emerge the adult beetles as already described. These bee- tles escape by simply eating their way out through the bark, making the characteristic round hole. As each beetle must make a hole through wliich to es- cape and another when entering to construct the egg chamber, the great numbers of holes found in an in- fested limb are easily accounted for. Fig. 14. — Bark removed from twig, showing egg chambers and galleries of Fruit-tree Bark-beetle; a, a, main gallery; b, b, side or larval galleries; c, c, pupal cells — natural size. (From U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bur. of Ent, Circ. 29.) Generations Each Year. — Concerning the number of broods each year, no definite observations have been made. In Missouri, Prof. Stedman found three and sometimes a fourth. Considering the fact that many adults were observed this year during the ear- ly part of July, and as these must have been the third brood, it is reasonable to predict that we have four generations to contend with in the peach or- chards of the South. Remedies. Clean Culture. — As heretofore stated the bark beetles seem to prefer to breed in dying trees. Here- in will be found tlie clew to a remedy, or more prop- erly speaking, prevention. All dead and dying trees should be destroyed by burning during winter. This work must be done at least before the first of March 192 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. in order to destroy all the young borer larvae hiber- nating under t'he bark. All adult beetles — it is gen- erally supposed — die during winter, hence if all wood containing young borers is destroyed there will be practically no borers left to re-infest the orchard the following spring. Of course, there will always be a few slightly infested trees left, and from them some adult borers will develop. A small number of adults in March may increase to considerable numbers by the time the second and third broods appccLV. In addition to burning all brush and dead trees during winter, the orchards should be closely watched during summer, and Avhen infested trees are discovered or even sin- gle infested limbs, they sl:ouId be removed and burn- ed. Fertilizing and Cultivating. — Slightly infested trees will sometimes recover, after the attacked portions have been removed. To aid this recovery t'he or- chardist should cultivate and fertilize as appears necessary to keep the trees in a healthy, vigorous state of growth. Very healthy trees are more able to withstand an attack from the fruit-tree l-.ark-bee- tle, t'han are poorly nourished, slow-growing trees. Washes. — Understanding the life history of the bark-beetle as already described, one will readily perceive that the application of washes either poison or deterrent, cannot be expected to prove of certain value. The larvae working beneath the bark cannot be killed by any exterior application, and the adult beetles do not feed over a sufficient area of t'he bark to insure successful poisoning. A deterrent wash, one that will repel tlie beetles, is therefore t'-.e most promising. By adding po'son to whatever wash is used some beetles may be killed if they attempt to reach the bark through t'he wash. The writer has not been enabled to test the value uf the washes that haVe been recommended by va- rious writess. One that 'h?.s given fairly good suc- cess in Missouri, recommended by J. M. Stedman, is as follows: gallons of water and filtered so as to remove all dirt and small lumps; this is now added to the above and mixed ; while to all is added one-half pound of Paris green or ^'one-fourth pound of white arsenic, and thoroughly mi.xed. The above wash will act as a repellent to keep the adult beetles from boring into the trees to deposit eggs. It will not kill tl.e young grubs under the bark^ It may poison a few beetles if they attempt to eat through. The trunk and large limbs of trees to be protected must be kept thoroughly covered with this or any other wash which should be applied about the first of March and as often thereafter as necessary to keep the trees well protected. The first application may be made with a spray pump and then every portion of the tree should be covered. 'Later applications cannot well be applied to ,the smaller branches and twigs and for that reason it cannot be thoroughly effective. WTierever orchards are sprayed with lime-sulp'hur wash for the San Jose scale it is probable that no o'.her wash will be necessary, or at least would not be practical in view of the additional expense. Fig. 13. — Peach Twig Borer: a, moth with wings spread; b and c, tame with wings closed, i.lustrating normal po- sition. (After Marlatt, U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bur. of Ent.. Bull. No. 10.) Deterrent and Poison Wash. THE PEACH TWIG BORER. Dissolve as much common washing soda as possi- Early in spring the orchardist may be looking ble in six gallons of soft water, and then dissolve throug'h his peach orchards and notice that many of one gallon of ordinary soft soap in the above and the young shoots of the new growth are dying back add one pint of crude carbolic acid and mix thor- a few inches at the tips. He will wonder what the oughly. Two pounds of lime is tlion slaked in two cause of this trouble may be. Upon examining the See to it that the weevils do not get into your wheat. 193- dying twigs a slender brownish worm may be found in the little twig just about at the point where the twig commenced to die. This will usually prove to be the larvae of the peach twig borer. This in- sect is quite common in many parts of the South tliough many peach growers are not aware of its identity. The peach twig borer is evidently a native of Eu- rope and was probably brought to this country on some shipment of nursery stock. It was first re- garded as an important peach pest about the year 1872, according to Marlatt,* when it was reported as causing excessive damage in young peach or- chards in Maryland. It has since been reported from many of the peach growing States, and will, in time, if not already so, become cosmopolitan in its distribution. Description and Life History. — The adult moth is shown in Fig 15 in the natural position, as when resting on a branch, and with the wings spread to Fig. 16. — ^Peach Twig Borer: a, new shoot of peach dying from attaclv of larva ; b, larva enlarged ; c, .pupa en- larged. (After Marlatt, U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bur. of Ent, Bull. No. 10.) show the characteristic markings. These moths ap- pear in early summer from, the worms or larvae caus- ing the first dead twigs as mentioned above. The first brood of moths soon commence to deposit eggs around the base of the new leaves as described by Prof. C. L. Marlatt, and from these eggs minute lar- vae hatch, at first very small, pale yellow in color, witTi black extremities. These larvae proceed at once to bore into the shoot on which they are locat- ed. Sometimes they enter the shoot and burrow for a short distance in the center; these burrows being from one-fourth to one and one-'half inches in length. Or they may simply bore to the center of the shoot, and, apparently dissatisfied with the location, wan- der away to another shoot. Thus a single larva may bore into and injure several new twigs in the course' of its wandering life. The writer 'has observed many such cases ; a twig often showing only a small hole with no sign of the intruder, though the twig was. found in a dying condition. In California it is claim- ed that the summer broods attack the growing peac'hes, but this injury has not been noticed in the South, so far as the writer is aware. The larva or worm attains a length when full grown of nearly one-half inch ; color dull reddish brown, with the head and posterior end dark brown or black. The body tapers toward either end and is sparsely clothed with long hairs. (Fig. 16, b.) When grown the larvae spin a scanty web in the leaves or rubbish about the trees or even in the dried leaves of the injured shoot. In this web the larvae change to the pupae (Fig. 16, c), from which the adult moths emerge. Winter Stage. — It has been determined that there are probably four broods. The larvae of the last brood seek t'heir winter quarters, and this point in their life history is of great importance as it offers a chance for easily destroying most of these insects during winter. It has been found by Prof. Marlatt that the larvae of the last brood construct small silken cells in the spongy bark at the crotches of the brancTies of the peach, and there pass the winter. In these quarters they are only poorly protected and often fall prey to birds and predaceous insects, and they are also frequently killed by a parasitic mite. Remedies. It would at first thought be supposed that the lar- vae could be trapped when the first dying twigs ap- pear in summer by simply cutting off the injured shoots, and by burning, destroy the larvae within. This is in fact a possible remedy, but as stated above, a single larva may injure several twigs; hence many twigs might be removed to capture only a few of the insects. Furthermore the larvae attain full *U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bur. of Ent., Bull. No. 10. growth in about two weeks, so that the time during 14 194 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. which the worms could be trapped is comparatively short. The larvae passing the winter in the crotches of the trees are easily killed by a spray of lime-sulphur wash as advocated for the San Jose scale. In Cali- fornia this insect is effectually controlled by the winter treatment. Wherever trees must be sprayed for the San Jose scale or other scale insects, the ■peach twig borer will be so reduced by the treat- ment that they will not cause serious trouble. Young peach trees could be washed or painted with the lime-sulphur was'h where it is not necessary to spray the entire orchard. grower though the worms occurring in the fruit and the marks on the skin are familiar objects. Description. — The curculio, or weevil, as it is some- times called, is a small, dark brown, rough backed beetle, looking like a dried bud when shaken from the trees, which resemblance, is increased by its habit of drawing up its legs and remaining for a time without motion, seemingly lifeless. In other words, this beetle when disturbed will play "possum," and when in that position it is indeed hard to distinguish from a small dried bud. The color is dark brown variegated with white, ochre-yellow and black. The wing covers have short Fig. IT.^Tenninal twig of peach tree killed b.v larva of peach twig-borer. (Photo by A. C. Lewis.) THE CURCULIO. Wormy peaches are nearly always found in every peach orchard each year, and much fruit is ruined and thrown away on this account. By far the ma- jority of the worms occurring in peac'hes in the South are the larvae of the Curculio, usually named "plum curculio." The adult curculio or beetle is commonly called "The little Turk." Owing to its small size this in- sect is not generally observed by the average fruit ridges, those in the middle of the back forming two humps which are shiny black; just behind the humps there is a wide band of ochre-yellow and white. The beetles vary in size but average nearly one-fifth inch in length. They are provided with membraneous wings — under the visible wing covers as described above — with w'hich they fly easily for considerable distances. Habits and Life History.— The beetles pass the winter under protection of weeds, rubbish, etc., in Don't trust your spraying to the Children And To The Hired Boy. 195 the orchard, under and around peach trees, and also in the leaves and brush in the edge of forests, whic'h frequently adjoin the peach orchards. In spring when peac'h trees are just pushing out the tender buds, the curculio emerge from their winter quar- ters and commence to feed on the opening buds. Mating soon takes place and by the time the first fruit is set the females are ready to deposit eggs. The egg puncture made by the female curculio is very characteristic on plums but not as distinct on the fuzzy skin of the peac'h. (Fig. 18.) Before de- positing an egg the beetle first makes a small cres- cent-shaped incision with the snout, which she also employs to force the egg under the skin. Only one egg is deposited in a place, and as long as plenty of Fig. IS. — The Curculio: Egg punctures on peach — natural size; adult beetle, on right — enlarged. (From U. S. Dept. ot Agr., Farmer's Bull., No. 33.) peaches remain unstung only a few will be found with more than one egg puncture. If fruit is scarce several eggs may be found in a single peach. The eggs thus deposited soon hatch into white, footless grubs which commence to bore toward the center of the fruit, finally lodging near the seed. Such infested fruit often drops when about the size of a grape. Oftentimes a peach may attain a size of fiearly one inch in diameter before being stung, and may then develop and ripen prematurely even with a worm within, constituting the common "wormy" fruit. The irritation arising from the egg punctures and the gnawing of the young grubs causes the fruit to became gummy, diseased, and either ripen prematurelv or form imperfect fruit. Frequently small holes are eaten in the peaches sim- ply for the purpose of feeding, and from the wounds thus inflicted the gum often exudes, and rot fre- quently sets in at the injured spot, thus causing much additional injury. In fallen, wormy fruit fhe grubs complete their growth and after leaving the fruit enter the ground and pupate. In about three or four weeks the adult beetles develop from the pupate. It is generally supposed that there is only one brood each year, though this fact has not been definitely established. The egg laying period of a single female may extend over eighty days, which accounts for the fact that small worms are found in nearly mature peaches. It is also possible that a partial second brood occurs in some sections of the South. Remedies. Jarring. — This is one of the oldest recommenda- tions and possibly the best even at the present time. Taking advantage of the fact that the adult curculio will curl up and drop when disturbed, it is possible to capture large numbers by jarring trees over a sheet, from which the beetles can be collected and destroyed. Many devices have been suggested for . capturing the curculio in this way. One is a patent- ed affair, shaped like an inverted umbrella with a slit in one side in which the trunk fits w'hen the ar- rangement is pushed under the tree. This device is fitted with one wheel and handles like a wheel-bar- row. After this arrangement is pushed under a tree the trunk is hit a couple of sharp raps with the pad- ded end of a pole. The curculio thus disturbed, drop to the slanting sheet from which they slide to the center and drop into a can containing a little kero- sene. The worst objection to such an outfit is that all insects, including many beneficial lady-bugs, are often destroyed along with t'he curculio. The Hale Orchard Co., Fort V'alley, Ga., have a simple arrangement, which has been used with suc- cess. Two light wooden frames are made, each about 6x12 feet, and in the side of one frame a cut is made, large enough to accommodate a tree "trunk. These frames are covered with stout cotton cloth and w'hen placed under a tree, with two of the long edges together, a broad surface is secured, which will catch every insect dropping from the tree above. A padded pole is used for jarring the tree. It re- quires five men for each outfit, two for each frame and one to jar the trees. By having several double frames and a large force of negroes a large orchard can be covered in a few hours. Jarring should com- mence early — at first break of day — and be vigor- ously performed until about half-past eight in t'he 196 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. morning. Later than this hour many of the ciircu- lio will be hiding in the rubbish under the trees and thus escape. An orchard can be quite thoroughly protected by jarring every morning after the fruit is first beginning to set, continuing the work as long as the beetles are numerous. After the first few days, where the work is thoroughly done, the beetles will become quite scarce. The advantage of this jarring method over the patent device is that it is cheaper, and the curculio can be collected from the sheets without destroying the beneficial insects. Spraying. — Authorities differ regarding the value of poison sprays for killing curculio. It is an un- use Paris green in connection with Bordeaux mix- ture, 4 ounces of Paris green to each barrel. Or ar- senate of lead may be used, 2 pounds to 50 gallons of water, or in the same proportion with Bordeaux mixture. Gathering Fallen Fruit. — This should properly be called prevention, as it tends to reduce the number of adult curculio developing each season. It is of great importance to prevent curculio from increas- ing from year to year. All fallen fruit s'hould be gathered and destroyed by burying or feeding to hogs. This practice is of considerable value by de- stroying rotten fruit as well as the curculio. Even in orchards where spraying and jarring have been Fig. 19. — iJarring for Curculio. Method emijioyecl by Hale Orchard Co., Fort Valley, Ga. questionable fact that the curculio feed to some ex- tent on the opening buds and also on the fruit ; but experiments have not demonstrated that many bee- tles can be poisoned by spraying. The new buds de- velop so rapidly that it is almost impossible to keep them covered with poison spray, and by the time the foliage is fully' formed the peaches are also large enough to offer food to the adult curculio. Thor- ough spraying will, however, poison a certain num- ber of beetles, and for this work it would be well to practiced it would be advisable to gather all fallen fruit. This must be picked up every few days to prevent the larvae from leaving and entering the ground. Clean Cultivation. — This hinges closely on to the foregoing paragraph as gathering fallen fruit is real- ly a part of clean cultivation. The adult beetles hide during winter in rubbish, weeds, etc., hence all such harboring places should be prevented by keep- Consult your State entomologist in regard to insects. 197 ing orchards clean and free from weeds and brush. Forests immediately surrounding orchards offer abundant winter protection to the curculio, and where the damage would not be too great a portion of these forests adjoining the orchards should be burned over each winter, which would result in de- stroying hundreds of over-wintering curculio. PLANT LICE INJURIOUS TO THE PEACH. Under this head we have several species, all close- ly resembling each other in size and shape, though often differing in color. Some species differ quite widely in habits and life-history, and also in appear- ance if submitted to close scrutiny. As t'he treat- ment recommended for this family of insects is about the same for one and all, the description of one or two species will serve to illustrate the varia- first knowledge of this particular species dates back to 1898 when it was discovered by Prof. W. M. Scott in a plum orchard at Fort Valley, Ga. Dur- ing that year and the one following it was observed on plum and peach, causing considerable injury to the growing tips of young trees, and particularly to nursery stock — June-budded peach. In 1899 Prof. Scott determined the life history in general and since then it has been considered as an important peach insect. Life History. — The winter is passed in t'he egg stage, these eggs being found scattered over the ter- minal shoots. From these eggs, which are dark brown in color, and very small, small wingless lice hatch, appearing just about as the buds commence to open in spring. Within a short time these young lice reach maturity and become "stem mothers." Fig. 20.— Winged form of New Plum Aphis. (After Scott, V. S. Dept. of Agr., Bur. of Ent., Bull. No. 31.) tion in life history, so it is not deemed necessary to mention all the different species that might attack the peach. Indication of Aphis. — When peach trees in early spring or summer are discovered with the tips pre- senting a dwarfed growth, and with the leaves curl- ed and twisted, aphis may be looked for. These will be found on the underside of the curled leaves and often clustered in great numbers around the tender shoot and terminal bud. Hundreds of individuals may occur on a single leaf as a single aphis is less than i-io inch in length. THE NEW PLUM APHIS. Although this species has been named "Plum Aphis," it is by no means confined to the plum. Our Each individual is an agamic female capable of giv- ing birth to living j^oung without the intervention of the male. Each stem mother gives birth to sev- eral young, which in turn reach maturity and bring forth more young in a like manner. The majority of these develop into agamic females resembling the stem mother, though some individuals develop wings and fly to other localities where they establish new colonies. These winged agamic females (Fig. 20) give birth to young resembling those from the stem mother. During the season there may be ten or more generations, as described above. From the last generation each season true males and females develop, which mate, thus providing for the winter eggs. It is no uncommon sight to see a s'tem mother surrounded by a hundred or more aphis of all sizes. 198 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. By sucking the plant juices the leaves are made to curl and twist, always toward the side on which the lice are located. When the leaves become badly curled it will be readily understood that the lice are well protected and hard to reach with any insecticide. This characteristic curling of leaves should be care- fully noted, as it is closely connected with the sub- ject of remedies which will be considered after men- tion has been made of one more species of aphis. THE BLACK PEACH APHIS. Description and Life History. — This species, as its name implies, is shining black or deep brown in color. Winged and wingless forms both occur, new colo- nies being established by means of the former. The young aphis are faint greenish-brown, becoming dark- er as they near maturity. All these forms will be found on the growing tips of infested peach trees in early spring causing the leaves to curl in the char> acteristic manner. Unlike the plum aphis this species does not' win- ter in the egg stage. About mid-summer many of the aphis on the leaves and branches make t'heir way to the ground and to the roots where the winter is passed. Dr.. John B. Smith* states that no males have been observed and no eggs have been discov- ered ; hence it is assumed that the black peach aphis breeds agamically all the year round. Early in spring the root form make their way to the surface and to the branches, and there colonies are formed on the opening buds, later living on the fully developed leaves and tender stems. Remedies. Plant lice live by sucking the plant juices, and for that reason they cannot be poisoned with arsenicals. Contact poisons must be employed for these insects, l-'or the forms which occur above ground we have a simple remedy, as kerosene emulsion at 15 per cent, strength or a strong soap solution will kill all the aphis with which it comes in contact. Now it will be seen why the matter of the curled leaves becomes significant. It is almost impossible to spray a tree with emulsion, or any solution, so as to reach all the aphis inside the curled leaves. This can only be affected by dipping, which is out of the question *N. J. Exp. Sta. Bull. No. 72. with orchard trees of any size, though it may be practiced with nursery stock. By watching closely ^or the first appearance of aphis in spring the first colonies may be discovered and destroyed by spray- ing before the leaves become curled. If many leaves are curled when the infestation is first discovered, it may become necessary, to gather the badly curled leaves by hand, and follow with the emulsion to de- stroy all remaining aphis. (For preparing kerosene emulsion see directions on page 182) Whale oil soap solution, i pound to 3 gallons of water, will be found as effective as the emulsion ; or tobacco decoction may be prepared by boiling 3 pounds of tobacco leaves or stems, in 5 gallons of water for about three hours. This decoction may be used without dilution and will prove very effective. The black peach aphis occurring on the roots of peach trees will seldom become serious if the form appearing above ground is properly destroyed each year, at least enough to reduce them to insignificant numbers. The greatest danger is that this insect may be spread on nursery stock, but even that dan- ger is mitigated by fumigation which is required of all nurserymen in some States. Liberal applications of tobacco dust about the roots of nursery stock is valuable for destroying the root form of peach aphis. Any plant lice occurring on leaves or branches may be killed by spraying with the contact insecti- cides mentioned above, and no one need fear this form of insect if the first colonies appearing in spring are properly destroyed. ROOT KNOT OR NEMATODE GALL. While not an insect, strictly speaking, the nema- tode worm, which is the cause of root knot on peach trees, should be mentioned in connection with other peach insects. These knots are caused by a small "eel-worm" or nematode, an individual being almost microscopical in size; but the knots resulting from their attack are readily noticed. (Fig. 21.) A close examination of fresh knots will usually reveal the little cavities containing eel worms in all stages of development. Usually it has been observed that the root knot is most prevalent on trees in sandy soils, such as are found in some parts of South Georgia, while in the stiff clay lands this trouble is seldom noticeable. Birds are great insect gatherers. 199 The symptom of root knot, which can be seen above ground, is usually a scanty yellow growth. Young trees often die from the effect of root knot during the second or third' year, but w'here older trees are attacked they may survive fpr several years or almost indefinitely, although making a poor growth. No good remedy for this trouble is known though Fig. 21. — Root Knot on peach root caused by "eel worms" or nematodes. (From U. S. Dept. of Agr., Farmers' Bull. No. 33.) much damage therefrom may be avoided by adher- ing to certain rules. In the first place, orc'hardists should not plant trees bearing roots which show root knot; or if only a very little is present it should be carefully prune'd off before planting. Another thing that should be understood is that the nematode worms live on sev- eral common garden and field crops, such as cab- bage, okra, turnip, egg-plant, cotton and cow-peas. In the case of the cow-pea we have an exception in the variety of pea known as the "Iron" cow-pea. This variety is practically resistant to the nematode worm and can be planted with safety in the peach orchard, and in view of the fact that so many cow- peas are grown in the peach orchards, it is fortunate that wf have tliis resistant variety. All plants which arc susceptible to attack from the nematode worm should be kept out of peach orchards where the worms are known to occur. This practically results in a starving out process. Insecticides are of little if any value against the nematode worms. In Florida it was found that heavy applications of potash fertilizer, either sul- phate or muriate, 3,000 lbs. per acre, were of some value, but the large amounts necessary make the'r use prohibitive. It has been suggested that nematode worms may be destroyed by heat, and this may be practical over small areas, especially where only an occasional tree is infested. Under such conditions each infested tree should be dug up by the roots leaving a fair sized hole, above which a pile of brush and wood could be burned. Afterward by filling the hole with fresh earth from an uninfested field, another tree could be planted in place of the old one. This tree would be able to develop a strong, vigorous root system before the nematodes again became abundant. As a general thing it will not be profitable to plant a peach orchard in land where the nematode worms are abundant, as long as uninfested land can be se- • lected. Land once infested will remain so for sev- eral years, but the worms will die out gradually if the land is planted in corn, or some such resistant crop. CATERPILLARS Caterpillars are not as a rule a serious enemy of peach trees. Every year, however, a few outbreaks occur, but the damage in the past few years has been almost of no consequence. A few words, however^ in this connection may be of interest. THE AMERICAN TENT-CATERPILLAR Every one is familiar with the white webs of the tent-caterpillar, which are found on wild cherries and apples in spring, and which increase in size at an alarming rate. This tent-caterpillar sometimes at- tacks peach trees, and although easily destroyed are often allowed to work unmolested. (For remedies see discussion of Apple Insects.) OTHER CATERPILLARS. The tent-caterpillar is easily controlled without 200 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. spraying, but some leaf-eating worms are not so eas- ily captured. Whenever the foliage of fruit trees is being destroyed by caterpillars it may be readily protected by spraying with some arsenical poison. Peach foliage is very easily injured by arsenical sprays; hence the following dilute formula is recom- mended to be employed against any leaf-eating cat- erpillars. Formula : — Paris Green or Green Arsenoid ...I pound Quick Lime 3 pounds Water I75 gallons Paris green may also be used in connection with weak Bordeaux mixture, at the rate of 4 ounces of the former to 50 gallons of the latter. One spraying with either of the above mixtures will usually kill enough caterpillars, when present, to prevent their causing any considerable injury. Apple Insects WOOLLY APHIS. This little insect belongs to the same family as the plant lice which infest the buds and leaves of the ap- ple during the early summer, and differs from the Fig. 22. — Woolly aphis (Schizoneura lanigera). a, Agamic fe- male; b, larva louse; c, pupa; d, winged female with antenna enlarged above; all greatly enlarged and with waxy excretion removed. (Mar- latt, Cic. No. 20, sec. s., Div. of Ent., L. S. Dept. of Agr.) latter mainly in that it secretes a white cottony sub- stance about its body and infests, as a rule, the roots of the trees. Where trees are infested when they come from the nursery they are likely to be found seriously injured in from two to four years after planting. Its presence on the root is indicated by cottony masses under which, by a close examination, may be detected the brownish-pink bodies of the lice. By feeding upon the roots these lice cause abnormal swellings or galls, the tissue of which soon dies, and Fig. 23. — Woolly aphis (Schizoneura lanigera). a. Root of young tree illustrating deformation; b, section of root with aphids clusteed over it; c, root louse, female — a and b, natural size; c, much enlarged. (Marlatt, Giro. No. 20, sec. s.. Div. of Ent., U. S. Dept. of Ag.) the roots are destroyed. The main support of the tree being thus impaired, a high wind soon topples i' over. The root-infestiug form of the woolly aphis i» shown in Figure 23. Besides the root-infesting form, there is an "aeri- al" form (see Figure 22) which attacks the trunk and limbs but the injury from this form is not great. This form feeds mostly in cracks, old cuts or bruised places in the bark and its presence is readily detect- ed by the white cottony appearance of the colonies. The damage done by this form is little more than a killing of the bark at the point of attack. The aeri- Don't fail to spray your fruit trees. 20I il form is readily killed by spraying thoroughly with 1 whale oil soap solution made of one pound of A^hale oil soap to each gallon of water; with kero- sene emulsion, or with some tobaoco solution such lis diluted Rose Leaf Tohacco Extract. A home- 'iiade tobacco decoction is easily prepared by boiling i|;hree pounds of tobacco stems in five gallons of wa- ter for three hours, adding water from time to time ;o make up for evaporation. These colonies on trunk md limbs must be thoroughly drenched with what- ever insecticide is used, as the cottony covering pro- tects them effectually from, any light application. We consider the aerial form more of an advantage !han otherwise, as it serves to give the orchardist .varning of the more serious injury that is likely occurring on the roots of the trees at the same time. An apple tree having its roots infested with wool- y aphis usually presents a sickly appearance, with a yellowish foliage and a noticeable scarcity of jiealthy leaves. Examination of the roots will usual- y disclose the "aphis galls'' in such cases. As the root-infesting form of this insect is the nost injurious, it is important that the main meas- ires should be directed against it. The remedy is jiasy to apply, but its efficiency depends upon its use jvhen the aphis first appears and while the trees are jj'oung. Tobacco dust is an effective remedy and has i)een used with most gratifying success in Ohio. ; In applying this to four or five-year-old apple Jrees, remove the soil for about two or three feet on pach side of the tree, and to a depth of three or four jnches. Into this opening sprinkle about five ||)Ounds of tobacco dust and replace the dirt. Larger [uantities should of course be used upon older and ,arger trees. Other remedies, such as boiling water, botash soap, ashes, etc., have been tried, but always vith little or no success. The tobacco dust remedy hould be applied in the spring as soon as the [ground is "settled," and its thorough success will de- send upon its application before the trees get old and ecome badly infested. APPLE TREE BORERS A common injury to apple trees is that caused by |)Orers in the main trunk near or just above the sur- iace of the ground. There are two borers which nay cause damage, known as the round-headed and lie flat-headed. These names are descriptive of ijjlie larvae of these two different insects, and, as they imply, the one is nearly cyclindrical in form, with a head about the same size as the body, while the oth- er has a flattened head, which is very broad as com- pared with the width of the body. There is also a marked difference in the life-history of the two in- sects. ROUND-HEADED BORER. The adult round-headed borer is a beautiful beetle, about three-fourths of an inch in length, of a pale, brownish-yellow color and having two broad, creamy-white stripes running the entire length of the body. These beetles appear 'during May and June and the females soon thereafter commence to depos- it their eggs in cracks or crevices in the bark near the base of the tree. The egg hatches in about two weeks into a minute worm which immediately bores through the bark and begins to feed on the sap- wood. For the first year, the larvae confine their attacks to the sap-wood, making a disc-shaped bur- row about the size of a silver dollar. Unless several are present the injury is not likely to be very notice- able the first season. At the close of the first sea- son the larva or borer, which is as yet but partly grown, goes to the lowest part of the burrow and remains there quietly through the winter. The sec- ond year of the borer's Ifie is also passed in the sap- wood but it no longer confines itself to a small area, but may work around a small tree, completely gird- ling it. When more than one borer is present in a small tree this is often the case. The second winter is also passed in the lowest part of the burrow. The third season of the borer's life finds him boring into the heart of the tree, and in the case of a small tree the channel may extend nearly or quite to the opposite side of the trunk. The borer attains its full development the third summer and after boring into the heart of the tree the channel through which it entered is closed with sawdust-like castings and another opening is made through which the adult beetle may escape the fol- lowing spring. In this latter channel the larva pas- ses the third and last winter of its life, and in spring the complete change to the adult takes place, and there emerges the beautiful beetle already described. When a borer is discovered in a tree, the only remedy is to dig him out with a sharp knife. This can be done in August and September. Knowing the life-history, it is evident that borers should be 202 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. removed every year, in order to get them while still in their first season's development. If a borer has gone into the heart of the tree a sharp w^ire may be t'hrust into the opening and twisted about to kill the borer, even though he may not be entirely removed. When looking for borers, a sharp lookout should be kept for discolored patches of bark, which, when pressed with the finger give way and indicate the hollow underneath. Oftentimes t'he presence of a borer is indicated by an exudation of sap together with some of the sawdust intermingled. The sap, or gum, however, does not often come out in great quantities as it does upon peach trees which are at- tacked by the peach tree borer. In addition to apple trees, the round-headed borer may attack quince, Juneberry, native crab apple, ash and possibly other trees. FLAT-HEADED BORER. The adult flat-headed borer is a beetle about one- half inch in length, with a flattened, oblong body, tapering toward the posterior end. The color is greenish-black, with bronzy reflections, while the legs shine like burnished gold. The feet are shin- ing green in color. As to the life-history of the flat- headed borer, but little need be said except that it is supposed to complete its transformation — from egg to adult — in a single year. From eggs that are laid this summer, adult beetles will develop next sum- mer. The remedy is the same as for the round-head- ed borer and should be attended to at the same time, namely, during August and September. REMEDY FOR BORERS. Aside from t'he knife remedy, the trees may be protected by a coat of whitewash or a thick alkali soap solution. A still better ' plan is to wrap the trees, to a height of about eighteen inches, with thick brown paper tied firmly and pressed into t'he cracks so that no insect can crawl underneath it. Dirt should be piled around the lower end of this band. W'hitewash or the soap solution may be ap- plied above the band, but whatever is used for a protection should be applied as early as May 1st to be thoroughly effective. It is also advisable to re- peat this application about June ist, especially if there have been heavy rains. When paper is used this latter should be removed about the first of Au- gust. All these exterior coverings and applications of whitewash only serve to discourage the adult beetles from depositing eggs, and have no effect whatever upon borers that may have entered the tree. THE CODLING MOTH. This is one of the insect enemies that have sup- posedly come to us from the Old World, and it has now spread to nearly all parts of the United States where apples are grown. The annual damage to t'he Fig. 24. — Codling moths, natural size. (After Slingerland, Bui. 142, Cornell university Exp. Station.) apple crop of the country by this insect is enormous, ■ being estimated by Prof. C. B. Simpson at 12,000,- 000 barrels, worth about $11,400,000.* The great majority of the "worms" found in apples are the larvae of this insect. It is evident that the codling moth is at present working more injury to the apple crop of the South than any other pest, the San Jose scale not excepted. 'Fig. 25. — ^Codling moth larva or "apple worm," enlarged about 4 times. (After Simpson, Bui. 41, Div. of Ent., U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) The adult codling moth is a small but beautiful in- sect, but on account of its diminutive size it is sel- dom noticed by the average apple grower. The adult moths are well illustrated in Figure 24. ''Bulletin 41, Division of Entomolog}% page 18. Don't Neglect The Fruit Trees. 203 The moths appear in the spring at about the time the apple trees are in bloom and eggs are deposited on both the young apples and on the foliage. There are many opinions as to how and where the young [larvae first enter the apple, but it is well established that a great majority of the spring generation crawl linto the blossom end of the small apples and there Iburrow into the flesh of the latter. The larva, when jpartially grown, is of a delicate pink color, and !when matured may attain a length of one-half inch |)r over. (See Figure 25). I Many of the wormy apples drop before attaining j.heir full size, but the larvae within them continue Id feed until grown, when they burrow out of the jipple and select a protected place in which to spin fheir cocoons. Loose bark and rubbish offer favor- llble inducements to these larvae, and it is' in such Material in the apple orchard that many cocoons Will be found. A knowledge of this habit is of im- ;>ortance as bearing upon the control of this insect. I Remedies. j'l Spraying with arsenical poison has been found jiighly profitable, but this spraying must be done at he proper time or it will be of little yalue. The ij|ight time is just after the petals have fallen, and LVhile the calyx end of the apple is still open. At [jhis time it also will be noticed that the apples all itand erect in such "a way that a drop of water or Lipray mixture will be 'held by the apple as in a cup. .(See Fig. 26.) Thus the meal that awaits the cod- jpg moth larva is a poisoned one, and as most of Ijhe larvae enter the blossom end of the fruit, they ilfill not live to reach the interior of the fruit. This pison spray is best applied in the form of Bordeaux iixture 4-6-50 to which either six ounces of Paris Ireen or two and a half pounds of arsenate of lead added. The poison should be mixed with a very nail amount of water, intoa'paste, before it is add- 1 to the Bordeaux mixture. ■^ee directions for preparing Bordeaux Mixture on -. 183. The arsenate of lead is preferable to Paris green, ; the former is not so readily was'hed off by rains. aris green, if used slightly in excess, is likely to tni the foliage severely, but with arsenate of lead, ere is not this danger. This spraying should be peated two weeks later, using the same formula r Bordeaux mixture and the same amount of pois- on. No danger may be apprehended from these early sprayings with poisoned Bordeaux, as by the time the apples are edible — even for cooking pur- poses — all of t'he poison will have been washed off by the rains. When it is also desired to control the apple scab, or where the apples are ordinarily at- tacked by the bitter rot fungus, a third spraying should :be given the trees about three weeks after the second. It may be well to emphasize the point that by spraying, we do not mean "sprinkling." Fig. 26.— ;Showing the right time to spray for codling motB. The bunch on the left is at proper stage for spaying, while the apples on the right are too f.nr developed for spraying to insure ibest results. (After a photo by A.. L. Quaintance). Spraying means a thorougli but thin amplication of the spray mixture to all parts of the tree and foli- age, as well as fruit, and this application can be made only with a good force-pump which is equipped with a good, fine Vermorel, Mistry, or Bordeaux nozzle. He who "sprinkles" may expect failure. 204 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. Mention was made of the fact that apples falling prematurely, contain the larvae in various stages o'f development. For this reason all wind-falls should be kept cleaned up during the entire season and eith- er burned or fed to stock, in order that the larvae within them may be destroyed before they have a c'hance to escape. In this way the future generations of the insect may be considerably reduced. Where apples are stored in cellars, bins or out-houses, th^ latter should be carefully and thoroughly screened to prevent the escape of adult moths which may de- velop from any apples which are placed in storage. Serious infestations by the codling moths have of- ten been traced directly to the carelessness in not properly screening storage cellars. Fig. 3T. — A ■wormy apple showing the mass of brown material thrown out at the blossom end by the codling moth lar- vae. (After Slingerland, Bui. 142, Cornell University Experiment Station.) By taking advantage of the habit of the larvae, af- ter leaving infested apples upon the tree, of crawling down the trunk to find a sheltered place in which to spin cocoons, we have also a. simple method of trapping them by putting bands about the tree. For tills purpose strips of burlap, old sacks or brown pa- per may be used. These bands should be four or five inches wide and held in place by stout twine. One band should be placed about the trunk of the tree and another around each principal limb. These bands should be put in place within three weeks af- ter the blooming period and examined every week or ten days and all larvae, pupae or cocoons found un- der them destroyed. Although the cocoons are not over one-half inc'h in length, they are white in color and readily found. The bands must be examined at least once every ten days to prevent the adults from escaping. To place bands upon the trees anil neglect tTiem. furni&lTg^s the codling moth larvae with the most favorable conditions for successfully reaching maturi'^y. THE AMERICAN TENT-CATERPILLAR Everyone is familiar with the white webs of t'he tent-caterpillar so that no extended discussion will be necessary. Certain points in the life history of this insect should be known. During winter the eggs may be seen on the small twigs where they occur in a mass, encircling t'he twig. Each mass contains over 200 eggs which are glued tightly together and covered with a glu- tinous matter which gives the mass a glistening brown color. The mass of eggs is visually about three- fourths of an inch in length and a little thicker than a plain gold ring. In spring the little caterpillrrs hatching from these eggs commence at once to form a web in the near- est crotch. As the caterpillars increase in size the nest is enlarged until it becomes a very conspicuous object. The caterpillars feed during the daytime, leaving the nest for this purpose. During rainy or cloudy days they seldom wander from the nest. When full grown these caterpillars attain the 'ength of about two inches ; body quite hairy, and ornamented with a continuous white stripe along the back, while on either side short yellow stripes oc-, cur somewhat irregularly. Each caterpillar chang- es to a pupa in a yellow, loosely constructed cocoon which is usually located in some protected place, such as a fence corner. Remedies. The egg masses may be found during the winter While the trees are bare. In spring if trees are- closely watched, the little webs may be found' while their inmates are still very small. Thesft nests should be cut out and burned or crushed by hand. Such work, however, must be done in early morning, or about sundown, or on dark, cloudy days, as at other times many of the caterpillars wiU be feeding away from the nest and thus escape. APPLE CURCULIO. This pest is somew'hat smaller than the plum cur Don't Kill Toad Frogs. 205 culio, and is dark brown in color. Upon the hinder part of its body, it has four brownish humps. The adults drill holes into the young apples in order to obtain food, and to secure a place to deposit eggs. As soon as the eggs are hatched the young grubs burrow into the core where they feed and grow. One important feature of the work of this insect is that the affected apples do not fall to the ground, |thus making it difficult to combat the pest. The ibest remedy is to gather the affected apples, and de- Istrop them by feeding to the 'hogs. Great numbers •jof the adults may be captured by shaking the trees iand catching them on a sheet which is placed be- Ineatli, after which they may be destroyed by drop- ping in a pail of water which is covered with kero- sene oil. CANKER WORMS. The parents of the canker worm are moths, and -there are two species, one appearing in the spring !ind the other in the fall. The males have wings. While the females are wingless and only about a half ijin inch long. The caterpillars are greenish brown m color and are called measuring worms. Full iVrown worms are about one inch long. They feed (iipon the leaves of the apples, pears and peaches, and '|)ther fruit trees. The best treatment is to prevent I'ihe female moths from laying eggs on the trees, and I :his can be done by smearing the trunk of the tree iWvith a band of tar and printers' ink mixed with lin- I'leed oil, which will prevent the females from crawl- , JBg up the trunks of the trees to deposit their eggs. iphese bands should be renewed as long as the I ather is warm. However, this treatment is liable ' injure the bark of young trees, unless a band of aper is first tied around t'hem, on which the mix- ure is placed, instead of on the bark of the tree. In using a paper band care must be taken to have fit close against the bark, as the insects may crawl nder it. Another remedy is to allow tlie worms to atch and then spray the trees with Paris green, us- ig a quarter of a pound to fifty gallons of water 1 addition to one pound of stone lime, or with Bor- eaux mixture. Arsenate of lead is also valuable nd has the advantage of adhering better than Paris reen. Use at the rate of 2 lbs. to 50 gallons of wa- r. The first application of poison should be made 1st as soon as the first worms appear and a second ^plication should be made after a week or ten days, i if the worms are not all killed. This remedy is of- ten more suitable than the use of repellent bands of tar, or other sticky substances. SEVENTEEN YEAR LOCUST OR CICADA. This insect is wedge-shaped and is brownish black in color. The seventeen-year locust is not as large as the common dog-day locust, and the latter is greenish in color They are called seventeen-year locusts because of the length of time they spend in the ground in an immature stage. Some of the South- ern broods only live thirteen years in the immature stage, while in the North the life of the insect is seventeen years The adults are present about a month and cause a great deal of trouble by depositing their eggs on twigs of the apple, oak, and many other trees. The eggs are de- posited in a double row in a slit made in the wood. When the insects are present in large numbers they seriously injure and sometimes kill the trees. When the young hatch, they fall to the ground, and live there the remaining thirteen or seventeen years. Kerosene emulsion will destroy the lo'custs when they first come out of the ground, but after the swarm has begun flying about there is no remedy. Hogs root out and destroy immature locusts in the ground, while domesticated fowls, sparrows and oth- er birds feed upon them when the_y appear. THE MEXICAN COTTON BOLL WEEVIL. Introduction. No insect in the history of our country has be- come more widely known in a few years than the cotton boll weevil, and to-day there is no insect Of other enemy of the cotton plant that deserves more attention or careful study. In 1903 the loss to the cotton crop in Texas alone was estimated by the Government Entomologist, Dr. L. O. Howard, at $15,000,000.00 while in 1904 the loss was estimated at 400,000 bales of cotton, which at the price of only $50.00 a bale would represent $20,000,000.00. The cotton crop of 1904 was the largest that has ever been known in the history of our country and some may say that the boll weevil could not have liad much to do toward lessening the yield. Those who have studied the matter, however, assert that such a crop cannot again be produced for many years 2o6 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. and while all conditions were favorable to the pro- duction of a large cotton crop, the conditions for boll weevil increase were not as good as might rea- sonably be expected in ordinary years. Thus we must consider the boll weevil as an important ques- tion which must not be overlooked. The boll weevil first appeared in Texas near Brownsville about 1892, having probably crossed the Rio Grande river in unginned cotton or in cotton- seed. Since that time the boll weevil has traveled at the rate of about 50 miles a year, until now, as mentioned farther on, it is within about 75 miles of the Mississippi river. Mexico is undoubtedly tl-ie native home of the boll weevil, and it is also known to occur in Cuba. The earliest record we have of injury to cotton by the boll weevil is in 1848 in the State of Coahuila in Mexico. Pig. 28. — Bucket Spray Pump. Should be equipped with at least 15 foot length of hose. Every farmer living in the cotton growing States should learn to recognize the weevil in order to detect its first appearance in the cotton fields. To enable those persons living in sections where the boll wee- vil has not yet appeared, to gain a knowledge of t'he boll weevil the following description and illustra- tions are presented. The description of the boll weevil and also the insects frequently mistaken for the boll weevil is taken from bulletin No. 12 of the Georgia State Board of Entomology. The writ- er of that bulletin, Prof. Wilmon Newell, has had wide experience with the boll weevil, both in Texas and Louisiana. DESCRIPTION OF THE BOLL WEEVIL. The Adult Weevil. — The adult boll weevil is a brownish beetle varying in length from one-eighth to five-sixteenths of an inch, and measuring usual- ly slig'htly over one-sixteenth of an inch across the body at the widest part. The weevil is provided with a long "snout" or proboscis and is not unlike the common acorn weevil in appearance. It is not by any means a far distant relative of the chestnut wee- vil, the plum curculio and a number of other com- mon weevils with which almost everyone is familiar. Weevils shown natural size in Fig. 30. In color the boll weevils vary from a slight gray to a dark chocolate brown or black. As a usual thing, the older the weevil the darker in color it be- , comes, owing to the minute hairs or scales wearing off the body surface. Under an ordinary magnify- ing glass the weevil is seen to be covered with mi- nute scales, closely resembling hairs. These hair-j like scales are clearlv shown in Figure 29. The j wing-covers are seen to be finely lined, the fine lines j or ridges running lengthwise of the body. By far 1 the most reliable character in distinguishing a boll j weevil from other similar weevils is the presence of - two small spines upon the interior of the femur j ("upper joint") of the fore-leg. One of these spines !l Fig. 29. — ^Cotton boll weevil: a, beetle from above; b, samft from side — about five times natural size (original.) is considerably larger than t'he other. These tw( spines are not found upon the fore-legs of any othei of our common weevils although the occurrence O a single spine is common to many different weevils The adult boll weevils pass the winter in trash rubbish, grass, old cotton bolls, and similar materia about the infested fields, and also in the leaves an< trash of timber lands. These hibernating weevil leave such quarters in t'he spring, at about the tiiii' the first cotton is above ground and beginning ti form squares, and having fasted since the previou You Should Know Something of The Life History Of Insects. 207 utumn, begin to feed to a considerable extent upon le tender buds and stems of the young cotton lants. As noted above, the weevil has a long beak, : the end of which is a pair of small but very strong andibles. With these mandibles the outer layer of lie cotton bud or square is torn off, the beak insert- il into the softer tissue beneath and this latter ac- lally consumed. A square showing a feeding punc- |re made by the weevil is seen in Fig. 31. Punc- ires are made in a similar way by the females in iihich to deposit eggs, as well as for feeding, but jcording to Prof. W. D. Hunter, the punctures jjide for feeding are usually much larger and deep- Ij than those made for receiving the eggs. The Egg. — The egg of the boll weevil is describ- ties of observation, it is 'hard to say just what is the general average number of eggs deposited by each female, but Professor W. E. Hinds made careful and accurate observations upon several females, all of which deposited over 225 eggs each. The Larva. — The larva which hatches from the egg within the square or boll, is a white footless "grub"' with a brownish colored 'head and a pair of very substantial mandibles, with which it proceeds to feed upon the tissue surrounding it. The entire larval stage is passed within the square, form or boll in which the egg is deposited, as is also the next or pupal stage. The larva enlarges rapidly after hatch- ing from the egg and by the time it has reached maturity has eaten the greater part of the contents Fig. 30.— Boll Weevils on Cotton Boll. by Prof. W. E. Hinds as being pearly white in iOr, oval in form, and about one-thirtieth of an |h in length by a little over. 1-2 as wide. The ij is deposited by the female weevil in punctures de m squares or bolls for that purpose. Within I square or brU the egg is well protected from Ijasites and jther enemies. An egg is shown Kbng the anthers in an unopened square in Fig. pi the position of the egg being indicated by the pw. The eggs hatch in from 2 1-2 to 4 days. p a rule the females deposit only one egg in a lare or form and more than one is rarely deposit- in the same square unless as is the case during [die and late summer, squares are not produced n the plants fast enough to accommodate the Jiy females then in the fields. In such cases the s are frequently deposited in the young bolls and ietimes more than one egg is deposited in a sin- ! square. As long as there are plenty of uninfest- t( Squares in the cotton field there is little or no **' deposition in the bolls. Owing to the difficul- Fig. 31. — Cotton square flared, showing egg puncture of boll weevil — natural size (original.) of the average-sized square. During mid-summer the larval stage varies from 6 to 8 days, while in early summer and in autumn it is longer. It has been found that during November and December the larval stage averaged from 20 to 30 days. One of the first indications of infestation by boll weevil is the flaring of the involucre or "shuck" sur- rounding the square. This opening of the involucre takes place usually a sTiort time after the larva 2o8 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. hatches from the egg and a few days later the in- fested square is shed by the plant. A characteristic flared square is shown in Fig. 33. The presence of boll weevils in any considerable numbers in a cot- ton field is always accompanied by a profuse shed- ding of squares. However, the latter are often shed on account of certain weather conditions, but in this case no insects or larvae are lik€ly to be found with- Fig. 32. — Unopened Oottou Bloom, Showing Egg of Boll Wee- vil among the Antners, Much Enlarged. (After San^ derson, 1-roc. Sec. An. Ses. Tex. Cot. Conv.) in them if t'hey are examined soon after falling. In- jury from almost any cause will result in the shed- ding of squares, and squares which have been eaten into by the boll worm (not boll weevil) are of course shed by the plants. The presence of white larva within shed squares or forms should be regarded with suspicion and all such s'hould be carefully ex- amined. In cotton fields badly infested by the boll weevil the feeding punctures and the punctures made for egg deposition cause the squares to shed as fast as formed and before they have any oppor- tunity to develop into bolls. The Pupa. — When the larva has completed its growth it ceases to feed, becomes shorter and broad- er and enters the "pupal stage," during which it takes no food. The future proboscis, legs and other parts now begin to appear. The pupae are well illustrated in Fig. 33. This stage lasts from three to six days in mid- summer and is longer at the approach of cold weath- er. The pupa changes into the adult boll weevil, which emerges from the square or boll (See Fig. 33) and although lig'ht in color and soft-bodied upon emergence from the square, it soon becomes darker, the body-covering hardens and the weevil takes its first meal as a fitting celebration of its safe arrival at maturity. Rate of Increase and Destructiveness. From the foregoing it will be seen that during mid-summer the time elapsing between egg deposi- tion and the arrival of the weevils at the adult stage* may vary from 12 to 18 days. If an average allow- j ance of 6 days be made for the time elapsing be- tween emergence and the beginning of egg deposi- tion by the adult, a generation may be produced! Fig. 3o. — Cotton boll weevil: larva at left, pupa at right-, about five times natural size (original.) every 18 to 30 days. During late autumn the pericx of development is of course muc'h lengthened. Upon facts obtained by actual observation in the infestej cotton fields of Texas, Prof. W. D. Hunter estimate | that the progeny of a single pair of boll weevil | may in a season reach 134 millions of individuals, As each female during her lifetime deposits egg in each of from 1,00 to 200 squares, all of which ai prevented from ihaki'rg Tjolls, the magnitude of tb destruction will be readily understood. At the approach of frost m the autumn, the adu weevils seek suitable quarters in which to pass tf winter. For the most part rubbish about the cottc fields, leaves in timber lands, grass, partially opene bolls, etc., are selected. In the case of baled cottc which is lying on the ground about gin houses du ing the autumn, boll weevils are likely to enter til bagging, and if the bale is sitbsequently moved other localities the hibernating weevils may be ca ried with it. During- autumn t'here is also a poss Many Cabbage Plants Are Eaten Up Because Ot i^ack Ot Attention. 209 ity of weevils, which are seeking hibernating larters, entering bales of hay, straw, etc., in the in- ted region. During the hibernating period the !1 weevil is in a semi-dormant condition in which can survive for several months without any food, 1 during this time it is possible for it to be trans- rted many miles to new or uninfested localities, the weevil-infested sections of Texas, boll weevils : found abundant in the cotton seed at gin 'houses, well as in cotton-seed hulls. As would naturally expected, the shipment of these cotton products often found to be the means of distributing the 1 weevil to new localities. since the first appearance of the boll weevil in xas it has spread eastward at the rate of about 50 les a year until at this time it is within about 75 100 miles of the Mississippi river. At the pres- : rate of spread it will only be a matter of 12 or years when the boll weevil will be over the en- ; cotton producing sections of the South. Indeed, a much shorter time it will spread over the great- part of the area, and the territory which it is DUt to invade is the richest cotton country east of ; 'Mississippi river." When the cotton boll weevil ; spread over the entire cotton belt it is estimat- that it will cost the South $2.50,000,000.00 per ir. Many States are enforcing a quarantine iiinst articles that are likely to carry the boll wee- It and it is confidently hoped that the measures II retard the progress of the weevil, though it is I'Jown that the natural spread of 50 to 60 miles a ir cannot be prevented unless something appears ,t is not now known. Remedies. since the boll weevil was first studied by the ex- rts of the United States Department of Agricul- ,fe, there have been hundreds, and we might truly 1/ thousands, of remedies suggested for the con- i)l of the boll weevil. In spite of all this work no i>e remedy has been devised, but it has been de- 'HStrated many times over that a system of grow- ls cotton under what is known as the cultural sfhod, makes it possible to grow profitable crops j cotton in sections infested by the boll weevil. It 5uld require too much space to go into all the de- lls and explanations of why the cultural method is P best way to fight the weevil. For the sake of levity the following recommendations are given. i 15 The reader should note that particular importance is placed on fall destruction of cotton plants to destroy the food of the weevil and thereby cause many of them to starve before winter begins. From Farmers Bulletin No. 216 by W. D. Hunter in charge of the Cotton Boll Weevil in Texas and Louisiana, we take the following recommendations: "Although the very large yields of cotton of form- er times may no longer be possible in the region now infested by the boll weevil, it is entirely feasi- ble to produce cotton at a margin of profit that will compare favorably with that resulting from the pro- duction of most of the staple crops of the United States, by following what has become generally known as the cultural method. This method consists of the following changes and modifications of the system of cotton raising, made necessary by the boll weevil. It was originally suggested by a careful study of the life history and habits of the pest, and naturally any improvements that may eventually be made will be the result of the continuation of that study. It has now been tested successfully on a large scale by the Bureau of Entomology, as well as by many planters during three seasons. Of greatest advantage is the reducing of the numbers of the weevils by the destruction of the plants in the fall. The advantage thus gained is followed up by bend- ing every effort toward producing an early crop at the next season. "(i) Plant early. If possible, plant seed of the varieties known to mature early, or obtain seed from as far North as possible. This recommendation is made as a suggestion for the benefit of those planters who have not taken care in the selection of the cot- ton seed for planting on their plantation. By far the best method for obtaining early seed is by selection in the field. "It is much better to run the risk of re-planting, which is not expensive, than to have the crop delay- ed. The practice of some planters of making two plantings to avoid having all the work of chopping thrown into a short period is very bad policy from the boll weevil standpoint. "Early cotton of improved varieties has yielded from two to three times as much as native cotton under the same conditions, and in many cases much more. Planted at the same time, the early varieties begin to bloom much earlier than native cotton. "The early varieties, in general having a small 2IO TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. stalk and short tap-root, are adapted only for rich soil. They also fail to grow well in the very light, drifting sandy loams of many of the river valleys of Texas, which, in long seasons before the advent of the boll weevil, often produced the largest yields. In these situations early varieties will yield but little more than native cotton. "(2) Cultivate the fields thoroughly. The princi- pal benefit in this comes from the influence that such a practice has upon the constant growth and conse- quent early maturity of the crop. Very few weevils are killed by cultivation. Much of the benefit of early planting is lost unless it is followed by thorough cultivation. In case of unavoidably delayed plant- ing, the best course for the planter to pursue is to cultivate t'he fields in the most thorough manner the weevils become so numerous that practically al' the fruit is being punctured. This will generall) not be later than the first week in October. Merel), cutting off the stalks, by means of t'he triangular irti' plement used for that purpose throughout the South is by no means as effective as plowing, because th( stumps remaining give rise to sprouts which furnish food until late in the season to many weevils thai would otherwise starve. The plowing, moreover! serves to place the ground in better condition fo:j early planting the following spring. In some case:' turning cattle into t'he fields is advisable. Asiddi from amounting to a practical destruction of thu plants, grazing of the cotton fields furnishes consid erable forage at a time when it is generally much ii demand. Nevertheless, cattle should never be turnJ ^-S,. Fig. 'Si. — Boll Weevil Larvae witliin Cotton Bolls. (After a photo by E. Dwigbt Sanderson.) possible. Three choppings and numerous plowings constitute the thorough system of cultivation that is made necessary by the boll weevil. The old planta- tion rule for the cultivation of cotton, ''Once a week and once in the row," is an excellent one. "(3) Plant t'he rows as far apart as experience with the land indicates is feasible, and thin out the plants in the rows thoroughly. On land which in normal seasons will produce from 35 to 40 bushels of corn the rows should be 5 feet apart. Even on poor soil it is doubtful if the distance should ever be less than 4 feet. "(4) Destroy, by plowing up, windrowing, and burning, all the cotton stalks in the fields as soon as ed into cotton fields in which Johnson grass has be come started. "Recommendations i, 2, and 3 are all aimed tO' ward avoiding damage by hastening the maturity the plants and do not involve the actual destructior of the weevils. Recommendation 4, 'however, re' duces the numbers of the pests by destroying th' very great proportion developing late in the fall, am is consequently directly remedial. "(5) It is known that at present fertilizers ar not used to any considerable extent in cotton pro ducing in Texas. There is, nevertheless, no doub that they should be — not that the land is poor, bu that earlier crops may be procured. At present 1 If The Birds Are Killed Out, This Country Will Be A Prey To Insects. 211 is sufficient to call attention to the fact that it has been the uniform experience of experiment stations and planters in the eastern part of the belt that cer- tain fertilizers, especially those involving a large per- centage of phosphoric acid, have a strong tendency toward hastening the maturity of the plants. Insects Frequently Mistaken for the Boll Weevil. Many cotton planters, with commendable zeal, have closely observed the insects occurring in their cotton fields within the past year, and as a result have discovered many kinds of insects the existence of which was previously unknown to them. Many of these have been mistaken for boll weevils. In or- der to assist the farmer in recognizing the more com- mon of these, a number of species are illustrated on Where cotton follows cowpeas the adult cowpea- pod weevils sometimes attack the young cotton plants soon after they come up, and do considerable damage. Fig 36. — Cowpea-pod Weevil. (After Chittenden, Bui. 45, Div. of Ent., U. S. Dept. of Agr.) Fig. iJ5. — Adult Boll Weevil Emerging from Square withia which it developed. (After a photo by E. Dwight Sanderson.) the following pages, and the differences by which ' they are distinguished from the boll weevil, pointed out. In most cases the illustrations will make this difference clear, without any added description. The Cowpea-pod Weevil, (Chalcodermus aeneus !| Boh) — This little beetle, which is supposed to breed '( in the pods of cowpeas, is about the same size as the boll weevil, but is a jet black color. The body-sur- face is smooth shining black, and instead of the wing- ! covers being finely lined as in the case of the boll weevil, both elytra and thorax are covered with mi- nute impressions. The use of an ordinary hand magnifying glass will readily distinguish this weevil from this boll weevil. The Acorn and Chestnut Weevils. — The acorn wee- '^^^ Fig. 37. — Acorn Weevil, Chittenden, Bui. Balanmus victoriensis Chit. 44, Div. of Ent., U. S. Dept. of Agr.) (After 212 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. vil, the chestnut weevil, and otlier nut-feeding wee- vils, all of which closely resemble each other, are discovered from time to time upon cotton plants. It is extremely likely that their occurrence upon cot- ton is purely accidental, as when cotton is growing near or under chestnut or oak trees. In any event, no damage to cotton need be apprehended from them. A weevil which is typical of the appearance of this group of insects is shown in Fig. 37. The Blood-weed Weevils. — During the winter a careful examination of the stems of ragweed or blood- iFig. 3S. — Blood-weed Weevil. Lixns sp. (After Hunter, Bui. 45, Div. of Ent., U. S. Dept. of Agr.) weed about almost any field will reveal the presence of long slim weevils in the pith or interior of the stalks. These are the blood-weed weevils, of which there are several species. They are readily distin- guished from the boll weevil by the fact that they are long and slim, as shown in the illustration (Fig. 38.) The majority of these blood-weed weevils are one-half inch or more in length, while the boll weevil is ordinarily about one-fourth inch in length and of an entirely different shape. Other Snout Beetles. — The plum gouger. Fuller's rose beetle, the imbricated snout beetle and even so common an insect as the plum curculio have been mistaken for boll weevils. None of these feed upon, cotton and when found upon cotton plants or among cotton seed their occurrence in such places must be considered as accidental. The imbricated snout bee- tle is shown in Fig. 39. Click Beetles. — Every country schoolboy is ac- quainted with the long, flattened snapping beetles, which when laid upon their backs, "snap" violently into the air. During mid-summer these snapping beetles are occasionally found in cotton bolls which have been injured by the boll worm. They seem to be presen*- for the purpose of feeding on the decay- ing tissue and exudations following the attacks of the boll worm. We think it extremely improbable that they are responsible for any damage to cotton, Fig. 39. — Imbricated Snout Beetle, Epioaerus imbricatus Say. (After Cliittenden, Bui. 45, Div. of Elnt., U. S. Dept. of Agr. Fig. 40. — Click Beetle. Monocrepidius vespertinus. (From Ciiittenden. Bui. 45, Div. of Ent., U. S. Dept. of Agr.) as we have never learned of their attacking healthy bolls or squares. Their shape, as well as their habit of "snapping," when laid upon their backs upon a level surface, will readily enable anyone to distin- guish them from the boll weevil. The Cotton Sharpshooter. — It seems strange that an insect which is not a weevil at all or wliich is not even a beetle, should be mistaken for a boll weevil. The cotton sharp shooter, shown in Fig. 41, is about one-half inch in length and is not infrequent- ly found upon cotton, which it injures by punctur- ing both the young growth and the squares and forms. The insect is very agile, running to the op- posite side of the cotton stem when approached, and flies readily. It is not easily captured, and this fact alone will always relieve the planter's mind of any fear that it may be a boll weevil. Ordinarily the • real boll weevils can be picked from the plants or You Can Often Amuse The Children By Showing Them The Insects. 213 squares without any precaution being taken to avoid their escape. Fig. 41. — Cotton bharpshooter, Honuilodisen triquetra. ter Riley & Howard in Insect I^ite.) (Ar- j The Cotton Boll Worm. (Heliothis armiger.) — ! There is a tendency on tlie part of some persons, I not familiar with insects, to confuse the names "boll II weevil" and "boll worm," believing that these terms ' apply to one and the same insect. As a matter of fact they are entirely distinct and separate insects jl belonging to two widely separated Orders or groups. The parent of the boll worm is a moth, not likely to be taken for a boll weevil by even the most un- observing. The attacks of the boll worm larvae up- on the cotton squares or bolls often give rise to re- ported occurrences of the boll weevil. The attack of the nearh^-grown boll worm upon the bolls, takes the form of distinct holes, which are about one- fourth of an inch in diameter, made usually in the base or side of the boll. No such injury as this is ever made by a boll weevil. The holes eaten into squares by the very young boll worms may, how- ever, be confused with t'he holes made in squares by adult boll weevils when tlie latter emerge. 'In the case of injury of this kind, a careful search will usually reveal the young boll worm in the act of eating into the square, or even eating within it. The boll worm larva is readily separated from the boll weevil larva. The young boll worm is supplied with legs, whereas the boll weevil larva is a footless grub, wliite in color, and incapable of crawling from square to square as the young boll worms do. THE COTTON BOLL WORM. Injury from this insect has long been familiar tO' all cotton growers in the entire South. Its regular appearance in greater or less numbers each year has caused growers to give but little attention to the in- jury caused by the boll worm. In the following par- agraphs it will be seen that boll worm injury to cot- ton is not common until about August ist, when its favorite food plant, corn, has become hard and dis- tasteful. Besides feeding on cotton the boll worm is often a serious pest on corn, tomatoes, beans, peas, okra and tobacco. All the other crops mentioned are in- jured by the boll worms boring into the fruit, or in the case of beans and peas, into the pods. The Insect Described. The boll worm belongs to the class of insects that have four distinct stages in their development, name- ly: adult, egg, larva and pupa. The adult is a moth which commonly flies in the night, but when dis^ turbed during the day-time they fly with a quick darting motion that is quite characteristic. The moths vary in size, but in general they have a wing expanse of about one and one-half inches. The color may also vary greatly, ranging from a dull yellow to a dull olive-green with numerous dark spots and markings on the wings. These moths may be easily distinguished from the cotton leaf-worm, or cater- pillar moth by the fact that when at rest the boll worm moth holds its wings slightly raised and part- ed to expose a portion of the body, while the cotton caterpillar moths always rest with the wings tightly closed. The accompanying figure show'S the general shape and size to good advantage. (Fig. 42.) iMoths usually appear in spring about the time that corn is ten or fifteen inches high,* and in gen- eral they prefer to deposit eggs on young corn in- stead of cotton, the eggs being laid on all parts of the plant, but a preference is shown for silk if it is present. The eggs are small, oval in shape, w'hitish or yel- low in color, and may be seen with the unaided eye. Each female deposits on an average 1,100 eggs. These eggs hatch in from 3 to 10 days, depending on the season. From these eggs minute worms are hatched which are at first pale green in color, but soon become *Quaiutance & Bishop. U. S. Deipt. of Agr. Farmers Bui. 212. 214 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. darker. The full grown larvae may vary in color from pale green to brown or almost black These worms are voracious feeders, a single individual oft- > en destroying a large number of squares or bolls. This habit of going from one place to another on the plant, for the purpose of feeding, explains the reason why the farmer finds many young squares with a hole in the base but no sign of the trans- gressor. (See Fig. 43.) Boll worms when first hatched wander around on the plant feeding on the leaves until they find a square or form into which they bore. It is during this time that the worms may be poisoned with arsenicals. A full grown boll worm measures from i 1-4 to i 1-2 inches in length. Fig. 43. — ^Cotton squares destroyed by Boll Worms. (Origi- nal.) the boll worms confined their attacks from the first to cotton the damage would be tremendous. In gen- eral it may be said that the third brood is the one that injures cotton most severely. Fig. 42. — Cotton Boll Worn: a, adult moth; b and c, larvae; d, chrysalis or pupa; (After Howard, Yearbook, U. S. Dept. of Agr., 1S9S.) (see Fig. i) and they may complete their growth during the summer season in about fifteen days. When full grown the worms descend into t'he ground where a cell is constructed in which the pu- pal stage is passed. This period usually covers about two weeks on the average. From the pupa there emerges the adult moth, as already described, ready to mate and deposit eggs for the next genera- tion. In the South there are at least four and possibly five generations, so it will readily be seen that if Remedies and Prevention. Of the two, prevention is the best, but for the protection of this year's crop, if the boll worms ap- pear, the remedy must be considered. There are two main methods of preventing injury to cotton.' The use of corn planted in rows through the cotton field to serve as a trap, and the application of ar-' senical poisons to destroy the worms when on the cotton. Corn as a trap plant should be planted in rows every 200 or 300 feet throughout the entire field. This corn should be planted late, about the middle of 'May or June ist, so as to be in prime silking con-! dition about August ist. As the boll worm moths ( Some Birds Are Injurious, But Most Of Them Are The Farmers Friend. 215 ;eem to prefer corn to cotton most of the eggs will )e deposited on the corn, which can be destroyed or ed to stock when the worms are partly grown. If m early maturing variety of corn is planted about day 1st, and more of the same variety planted about une 1st, the planter will always have an attractive ilant for the moths during the period when they are xpected to be most abundant. Cowpeas should be ilanted between the corn rows in time to be in bloom vhen the corn is in silk. The blooms will attract he moths. Poisoning should be attempted when the forms the plant at once (See Fig 44) has proved to be most economical. This fact has been demonstrated by experiments conducted in the Southern States; notably, Te.xas and Georgia. It has been found that the best way to apply the poison is to mix it with fine lime dust — cheap flour can be substituted^used in the proportion, i pound of Paris green to 4 pounds of dust. This should be applied so as to put at least 2 pounds of the Paris green to each acre. Owing to the fact that the boll worms feed to some extent on the leaves and pass frequently from one place to another even when working on the Pig. 44. — Metnod of applying Paris green in dry form to cot- ton plants. (Photo by Wilmon Newell.) 'fst appear on the cotton. Experiments in Texas iy Prof. A. L. Quaintance in 1904 showed that it jbll pay well in most cases to poison for the third irood. In some sections, as the worms of the sec- nd brood do so much damage, it will probably be '3und advisable to poison as soon as the first worms ppear on the cotton. This .will be about June i. 'he old method of applying poison by means of the |mple dusting apparatus carried by a man who ralks rapidly along the row dusting both sides of squares and bolls, it is possible to destroy large numbers with the use of poison. The dusting apparatus shown in Fig. 45 is made from a one inch board, 4 1-2 feet long and three inches wide, by boring an inch and a half auger hole five inches from each end, and attaching under each hole a sack five inches wide by- about fifteen inches long. These sacks can be made from unstarched' sheeting running about 4 pounds to the yard. If it is found that the poison is being applied too fast or 2l6 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. too slow the proportion of lime, or flour and Paris green, must be changed so that the required amount of actual poison will be applied per acre. THE COTTON CATERPILLAR. This enemy of cotton is mentioned here, and fig-j Fig. 45. — Dusting apparatus for applying Paris green to cotton plants. Possibly the most valuable and economical way of fighting the boll worm is to plow the land during the fall and winter, thus breaking up the pupal cells in which t'he winter is passed. It has been found that nearly all the pupa thus disturbed will die dur- ing the winter. This practice should be followed in all sections where the boll worm is known to oc- cur. This is also a valuable way of fighting many other insects such as Corn Stalk Borers, Grub Worms, Squash Viae Borers, and all insects that pass t'he winter under ground. Attacking Other Crops. As already mentioned, tomatoes are often injured by boll worms, though when occurring on tomatoes they are generally known as "tomato fruit worm." The damage is caused by the worms boring into the green and ripening tomatoes, in which large excava- tions are often made. When occurring on tomatoes the worms usually have to be picked off by hand. Poison in liquid form, as recommended further on for cotton caterpillar, may be applied while t'he plants are small. The worms frequently bore into the stems of tomato plants at first, but soon transfer their attacks to the fruit. Winter plowing of gar- dens will aid in keeping this pest in check. Corn injured by boll worms should be cut and fed to stock to destroy the larvae and the eggs which may be present. Early corn is most liable to be in- fested and a strict cleaning out of all infested plants during June or July will greatly reduce the numbers of the following broods. When peas and beans, that will be s'helled before using, are attacked, the poison in the form of arsen- ate of lead or Paris green and lime mixture is re- commended. ures presented principally to show the difference be- tween it and the boll worm. The main points of difference to be noted betweei* the cotton caterpillar, or leaf worm, as it is somq times called, and the boll worm, is in their mode c* injuring the plant. While the boll worms feed t some extent on the foliage, the cotton caterpillar feed entirely on the leaves and buds unless in ex treme cases where the plant is entirely defoliatec At sudh times they may gnaw into the squares an green bolls, but seldow do much injury in this wai Fig. 46. — Cotton Caterpillar Moth: a, wings expanded; b wings closed, at rest. (After Riley, Fourth Rept., U. S. Entoiu. Comm.) Fig. 46 shows the adult caterpillar moth, which ma| be compared with the boll worm moth. Fig. 47 re] resents full grown caterpillars. Unlike t'he ba worm the caterpillar does not go into the ground t pupate. This stage is passed in a folded leaf on tb plant. There are always several generations eac year and as the complete life cycle from egg to adu" may be covered in from three to four weeks, it is ev dent that the increase may at times be very rapid. Remedy. The remedy is the same as recommended for boj worms in regard to poisoning. The plants shoulj Spraying Is A Business Proposition. It Pays If Done Correctly. 217 be watched closely and poison applied while the ed then — and the injury to foliage avoided. Dust- caterpillars are small — as they are more easily kill- Fig. 47. — Cotton Caterpillar: a, from side; b, rrom above; twice natural size. (After Riley, Pouth Kept., U. S. Entom. Coram.) ing with Paris green and lime dust should be done during the early morning hours, as it will adhere better to the plants at that time. In wet weather dust is frequently washed off by rains, and in that event we would advise the use of Paris green in water, using a formula, 1 pound Paris green, 2 pounds stone lime, 100 gallons water. Or in place of the above, arsenate of lead (Dis- parine) may be used at the rate of 3 pounds to 50 gallons of water. The latter will adhere somewhat better than Paris green mixture, but cannot always be as readily obtained when needed at short notice. Insects Injurious to Corn and Truck Crops. THE CORN STALK BORER. This enemy of corn has been known since early in the nineteenth century, as it was described by Rev. Lansdowm Guild in 1828, who reported its pres- ence in sugar-cane in the Island of St. Vincent in the West Indies. Dr. Howard concludes that it must be a native of the West Indies or of South America where the cultivation of sugar-cane was first begun in America. In 1855 this pest was re- ported as injuring sugar-cane in the State of Louis- iana, and in 1881 we learn that the U. S. Division of Entomology made observations on the ravages of this pest in Louisiana, where it was severely injur- ing sugar-cane. In Georgia it was found in Lincoln County in 1880, and was reported from South Car- olina about the same time. It was probably some years previous to this date that the borer began to attack corn as well as sugar-cane. Life History and General Appearance. The corn stalk borer is a w'hite six-footed larva at- taining a size when full grown of about one inch in length (See Fig. 48.) The winter is passed in the pupa stage embedded in the corn stubble near the surface of the ground. Early in spring the moths issue from the over-wintering pupae and when the corn is only a few inches high the eggs are deposit- ed on the stem and leaves. These eggs hatch in a short time into small borers which at once com- mence to tunnel into the stalk and up through the pithy center. The injury may be quite considera- ble and may even necessitate replanting. Observations made by the writer sliow that some of the borers of the first brood may attain full growth by the first week in June. The change to the pupa at once takes place, usually in the stalk above ground, and adult moths emerge at least as early as the middle of June in the latitude of South Georgia. Moths continue to issue until about the middle of July. Corn stalk borers are very active and pass fre- quently in and out of the stalk in w'hich they are working, thus making a large number of holes. The accompanying figure shows the appearance of a corn stalk in which borers were at work. Most of the damage is confined to the three lower joints, but in a few cases larvae and pupae were found three feet up in the stalk. The adult corn stalk borer is a delicate looking moth, fore wings dull yellowish brown, in some cas- 2l8 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. es 'having very little color. The males in all cases injure the yield, but usually a certain per cent, of have the fore wings a little darker than the females, and the former are always somewhat small in size. Wing expanse varies from a little over one inch to a little more than one and one-half inches. The hind wings are always .clear white or cream in color. Fig. 48. — A com stalk cut open showing borers within. (Original.) The writer is informed that the corn stalk borer injured corn in Georgia in 1900 to an extent of 50 per cent. It has been observed that the injury is greatest during dry seasons, as 1900 was very dry, as was also the season of 1904. Borers may occur in corn stalks without seeming to the stalks are destroyed while the corn is still small. This injury should be guarded against, and can be largely averted by following the suggestions given in the paragraphs on Remedies. Remedies. Considering the habit of the stalk borer it is evi- dent that the damage cannot be stopped after the borer has once gained access to the stalk, without at the same time destroying the corn. It is not practical to remove the borers, unless from a few stalks of corn in the garden, as is recommended for the squash vine borer. It is clearly apparent that corn following corn year after year is most liable to in- festation because of the number of borers that win- ter over in the old stubble. The usual practice in the South of allowing the corn stubble to remain on land is the principal cause of the bad invasions of stalk borers ; along this same line rotation of crops offers a relief from the pest. This is an old sugges- tion, but it remains good. In infested fields all corn stubble should be gath- ered and Ijurned to destroy the ]nipae that are win- tering therein. Deep plowing in early spring to bury all stalks that were not gathered will be ad- vantageous. The pupa should be buried so deeply that the emerging moths cannot escape. If rotation of crops, burning stubble and deep plowing are practiced, corn stalk borers can gener- ally be successfully controlled. CORN ROOT WORM. Corn is often attacked by a root worm soon after the plants appear in the spring. The injury is caus- ed by the larva of a beetle that is common in the South and known as the twelve-spotted Diabrotica, the scientific name being Diabrotica 12-punctata. To farmers it is locally known as "bud worm" on account of its causing the bud to wilt when the roots are attacked. The adult Diabrotica is a green beetle (See Fig. 49) about one-third to one-half inch in length, ob- long in outline, tapering toward the anterior end, and having three transverse rows of four black spots on the wings. The adults often feed voraciously on melon, squash and cucumber, and they have been known to feed on almost every farm crop imagina- ble. In fact, they are practically omnivorous. The South looses twenty million dollars each year from rats and insects. 219 These root worms have been found to injure corn in bottom lands most severely, and especially early plantings. Corn planted after May 5th to 10th is seldom injured severely, as most of the eggs are de- posited previous to that time. When corn is plant- ed early a surplus of seed can be used and in. most cases enough plants will be uninjured to insure a full stand without re-planting. A simple rotation of crops will often suffice to prevent injury from corn root worms. most beautiful species, and described by Quaintance as having fore wings opaque, shining olive brown in color, with metallic green reflections ; the hind wings transparent with a narrow fringe of scales. Hind pair of legs are thickly fringed. with hairs, which on the inside are black, and on the outside orange col- ored. The body is about three-fourths of an inch long and the wings may expand one and one-fourth inches. (See Fig. 50.) The moths appear about the middle of May and Fig. 49. — Adult beetle, paren't of com root worm (enlarged). (Original. The suggestion that corn can be treated so as to become distasteful to corn root worms, was shown to be worthless by Quaintance in 1900.* So also was the use of kainit as a fertilizer in killing the larvae. In one case he found root worms even worse where kainit was applied. Melons, squash and cucumber plants attacked by the adult Diabrotica should be dusted with land plaster and Paris green in the morning while the plants are wet with dew. As this insect eats large 'holes in the foliage the use of poison will be found advantageous. As a matter of interest it may be stated that the 12-spotted Diabrotica has often been charged with spreading diseases, such as the pear blight, by vis- iting the blooms and carrying the blight bacillus from one point to another. THE SQUASH VINE BORER. Like the corn stalk borer this insect does its damage by burrowing in the stalks of its host plant. Its injury is confined mainly to squas'h and pump- kins, but melons, cucumbers, etc., may be attacked. The adult moth, parent of the borer, is one of our *U. S. Dept. of Agr., Div. of Ent, n. s. Bui. 26. ^ 1 ^ r w^r ' Fig. 50. — Moth, or parent of the squash vine borer. Quaintance, Ga. Ex. Sta. Bui. 45.) (After deposit eggs on variotis parts of the plants, mainly along the stem, as determined by Quaintance. Eggs hatch in from six to fifteen days and the larvae at- tain full growth in about one month. How to Detect Presence of Squash Vine Borers. During the latter part of May and the first part of June examine the vines and if there are any ac- cumulations of yelltiwish excrement around the stem, carefully cut open the stem and remove the white grub-like borer. This will often save the plant with- out much injury resulting from cutting. The injury is caused by the borers making large channels in the stem (See Fig. 51,) and often causing the whole plant to shrivel and die. Ordinary insecticides and repellents are of very little use. The grower must watch closely and remove the borers when they are present. After the crop is gathered the vines should at once be pulled and burned to destroy all borers of the second brood. Fall plowing and harrowing the gardens will de- 220 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. stroy many pupae ; this coupled with clean culture and destruction of infested stalks will result in keep- ing the borers in check in most cases. Fig. 51. — A squash stem cut open showing the borers within. (Alter Quaintance, Ga. Exp. Sta. Bui. 45.) CUTWORMS. Cutworms may easily be classed as one of our most injurious species of insects. Working silently in the nig'ht, as they do, a vast amount of injury may occur before the damage is discovered. A knowledge of the life history and habits is necessary in order to understand how to fight this pest. Life History. — The adult cutworm moths appear ' during the months of June and July, and soon after ' arrival begin to deposit eggs on the grass, weeds and \ rubbis'h. A grassy sod may be selected as the place to deposit eggs or any field where there is an abun-lj dance of grass and weeds. Eggs hatch in a short I time and the young cutworms, at first very small, ^j begin to feed on any succulent vegetation at hand. At this time of year they are so small and the food j |so abundant that the injury caused is not noticeable.'! By the time cold weather approaches the cutworms may be in all stages of maturity, from one-half inch in size to nearly full grown. So far no noticeable injury has occurred. Cutworms pass the winter in little earthen cells in the soil under rubbish, stones or any protected place. In the spring when the land is plowed the cut- worms, emerging from their winter quarters with' ravenous appetites after their long winter fast, begin to feed on any vegetation at hand. It is, therefore, evident that t'he first plants to come up in the gar- den will be liable to be cut off by the little cut- worms. Description. — The adults of our cutworms are moths belonging to the family, Noctuidae, meaning night fliers, and for that reason they are seldom seen unless attracted to lights. Moths range in size from one and one-half to two and one-half inches in wing expanse. Color of front wings dark brown or grey;i hind wings always lighter than fore wings. Cut- worms have naked bodies, eight pairs of legs, three in front and five at the posterior end of the body; color may vary from dirty green to grey or dirty- brown. Full grown worms average one and one- half inches in length. Remedies. — Injury from these insects may bci largely prevented by any or all of several methods.] First of all should be mentioned fall plowing to ex- pose the pupal cells in which cutworms pass the winter. This should be practised in fields where cutworms have been numerous. Second, poison the cutworms in the spring with poisoned bran-mash or clover, before the crop is planted. This can be ac- complished by fitting land a few days previous to the tim'e when seed is to be sown. For poisoned bran-mash use one pound of Paris green, forty pounds of bran, two quarts of molasses and mix this with just enough water to make a thick dough that Rotation of Crops Helps to Keep Insects in Check. 221 can readily be made into balls. This mash may be placed on the land in little heaps just before night- fall. The cutworms being deprived of all other food, if the land has been fitted as suggested, will readily eat the mash while it is fresh. Another very good plan is to spray a small piece of succulent clover with Paris green, one pound to twenty-five gallons of water, cut the clover, and' spread it on the land before it has time to wilt. This should be done about sun-down and such bait will be very attractive to the cutworms. It is almost worthless to attempt to poison cutworms after the crop is up, or if there is much grass or weeds on the land. When tomatoes, cabbages and the like are to be transplanted fit the land several days in advance, let 1 it remain untouched for two or three days, in order I that t'he cutworms may become hungry, and then j try poison bait for three nights in succession. New- ' ly plowed sod land should always be treated in this ! way for reasons already stated. No rubbish or weeds I should be left on land after the main crop is remov- led as it furnishes food for the cutworms during the . fall months and protection during the winter. J As some people object to the use of poison bait on .account of liability of poisoning poultry and other animals, bands of tarred paper are recommended for use around such plants as cabbage and tomatoes. 'This paper may be pushed into the ground around .each plant to a depth of at least one inch so that the I cutworms will not crawl underneath. This will pro- '{jtect the plants while small and the bands may be re- moved after a few weeks and used around other i plants. SQUASH BUG. This is the rather large, flattened rusty black bug .which injures squash and other cucurbits. This in- l|Sect has a sharp, pointed beak, through which it ^raws the sap from the plant. Infested plants be- |bonie yellow, and sickly and often die. Remedy.— Hand picking of adults when they first Sppear is recommended. They may also be trapped -inder pieces of board, or leaves from the plant, laid in the ground and examined each morning. The eggs are laid in masses on t'he under sides of he leaves and are readily seen owing to the yellow ■olor. These egg masses should be found and de- ■'troyed. If any hatch, the young will be found feed- ing in groups. These may be crushed between the fingers. Attention to these minor details will usual- ly be the means of preventing serious injury. Clean cultivation of gardens, keeping all weeds, trash and vines removed, will cause many squash bugs to succumb to the winter weather. THE CUCUMBER BEETLE. This is the little yellow black-striped beetle that feeds on the young cucumber and melon vines and damages them badly at times by eating small hole?, in the leaves. This beetle will be readily recognized by the following description: Beetles about one- fourth inch in length ; head and antennae black ; gen- eral body color yellow, with a black stripe on each wing-cover, and a third stripe where the wings meet along the back. Stripes run longitudinally. These small beetles pass the winter under cover of leaves and trash around the garden. In the spring they come out and deposit eggs in the soil near the base of the food plants, and the larvae when hatched live on the roots. These larvae are slender little wliite grubs and when numerous they may do con- siderable damage. The principal injury is caused by the adults feeding on the leaves. Remedies. — Clean cultivation of the gardens after the crops are off in the fall so as not to leave any rubbish under which the adults may pass the win- ter. Protecting the young plants with gauze netting while the plants are small. Where plants are pro- tected for three or four weeks, or until they get well started, the injury from cucumber beetles will not be great. Two pieces of wire bent over the plants in the form of a double arch, and thrust firmly into the ground, will make a good frame for a netting to cov- er young plants. Sprinkling plaster on the plants while young will often serve to keep the beetles away, but protection with netting is the only sure prevention. COLORADO POTATO BEETLE. This troublesome pest of the potato plant is so common that it seems almost unnecessary to men- tion it. Still the fact of its being common seems to keep many people from learning how easily it may be controlled. It is a fact t'hat our new insect pests often receive more attention and are fought with 222 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. more vigor than the ones that are always with us. The Colorado potato beetle derived its name from its native home. Until about the middle of the nine- teenth century this beetle was not conspicuous as a garden pest, for before that time it fed on weeds of the same genus as the potato plant. Life History. — Late in fall the beetles enter t'he ground antl hibernate until the warm spring sun- shine brings them out. The females soon commence to deposit eggs on the under side of the leaves. These eggs are yellow, occur in clusters and are easily seen. In a short time the eggs hatch into lar- vae having enormous appetites, which they at once commence to satisfy. The soft-bodied larvae in- crease in size with alarming rapidity and when full grown, which is in from three to four weeks, they go into the ground and form a smooth cell in which the pupal stage is passed. There are several broods Fig. 52.— Adult Potato Beetle, in the South and larvae of all sizes can generally be found on a plant. Fig. 52 shows an adult beetle. Remedies. — Paris green in any form is death to potato beetles. While the plants are small it may be applied as a dry powder mixed with ten times its weight of cheap flour, land plaster or air-slacked lime. This powder can be dusted on the plants while wet with dew early in the morning, or after sundown in the evening. The duster recommended for cotton caterpillar poisoning will be found useful. Or Paris green may be applied in liquid form, by mixing one pound of poison and two pounds stone lime in 125 gallons of water. The lime should always be used to prevent burning of foliage. It is even better to use t'he arsenical in connection with Bordeaux mix- ture. (See directions under Insecticides for prepar- ing Bordeaux-Paris green mixture.) FLEA BEETLES. Cucumbers, tomatoes, melons, turnips and many Other garden vegetables are often attacked early in their life by little jumping beetles that make small round or irregular holes in the foliage, and from their ability to jump, they have been given the name of Flea Beetles. The damage from these little fellows is sometimes very severe, as they attack the plants while small and tender. The larvae are mostly leaf- miners, living in the tissue of the leaves and stems of the host plant, though seldom doing much dam- age. Flea beetles vary in size and color, some of them being so small as hardly to be seen, vv^hile others, like the grape flea beetle, being nearly one-quarter of an inch long. All have thickened hind legs enab- ling them to jump readily. They will be recognized by this characteristic. Color ranges through steel blue, brown and black. Remedies. — Clean culture of the garden is the very best thing to practice, as flea beetles hide in rubbish and trash through the winter. When they appear in the spring young plants may be sprayed with arsen- ical poisons, unless the plants are protected by a. cover as recommended for the Cucumber beetle. It has been found that young plants covered thickly, with ordinary Bordeaux mixture are not often se- verel}' attacked, the mixture acting as a repellent. Usually it is best to add Paris green or green arse- noid to the Bordeaux as it will poison some beetles When the plants have attained some size they arc seldom injured by these insects. Simply dusting | plants with lime dust will drive some species of flejj beetles away. However, it cannot be depended or in all cases and the best plan is to use an arsenical poison, or cover the plants. CABBAGE WORMS. Every one living in the country has seen the comj mon white butterflies that usually appear early in thi spring and love to hover around in sunny places but many perhaps do not know that these butterflie' are the parents of our most common cabbage worms that yearly depredate the cabbage patches. Titer are two common cabbage worms, one known as th imported cabbage worm, and the other as the nativ cabbage worms. The former was imported man; years ago from Europe and the latter is indigenou to this country. Imported Cabbage Worm.— The adult butterfly i Do not let insects destroy the crops after they are gathered. 223 white in color with a faint creamy tinge ; the males have one black spot and the females two similar spots on each front wing. In addition to this they both have the front wings tipped with black. The hind wings in both sexes bear a black spot near the front margin. Tliese butterflies have a wing expanse of from one and one-half to one and three-fourth inch- es. Worms when grown are green in color, some- times having an obscure longitudinal black stripe along the back. The worms or larvae when grown change to pupae on the plant, attaching themselves by a silken band. There are several broods and the winter is passed in the pupal stage. Native Cabbage Butterfly. — Adult males of this species closely resemble the imported species in size, color and marking. The females, however, look quite different; though white in general color the wings are muc'h marked with angular blacky spots. The worms show four longitudinal pale yellow stripes, two on each side of the body. In other respects the species are much alike. Remedies. — Experiments show that cabbage worms succumb to any arsenical poison, but its use has not been generally recommended because of prejudice against the use of poison on account of danger of poisoning the consumer. It may be interesting to the reader to know that experiments have been made in which cabbage heads sprayed with Paris green have been subjected to chemical analysis to find out how much poison actually remained after the first few days. In every case there was only a slight trace, if any; certainly not enough to be dangerous. Besides, cabbages grow from the inside out and the outer leaves are always removed before cooking. It may be said that with ordinary care it is safe to spray cabbages with arsenical poison. We do not, however, recommend its use on full grown cabbage. Paris green or green arsenoid may be used with lime and water, in the following proportions: Paris green, 1 pounds, stone lime, 1 pound, water, 150 gal- lons. Or arsenate of lead may be used at the rate of 2 pounds in 50 gallons of water. Four sprayings through the season will usually suffice to keep the worms in check. When the plants are nearly full grown the use of fresh Hellebore powder is recommended. This should be dusted on the plants every two or three days. It soon loses its poison property when exposed to the air, hence the necessity of repeating the application so often. Poison for Cabbage Worms. Prof. Williams of the Nebraska Experiment Sta- tion grves the following: "I filled an insect duster, or dust bellows, holding about two quarts, nearly full of air-slacked lime, to which I added a teacupful of green arsenoid. This, after being well mixed by shaking and turning over of the bellows, was applied to our late cabbages in a fine dust that covered the center of the heads or wherever the worms were found. One dusterful was found ample to treat from SOO to 1,000 cabbage plants, just beginning to head. Two days after dust- ing there was hardly a live worm to be found, but the dead ones were greatly in evidence. On rows adjoining we used separate tests of clear lime dust, road dust. Bordeaux mixture with Paris green and rosin compound with Paris green. Neither of these gave any desired results and we went over these rows later also with the lime and green arsenoid mixture. Green arsenoid is a preparation very sim- ilar to Paris green, equalling it in the per cent, of arsenic, but differing in formation of crystals. Paris green or London purple would no doubt be equally as effective. The dust form has the advantage of the liquid solution of these ppisons in that the former adheres more closely to the leaves. In the proportion used, one part poison to seven parts of lime, the dust can be distributed quite even- ly and with no danger of getting an overdose of the poison. An ounce of the poison in this mixture would be distributed to 100 heads or more, and a person would have to eat ten heads or more — out- side leaves and all to become poisoned. PLANT LICE. Several truck and garden crops are annually in- jured by small green, yellow or brown soft-bodied insects that live by sucking the plant juices. Plant lice are so small that they often pass unnoticed un- til considerable injury to plants has occurred, when the sickly appearance of the plants causes them to be examined. The lice usually occur on the under sur- face of leaves, when that is possible, though cab- bages may be covered all over. Melon Louse. — These lice may appear on melons 224 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE early in the spring, winged individuals coming from some of their many food plants in adjoining fields. The winged forms give birth to living young, and these in turn reach maturity in about eight days, and bring forth more young. The colonies thus form- ed live on the under side of the leaves and may soon cause small plants to turn yellow and die. The leaves soon become curled and mis-shapen. More colonies are established by winged individuals that fly from one place to another. These lice may con- tinue to multiply all summer, unless checked by ar- tificial means. The winter is passed in the egg stage, and possibly in hibernation. Remedies. — Spraying with kerosene emulsion or whale oil soap solution. To do this thoroughly the vines must be turned over or else use a curved rod to carry the spray to the under side of the leaves. Spray as soon as the first lice appear because when the leaves become curled the lice are hard to hit. Carbon bi-sulp'hide may be used to good advantage when the plants are small. Carbon bi-sulphide is a liquid and can be purchased from any drug store. Dr. John B. Smith* recommends using one dram, which is about equivalent to one teaspoonful to each cubic foot of space. A practically air-tight cover must be placed over each plant to be treated. The cover can be made of heavy ducking stretched over a light wood or wire frame. Place the liquid in a shallow dish on the ground and let the plant remain covered for one hour. It is estimated that five doses will cost only one cent if the carbon bi-sulphide is purchasd at wholesale prices. Cabbage Lice.— For lice on cabbage we would re- commend spraying with kerosene emulsion or soap solution. Oftentimes a strong soap solution made from common washing powder is found fully as ef- fective as the kerosene emulsion. The thing to avoid is letting the lice multiply to. great numbers before treating the infested plants. Furthermore, one spray- ing should not be expected to kill every insect, and as they increase with such rapidity, the second treat- ment should be given in four or five days after the first. Thoroughly controlling the lice while the plants are small is the best practice. Plant lice on any crop may be controlled if taken in time. The insects are soft-bodied and easily suc- cumb to any common contact poison. *New Jersey Exp. Sta. Bui. 121, p. 10. In cabbage fields all stumps should be pulled out and burned to destroy the lice remaining after the crop is gathered. Also keep down such weeds as mustard, shepherd's purse and the like, as cabbage lice flourish on such as well as on cabbage. Prac- tice clean culture in gardens and along fence rows and walks near the garden. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO TOBACCO. The tobacco plant, fortunately, is not subject to attack from as many insects as might be expected, ow- ing to the nature of the plant. The insects that are injurious are so on account of the fact that the plant is easily injured, particularly the leaf, for market purposes, on account of the holes in the leaves ren- dering them unfit to be used for wrappers. Further- more the leaves that can be used for wrappers are usually comparatively few, and therefore expensive, rendering the slightest injury of considerable impor- tance. The insects mentioned in the following par- agraphs are the ones most liable to cause injury to the tobacco plant. CUTWORMS. The paragraph on cutworms included in the divis- ion "Truck Crop Insects," and the remedies given therein are applicable to the cutworm injury to to- bacco. (See page 220.) THE TOBACCO STALK WORM. This insect is also known as the Corn-root Web- worm, and was found by Prof. W. G. Johnson as a serious pest to tobacco in Southern Maryland, and is probably liable to occur farther South. Injury.— The injury to tobacco is described by Prof. Johnson as follows: "The injured tobacco had a leaf-spread of from ten to twelve inches. A few rods beyond where the soil was not so gravelly and better, we found the larvae had literally destroyed the first and second planting. * * * * * So far as I could ascertain the attack is always at the surface or just below. In many instances the larvae had hollowed out the stalk from the base of the roots to the branches of the first leaves. * * * * * * In the great majority of cases the larvae were found in a small mass of web near the plant, and sometimes within it." Watch the Insects that Destroy the Garden. 225 Remedies. — This insect works its greatest damage to grass and clover and will usually be foimd in sod land. Tobacco growers should therefore avoid plant- ing tobacco on freshly plowed sod land. If the land is used for cotton or potatoes for two or three years and then planted to tobacco very little injury will follow from this insect. If absolutely necessary to plant tobacco on sod land it should be plowed early in spring, and frequently rolled and harrowed, to starve and destroy the larvae that live over winter in the soil. By delaying the planting of tobacco, while keeping up frequently cultivation, most of the injury from this insect will be avoided. The Spined Tobacco-Bug. Remedies. — Concerning the measures to be adopt- ed to prevent injury to tobacco from this insect, Prof. E. D. Sanderson writes as follows: "Poisoned corn meal has been found to be a satisfactory remedy. Into a quart of finely ground corn meal, a half tea- spoonful of Paris green is thoroughly mixed by stir- ring, and sprinkled on the buds from a can perforat- ed like a pepper can. This should be applied fre- quently, especially after heavy rains. Large buds should be opened and a pinch of the poison placed within. When spraying with Paris green is practiced against the horn-worm, it will also be of service to hand-pick these worms from small patches of to- bacco, as is done when the worms are abundant in. ear-corn. The stems of tobacco plants are sometimes injured ! by a true bug (a suckmg insect) which punctures the stems to obtain food. Concerning the spined to- j bacco-bug, Prof. Carmen, of Kentucky, writes: "Oc- j casional plants in tobacco fields are at times observ- ed to have become suddenly wilted, the leaves hang- I ing limp, much as if the stalk had been severed. Af- I ter a time they recover again, and, beyond a tempor- I ary check on their growth, appear to have suffered I but little injury. If such plants are searched care- ! fully while still wilted, a flat, brown bug with each \ side of the body produced into an angle, or sharp i spine, will be found upon the stalk along the base of the leaves. It is very shy and keeps out of sight, hence any brisk movement on the injured plants is likely to cause it to drop to the ground and conceal ' itself." These insects are about half an inch long, of a drab color above and greenish or vellowish be- [, low. Usually only one bug is found on a .plant, so i that the best way to prevent injury is to pick them 'from the plants, and keep down such weeds as 'this- tles and mulleins, upon which these insects feed, in [ the adjoining fields. Bud-Worms. Young tobacco plants are sometimes attacked by bud-worms which eat into the leaves before they are unTolled, thus causing many holes in the leaf, these holes being very damaging to the full-grown leaf. The tobacco bud-worm is known also as Corn-worm, Tomato-worm, Cotton Boll-worm and by other names. (For description of this insect see the dis- cussion of Cotton Boll-worm on page 214.) 16 The Tobacco Leaf-Miner. Injury to tobacco from this insect is caused by the young larvae eating irregular patches of the leaf-tis- sue, leaving only the upper and lower surfaces. These mines appear like blisters on the leaves. They are quite serious, rendering the leaves unfit for wrap- pers. Often a single larvae will destroy an entire leaf, as they do not remain in a^ single mine, but move from place to place over the leaf, entering wherever they wish to make a new mine. This habit is of im- portance, as it serves to give the grower a chance to poison the little worms. Remedies. — Wherever plants are sprayed to de- stroy the horn-worm the leaf-miners will be gener- -ally controlled, as while entering the leaf to com- mence a mine they will get a fatal dose of poison. As a preventive the common horse — or bull — nettle (the original food-plant of this insect) and closely related weeds should be kept down around the tobac- co fields. THE HORN-WORM OR TOBACCO-WORM. Of all the insects attacking tobacco this worm is the most to be feared. Tobacco plants may be en- tirely ruined unless this worm is kept in control. Description and Life-History. The large bluish-green worms, having a promi- nent horn at the rear end, and white or yellow lines or V-shaped marks on each side of the body, are familiar objects to all tobacco growers. These are 226 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. the true tobacco-worms. They may vary in color, some being brown or nearly black. There are two species, one called the "Northern Tobacco-worm" and the other t'he "Southern Tobacco-worm," though the latter is by far the most abundait in the South. The worms can be distinguished by the marks on the body. The Southern species have single lig'ht color- ed marks along the sides of the body, while the Northern species have V-shaped marks similarly lo- cated. The parents of these worms are big strong- bodied moths known as Sphinx moths. The adults are as'hy-grey or brownish-grey in color, the body is long and pointed, and the size, though variable, aver- aging from four to five inches in wing expanse. The worms as found on the tobacco plants change to pupae in the ground where they remain during winter, and moths emerge from these over-winter- ing pupae during April and May. There may be as many as four brood-s during a single season, the pupae of the last brood remaining in the ground over winter. Remedies. — The best remedy on small patches of tobacco is to pick the worms off by hand, but this is a slow and tiresome process in large fields. Flocks •of turkeys or guinea-hens will often keep a field free from worms. They seem to have a natural liking for these worms and will devour them in large num- l)ers. Poison may be applied to the tobacco plants either in dry or wet form. Paris green or arsenate of lead may be used at the strengths usually recom- dended for using those poisons. Poison must be ap- plied while the worms are small and its use must be continued throug'hout the season owing to the num- ber of broods. In spraying, both surfaces of the leaves should be covered. Growers need not fear that the poison on the leaves will be dangerous to the consumer of the tobacco, as all the poisons used soon lose their most poisonous property and while strong enough to kill the worms the poison remain- ing will not injure the consumers. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STORED GRAIN. Few farmers realize how much they lose each year on account of insects destroying their grain. It .is estimated that Texas alone loses over a million dollars each year, and that 50 per cent, of her corn rmnually is destroyed by weevils and rats. But Texas is not the onlv State that loses on account of weevils and rats, for Alabama Ices 10 per cerit. "f the corn she raises. Estimating in the same propor- tions, t'he eight Southern Stutes: South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisian.i, j, Texas and Arkansas lose nearly $20,000,000.00 each year, that is the amount lost on account of the corn destroyed. And then when we consider the amount lost on rice, oats, wheat, rye, peas, and other grains, the loss is enonuous. The following descriptions r :g^g 1.^ '3hH .''I ■■ M?;->:v^ ■'.; 1 t *' j ■m'j.^ar'i'.w.^y ■<«£«&■■■: > HB^' 9 ' ^ ' ^-——^. Fig. CO. — Pear Blight. An Orctiard showing the effect of Pear Blight. THE COTTONY CUSHION SCALE. This insect was at one time the most dangerous pest in California and did a great amount of damage. An Australian lady-bug was introduced from Aus- tralia and has succeeded in keeping the insect in control. If it had not been for this imported lady- bug the cottony cushion scale would probably have destroyed the orange industry in California. The in- sect is known to occur over a limiited area in Florida. The body of the adult female scale is dark orange- red, usually more or less covered with yellowish 234 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. white powder. The female secretes an egg-sac which is white and beautifully ribbed. This makes a very conspicuous object, one not readily over-looked. Remedies. — As stated above this insect has been controlled in California by the lady-bug. It occur- ring in places where the lady-bugs are not present, spraying with resin wash or kerosene emulsion, as recommended for the white fly, will serve to control t'his insect, or at least keep it in check until the lady- bugs can be secured. THE RED ORANGE-SCALE. This is one of the most destructive of orange and lemon pests, and in California where it is abundant it is being fought by parasites and by the usual fu- migation and spraying methods. The Red Scale is about the size and shape — generally speaking — of the San Jose scale with which most are familiar. The color of the scale formation covering the true soft- bodied insect_ has given it the common name "red- scale." The fumigation method, with hydrocyanic acid gas generated under tents stretched over the trees has for several years been the principal method of con- trolling this insect. This fumigation is quite costly, and for that reason experiments are being made to determine the value of liquid sprays. It will prob- ably be found that modifications of the washes used against San Jose and ot'her scales will serve to con- trol this pest also. SOME HOUSEHOLD PESTS. Every housekeeper knows the trouble caused by certain insects both in the way of destroying cloth- es, books, carpets, etc. She usually has to fight some insect at all times of the year. A few of the most important pests, together with suggested reme- dies, may be useful in helping to aid the fight against these insects. Bedbugs. Owing to tlie fact that this pernicious bug can be carried about so easily it often finds its way to the beds of the rich as well as the poor but can usually be exterminated if noticed in time. Beds and bedding should be frequently examined for this pest and if dis- covered apply one or all of the following remedies. Prof. C. L. Marlatt, of the Bureau of Entomology. Washington, D. C, recommends the following: "The bedbug, on account of its 'habits of conceal- ment, is usually beyond the reach of powders, and the ordinary insect powders, such as pyrethrum, art- of practically no avail against it. If iron or brass bedsteads are used the eradication of the insect is comparatively easy. The most practical way to ef- fect this end is by very liberal applications of ben- zine or kerosene or any other of the petroleum oils. These must be introduced into all crevices, with small brushes or feathers, or by injecting with Small syringes. Corrosive sublimate is also of value, and oil of turpentine may be used in the same way. The lib- eral use of hot water wherever it may be employed without danger to furniture, etc., is a'.so an effectual method of destroying both eggs and active bugs. Various bedbug remedies and mi.xtures are for sale, most of them containing one or the other of the in- gredients mentioned, and they are frequently of value. The great desideratum, however, in a case of this kind, is a daily inspection of beds and bedding and of all crevices and locations about the premises where these vermin may have gone for concealment. A vigorous campaign should, in the course of a week or so at the outside, result in the extermina- tion of this very obnoxious and embarrassing pest. In the case of rooms containing books or where liquid applications are inadvisable, a thorough fumi- gation with brimstone is, on the authority of Dr. J. A. Lintner, New York State entomologist, an effec- tive means of destruction. He says: 'Place in the center of the room a dish containing about four ounces of brimstone, within a larger vessel, -so that the possible overflowing of the burning mass may not injure the carpet nor set fire to the floor. Aftir removing from the room all such metallic surfaces as might be affected by the fumes, close every aper- ture, even the keyholes, and set fire to the brim- stone. When four or five hours have elapsed, the room may be entered and the windows opened for a thorough airing.' " FLEAS. The common troublesome fleas which overrun Tiouses are not human fleas as many suppose, but the common cosmopolitan flea of the dog and cat. The eggs of the flea are deposited between the hairs Bedbugs Can Be Exterminated If You So Desire. 235 of the dog and cat, but are not fastened, hence the sticky fly-paper to capture the adults seems to have eggs may be dropped wherever the animals lie or found its most successful application in the plan fol- while moving about. By keeping all such animals lowed by Prof. Gage, of Cornell University. He out of houses this nuisance will generally be pre- tied sheets of sticky fly-paper, with the sticky side vented. The eggs of the flea are small, w'hite and out, around the legs ' of an office janitor, who was oblong. When hatched the larvae are very small then instructed to walk around the rooms of a build- and active and readily find a hiding place in some ing for several hours. This resulted in nearly all the crack where they are not easily disturbed. The use fleas jumping on his ankles where they were ■cau."-ht of matting and carpets favors the development of by the fly-paper. Another plan is to let the doo-s fleas by furnishing a hiding place. stay in an infested house for a couple of hours at\ ■~ ' -J " ■ 'f '-V- ■;.•;.* Fig. Gl.— Rossette. Orchard showing the Effect of Peach Rossette. Remedies.— The larvae can be destroyed by the liberal application of benzine or similar liquid in all cracks and crevises of the floor and applying the same to carpets and mats. The adult fleas are much ■larder to contend with. Their extreme activity and great hardiness render any but the most strenuous measures unsuccessful. The suggested plan of using time and then kill t' e Teas that get on the dog by thoroughly washing the animal with a strong soap solution. The Carpet Beetle, or "Buffalo Moth." The adult insect is a small, blackish beetle, about three-si.xteenth inch in length, and ornamented by a 236 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE red stripe along the back. The beetles generally ap- pear in fall, but may be present all the year. The damage is caused by the larvae, w'hich is brown with stiff hairs on the back and sides. It is about one-fourth inch long. When full grown it changes to a yellowish pupa from which the beetle develops. Remedies. — Only the most thorough measures will eradicate this pest. All carpets should be taken up, t'hofoughly beaten out of doors and sprayed with benzine. Infested rooms must be cleanly swept, the floors washed with boiling water, and the cracks filled with kerosene or benzine, which should also be sprayed under the baseboards. It is best to avoid the use of carpets, or at least use rugs that can be cleaned each day. When the insects are in carpets that cannot well be removed, a hot iron and damp cloth can be used to steam t'he carpets, thus destroy- ing many insects. THE CLOTHES MOTH. How to Destroy Clothes Moths. One of the greatest enemies of the housewife is the clothes moth. It is very small and makes its way through the smallest crevices. The female moth finds its way in early summer among the clothes and furs, suitable for food for its young, and there deposits about fifty or more eggs. In about a week the eggs hatch and the young worms begin to eat upon the cloth upon which the eggs were laid. It Spins a sort of case which it lengthens and en- larges. Not content with eating and making a house for itself upon t'he cloth upon which it lives, it cuts its way in various directions through the cloth and drags its case after it. As the weather gets warmer the little worm closes its case at the ends and in three weeks the perfect moth will make its appear- ance. Remedy. — Beat the garments well early in the spring and occasionally during the summer. It is better to keep the articles in a large paper bag. Oc- casional airing is good. ■ For clothes packed in boxes or trunks, put a little oil of cedar on a piece of paper and roll up and wrap with other paper to avoid soiling the garments, and put several of these rolls into each box or trunk. Carbolic acid, turpentine or benzine is equally good, used in the same manner. Black pepper, a piece of camphor gum, or a hand- ful of snuff wrapped up with the clothes is excellent. Caution. — Camphor should neyer be used in keep- ing seal skin, as it takes the color out of the fur. A close closet lined with tar paper is the best for furs. It is also excellent for clothes. Whole cloves are now used to exterminate moths, and some say t'hey are much better than tobacco, camphor, or cedar shav.ings. The repellents are of no use unless the clothes to be protected are first beaten and aired to remove eggs and larvae. HOW TO EXTERMINATE SPIDERS. Take a small common kerosene lamp and light it, and late in the afternoon or early in the evening look over the corners and places where spiders are commonly found, and when one is seen hold the lamp chimney directly beneath it, and it will fall at once into t'he chimney and be instantly destroyed. It is not difficult in this way to destroy all the spi- ders in the house in a few evenings. It avoids kill- ing them by sweeping them down and staining the walls and carpet. Early in the evening is the best time. HOW TO PRESERVE BOOKS FROM BOOK MOTHS. The little Bristle Tail or Silver Fish has a little long, slender body covered with a delicate silver ' scale ; it has no wings and passes through no chang- es. It feeds on the paste of the binding of books, devours leaves, eats off the labels in Museums, and is generally destructive to both books and papers. Books are also eaten by the larva of a little bug that produces a ticking sound like a watch — it is called the "Death Watch," as it is usually heard in the night ticking like a watch. Remedy. — A little rag saturated with benzine or carbolic acid placed along the back of shelves will help to clear the library of all insects. Insect Pow- der sprinkled over the books will destroy the little "Silver Fish" insect if used freely. A CURE FOR BEE AND WASP STINGS, SPI- DER BITES, ETC. I. The cure for insect stings is very simple. Scientists have found that the poison injected by Consult the Spray Calendar in This Book. ^Z7 the insect is an acid, and hence any alkali is an ex- cellent remedy. 2. Remedy. — Apply ammonia or common soda and water. If there is much inflammation and red- ness, apply a solution of borax and warm water. Apply with rag saturated with the solution. FLIES. The Farm. The Fly Nuisance. — Every farmer and live stock grower will freely admit that the presence of flies is a great drawback to the welfare and comfort of ani- mals. Work horses are not able to do as much, and what they do is less satisfactory when they are con- tinually tormented by flies and mosquitos, says "Twentieth Century Farmer." Colts and calves are greatly diminished in flesh and prevented from mak- ing healthy and thrifty growth when they are ob- liged to continually fight these pests. The yield from milch cows is greatly reduced by the same cause. Taking the whole maiter into consideration, it is unquestionably to the interest of the farmer to do something with a view to reHeving animals from the tortures which these insects inflict. As a rule, farmers do not neglect this matter be- cause they are not careful of their stock or because they are willing to permit them to suffer. The trou- ble usually lies in a lack of, knowledge and under- standing of the question. Many stock raisers would gladly spend time and money to bring relief from flies and mosquitoes if they knew of a good and re- liable method of attaining these results. For the benefit of these well-meaning parties, whose sym- pathy is touched by the mute appeals of their ani- mals, we wish to give our experience along this line. While treating colts with a standard coal tar prepa- ration for lice a few years ago we discovered that the flies gave animals so treated a wide berth. The smell appeared to be very repulsive to them, and the colts enjoyed a perfect freedom from their bites. Acting upon this suggestion, we have continued to use this preparation for the sake of the freedom of flies which it gives us, even though no lice are pres- ent. Since that time we have discovered that the addi- tion of linseed oil or cotton-seed oil makes the appli- cation much more permanent in its effects. The proportions are about as follows : One quart of the coal tar product, one quart of oil and fifteen quarts ter. Such a solution is very inexpensive and brings about a wonderful relief to the animals. Where it is desired to treat work horses or driving horses we make it a practice to omit the oil and make the ap- plication more frequent. A small sprayer, which can Fig. 62. — Orchard showing the effect of Brown Rat in Peaches. be purchased for 75c or $1, is the ideal method of ap- plying the solution to the animals. With precaution- ary measures so simple and effective, it is to be hoped that steps will be taken by the owners of live stock to give them relief from flies and mosquitoes. PRACTICAL RECIPES. Owners of horses will be interested in the method successfully pursued by Dr. A. T. Peters, veterinari- an at the Nebraska Experiment station, for driving away flies. He took an ordinary oil barrel and put 238 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. into it a wooden spigot, using the barrel as a stor- age tank. Two and a half gallons of Zenoleum, with five gallons of cottonseed oil, were then placed in the barrel and enough water added to fill it. As re- quired, the mixture thus formed was drawn from the barrel and sprayed upon the horses, or applied with a sponge or clot'h as the occasion demanded. The control of the flies was not only perfect, but it had one marked advantage not possessed by most other mixtures for the purpose, in that the solution was not sticky, but left the coat of the animal in a fine condition. The mixture has the further advantage of being compounded at very small cost. The Horn Fly. — (Bulletin 153, Virginia Experi- ment Station). Since the importation of the fly from Europe in 1885, it has spread throug'hout the Ameri- can continent. Even the severe Northern winters do not effectually check it, for it as frequently ap- pears in Canada as in the warmer sections of the South. In appearance it is much smaller than the ordina- ry house fly, probably not over half as large, and about the same color. The life history, as given by Newman, is quite simple, and is as follows : The fly makes its appear- ance during the middle or latter days of June, ac- cording to the season. The eggs are deposited in fresh dung about the pasture, and the larva hatch in about twenty-four hours. The young parasite then inhabits the superficial layer of the soil, and becomes fully developed in about fifteen days. Of late vears by reason of its rapid multiplication, general alarm has been created among stockmen on account of the peculiarly irritating character of the bite, in consequence of which the cattle do not thrive. When in large numbers they gather about the base of the animals' horns to rest, and are sometimes found covering them for several inches. During heavy rains they collect on the under side of the animal's abdomen. They attack, by prefer- ence, the upper parts of the body, usually selecting those parts which are most out of reach, namely, over the back ; and in contrast to most other flies, they remain upon the animal day and night, inflict- ing t'heir torture constantly. In the feeding attitude the fly mav be noticed with wings spread ready for flight. No accurate estimate can be made of the injury resulting from the pest in cattle-raising sections. Beef cattle increase in weight slowly, if at all, while milch cows fall off in their milk from one-fourth to one-half during their presence. Various remedies have been recommended from time to time, some not wholly wanting in merit, but lacking the most essential features so necessary for complete success. Among them mig'ht be mentioned ihe daily treatment of fres'h droppings with fresh lime, thereby destroying the larva, also the applica- tion to the cattle of substances calculated to disgust the fly, and prevent or modify their attack, the lat- ter being the universal custom. Kerosene emulsion after the following formula has proven the most effectual remedy yet tried : Yellow Soap 1-2 pound Soft Water i gallon Kerosene Oil 2 gallons Shave the soap fine and dissolve in the water at boiling temperature. I'lace kerosene oil in a barrel containing a spray pump, to which should be added the hot soap solution. The mixture is now churned vigorously through the pump for fifteen or twenty minutes, or until the mass becomes like thick cream and is fully emulsified. One gallon of water (or in this proportion) is now added to prevent the solution from becoming thick, curdy and troublesome to be dissolved. This is to be kept as the stock solution and diluted in the proportion of one part to five of water, and thoroughly mixed by agitation through the pump just prior to using. Only the required amount must be mixed in the pump for one applica- tion, as it tends to separate and gives unsatisfactory results. Too severe and continued agitation is to be avoided, as it tends to cause the solution to foam, in which condition it will not spray satisfactorily, and requires a few minutes to settle. One of the simplest preparations is one of about two parts of lard and one of pine tar. Mix thorough- ly together and rub on the neck and behind the shoulders, where the flies are most numerous. This mixture seems to be especially effective in prevent- ing attacks from the fly vvhic'h produces the screw- worm in open wounds. The United States Department of Agriculture recommends the following: "Take resin, 1 1-2 pounds; laundry soap, two cakes; fish-oil, 1-2 pint; enough water to make three Spraying Should Be Done Carefully and Intelligently. 239 g-allons. Dissolve the resin in a solution of soap and water by heating; add the fish-oil and the rest of the water. Apply with a brush. If to be used as a spray, add one-half pint of kerosene. This mixture will cost from 7 to 8 cents per gallon, and may be used on either calves or cows. One-half pint of this mixture is con- sidered enough for one aplication for a cow; a calf, of course, would require- considerably less. It will be more economical to apply this only to the part of the animal not reached by t'he tail. At first it will per- haps be necessary to give two or three applications per week, until the outer ends of the hair become coated with resin ; after that, retouch those parts where the resin is rubbed off. A bulletin of the Mississippi Station recommends a mixture made with two parts cottonseed oil, lard or any other c'heap oil, and one pint of pine tar. Apply with a paint brush or swab. The writer of the bul- letin states that he treated 350 head of cattle with this mixture in about six hours, using four gallons of oil and two gallons of tar, the cost of the materials used being $2.20, or about three-fourths of a cent a 'head. "Gnat oil," used so largely in' the Yazoo Delta reg- ion, is made by mixing i ounce of crude carbolic acid, I ounce of pennyroyal, 1-4 pound of sulphur and i gal- lon cotton-seed oil, and seems to be etiually effective. Whatever application is used must be renewed ev- ery ten days or two weeks, or as soon as the flies be- come troublesome again. Kerosene should not be used in the place of other oils, and coal tar is not a safe substitute for pine tar. THE SCREW WORM. Its Ravages on Horses, Cattle, Sheep, Hogs, etc. Description and Cure. — The mature insect is a fly ! a' little larger than a common housefly, and lays its eggs in wounds, sores, and in the natural openings of man and animals. Young calves are al- ■ most invariably affected in the navel, and frequently fin the mout'h, causing teeth to fall out. Young colts [1 are affected in the same way. Barb wire injures to horses and cattle are the most common sores in which the screw worm is found. Hogs are very liable to be- come affected by castration and other wounds. History. — After the egg is laid it becomes a small maggot, which soon buries itself in the flesh of the wound. The maggot grows steadily in size, and eats more and more every day of the soft flesh around the wound or sore. The worm is full grown in about a week. They then leave the sore and fall to the ground, and in about 12 days become flies. Symptoms. — A swollen, gaping condition of the wound, and the constant discharge of blood. While the sore is unhealed new eggs are constantly being laid, and if the worms are not destroyed, they eat deeper and deeper and often kill the animal. Remedy. — Cresylic ointment, calomel, chloroform, or a little carbolic acid in water. In some cases ban- dages are useful. In others the sores can be filled with oakum and a few stitches taken. All treatment should be supplemented by daubing the margins of the wound with pine tar to ward off the fly. SPRAYING, INSECTICIDES, AND FUNGICIDES. Great advancement has been made within the last few years in the matter of spraying. The practice of spraying trees and vegetables is just now in its in- fancy. In the older section of the South, there is no doubt about it paying to spray. In fact, it has reach- ed that place where it is necessary to spray in order to produce perfect fruit and vegetables. IMost people are afraid of the subject of spraying, because they think that they must learn all about insects and a great many hard names. But one should not be afraid of the subject, for it is necessary in order to make a success of growing fruit. If you have never tried spray- ing, make a thorough test of it, and see the good that will result. Spray the trees thoroughly, and be sure that all parts are sprayed. Better waste a little ma- terial and time than leave a portion of the trees un- touched. It seems hardly necessary to tell the ad- vantages derived from spraying, as every one knows that there are insects and diseases that must be kill- ed by spraying, if they are killed at all. Insects are of two classes, as regards the spray remedies. The biting insects, that may be killed by eating poisoned foliage or fruit, are most easily de- stroyed by arsenic in some form, and those that live by sucking their food must be killed from the out- side and with something that will coat them or their coverings in some such way as to smother them to death. Of the first class are canker worms, cut worms, caterpillars, codling moth, larvae and all the rest that 240 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. live by eating the leaves or fruit, except those which do it in such ways as so far to have baffled the inge- nuity of scientists and practical fruit growers and gardeners. Paris green has been the form of arsenic most in use, but the preparations of white arsenic have been found to be cheaper and more effective. They can be made at home by mixing it with lime and salsoda, and almost any of the State or govern- ment bulletins on insecticides give full directions for making them. One that is thought to be the best is made by putting one pound of white arsenic and tv^'o pounds of salsoda in one gallon of water and boiling it for fifteen minutes. One quart of this will poison fifty gallons of water, or Bordeaux mixture. If wa- ter alone is used, tiiere should be two pounds of lime dissolved and put in with it to prevent the arsenic from injuring the foliage. In the Bordeaux mix- ture, w'hich contains lime, that is not necessarv. Of the second class, such as the scale insects, which live by sucking the juices through tiny beaks which they insert into the tender bark, living under tents, which we call scales. They must be coated with oil or something that will keep the air from them 'till ttiey die. The lime-sulphur-salt mixture is of this class, and, strange to say, this has been found a good fun- gicide as well. The basis of about all of the fungicides is sulphate of copper. This is the killing part of Bordeaux mix- ture. DIRECTIONS FOR PREPARING THE MOST IMPORTANT INSECTICIDES. Lime-Sulnhur-Salt Wash. Ko. I. Formula Lime 20 pounds Sulphur 16 pounds Salt 5 pounds Water to make 50 gallons Boil for about 40 minutes, or until all sulphur is in solution. More detailed directions for making and applying this wash will be found on another page. This wa.sh is effective against nearly all scale insects. It is also a good fungicide, taking the place of Bor- deaux mixture for spraying to prevent leaf-curl of peach; also effective as first treatment against such diseases as apple scab, brown rot, bitter rot, and fun- gus diseases that can be reac'hed by spraying when the trees are dormant: that is, liefore the leaves push ou; in spring. Kerosene Emulsion. I No. 2. Formula for .Stock Solution : i! Kerosene 2 gallons Hard soap, (soft soap, i qt. ) 1-2 pound i Water i gallon Dissolve the soap in boiling water, then remove from the fire and add 2 gallons of kerosene and agi- tate violently for at least ten minutes. The emulsion is prepared best by using a small force pump, having direct discharge, and pumping the solution back into; itself for ten minutes, \^'hen properly mixed the emulsion will last for several weeks. For' convenient reference the proper amounts of water to use in diluting the stock solution for certain strengths is given herewith: For 5% emulsion dilute wit'h ^7 gallons of water. For 10% emulsion dilute with 17 gallons of water. For 15% emulsion dilute with 10 1-3 gallons of water. For 20% emulsion dilute with ~ gallons of water. Kerosene emulsion is used against nearly all soft! bodied insects, such as plant lice, currant slugs, small cabbage worms, etc. ' Paris Green. 1] No. 3. _ Ij Paris green is used at many different strength? but as a general formula we recommend the follow ing: Paris green i pound Lime 3 pounds Water 100 to 200 gallons When Paris green is used without lime it is liabl' to scorch the foliage. The same amount as above i used in Bordeaux mixture. Paris Green-Bordeaux Mixture. No. 4. fl Made by mixing Paris green in the Bordeaux afte the latter is ready for use. An excellent way to ap ply poison for potato bugs, tomato worms, etc., an' A Study of Insects is Pleasawt and Profitabls. 241 for spraying fruit trees to destroy the canker worm, codling moth, and all chewing insects. Arsenate of Lead. No. 5. This may be made from the raw materials or pur- chased in prepared form under such trade names as "Disparene" or "Swifts" Arsenate of Lead. Formu- la for making is as follows: Lead acetate (sugar of lead,) 11 ounces Arsenate of Soda 4 ounces Water 50 gallons To prepare, dissolve each in 2 quarts of warm wa- ter. When dissolved pour them together in a barrel of water and stir. This solution gives a very light precipitate, requiring little stirring in the spray tank and has an advantage over the other arsenicals in that it will usually adhere better on the trees or fo- liage. This preparation is not liable to burn the foliage of plants and is very cheap, if prepared at home. Even the manufactured products are not very expensive. A valuable insecticide. Hellebore. No. 6. L^sed in dry form, i part to 4 or 5 of flour or fine air-slacked lime. Kills both by contact and by being taken internally. Hence may be used against chew- ing insects and sucking insects. Not nearly as active a poison as the arsenicals, but sometimes useful on plants like cabbage which are nearly ready to be eat- en. Pyrethrum. No. 7. Is used both in dry and wet form. As a spray use one pound in 3 gallons of water. Use dry the same as hellebore. This material acts only as a contact poison for soft bodied insects ; especially useful against currant worms and plant lice. Tobacco. No. 8. Tobacco is often a useful insecticide. It will some- 17 times take the place of kerosene emulsion against plant lice and can be easily prepared and applied. Tobacco stems or leaves i pound Water 2 gallons Boil for 2 hours and use without dilution except to add water to make up the full 2 gallons. Especially useful against the aerial form of woolly aphis. Tobacco is used in dry form as stated in discussion of apple woolly aphis ; also used as repellent for cu- cumber beetles and other garden insects. Whale Oil Soap. No. 9. For insects, such as plant lice and scale insects, whale oil soap may often be used to advantage. It was once considered the best remedy for San Jose scale until the Lime-Sulphur wash came into use. It is, however, valuable for other purposes. This ma- terial is purchased for about 5 cents a pound in bar- rel quantities, and sometimes less. It is best to pur- chase from some large firm rather than buy from lo- cal dealers. Good's potash whale oil soap No. 3, sold by James Good, Philadelphia, Pa., and the Anchor Brand sold by Leggett & Brother, New York, are both good soaps. For plant lice and soft bodied insects use about one pound to 5 gallons of water; for scale insects use a stronger solution, depending on the hardiness of the plant under treatment. Potash Lye. No. ID. Is sometimes used to spray dormant trees to de- stroy insects and fungi. In late years it has been found that the Lime-Sulphur wash is better adapted for all winter treatment, and that wash is rapidly taking the place of lye. Lye may be used i pound to 5 gallons of water on perfectly dormant trees. It is very caustic and must be handled with care. People should not be deluded by fhe glaring ad- vertisements of new patent insecticide manufacturers. The old standard sprays are often much more effec- tive and cost less. FUNGICIDES. Standard Formula for Bordeaux Mixture. No. II. 5 pounds fresh, unslaked lime, 242 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE 5 pounds bluostone (sulphate of copper), 50 gallons water. The above formula is designated by the symbol (5-5-50.) Four pounds bluestone and 5 pounds lime would be written thus: (4-6-50,) and other propor- tions in the same manner. Slake the lime carefully with just enough water to reduce it to the consistency of thick cream and dilute to 25 gallons ; dissolve the bluestone in 25 gallons of water also. Then in a separate barrel mix t'he two solutions, first pouring in a bucket of one and then a bucket of the other, or better still, pouring them in simultaneously. After thoroughly stirring the mix- ture and allowiv\g it to stand for a few moments, it will be ready to spray. When thus prepared Bordeaux is at its best, con- sisting of a fine, floculent, pale blue precipitate sus- pended in the water. If either or both of the ingre- dients should be in concentrated solution when the mixing is done, fhe resulting Bordeaux is coarser grained, settles much more quickly and is less effec- tive as a spray. Bordeaux mixture is used against nearly all fungus diseases and is also frequently used as a carrier for Paris green and other arsenical poisons. It is partic- ularly useful in this form by serving a double purpose and often avoiding the necessity of spraying once for an insect and again for some disease, when both oc- cur on the same plant as is often the case. Copper Sulphate Solution, No. 12. Copper Sulphate 3 pounds Water 50 gallons This solution is sometimes used in early spring on dormant trees. It must never be used on foliage. Not generally in use. Liver of Sulphur. No. 13. Valuable for powdery mildew upon gooseberries. grapes, etc., acting as a direct remedy. Especially useful after the fruit is set. Liver of Sulphur i ounce Water 3 gallons This mixture is not poisonous, hence can be used on fruit whic'h is nearly ready to gather. Ammoniacal Copper Carbonate Solution. No. 14. Copper Carbonate 5 ounces Ammonia 3 pints Water 50 gallons Dissolve copper carbonate in the ammonia and di- lute when used to 50 gallons. As the ammonia is very volatile, the solution until ready to use must be kept in a tightly stoppered bottle or jug. The solu- tion is used in place of Bordeaux mixture on nearly ripe fruit, as it does not show so as to injure the sell- ing property of the fruit. Frequently used for grape antbracnose. Sometimes also for brown rot of peach- es and plums. This mixture is somewhat liable to injure foliage and must therefore be used with care. Formalin or Formaldehyde. (40 per cent.) No. 15. For Potato Scab. — Formaldehyde (40 per cent.) . . i pint Water 25 gallons Seed potatoes may be treated before planting with the above strength of Formaldehyde solution, recom- mended by the Wisconsin Experiment Station.* The solution is placed in a barrel or other vessel and the potatoes tied up in loose sacks, submerged for 2 hours. They should afterward be spread out to dry. For Oat and Wheat Smut. — For smut submerge the wheat or oats, tied in sacks, in the solution for ten minutes. Then remove and spread out to dry. Or the grain may be piled in heaps on a tight floor, sprinkled with the solution and shoveled over to in- sure wetting every kernel ; then cover with an oil- cloth for two or three hours. Dry the grain after- ward. It may be found necessary to treat aeed oats three or four days before they are wanted for plant- ing, otherwise they may not be t'horoughly dry and will cause trouble in the seed drill. This treatment will cause the seed to enlarge slightlv, and the ger- minating period may be shortened, hence seed grain should be treated only a few days previous to plant- ing. Formaldehyde solution may be used several times so that 25 or •?o gallons will treat a number of bush- els of either potatoes or oats. *Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulle- tin 98. Protect Your Stored Grain from Insects. 243 Corrosive Sublimate. (Mercuric Chloride.) No. 16. For Potato Scab. — Corrosive Sublimate 2 ounces Water 15 gallons Dissolve the corrosive sublimate in 'hot water in an earthen or wooden vessel, and dilute to 15 gallons. Mix thoroughly to insure a uniform solution. The IJpotatoes should be washed and tied in sacks and sub- jJmerged for 2 hours. Remove and spread out to dry. I'After this the potatoes may be cut and planted as usual. Caution. — Corrosive sublimate is a deadly poison internally, but the solution may be handled with per- fect safety. It acts as a disinfectant for the hands and will benefit scratches or sores. Carbon Bi-Sulphide. No. 17. j This is a very useful insecticide for fumigating "grain and other seeds to destroy weevils, and other (insects. It is also used to fumigate houses to destroy rats, cock-roaches, bedbugs, carpet-beetles and many household pests. Ants in lawns and moles are often Ijkilled by this process. Carbon bi-sulphide is a clear, colorless, volatile [ijUquid, the fumes of which are 'highly explosive, and |very disagreeable to smell. The fumes are deadly [Ipoison to all animal life if taken in sufficient quan- tity. People are safe while using it, as the smell is \%o repulsive that there is no danger of getting too rgreat a dose unawares. The fumes of carbon bi-sulphide are much heavier than air, so that fumigation with it is rendered easy. Grain may be treated in boxes or bins having tight sides- and bottom by simply placing fhe liquid in -hallow pans on top of the grain and covering all with a blanket or boards to prevent a circulation of air. Use from three-fourths to one and a half pounds sf carbon bi-sulphide to each 1,000 cubic feet of space, ijor in round numbers, one pound to 100 bushels of ain or other seed. Let the bin remain covered for pa at least 24 hours. Grain or seed treated in this man- ner is not impaired for planting purposes, its germin- ating power not being affected. For corn, oats, beans, peas and the like which will not be used for seed it will often pay to use 2 pounds of carbon bi- sulphide to eac'h 100 bushels. To destroy underground forms of insects use two to three ounces of carbon bi-sulphide per square yard, placed in little holes in the earth made with a sharp- ened stick, and closed by pressing with the heel after pouring in the liquid. This liquid must be used with care around growing plants, but may be used in small quantities on lawns to destroy ants and moles. When fumigating houses remove all chance of fire and use about three to four pounds of carbon bi-sul- phide per 1000 cubic feet. Allow the house to re- main closed for 36 hours. Caution. — Never expose carbon bi-sulphide in a room with a lighted lamp or any form of fire. Re- member that the fumes are highly explosive. For convenient reference in connection with the fol- lowing SPRAY CALENDAR the list of insecticides and Fungicides ire given below. The numbers are the same as the numbers appearing before the vari- ous formulas in the preceding pages. No. I Lime-.Sulphur-Salt wash. No. 2 Kerosene Emulsion. No. 3 Paris Green. No. 4. . Paris green Bordeaux mixture. , No. 5 Arsenate of Lead. No. 6 Hellebore. No. 7 Pyrethrum. No. 8. Tobacco, (dry and as decoction) No. 9 Whale Oil Soap. No. 10 Potash Lye. No. II Bordeaux Mixture. No. 12 Copper Sulphate Solution. No. 13 Liver of Sulphur. No. 14 Amm. Cop. Carbonate Sol. No. 15.... Formalin or Formaldehyde. No. 16 Corrosive Sublimpte. No. 17 Carbon bi-sulphide. B ~ I ?i VJ — a ftl tfi p "^ e B ffi X 5 O ►^ O P O — o w a M ^- — ? o o c o p O cr = _ » 'D — ^ E S ^ n Vi *^ U) O "^ ' £ 5' t3 ^ M B 0) •- » o Oi at t3 m c 3 era ^ 5. o "1 '^ 2. « o ^ o ^ 5 2 s 5 S- c- o '"'■• ":• Ml o B H. 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X ,__ - ^ 'f. 3^1 B » S3 1) 1.: 1 1 ft) 3 a c M) ■ as OS - 3 Ml a ^ 2 •3 3 3 B ■■< s pick the large •keys may be devour many 1 3 M W 1 •a i! a _. 3 a- i = O 11 3 XR 1 3 3- --ti a ' 3 . a> 1^ 0. 3- 1 -5 '^ 3* 1. ^ §, 1 % i 2. g ?■ g 2 — fT a 3" a n 3 cr ■< 5- •a TO a • 3 ■ 3" =« ^ ~. ^ o » o 01 «i f^ B E a D " ■ i -J -• -J 3 sr 3 FT ■^ » D. 3 ■ c B S 3 ^ S. /= >-» nro 2 m ] ^ ■ =■ I n ! II ■i. >■ s a < ! H K a> a> S^ fl ■^ 2 5 « g £ J 3 C oj c ■a o ! I Q o s « a . o ■ ^^ - s ^' 3 c3 a ■i-J fcl 73 C '>-. ^ O 0^ (-1 a 1 " c > 'C -c i- « c t*. o s ft •5 _: T3 a e3 ft a, % o rrt r/.' o K a. c a 3 x: & +j o s^ t^ 0! br C rt v-i *fi £d not properly fixed before hand, can handle 250 gallons per minute. 1 can use 2,500 gallons of water per minute and never get my feet wet, and sit down and read Tilling the Soil, too. "We will now go to the head and turn the water down our main. It's on. . . .now let's go down to the first dam and watch it, as the water strikes. If any little stream or seep goes beneath the board, we will have to put a few shovels full of dust if we can get it to stop the leak, else in a short while the whole dam will be washed away. Well, it holds. Now let us step along to the gates and see if the walls of our main are standing the strain, for this bemg the first time, they may get soft and slough into the ditch or the water may break through them. Watch them closely. The water is flowing rjicely throug'h each furrow except for a clod or a little trash ; we get ahead of the water with a hoe and remove the obstruction. Wt turned on a small amount of water this time to test our ditch and to get a little use to handling the water so that we needed only two of our gates open from main ditch. These two ditches water about 12 to 14 furrows. These are about through, some of them run through before the others. These are always to be filled at the mouth with t'he loose dirt that was piled up in turn road opposite mouth of furrow, thus cutting off its supply of water and accelerating the other. As soon as the first 6 or 7 rows of ist gate are through, close the gate and open the third, and soon. When all is about watered above the first dam in the main, just pull up the board and t'he water will go through the dirt and take it down and fill any holes with. Keep this up until the whole is watered. "Keep open enough rows to let your water run slowly in furrows, so there will be no washing, and moisture has had time to reach from side to side of bed.'' IRRIGATING THE ORCHARD. "In this article, which will be short, we will give some directions for preparing to irrigate the orchard. My experience teaches me that an orchard irrigated gives fruit far superior to one that is not so treated, anl by the proper use of water one can have a full crop of fruit every year without fail. "You frequently hear men say they do not know why it is that trees bear heavily one year and very lit- tle the ne.xt, and that they cannot count on a full crop each year. "My theory is this : After a tree has borne a heavy crop, the hot, dry weather of summer is upon them, evaporation is great and the proper plant food is non- available for the tree, hence its growth is stopped and exhausted. Nature compels the tree to sleep or be- come dormant, and the formation of fruit buds is stopped to some extent, and those which are formed are imperfect and fail to fertilize properly in spring, hence a failure of the crop. And so it takes a whole year for trees to recuperate. "With irrigation this is changed, for when the fruit is taken from the trees, give a liberal supply of water, get your subsoil thoroughly wet and the trees will 'leap for joy,' and put on a big growth of new wood, form fruit buds that are perfect in construction, and last, but not least, by this method of keeping them growing late in the fall — right up to frost — you can set back the time of spring blossoming from two to three weeks, thus obviating and lessening the danger of late frosts. "While t'he young fruit is in the growing stage, push it along by copious draughts of water and culti- vate after irrigating, not deep, to put a dust mulch up- on every part of the ground where the sun strikes it. Two or three weeks before the fruit begins ripening, be wonderfully surprised at results, in both beauty of appearance and flavor. "Last year I had at San Marcos, Tex., Elbertas and Mamie Ross, irrigated that were exquisite and deli- cious, while just 500 feet distant the same varieties not irrigated could no more be compared than a dol- lar to a dime. They were being forced vastly earlier, liaving sold the Elbertas before June ist. So you see the advantage as an early market catcher. "Now take the plan t'hat I have in the or chard. There are dikes on the level or comparatively level land. These dikes surround as 262 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE much as a quarter of an acre, on less level land throw them up around one or two rows of trees. Notice that the dikes run up to the ditch from which the wa- ter may be turned into the space between dikes. I let the water run in until it will stand about si.x inch- es deep at the first irrigation in spring, while trees are in bloom. Unless, of course, there has been a very wet winter, and lighter applications later will suffice. This will apply to grapes and berries as well as fruit trees. I am thoroughly convinced that the bearing time of nut trees could be cut down one or two years by irrigation. Thus if it takes ten years to bring a young grove into bearing under ordinary circum- stances, by irrigation. eip:ht would suffice." IRRIGATION OF CELERY. Celery requires more water than any other crop we know of. The irrigation of celery at the New Jersey E.xperiment station more than doubled the yield, and increased its market value more than eight times. As soon as the plants are transplanted into their perma- nent bed, water should be allowed to run down the rows, and give the plants a good soaking. If the weather is very dry the plants s'hould be irrigated at least once a week. Many growers water the plants as often as three times a week. Some growers use tiling to irrigate their celery, placing a row of tiling under t'he ground beneath the surface. These rows are placed about twelve feet apart. The tiling is sup- plied by a long ditch, the ditch being filled by a pump. The water comes out at the joints of the til- ing and waters t'he celery. IRRIGATION OF ONIONS. The successful onion grower irrigates bis onions. There are two ways of irrigating onions, — by flooding and by furrows. There are some growers who object to flooding, while there are other growers who claim that flooding has no disadvantages. The ground should be laid off in beds ten, fifteen or twenty feet in width and ten rods in length. The beds should be level, especially should they be level lengthwise. If there is any fall, let it be from one side to the other and not from end to end. Water can be turned on un- til it stands an inch deep all over the bed. Inimedi- atelv after irrigating, that is, as soon as the soil be- comes dry enough, it should be gone over with the wheel hoe to keep it from baking. If the soil is well supplied with moisture wben the seed are planted, it may not be necessary to irrigate for a month after the plants are up. We cannot lay down a definite rule as to when the water should be applied in each case. The first application in the spring should be light. For furrow irrigation, the rows should be on a level an about fourteen inches a])art. Run a Planter Junior cultivator betwen each row, which will leave the ground in excellent shape for the water. Through each one of these furrows run a very small stream of water, not enough to overflow the banks, but just enough to keep running. One great advantage in us- ing the furrow system over flooding in the South, is that a great deal of the land is not level enough to flood, while the rows can be run on a level even if the land is rolling. Onions should not be irrigated more ■ than once a week, and not that often if you have had. any rain. Too much water causes a yield of scullions, ' and the onions will pro\e poor keepers. IRRIGATION OF RICE. This subject is treated under the head of Crowing Rice in another part of this book. The following, taken from the address of F. J. Mer- riam, of Atlanta, Ca., which address was delivered before the Farmers' Institute, at Clemson Col!c~e. August I2th, 1903, while a repetition in some matters will not be irrelevant at this juncture: | METHODS OF APPLICATION. "There are as many different methods of applying as there are of supplying water for irrigating pur- poses. Of these, flooding is probably the most ef- fectual ; but unless one's land lies comparatively level this method is out of the question. Moreover, lands ?a ij treated must be thoroughly underdrained, else it will I become too wet, and damage result. It also requires an enormous quantity of water at one time, such as it would be difficult to obtain without a very large outlay, unless one happened to be exceptionally situ- ated. "Irrigation in the South is very different from that in the West, where there is little or no rainfall dur- ing the summer months. Here a severe drouth is likely to be broken at any time by a heavy downpour of rain, and if this follows immediately after irriga- tion, the land is liable to become puddled and run to- Celery Is a Paying Crop, if Irrigate'. together. This not only injures its physical condition, but often results in permanent injury to the crop as well. I remember once I fiad just finished irrigating a field of cabbage and was congratulating myself up- on 'having done an extra good job. The ground was so wet you could not walk on it without miring up. Well, that night it rained 'hard, and rained a portion of the next day. The land remained saturated with water for several days and the cabbage simply wilt- ed down and died. At least the majority of them died, and the patch was practically ruined. The land was what would he called naturally well drained, but that was not suflicient. It needed artificial drains as well to carry off the surplus water. We have put sev- eral ditches through there since and have had no more Itrouble, but we have also been more careful in ap- plying the water. When irrigating we run a furrow across the up- jlper end of our rows into which the water is turned Ifrom the main irrigating ditch. From this furrow it 'lis allowed to run down between the rows of growing Ivegetables. Where the rows are very close we turn ijthe water down Ijetween every other row ; where jwider, between every row. If the rows are very jjwide we run a furrow alongside the vegetables for ithe water to flow in, our rows being laid off so the jjwater will flow through slowly without washing. ,j "We have injured clay land by running the water ■lover the surface and keeping it there too long at a (time, causing the land to puddle and run together. f|To obviate this, we have found it best to open a deep jifurrow for the water to run in, and even running a pmall subsoil plow t'hrough before the water is turn- ip in. Such deep working might injure a crop if the jfurrows were allowed to dry out, but where water is ['turned in immediately it is beneficial. The water being let into the subsoil acts in a measure like sub- irrigation, the moisture rising to the plant from be- low. Enough water is turned into these furrows to '•nn through to the end, thoroughly wetting the soil vvithout puddling, and is then turned into a fresh row. I have found this to be the most practicable method 3f applying water to my land. "Undoubtedly better results can be obtained from 1 system of sub-irrigation than by any of the ineth- ■"ds of applying water on the surface. As usually practiced, this method consists in laying lines of tile ■ibout a foot below the surface, directly under where ;'he row of vegetables is to grow, and keeping them filled with water during dry weather. This, how- ever, is very expensive and only practicable for per- sons of abimdaiu means and on a l.r.i.teJ scale. "A friend of mine who has a piece of ve.y rich bot- tom land tried a system of sub-irrigation by means of open ditches. His land was a loose alluvial loam un- derlaid with pipe clay. He dug narrow ditches through his field 2 feet deep and 30 feet apart. These ditches were run on a level and he filled them with water and succeeded in raising the water table of liis land to correspond wiUi the water in his ditches,, as it percolated through from ditch to ditch. He grew some very fine celery on this system of irrigation. Duong wet weather the water was turned off, and the ditches served as drains. Any system of irriga- tion or drainage by open ditches, however, is open to serious objection, not only because of the loss of land occupied by the ditches, but because it is an endless job to keep them cleaned out and control the weeds and grass tliat accumulate on their banks. "Tlie market gardener who must bring his vegeta- bles on at a certain time in order to meet the de- mands of his customers, finds it necessary to plant at a certain time, wlietber the weather is hot or dry.. For him, irrigation is often necessary in order to bring up 'his seed. I have had considerable experi- ence along this line and find that the best plan is to apply the water to the land before the seed are sown. If you wait until afterward your stand will be very irregular. We prepare our land, lay off our rows, run the water through them, let it settle, then plant our seed. It is sometimes necessary to cover with a hoe, but we get a stand every time." DRAINAGE. Thousands of acres of land lie idle every year, not producing enough to pay the taxes on it, simply be- cause it is not drained. While water is important, yet there is such a thing as overdoing the matter: " A great many of the river bottoms are the most fer- tile, yet on account of lack of drainage are unproduc- tive. These lands would need practically no fertiliz- er, and would make a great deal more than the hills. The great question with many of our farmers, is how to drain these lands. And it may not be out of the way to digress enough to say, that there is no sub- ject upon which the farmers know so little as the drainage of land. The U. S. Agricultural Depart- ment has taken this matter up, and has done a great deal to enlighten the farmers on the subject of drain- 264 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. ing land. But its mission has not been completed, for many are ignorant on the subject yet. There is a great deal of land t'hat needs draining. For in- stance, the hill sections of the Southern States are literally washed away because they are cither improp- erly or insufficiently drained. We shall not attempt in a brief treatise of this kind, to Jjive the necessity for drainage. Most every one realizes that land should be drained, and that if it is not properly drain- ed, that good crops cannot be produced. There are uvo classes of land that should be drained; the low IjoUonis that are constantly too wet for cultivation, and the hillsides that must be drained in order to prevent them from washing away. We will treat each separately. The Bostrom-Brady Co., of Atlanta, Ga., issued a treatise on Drainage from which we take the fol- lowing: '"TLe little drainage practiced in the South is so iuefnciently done that but slight opportunity is af- forded to illustrate the benefit and profit accruing f:-r.n the proper execution of the work. Many acres •xf land that could be drained with but little cost are r.uw allowed to lie idle, t'he owners preferring to cul- tivate the less fertile upland. Many of these wet lands will pay the cost of drainage the first or second year and give double the yield per acre that is being gathered from areas believed not to be in need of ■drainage. "Tlif benefits of drainage were very forcibly illus- trated during the present year on the Southern Branch Station, Arkansas. There were gathered from one and one-fifth acres 39 bushels of corn. The land liad never before been in cultivation and a portion of it rc:;iaincd under water during the entire summer. 1 lie whole area was boggy and covered with a growth of such plants as are commonly found growing in and around marshes. About 10 cords of willow, sweet gum, and blackgum were taken off and the coarse trash either removed or burned. A small, open ditch was first dug to drain the surface water. A main and two lateral ditches were staked off, the total length •of which was 135 yards. These ditches, where stumps and roots did not interfere, were opened to a depth ■of from 12 to 18 inches with a large turning plow and further deepened to 30 or 36 inches with shovel, giv- ing a fall of about 5 inches to every 100 feet. Into these ditches were placed inverted V shaped troughs, made of cypress plank, 6 inches wide, i inch thick and 16 feet long. The ditches were then filled part- ly with shovel and partly with turning plow. The total cost of the ditch, including digging, plank, nails and filling, did not exceed $10. Not one-tenth of the land thus drained (i 1-5 acres) could have been cul- tivated at all without drainage, but underdrained it produced 39 bushels of corn the first year without fertilizer, while upland not 200 yards distant failed to yield 10 bushels fertilized with 200 lbs. of cotton-seed meal and given twice fhe amount of cultivation. No water now remains on any portion of the drained area referred to more than an hour or two after the heavi- est rain. In fact, it is the drycst ground on the Sta- tion propertv after a heavy rain and the most moist during drouth. Indications cf the Need cf Drainage. "The roots of all cultivated plants extend down to a depth of 3 or 4 feet and under favorable circum- stances deeper. The roots will not, however, grow in water. If the soil remains saturated to within 12 inc'hes of the surface the roots will not penetrate to. a depth greater than 12 inches. The roots of ciilti^ vated plants must be in air as well as the tops. Un-, less excluded by water, air will penetrate the earth to a depth greater than that attained by ther roots of any cultivated plant. That cultivated plants may be prof- itably grown the water should not remain for any length of time nearer the surface than 3 feet. The depth of a water table (or the height to which water stands in the soil) can be determined in several ways! and when found to remain nearer the surface than ^ feet the soil will be greatly benefited by drainage. "Among the indications of the need of drainagtj, are: ( a) Swamps. (b) Certain plants that grow on wet ground. (c) Wide cracks on surface in dry weather. (d) Water in pits or standing on surface. (e) Soil remaining wet long after rain. (f) Stagnant water within three feet of surface.. The presence of any one of these indications is sufj ficient evidence of a decided need of drainage, am! as a rule it would be profitable to drain land with t - evidence of the presence of even one of these inih tions. It has been written "that all lands which ar worth plowing, which is not the case with all h- that are plowed, would be improved by draina::' But it does not necessarily follow that all lands wort You Cannot Learn All About Irrigation In a Day. 265 plowing may be profitably drained. It is a fact, how- ever, that thousands of acres of cultivated lands would, if properly drained, give double their present yield, and thousands more not cultivated, on account i of their being too wet, would, if drained, yield dou- ble or treble as much as the average acre now in cul- tivation." The draining of bottoms is a very important sub- ject throughout the South. A great deal of land is not in cultivation on account of the great amount of water. There are several methods of draining bot- toms. The one that has been practiced more than any other throughout the South to drain bottoms is by means of open ditches. This, method of draining I has a great many objections, and should not be prac- 1 ticed. The imderground drain is really the only suc- cessful met'hod of draining wet lands. You have several advantages in using the underground drains over the open ditch. One great objection to the use of the open ditch is that you lose the use of the land ■ that is occupied by the ditch, and this is a large con- •sideration, for it will require a great deal of land used )| as ditches to properly drain land. The underground 'drains more successful than the open ditch. j, The writer is acquainted witli a farm in Jack- -!| son County, Georgia, that had been attempted to be B drained by open ditches. The farm is just between iia river and a creek. The effort to drain with open I ditches proved a failure. Another party bought the llfarm and placed underground drains made of tiling ijin and since that time has had the bottoms in culti- vation, making good crops each year. Before this land was drained with the underground drains, it did not produce anything at all. And taking it for grant- ed that you desire to use underground drains, which you should do by all means, several questions come ijup for solution. DEPTH OF DRAINS. Drains should not, as a rule, be placed lower .than ifour feet, for ordinary farm crops. The level of the I] ground water changes with the seasons. In some cases land that must be drained only to allow the jland to be cultivated in the early spring, and it is j|only desired to draw the water down enoug'h to al- low cultivation in the early spring. In such cases, the tiles can be placed 2 1-2 or 3 feet deep. If you Iplace the tiles deeper than this, the water bed will jbe permanently lowered, and the crop caused to suf- fer in the summer for water. And the nature of the soil effects the depth the drains should be placed. Fields that are underlaid by sandy subsoils, for the water bed should be as near the surface as possible'. Water is raised to the surface of the ground by what is known as capillary action, i. e., the water comes up through the small holes that are between the grains of soil, and the distance that it can be raised in sandy soils is not so great as in other soils, hence drains for sandy land s'hould not be placed as deep as in clay lands. DISTANCE BETWEEN DRAINS. The distance between the drains is also an impor- tant consideration. According to F. H. King, author of Irrigation and Drainage, three factors determine the proper distance between underdrains: (i) the freedom with whic'h water may flow through the subsoil toward the drains, (2) the depth at whic'h the drains are placed, and (3) the intervals of time be- tween rainfalls sufficiently heavy to produce consid- erable percolation. The character of the subsoil de- termines the rate at which the water moves towards the drains. There are several other matters that ef- fect the rate with which the water flows towards and into the drains. It is the practice to place drains anywhere from 30 to 100 and sometimes as much as 200 feet apart. The most successful tile drains laid in Georgia are those on the farms of Dr. L. G. Hard- man. Dr. Hardman places his drains anyw'here from 50 to 150 feet apart, and claims to have received great benefit from them. KIND OF DRAINS. As to the material with which drains should be made, opinions vary. There are several different materials. Small pine poles were once used, placing one pole upon two others. Some split • large pine poles, and L^y them in the bottom of the ditch side by side with their faces upwards. And t'hen some have nailed two hoards together V-shaped and placed in the bottom of the ditch. Stones have been used in various ways for the pur- pose of draining. Sometimes the bottom of the ditch is covered with small stones, and these covered w'th dirt. Then two flat stones placed on edge to form a V opening downward is a plan that has been used 266 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. a great deal. Another plan is to place two flat stones on edge, and one on top of these two, forming a rectangular box, using the dirt for one side, has been used. This is the most successful plan of using stones, and where the stones can be secured at a reasonable price, this kind of drainage is per- haps to be preferred above all others. Boxes made of boards about seven inches square make an excellent drain as long as they last. Since the box at times becomes dry it is subject to decay, antl is not as lasting as some other materials. There is another very serious objection to boards, and that is when you wish to make any repairs, or should the drain become filled, you will have to take up a much longer section than when tiling or stones are used. As a rule when plank boxes are used, they are made twelve, fourteen or sixteen feet long. Tiles are, as a rule, eighteen inc'hes long, and it is not necessary to dig up JO much should repairs be necessary. There is no better drain made than tiling. It costs more to put in a tile dram that it does any other ma- terial, but it is far- more satisfactory. It costs more to put them in, but they never decay, and on a whole give much more satisfactory results. There are a great many erroneous impressions concerning tile draining. Some people believe that a considerable ^pacp should be left between the ends of the tiles so that the water can enter. But this is not true The tiles should be placed as close together as pos- sible. The water will enter through the joints, and through the pores of the tiles in sufficient quantities, .•ind it is therefore unnecessary to make any provis- ion for the entrance of water. Collars should not be used at the joints to prevent the trash from entering, for if you will place the tiles as close as you can get them, you should experience no trouble in keeping trash from entering. The collars will retard the en- trance of the water. There are several shapes of tile on the market, but you will find that the round tile is better than any other s'hape. There is Ic^s friction, and less danger of moss growing in the drains if they are round, than vifhen they are square or octagon in shape. THE FALL FOR DRAINS. The matter of laying the drains with the correct amout of fall is the most important part of tile laying. Indeed, this matter is of so much importance that you had better get some one with instruments lo do the work for you, for you will make a misera- ble failure, nine cases out of ten, if you depend on guess work. While it is true that it will cost some- thing to secure the services of a competent man, yet if you have it done as it should be, you are through with it, but on the other hand, if it is not properly- done, you will be worried about it as long as you live. Really when you consider that you are placing' tile drains in for life, and that you want to be trou- bled with them just as little as possible, you can read- ily see the importance of doing the work as it should be. Reference has been made once or twice to the drainage done by iJr. L- G. Hardman. w'ho sent to a tile factory for a man to come to his farm and place the drains in. The man came without levels or in- struments of any kind. It was seen at once that the method of guessing would not do, so Dr. Hardman sent to Iowa for a man that knew how to lay drains. It was expensive, but a man was secured that knew his business, and the drains that were laid in 1898 are giving perfect satisfaction now, while the drains that were laid by guess have had to be taken up and repaired. If you can secure a fall of 2 inches to ev- ery 100 feet of drains, the results should be favora- ble. In many cases, however, much less fall than this has to be accepted. If you have to use less fall than two inches it should only be after careful surveying of the ground, and after you are satisfied that you cannot possibly get more fall. Care should be ob- served to have the most uniform fall for the whole drain, or any lateral possible, and then the tiles should be laid true to grade after the grade has been secur- ed. It may not always be possible to maintain a uni- form grade throug'hout the ent-re main or lateral, and when such is the case, that is, when you have to change the grade, it should be changed from a less fall to a greater one, for then any sediment which should be carried in the upper part of the drain will also be carried in the lower part of the drain, but if the fall is reversed this does not always follow. Shouhl it be necessary to change from a greater fall to a less fall, a silt basin should be used. It is best to make silt basins of brick or stone, and they may be two or three feet square, or larger, and should be a foot deeper at least than the lowest drain. AH sediment that comes from the drains will fall in this, and can be removed at any time. Silt basins should be covered to prevent accidents. Cabbage Will Pay Well when Irrigated. 267 SIZE OF TILES TO USE. It may be laid down as a safe rule that tiling small- er than two inches in diameter should not be used. The larger the tiles are the better. Mr. C. G. Elliott, one of the best posted men in the United States on drainage, says: "For drains not more than 500 feet long, a 2-inch tile will drain two acres. Lines more than 500 feet long, should not be laid of 2-inch tiles. A 3-inch tile will drain five acres, and not be of great- er length than 1,000 feet. A 4-inch tile will drain 12 acres : a 5-inch 20 acres ; a 6-inc'h 40 acres, and a 7- inth tile 60 acres." TERRACING. The question of how best to construct terraces is ] an important one 'here in the South. Many farmers, on 1 rolling land get along without any terraces at all, and their land does not wash away either. But there are few farmers that can get along without terraces. A 'farm in middle Georgia was very badly washed. .'\n enterprising farmer came into possession of it, and be- gan by deep cultivation. He broke the land deep and plowed on a level. That same farm to-day has not a single wash in it, and neither has it a terrace in it. •jMost farmers do not break t'heir land deep enough iifor anything like this, nor do they plow on a level. 'jThey will have to continue the old method of build- "ing terraces. HI "The theory of terraces, wh'c'h has been sustained 'iby experience, is that it prevents the water which falls on the land from collecting in rivulets 'having force enough to do mischief, and causes it to remain longer on the soil, as the terrace spaces become gradu- ally leveled by sucessive plowings ; and compels that which does not flow off to spread in sheets as from the eaves of a'house roof, instead of in collected quantities las from the valleys of the roof. The water that does |not soak into tlie earth is carried from the field spread (uniformly over its surface and with a checked velocity, jtthus decreasing its washing effect geometrically as its [Velocity is retarded and geometrically again as it is uniformly spread. Some give a slight fall to the ter- race line and others throw up a bank with a ditch above. Both are objectionable and totally inconsis- tent with the fundame-.tal idea of the terrace. The bank proves terribly destructive and has caused much jjprejiidice against terracing. T'he mischief done bv the breaking of t'he bank and turning loose the pond which has collected above. Such a so-called terrace is nothing more or less than a hillside ditch improp- erly constructed. To Lay off a Terrace. "A starting point is selected either above or below any comparatively level part of the hillside so as to cut such level as little as possible. If there is no such level to be protected it matters little where the start- ing point is taken. Absolutely level lines are laid off around the hill and staked, placing the stakes nearer if the curve is sharp to preserve the level when plow- ing. If t'he slope is uniform and the curvature slight the stakes may not be so near each other. If there are old gullies or other decided local depressions or elevations to be crossed by the terrace, let stakes be placed near the edge on each side to avoid sudden bends in the line. These gullies and other sharp lo- cal depressions must be filled and the terrace line where it crosses them be strongly fortified before plowing commences. This is greatly facilitated by plowing up one side and down the ot'her with turn- ing plow throwing the furrows into the ditch. Af- ter plowing and replowing several times in this man- ner the gullies can be greatly leveled, even when originally 3 or 4 feet deep. The terrace lines, which are designated by the rows of stakes, are at no time to be broken, but soil not less than the width of the plow slice must be left with the stakes. In plowing the spaces between the terrace lines begin one fur- row width above the lower line, throwing the plow slice upon the unbroken space. Continue returning upon the furrows, throwing each plow slice dpwn hill with hillside or reversible plow until the next terrace line above is reached, leaving the last furrow below t'he next terrace line open. Unless the two adjacent terrace lines are parallel, which is rarely the case, there will be short furrows to break below the terrace line. Before plowing these short furrows it is well to plow the first furrow above the next ter- race line that it may be used as a guide in plowing out the short furrows and that the terrace line may not accidently be broken. This is only necessary when t'he terrace is being plowed the first time. If there is unterraced land above from which the water will flow upon the land being terraced, its flow must be arrested by a ditch so laid off and constructed as to collect and carry this water around the terrace. 268 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. otherwise gullies may be cut across the terraces by the first washing rain. "The fall between two terrace lines, or the vertical elevation of one terrace line above the line below, should be three feet, and this fall will be accurately preserved when the terraces are laid off on a perfect level, as should invariably be the case. "After the terraces are once correctly formed and grass grows upon them, they are of no further trou- ble, but take care of themselves. If the terraces are made in fall or winter, it will be of very great ad- vantage to sow terrace line thick with rye, or with oats if they are made in the early spring. . This cov- ering of vegetation will be valuable for 'holding the terrace lines until they become covered with the na- tive grasses and weeds which appear later and serve the same purpose. German clover may be substitut- ed for rye if planted in late summer or early fall. In sowing the seed, whether rye, barley, oats, or clover, it is a good plan to first sow thickly on the unbrokea terrace line. This sowing will be covered by the fitst cover with the second furrow. Alfalfa and meliotus will answer the above purpose where these plants thrive without much attention and on strong soil would afford protection both summer and winter. "Terrace lines serve as a valuable guide in laying off rows for planting. These lines will not be equi- distant throughout their lengths and there must be short rows in the terraces. Lay off the rows alter- nately from fhe upper and lower margins until they meet at t'he narrowest part and then finish the space with short rows, laying them off alternately as be- fore. Rows thus laid off are themselves miniature terraces and materially aid the regular ones in per- forming their function. The objections to terraces are the greater difficulty in the use of improved ma- chinery, in hauling and the increased number of short rows, all of which is insignificent when compared wifh their benefits. "In portions of Georgia and Alabama where the proper svstem of terracing is largely practiced, im- mense areas that once were considered 'worn out' and incapable of profitable yield, now produce crops as large as were gathered when the same areas were 'new ground,' and in many instances where a judi- cious system of crop rotation and proper culture are practiced, the yield is greater than ever before. "To avoid trouble and disaster to those who may construct terraces or hillside ditches, this cautionary statement is m^ide — that the work must be properly and thoroug'hly done. This statement applies to all ' kinds of farm drainage. "Mr. J. S. Newman, vice-director and agriculturist, ' South Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station, ' says: "It has been estimated that eighty per cent, of the injury to the cultivated soils of the cotton States as the effect of tillage, is attributable to surface wash- ing." "Clean culture and hillside ditches are responsible for the present wasted condition of the soils of the cotton States. Clean culture, by leaving the land ex- posed to washing and leac'hing duri,ng the fall and winter months, has impoverished not only the hill sections, but the sandy, level lands as well. In North- ern latitudes, where the surface soil freezes in the fall and remain frozen for from three to five months all decomposition is arrested, and no waste from leaching can take place. In our climate decomposi- tion continues, with slight interruption, through the winter. The meager supply of vegetable matter left upon the soil, decomposes during the winter, and the plant food which results (there being no covering of; vegetation on the surface and no feeding roots in the soil to arrest the products of the decomposition) is either carried off in the surface water or leached t'hrough the soil beyond the reach of the roots of the spring crops. If grain of some kind was sown in the fall upon all fields which had been subjected to clean culture during the current year, not only would the surface covering prevent the waste by washing, but the roots filling the soil would take up and conserve the plant food, becoming available during the winter, for the use of the crops to be planted in the spring I following. In the grain and grass growing sections j the soil is never wit'hout some covering vegetation, ( and consequently there is less liability to waste ' (even if climatic conditions were the same,) than i under our system of husbandry. "More than half century ago the land owners of the cotton States realized the rapidity with which | their soils were being wasted, and recognized the I most conspicuous cause in surface washing. Mr- Hardwick, a planter in Hancock County, Georgia, is said to have devised and put into practice t'he first system of what has been since known as hillside ditching, as a supposed preventive of the wasteful surface washing, which was rapidly carrying the soil from the hills into the vr.llcvs and Ftreams. This sys- tem was general'y adopted by planters own'n'^ roil- Keep Trying is the Motto in Irrigation as Well as in Other Things. 269 ng lands in all of the older cotton States, and some ire even now using this most efficient method of has- ening the transfer of the soil of the hills to the ad- acent swamps and streams. The history of hillside •litches is written in unmistakable language in the jullied hillsides from the Atlantic to the Mississippi —in the barren, corrugated surfaces, red with the ilushes of mother earth at the rude exposure of her iO-Lim, and the prodigal waste of her resources. "The theory of the hillside ditch looked to the pro- tction of the land from surface washing by collect- ng the descending water at intervals, and conduct- ng it by gentle grade to the creeks. They proved in iractice, however, a deception and a snare. They lot only did not prevent the removal of the surface oil, the humus and the soluble plant food, but has- eiicd it, even while the banks of ditches remained iitact, and all obstructions were regularly removed. "Under the tenant system, which has prevailed for he last thirty years, these neglected ditches have be- ome the most effective engines of destruction. "The neglected ditch has conferred one blessing upon the landowners of the cotton States, w'hich com- pensates in some degree for the sins it has commit- ted. An observant farmer in Chambers County, Ala- bama, noticed that where the old ditches had little or no fall, they had filled with the soil washed from above, and formed against the lower bank a terrace. Acting upon this suggestion he laid off his entire farm with horizontal lines, giving a perpendicular fall of three feet between them, and plowing the surface in imitation of the agencies which had converted the ditch into the terrace, and such success crowned his experiment that terracing is now adopted as the most and, in fact, the only reliable means of prevent- ing injurious surface washing upon cultivated hill sides. The theory of the ditch is to collect the water. which falls upon fhe hills and carry it off. The theory of the terrace is to prevent the water from collecting, and to cause it"to sink into the soil of the hill, where it is needed. The ditch carries off the water, and with it the soluble plant food, leaving the soil dry and hungry. h Book VIII. Enemies to thI'. Farm EDITED BY JAMES CLYDE ADAMS, S. B MESENA, GEORGIA. 272 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE Enemies to the Farm The farmer has many enemies in the shape of mice, rats, moles, Johnson grass, Bermuda grass, nut grass, etc. These pests do a great deal of daniage, 'and it is important to the farmer that they do fheir best to rid the farm of as many of these pests as possible. MICE AND RATS. There is hardly a farmer that is not bothered with mice. They are a great nuisance, cutting into bags and boxes causing a great waste. There are several methods of disposing of or getting rid of mice. There is nothing better than an old-fashion cat, provided she will do her duty. However, this method sometimes proves a failure, other methods will have to be re- sorted to. There are many traps on the market and many of them are first-class. But rats will learn these traps, and you will have to make a change. A very simple plan is to take a large bucket or lard can, something whic'h has slick sides so that they cannot crawl up, and fill it about one-half full of water, and place some cotton seed, or grass, chaff, or something that will float over the water. The rats and mice will jump into this can, and drown, not being able to stay upon the water, and the sides being so slick that they cannot run up them. Scatter a few grains of copperas about the mice holes, and it is said that you will not be bothered with them. TJ:cre are many poisons for rats, but as a rule it is best not to use them. It is a sure method, but other things are liable to get hold of the poison. And then - the rats are liable to get into the walls and die, and the odor will not be very -agreeable. A mixture of two parts well bruised common squills and three parts finely-chopped bacon is made into a stiff mass with as much meal as may be required and then baked into small cakes, which are put down for the rats to eat. This plan while simple, is said to be very effective. RABBITS. Rabbits do a great deal of harm by cutting' down the garden and gnawing the fruit trees. If the rabbits are gnavidng your trees, wrap them with screens or wood veneering. But if you have none of these at hand, and do not care to buy, you may use any kind of cloth or old rags, or even corn- stalks. Newspapers will do for one season, using sev- eral sheets to the tree. Wrap closely and tie secure- ly with twine, about two feet high or more. Before wrapping, examine for tree borers; you will find them usually near the ground. Look carefully wher- ever you find a hole or worm meal and be sure to cut out the worm or kill it with a wire. It will be a good idea to rub the trunk of the tree well in order to clean it of eggs of insects and fungous. Rake away all trash and grass around the trunk of the tree to prevent mice from making nests there. Mice will bark fruit trees near the ground, if permitted to winter there. MOLES. Moles are small animals easily distinguished by their soft dark fur, long pointed nose, and large, strong developed front feet, which are used to throw a^^ide the dirt in making their burrows. The moles live on insects almost altogether, and do very little harm in eating the roots of fruit trees, and seed that are planted. However, the mice that go in the runs of the moles do a great deal of harm, and the respon- sibility for the loss of seed should be given to them, and not to the moles. However, if the moles did not make the runs, the mice would do no harm, so far as destroying t'he seed that are planted. The moles are a benefit in that they destroy a great many insects. If you desire to get rid of them, there are several very sim])le methods of getting rid of them. Pour kerosene oil in their runs, and you will not be troubled with the mole any longer. Another remedy: .Soak the seed in kerosene before planting, and you will not be troubled with moles. This remedy causes the corn to be later in coming up, as the oil prevents the moisture from entering, and therefore the grain does not germinate so soon. Another remedy: Pour carbon bisulphide into the runs. Place it at I'! Take pains to see that the rats are kept out of the corn crib. 273 different parts of the run so that the fumes will be sure tcrget to the mole. Another remedy : Make a small hole into t'he run and place castor beans in, and then cover up the hole. These should be placed every few steps. JOHNSON GRASS. Many farms have been ruined by Johnson grass. While it has some value as a hay, yet it is very ex- pensive hay, for when the land has once been infest- ed it is a very difficult matter to get rid of it. If the land be very poor, persistent and continuous cultiva- tion from early spring until late fall will do much to rid the farm of it. However, if the land be fertile, it •will withstand this treatment. Some one has recom- mended the summer plowing of fallow land during the hottest and driest months of the summer as the best means of killing it. The first plowing should be two inches deep, and the second plowing should be four inches deep, and crossways the field. Some one has recommended pasturing to kill it out, but this is not effective. The roots remain alive, and when the land is brought back into cultivation, the grass appears very luxuriantly. Salt has been recommended to kill it, but it has lit- tle value. Killing Johnson Grass. We quote the following from a recent bulletin on "The Extermination of Johnson Grass," by W. J. Spillman, of the United States Department of Agri- culture, just issued to the public: "In the autumn, at a time when the land is in good condition to cultivate, plow to a moderate depth with I a turning plow, being careful to cut and turn every inch of the soil. A good disk plow so set as to cut every inch of the soil would answer as well. Har- row the land immediately so as to get it smooth and well pulverized. It is perfectly useless to try to use t'he root digger unless the land is brought into excel- lent condition and is free from clods. The next treat- ment is to run over the land with some implement which acts on the same principle as the root digger. First, run crosswise of the furrows and then length- wise. "The roots left on the surface by this treatment may either be removed from the field, or left to de- cay during the winter. In t'he spring, plow the land again with the turning plow and then put it in cot- ton in the usual way and give the cotton ordinary good tillage. Pay no attention to the Johnson grass until the first sprigs get to be about six inches high, then go carefully over the land and pull out every bunch of Johnson grass visible. By doing this work carefully it will be possible to remove every sprig, root and branch, because the grass sprouts come from small loose pieces of roots in the soil. By repeating this operation, never allowing a sprig to get more than six inches high, the grass can be completely eradicated during the summer, and the amount of labor required will not be excessive." BERMUDA GRASS. Bermuda grass, once established is very hard to get rid of. It can be eradicated, however, by persis- tant effort. In October turn your land over, and al- low it to remain until the spring. Then plant corn or cotton, or some crop requiring clean cultivation for two or three years. It ought to be turned over not later than October. Another recommends the following method : "To kill out Bermuda grass break your land shal- low, very shallow, when it is dry; the drier the bet- ter. Always remember that deep plowing and lots of moisture is the life of the plant; therefore, govern your licks accordingly. Plow often, use the harrow freely, and strike w'hile the sun shines hot. If you plow deep, using a turning plow you will never get rid of it." One Way of Growing Corn, Chipley, Fla. A Busy Day at Chipley, Fla. One Car Load of Mowing Machines Unloaded in One Day, Six Years After the Above Picture Was Taken, Book IX. .Improved Farm Machinery. EDITED BY G. F. HUNNICUTT, A. B. EDITOR SOUTHERN CULTIVATOR, ATLANTA, GA. 27.6 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. Improved Farm Machinery AND Tools. THE IMPORTANCE AND USE OF FARM TOOLS. Man has been designed as "A tool using animal," and his ability to make and use tools has been one of the principal influences that 'has forged our civili- zation ; and every nation now upon mother earth is removed from barbarism just in proportion to its advance in the use of improved tools. It is very strange that while agriculture is the oldest of all the arts, and forms the very foundation of all of them, and while the first rude tools were made to help till the soil, yet advanced progress was made in all other tool-using trades much earlier than in agriculture. However, as this state of affairs could not continue, as all mankind must be first fed and clothed, the Nineteenth Century witnessed rapid strides made in the invention and use of tools upon the farm ; and the movement continues until now we have many varie- ties of tools to perform every step in our varied farm operations. The progressive farmer now uses his, muscle and brain to guide the many farm tools that accomplish his every form of work, from preparation, through cultivation and harvesting, with greater thoroughness and rapidity than he could possibly ac- complish them with his hands. All of us are to some extent familiar with many of the improved farm tools, yet others are slow to appreciate their value and use- fulness in rendering our work so muc'h more effec- tive. Our soil can be plowed so much deeper by the use of the disc and two-horse plows; pulverized so much more thoroughly and rapidly by the use of im- proved harrows; our seed put in more evenly and thoroughly by the use of weeders. harrows and culti- vators; and our harvesting done so much more effec- tively and rapidly by the use of mowers and binders, — that t'he whole process of farming becomes »a con- tinued' using of suitable tools. For every phase of work and for each different crop we have special tools; so that it becomes very important for the farm- er to learn the excellent features of the many kinds of tools manufactured, and to become skilled in oper- ating them. Improved tools have become A POWER, and such a power in our farm world that the main question ' left a progressive farmer is, What kind and how many tools shall I_have? Then as the world pro- gresses, the' labor prcfblem becomes more and more a \ feature to be dealt with in our farming'. Our people ^ ■.♦r«-s| ■ _.^ — rt n ' ■ 1 1^^ ) F i 1% j^msmmm-j^j ^H ^^^ ^^l ► J Cutting Eusilage Corn, Belmont Farm, Smyrna, Ga. ll are becoming and will become more intelligent, cani use tools to a better advantage and will naturally I need and demand better wages than were formerly paid; hence another imperative demand for more and! better tools upon the farms. Then those using them are given so much the advantage in economical pro- duction over those who do not use improved farniji tools, that it becomes a universal necessity. We feeh safe in saying that by an intelligent use of all tlie^ necessary tools up'on a farm the cost of production can be lessened fifty per cent. ; while on an average with the most improved tools one man can do the work of three men. But as 'it costs something to buv these tools and the power to run them, we count on- Use The Best Iproved Farm Machinery Possible. 277 ]y on a clear saving of fifty j?roduction. per cent, in the cost of I^or the most effective use of tools we must clear our lands of stumps and rocks. To get our land in the 'best mechanical condition becomes our first duty. Here dynamite, the stump pullers and the two-horse plows come to our aid. In our succeeding chapters ■we will 'have something more definite to say about many of our most important tools and their specific use. We will only add in this connection that the South is far behind the Northern and Western sec- tions in the intelligent use and care of labor-saving tools. It was our privilege many years ago to visit I a magnificent farm in the North-west of seven hun- l-dred and fifty acres. This farm was yielding as I great a net cash income as any cotton plantation of ■I equal area, yet this farm was operated by the owper ed with cultivators that cleaned a row at a time; no hoeing was done. The corn was cut by a corn har- vester and shucked and put into the barn by a shred- der. Many people think that we cannot afford to buy so many tools, while the fact is, we cannot afford not to buy them, since fhey double our producing capac- ity, and if we do not have the tools our competitors who do use them will have the advantage of us. TOOLS TO BE USED IN THE PREPARATION OF LAND AND IN CULTIVATING THE CROPS. It is a matter of vital importance in successful farm operations that we become familiar with, and learn to use the very best tools made in the preparation of our lands; also in the cultivation of our crops. The A Good Disc HaiTow. land two hired men. When they went out to break jl!heir land they used a sulky turning plow each drawn i"by three twelve hundred pound horses, and they Iplowed well, nine acres per day. They put in their grain with a drill covering eight or ten acres per day, and cut it. with a binder. They planted their corn iwith a corn dropper, whidh opened, dropped and cov- jered the corn at one operation. This corn was plow- deep and thorough -preparation of the soil lies at the foundation of all truly successful farming. It has laeen said that this is more than' half the battle- It is certainly true that no amends can be made for a deficiency in this respect. The deep soil holds and furnishes more than double the amount of water ; it has available more than double the amount of plant food ; and the plant roots can penetrate it more read- 2^8 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. ily. The ideal soil s'hould be as fine as diist, and when reduced to this state furnishes one thousand times the water surface for the plant roots to feed up- on, as when left coarse. The plow constitutes our first and most important farm tool. There are many kinds, that will do effective work in the lines in which they are intended to be used. In no way has the Sout'h suffered so much as from shallow and imper- fect plowing. The one-horse plow used to scratch the surface of the soil has been made our curse. Hence so much of our lands are seamed with gullies and our virgin soil has been washed away. We are certainly thankful that the two-horse and disc plows are now fast coming into general use. No farm is complete without one or the other. Every farmer .-... , imm'^''-' Filling Silo, Aug. 17, 1903. Georgia Experiment Station, Experiment, Ga. should break at least one-third of his land with one of these plows each year; if he could turn it all in the fall and winter it would be so much better, but our winters are so wet as to render t'lis difficult. It is not within the scope of this article to give special mention of any make of plows, but we can trutlifully say t'hat there are many good ones on the market; and good work can be done with almost any of them, when hitched behind a strong team, and guided by competent hands. When the land has been properly broken, then yoti want to use 3'our harrow until you g.et it smooth and very fine. We Southerners do not appreciate the full value of tlie harrow, and its province in producing fine tilth. This fine tilth is essential to the maximum yield. Mr. J. B. Terry, of Ohio, says he has increas- ed his yield of wheat one bushel per acre for each harrowing given the land before sowing, up to six- teen times. Any crop will germinate quicker, come up earlier, grow off better, and yield more where the land is well harrowed after breaking. There are many makes, but a disc, a cutaway and a smoothing harrow are a necessity upon every well equipped farm. There are some classes of work that each kind does best,. and with tools you want the one especially adapted to the kind of work you wish done. TOOLS FOR PLANTING AND CULTIVATING. As soon as the soil has been properly plowed and harrowed, then the work of putting in fertilizers, planting and cultivating our crops commences. The distributing of fertilizers and t'he planting of cotton seed is nearly universally done with distributors and planters. But the manure spreader is still too rare a tool in our Southland ; also the corn dropper and the grain drill.- Since the cotton planter, the grain drill, the guano distributor and the corn dropper are all four combined in one machine, there is no excuse for our farmers not possessing such a machine. As we become more prosperous, we should become more progressive, and should make use of all the distribu- tors, planters and grain drills t'hat do the work more rapidly and satisfactory. Just as soon as planting is over, cultivation begins, and then comes the necessity for rapid shallow cul- ture. Here the weeders and wide light harrows come into play and are fast winning that appreciation they so richly merit. Crops are now being made without so much expensive hoeing, and the amount of labor- ers needed is reduced by nearly half. Mr. W. H. Morton, one of the best farmers of Clark County, Georgia,' in 1905 cultivated sixty acres with 2 mules and two 'hands. He never used a hoe in his cotton or corn and made quite a fine yield of both. After getting the crop started off. then the walk- ing and riding cultivators come into use. Here we are much behind, on account of the stumpy and rocky condition of our lands ; but these obstacles must be removed so the most improved tools can come into- general use. Rapid, level, shallow cultivation is cer- tainly the ideal ; and the tools that will accomplish this most effectively for our growing crops are the ones we farmers s'hould use. The choice of a tool and the proper operation of it. will mean much in the result of our crops and the profit they will yield us, See To It That The Farm Implement that You Are Buying Is Practicable. 279 which are the main things all of us are after. By the use of such tools farming not only becomes remuner- ative, but the work ceases to be such drudgery. The intelligent man finds a demand for his skill, a reward for his efforts and his physical forces are not over- taxed. TOOLS TO BE USED IN SAVING AND UTIL- IZING THE FARM PRODUCTS. The tools for gathering and saving our varied crops are wonderful labor savers, and the scale of •our farm operations now, could not be continued without them. Take for instance, the item of hay ; what could we do without the mower, the self-dump- ing rake, the tedder, the hay loader, the hay fork and the hay press. Every step in the saving of this valu- able crop can be performed with great rapidity and efficiency by the use of these now indispensable tools. In the case of grain we have even a more effective Breaking Land on Fai-m of Southern Ruralist, Atlanta, Ga. tool in the binder. With corn, we have the corn har- vester; and the fertile brains of inventors are now trying to perfect a cotton picker. While we doubt this last ever being made an economical sucess, yet fifty years ago the binder would have' been deemed equally impossible. However this may be, it behooves every farmer to procure and to use the best har- vesting macliines made. A gentleman wisely put it the other day this way, "We can no longer buy or control labor, but we can both buy and control ma- chinery, and have it do our labor in producing and harvesting our crops." This branch of farm tools is fairly appreciated in the South and is daily gaining ground. The music of the mower and the reaper is heard in our land, though not half to the extent it should be. We need these tools it is true, but we need far more to grow greater quantities of grass and grain to save with them. Our Southern farmers are just upon the threshold of this important department of farm tools, — tools for Utilizing our farm products. To make a crop is an important matter: to utilize it to its greatest advan- tage becomes a much greater matter. Since here the true profit lies, and this profit is what we are main- ly after. The manufacturers have ever reaped larger and surer profits than the producers of raw material. The farm should be both a producing and a manufac- turing plant, with the proper use of horse power, the wind, water powei*, gasoline engines and electricity. All farm products should leave the farm as finish- ed products as nearly as possible. The shredder, the cutter and the mill should prepare our food right at home so as to yield its highest nutritive value and be fed to our stock in only its most digestible form. Be- cause we formerly did a certain way is no reason for our continuance. We must be ever reaching out for the best. Our motto should be No Waste: the full value from every crop. But few of us know the full value of our corn crop, and we cannot know until we feed stalk and all. The stalk cut up or shredded and the corn and cob ground together into meal, then and not until then can our stock receive from it its full value. The writer now has a gasoline engine and outfit and never dreamed of their usefulness or con- venience before. He often cuts up two loads of corn and pumps water for a week's use in an hour's time, doing all the work himself. CARE OF FARM TOOLS. Here three-fourths of the Southern farmers are at fault. Thousands of dollars are annually lost by buy- ing expensive machinery and leaving it out in the rain and weather. No farm is complete without an adequate tool shelter. There are enterprising farm- ers who always carefully clean and wipe dry every shovel, spade, plow, cultivator; in fact, all kinds of tools that they use in the dirt, before they lay them down, and in most cases immediately place them un- der a shed. Farm machinery, such as plows and cul- tivators, should be wiped clean and covered with a coat of wagon grease, which will absolutely prevent ^^^ TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 1. .0. .sun. TOO. U„. n-ea.a ...^ ™^ .ea.. ^ ^^^ ^'^ ll^ ^ l.^ " be .n f.ne shape and much n.ore sat.faaor> work f-^^doUa-^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^.^^^^^ ,^^.,^^ ^^^.^ ,,„,,, can be accomphshed. ^^^^^^^ ^^^.^^^ machinery that does not look weather Mr T B Terry (a very successful farmer) never beaten. This careful and methodical way should be allows a tool left out for 'an hour when not .n use. practiced by ourselves and certamly taught to our He has a manure spreader he has been using for children. Gasoline Thresliing Outfit. Book X. Bee Department. EDITED BY JAMES CLYDE ADAMS, S. B MESENA, GEORGIA. W. S. HART'S APIARY, HAWKS PARK, FliA. Every Well Equipped Farm Should Have Bees. Bee Department. 283 "The bees are humming, humming, And the honey crop is coming — In the fall. If you are in a position to give a portion of your ime and attention to bee keeping, there is no reason ,'hy you should not make money out of the business. )f course it is not all profit, and you need not expect 3 get rich without labor and trouble, but there is a ery fair profit in the business. It is not claimed lat the business will pay from the start, for you now that it is an exception for any business to pay om the very start. There is one thing that it re- iiires to succeed in the bee culture, and that is de- :rmination. You cannot hope to be successful with- if you are on the farm, or live in a village, you should keep a few hives of bees. One reason why bee cul- ture is so little engaged in, is on account of ignor- ance. Most of us are densely ignorant concerning bees, although we have seen them most of our lives.. Some people speak of bees gathering honey. Bees do not gather honey. This only shows the ignorance of people. Bees no more gather honey, than dairy- men milk butter. What the bee does is to gather the nectar from the flower, and then converts this nectar into honey. Just how this is done is not known. The honey is very thin and is deposited into cells, and it is then evaporated Ijy a process of the bees' wings to nearly one-half of what the original amount was. It Aijiai.v of J. F. ilclut.yre, near Ventura, Cal. — Looking "Westwai'd. t determination. Make up your mind that you will ;cced despite difficulties. At present not as many niers are engaged in bee culture as there should Every farmer should have a few hives of bees, they will prove a present^help in the time of trou- Most every one can look after bees if they have 'Ugh will-power and patience. The bee is very id in disposition, and rarely becomes angry. So IS one of the sweetest articles produced without the agency of man, and it therefore commands a good price. "All honey, when gathered by the bees, is placed in little wax cells of a hexagonal form, and, after be- ing filled up by the bees, the comb is capped over by them in the same fashion as the housewife seals the preserves which she puts up in the summertime. 284 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. "So infinitesimally small and delicate has been this wax film placed over as a sealing to these delicate cells, and the walls of these being also exceedingly delicate, it has been absolutely impossible for man to duplicate the product. So much interest has been created in the past that there are now two rewards, one from Ohio and another from WiscOnsis, of $i,ooo each, for any one who will invent a machine, or oth- erwise manufacture a full comb of honey which is a duplicate of the product made by the bees. While this offer has been widely spread throughout the country, as yet there has never been a suggestion by any one of even attempting to claim to imitate the original. "The public, when they buy these pieces of comb in the center of these jars, want to be exceedingly care- Comb buililing in the open aii\ ful that the capping of these cells is still on the comb, and if so, they can feel entirely at rest in knowing they are getting the pure article. One thing we can feel sure of — that all honey sold on the market in lit- tle section boxes, or in any way in the comb, capped over is the genuine production of the honeybee." MONEY IN KEEPING BEES. "Whether there is a profit in keeping bees depends upon two factors — it must be made a business, not a side issue, and the keeper must know his business. A writer says that five colonies should yield 250 pounds of fancy comb honey each year. The annual cost will be about $2 for honey boxes and comb foundation. Such honey s'hould sell for 22 cents per pound. Half of the yield may be first quality — sections snow white, well capped and filled. The No..i quality, 125 .pounds at 22 cents, nets you $27.50. The No. 2 qual- ity, 125 pounds at 16 cents, nets you $20. Here at an annual outlay of $2 five colonies of bees return $47.50. Do not try to realize these prices from the stores, but s.ell to those who buy your butter and eggs — sell to the best families and do not be afraid to ask a good price. I will try to give you an esti- mate of the cost of a modest venture. "If you have never handled bees or have kept them in old bo.xes, a first-class work on bee-keeping should 'head the list of purchases and be carefully studied. Hives are generally crated in lots of five. Examine all the catalogues you can find and secure the best hive made. If your winters are severe extra protec- tion is needed, suc'h as cellar storing or, better, a close end frame. Having decided on the hive, order five. You will need a smoker. The following articles will equip 3'(iu for a start in a moderate way and at the same time yoi! will acquire the much-needed experience: Five I i-2-story hives, $9.75; five extra supers, $3.- 75; one bee book. $1.25; one smoker, large size, $1.- 25; one .'Spool tinned wire, 10 cents; one foundation fastener packer, 25 cents; five pounds e-xtra thin brood foundations, $3 ; two pounds extra thin comb founda- tions, $1.25; 500 No. I honey boxes, $2.50. Total, $22.55. "In ordering insist on brood frames being pierced for wiring. Tall sections sell better than square ones and the bees work in them quicker. A section, 4x5'' I 3-8 is now acknowledged to be the best. A bee veil may be made at home. "During the winter hives, frames, etc., may be as- sembled, the hives painted and all in readiness for the summer campaign. Do not buy hives of some local dealer, no matter how well recommended, until you ' have investigated them, as he may be anxious to se- cure fixtures of more modern make. If you do not own any bees, buy or swap something for two or three swarms in any old tub or box. Buy your stock j early in the spring and place them on a stand a foot from the ground in some shady spot facing flu- east. These must stand where vour new hives will i Study Carefully Every Movement of the Bees. 285 be placed later in the season. Just as the early flow- p-s begin to bloom your first lesson in bee culture is due." BEGINNING WITH BEES. Before beginning with bees you will find it to your advantage to visit some one who keeps bees and learn all from them that you can. If possible, I would ad- vise that you visit some one who is up-to-date, and very small scale. Remember that you are ignorant concerning bees, and that you must learn largely from experience. You sliould also remember that experi- ence is quite a dear teacher, and if you have a great many hives j'ou will have to pay dearer for your experience than you would otherwise have to do. A few stands will be enough for you to commence with. They should cost anj-vvhere from $2.00 to $0.00 per stand. 1l is advi-^able to get them in your own com- munity if possible. In starting with bees it is well ^* '^- >f^. £ Extracting-house of J. M. Jenkins, Wetumpka, Ala. i not be satisfied with a visit to some one who does not know their business. If you expect to go into bee culture as a business, you can afford to go some dis- tance in order to find that man w'ho knows bee keep- ing. This is a small matter, but it is quite important. j You can get more information from a talk with an tip-to-date beekeeper than you can from a great deal of reading. In starting in the business vou want to start on a enough to get them in the hives that they are to re- main in during ihe year, for unless you have had ex- perience, it will ptove quite troublesome to transfer them from one hive to anotlier. Also get strong Tiives, for your experience will not be so bright if you have to feed them the first spring. After you have secured a start do not invest any more in the busi- ness until they have yielded a return. After you have started in the business the bees should pay their way 2S6 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. the rest of tlie time. If they will not do this, of course, excepting some extraordinary accident or ca- tastrophe, you do not care to bother with them. HIVES. The questions of liives is one of importance to the man who has bees on his place. Unless you are so situated that freight rates are high, and unless you are a good mechanic, it will pay you to buy your bee hives, and not try to make them. There are com- panies that make a specialty of making bee hives and they can make them much better than you can. And then when you consider the whole thing, hives that are made in factories by machinery made for the bus- iness, operated by skilled workmen are cheaper in View W J, lU. jeuiiins iards, VVeUiiupka, A.1h. the long run than home-made hives. Of course there is some advantage in making hives, for there are many rainy days w'hen you will not be able to work on the outside, and you can without any practical outlay of money make the hives. But no matter how well made the hives are, or how perfect they are in every respect, hives in themselves cannot make honey. P. H. Elwood, of Starksville, N. Y., who has over 1000 hives of bees said in Gleanings in Bee Culture in i8qi : "A good hive must fill two requirements rea- sonably well to be worthy of that name. i. It must be a good home for th.e bees. 2. It must in addi- tion be so constructed as to be convenient to perform the various operations required by modern bee-keep- ing. The first of these requirements is filled very well by a good box or straw hive. Bees will store as much honey in these hives as in any, and in the North they will winter and spring as well in a straw hive as in any other. They do not; 'however, fill the second requirement ; and to meet this, the movable- frame hive was invented." The Langworth hive, which is the standard in the United States, has a frame 17 5-8 long by 9 1-8 deep. As to the width, that depends on the number of frames that you desire to use. Some use eight frames, some ten, and some twelve. Where one runs for extract honey, ten frames, is perhaps best, but where one runs for comb honey, eig'ht frames are best. There are now in the United States two styles of hives, the square, and the oblong. There are advantages with each class of frames. Let us consider some of these advantage- looking at the square hive first. Bees have a ti-ii dency to make a brood nest in the form of a sphere. Therefore a circular hive would be better than a square, but since this would be impractical, the square comes nearer filling that requirement than an obi" hive. It is also claimed that the square hive is bet- ter on account of holding the heat better, in that it gives the greatest amount of cubical contents for given amount of lumber. These reasons are me! theoretic.-J than practical, and most of those that h;r tried the square hives have abandoned them for t' oblong hive. But what are the reasons for favorii the oblong hive? .By using a shallow frame it ju mits the use of low, flat hives that can be tiered uj) ■ two, three and four stories high. This is quite an a vantage when one is operating for extract honey, 1 when the bees require more room, all he has to dn to add another story to his hive. And then the l^'i frame permits of being imcapped more easily than 1 the square hive. The blade of the uncapping knife can reach clear across the oblong hive, which it con not do in the square. The shallow frame is morcj easily lifted out of the frame than a deep frame. Buti you will have to get a hive that suits your conveni- ence. As a rule I believe that the oblong hive is tin- better of the two. It will be 'hard for you to lean how to make a hive from what is given in a book, vou are going to make your hives, it will be belt' to send to the factory and get one of the kind tli you wanted in the flat, all complete. With the si> eral pieces to use as patterns you will know just Iv to make one. I Let The Bees Pay Their Own Expenses. 287 SWARMING OF BEES. One of the most interesting features connected with bee culture is the swarming of bees. As to why they swarm, there are several reasons given. When bees have filled the hives, and hbve no more room to- store honey, they begin looking out for new quarters. And t'hen they have a great many more bees in the hive than can be used successfully. In other words, too muc'h honey, and too many bees cause swarming. Excessive heat will also cause the swarming of bees. Sometimes they swarm without any apparent cause iwhatever. It is the old bees and queen tr.at leave day, but will be at rest. Very few bees can be seen going in and out the hive. Bees as a rule do not swarm until they have the hive pretty well filled, and multitudes of bees hatching out daily. The presence of queen cells is a pretty good sign that they are be- ginning to swarm. When the bees are beginning to swarm, or before, one should have everything in read- iness to hive them. "Have empty hives in readiness, and when a swarm is cast off if possiljle mark the hive from which it came. Ordinarily the swarm will soon settle, when it can be secured and placed in an empty hive. As soon as this is done, take the new swarm and place it where Worker. Queen. Drone. he hive to the young ones. They usually begin warming in May, and will keep it up until July. It epends, of course, upon the section t'hey are in, as the time they swarm. It so^metimes happens that y will swarm in August, but this is an exception, iid not the rule. Sometimes we are able to tell in advance when bees re going to swarm, but I do not believe that we can Iways do so. When the bees are clustering around n the outside of the gum, rthey will go in the hiv'fe ne day they intend to swarm, but this does not al- -lys work. When a hive of bees intend to swarm, ley will not be working like the rest of them that the old one stood, removing the old hive to as long a distance as convenient. Should the bees in the old hive have started work in the super give it to the new swarm; should be bees in the new swarm ap- pear restless and uneasy, the indications are that they have lost their queen. In such cases give them a fresh brood that has some newly laid eggs, when they will begin the construction of a queen cell, and usual- ly commence work. In all cases it is well to examine the new swarms in about nine days and should there be no indication of laying it is best to give a frame of new brood. After the old hive is removed to a new place it is well to examine it carefully and destroy all 288 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. the queen cells but one of the best, or if there be any colonies in the yard that are queenless the extra cells may be used in requeening them. At the close of the honey season always shut up the entrance to the hive to about two inches, so that the bees may be able to protect themselves from outside robbers. About Oc- tober 1st begin preparing your bees for winter by plac- ing burlap over tlie top of each hive, putting on an empty super and filling it with chaff straw. It is well to place two half inch strips on top of the frames un- der the burlap, so that the bees may have space to travel over t'he top of the frames. Fasten the lid se- curely by weight or otherwise. Before putting on the Louis Scholl and his Texas Bee-Yard. Evergreen Shade on the left, and Prickly Cacti on the right. burlaps see that each hive has about twenty-five pounds of honey for winter use." It is a difficult matter to lay down specific direc tions for hiving bees. There are so many methods, and so man}' circumstances that alter these methods that 3-ou will have to use a great deal of common sense and tact. There are many automatic 'hivers on the market, and some of them good too. Sometimes it is desired to prevent bees from, swarming. It is claimed by some that by preventing them from swarming, and making them use all their efforts in the manufacture of honey, that they will produce a larger crop of honey than by swarming-. Whether t'his contentipn is true, is an open question. This is done by not allowing the queen bees to raise. Excessive swarming is generally brought about by a. large number of queen bees, that are not fertilized. By catching the queens and removing them, or by pre- venting the queen cells from hatching out. To keep the hive well shaded, or having the walls entirely protected from the sun will do much to prevent bees from swarming. Also give them plenty of room, and they will not be so apt to swarm. FEEDING OF BEES. The feeding of bees is a poor business. It is prac- ticed for two purposes. The first purpose is to stim- ulate brood rearing at times of the year when there is no honey coming in from natural sources, and to supply them with food when the winter supply is short. But it is a bad job, and is liable to cause the bees to rob other hives. Not only is it a messy job, but it is expensive. It is frequently true that feeding is made necessary on account of extracting the honey too close. It may be that in certain cases, you will find it necessary to feed bees. If such is the case, there is nothing that is better to feed with than gran- ulated sugar converted into syrup. There are certain forms of molasses and sorghum that may be used, but as a rule it is best to buy first-class sugar and make a syrup out of it. There are two processes of making syrup. One is the old-fashio;;! method of making it by artificial heat. When feeding bees to stimulate brood"rearing, place boiler on the stove and into it pour a mixture of sugar and water, using oiie-half siigar and one-half water. The heat should be aplied slowly while the mixture is stirred- It should not be heated higher than 180 degrees, as it is liable to scorch, and burnt sugar is death to a colony of bees in the winter. Continue to stir the syrup until every particle of sugar is melted.' Sometimes it is simply mixed well together, but no' heat applied on account of the liabilitv of burning-. ^^'hen this is the case, it will 'have to be stirred vig"'; orously. But we v.'ould advise that vou avoid feeding it there is anv possible chance of doing so, as it doesj not pay. There are many patented devices for feed- ' ing. ' STINGS. Most every one knows that bees sting. And theyj Do Not Anger The Bees. 289 know that it is not very pleasant to be stung either. The bee cannot kick like horses, nor can they hook like cattle, they cannot bite like other animals, but they can sting. And most people dread to be stung. However, much of the pain of stings is imaginary. One can bear a bee sting with a great deal of ease if they will not allow themselves to think of it. The mind has no little to do with the body. I do not mcnri to say that you can remove all pain by not thinking about it, for such is not the case. When a bee stings you, you are to a certain extent poisoned, and no amount of thinking or not thinking by the mind can remove that poison. As a rule bee stings should not stop one from their work. It is much bet- ter to keep on at work, for your mind will not be on which contains the bag of poison. Many recommend removing all parts, but this is based on theory and not on practice. Many remedies are recommended for bee stings, but they are as a rule no good. In fact, the best thing to do after removing the sting is to forget all about it. Indeed, most remedies are posi- tively harmful. The poison enters the flesh through a very small puncture, — one so small that the small- est cambric needle could not enter where the sting did, and there is no means of getting the remedy for stings in, except by rubbing, and this causes more trouble than it is worth, for il causes the poison to spread faster. It sonietimes happens that a great many bees sting a person or atiimal, and unless some- thing is done death results almost instantly. If you Scene in apiary of W. L. Wom'ble, Raleigh, N. C. the sting. Pay just as little attention to the matter as possible, and do not rub or irritate the stung por- tion. The sting should be removed as quickly as possible. There is a wrong way of removing the sting, and there is a right way. With the sting there is a bag of poison. To pull out the sting between the finger and thumb means to push the p6ison out of the bag into the wound. On the other hand, to re- move the sting by running a knife blade under the poison bag and lift the sting out, does the work so nicely that no more poison gets into the wound. If a knife is not convenient, take the nail of the finger and push it out. The sting should he removed as quickly as possible. Soraetimes the sting separates, in which case I would advise just to remove the part or your animal is stung a great many times, cover the affected parts with blankets or cloths dipped in boiling hot water. If you cannot possibly get the hot water, use real cold water, but the hot water applica- tion is better. HOW TO AVOID BEING STUNG. It is not very pleasant, to say the least of it, to be stung. In working around bees, I would advise that you never stand directly in front of the hive. Above all things don't let the bee know you are scared, for bees will do more harm when they find that you are afraid of them t'han otherwise. A single' bee never follows one into a house. A whole colony that is very much enraged may do so. 20 290 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. FOOD VALUE OF HONEY. "It is estimated that the food value of honey is equal to that of butter, and it is a typical sweet and universal luxury. The sources of honey come through nature's bounty on all fields and forests, and may be utilized at less expense than any other commodity of equal value. It is reasonable that the occupants of all rural 'homes are entitled to all of their products. People who rent the land pay no rent on the honey crop. Yet the vast flow of nectar is permitted to go to waste on the greater number of farms. Since the forests have been filled, and the fertility of the soil largely exhausted, bee pasturage has become too pily combined, so that the family apiary will be easier kept up than a stock of chickens for home supply, and really more profitable, when the expenses and atten- tions are fairly weighed up. "This is only one of the several small industries home comfort and independent living. "It is a reflection on Southern industry to see a family coming from more congenial climates and liv- ing in luxury on what is neglected or wasted by those who toil the year round to make cotton pay for gua- no! "While concentration of energies is essential to success, diversity of resources is the only chance for As bees are kept in the South. scant to warrant an elfort to make honey for market- ing purposes by the collective masses of inhabitants. "Failures on this line have been so common tliat many have abandoned the business entirely in dis- couragement, or gone back to the primitive plan of using 'gums' and killing out the weak colonies after the fall crop has been stored. Much as this plan is deprecated, it remains true that more honey is ob- tained on it than by unskilled use of modern hives, and uniting weak colonies. "The only families v.'ho keep up small apiaries and have Tioney on their tables every day in the year, that I know of, still keep shy of advance scientific schemes. "The practical plan lies in the exercise of inventive thought, by which the good features in improvements and the simplicity of ancient methods may be hap- the masses of people to make an independent living, and it will be found that there is no well beaten trail to a state of general prosperity for the population of the whole country." Let the beehives and chicken coops be in close proximity and ants will not annoy the bees, for the chicks will devour the little pilgrims as they wend their way to and from their homes. White Dutch clover is very desirable as pasturage for the bees, and the seed may be sown any time in March or April. It resists drouth much better than most of the grasses and forms a close green turf for the lawn if kept cut after it is well rooted- When feeding bees to stimulate brood'rearing, the difference in localities should be considered. In some parts, feeding the first of March would be all right Study the Life History of Bees. 291 In other localities, they are not throug'h the winter at this season and should not be disturbed. Bees, like all other creatures, relish salt and should have it placed before them occasionally in a diluted form. To give bees access to salt, just sprinkle some on the sawdust in front of the hive. The rain will dilute it properly and the sawdust will retain it for fhem. During winter queens stop laying eggs and often shrink so much in size that they look almost like the worker bees themselves, and a beginner looking through the hive might conclude that the bees are queenless. Of course, if you know that the queen is dead, then the sooner vou can introduce another to the bees, the better it will be for them. Queens can be procured from the South as early as April. THE QUEEN BEE. The queen bee is the most important bee in the hive. She is the mother of all the bees in the hive. In fact, the queen is so important that should the hive be deprived of the queen the workers go to work and raise another, if they have any worker larvae in the hive with which to do it. There are some cases where there is no queen bee, but these cases are very rare. It is safe to say that there is always a queen in every hive. The queen is the only perfect female bee in the hive. She is longer than either of the oth- er species, and is dark in color. She never leaves the hive except to meet the drone. She is treated with great affection bv the bees. The average age of the bee is three years, and no one should be allowed to become any older than that, for after that age they become barren, or if they do deposit eggs they only produce drones. A PAIR OP GOOD ONES OWNED BY OLTMANNS BROS., NORTH PT. WORT^, TEXAS. DISEASES OF THE HORSE -BY- C. A. GARY, B. Sc., D. V. M. PROFESSOR OF PHYSIOLOGY AND VETERINARY SCIENCE AT THE ALABAMA POLY- TECHNIC INSTITUTE; VETERINARIAN OF THE ALABAMA EXPERIMENT STA- TION; DIRECTOR OF FARMERS' INSTITUTES AND STATE VETERINA- RIAN OF ALABAMA, AUBURN, ALABAMA. Introduction These chapters on the diseases of the horse are written that they may help fanners and horsemen who are not within reach of qualified graduate veterinarians. They may help the ordinary man who has not the technical knowledge of the graduate veterinarian. The more the farmer or the stockman knows the better he is able to see the necessity for employing a specialist or one who is expert in operating and ]jl treating live stock. Much of the following pages is written in terms that are not considered scientific. But it has been my aim to leave out all technical terms as far as possible in order to make the meaning plain to the average man. The treatment suggested for the different diseases is not the only one that might be employed; but is one method selected, oftentimes, as the one that may be used with the least difficulty and expense, by the farmer. C. A. CARY, Auburn, Ala. EXPLANATIONS OF FIGURE i. n. — nostril. en. — end or extremity of nose. en. — chin. mb. — maxillary border. ch. — c'heek. t. — throat. pa. — parotid region. Te.^ — temple. so. — supra-orbit. Fd. — forehead. Fa. — face. Nk. — neck. Jf. — jugular furrow. W— Withers. Ijk. — back. lo. — loins. H. — haunch or hip point. Crp, — croup. rb. — rib region. Flk.— flank, abd. — abdomen. St. — stifle. Th.— thigh, but. — buttock. Ig. — leg or gaskin. hk. — hock, can. — cannon. Ft.— fetlock. Pn. — pastern. Co. — coronet. Ct. — chestnut, sh. — shoulder, am. — arm. fm. — forearm, k. — knee. Exterior Anatomy, or the Outer Form of the Horse This consists in a study of the good and bad points of a horse as indicated by his outer form or con- fonnatioii. In order to get a clear idea, we must first know and study the various parts or regions of the surface of the horse's body. The surface of the 'horse may be divided for convenience into — 1. Head, 2. Trunk, or body, 3. Limbs. I. HEAD. (17 Regions •) Front Surface Back Surface. Side Surfaces. Lower End. Upper End. I. Forehead. 4- Lower Jaw. /■ Ear. 14 Mouth. 15- Poll. 2. Face, or Nose. 5- Space between the 8. Temple. (a) Lips. 16. Parotid Region 3. End of Nose. branches of lower jaw. 9- ID. Supra-Orbit. Eyebrow. (b) Teeth. (c) Bars. 17- Throat. 6. Chin. II. Eye. (d) Lingual Canal. 12. 13- Cheek. Nostrils. (e) Tongue. (f) Palate. 2. BODY. (20 Regions.) Upper Surface. Lower Surface. Side Surfaces. Front End. Back End. Genital Organs. I. Neck. 6. Xyphoid 8. Ribs. II. Chest. M- Tail. (Male.) (a) Mane. region. 9. Flanks. 12. Interaxilla. 15- Anus. 17- Testicles and (b) Forelock. 7. Abdomen 10. Groin. 13. Axillae. 16. Perineum. envelopes. -■. Witliers. (belly). (arm pits). 18. Sheath and Penis. 3. Back. (Female.) 4. Loins. 19. Vulva. 5. Croup. 20. Mammary Glands (Bag or udder.) 3. LIMBS. (15 Regions.) Front Limb. Hind Limb. Regions Common to Front and Hind Limbs Shoulder. 6. Thigh. 10. Chestnut. Arm. 7- Stifle. II. Cannon and Tendons. Elbow. 8. Leg, or gaskin. 12. Fetlock and Ergot. Forearm. 9- Hock. 13- Pastern. Knee. 14- 15- Coronet. Foot. 2y6 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. HEAD. Front Surface. (See cut for location of regions.) 1. Forehead. — This region should be wide, rather long and nearly straight. A large forehead indicates large muscles and large brain. When narrow, very convex or depressed, it is defective. 2. Face or Nose. — This region presents for study a middle part and two latteral parts. The middle part should be straight and rather wide. If very convex or concave it is defective. The latteral parts slope downward and backward. The right and the left lat- teral parts are usually full and round in the colt or young horse. In the old horse thev are more or less flat or depressed. This is due to the variation in the length and size of the molar teeth in the young and the old horse. When the root of a molar tooth is dis- eased the part over that tooth will become enlarged ; this will occur usually on one side. In bighead both sides may be equally enlarged. A wide middle part of nose or face is an indication of large respiratory capacity. 3. End of nose lies between the nostrils and abo\'e ie upper lip. It should be large and free from inju- ries. 4. Lower jaw. — This corresponds to the borders of the lower jaw. These borders are thick in the young animal and thinner in the old animal; the variation here is also due to the difference in size of teeth. 5. Space between the branches of the lower jaw. — This space should be concave, covered with thin skin, fine hair, and be free from swellings or enlargements. Abscesses form here when the horse or colt has dis- temper or strangles. Good width between the branch- es of the lower jaw is another indication of great re- spiratory capacity. 6. Chin. — It corresponds to the place upon which the curb strap or chain presses. It should be free from injuries and harmonize with surrounding parts. 7. Ear. — The ears should be relatively wide apart; neither too long nor too short ; relatively thin ; covered with fine hair and thin skin; and possess freedom of movement. A very short ear indicates nervousness; a long, heavy ear signifies sluggishness. Defective ears are sometimes classed as lop-ears, swine-ears, restless and "walking ears." The last name means that the ears move in unison with the walk of the animal. The ears may be broken, torn, cropped, split, or show scars from the action of the twitch. To hide defects dealers clip the coarse hair, apply hoods or nets, or use other means to deceive the buyer. A deaf ear is hard to detect ; such a horse does not respond to the voice of the driver and its ears do not move readily or remain relatively fixed. 8. Temple. — This region should be free from blem- ishes and harmonize with surrounding parts. 9. Supra-Orbit— It lies just above the eye; is full and round in the young animal and sunken or de- pressed in old horses ; this is due to the variation in the quantity of fat and muscle in the Supra-Orbit. In very poor animals it may also be hollow or sunken. Jockeys sometimes blow air under the skin to fill up this depression and make the animal look young. 10. Eyebrows. — They are not distinct in old horses and only visible in very early life. 11. Eye. — The eye is located in the orbital cavity. The eyeball or globe is surrounded by muscles and pads of fat which help fill the cavity and also protect the eye. The eyes should be wide apart ; fill the cav- ity full ; stand out fairly well, but not too much ; they should be equal in size; the pupil dark — nearly black in color. The cornea, which is usually clear and trans- parent, s'hould be free from white spots, or spots of anv kind that interfere with light. The size of the Fig. 2.— Regular or normal axis of front limbs viewed from in front. Bred by Giltmer Bros., Eminence, Ky. 2y8 It you are able to own stock, you are able to have good stables for them. Fig 3. — Ground or base narrow front limbs or the feet too close togettier. pupil should change quickly when the horse is brought from darkness to light, or from light to darkness; the pupil is large in t'he dark and small in the light. This can be tested by the use of a lamp or lantern, or by moving the horse from a dark stall out into the sun- light. The eyelids should be thin, fine, freely mova- ble, and without blemish. The lining or inside of the lid should be scarlet or light rose red in color. The tears should be clear and sufficient in quantity to keep the lids and eye moist. Finally, the eye should be large and expressive. Defective eyes are small, une- qual in size, concealed or hidden, very protruding, cloudy or opaque. The wall eye is one in which the color is almost absent. It is sometimes called a "white" or "glass eye." Such an eye is unsightly, but not necessarily defective in vision. A short sighted horse or a long sighted horse may be addicted to shy- ing; but such conditions are hard to detect by the average man. 12. Cheeks. — It should be a plain surface, free from scars, swellings, and wounds. The skin should be thin, covered with fine hair, and t'he blood .vessels quite distinctly visible. Its defects may consist in wounds from the teeth, swellings, and distension from a collection of food between irregular teeth and th> inside of the cheek. 13. Nostrils. — These are the external openings of the nasal passages. They should be large, wide apart and well separated from the upper lip. Largeness of nostrils means large lung capacity. The membrane lining the nasal passages should be clean, scarlet red', and smooth. The discharge from the nose should be clear, inodorous, and small in quantity. After exer- cise this lining membrane may be deep red in color. The movements of the nostrils should be regular to correspond with t'he respiration. If the nostrils are small the discharge abundant, puslike, green, yellow, or bad smelling, the nostrils or nose are defective or diseased. Usually, a bad smelling discharge is a sign of a diseased molar tooth, especially if the discharge is only on one side. Inspiration and expiration should be noiseless. 14. Mouth. — This complex region may be consid- ered the beginning of the digestive canal. (a) The lips should be thin, relatively stiff and held closed when the animal is not eating. The cut or depth of the mouth sliould not be too great or too small. The lips may be paralyzed ; if the lower lip is paralyzed on both sides it hangs pendulous, and the animal cannot drink without plunging its mouth into water below the corners. If paralyzed on one side the lip is drawn to the opposite side. The lips may be cut by the bit. The quivering lip is one that cannot be held still, owing to nervous irritability. (h^ Three kinds of teeth are found in the mouth of the horse. The incisors or front teeth are twelve in number — si.x above and six below. The canines or tusks are found in the male; sometimes incompletely developed canines are found in the mare. They are four in number. The molars in a full mouth are twen- ty-four in number — six in each half jaw. In examin- ing a) horse always determine the regularity, length, direction, integrity, and soundness of the teeth, as we!! as the age. (The age of the horse, as indicated by the teetli, will be discussed in another place.) (c) Bars. — They occupy the space between the lower molars and the canines in the horse and the in- cisors in the mare. The bit rests on the bars. They should be free from injury; not over sensitive to the bit, but respond regularly and accurately to the im- pressions of the bit. TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 299 (d) Lingual Canal. — In this space lies the tongue. Good width, with proportion to the volume of the congue, is to be desired. (e) Tongue. — The tongue aids in grasping, chew- ing, mixing, and swallowing the food. It should be relatively large, possess free movement, and be free from wounds. The most serious defect is the lolling tongue. In this the horse carries the tongue hanging 3ut one side of the mouth, especially when the bit is in the mouth. This is the result of a habit, and in ;ome cases it may be prevented by bits especially con- structed for that purpose. (f) Palate. — This is the superior wall of the mouth. ft has a series of ridges and grooves running from ';ide to side. The ridges are sometimes erroneously ilhalled bars. The covering membrane should be rose j,;olored. When this hard palate is swollen the horse |!s said to 'have "lampas." The swelling may be caused ||)y cutting teeth, rough, irritating food, diseased teeth I'md indigestion. Sometimes it may be caused by a .i'orm of sore mouth. As a rule, the hard palate should lOt be cut and never burned for this trouble. Re- ,'nove the cause or wait until the colt gets over cutting ijieeth, and recovery will take place without treatment, jlrhe soft palate hangs down from t'he back part of the 'jiard palate and closes the opening between the mouth iind the pharynx or throat. This soft palate is so jjarge in the horse, that it prevents air or food from Aoming back into the mout'h after reaching the throat. lience, when a horse vomits the food or water comes ^ut through the nostrils instead of the mouth. 15. PoU. — This is sometimes called the nape of he neck. It is the region injured by throwing t'he bead up against objects, or by a stroke with a club over the head. In some cases abscesses form as a re- Wit of such injuries ; then a large swelling will occur ind sooner or later the abscess erupts or breaks open liind discharges pus on the surface. The animal is jihen said to 'have "poll evil," a very serious and trou- plesome disease. It can only be cured by proper oper- ktion and correct treatment. This may require ilnonths. 1 16. Parotid Region. — This lies below the ear, above he throat, and connects the side of the neck with the i'heek. It s'hould be neither too full nor too much de- oressed. 17. Throat. — This unites the inferior border of the leck with the head. It should be wide, because great width signifies a large larynx, and that means a large air passage ; hence, large lung capacity. The Head as a whole. — All t'he regions of the head should harmonize with one another. It should be neither too large nor too small for the size of the horse. The length of the classic head is about two- fifths of the height of the horse. The direction of the Fig. 4. — Base wide Or ground wide or feet too far apart. head, or the position in which the head is carried most commonly, should be such as to make an angle of about forty-five degrees, with the horizontal or level ground surface. This position enables the horse to see better to the side and in front of him, and also en- ables it to support the bit with ease and execute move- ments readily and easily. If t'he head is carried more vertical, the horse is usually tender in the mouth. If it is carried more nearly horizontal the horse is us- ually hard in the mouth. BODY. Upper Surface. I. Neck.- — It presents for study an upper border, a lower border, a right and a left surface. The upper border supports the mane, and should be t'hin in geld- 30O Don t depend too much on hired help to look after yo _r stock. ings and in mares. In stallions it is usually quite thick. It should be nearly straight or slightly curved from above to below. The inferior border is round from side to side and relatively wide. Its width meas- ures in a degree the width of the wind pipe. A large wind pipe means a large lung capacity. The side sur- pig, g. — Regular or normal axis of front limb. faces are convex from above to below, with the thick or heaviest part being nearer the lower than the up- per border. Along the lower part of the side surface runs the jugular furrow, in which lies the jugular vein. The direction of the neck should be such as to make an angle of forty-five degrees with the level or hori- zontal. If the head makes a similar angle with the liorizontal, then the head and neck will make an angle with each other of ninety degrees, or a right angle. In form, the neck should be nearly straight, or but slightly arched, except in the fancy riding horse the swan neck may be desired. This means a high head and a compressed throat, but not speed. The mane and forelock grow out from the upper border of the neck. If the mane is long, coarse and stiflF, it signi- fies common, breeding. In well bred horses the mane is fine, silky and not overabundant; in fact, many well bred horses are deficient in quantity of mane. Some- times this is due to a disease of the skin and not to breeding. 2. Withers. — This is located between the top of the neck and back, and between the tops of the should- ers. The withers should be high and extend well to- ward the back. As a rule, the withers represent the highest part of the body, except the head and neck. The withers should be well defined, neither too thick nor too thin, never too low, and free from scars and diseases. The most common disease of the withers is known as fistulous withers. This consists in a deep seated abscess, which sooner or later opens to the sur- face. Very like poll evil, it requires correct surgical and medicinal treatment, with months of time to pro- duce a cure. It injures the value of the horse from twenty-five to seventy-five per cent. 3. Back. — It is limited in front by the withers, be- hind by the loins, and on each side by the ribs. It re- ceives the saddle and transmits the propulsive power of the hind limbs to the front part of the body. It should be straight, long — never too long — and in width correspond to regions in front and behind. The con- cave or swav back is weak and defective ; the convex or roached back makes a rough rider, an unsightly horse, and often throws the front and hind limbs too close together. 4. Loins. — These are located in front of the croup, behind the back, and between the flanks. The loins should be wide and short ; as a rule, thev are never too Pig. 7. — Foot and lower part of limb too far in front of the normal. Defective because it weakens the limb as a column of support; throws an excess of weight on the heels and flexor tendons and suspensory ligament and leads to a long toe and low heel. Pig. s.; — Knee too far back of the normal; thi.s weakens the limb as a column of support and puts excessive strain on the posterior ligaments and tendons. Pig. 9. — The limb regular or normal except the foot is to far forward; this leads to long toe and low heel and in- creases the strain on back ligaments and tendon at the fet- lock. \ TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 301 wide and rarely too short. A long back and short loins are always in order. Great width is desired, be- ' cause it strengthens and supports the region. The loins usually take the same direction as the back, and should be straight. 5. Croup. — This is sometimes called the rump, and is a very powerful, muscular region. The croup is measured in length from the hip point or "haunch" to the buttock point. For speed, the croup is never too long. Width of croup is measured from right hip point or haunch to left hip point. Also from right buttock to left buttock point. For speed, the croup can be too wide, because it then produces too much wabbling or lateral motion. It can also be too nar- row, and then throw the legs too close together, pro- ducing interfering. For the draft horse, other things being equal, the croup is rarely too wide. The thick- ness of the croup is indicated largely by the volume of the muscles. The direction for speed should be near- ly horizontal ; that is, the direction of the length line of the croup should approach a horizontal or make an angle with the level of twenty to thirty degrees. In the saddle horse this angle may be twenty-five to thir- ty-five degrees. In the draft horse, this angle may be from thirty to forty-five degrees. The square croup is one that is about as wide behind as in front. The pointed, mule-shaped croup is one that is much nar- ; rower behind than in front. In rating the good quali- ties of the croup, consider first the length, then the width, then the direction and the thickness. The term j| haunch is commonly applied to the hip point, or what ''some may call the hip. It is a part of the croup. It is the part broken when the animal is "hipped." Lower Surface of Body. 6. Xyphoid. — This region corresponds to the back end of the breast bone. It is of no special importance. 7- Abdomen. — It corresponds to the inferior wall of the abdominal cavity. It is commonly called the ibelly. The wall of the abdomen is elastic, and yields lor stretches when pressure is applied from without or within... The size of the abdomen varies with the breed, with the sex, and with the way the animal is fed. The draft horses generally have larger abdomens !jthan the lighter breeds. The mare, especially when in ; foal,. has a large abdomen. Horses and colts at pas- ture, where they eat large quantities of bulky food. 'have a large abdomen. All greedy horses, that are fed large quantities of forage or hay, have a large ab- domen. The size of the abdomen may be changed by reducing the bulk of the food. The grey hound, or tucked-up abdomen is indication of a very light eater or feeder. This condition of abdomen may be seen in the running horse as it is prepared for the race, but if a constant condition it is a sign of poor digestion. I'he most serious trouble about the abdomen consists in the various forms of rupture. In the colt the most common rupture is at the naval. This is usually present at birth. Ruptures in other parts of the abdo- . in on are caused by injuries from horns or pointed ob~ jtcts, and sometimes bv kicks. Ruptures from inju- ries are always very serious, and should be treated at once by pressing back the abdominal organs and ap- plying a broad bandage around the abdomen pressing firmly over the ruptured place. A smooth thick layer of cotton may be piaced over the ruptured place under the bandage, in order to increase the pressure. Side Surfaces. 8. Ribs. — The rib region has for its base the last twelve ribs. The size of the rib region has some in- dication of the size of the thorax or lung cavity, and the size of the lung cavity determines the size of lung capacity. The length of the thorax is indicated by the spring of the ribs, and the separation of the ribs from one another. In other words, if the ribs are well Fig. 10. — The lower part of the limb is back of the nor? mal and the pastern Is too upright or too near the perpeii-.- dicular; this leads to a short toe and high heel (club footy and by increasing concussion predisposes horse tto ring btofrj liavicular "disease and splints. ,, , . . j Fig. 11.— The lower part of limb back of the normal .iiiil the lirte-e is sprung; it weakens the llmib as a column ofl support and predisposes the horse to falling on its knees. 302 Rotten corn, oats and hay make poor stock tool. sprung and well separated, the thorax is long, and a long thorax is always desirable. Depth of thorax is measured from above to below and depends upon tile length and curvature of the ribs. Great depth is desirable. The widt'h or thickness of the thorax is Fig. 12. Regular or normal axis of iind limbs viewed from behind. hollow above from the movable portion below. The movable portion is the part t'hat moves outward dur- ing inspiration and inward during expiration. When the horse is "bellowsed" or has the 'heaves, there is a double inward movement during expiration. 10. Groins. — The groin corresponds to the fold of skin along the line of union, between the inside of tlii- thigh and the trunk or body. It is of no special im- portance, except it should be free from skin tumors, wounds, injuries and swellings. Front End. 11. Chest or Breast. — This region lies between the arms, below the lower border of the neck, and in front of the inter-axilla. The breast is sharp when the front end of the breast bone is prominent. The breast hollow or sunken when there is a depression just in- side of the upper end' of each arm. This indicates poorly developed muscles or bad position of frort limbs. The breast may be quite wide in draft horses, but it can be too wide for speed horses, because a very wide beast means wabbling or lateral motion. The breast may also be too narrow and throw the front limbs too close together, thus favoring interfering. 12. Interaxilla. — It is limited in front by the breast, behind by the xyphoid region, and on each side by the axilla or arm pit. It may be concave, con- vex or straight, according to the volume of the mus- cles. measured from side to side, and depends upon curva- ture and length. Therefore, a large thorax or lung capacity depends upon great length, depth, and width, which as a rule, we never find too great. Large lung capacity is desirable in any kind of a horse ; good wind as commonly understood is essential to a good horse. Defective ribs are short and flat, and close together. In big head fhe ribs may be bent out of shape, or be- come indented. 9. Flanks. — The flank is located below the loins, above the abdomen, behind the ribs, and in front of the stifle. It presents for study the hollow, the cord, and the movable portion. The cord extends from the hauncTi or hip point obliquely downward and forward to the lower border of the last ribs. It separates the 13. Axillae or Arm Pits. — Each arm pit corresponrls to the fold of skin that imites the inside of the front limb to the trunk. It is a favorite location for skin tu- mors. Back End. 14. Tail. — This long, flexible appendage is an orna- ment as well as a tiseful organ to keep away flies. It' should be attached 'high up on the croup and be carried^ relatively high when the horse is in motion. If the'. tail is attached low it can never be carried high. Therej seems to be a close relation between the direction of the croup and the attachment and carriage of the tail.' A horizontal croup usually carries a high and well at' tacted tall. An oblique croup usually carries a low and poorly attached tail. The practice of docking 01 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 303 cutting off the tail, leaving it about six inches long is prohibited by law in many of the States. Sometimes a tail is carried to one side. This can be remedied by an operation, but must be done by a qualified veteri- narian. A rat-tailed horse is one in which the hair has nearly all dropped out or fell out, giving the ap- pearance of a rat's tail. This is usually caused by a pa- rasitic skin disease. When of long standing it cannot be remedied. 15. Anus. — This is the posterior opening of the ali- mentary canal. This opening is guarded by a circular or sphincter muscle. When this muscle is broken or torn t'he opening gapes all the time. The tearing is a jresult of some form of injury. The constant gaping permits continual or frequent passage of air when the animal is driven, and this is most annoying to the dri- ver. It cannot be easily remedied. 16. Perineum. — This extends in the female from the jinus to the vulva ; in the male from the anus to the lack part of the testicle bag. In the female the peri- neum may be torn from the vulva to the anus, produc- ng a condition in which manure and air can contm- lially pass from the rectum without the control of the ijinimal. Operations to relieve this trouble are success- 'I'ul in about one percent of the cases. Genital Organs. (Male.) 17. Testicles and Envelopes. — It is important to ■xamine the horse for the presence or absence of the esticles. If the horse be a stallion the testicles should le down and more or less prominent. Sometimes on- y one is down, where the other may be as high up as he abdominal cavity. This makes t'he operation of astration more difficult and dangerous. Also examine his region for sores, enlarged or suppurating cords ind swellings. 18. Sheath and Penis. — Even in a gelding it is well > examine these parts, for occasionally one or both ijnay have a tumor, which may seriously interfere with !|ne health of the animal. Some of the tumors are ma- I'iignant and possess the nature and danger of a cancer. In the stallion it is important to see that these parts ■re healthy and in no wise injured. Sometimes the pe- : lis may be greatly swollen or paralyzed, thus throw- ng a stallion out of service. Genital Qrgz-z. (Female.) 19. Vulva. — This organ should be examined closely for discharges, ulcers and tumors, any of which might seriously interfere with her as a breeder. 20. The Mammary Glands. — These may be injured in such a way that the animal cannot suckle its young, and in consequence be useless as a breeder. LIMBS. Front Limb. The functions or uses of the front limb are, first: a column of support ; second : to disperse concussion ; third : to aid in propulsion, especially when pulling at a slow gate. The two front limbs support about five- eights of the weight of the body. 1. Shoulder. — The bony base of the s'houlder is the scapula or shoulder blade. This bone is covered both inside and outside by muscles. The shoulder should be long and well ihcHned backward. Some claim that it should make an angle of forty-five degrees with the horizontal, but this much inclination will rarely be found. As a rule, the angle will be somewhere be- tween fifty and sixty degrees in the speed horse, and between sixty and seventy degrees in the draft horse. The shoulder should be well covered with muscles, be free from injuries, scars or blemishes. In short, t'he shoulder should be long, well inclined backward, pos- sess well developed muscles, and be free from disease. 2. Arm. — It has for its bony base the humerus. The direction of the arm should be such as to m.ake an angle of fifty to sixty degrees with the horizontal or level. It should be of medium length; if too long, the step will be shortened ; if too short, the step may also be short. The medium length permits complete ex- tension without stumbling. The volume of muscle should correspond with the parts above and below. 3. Elbovir. — It is located between the arm and the forearm, and the top of the ulna forms its bony base. The bony process should extend well upward and backward, and be of good length. The elbows should not extend inward or outward, but directly upward and backward. This is the favorite seat of what is known as "shoe-boil." This is caused bv the horse lying down on his feet like a cow. The foot or tlie shoe injures the elbow. 304 Don't forget to have plenty of warm beJding in the winter. 4. Forearm. — The base of the forearm is the radius. The forearm should be absolutely long, especially in speed horses. A long forearm means long muscle. and long muscles mean relatively long or great con- traction. The muscles that move all the parts of the limb below the knee are found in this region. There is one exception where a short forearm mav be de- sired. A short forearm and a long cannon seem to be desirable when high knee action is wanted, but in all ng. 14. — This side view of hind limb Is regarded by some as normal, but by others as being defective because it is too crooked. Other cases a long forearm and a short cannon are best. The forearm should always be vertical or perpendicu- lar. The width is measured from in front to behind at the upper end, lower end, and middle ; this gives you an idea of the volume of the muscle. Thickness is measured from inside to outside at the same places as for width; this gives an idea of the size of the bone. 5. Knee. — This region corresponds to the wrist of man and not to his knee. Its bony base consists of seven small bones. The knee should be fine, wide, thick, and vertical, always in harmony with the parts above and below. The height of the knee will depend upon the variation in the relative length of the fore- arm and the cannon. A long cannon and short fore- arm usually means a high knee and also high knee action but not speed. A short cannon and a long fore- arm means a low knee, with low knee action and speed. The defective knee is one that is too small, out of po- sition, or diseased. If the knee extends back of the normal, it is called the lamb knee; if it extends in front of the normal, the horse is said to be knee-sprung; if it e.xtends inside of the normal toward its opposite, the animal is knock-kneed ; if it extends outward the ani- mal is bow-legged. Hind Limb. The functions or uses of the hind limb consist, first, in its power for propulsion, which is much greater than in the front limb; second, as a column of support, the two hind limbs supporting about three-eights of the weight of the body. 6. Thigh. — Its bony base is the femur. This re- gion is sometimes divided into thigh and buttock. The thigh should make an angle of about eighty degrees with the horizontal or level, and its lower end should e.xtentl slightly outward. The length of the thigh is measured from the hip joint to the stifle. It should al- ways be long, especially for speed. Its width and thickness will determine the volume of muscles. It is well that the muscles extend well down on the thigh and buttock toward the leg or gaskin. 7. Stifle. — The stifle corresponds in height to the elbow. It is the place where the peliella or the knee cap plays over the lower and front part of the femur. It should be rather distinctly outlined, neither too close nor too far away from the abdomen. This i< the location of what is commonly known as the "sti- fled" place. This is usually an upward dislocation of the knee cap. In this case the little bone catches above the upper lip of the articular surface of the fe- mur; then the hind limb is locked or stiff and immov- able until the bone slips in place. Sometimes the small bone slips out over the outside lip ; then it can be felt with the band. This last trouble is more diffi- cult to cure than the former. 8. Leg or Gaskin. — The tibia is the bony base of this region. The bone is covered by muscles ait all places except the inside surface. It corresponds in position to the forearm of the front limb. Like the forearm, it should be long for speed. A long leg and a short cannon form the best combination for speed. A short leg and a long cannon may produce high hock action. The leg should form an angle of sixty-five to seventy degrees with the horizontal. It should he wide and thick when measured at its upper end when TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 305 end and middle ; these measurements will determine the volume of the muscles and the size of the bone. g. Hock. — In the hind limb this region corresponds 'n location to the knee of the front limb. Its bony 3ase consists of six small bones. The hock should be /ertical in direction, neatly outlined, wide, thick, and .vithout any degree of fleshiness. The hock is said o be the key of the hind limb. It is here that the 'Fig. 15. — (1) This is the normal or regular side view axis. jl. liip joint; B. buttock point; s. stifle joint; h hock joint; fetlock joint. Pa. perpendicular or plomb line dropped ■cm stifle to the ground; He plomb line dropped from hip :)int; Bt plomb line dropped from the buttock point. These iiree plomb or perjiendicular lines are parallel and Pa and t are equidistant from He in the normal or regular axis. ,1 (2) The greater part of limb is too far in front of the nor- jial; it weakens the hock; predisposes to over-reaching I'orging); and often leads to a long toe and low heel. I' (3) The greater part of the limb is too far back of the imial; it increases concussion and predisposes the horse ring bone. l\ 'net of the propulsive power is often concentrated. 1 consequence this region is more frequently diseas- ^ than any other part of the hind limb. It is here jjiat we find bone spavin, curb, enlargement of the movial sacs, commonly called "bog spavin" and horoughpin," and also diseases of the skin are not hcommon about the fold of the hock. Regions Common to Front and Hind Limbs. 10. Chestnuts. — In the front limb the chestnut is tuated about the middle part of the inferior third of e forearm on its inner surface. This is said to be e remnant of the internal digit, corresponding to the thumb of man. It is of no special importance. In the hind limb the chestnut is found on the internal surface of the hock. It is a rudiment of the great toe of the hind limb. 11. Cannon and Tendons. — The bony base con- sists of the large cannon and two split bones. There are no muscles in this region. These parts act only as levers and columns of support. The can- non should be vertical. For speed it should be short ; for high knee or hock action it should be long. It should also be relatively wide and thick. The ten- dons should stand out distinctly and well separated from the cannon bone. The tendons should run par- allel with the cannon. The cannon of the hind limb is a little longer and narrower than that of the front limb. The cannon region is a favorite seat for splints and diseases of the tendon. 12. Fetlock and Ergot. — The bony base is formed by the lower end of the large cannon and upper end of the first phalanx and two sesamoid bones at the back part of the articulation. The fetlock should be wide, thick, fine, and free from blemishes and diseases. It is here that a change in the direction of the limb takes place. The cannon above is vertical and the pastern below forms an angle with the horizontal of fifty to sixty degrees. The fetlock supports on its back part a bunch of coarse hair, in the middle of which is a small horny growth called the ergot. "Wind galls" or distensions of the synovial sacs are quite common at the fetlock. 13. Pastern. — It lies below the fetlock and above the coronet. The direction of the pastern will vary, the angle forms being somewhere between fifty and sixty degrees with the horizontal. If the fetlock is too much inclined an excess of weight is thrown upon the back tendons and ligaments, especially at the fet- lock. If the pastern is too upright or too nearly ver- tical, too much concussion is thrown upon the bone, and this predisposes the animal to bone diseases. The pastern should correspond in width and thickness to the parts above and below. The length of the pastern will vary somewhat with its direction. A short pas- tern is usually very upright ; a long pastern is gener- ally very much inclined. It is said that t'he horse with an inclined pastern is an easy driver or saddler. The pastern is frequently the location of disease. Ring bone, skin disease and wounds are found here. 21 3o6 Don't let your stable be muddy. 14. Coronet— It lies below the pastern and above the foot. Its bony base is the second phalanx. It should take the same direction as the pastern and be relatively wide, thick and fine. At the coronet may occur ring bone, quittor, side bones, grease heel, and wounds. Fig, 5.— Shows live front views of front limljs. Beginning on the left. 1. Regular, normal standing iwsitlon or axis. 2. Toe-narrow or pigeon-toed. 3. Base wide or ground wide. 4. Toe-wide or toes pointing outward. 5. Limbs down to fetloeks too close together and toe wide. 15. Foot.— The foot is formed by the third phalanx or coflin bones and the navicular bones, ligaments, tendons, soft tissues, blood vessels, nerves, and the horny hoof. The front foot is more nearly round, wider, and less concave at the sole than the hind foot. The frog of the front foot is larger and nearer the ground than in the hind foot. The wall of the hoof at the toe is more inclined in the front foot than in the hind; in the front foot the toe line makes an angle of fifty to fifty-five degrees with the horizontal, while the toe line of the hind foot makes an angle of fifty- five to sixty degrees with the level. The toe line of the front foot is twice as long or high as the heel. In the hind foot the heel is about one-third as high as the toe. \'iewing the foot from behind, the heels should be well separated, equal in size and height. Viewing the bottom of the foot, the sole should be concave and thick, the frog strong and healthy, the bars neither too straight nor too much inclined, and the bearing border of the wall and the sole should be perceptibly worn from usage. The horn of the standard foot is black or dark gray; the wall is smooth and shiny, showing its fibre structure. Defects of the Foot. — ist. The foot may be too large or too small for the size of the horse. 2nd. The foot may be too flat, not sufftciently con- cave in the sole. 3rd. The toe may be too long or the toe may be too short and the heels too high. The high heel and short toe form what is called the club foot. 4th. The foot or hoof may be crooked, the inside part of the wall may be higher or lower than the out- side. 5th. The quality of the horn may be deficient; it may be too soft, too dry and brittle and too easily split or broken. Diseases of the Foot are as follows: Punctures or snags, thrush, canker, wall cracks, corns, founder or laminitis, horny tumors of the wall and sole, and va- rious other wounds and injuries. All the directions mentioned in the preceding par- agraphs apply to the position of regions or parts when the horse is standing square on all his feet. THE NORMAL AXES OR BEST POSITIONS OF THE LliVIBS. Front Limb. 1. Viewed from one side, a plomb line dropped from the middle of the arm should strike the center of the hoof, and be equally distant from a plomb line dropped from the point of the shoulder and one dropped from the point of the elbow. Any deviations from this normal position are more or less defective. 2. Viewed from in front, a plomb line dropped from the point of the shoulder divides all the lower part of the limb into outer and inner halves, and separates the right foot from the left foot a distance equal to the width of one of the feet. All deviations from the normal axes are more or less defective. Hind Limb. I. Viewed from one side, a plomb line dropped from the hip joint obliquely crosses the middle of the Fig. 22. — (a) Shows a foot where the axis is "broken" at the coronet, and the toe is relatively too long or high for the height of the heel. The dotted line along tlie lower Ijor- der shows how much more the toe must be rasped away than the heel in order to bring the axis back to its normal posi- tion and establish the proper relation between the toe lengtll and the heel length or height. (b) Shows the normal or straight axis and the correct rel- ative height or length of toe and heel. (c) Shows the axis broken at the coronet in the opposite direction to that at a. The toe is too short and the heel is too liigh. The dotted line along the lower border shows how much more the heel must be rasped away than the toe in order that the defects of axis and toe and heel lengtlis may be partly corrected. It may take two or more "show- ings" to correct completely these defects. TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 307 leg or gaskin and strikes the center of the hoof; this line is equally distant from a plomb line dropped from the stifle and one dropped from the buttock point. The plomb line dropped from the buttock point usually touches the back border of the hock, the tendons, and the fetlock. All deviations from the normal axes are defective. 2. Viewed from behind, a plomb line dropped from the point of the buttock divides the hind limb into cuter and inner halves, and separates the right foot from the left foot a distance equal to the width of the fetlock. Deviations from the normal axes are defec- tive. Fig. 18. — (a) Toe wide feet, front view. The outside halt of wall of hoof is longer and higher than the inside half. The axis deviate outward from the fetlock to the ground. This predisposes horse to interfere with the inside heel, c strikes usually at e. This detect may be relieved .by rasp- ing away more of the wall than the inside half at each time of shoeing until the inside and outside halves of the wall are of equal height. Then the toes should point direct- ly forward. (b) Toe-wide feet, back view. Shoeing the Healthy Foot of THE Horse Bearing in mind the relation between the toe line ! and the heel, the inside and the outside height of the hoof, prepare the foot for the shoe, keeping these re- lations normal, or trying to make them normal. As a rule, it is best to use the rasp and not the knife in lev- Ircling and sinoothing off the lower border of the wall of the hoof. If the sole and the frog are healthy, they should never be pared or cut away with the drawing knife. The lower border of the "wall is to be kept ' level and rasped down until the rasp begins to cut ..away a little of the sole. I' I The size of the shoe should be determined by the size of the animal and the kind of shoe. A steel shoe is always better than an iron shoe, becarse a small steel shoe will wear longer and do better ser- vice than a large iron shoe. The smaller the shoe, the better for the animal, providing it will stand the wear and protect the hoof. In fitting the shoe to the hoof, see that the outline fjof the shoe corresponds closely to the outline of the [jhoof or wall. The heel may project back of the heel of the foot one-fourth to one-half inch. The nail holes in the shoe should be well toward the toe, because nails in the heel or back part of the wall prevent healthy expansion of the foot. Heel calks and toe calks are unnecessary, and injurious to the healthy u u c; u u Fig. 19. — (a) Shows the direction of the flight of the reg- ular, normal or straight feet In walking. (b) Shows how the feet move when is toe-wide. (c) Shows the line of movement in a toe narrow horse. 3o8 Don't let and Jackleg Shoe your Horses and Mules. feet of horses in the Southern States. The plain, level, or furrowed shoe is far better than a shoe stand- ing up on stilts (calks)-. After the shoe has been made to fit the prepared foot, as accurately as possi- ble, heat the shoe red hot and touch it to the prepared foot at the exact place it should go for about five seconds. This makes t'he shoe fit exactly and closes the porous openings in the freshly rasped wall. Re- member that it is not well nor wise' to hold the hot iron on the foot longer than ten seconds. Now the cool shoe is ready to be nailed on with as small nails as consistent with the size of the shoe and the foot. Three nails on each side toe should be sufficient. The nails should come out one-half to three-quarters of an inch above the lower border of the wall; then clipped off and clinched. The outer surface of tihe wall should not be rasped away, because it is natural- ly covered with a protective varnish that prevents ex- cessive drying out of the foot. The toe of the shoe being firmly fixed to the toe of the wall prevents wearing away of the toe of the wall, but the heels being free are worn away by rubbinsT Fig. 13. — ShoTfs four positions of tiie Tiind limb from pos- terior view. Beginning on the left. 1. Toe-wide or toes point- ing outward. 2. Toe-narrow or pigeon-toed. 3. Base nar- row or ground narrow or limbs and feet too close together. 4. Base or ground wide. Limbs and feet too far apaa-t, es- pecially for a speed horse. Fig. 16. — (a) Regular or normal foot, front view. (b) The same with back view. Fig. 17. — (a) Toe narrow or pigeon-toed feet, front view. Inside half of wall of hoof higher and longer than the out- side. Piredisposes to inerferring with the inside part of toe which strikes usually the inside part of the opposite fetlock, as c strikes e. The axis Inclines or deviates Inward from the fetlock to the ground. This defect can sometimes toe remedied toy rasping down the Inside half of the wall more than the outside half, at each time of shoeing, until the in- side and outside halves of the wall are of equal length and height, (to) The back view of toe — narrow feet. Fig. 20. — Lower or ground surface of front foot. (a) Middle left of the frog. (b. c, d) Inferior or bearing iborder of the wall of the hoof. (b) Toe; c and d quarters; e sole; f-f body of the frog; k-k branches at base of frog; h joint or apex of frog; 1-1 lateral clefts of frog; letters i-i are on the base. Fig. 21. — Lower or ground surface of hind foot. Notice thai the toe (b) is more pointed and the width (c to d) are narrower than the same parts in the front foot. The frog is smaller and the sole is more vaulted or concave than In the front foot. TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEAiSUKK. 309 on the upper surface of the shoe. As a result, in the course of three or four weeks the toe becomes long and the heels too short. In order to remedy this, the slioe should be removed, the toe rasped off to its nor- mal length, and the old shoe reset or a new one put on. Thus it will be seen that it is necessary to re- set the shoes on the horse at least once a month, in order to keep the feet in a nomal, healthy condition. Remember that the frog, t'he sole, and the wall should not be rasped or cut away, except the wall at its lower border, upon which to fit the shoe: because the hoof will dry out. become smaller, harder and inflexible if these parts are cut away. Thf Age of the Horse Deter- mined BY THE Teeth The teeth are made up of hard substances. The outer part that is readily seen by the eye is enamel. This is very hard ; in fact, the hardest substance in -Three \ lew s> ot colt's mouth ^9 about 1 week old. '""^ the body. It is white and ivory-like in appearance. In the young tooth just cut this may be covered by a soft yellow layer called cement, which soon rubs ofif 1| or wears away. In the old horse this may be covered Hvith a yellow tartar-like substance, which makes the iteeth appear yellow. The color of the teeth is no in- jJdex to age. This enamel dips down into the table jljsurface of the incisors and forms a cup-like cavity in 'pthe new tooth on this surface. In the molar tooth it (dips down into the tooth on the table surface several 'jtimes. The bulk of the tooth is made up of a softer I I substance called dentine. It surrounds the pulp cav- ity and lies just inside of the enamel. The enamel dips down into it on the table surface. When the teeth wear away on this surface, the dentine wears aster than the enamel, which keeps the table surface 'ough and with sharp projections of enamel. Thus nature keeps or niaintains a sharp and rough surface for cutting and grinding purposes. The horse, like man and many other animals, de- velops two sets of teeth. The first set may be called temporary teeth ; the second set are called permanent teeth. The temporary teeth of the horse are all of the in- cisors and the first three molars in each half-jaw, mak- ing twenty-four in all. The permanent teeth consist of six incisors above and six below, two canines above and two below, and six molars in each half jaw, mak- ing forty permanent teeth in the mouth of the horse. In the mare the canines are usually absent. 3IO Don't have a man to shoe for you because he does his work cheap. Fig. 25. — Three views of colt's mouth at three uonths old. The names of the incisor teeth must be known in order to understand the signs and changes that ap- pear in them. The two central incisors, above and below, are called nippers. The two incisors touching and next to the nippers, one on each side, above and below (four in all), are called dividers. The remain- ing four incisors located each one on the outside of a divider, above and below, are called corners. The ca- nines are designated by their location. The molars are numbered in each half jaw, beginning below at No. I and running upward and backward to No. 6. From birth to the time the horse is five years old the age is indicated chiefly by the eruption or cutting of temporary and permanent teeth. The colt may be born with temporary nippers, but if not present at birth they appear in five to nine days. The dividers v.'ill be cut in about seven weeks after birth; the cor- ners in si.x or seven months after birth. The first three molars in each half jaw are the only molars that are temporary. They may be present at birth, but if not present then, they will appear in seven to ten days. The fourth molar in each half jaw will appear Fig. 26. — Three views o£ colt's mouth at one year old. TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 3" ^ • AAiiw" 1 Fig. 24. — Three views of colt's mouth at one month old. in ten to twelve months after birth ; this is the first Ipermanent tooth in the horse, and serves to fix the liage of the yearling. No more changes in the way of jeruption of teeth will occur until the colt is two and ia half years old. From the time the colt is one year JDld until it is two and one-half years old, the age must he determined by the condition and wear of the tem- iporary incisors. ri At two and one-half years the temporary nippers Ijire shed or drop out and permanent nippers come out |;|n their place ; the upper and lower permanent nip- l^ers will meet each other by the time the horse is three years old. At this same time the first and sec- ond temporary molars in each half jaw are shed and their places taken by permanent molars. Also the fifth permanent molar in each half jaw is cut at this time. At three and one-half years old the temporary divid- ers are shed and replaced by permanent ones; these permanent dividers, above and below, will meet each other when the horse is four years old. At four and one-half years old the temporary cor- ners are shed and replaced by permanent corners; the permanent corners, above and below, will meet by Fig. 27. — Three views of colt's mouth at 2 years old. Fig. 2S.— Three views of 2 1-2 year old mouth. 312 Cheap prices very often mean cheap work. pjg 29.— Three views of the 3 1-2 year old mouth. the time the horse is five years old. During this same period the sixth permanent molar in each half jaw is cut; also the canines in the male appear at this time. The five year old horse has a full mouth of per- manent teeth. At six years old the cup on the tahle surface of the lower nippers is worn away, and this surface is nearly level. Fig. 30.— Three views of he 4 1-2 years old mouth. Fig. 32.— Three views of 6 years old mouth. TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 313 Pig. 33. — Three views of seven year.s old mouth. Fig. 3.5. — View of table or "wearing surfaces of incisor or front teeth of horse 9 years old. Fig. 35. — Three views of a horse's mouth at 10 years old. Fig. 34. — Three views of eight years old moufll. 'Fig. 36. — Three views of a horse's mouth at 11 years old. 314 Horses and mules need good feet to do good work. Fig. 37.-Three views of a horse's mouth at 12 years old. . ^'- '^--T'lf t ^'^ws of a 13 years old horse's mouth of incisor or front teeth. At seven years old the dividers have lost t'he cup and are nearly level. At eight years old the cup has disappeared in the corners. At nine years old the outline of the table surface of the nippers is slightly oval or nearly round, and the dental star or white line appears in the nippers. The dental star or white line is a w'hite chalky spot or line near the outer border of the table surface and is the beginning of the obliterated or remnant pulp cavity. In front of this white line is the round, hard rem- nant central enamel. The location and form of the dental star and the central enamel may be seen by re- ferring to some of the illustrations. Fig. 39. — Three views of the incisor or front teeth of a horse 15 years old. At ten years old the lower nippers are still more nearly round, the central enamel is distinctly triangu- lar, and t'he dental star more prominent. At eleven years old the outline of the wearing sur- TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 315 face of the dividers is round and the white line or den- tal star has made its appearance in the dividers. At twelve years old all the inferior tables are round. The dental star in the nippers and dividers becomes a yellow spot. In some cases the central enamel may disappear in the nippers; also in the superior corners. At thirteen years old the inferior tables are still round, t'he central enamel in the lower nippers is gone, and sometimes it has disappeared in the dividers ; the central enamel is always gone in the superior corners. The dental star is round in the lower nippers and nearly round in the lower dividers. It is usuall}' round in the upper corner. The central enamel in the upper nippers is round. At fourteen years old the table or wearing surface 3f the lower nippers is more or less triangular. At fifteen years old the lower nippers are triangu- lar. The superior tables are becoming triangular. Fig. 41. — Three views of a 19 years old liorses's mouth. and the central enamel is present in t'he upper nip- pers. At seventeen years old all the inferior tables are triangular. The superior tables are becoming trian- gular, and the central enamel is very small in the up- per nippers. ■Fig. 40.— Three views oi 17 years old horse's mouth of ont teeth. At nineteen years old the inferior tables begin to appear somewhat quadrangular or four-sided in out- line. The lower corners may yet remain triangular. The central enamel in the upper nippers is gone or very small. 'At twenty-one years old the tables of the superior nippers and dividers are triangular and usually the central enamel has disappeared in all the upper inci- sors. As the horse grows older from year to year, the in- cisor teeth become shorter and narrower from side to side and more widely separated from one another. Al- 3i6 Bad stables make bad feet. so, as the horse grows older the angle, which the teeth make with the jaw, changes. The older the horse the more nearly the teeth appear to extend out straight from the end of the lower jaw. In judging the age of a horse be careful to distinguish between temporary and permanent teeth. Temporary teeth are always smaller and shorter than permanent teeth. Moreover, always examine the thickness of the lower jaw and remember that the lower jaw is thick in young animals, and thin or sharp in old animals. Al- so observe the degree of depression in the supra-or- bit. Never neglect to observe the direction of the in- cisor teeth and the condition of the molars and ca- nines. the frog. Nail on this shoe after preparing the foot ^ for normal shoeing: if the foot is very dry and hanl t may be necessary to pare away some hard part of - TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 323 bar and cut down the heel a little more than common. When the shoe is nailed on use the blacksmith's tongs between the heels of the shoe and press them out- Iward slowly and gradually until crack is closed. In 'some cases it may be necessary to partly close the :rack the first time and in three or four days complete t. The objection to the use of such a shoe is that it nust remain on, being re-set every three or four vceks, for 6 to 12 months. This seriously interferes ,vith the expansion and health of the foot. When pus and inflammation are so great that the rack cannot be closed, it is well to cut away the horn )n each side of the crack, until it is so thin that it will ;iot pinch the soft tissue. Now cleanse the part, apply tar and cotton or hoof ointment and cotton and a ban- dage so as to produce pressure. Repeat this applica- 'ion every day until no more pus is present, then re- )cat it only about once a week. During this treat- nent the animal must have rest, and in the course of I month or six weeks it may be in such a condition hat a normal shoe may be applied and the animal put work. || HORNY TUMOR of the WALL. J This involves the wall of the hoof, the sensitive and Insensitive leaves, and the third phalanx, os pedis or foffin bone. ■ ' Causes. — It may be a sequel of toe crack or quar- ter crack; the nail of the shoe may be driven too ■lose to the quick and long continued pressure cause jhis trouble, toe clips and quarter clips may also in- luce it by long continued pressure; clefts or openings n the white line at the union between the sole and the ivall may permit dirt, sand and small pebbles to work jpward and produce pressure that would in time ;ause this trouble. I'; Symptoms. — At first there appears an obscure ameness, which is hard to locate ; later, by applying ressure with the hoof searchers or the blacksmith's jippers, a sensitive place may be found. Closely ex- mining the white line will show that this line at the ensitive place is obscure or bent inward toward the rog. Sometimes an opening may be found which is '^lled with dirt. After locating the place involved, !ake a small, narrow, and long knife, a small pointed "rawing knife is best, clean out the part from the I'hite line up on the inside of the wall, going up as pr as any dirt or soft, white, leafv insensitive tissue may be found. This will require much care and pa- tience, and sometimes it will be necessary to cast the animal before it can be done. When completely cleaned plug the hole with tar and cotton; repeat the dressing daily and apply hoof ointment every day. If not completely removed, the tumor will return in the course of a few months ; then it may be removed again. Sometimes it may be necessary to remove a strip of the wall from its lower border to the upper border, about 1-2 inch wide, immediately over the tu- mor. Then the entire tumor can be removed ; after its removal, apply cotton and hoof ointment or tar and bandage so as to apply pressure. Repeat the dressing every day for three or four days and there- after about once a week. In the course of two months the shoe may be applied and the animal put to light work. It will require 12 to 18 months be- fore a new hoof will be developed. SIDE BONES. The lateral cartilages, which are diseased in the cartilagenous quittor, are sometimes involved in an- other disease called Side Bones. In this lime salts are deposited in the cartilage in sufficient quantity to make the cartilage become larger, harder and inflexi- ble. This trouble is more frequently found in the front than in the hind foot. It is also more frequent-, ly found in mules than in horses in the South. Fi?. 4K. — Shows side bones, a ring bone at pa.stern joint and two furrows in the toe of the third phalanx produced by pre.ssure of a horny tumor of the wall. m 324 If you can't feed and water your own stock, have a responsible man do so. Causes. — In health the back and upper part of the cartilages are pressed outward when the foot expands at the time it is on the ground and bearing weight. If the nails in the shoes are back in the quarter and heel, as is so commonly the case in shoeing mules, this form or kind of shoeing prevents expansion and increases pressure on the lower part of the cartilage. Pig. 47. — A photograph of a left front foot of a mule show- ing two side bones extending above the outer parts of the superior border of the wall of tlie hoot. Long continued work under such conditions produces a low and slow form of inflammation, which finally results in the formation of a side bone. Excessive drying out of the hoof also contracts the wall, makes it harder, less flexible, and thus increases pressure, which may result in side bone. It is possible that overwork and over expansion of the lateral cartilages might lead to inflammation which would result in lime deposits in the cartilage. Sometimes side bones may be associated with navicular disease, quarter cracks, cartilagenous quittor, ring bones and occa- sionally it is said to be a sequel to founder. Again it is possible that a direct injury which might not cause an open wound might result in side bone; this, how- ever, is very infrequent. Symptoms. — The lameness will be more intense on hard than on soft ground. In the early stages there may be distinct sensitiveness or flinching when the cartilage is pressed by the thumb or finger. In the later stages the cartilage will be hard, inflexible and large. Sometimes the enlargement is so great that it makes the mule foot appear as if it had bunions, and wider above than below, this is especially so if both cartilages are involved. Treatment. — In the early stages apply cold water or soak out the feet in water to reduce the fever.ll When the animal is removed from the water and the feet nearly dry, apply hoof ointment all over the hoof.l See that the shoes thereafter are not nailed at the heel or quarters and that the foot does not dry outjj or become too hard in dry weather; excessive dry ness of hoof may be prevented by frequent applica-i tion of hoof ointment. In old standing cases, where the cartilage is large, hard and inflexible, try to in-| duce greater expansion at the heel by frequent soak-' ing the feet and frequent applications of hoof oint- ment. This may not cure the trouble or remove the! enlargement, but may relieve the pressure and the] pain, and thus enable the horse or mule to do consid- erable work on the farm. It is a good plan to keep such an animal off the hard road, and work it only on the farm in the soft fields where the animal will not suffer so much pain. It is possible to relieve the pain entirely by taking away the nerve supply to that part of the foot; this can only be done by an expert, NAVICULAR DISEASE. The navicular bone, the flexor tendon, which play; over the back surface of this bone, and the sheatl' that covers this tendon are the parts involved in 11 icular ■ disease. These parts are somewhat deeplv situated and cannot be felt or seen ; hence the change; that occur are not visible on the surface Causes. — It is probable that a tendency to navicn lar disease is inherited from some near ancestni Deep punctures that may reach the sheath, the ten-j don, or the bone may cause this trouble. It is possi ) Fig. 4S. — N is the navicular bone showing conditions as 1' navicular disease. 3 is the os pedis with bon.v and rotii-t growths from osteitis and s is the second phalanx with ring bone. TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 32s ■At that excessive strains on the tendon may result n navicular disease. Some persons claim that bruises )r bruising strokes over the region of the frog might ause it: this is very doubtful. If the foot becomes Iry, contracted or hard, there is little expansion and ittle dispersion of concussion; the navicular bone is lirectly under the gravity line of the limb, and as a esult it receives this increased shock or concussion ; tow if this condition of excessive concussion on the avicular bone be continued indefinitely on a hard oad, it is very likely that the bone will suffer ; or it ill result in some form of inflammation of the bone, 'his seems to be the most common cause of navicu- ir disease. It is said that horses which have rheu- [Patism or big head are very liable to have navicular [|iisease. Horses with short, upright pasterns and flat ;et usually have excessive concussion on the bone ; i (pd this may be one of the predisposing causes of nav- lular disease. : I Symptoms. — At first there will be obscure lame- ess, and it will be difficult to find any swelling, in- iry or change in the limb to account for this lame- ;ss. The lameness may d'sappear and recur again j two Or three weeks. After a few days it may dis- ppear and return in a few weeks. This periodic |)ming and going of lameness may be kept up for 'le or two years before the horse becomes contin- j'busly lame. If the foot or hoof is not already con- lacted smaller than its opposite, it may become so in tjje course of six months or a year; this is partly due non-use of that foot. In some cases the muscles the shoulder will shrink, a result of non-use, on ac- unt of the lameness in the foot. Very rarely is this juble found in the hind foot, but it is more frequent the front foot ; and sometimes it may be in both ant feet. If in both front feet, the horse will shift t weight from one foot to the other, and try to keep 2 feet when standing, in advance of a normal posi- n. Backing is rather difficult ; the steps are short, d the animal walks as if on stilts. Except in rare JiSes the animal is more lame when it is first taken it of the stall than it is after being driven some le. The lameness is more intense on hard ground ; pavement than on soft ground. Occasionally a (sstep will produce violent pain ; and the animal for Tietime may be unable to bear weight on that foot thout great pain. If one foot is involved the posi- n of that limb or foot may indicate something of ■ character of the disease. Some say the foot will be extended in front of its opposite, others that it will be held back on the toe; but it is more probable that the animal will shift the position of the foot from one place to anotlier, in order to secure rest and relief from pain. It is often asserted that pressure in the hollow of the heel with the thumb will produce pain and flinching; this is not to be relied upon, because many horses are excessively sensitive to this pressure. If the animal is shod, it will be noticed that the toe of the shoe is worn away much faster than the heel. If it is not shod, the toe of the wall is worn away fas- ter than the heel. Sometimes the foot may be picked r.p and twisted or wrenched with the hand from side to side, and this will cause flinching or pain. In making a diagnosis all other parts of the limb must be carefully examined in order to see tliat there is no other cause for the lameness. Remember that a horse lame with navicular disease is quite often said to be lame in the shoulder. Fig. 49.— Same as Fig. 48 except tlie first and secoad phalanges are in their natural position. Treatment. — In the early stages give the animal rest with slight and regular daily exercise; soak out the feet and apply hoof ointment to prevent contraction and induce expansion. Sometimes it may be neces- sary and useful to rasp away the wall over the quar- ters and heel, until it is so thin you can make an im- pression by pressure with the thumb ; also rasp down the heels and lower border of the wall, and cut away the bars until they are quite thin. Now apply hoof 326 Good judgment is a good thing in the management ot stock. ointment and let the animal take exercise every day in a pasture. A soft and wet pasture if possible. The hoof ointment should be applied to that foot every day. In the course of two or three months that foot should have become as large and as well ex- panded at the heels as its opposite. In old standing cases the only means of relief is to "nerve" the foot. This operation removes a section of the nerves that supplies the foot whh sensation; this can only be done by an expert. However, it must be remem- bered, that with proper care and juaicious handling, a horse with navicular disease may do considerable slow work on the farm if kept off the hard roads. RING BONE. This disease usually involves the first and second phalanges, and sometimes the third phalanx or os pe- dis is also involved. The regions enlarged may be the pastern and the coronet. An inflammation in the bone or involving both bones and the pastern articu- lation, usually results in a bony enlargement. Ring bone may occur in any limb, but it is more common in the front limbs than in the hind. Causes.— A tendency to ring bone may be inherit- ed. A bad conformation may also be inherited. A short upright pastern predisposes a horse to ring bone, because it increases concussion. Some assert that a long oblique pastern increases the weight to such an extent on the tendons and ligaments that they are lia- ble to be torn loose or become diseased at their points of attachment ; this would in turn produce inflamma- tion in the periosteum, the vascular membrane that Fig. 50.— A ring bone at the pastern joint. The joint is stiff and tlie bony growth is large. 1 is the first phalanx and 2 is the second phalanx. The fetlock is at the upper end of (1) and the coffin laone or os pedis is below (2). covers the bone, and finally result in a bony enlarge ment or ring bone. Rheumatism and big head are, said to be predisposing causes of ring bone. The real! exciting cause of ring bone is excessive concussion, re-| suiting from short, upright pasterns, high stepping, hard roads and pavements, an excesively dry, hard, and inexpansible hoofs. Symptoms.— In the beginning a small enlargementj may apear somewhere along the front or latteral sidesj of the pastern or corners. The enlargement may bej so small that it is hard to detect. Lameness may be more or less severe, according to the -extent and lo-'| cation of the inflammation. If the pastern articulaj tion is involved, the lameness may increase with exj ercise. If there is no enlargement on t ae back sur| face of the pastern or coronet of the front limb, th' animal will try to bear most of the weight on t\w heel ; often the heel will be placed on the ground first and then on the toe. In the hind limb the aninia will usually put most of the weight on the toe. Ii cases of some standing the enlargement will be mon prominent, it will be hard and bony, and the aninia' may be more lame or more stiff; the pastern join may become obliterated or in other words the I and second phalanges firmly united by a bony ■'.' posit. Treatment.— Rest is very essential in this disca- If there is much fever and pain it may be well i apply cold water for several hours each day until tl fever is reduced; then apply some of the followin ointment : Mercuric Iodide 4 drams. Vaseline ^ ounces. Mix thoroughly and apply all around the pastern over the ring bone after clipping on' the hair with the scissors or clippers. This should be rubbed in well ; it is best to apply it at night and tie the halter strap so short that the animal cannot reach the foot with its lips; keep the anim'al thus tied for 24 hours. The ointment will blister and make the part swell and become more or less sore on. the skin. In the course of two or three days the pastern may be washed with water and soap, and a little vaseline applied. In two or three weeks, if the animal is still lame, make a second application of this oint- TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 327 ment in the same manner. Remember that rest for a considerable time — from one to four months — is very essential to the treatment of ring bone in its early stage. In old cases, where the bony growth is large, the listering treatment may not do much good. Then be only means of relief is to remove the nerve supply p that part of the limb. In all cases it is well to note lie condition of the hoof; if it is dry and hard, soak i| up and apply hoof ointment regularly. 11 SPLINTS. r !|Bony enlargements along the lateral borders of le cannon bone, at the line of union, between the plint bone and the cannon, are called splints. In jjung animals a splint bone is united to the cannon 'one by a ligament. In some cases this ligament be- omes injured and inflammation appears, which re- lUts in bony enlargement and union of the two ■j)nes. Sometimes the union is made without an ex- |rnal enlargement. ji 1 1 Causes. — Splints occur in young horses far more fre- |!|iently than in old ones; this is especially true if the nmg horse is put to severe work on a hard road or ivement. The concussion becomes so great that e interosseous ligament uniting the two bones he- mes partly separated from the bone, or the perios- m becomes injured and consequently inflamed; is results in the formation of a bony growth to lOre firmly unite the bone. It is during this period ■ inflammation and bony growth that the animal is lie. As a rule, a splint that is present in an old Tse rarely produces lameness ; because that splint IS formed when the animal was young. jSymptoms. — In the very beginning lameness is ^ only symptom of the disease; in a short time an largement may appear along the border of the splint ' lie or the cannon. This may be quite small at first 1 afterwards become more prominent. In some -es more than one small enlargement may appear >ng the border of the cannon ; then the animal is d to have a beaded splint. The lameness during ,; growth of a splint increases with exercise and is )re intense on hard roads than on soft ground. Oc- ;ionally an enlargement may appear along the inner border of the splint bone near the tendons and sus- pensory ligament. This cannot be seen but may be felt by lifting up the foot and pushing the tendons to one side. This form of splint is often called a peg- splint. Splints occur most frequently on the inside border of the front cannon ; occasionally they occur on the outside border of the front cannon and quite rarely appear in the hind limb. Sometimes a splint on the inside of the front limb will cause the horse to throw his foot outward when in motion. The most serious form of splints are those that are high up near the knee in the front limb, or near the hock in the hind limb ; also the peg-splint is liable to cause severe and sometimes incurable lameness. Treatment. — Rest is important in the treatment of splints, but not absolutely necessary. The blistering ointment recommended for beginning ring bone may be applied to a splint. It will not remove the enlarge- ment, but may remove the lameness after one or two applications. The cause of pain in a splint is often due to pressure of the bony enlargement against the per- Fig. 51. — Shows the bones of sound hock, o is the os- calis which forms the point of the hock and to which is at- tached the large ham-sti-ong tendon; a is the astragalus which articulates with the lower end of the tiba; sc is the scaphoid, sometimes called the middle cuneiform; Ic is the large cuneiform; c the cuboid; s the external splint bone; can is the cannon bone. Between the scaphoid (sc) and the larger cuneiform (Ic) is the i^lace where a bone spavin usually begins. 328 Horses and mules do not know everything. iosteum. In order to relieve this pressure, a needle- pointed firing iron may be pressed down through the skin and periosteum when the iron is red hot. This serves in place of blister and also relieves the pressure on the periosteum. Some surgeons use a knife and in- sert it in a small opening under the skin and cut the periosteum ; but this can only be done by the qualified expert. It is never advisable for an ordinary man to attempt to chisel away or cut off splints. As a rule, an expert veterinarian does not cut off a splint. Remember that old splints which do not produce lame- ness are not considered as causes of unsoundness. Old splints are generally regarded as only unsightly and a slight blemish. BONE SPAVIN. In most cases this disease is confined to the four small bones on the lower part of the tarsus or hock. Fig. 52. — The lelt liock showing a well developed bone spavin. In other cases it may involve also the two upper bones of the tarsus, the lower end of the tibia, and the upper end of the cannon, and one or both small splint bones. Causes. — Narrow hocks and crooked hocks are pre- disposed to bone spavin. The narrow hock is too small to withstand the pressure from concussion and I the pressure from the pinching action in extreme flex- j ion of the hock while in motion. It is possible that i rheumatism and big head predispose a horse to spav- 'J in. It is also very probable that a tendency to bone I spavin is inherited. Young animals, race horses, hunt- 1 ers are said to be predisposed to bone spavin ; but in ii many cases this may be due to the violent and severe, work required of the hock in these kinds of work. The exciting causes of spavin are excessive concussions, great pinching action and possibly the partial tear-: ing of ligaments of the hock. Concussion when exces^ sive and prolonged produces inflammation in the small j bones, where it is most severe. The pinching action occurs when the hock is excessively fle.xed ; then they small bones are pinched very like the nut in the nut I cracker. The tearing of ligaments may occur whenj the foot is caught and the animal pulls to get loose:] this seems to be very rarely the cause of bone spavin In fact, it is about as rare as the production of b^nn spavin by direct strokes or injuries. I Symptoms. — In many cases a small enlargemenl(^ first appears on the inner and front aspect of the low] i er part of the hock. At first this enlargement will bi| so small that it is difficult to detect. Rub down tin' hair on both hocks and compare one with the other! using the fingers and the eyes. In cases of somi| standing this enlargement will be sufficient in size t" be seen and felt quite easily. In other cases there m ' be no outer enlargement, and yet there will be a bo spavin present ; in this case the inflammation is con fined to the articular surfaces between the small bone- The bone spavin with an outer enlargement is calle a periosteal spavin. One without an outer f largement is called an occult or hidden spavin. Tlij lameness in spavin is peculiar. In periosteal spavi the lameness usually gets worse with exercise. Tli length of the step in the limb with spavin is shor! than usual. In moving the foot forward in flexing t cannon and hock of the tibia there is often a kind ' hitching, double movement. This is not always preser'f* and it is hard to observe, when it occurs. If the foot held up in the position in which the blacksmith lioli the hind foot while shoeing it, for five or six minuti then the animal is immediately forced to trot the lam ness will be greatly intensified ; often the animal w start off on three limbs, holding the lame limb fro' the ground. In some cases the animal will raise tl TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 329 limb upward, and higher than usual, somewhat in the The farmer can best use blistering applications. manner indicating stringhalt. Pushing the animal from The following is one of the many that may be tried : one side of the stall to the other, may produce signs of lameness. Red Iodide of Mercury 4 drams. Pulverized Cantharides 3 drams. Treatment. — With proper treatment over 50 per Turpentine i fluid ounce cen.t. of the cases should recover from the lameness. Vaseline 3 ounces The enlargement may not disappear and a little stiff- ivr- 1 Tj ^ ■ ^- 1 • <. ..• ^. ■ J^l'-^ thoroughly and apply some of it all around the ness may remam. Rest is essential in treating this , , . , ^^ -^ ,. ■□ • . I r j:- • u u J • "°'^'^ covering the enlargement; it may be well to clio disease. Point and line firing have been used in many ^ ^ , y uk. w^-h lu ^.np instances with success. If point firing is used, the small point should be pushed down into the enlarged Fig. 5o. — Two hocks showing two different bone spavins. bone, through the periosteum, over the entire enlarge- jiiment; the points should not be closer than 1-2 inch to jjione another. In line firing the lines are about 1-2 inch i|from one another. Some advise cutting the tendon which runs obliquely down over this region, and re- moving a section of the tendon. Others advise in- ; serting a curved knife under the skin and cutting the periosteum over the bone in one or two places. As a rule, the firing and the operations above suggested can 3nly be done by the expert. Fig. 54. — Hind view of hoclv showing a well developed bone spavin (sf). This is sometimes called a "periosteal" bone spavin. the hair before applying; always rub it in well. Tie the halter strap short, so that the animal cannot reach the hock with his lips. Keep him thus tied for 24 hours. The application should not be repeated under three or four weeks. During this time the animal should have rest in a box shall or small pasture. DISEASES OF THE TENDONS AND LIGA- MENTS. Most commonly this involves the back tendons in the cannon region; also the suspensory ligament and the sub-carpal tendon, or check ligament, may be in- volved. If the back or flexed tendons at the cannon region are injured by sprain or a stroke from kicking, and sometimes from the single-tree or plough, they may become inflamed. It is believed that over-work and exhaustion of the muscles will lead to sprain and inflammation of the tendons. Symptoms. — As a rule, tlie enlargement of the ten- dons may be seen and felt. The enlargement may not 330 In bad weather see to it that the stock have exercise. be very great, and a swelling in the skin should not be mistaken for an enlargement of the tendons. The lameness usually gets worse with exercise and with work. In old, standing cases the inflamed and enlarg- ed tendons may contract and become shorter; this will pull back the foot in varying degrees and likewise push forward and over the fetlock. Thus the horse may become "cock-ankled," and in some cases may be so bad that the animal walks on the toe or on the front wall of the hoof, instead of the sole and frog. The suspensory ligament begins on the back sur- face at the upper end of the cannon bone, between the heads of the two splints bones : it runs downward on this surface to about the lower third of the cannon ; here it divides into an inner and an outer branch. Each branch runs downward and forward over the fetlock of its corresponding sesamoid bone, and then bears downward and forward until it unites with the anterior extensor tendon. This ligament helps hold u]) the fetlock and is the one pressed by the thumb and inger when we wish to make the horse raise its and finger when we wish to make the horse raise its foot. If injured, it occurs usually along one of the branches just above the fetlock, and the enlargement may be seen and felt. The sub-carpal tendon or check ligament is a down- ward extension of the back ligament of the carpus or knee ; it runs downward from the back part of the knee between the back tendon and the upper part of the suspensory ligament. It unites with the deep flexor or hack tendon about the middle of the cannon region. It may be injured by sprains and possibly by direct strokes. If injured, it is enlarged and the enlargement may be felt. In determining enlargements of these tendons or ligaments always compare the tendon or ligament with the same in the opposite limb. Treatment. — There is no disease producing lame- ness in which rest is more essential than in inflamma- tion of the tendons and ligaments. Secure a woolen flannel bandage 4 to 5 yards long and 2 or 3 inches broad. It may be well to have two or three of these. Wet this bandage and put it on from the pastern up to the knee ; it may be drawn mod- erately tight, but not too tight. As it dries out it con- tracts and produces pressure. The water also reduc- es inflammation. When it has become dry, remove it, wet it again, or use another, and apply as before. Re- move, Avet, and re-apply this or another bandage six to ten times a day. In cold weather four to five times a day may be all that is necessary. This should be kept up a least two weeks. If at the end of that time the enlargement and lameness have not disappeared, apply over the enlarged part some of the blistering ointment recommended for beginning ring bone. Do not repeat this blister for two or three weeks. If the tendons have contracted, the ankle thrown forward, and the foot backward, the only means of relief is an operation that cuts one or both of the tendons and per- mits the limb to become straight. This can only be done by the expert. Tendons in other parts of the limbs may become inflamed. For example, the tendons back and above the knee may become contracted and produce the "knee sprung" condition. Sometimes this may be remedied by an operation. Occasionally the "ham Splint bone Cannon Done Check ligament Flexor perofiaus Flexor perfoi-atus r, Suspensor.v i-igament Fig. 55 — Shows the position and relations of some of the parts of the front limb. Along the line of union between the splint bone and the cannon is the location of splints. The location of the suspensory ligament is also clearly de- fined. The check ligament or subcarpal ligament is visible. The back tendons, here designated flexor perforans and flex- or perforatus, are known respectively as the deep flexor and the superficial flexor tendons. ■ TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 331 string" tendon above the hock may be injured ; but this is rare unless there be a distinct wound, such as a cut or bruise. If the "ham string" tendon is com- pletely severed, little can be done by the ordinary man to produce recovery. CURB. Any enlargement along the back border of the hock from just below the point of the hock down to the cannon is said to be a curb. Usually a curb involves a ligament running along beneath the tendons at this border. Sometimes is involves the tendons and occa- sionally it may be associated with enlargement of the bone. Causes. — Crooked hocks or crooked hind limbs and young horses are predisposed to curbs. No doubt ex- cessive strain on a weak hock will injure the liga- ment or the tendon. A tendency to this disease, es- pecially a crooked hock, may be inherited. In fact, some instances a stroke against a single-tree or other hard objects might produce this trouble ; but this is extremely rare. Curbs are produced in young horses when they are over-worked or when they are being broken, and they rear up frequently, throwing exces- sive weight and strain up on the hocks. Symptoms. — A distinct enlargement or bulging along the back border of the hock is a positive sign of curb. This may be best observed by standing at one side. In the early stages there may be some lo- cal fever and some sensitiveness on pressure with the thumb or fingers. Generally the lameness increases with exercise ; yet in some cases the lameness appears to be better after the animal is warmed up. Treatment. — In the early stages apply cold water bandages for a week or more. Then apply the mer- curic iodide blister (see treatment for ring-bone for this blister). If the horse is still lame at the end of three weeks, repeat the blister. Some fire in lines and blister at the same time. Rest in a box stall is very essential. If the animal is a colt or young and playful, he should be restrained from running, jumping and rearing. In old horses a curb may be present which is of long standing and not attended with lameness. Common law would hold such an animal as unsound, yet the animal may never go lame from the curb. DROPSICAL CONDITIONS OF THE SYNOVIAL SACS. These conditions are commonly called "wind galls." However, the soft, puffy enlargements never contain- ed air or gas, but nearly alway-; contain an excess of synovia, the lubricating material of joints and tendons. The synovial membrance becomes injured or chang- es in such a way that synovia is secreted faster than it is absorbed; this results in an excess of thick and ab- normal synovia, which distends or dilates the synov- ial sac, producing the enlargement. Causes. — Injuries of the synovial membrane may be so slight that the changes come on very gradually. Sometimes the slight pinching or pressure on the se- creting cells of the synovial membrance may result in their destruction. Over-work in many cases may account for this trouble by causing over stimulation and secretion by the synovial membrane. Occasion- ally this trouble may be associated with rheumatism or big head. It also may be a sequel to severe inflam- mation of an articulation or tendon. Symptoms. — In the early stages there may be lameness, but as a rule lameness is absent. When the weight is off the limb, the enlargement is soft and puffy, but when the weight is on the limb it may feel hard and tense. This variation is due to the varia- tion in the pressure of the liquid against the wall of the sac. In very old, standing cases, as in old horses, lime salts may be deposited in the tissues around the sac, and thus it may become hard and bone-like; in these cases lameness may be more or less severe. The most common one of these synovial distensions is found at the fetlock, it is just above the fetlock, along the inner and outer border of the back tendon ; this is a distension of the sac of the deep flexor tendon. Another is found just in front of the branch of the suspensory ligament; this is a distension of the synov- ial sac of the fetlock articulation. Another is found on the front surface of the fetlock. This is a dilatation of the sac of the anterior extensor tendon. On the front, the outside, and the back surface of the knee may oc- cur five different synovial distensions of sacs of ten- dons and the articulation. Occasionally one may oc- cur at the point of the elbow, and also at the point of the shoulder. In the hind limb three may occur at the fetlock as in the front limb. At the hock one may oc- 332 Some horses need whipping; some don't. cur at the point of the hock. Another may occur on the back part of the hock ; this shows a soft, puffy en- largement that is larger on the inside than the out- side; it lies on the back surface some distance from the point of the hock and the "ham string" tendon, and the inside enlargement often extends down along the back part of the inside surface of the hock. This is a distension of the deep flexor tendon synovial sac of the hock. It is sometimes called a tendinous thoroughpin. The distension of the articular synovi- al sac at the hock may occur in three places ; one at the internal, upper and front aspect of the hock, com- monly called "bog spavin ;" another on the back sur- face and internal part, and a third on the Ijack sur- fa'ce and external part. The last two are called an ar- ticular thoroughpin. The distensions called "bog spavin" and articular thoroughpin may be changed by pressure. Pressing on the bog spavin will enlarge the distensions on the back surface of the hock, and pressing on the inside or outside of the back surface will enlarge its opposite or the "bog spavin." Some- times the bog spavin enlargement is present without any enlargements on the back surface. At the stifle a synovial enlargement may appear, but this is not common. Another may occur just over the upper 'end of tlie femur directly over and to the outside of the hip joint. This is a distension of the synovial sac of the tendon of a muscle. Treatment — As a rule, it is unwise and dangerous to open the sac of an articulation, because it may lead to inflammatiort of the articulation, and result in a stiff joint. Moreover, it is not wise or safe to open all synovial sacs of tendons. The following synovial sacs of tendons may be opened with some degree of safety ; the sac of the anterior e.xtensor tendon at the fetlock may be opened at its lower part. The synovi- al sac distension at the point of the elbow may be freely opened. The distension at the point of the hock, commonly called "capped hock,'' may be open- ed on its back part low down and to one side. After opening any of these sacs keep them cleansed by us- ing boiled and cooled water and creolin or carbolic acid, and as a rule it is well to let the animal have some ex- ercise every day. The other tendinous sacs may be treated by applying blisters and sometimes by using an aspirating needle and drawing off the excess of thick and abnormal synovia. This is a hollow, sharp- pointed needle, like a large hypodermic, and is pushed into the sac and the liquid allowed to escape; it can be done every day for a few days and then the follow- ing blister mav be aplied. Pulverized Cantharides i ounce Turpentine i fluid ounce Vaseline 2 fluid ounces Mi.x thoroughly and apply once every three or four weeks. All operations on articular sac distensions, and most of those of the tendons, should be put in the hands of the expert. Pressure is often applied by the use of specially constructed trusses and bandages ; these must be bought at instrument houses. When used they must be kept on all the time the horse is at rest and taken off when the horse is at work. This must be kept up in some cases for months, and even then the pressure treatment is not always productive of a per- manent cure. INFLAMMATION OF AN ARTICULATION. This is sometimes called arthritis or an open joint. However, the joint is not always open in cases of in- flammation of articulation. Causes. — Open joints are caused by penetrating wounds. A severe injury of the joint may lead to in- flannnation and pus formation in an articulation, but it sooner or later opens to the surface. It is possible that infection of a joint may occur in connection with pvaemia (an excess of pus in the blood forming or resulting in abscesses in numerous places in the body). In some cases of distemper or strangles py- aemia mav occur. In inflammation or infections of the navel cord of a young colt or calf may also result in a general disease similar to pyaemia. Symptoms. — At first an ordinary wound with a slight lameness may be all that is observed. In 24 hours the tissues around the articulation will become swollen, warmer than usual, and the animal will suf- fer intense pain. If the joint is open a watery secre- tion, streaked with blood, may be all that is observed during the first 24 hours. Later, the secretion may collect about the opening in grayish colored, jelly-like masses ; this is coagulated abnormal synovia. Later pus may be discharged, usually from one opening, TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 333 but sometimes two or more openings may appear around tlie articulation. If tlie joint is not open, it will become greatly swollen, warm, very painful, and usually, if infection has occurred, it will open at some point in the course of a week or ten days, and then discharge pus. The discharge of pus is usually kept up for weeks, and the trouble may finally result in an obliteration of the articulation and a stiff joint. This is especially true if the treatment is not begun early and continued correctly. Treatment. — If discovered immediately after the in- jury, the wound should be thoroughly disinfected with boiled and cooled water and boiled cotton, using some creolin or carbolic acid in the water. Saturate some cotton with a mixture of equal parts of linseed oil and turpentine : apply this in and over the wound, then bandage to hold in place. If no infection has occurred this will protect and prevent infection. If infection has occurred and the joint is inflamed and en- larged, then it is more difficult to destroy the infec- tion. If it is possible, boil three or four gallons of water and add to it after boiling one part of bichloride of mercury to every 2,000 parts of water (15 grains of bichloride to every quart of water). Place this in a glass vessel or a glazed earthen vessel (never in a metal vessel), or use a large glass funnel, to which may be attached a rubber tube. A large rubber fam- ily fountain syringe may be cleaned up with boiling \vater and used for this purpose. After filling the rubber bag of this syringe, or the other vessel, hang it or place it above the horse and near enough so that the rubber tube and nozzle will reach the diseased joint. Place the nozzle in the wound that opens into the articulation and let this bichloride solution slowly pass into this joint as long as the five or six gallons of the solution will last. Then cover the wound as previously directed and bandage. Repeat this treat- ment the following day, providing pus is formed in the intervening 24 hours. If no pus is formed, use the other dressing and wait until the next day. If no pus is then present, repeat the dressing with the tur- pentine and raw linseed oil mixture, and do not re- dress for two or more days. During the treatment keep the animal at rest ; do not lead him out to water. H you have an enlarged joint, and are uncertain whether or not infection has occurred, apply cold wa- ter to reduce the inflammation; keep this up for one or two days and then apply the mercuric iodide blis- ter around that articulation. If necessary, repeat the blister in 8 to 15 days. Remember great patience and much time and extra care in boiling and disinfecting all the water and the cotton used about this articula- tion, will be required to effect a cure. DISEASES PRODUCING LAMENESSES AT THE SHOULDER. Muscles, nerves, blood vessels, the synovial mem- brane, and the articulation may be diseased when there is shoulder lameness. The muscles about the shoulder, especially those on the external surface of the shoulder blade may shrink or become smaller in size as a result of non-use, due to injury of the mus- cle or to lameness in which the limb is not used ; this is commonly called "swinney." It must be noted that this is a symptom of disease rather than a disease in itself ; it may occur as a secondary result when the primary disease is in the foot. Injury of the muscles of the shoulder may be caused by kicks, strokes, run- ning against objects, or by an ill-fitting collar. Young and soft horses are especially liable to injury of the shoulder by the collar. Symptoms. — If a muscle or muscles are injured, in a short time thereafter the part becomes swollen, warm, and sensitive. The lameness will vary accord- ing to the muscle or muscles injured and the extent of the injury. Usually it is difficult for the aninlal to throw the shoulder forward or raise the foot from the ground ; as a rule, the lameness is greater on soft ground than on the hard road. After the inflamma- tion subsides, the muscles may shrink ; this is largely due to the non-use of the muscle. Treatment. — In the early stages, during the inflam- matory period, apply cold water ; or if the animal is in great pain, appW hot water, but do not scald the part. In chronic cases, or when the muscle has be- come shrunken, rub the skin over the shrunken mus- cles for thirty minutes two or three times a day with a good, stiff horse brush. At the same time give the horse light exercise, using light breast harness or the saddle. PARALYSIS OF NERVES OF SHOULDER. The supra-scapular nerve passes over the front border of the scapula, just below its middle part, and 334 Horses are like children; what will suit one, may not suit another. supplies the external scapular muscles. This nerve may be injured by running against objects, by kicks, and possibly by other strokes. If paralysis follows the injury, the muscles will become paralyzed. Symptoms. — When weight is placed on the limb, the point of the shoulder suddenly flies outward, and to the ordinary observer this appears as if the shoul- der was dislocated. Scotch and English veterinari- ans at one time called it "shoulder slip." It is more common in young horses than old ones, and is often seen in the colt at pasture. In the course of a few weeks the muscles will shrink and another case of the so-called "swiimey" is developed. Treatment. — Rest the animal in a box stall, small pasture or paddock, rub the shoulder well three or Fig 56. — Represents an outline made from a photograph taken of a case which had the ulna (olecranon) at the point of the elbow broken. Notice how flat it is at the elbow (e) also the flexed position of the knee. This front limb could not support weight. The position of the limb is also char- acteristic of paralysis of the radial nerve. four times a day with a good, stiff brush, or apply the following blister over the middle part of the shoul- der, from the side of the neck to its back border: Pulverized Cantharides 4 drams. Turpentine i fluid ounce. Vaseline 4 ounces Mix well and rub in well over the iniddle part of the shoulder as above directed. Tie the animal for 24 hours so that it cannot rub this part with its lips or against any object. In 2 to 4 weeks repeat the blister. In old cases of several weeks' or months' standing, and especially in old horses, treatment will do little or no good. In fact, many cases cannot be cured when treatment is begun soon after the injury. PARALYSIS OF THE RADIAL NERVE. This is a branch of the brachial nerve, and it sup- plies all the extensor muscles that lie between the l)ack border of the scapula and humerus and termi- nate at the elbow point on the top part of the ulna; these muscles extend the radius on the humerus and are very powerful. The nerve is injured in some way, but in some instances it is impossible to tell just how it is injured. Sometimes it is injured when the first rib is fractured. At other times it may be injured in casting an animal, possibly the pressure applied upon this nerve when the animal lies for a long time on the side may injure tlie nerve. Symptoms. — The animal seems to be unable to fix the elbow and knee to bear weight ; often, when the foot is placed on the ground the knee and the elbow quickly pass forward. In some cases the animal may bear weight, and after weight is put on the limb the limb will give way at the knee and elbow, (see fig. 56). Treatment. — Rest and apply same treatment as for suprascapula nerve paralysis. The place to apply the rubbing or the blister is between the back border of the shoulder and the upper border of the arm. As , in the other form of paralysis, this form is many times incurable. DISEASE OF THE LARGE BLOOD VESSELS AT THE SHOULDER. In rare instances the brachial artery becomes so dis- eased that its opening may become partially or en- tirely closed. Then the lower part of the limb must receive its arterial blood and nutrition by way of the small collateral arteries. The causes of this are \cry obscure. It may begin as an inflammation of the lin- ing membrane of the artery. It might be a result of I an injury, but this seems impossible, because the ar- tery is so deeply situated and well protected. TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 335 Symptoms. — When the animal is put to work in the course of a short time this Hmb gets cold, ahnost com- pletely immovable, the animal seems to suffer great pain, while the other parts of the bodjr may be cover- ed with sweat. After the animal stands a while this trouble will apparently pass away, but when put to exercise or work it begins as before. As a rule, this condition will be maintained as long as the animal lives. No remedy has been discovered for its cure. INFLAMMATION OF THE MUSCLE THAT WORKS OVER THE POINT OF THE SHOULDER. This muscle is called the flexor brachii ; it extends from the lower front part of the scapula, down over the point of the shoulder, along the front and lower border of the arm, and terminates or is attached to the vpper end of the radius. It may be injured by run- ning against objects, by strokes or kicks, especially at the point where it passes over the shoulder articu- lation. Symptoms. — If the lameness is intense, the animal will drag the foot forward on the toe or swing it out- jward and forward. In some cases, if the animal is Iforced to move, it will not place any weight on that ilimb. At rest, the limb is held backward, the foot llresting on the toe. At the place of injury there is :'ltisually very little swelling. Sometimes it is impossi- ible to observe any distinct change in the part. In [Ifact, one is surprised at the amount of lameness and j|pain coming from so little apparent injury. Treatment. — Apply mercuric iodide blister over lthe point of the shoulder once every three weeks, giv- jring the animal rest. If the muscles in the upper part jjiof the shoulder shrink, rub them as previously direct- lied. DEEP SEATED ABSCESSES NEAR THE ' POINT OF THE SHOULDER. These are caused sometimes by an ill-fitting collar, or by bruising the shoulder in hauling over rough roads or ploughing in new land among roots. It is al- /so possible that the lymph glands of the shoulder be- come infected with pus-forming germs that are car- ried from some other part of the body. Symptoms. — At first there may be a small swelling at the lower part of the shoulder. With rest this may nearly disappear, but with the use of the collar again, or with work, it swells up, and in time a hard, deep seated enlargement is formed that will not go away with rest. This is a deep-seated abscess with consid- erable hard tissue formed around it. As a rule, it does not cause lameness when the collar is not working against it. Treatment. — It should be opened with a sharp point- ed knife, cutting from below upward. After opening, clean out the pus cavities with strong creolin and car- bolic acid and fill up the cavity with a piece of bandage saturated with equal parts of linseed oil and turpentine. In one or two days pull out this bandage and put in another. Keep the outside washed up with boiled water and boiled cotton containing car- bolic acid or creolin. After this cavity closes up by healing from the bottom and sides, it is best to keep the collar off for two to four months, and when the animal is put to work be careful to have a good pad under the collar; also let the work be light for some time. In some cases this abscess cavity will be sur- rounded by an immense tumor-like development; it should be removed by an expert. DISEASES OF THE HIP REGION. As at the shoulder, the muscles, nerves, blood ves- sels, and articulation may be involved. At the hip are numerous muscles, and in order to study the lameness attending injury or disease of all of them would require more space than at our disposal. In- juries of these muscles usually, but not always, pro- duce manifest swellings. As a rule, the treatment should be cold water applications in the early stao-es and later rubbing or blisters. PARALYSIS OF NERVES. The nerve that supplies the muscles in the front part of the thigh, the one that supplies the muscles in the back part of the thigh, and another that supplies the muscles from the back part of the gaskin may be paralyzed. The symptoms attending these different forms of paralysis are difficult to describe to a per- son who does not understand the physiology of the muscles of the region. It may be sufficient here for 3.36 Common sense is necessary in the management of stock. us to say that obscure lamenesses in which the ani- mal has lost the power of moving the muscles of the region, and to some extent the sensation of the skin is a result of some form of paralysis. Moreover, in old standing cases the muscles of the thigh may shrink ; then what is called "swinney" of the thigh is present. It must be remembered that the muscles of the thigh may shrink from other forms of lameness in the hind limb. In handling and treating these cases confine your treatment to rubbing three or four times a day for one-half hour the entire thigh and gaskin. If medical treatment is desired, secure the services of an expert. HIP JOINT DISEASE. The hip joint is deeply seated. It is almost impos- sible for it to be injured from the surface, yet some- times it is diseased or inflamed as a result of some obscure cause. It is possible for it to be diseased in rheumatism, big head, or pyaemia in some form. Symptoms. — There is more or less lameness pres- ent when the leg is brought forward. The foot is usually swung outward and forward. In some cases the animal or the leg gives way when the animal is suddenly turned around. In lameness of long stand- ing the muscles shrink around the hip and croup, and occasionally an enlargement about the hip joint can then be seen. Treatment — Outward applications are several inch- es away from the seat of the disease, hence they do little or no good. Some have advised very deep point firing; this should be resorted. tovxinly by the expert, since more injury may be done by the ordi- nary man than good produced. DISEASE OF THE BLOOD VESSELS. The arteries that supply the hind limb may also become plugged partially or entirely, produciiig symptoms just like those produced in the front limb by the plugging up of the brachial artery. If the an- imal is put to work in a short time, it suffers great pain, sweats over all parts of the body but the hind leg involved, and this leg is colder than usual, ^^'ith a short rest these symptoms disappear and return again with exercise. There is no treatment for this trouble. THE HIPPED ANIMAL. This consists in a fracture of the bone at the haunch or hip point. It is caused by running against the door, gate post, tree or some other hard object. In one case I knew it to be caused by the bite of a stallion. Symptoms — The haunch or hip joint on that side is lower and more flat or less pointed than on the op- posite side. For some time after it is done the animal is lame. The part may be sensitive or swollen. The piece of bone broken from the large pelvic bone, is pulled downward by the muscles and held there per- manently. It cannot be replaced, and sometimes an abscess may form, requiring a surgical operation to remove that piece of bone before recovery can take place. As a rule, in one or two months, the animal recovers except the bone is never replaced and it al- ways shows the hip point knocked down, or the hip point less pointed than its opposite. DISEASES OF THE STIFLE. Dislocation of the Patella or knee-cap. — When the patella is dislocated and caught on the upper lip of Fig. 57.— Shows the characteristic pcsition in which the hind limb is held (most of the time) when a mule has acute! intlammation (gonitis) of the stifle joint or joint formed by the femur and tibia or leg bone. This outline drawing was made from a photograph taken of a mule which had the rheu- matic form of gonitis. It was killed and the diagnosis con- firmed by post mortem examination. TILLING THE SOIL FOR the articular surfact on the front part of the lower end of the femur or thigh bone, the leg is locked ; no articulation can be flexed until that bone slips into place. In fact, the leg remains stiff and extended backward, resting with the toe on the ground. Good authorities now believe that the bone is not displaced but that the spasmodic contraction of the muscles locks the limb. They recommend forced ex- ercise as a cure. ligament Causes. — A loose condition of the that holds the patella or knee-cap and muscles in place permit it to becomes dislocated. It may oc- cur in loose jointed, rapidly growing colts ; it may al- so occur in draft horses or mules that are over- worked As a rule, it occurs in draft horses after be- ing worked regularly for several days and then rested one or more days. Draft horses subject to this dislo- cation will have it occur more frequently on Monday mornings or after a day's rest than at any other time. Treatment. — Place a rope or a hobble around the pastern and pull the foot forward. This forced flex- ion of the limb will permit the bone to slip into place ; then give the animal exercise immediately. Never put what is called a strifle shoe on such an animal However, that foot may be shod with the shoe that is twice as thick at the toe as at the heel. If the animal is a colt a sharp blister may be applied over the stifle to stimulate the muscles and ligaments in that re- gion. If the patella becomes thus dislocated once it is liable to recur: one dislocation predisposes the ani- mal to another. OUTWARD DISLOCATION OF THE PA- TELLA. In this case the patella slips to the outside, possi- bly as a result of stretching or breaking of the inter- nal ligament. The patella can be left on the outside. The horse can hardly support weight, because all the articulations are extremely fiexed. Treatment. — Xo ordinary treatment will give relief in this case. Sometimes surgical treatment by ex- perts produces good results. Inflammation of the Articulation Between the Lower End of the Femur and the Upper End of the Tibia Gonitis. — This articulation may become injured 1 y a kick or direct stroke, sometimes ' bv overwork PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 337 at heavy pulling. In other cases, the foot may be caught and in the struggle to get loose the animal may injure some of the lateral ligaments of this arti- culation. Trouble at this joint may be associated with rheumatism or big head. Symptoms. — In some cases, where the lameness is severe, the limb is held fle.xed and raised upward and outward. In other cases an enlargement may be felt and seen in tl.e front part of the stifle. Sometimes this enlargement is not very distinct, or it is absent. The leg is carried forward slowdy and stiffly, the step becomes short, and sometimes the animal trips in the forward movement of the leg. When both right and left joints are diseased, the animal will shift the lame- ness from one leg to the other, and in severe cases this shifting will occur quite frequently. In some in- stances the lameness comes and goes something like the lameness of rheumatism, changes dependin'^ on the condition of the weather. (See fgure 57.) Treatment — Some advise firing in lines from above to below on the outside, inside and front, and imme- diately after firing applying a good, stiff blister. In some cases this is followed by good results. The farmer might try the following blister: Mercuric Iodide 6 drams, Pulverized Cantharides 2 drams, Turpentine 2 fluid ounces, Vaseline 4 ounces. Mix thoroughly, apply and rub well over the out- side, front, and inside of the articulation; for the first 24 hours the animal must be tied so that he cannot lie down ; also apply some lard over the abdomen next to the stifle, or apply a bandage around the abdomen. This is to prevent blister from getting on the abdomen. Repeat the application of this blister in the same manner in three or four weeks. If both limbs are involved, do not treat both limbs at the same time, but apply the blister on the one about a week after applying it on the other. It should be re- membered that many of the old standing cases of this trouble cannot be cured. SHOE BOIL. This occurs at the point of the elbow, and is caus- ed by the horse lying down on his feet like a cow. The hoof or the shoe injures the tissues at the elbow. At first there is a soft swelling, which in Ihe course of 23 338 If your horse gets sick, don't wait, but doctor him. weeks develops into a fibroid tumor. This tumor will vary in size, according to its age and rapidity of growth. Usually it is about the size of a man's fist, but sometimes it becomes much larger. Treatment. — In the early stages it is best to try to prevent the animal lying down in that way and con- tinually injuring the part. Some apply a large leath- ed pad around the pastern; the animal lies down and the weight rests on the pad instead of the foot. Oth- ers apply a padded boot for the same purpose. But these methods are troublesome and are often neglect- ed. Others use some short strips one inch thick, i 1-2 to 2 inches wide, and two to three feet long; these are nailed across the middle front part of the stall; when the horse lies down on his feet these strips hurt his cannons and he rolls over on his side, taking the weight off the feet. It works very well as long as the horse is kept in his own stall. The habit is very difficult to break. The injured part in the beginning will very soon get well if the cause is removed. If a tumor is present it must be removed by the use of the knife. During the time the wound is healing the horse may learn to lie down in the proper way. But some horses produce another tumor in the same old way. Fractures. The breaking of any bone of the body into two or more parts is a fracture. They are caused by violent contacts and in rare cases by powerful action of mus- cles. An old animal, one with big head and some- times animals with other bone diseases become pre- disposed to fracture of bones because the bones are weaker than normal or healthy bones. Fractures are classified under several heads, but here only a few of the most important will be considered. A simple fracture is one where the bone is broken without an external woimd opening down to the bone. A com- pound fracture is one where there is a wound extend- ing down to the fractured bone. A comminuted frac- ture is one in which there are a number of small pieces of bone at the place of the fracture. We may have a simple comminuted fracture, as well as a compound comminuted fracture. The fractured bone may be broken squarely across its long axis, or obliquely or lengthwise of the bone. The bone may be broken partly into two parts but usually it is entirely bro- ken into two parts. The fracture may extend into an articulation, then it is called an articular fracture. Symptoms. — Increased motility of the part is very prominent in places where the bones are not deeply covered by muscles. If the scapula, the humerus, the pelvis, and sometimes the femur are broken it may be difficult to detect it by the motility of the parts. Then we must depend upon the grating or crepita- tion caused by the moving of the broken pieces in contact with each other; often this grating sound or motion can l^e heard and felt. Sometimes the parts are dislocated or displaced, and this will enable one to defect a fracture. In the course of a day the tis- sues around the fracture will be greatly swollen and it will then be more difficult to determine its prc^ ence or absence. Fractures of the ribs may be cl tected bv the soreness of the part, by~ the absence ■' thoracic breathing, sometimes by displacement of the parts, and in a few instances a knowledge of the cause of the injury may help. A fracture of the back or one of the spinal vertebrae will usually cause pa- ralysis of the hind limbs. If a horse becomes injured and is so paralyzed that he cannot stand on his hind feet, and there is no other explanation of the trouble, it may be safely regarded as a fracture of one of the bones of the back. However, before killing the ani- mal, it may be best to secure the diagnosis of a veter- inarian. Treatment — In old horses and horses of little val- | ne, it is doubtful whether it. pays to treat fractures of the limbs in such animals. Young horses, especially ■ those that are not extra heavy, may in many instances • be successfully treated. In treating a fracture it is important to get the horse in a position where exces- sive movements and use of the fractured limb can be prevented. As a rule, it is best to place a horse with a fractured limb in slings. Slings can be improvised on the average farm at little expense and in a short time. Secure some cotton bagging and fold it over in four or five foot lengths, making at least three layers. Se- "Slddoo," owned by Miss Otitley, of Atlanta, Ga. 340 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. cure four pieces of 1x4 plank about eight inches long- er than the cotton bagging is wide. With one of these pieces make one roll on the end of the cotton bagging and nail another piece to this ; fix the other end of the three layers of cotton bagging in the same way. Holes may be made in the end of these pieces, into which ropes one or two feet longer than the piec- es may be tied. A tripod derrick may be made by tying together the small ends of three pine poles (not less than 6 inches in diameter and about 20 feet long) with a strong rope or chain ; a few strong hands can raise this tripod, spreading the legs in a triangular position. Now attach a block and tackle to this tri- pod. It may be well to place the tripod over the horse or near the horse, so that the horse may be placed under it without much trouble. With the horse under the tripod, pass one end of the cotton bagging under the horse, letting the middle of the bagging fit up around the body. With a strong sin- gletree or a heavy neck yoke attached at its middle to the rope of the block, the end ropes of the bagging sling may eacli be attached to its respective end of the singletree or neck yoke. Now by putting the rope in the block the horse may be raised and held in a standing position with its feet on the ground. It may be necessary to arrange a sort of a breast strap from one edge of the bagging around in front of the breast to the other ; also another rope or strap may be passed from one edge of the bagging around behind the buttock to the other. These ropes or straps will prevent the animal froin falling out, in front or behnid. The horse is now ready to have the fracture set, or the bones put in their natural pos- iHon, and bandages and splints applied to keep them in that place. It is well to have plenty of clean cot- ton and a great number of bandages. Bandages can be made by buying 5 to 10 yards of cheap cotton sheeting ; this raay be rolled up into one solid roll, and with a sharp butcher knife it may be cut into seg- ments 2 to 3 inches long; when cut the bandages will be 2 to 3 inches wide and already rolled. It may be well to have 3 or 4 pounds of plaster of Paris. Also secure some pieces of paste-board, some thin strips of soft wood, and if possible, some pieces of sole leather. If the fracture is anywhere below the upper third of the forearm, or the upper half of the leg or; gaskin, it can be readily held in position by the prop- er application of splints and bandages. After get- ting the bones in position, apply a layer of cotton, holding it in place with bandage from the pastern up above the fracture. See that the cotton is smooth and that plenty of bandages are used. 'Now apply strips of paste board all around the fractured place and confine them there with banda.ges. In some I cases it may bg well to wet the bandages and then, apply some wet plaster of Paris with the hand. A thin layer of plaster of Paris may be put on all around the fracture and some distance above and' below. Now put on more strips of pasteboard 01 thin strips of wood and apply more bandage. Then' apply another layer of plaster of Paris. Over this may be applied more bandage. It is always well tc see that the ends of the wood strips and the uppei and lower Ijorders of the layers of plaster of Pari;' are well protected with cotton. If it is a simple frac ture, and the dressing does not change its place get out of position it may remain undisturbed i< breast harness. POLL EVIL. This occurs at the poll and has similar causes, pr sents similar symptoms and conditions to fistul' • withers. The treatment is quite similar, except |i opening the cavities at the poll the openings shot I be made nearly parallel with the top border of t? neck. The opening should be made large and to • side, but never across the top. Apply the same trr • ment as for fistulous withers Good horses are the cheapest. 343 Diseases of Digestive Organs. The Mouth. — In the mouth diseased teeth and in- flamed or ulcerated mucous membrane may occur; the tongue may also be wounded or paralyzed. If the teeth are diseased, it may be necessary to extract one or more. This can only be done by some one who has had experience and is equipped with the proper instruments. If the mucous membrane be- comes inflamed or ulcerated, we may have small ul- cers on the tongue or other parts of the mouth ; this may be attended by excessive slobbering and difficul- ty in eating and swallowing. It may be treated by washing out the mouth with water and then applying a mixture of — Tannic Acid i ounce. ' Carbolic Acid I fluid dram. Glycerine 4 fluid ounces. I ■ Water 4 fluid ounces. I After washing out the mouth apply I this by means of a cotton swab, or inject I .a small quantity into the mouth with a small syringe. This can be done two or three times a day. Feed the animal on soft food ; cut the hay or fodder and steam it or scald it with hot water to |i make it soft just before feeding. n If the hard palate is swollen and the animal has I lampas, resulting from cutting teeth, hard food, indi- ij, gestion or sore mouth, remove the cause or treat the ji disease that is causing this trouble, or wait till the jl*) animal gets over cutting teeth. It is not best to cut 'I the hard' palate or to burn it for this trouble. Change I the feed and wait till the cause disappears and re- covery will occur. If the tongue is cut by rope or by bit or by the teeth, remove the cause and treat the wound with the prescription advised for sore mouth. If the teeth are cutting the tongue, or the upper teeth are cutting the inside of the cheek, they should be clipped and floated or filed down. This can be done by the prop- er use of a chisel and float that may be secured at instrument houses. CHOKE. This is an obstruction in the pharynx or throat or in the oesophagus or gullet. In the horse it is usually caused by the animal eating greedily and bolting dry food, such as oats or peas in the hulls. Sometimes it may be caused by a cob or corn and cob meal. In the cow and pig, choke results from an attempt to swallow old piec*.>s of turnips, potatoes or apples. In a dog it occurs with an attempt to swallow bones, es- pecially fish bones. In some cases the gullet may be dilated and food collect in this dilitation in such a mass that it cannot be passed on into the stomach. In other cases the gullet becomes contracted, and this predisposes the horse to choking. Symptoms. — The animal makes violent efforts to swallow. If water is given one or two swallows may be ctarted but usually the water comes out through the nostrils, and may be followed by coughing. In some cases you can feel and see the enlargement of the gullet along the left side and upper border of the wind pipe. But if the choke is in that part of the gullet that lies in the thorax it cannot be seen, and, as a rule, the horse dies in a short time. The cause of the death may be due to pressure on the heart, the large blood vessels, or upon nerves. When the choke is in the neck portion of the gullet, or in the throat, the horse may live three or four days and die from sys- temic infection, originating in the gullet or throat. Treatment. — Let the animal have free access to good, clean water. The water which he attempts to swallow will soften up the obstructing material and help to remove it. Some advise giving mucilaginous or oily drinks to soften up the material and make the surfaces slippery. Whatever may be used it should not be forced down the animal, except in very small quantity, and then not too frequently. In some cases the long stomach tube, called a probang, may be pass- ed into the mouth and down the oesophogus; when it reaches the obstruction do not push heavily, or you will injure the oesophagus. If light pressure does not start the obstruction to move onward remove the pro- bang. In some cases the mouth of the horse or the 344 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. cow may be held open by means of pieces of board or specially constructed iron placed between the teeth to keep the mouth open ; the hand may be passed through the mouth and into the throat or pharynx to remove the obstructing object. There is some dan- ger in this, but with care it can be done. Sometimes when the obstruction is in the neck part of the gullet it may b6 worked loose with the fingers carefully pressing on it from the outside; it is usually best to try to work it back toward the mouth. Jt is inad- visable to use whip stocks, fork handles, or other like objects to force the obstruction into the stomach ; such implements usually injure the parts beyond re- covery. Sometimes a piece of smooth wire, about lo feet long, may be bent in the middle, the two ends being brought together, then twist the wires on each other, leaving a small loop at the middle end. If this wire is very smooth it may be oiled with vaseline or raw linseed oil and passed down to the oljstruction and with care in working the wire the obstruction may be dislodged. The wire should not be too large, a No. ID or 12 wire is about the right size. If the choke is not readily dislodged by a mild use of any of the instruments suggested, stop using them at once, for more harm will be done than good by violent use oi any of the instruments. Many cases recover by the use of nothing but plenty of water, and keeping all feed, unless it be fresh gruel, away from the ani- mal for 2 to 4 days. INDIGESTION AND COLIC IN HORSES. These terms are used together because these trou- bles are so frequently associated in actual practice. Indigestion is often the forerunner of colic. It may be acute or chronic. Acute indigestion is often con- fined to indigestion in the stomach proper, and sometimes it may be intestinal indigestion. It is caused by irregular feeding, improper feed, sudden changes in food, greedy eating, and sometimes an ex- cess of cold water. It may be associated with or a sequel of any systemic disease that weakens the ani- mal. Symptoms. — The appetite is capricious or absent, the mucous membrane of the mouth may be dry, the breath smell sour, and the tongue coated. The ani- mal's abdomen may become small and tucked up, the feces or manure may be passed frequently, and in small quantities. Later it may pass into spasmodic or wind colic, as a result of the irritation or fermen- tation of the undigested food. Treatment. — In many cases, when the animal first loses its appetite, proper care and proper feeding may result in a recovery in the course of a few days. In other cases it may be necessary to give a drench, con- sisting of one pound of Epsom salts, and one or two tablespoonfuls of table salt, both of which are dissolv- ed in one pint to one quart of warm water. In giving this as one drench, do not choke or strangle the ani- mal. CHRONIC INDIGESTION is accompanied by prolonged changes in the diges- tive action in the stomach or intestines. Sometimes structural changes may occur in the mucous mem- , brane of the stomach or intestines. It is also caused by improper feeding, greedy eating and feeding de- cayed, rough and indigestible food. It may be asso- ciated with other diseases in which the system is re- duced in strength. Symptoms. — At times the appetite is good and at other times it is bad. Usually the animal is poor and weak, the skin is rough and dry, the tongue is coated, more or less red around the edges, and the mouth is sour and stale. In some cases the animal may have loose bowels; in others, the bowels are more or less constipated. Treatment. — Give small quantity of the very best ot feed, and feed regularly. If the animal is greedy spread the feed over the bottom of a large box, so that it cannot be eaten quickly. Always water the animal before feeding it, and salt the animal at least three times a week. The following prescription may be given: Pulverized Gentian 4 ounces. Pulverized Digitalis Leaves . .2 ounces. Pulverized Copper Sulphate . . . i ounce. Pulverized Sulphur 2 ounces. Linseed Meal i pound. Mix thoroughly and give one table- spoonful in the ground feed two to three times per day. Always remember that horses and mules have feelings. 345 SPASMODIC COLIC. This is usually regarded as a disease of the intes- ;ines, and is that form in which no appreciable quan- the colic, give a purative. One pint of raw linseed oil, or I pint of castor oil, or cotton seed oil may be given at one dose, being careful not to choke or strangle the animal. Never drench the horse through the nose. ity of gas is formed. But it must be remembered One pound of Epsom salts dissolved in one pint of wa- ;hat colic is not always confined to the intestines, nor is there no gas formed when it is not apparent to the observer of the living animal. In actual colic condi- tions fast and hard lines are not drawn. By many 'aersons any form of abdominal pain is called colic. i Causes — Over eating, especially on rest days, decay- ed food or other indigestible food may also produce :olic. Acute or chronic indigestion may precede an ittack of colicy pain. In some cases chilling the sur- face of the body, as exposure to a cold rain, may pro- duce colic. Bots or grubs rarely, if ever, produce col- ic. In some cases small worms may produce obstruc- tions in some of the small arteries that supply the in- testines with blood. This is said to be a frequent :ause of periodic colic ; yet it cannot be determined un- til after the death of the animal. The most common :ause is over feeding just before or immediately after severe exercise. A sudden change of food, as from old ;orn to new corn, may produce indigestion or colic. Symptoms — ^The appetite is gone, the animal shows igns of abdominal pain. The signs may be manifest y pawing, lying down and rolling or continual walk- ing, sometimes kicking at the abdomen. As a rule, , there will be periods of relief, followed by periods of Ijintense pain. During the exercise and the severe pain j the pulse may be increased and the temperature may h- slightly raised at that time. But during the inter- val of relief from pain the pulse and temperature will return to the normal. In some cases, when severe pain is present, the animal will sweat freely. The bad j|or unfavorable signs consist in a rapid and wiry pulse, cold limbs and ears, and cold sweats, trembling mus- Jcles, anxious expression, dilated pupils, dark colored I (mucous membrane, and in some cases general depres- Ision. Treatment — If the animal is in great pain, relieve the pam by giving 3 to 7 grains of morphine dissolved in ter may be given instead of one of the oils. Purga- tives should not be repeated under 12 to 24 hours. In some cases the drug to relieve pain may be mixed with the purgative. For example : Chloral Hidrate i ounce. Creolin 2 drams. Glycerine 4 fluid ounces. Water i pint. Mix and give as one drencli. This should not be repeated under 12 to 24 hours. Some veterinarians prefer to give I ounce aloes made into a ball or large pill and administered by oiling it and then pushing it with the fingers as far as pos- sible on the back part of the tongue, thus causing the horse to swallow it. This can only be done after learning by trial or experience. In some cases, where the animal is constipated, it may be well to inject one to four quarts of warm water into the rectum once or twice per day. While the animal is suffering pain it should be kept in a place where it cannot injure itself, or it may be slowly walked around. Never should it be abused by running or excessive motion of any kind. In all cases of colic decide on a single line of treatment and do not give "very- thing that may be recommended. Re- member that many cases of colic are killed by overdosing. Wait with patience a sufficient time for medicine to act be- fore repeating doses, or giving another remedy. FLATULENT OR WIND COLIC. This involves chiefly the intestines, but like spas- -a small quantity of water, or give 1-2 to i oz. of chlo- modic colic, its action is not limited to the intestines. Iral hidrate dissolved in one pint to one quart of water. Its causes are very much like the causes of indiges- jThese should not be repeated for 10 to 12 hours. If it tion and spasmodic colic, except there are germs or jis known that indigestible or irritating food is causing chemical substances coming in contact with the undi- 346 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. gested food which produce fermentation and thus eliminate or set free gas. Symptoms. — The manifestations of pain are quite similar to those of spasmodic colic. In addition to the symptoms of pain, the abdomen becomes enlarged or distended by the excessive gas in the intestines and stomach. The distension is usually larger or more prominent in the right tlank than in the left. When the abdomen becomes distended the breathing becomes short and rapid. This is due to the absorp- tion of poisonous gas by the blood and to the pressure of the abdominal organs against the diaphragm. The grave or bad signs are rapid pulse, say 80 to 120 per minute, cold surface of the body, dark colored mu- cous membranes and cold sweats. Treatment. — In the early stages the treatment may be the same as for spasmodic colic, except that it is always well to give something to stop fermentation. For this 1-2 ounce of strong creolin may be mixed with one pint to one quart of water, and the whole given as one drench. In some cases i quart of warm water in which has been disolved as much salt as it will take up may be given as a drench. Sometimes the gas will be formed so rapidly that its rapid ab- sorption will in a short time kill the animal, providing relief is not obtained. . In such cases it is advisable to use the trocar and canula to let out this gas and relieve the animal. This instrument can be obtained at instrument houses, and should be kept in a clean, sterile condition, at all times ready for use. To use it, clip the hair over the right flank and wash thor- oughly with boiled and cooled water, containing cre- olin or carbolic acid. With a sharp knife cut an open- ing through the skin about 1-2 inch long: now push the trocar and canula down into the intestines 3 to 5 inches; pull out the trocar and the gas will escape through the canula. If the horse is standing, it is us- ually best to make the opening through the skin and insert the trocar and canula rather high up on the flank, but if it is lying down it may be made some- what lower on the flank. In some cases the animal will be inclined to kick. Then a hobble should be placed around the pastern of that limb and the foot held so that the animal cannot kick the person doing the operation. The canula may be kept in place as long as any gas escapes — say for one hour, if neces- sa'-v. In some ca^'cs a small rulibcr tube and funnel may be attached to the canula and one pint or morj; of diluted creolin may be passed into the intestines| this is done to stop the fermentation. Before -with drawing the canula, insert the trocar. This will pre^ vent some of the intestinal contents following out thj canula and infecting the wound. If in the course time the horse becomes badly distended again witfl gas, the trocar and canula may be used in the sam| way, but not in the same place. Choose some othe spot in the right flank. Remember that this instru ment is used in the right flank of horses, and the lefjj flank of cattle and sheep. If a purgative has not al| ready been given, it is well to give one of those rec| ommended for spasmodic colic. WORMS OR ANIMAL PARASITES THAT LIVliB IN THE STOMACH OR INTESTINES. Numerous small, round worms and large rounj jvorms may be found in the intestines and stomach the horse. These parasites are more frequent i horses and colts at pasture than animals fed conti; uously in barns or stables. This is probably due the fact that pastures may become infested by sen* tering infested manure over the grass. In this ni:i ner the animals become more frequently infested tlia those kept in barns. These parasites cause more o less irritation and disturbance depending upon th number and to some extent upon the mode of life. Symptoms. — The only positive sign of worms in th alimentary canal is the presence or observation c some of the worms in the manure passed by the an mal. It is true that excessive numbers may interfc with digestion and absorption of food, and the anim: become emaciated in consequence. Some assert thn these parasites may produce an injurious or pois^'' ous product, which is passed in the feces from tin bodies and absorbed by the membranes or tissues < the horse. This has never been positively establisliC' Treatment. — If animals are kept well supplied wit- salt, they do not, as a rule, suffer from excessive in festation by worm parasites. An animal in goo health seems to be able to throw off many parasite- but an animal that is weak usually becomes very bad ly infested. The following prescription may be use to destroy the ordinary round worms found in the ni destines and stomach of the horse: mgsrf^misaamii^i^jii*i» \'ji'iBvm '%: Miss Marion Feel of Atlanta, Ga., On Anna Bain, Nym McOollough's blue ribbon horse. 348 Stock appreciate good water whether they get it or not. Pulverized Gentian 4 ounces. Pulverized Sulphate of Iron . . 2 ounces. Pulverized Copper Sulphate . . i ounce. Pulverized Sulphur 2 ounces. Linseed Meal i pound. Mix thoroughly and give one to two tablespoonfuls in ground feed two times per day, according to size and age, doses for colts should be 1-4 to 1-2 as much as the horse. BOTS OR GRUBS IN THE STOMACH OF THE HORSE. This so-called worm represents one of the stages in the life history of an insect, commonly called the hot fly (Gastrophilus Equi.) In order to understand its relation to the horse, its complete life history must be known. In the summer, from June to November, bot flies may be found depositing eggs on the hairs about the front part of the body, usually on the forearm, knee and cannon. Each egg is cemented to a hair, and in about 24 hours it may hatch and the young worm-like embryo may crawl on the skin, producing some irritation, causing the horse to lick the part with his tongue. In so doing he may carry away the ehibryo to the mouth. From the mouth it passes to the stomach, and there it attaches itself by means of the hooks about its mouth to nnicous membrane, us- ually on the left side of the stomach. Here it re- mains and grows by absorbing food from the stom- ach's contents, until late wiuter or early spring, when it lets loose, passes out with the manure and enters the groi'ud. In a short time it takes on the pupa stage oi insect life. This stage continues for 30 or 40 days, varying with the temperature,- and then it molts or changes and comes out of the ground as an adult bot fly. This fly is about the size of a honey bee, and makes a noise very much like a honey-bee. When the egg is laid and attached to the' hair of the horse it does not hurt the horse. But as a rule horses and mules fight and kick at the fly because they must mistake it or think it is a bee that will sting and hurt them. It will be seen from the life history that one stage of its life is spent as a parasite in the horse's stomach, and this is commonly called the bot stage. Usually, the bots attach themselves to the skin-like portion of the mucous membrane of the stomach. In doing this it may make a small hole in the lining membrane. But this part of the membrane is rather tough and does not secrete gastric juice. As a rule, a few of these bots do little or no damage. An exces- sive number of them may cause some irritation and might in rare instances be associated with indiges- tion. Occasionally they collect in such large num- bers and attach about the outlet of the stomach at the place where the stomach opens into the small intes- tine, that they occlude or plug up this opening. Some- times they may collect in large numbers in the begin- ning part of the small intestines and there obstruc; the passage. If such obstructions remain for any pe- riod of time, they might result in the death of the ani- mal, but no one could be positive that such condi- tions existed before the death of the animal. In somi cases of colic the stomach of the horse becomes rup tured, possibly from violent attempts to vomit. Tin rupture occurs along the bottom or greater curvature of the stomach. Then the contents of the stomach escape into the abdominal cavity, producing death in the course of 12 to 24 hours. When the animal is opened and the ordinary observer sees this hole in the stomach and some of the bots out in the abdominal cavity, and a few of the little holes in the mucous memhrane on the left side of the stomach, where bots have been attached, they readily say that bots have eaten through the stomach. This is by no means the case. Previous to the death of the animal bots never eat entirely through the walls of the stomach. The disease commonly called bots is usually some form of colic ; in fact, there is no such disease as bots. It is true that bots may take some food from the stom- ach, and sometimes obstruct the outlet of the stom- ach or the beginning of the small intestines, but the disease produced by such conditions should be called indigestion, colic, or obstruction in some part of the alimentary canal. Remembering these facts the bots can only be responsible for one death out of 1,000 of the so-called cases of bots. In order to prevent bots from entering the stomach, the eggs must be singefl or clipped off and burned every few days from the hairs on the body of the horse. After the bots have entered the stomach and become attached to it no medicine will make them let loose without injuring the stomach. It is true that they will let loose anil pass out when that stage in their growth is complet- ed ; hence all remedies for removing the bots from the stomach should be avoided. This is especially so if the horse is sick with the colic or indigestion; be- TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 349 cause any medicine strong enough to destroy the bots in the stomach wouhl on\f injure the horse and make it more sick. DIARRHOEA. This is sometimes called purging. Causes. — Changes in food, soft food, indigestible food, over-eating and frozen food. It is sometimes associated with indigestion or colic. Occasionally large draughts of water and sometimes overdoses of purgatives may produce it. Some horses seem to be predisposed to it. Symptoms. — The bowel discharges are soft, watery and frequent, and this may continue from one to sev- eral days. If continued long the animal gets weak and poor. Treatment. — Correct the faulty feeding and re- move all the attending causes. Sometimes starch is given in the drinking water, or the quantity of water allowed the animal for drinking is reduced. Some- times chalk is given in the drinking water. One-half to one dram of pulverized sulphate of iron may be given in dry ground feed once per day until the diar- rhoea stops. Other astringent antiseptics may be used internally, but as a rule it is inadvisable to check the action of the bowels too suddenly. If there is some irritating and fermenting food in the alimentary canal causing the diarrhoea, a small purgative, as 1-2 pint of castor oil, might be given in order to remove this irritating food from the alimentary canal. Then this is followed by the treatment previously suggest- ed. If the animal is weak it should rest during the treatment. INFLAMMATION OF THE BOWELS. This is sometimes called enteritis. It is an inflam- mation of the intestines, most frequently involving the lining membrane of the small intestine. It may, however, involve any part of the large intestine. Som'etimes the inflammation may extend to all the other coats of the intestine. Causes. — It is usualh^ caused by irritating drugs, |J such as poisons, strong alkalies, acids, and other caus- I tic substances. It is possible that it might result from ji the action of some germ, but these cases are uncom- II mon. It may attend a strangulated bowel, as an ir- redticable rupture, and some claim that cases of colic may pass into inflammation of the bowels. This may be true when the bowels become obstructed, tele- scoped, or twisted, or when too strong and irritating drugs have been used, j A few castor 'b^anS will cause violent inflammation of the' storna'ch"'and the bowels; an overdose of croton oil will also produce the same result. . ^ ; Symptoms. — The pain resembles the pain of colic, but in this case it is continuous. The temperature will rise to 104 or 105 degrees Fah. After a day or so it may go down to about 103 and remain about that place until recovery takes place. The pulse is rapid, small and weak. Respirations are more or less rapid and confined to the thorax. Abdominal breathing is very limited or absent. The animal does not lie down and roll around as in cases of colic. The abdomen is too sore to permit it. Sometimes the animal will stand and rub against the wall or side of the stall. In other cases pain is so severe that it may prefer to walk around rather rapidly or continue to change its position. In some cases diarrhoea may be present. This, however, is not continuous, because the bowels, especially the effected part, become paralyzed ; then the ordinary rumbling noise that may be heard in the abdomen of the healthy horse is absent, because the intestines are not moving as they do in health-. As a rule, the animal will not lie down for anv great length of time, and in some cases it will stand until he dies or recovers. Treatment. — Keep the animal quiet and relieve the pain by giving 8 to 10 grains of morphine every four hours until the animal is relieved. If the animal de- sires food let it be well cooked and given soft. Never give irritating hay or rough forage of any kind. Cold water should not be allowed. The chill should be taken from all drinking water before it is given. Do not get alarmed if the bowels do not act for several days. Keep down the tendency to fermentation by giving creolin, i dram ; glycerine, i ounce, and water, 3 ounces, 3 or 4 times per day. Remember that it will require i to 3 weeks for the animal to recover. When the animal's appetite begins to return be care- ful to avoid overfeeding and roug-h feed. Most cases of inflammation of the bcrwtils die, and many of them are killed by improper treatment and improper feed- ing. .■.,.■.•...., . .1 . 350 Stock need salt regularly every day. Diseases of the Respiratory Organs. The respiratory organs consist of the nasal passages, the throat, the larynx, the wind pipe, the bronchial tubes, the air sacs, the lungs and the thorax. The nasal passages in the horse are peculiarly enlarged by their connection with cavities called the frontal sinus, the superior and the inferior maxillary sinuses. The mucous surface of these passages are also enlarged by the scroll shaped bone, called the turbinated bones. It is possible that this enormous surface of mucous membrane connected with the nasal passages is so ar- ranged to warm the air before it enters the lungs. .At any rate, this immense surface gives great opportun- ity for the action of germs or irritants in the air to produce inflammation. Cold or catarrh in the head in- volves this mucous membrane. It is caused bv ex- posure to cold, irritating gases, germs, and irritating drugs when the horse is drenched through the nose. Symptoms — .At first the mucous membrane of the nose is dry, the animal is dull and sleepy. Its appetite is decreased, it may shiver, and sometimes the tem- perature rises one or two degrees. Usually the skin is dry and rough, and sometimes the bowels consti- pated. Later an excessive watery discharge comes from the nose. This may become thicker and opaque or whitish in color ; sometimes it may be yellow. In some instances the eyes become inflamed. At first they are red and discharge thin, watery material, which later becomes thicker and pus like. This dis- ease is more common in old horses and mules than in young horses. If the case is acute, it may last a week, but it may become chronic and last several weeks. Treatment. — When it is first discovered that the ani- mal is cold and chilly, rub the entire body and cover with a good blanket. Keep the animal in a well ven- tilated stall protected from drafts and rain. Steam the animal two or three times a day in the following man- ner: fill a bucket 1-3 to 1-2 full with hot water; put one teaspoonful of creolin, carbolic acid, or lysol into this water ; place the bucket in the bottom of a large sack ; put into the bucket a red hot iron weighing four or five pounds. Hold the top of the sack under and over the horses nose for ten to twenty minutes, per- mitting it to breathe this hot steam. It may be nec- essary to force the horse to hold its head over this steam at first, but soon it will learn to like it. Be careful that the horse does not become scalded with the hot water. Most cases will recover with no other treatment. Some cases may be associated with some other disease ' or become chronic. In chronic cases the discharge from the nose may continue lor weeks ; in fact, some chronic cases never get well. Chronic catarrh should be treated by trying to build up the body of the animal with good food, good care, and light work. Sometimes the following prescrip- tion may help : Pulverized Belladona Leaves i ounce 'Pulverized Digitalis Leaves 2 ounces Pulverized Gentian 3 ounces Pulverized Copper Sulphate 2 ounces Linseed Meal i pound Mix well and give in ground feed three times a da} . I to 2 tablespoonfuls. Remember that chronic cases "f catarrh may be in fact cases of glanders, and it is saf- est and best to have an expert veterinarian make re- peated examinations of such an animal. DISTEMPER OR STRANGLES. This is an infectious disease, involving primarily the mucous membrane of the nose, and secondarily, it may involve the subcutaneous connective tissue in the space between the branches of the lower jaw Sometimes it may involve the lymph glands about the throat and extend to the various parts of the body, producing a form of pyaemia. Causes. — The exciting cause is a germ called strep- tococcus equi. The attending causes are exposures \ TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 351 I cold and possibly irritating gases and drugs. Symptoms. — In the early stages it appears like cold the head or catarrh. The animal is dull, sluggish, netimes chilly, and again feverish. At first the mu- iis membrane is red and dry ; later an excessive wa- -V discharge, followed by a heavy pus-like dis- irg-e. Usually a swelling appears between the bor- : s of the lower jaw and in the course of a week an ^cess forms at this place, which usually erupts on .■ surface and discharges pus. Sometimes an abscess IV form about the throat, and occasionally one or 1-"i-'"- ' ' Stock need rest as much as people do. 357 ■ in the kidneys, the ureters, or in the bladder are com- posed of uric acid, which is deposited in acid urine, but kept in solution in alkaline urine. The small stone may begin in the kidney or the ureter and pass down into the bladder, and there become in time a large stone by additions to its surface. In some cases there are numerous small, hard particles that appear like sand. A large rough stone may irritate the blad- der or it may get down at the outlet of the bladder and obstruct the free flow of urine. Symptoms. — Ordinary irritation of the bladder is indicated by frequent attempts to urinate, and some- times by colicy pains. If a stone obstructs the flow of the urine, the urine may come away very slowly or in drops. In such cases the animal suffers consider- able pain. In order to determine the presence or ab- sence of the stone when such symptoms are presented, roll up the sleeves, cover the hand and arm with oil. and insert the hand into the rectum ; now feel through the floor of the rectum for the bladder and its neck ; if a stone is present you can feel it, and sometimes work it back into the body of the bladder and thus allow the urine to escape. In order to remove a stone i from the bladder it will require an expert to perform the operation. If the trouble is in a mare the hand must be inserted into the vulva and vagina in order to feel for the stone in the bladder of the. mare. In order to relieve ordinary cases of 'slight irritation of the bladder, place i ounce of fluid extract of bella- donna into I quart of water and give i tablespoonful in ground feed night and morning. Some mules and horses may make a strong attempt to urinate, or be unable to urinate until after several attempts are made. This may be due to a stone in the bladder or spasms of the neck of the bladder. These spasms may be caused by exhaustion from overwork or by the animal being forced to go too long without permitting it to stop and pass the urine. Some horses and mules persistently refuse to urinate except in the bedded stall or some other accustomed place. This will cause the holding of the urine an undue time and may result in spasm of the neck of the bladder. In treating this trouble it is not good to give nitre, rosin, or any other drug that will stimulate the kidneys. Always remove the cause, if possible. Sometimes the belladonna solution recommended for irritable bladder may give relief. Infectious and Contagious Diseases GLANDERS. This disease is caused by a specific germ called bac- illus mallei. Sometimes this disease involves chiefly the mucous membrane of the nose and then it may be 'I designated nasal glanders. At other times it may h involve the skin, and then it is termed skin glanders iii or farcy glanders. In other cases it may involve i prnicipally the lungs, and then it is designated pulmo- nary glanders. But it must be remembered that the same specific germ is found in all the different forms of glanders, and that in some cases all the forms of the disease may be found in one horse or mule. More- Over, other organs may be attacked by this disease be- sides the ones already mentioned. Symptoms. — If the nasal mucous membrane is in- volved, it may first become inflamed and appear some- what like an ordinary case of beginning cold in the head or strangles, but sooner or later small, pimple- like nodules will appear, which in a short time become soft and yellowish, and finally break open and dis- charge an oily liquid which resembles raw linseed oil. The eruption of these nodules usually produce raw, deep, ragged-edged ulcers, which get larger and larger as successive crops of these nodules form and erupt. Sometimes these ulcers heal, and then they form ir- regularly shaped scars. The discharge from the nose is at first thin and watery; later it becomes yellowish, thick and sticky. As a rule, the discharge does not smell bad in glanders, especially in the early stages. Sometimes the ulcers in the nose and the discharge are only on one side. The lymph gland, which is found on the inside and back part of the branch of the lower jaw, up near the base of the tongue, becomes enlarged as a result of its receiving some of the infectious ma- terial that comes from a glanderous ulcer on that side. If both sides of the nose are involved, the glands on each side will be enlarged. These glands never form 358 TlJ^LING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. abscesses and break open as in cases of strangles or distemper. The discharge from the nose may be smeared over the leg or the skin of other parts of the body by the horse wiping its nose, as it were. In some instances the skin becomes infected in these places. In the early stages the breathing through the diseased nasal passages may be normal, but when the mucous membrane becomes swollen and extensively ulcerated, the discharge and swelling may interfere with the pas- sage of air. If the skin is mvolved nodules will devel- op in the skin, usually along the course of the blood vessels and lymph vessels. These nodules are most frequently found along the inside of the thigh, along the sides of the neck, and in the lower part of the hind limb. But they may occur in any region where infec- tion occurs. The nodules usually break open and dis- charge an oily liquid that resembles raw linseed oil. From the original seat of the infection in the skin or blood vessels the disease may extend along the lymph or blood vessels. Sometimes large, deep ulcers result, the skin becomes swollen, and infection may extend rapidly in all directions. Sometimes the first crop of ulcers may heal and no others appear, or other ulcers may appear in this same region and the part become irritated or conditions favorable. In some cases the lower part of the hind leg may be enlarged and the characteristic ulcers and nodules of glanders appear. Successive outbreaks of nodules and ulcers may devel- op in this region and no other part of the body be- come involved, for several months or years. If the lungs become involved, acute cases may resemble pneumonia. In chronic cases the symptoms maj' re- semble those found in a "bellowsed" horse. Treatment — It is not advisable for the ordinary man to attempt to treat a case of glanders, because man can contract this disease. Moreover, the ordinary man is unable to know when a case of glanders is so complete- ly cui'ed that it cannot transmit the infection to anoth- er animal or to man ; hence it is best that all horses and mules that are positively known to have glanders should be destroyed and their carcasses burned or buried 4 to 6 feet under the surface of the ground. This disease is transmitted from one horse or mule to another by infected hitching post, public watering troughs, infected harness, infected stalls and not infre- quently by one animal licking the glanderous ulcers of another; hence it is best to thoroughly disinfect all buckets, harness, watering troughs, and stalls that have been infected by cases of glanders. Old and worthless infected materials may be burned; stalls can be disinfected by cleaning them out arid applying whitewash made of 5 lbs. of lime, 3 lbs. of bluestone, dissolved in 4 gallons of water. It is best to apply this hot and completely cover all the manger, walls, and ceiling. It may be well also to spray these parts with a hot 5 per cent, solution of creolin or carbolic acid. For safety, keep all animals out of that stall for one Or two months. When animals are suspected of having glanders they should be isolated or quaran- tined until a positive diagnosis can be made. To do this a small pen or shed may be made in some place, some distance from, and inaccessible to, all other ani- mals. Remember that cats, dogs, horses, mules and man are susceptible to glanders ; but cattle, sheep, goats and hogs are insusceptible. In most of the States there are specific laws which prevent the use of horses or mules having glanders \ on public highway or in any way that would expose ' other people's horses or mules to infection. Some States require animals with glanders to be quaran- 1 tined, and hold the owners responsible for the infec- 1 tion of other people's stock that may result from the non-observance of the quarantine law. Other States require the destruction of all mules and horses having the glanders. Horses and mules that have been ex- posed to glanders should be kept and worked by themselves or separately for one or two months. INFLUENZA. This is a highly infectious disease, the specific cause of which has not been positively discovered. Some in- vestigators claim to have found a specific germ, but the positive proof that this or that germ causes in- fluenza in horses has not been established. Influen- za is sometimes called pink-eye, horse disease, conta- I gious epizootic, typhoid fever in the horse, catarrhal ') fever, and sometimes LaGrippe in the horse. This ^ disease may involve a great number of organs. The organs of respiration, of digestion, of the nervous sys- tem, of vision, and of circulation may be involved; also the skin and the urinary organs may be involved. Causes. — The specific cause is very probably one or more germs. The predisposing causes are numerous. It attacks young animals and weak animals usually more severely than old animals or strong and vigor- ous animals. It is said to attack the horse, the don- Wash out the drinking trough often. 355^ {ey, the mule, the dog, as well as man. The cause ;eems to travel in the air, especially during certain »^ears or seasons. The disease will appear in one to ;even days after the animal has been exposed. One jittack is said to protect an animal from a second at- ;ack; in other words, one attack produces immunity n horses. Symptoms. — Depending upon the chief parts in- volved, the disease is said to be catarrhal, pulmonary ibdominal, nervous, or the rheumatic form. The ca- :arrhal form resembles cold in the head, except the lepression of the animal is much more severe. The )ulmonary form is somewhat like pneumonia, but it s usually more prolonged and more frequently fatal. 'The abdominal form involvifs the abdominal organs, he stomach, intestines, the liver, and spleen. In this orm the liver may become congested and the visible nucous m'embranes become yellow in color ; at first ;here is constipation, followed'by diarrhoea, the breath s sour, and sometimes celicy pain is present. In the jiervous form the spinal cord may become involved, there will be loss of power in the hind limbs, or pa- ralysis, and sometimes there is paralysis of all the imbs. In the rheumatic form the lamenesses of the llimbs will resemble rheumatism, articulations may be- zome inflamed, and inflammation of the synovial sacs are not uncommon. It might be well to mention that in the catarrhal form the legs may swell. Great pros- tration occur, and the temperature rise for a time to i(i04 or lo6 degrees Fah. ; it may remain high for six 'br seven days. Sometimes the catarrhal and pulmo- jhary form of this disease may occur in the same ani- fTial; also other forms may be combined in one ani- ;|iTial. This disease is often called pink-eye, because I'the eyes become congested, especially in the catarrhal I :orm. The simple catarrhal form may recover in i to ■';2 weeks. In complicated cases the disease may last three or four weeks. Treatment. — The treatment in the catarrhal form may be the same as recommended in cold in the head. When the fever is low stimulants may be required, such as carbonate of ammonia i to 2 drams in i to 2 Dunces of water, of turpentine 1-2 ounce in 2 or 3 Ounces of castor or raw linseed oil; these may be re- peated three or four times per day. If symptoms of paralysis are not present, and the animal is weak, whiskey, eggs and milk may be given. If the fever is high, it may be reduced by giving 20 to 30 grains of quinine three or four times per day. Keep the bow- els open by giving 1-2 pint of warm castor oil or raw linseed oil once per day. If the legs swell and the heart is strong, give 1-2 ounce of potassium nitrate in the drinking water night and morning. Always keep the legs and body well rubbed with brush and cloths to keep the skin active and the surface of the body warm. If the eyes are inflamed, bathe them frequently with water that has been boiled and cooled. RABIES IN THE HORSE. This specific disease has been known as long as al- most any other in medical literature: yet its cause has never been discovered. It is an infectious disease occurring in the dog, the cat, the wolf, and the fox and may be transmitted to man and many other animals by inoculation. The inoculation usually results from the bite of a rabid animal. In many cases, from the time of the bite to the time when the disease appears will vary very greatly in the different kinds of ani- mals. In the horse it is said to vary from 2 to 8 weeks ; in the dog, i to 6 months ; in the ox, from 2 to 4 weeks ; in the sheep, 3 to 6 weeks ; in swine, 3 to 6 weeks, and in man. 2 to 9 weeks. Remember that these periods of incubation are not regular and con- stant. Some claim much wider limits, and as long as the cause remains undiscovered the exact period of incubation will remain indefinite. Symptoms. — In most cases the nervous and excita- ble form of the disease appears in horses. The ani- mal kicks and bites at its stall or at all objects within reach, often severely injuring itself. Sometimics it runs until exhausted, or until it becomes paralyzed. I.^'sually the least excitement or irritation brings on convulsions. When the disease is well developed, the animal is so paralyzed that it cannot swallow, and all attempts at swallowing may bring on convul- sions. Sometimes the animal will bite and tear its own body. The animal will die in six or seven days after the beginning of the attack. In some cases the stage of excitement is very short or absent entirely. This is sometimes called dumh rabies. Treatment. — Ordinarily little can be done to check the progress of the disease when once established, but often it can be prevented if the wound is prompt- 36o TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. ly treated immediately after the animal has been bit- len. Apply any good strong antiseptic to the wound, being careful to get the antiseptic into the bottom of the wound. If possible, cut out the tissue around the wound. A strong antiseptic may be applied 2 or 3 times during the first 24 hours after the bite. In some localities it may be possible to secure what is called the Pasteur' treatment, but this is usually too expen- sive to be secured for the average horse. The horse that has been bitten should be watched closely for one to two months, and when any beginning symp- toms appear the animal should be placed in a good strong lot or box stall where it cannot injure other animals or people. CEREBRO-SPINAL MENINGITIS. It is a specific infectious disease characterized by an inflammation of the membranes covering the spi- nal cord and sometimes those covering the brain. Causes. — It is caused by a germ. It is possible that damp, ill ventilated stables may predispose an animal to the disease. But the disease cannot exist without the germ that produces it. Overwork, ex- cessive heat and other depressing causes may also predispose an animal to the disease. Symptoms. — In many cases the attack will come on suddenly and in a short time, 6 to 12 hours, the horse may be down or dead. Other horses in the barn may refuse the food, be unable to swallow on account of paralysis of the throat, and in a few hours the paralysis may extend to the posterior parts of the body. The animal can stand only with difficulty, and when moved drags along, the feet on the toes. In some outbreaks as many as eight or ten horses may die in a few days in one barn. As a rule, the disease may attack a number of horses in a community and sometimes extend over a more or less wide territory. Treatment, — Most cases are fatal in spite of all forms of treatment. Purgatives, bleeding from the jugular, potassium iodide, potassium bromide, mor- phine, and many other drugs have been used, and yet most cases have died. One authority advises large doses of purgatives when the animal is able to swal- low. This may be tested by first trying to drench the horse with water. One to two drams of potas- sium iodide may be given once or twice per day, es- pecially in the advanced or convalescent stage. In the early stages some recommend cold applications to the head. When an outbreak occurs in a barn or lo- cality it is best to move all healthy animals to some other locality, and before using the barn again it should be thoroughly cleansed, disinfected and white- washed or sprayed with some good disinfectant, and then kept vacant for 2 to 8 weeks. (See -directions for this under subject of glanders.) POTECHIAL FEVER. The other names applied to this disease are dropsy of the connective tissue, purpura Haemorrhagica, anl morbus maculosus. It involves the blood and capil- laries, usually in the sub-cutis of the skin, and .-■■'h- mucous of the mucous membrane. Causes. — It is very likely a germ disease, but the ' specific microbe has not been discovered. It may fol- low strangles, influenza, pneumonia, pleurisy, and possibly other diseases that seriously depress the vig- or and resistance of the body. It seems quite possi- ble that the specific germ produces a poisonous chem- ical substance, which acts on the tissues, especially | the blood and the capillaries. It also appears proba- ble that the germ is unable to grow and produce thi'^ toxine in the body until the body is weak or the tis- sues cannot resist its action. Bad drainage, poor ven- tilation, dark and wet stables seem to favor the devel- opment of this disease. Symptoms. — It comes on suddenly. The appetite j becomes poor, there is a tendency to diarrhoea; a slight fever is present, the animal is dull and more ri less stiff. In a short time the temperature may rise to 104 or even to 107. In other cases the high fever may be absent or be overlooked. Within two days, or about that time, the skin may swell in the form of ,j round, abruptly elevated nodules, i 1-2 to 3 inches in - diameter. These swellings are more common about the limbs, abdomen, breast, nose, lips, and face, but may occur in any region of the body. Later these i swellings run together, forming large swellings in one '1 or all the limbs, and usually on the under surface of ' the body. Sometimes the head swells so that the ani- mal can hardly see and the head is almost double its usual size. Sometimes these swellings are hot and painful, but not always. In the mucous membranes j of the nose are small red spots, which later form ex- tensive red patches, giving the mucous membrane an Curry combs if used will pay for themselves. 361 appearance as if spotted with purple. The surface over these spots is usuallj- not elevated, but imme- diately around them a pink or yellow fluid oozes out. The pulse is not very rapid at first, but later becomes |, accelerated, respirations are labored and difficult, es- pecially when the head is swollen. In some cases im- mense swellings that develop in the course of a day iwill have disappeared in the course of a few days — sometimes in one day. Many cases suffocate from .obstruction of the air passages by swellings about the I head or the larynx and by excessive infiltration of •jthe lungs. The animal may die in a few days, or the disease may run from one to four weeks and the ani- mal then die or recover. In some respects this dis- ease resembles glanders, but in glanders the swellings do not form so rapidly and there are deep, ragged, pit-like ulcers in the nasal mucous membrane, in- ' stead of purple spots. Treatment. — Improve the surroundings of the horse, get it into a dry, clean, and well ventilated 'jplace. Give internally i to 3 drams of chlorate : pf '"'potash, and 1-2 dram of tincture chloride of iron in 3 j;|Ounces of water. This may be repeated every fotir to 'Ifive times per day. Some recommend sWcfng'-coHWepi pint; potassium iodide, i or 2 drams; mix and give as one drench. This may be given three times per day.' (.Others advise the follo#ing-: mixtui-e: Fluid- extract a4 nux vomica, 1-2 fluid drarh';"'turpentirie,' iJdf:am';''aleo- hol, I ounce. Give- this ftiixtfire' every three h'ouris by [injecting it into the mouth with a small syringe. This )|s said to be especially^ Valuable When 'the Iie'M'-iS'b'aa- ily swollen. -Some advise "rubbing and kneading the Isweelings with the hands or with a cloth and brash ; I'others apply-'-stli^iilBiti^^Virdment and coiff''6rr'- Rfet !iwater, but' if 'is doubtfiil whether these do TnucR good." I A little' 'exercise,^ If the animal is not too weak, is ret- |j|omm^Ha%^i f'^bofjt 50 ^'fef-cehtv df the -eases affe "fatal iln ■sp'it6"i(SP!tryatTMfeMr'rf'*9fnc>3 yHbosij .bnjjow aiU briit :' "-! ,b9}?.ii;;;rja v!?,r;oi-''i-'q s^ t'-Tjow srb j£9iJ smiJ sirfl "i [ 3cf n£D fi iBdi ANTHRAX.7/ arfJ lag zazBO He nr 'jii }I .bsJ-j'jlniaih / Irtsuoio,^'" bnn bsrifish bos bafb ; nT}y%i4lf^.jSp|?c,i%:r,dip^^^j<;a,^ef^ j^:^ oJ'^adn'/fiKfeft v^ry, first -tp b(2^-4asppv£;r|^cj ^,-,3^ /o^ai^sQ . -^oii .dis^^^^ %)rj^,^caj1;tLq,.!^heep,, hog^ ma;^,ja,iii:d3Bjany:©ther ani- ■iiiiiial5,,af?3^usi9Ppt-ibler''-Wl^en,f|tpO(:{5^5^i3niopg horses %mijle3,jfl. ariy.-lQcaliity, cattle, and, ^Jieep, are ve^/l-i^-. bk to have the, same disease^ and oecasiot^ally a, tna.n; D>ay becomq infei^ted and 4)^ in that . Jpcality, T|if^ germ is communicated or transmitted bj^ means of in- fected feed and water, and by flies. If a pasture or farm becomes infected it may remain in that condi- tion for years, especially so if susceptible animals are kept and bred on that farm each year. In some way the germ may renain in the soil for periods longer than one or two years. I have dried blood obtained from an anthrax patient, and this blood has been, kept in an air-tight bottle for 16 years; a little of it mixed with water and injected into a guinea pig or rabbit will usually kill in 24 to 48 hours. Symptoms. — Some cases may die in the course of one to two days after infection, especially if tlie lungs or the abdominal organs become infected.' In other cases a small swelling_ may; start on any part of the surface of the body as a result of an inoculation by a fly or some, other insect. . This .swelling^ will gradually enlarge untilj it becomes quite jextensiye.and^ the germs invade or £nters tli,e circulation and be'carr' ned to all parts of the body. .'Sometimes the invas- ion of the. germs is checked by the action of. the cells and tissue, and the- animal may recover. .Usually, -7 1,-;---- (M -;-:r'' .ro'-r'/T r, f)".'^r: ':?-/^ ■•^■.^•'^n '-^ifK,- ':i.ni the first cases that appear -in an outbreak of this dis;, ease are more severe and more frequentlv fatal than "'-■■'" -^l.-l-'J-.- ■■' . • ' 'ir.g ■; '; L .^:£; I.'-t'"." ,-■.7',, . ,e,: .'!!:-0.'j7 the cases .that anpear later. An absolute , diagnosis ,'n >\ tr ':_'-. W," ^oiq F,rjo.r:o?.;og :;-,-!i ,-;; ,,-i.p fi-; .j] ■.,•-,•■ in many cases canpnly'be .made by. an- expert who caniCoUect sonje of- the, fresh material a.nd make cul - i.'!iJ-OY'-. :-.,T jrnr '.a-s Je iKrj-D-// k 0)1^^1 u3:.t;LK.n.:r: tures and inoculations .tha,t wall enable.. lym to iso]at( "" : !."■ ?mrrr ■ :? -r. :\,vji\?Mnn& srFt eL 'i --, i--^ ," the gerrpi.. In examininof^a^ ^(jarcass after death ■ftB loi ate > J"! tlie blood will be black and tar-like in. color and does nor coagulate .quickly.; .The .liver _is; usiiajly gfeatly /en- larged. The sisleen is likewise, gnlarg-ed. .Kidneys .-*;* .1. -;: ;•■ -ropT re •!((; ofi:; 'n-i-? vy^'j 'j y?r<~ ' s; '; ■•■j-f r are often inflatped. ..It is said. that chickens which eat the carcasses of animals that have died of anthrax will also contract, the disease. It is possible ihkl buzzardsi vRrrr -.'Dec snMoj-r.rfi ynB ~: hnfto'." rpofi .'^ juJT .-f.-ot carry. the^disease from. "one. farm to another. Anthrax: carcasses should alwavs be buried deeplv or burned. In some States the law requires that the carcasses ^ll!tte ^.Wjfpd ^in^S?Pr?a"i5 p^5-centi-sp,l4^tion: of &ai;bpltc,^iQi4i^ l^jjSj n^y[#Soi)^ 9pp;yed,-,Qyreir,t}ie,sw.elling qn-jtlij^-prt^id^ff 362 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. In localities where this disease appears annually, it is best to employ protective inoculation. This con- sists in one or two injections of weak or attenuated cultures of the germ. Preparations, instruments, and full directions for their application may be obtained at almost an_v wholesale drug- house. Remember that this preventative inoculation should be practiced only on farms \vhere the disease has already appeared. TETANUS. This specific infectious disease is commonly called lockjaw. But the name lockjaw is many times inap- propriate, because the disease may be present and the jaws not locked. Causes. — The specific cause is the germ bacillus tet- ani. This microbe or plant parasite lives in soil and water. It is found in certain localities more frequent- ly than in others. In some places a little soil — say from the garden — may be mixed with a little water and some of this mixture injected in very small quan- tities under the skin of a house mouse and 12 to 48 hours this mouse will have a typical case of tetanus. The tetanus germ grows best in close and deep wounds, away from air. The germ produces a very violent and active poisonous product, and it is possi- ble that a sufficient quantity of this poison may be introduced into a wound at the time the wound is made and it kills the animal without any more of the product being made in the animal; but in most cases the germ grows and produces the poison in the deep wound and possibly sometimes in a shallow wound when it is protected from the air. In horses it occurs usually in connection with nail punctures, wire punc- tures, or other deep penetrating wounds about the foot. But a deep wound in any part of the body may have this germ carried into it at the time the wound is made. Symptoms. — At first there may be a slight stiffness of one limb or of any part of the body near the wound. In a short time the muscles in various parts of the body will have spells of very rapid contractions. Sometimes these contractions are so rapid that the muscle, or muscles, cannot relax between contrac- tions, and then appear as if continuously contracted. As the disease progresses all or nearly all of the mus- cles of the body will become involved. Then it will be difficult for the horse to move, each leg will ap- pear stiff and inflexible, and the upper border of the neck concave instead of convex, and the head may stick out in front in a horizontal position. The ani- mal may breathe short and quick. If the head is rais- ed the eye washers or third eyelids will extend over the e3'e and the ordinary observer will say the horse has the "hooks." This is due to the continued con- traction of the muscles which pull the eyeball back mto the orbital cavity and push the eye-washers out over the eye. The animal cannot prevent or control this action. A little noise will often excite the animal and produce a series of spasmodic actions. In many cases the animal cannot swallow, cannot pass urine, or discharge manure from the rectum. Usually it ivill stand persistently until it falls, When down the legs will stand out from the body stiff and straight like the four legs of a stool. In some cases there may not be sufficient poison to affect all the nervous sys- tem of the animal; then only certain regions or parts, and usually those nearest the wound, will be involved. The symptoms will then vary according to the nerves and muscles involved. Treatment. — Prevention is the only safe and suc- cessful means of handling this disease. If all deep wounds, especially those made with dirty objects, are thoroughly disinfected immediately after the wound is made and thereafter kept free from infection, teta- nus will not occur. If there is no other means at hand, saturate a small piece of bandage in tincture of iodine, and with a clean knitting needle, or some oth- er slender, clean rod, push this saturated bandage down to the bottom of the wound, leaving one end of ■ the bandage extending out of the wound. It may be •. left in until the next day, and if necessary then re- move and put another in its place. Usually the dis- ease develops from wounds that are not observed. After the disease has a])peared a thorough search will find the wound, usually somewhere about the foot. At this time treat the wound as previously suggested, but - in all cases get the wound open so that it can be han- dled and cleaned and thoroughly disinfected. It is usually best to place the animal in a quiet, dark stall ; give it water and gruel or milk to drink. Give in the water, 2 drams of barium chloride once per day until the bowels move freely. Remember that it is rather dangerous to drench a horse with tetanus, because in giving the medicine the animal becomes excited and the drug is often poured into the wind pipe and hnisfs; this only hastens the death of the animal. Some ad- I Miss Hilda Fletcher, of Gallatin, Tenn., who has won many Wue ribbons driving Grandma Locke and Horace, Jr. 364 A good brush is a necessity around the barnyard. vise giving hypodermically or per mouth, i ounce of a 5 per cent, solution of carbolic acid. Thisjnay be repeated every four or five hours. In bad cases it is of no value. Others advise the use of tetanus anti- toxine, which 'may be secured at wholesale drug hou5es.'"-rti"bad cases this treatment is unsuccessful andds 'usually too expensive to justify its use. A few cases will get well without any treatment, except care- ful and frequent feeding of gruels or soft feed, with plenty of salt in it. Most of the cases will die, if they are continually stuffed with drugs. BIG HEAD IN HORSES AND MULES. Technically speaking, this bone disease is known as osteo-porasis. It may involve all the bones and ar- ticulations of the body. Causes. — The real exciting cause is unknown. In Switzerland, it is called the "bran-dissase" because it is most frequently found in millers' horses that are fed largely on bran. Some say it is caused by an un- known malaria-like parasite. Others say it is due to indigestion ; imperfect assimilation of lime salts and want of sufficient lime in the food. In some cases it presents striking characters that mark it as an infec- tious disease. This is observed in the way it occurs in stables. If a horse with big head is kept in a stall or stable for some time, other horses in the same sta- ble, especially if kept in the same stall) are liable to contract the disease. Some assert that feeding too much corn to the growing colt will produce it. Oth- ers say it is a form of rheumatism. Still others claim that it is a special form of rachitis (rickets). Symptoms. — The first signs usually observed are symmetrical and smooth or even enlargements of the bones of the face (upper jaw) and the lower jaw. Sometimes both sides of the upper jaw alone or the lower jaw alone may be equally, smoothly and even- ly enlarged. In other instances the facial bones may not be perceptibly enlarged and the prominent signs may appear first in the limbs in the form of shifting rheumatic lameness. Mules having osteo-porosis rarely have facia! enlargements but horses with this disease nearly always develop the characteristic sym- metrical enlargements of the upper and lower jaws. At first the bone enlargements are soft, so soft that a pointed instrument like a cobbler's awl can be easily pushed into the substance of the enlarged bone of the face. All the bones of the head may become thicker and more spongy than in health. If the case is ofi) long standing the bones become hard and heavy. La- ter the bones of the limbs, the ribs and the vertebrae | (bones of the back) may be involved. Sometimes the ribs become so soft that the rib region may become indented by the horse lying down on uneven ground or in an uneven stall. Occasionally one or more ribs may be broken and will not unite as quickly as in health. Lameness is often present and many times.J the lameness "comes and goes" or shifts from one Fig. 59. — Otitline made from a photograph of a horse that had a bad case of osteo-porosis (big head). It shows a dis- tinct dropping of the loins that sometimes occurs in lonf standing or chronic cases of osteo-porosis. This animal wa> so weak that it could not get up by itself. It also had weir marked intentation in the rib region. limb or place to another as in rheumatism. Tin: lameness is usually due to the ulcers in the articulai cartilage that covers the articular surfaces of the bones (.See fig. 61.) Nearly every articular surface of thi limbs in old standing cases will have one or more nl cers. Exposure to cold and changes in the weather pro I duce changes in the degree of lameness. Sometime: the limbs will be drawn out of shape and occasional!}) the loins will have dropped down to an abnormal de gree. (See fig. 59.) When lameness is severe in ol( standing cases, or in mares in foal or just after foaling the diseased animals may get down and be unable t( rise without assistance. This may occur every nigh or two or three nights out of a week. Usually indigestion and poor or deficient assimila tion are associated with this disease and in conse quence the animal becomes poor, weak and sluggish TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 365 e appetite will vary from good to bad ; and in some ses the animal will be subject to periodic attacks of ilic. [(Fig. GO. — Lower jaw and face bones in osteo-porosis or big [ad in a horse. Treatment. — There is no specific for this disease, early all cases of big head will improve with a long tried of rest in a good pasture, especially in the sum- iertime; also careful feeding on ground corn and oats ith peavine hay or other good hay, with good rub- bing and with light and regular exercise, may im- prove niany cases. Sometimes good care may restore a horse so that it may be used at slow work, espec- ially on the farm. Many advise blistering the en- larged places of the face and lower jaw and the dis- eased joints ; about all the good that such treatment does is due to the local stimulation and the slight ab- sorption of the mercuric iodide. Doses of two to three drams of barium chloride in the drinking water once Or twice a week for two or three weeks during periods of great stiffness or lameness, may "limber up" the horse and stimulate the muscles, produce pur- gation and improve digestion, and assimilation. Some advise the use of lime in the drinking water, es- pecially if the water is free of lime (free-sl|pne.) Oth- ers advise the use of phosphate of lime in one to four dram doses given in the ground feed, nights and morn- ing. At noon give one dram of pulverized iron sul- phate. Remember that a case of big-head should be kept in a stable entirely separated from all other horses and mules; but it may be worked with well animals. The big-head horse and all others should be kept in dry stables having proper ventilation. Damp, wet, and poorly ventilated stables will make all cases worse and possibly aid in causing the disease. Good care, regular and frequent rubbing; light and regular exercise with properly balanced and regular rations, will do much to prevent it and will also materially as- sist in curing it. It is not best to breed mares hav- ing this disease because it may be transmitted to the offspring, and it also intensifies the progress of the disease in the mare. When the affected animal has chronic indigestion, the treatment suggested under that head may be used. In this disease pin your faith on the long run at pasture and good care in the form of good feed, plenty of grooming, well ventilated and well drained and clean stables. Skin Diseases Small parasites often live on the surface of the 'dn, and some forms burrow into the outer layers of e skin. The various forms of mange or itch in PTses are caused by small animals called mites. The ■aces infested become dry, sometimes wrinkled and iickened, and in many cases the hairs fall out. In- inse itching mav cause the animal to rub off the hair and in some cases injure the skin. With a small magnifying glass the small mites may be seen on the roots of hairs and among the scales of the skin. It is usually best to stand the horse where the sun may shine on the infested part, and in a short time scrape off some of the scales of the skin and hair and place this on a piece of black paper and examine it with a 366 If you are able to own stock, you arc able to attend to them. lense. The mites may be seen as long as they are warm making motions or crawling. If the skin dis- ease is due to the variety of mites that burrow into the skin, it will be necessary to scrape the skin until you get some of the material or scales from the deep- er layers of the skin. Treatment.— Scrub all the parts affected with soap, water and a good brush. Remove all the rough scales and scabs and loose hair. Now apply a 5 per cent, .solution of creolin or carbolic acid, or a weak solution of blue stone. A good ointment may be made with 2 pounds of lard, 4 ounces of sulphur, and I ounce of carbolic acid. Melt the lard and add the sulphur and carbdlic acid, mix thoroughly and apply over the infested skin once per week. It is also nec- essary to thoroughly disinfect the stalls in which horses having the mange have been kept. Tliis can be done by thoroughly cleaning the stall and the fref application of white wash. LICE. Lice are found on horses, mules or colts more fre- quently in winter or spring, when the hair is long. They arc liable to become very numerous on weak colts. They may be seen along the back in the mane and sometimes in the hair of any region of the body. They irritate the skin, cause the animal to rub and may check the growth of a colt. Treatment. — In the middle of the day apply over all of the body a weak solution of creolin. Be care- ful that the animal does not chill following this ap- plication. Repeat the application in the same way in 8 or 10 days. If the skin becomes rough and the hair dry, frequent rubbing or the occasional applica- tion of a little lard and sulphur may relieve this con- dition if the weather is suitable. Clipping the ani- mal all over will be a great aid in getting rid of lice, but in doing this be extremely careful that the animal does not contract pleurisy or pneumonia as a result of a sudden change from warm to cool weather. SKIN TUMORS. These are abnormal growths that may appear in any part of the .skin or the body. The causes in many cases are unknown, but wounds are often followed by excessive growths, which result in the formation of a tumor. Many of these new growths are developed ; by frequent irritation from rubbing or biting and gnawing. Sometimes germs and other plant para- sites may get into the wound and by their growth ir-j ritate it and produce an excessive growth of granula-J tion tissue. The so-called "Jack" sores that are so commonly found in summer time on jacks, are likely;, due to infection of the skin by certain forms of plant' parasite. A slight wound or scratch will permit the| Fig. Gl.— Photograph of (a) the lower articular end of th cannon bone and the (b) two articular condyles on the lo« er end of the femus. These articular surfaces exhibit ulcer in the articular cartilage that are usually present in case^ of osteo-porosls. parasite to gain admission to the skin and constani biting and gnawing stimulates the growth of a r:n and bleeding tumor. This tumor usually gets large and more extensive during the hot weather and whe cold weather comes on it may partially or entirel disappear and reappear again the following summer, : become larger and more extensive than ever. Treatment.— When possible the tumor of any km TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 367 sho'ild be removed with the knife or scissors. In some locahties this can only be done by the expert. Usually an inexperienced man can confine tlie animal by casting it or otherwise, and cut away the tumor down level with the skin, or down as deep as the thickness of the skin. Then this surface may be well cauterized with a red hot iron. If the animal can be kept from rubbing, biting or gnawing this place it may recover. Some advise the use of strong caustics, like arsenic, caustic potash, or strong acids. But these are dangerous, because in the hands of the ordinary man more tissue may be destroyed than is necessary and great injury result. Sometimes small wart-like tumors may disappear if they are covered frequently with castor-oil. But this will not appre- ciably affect a large tumor. AZOTURIA. This is a serious and somewhat common disease I occurring most frequentlv in the larger and heavier horses ; yet it may occur in light horses. Horses that ! are working regularly and are in good condition may I be rested and fed on a Sunday or a holiday the same [ as when at work, but on Monday morning or the t morning after the holiday the horse may be brought out showing no signs of illness and often exhibiting an excess of vigor and life. The animal may be driven a short distance and then show signs of weakness about the hind limbs : sweat over the croup and thigh, the muscles tremble and twitch. Finally the horse may stagger and fall and struggle considerably after it is down. As a result of this struggling it may sweat considerably over various parts of the body, and the muscles over the loins, croup, and thighs may be more or less hard and rigid. If the animal passes urine its color is usually dark red, or almost black. This abnormal color is said to be due to the presence of an excess of the coloring matter coming from the broken down muscle material, or from the disintegrat- ed blood corpuscles. During the struggling or imme- diately after the struggle is over, the pulse rnay be ac- celerated and the temperature may be raised two to four degrees. Some time after the struggling is over, the pulse and the temperature become normal. At- tempts to get the horse to rise will develop the fact that it is paralyzed in one or both hind limbs. This paralysis may pass away in a few days, or the animal may be permanently paralyzed. In many cases the animal cannot pass urine, owing to paralysis of the bladder or spasms of the neck of the bladder. In some cases, where the driver stops the horse early be- fore it falls down and rubs the legs well, the animal may be gotten back to the barn and only a mild at- tack will occur, and recovery will take place in a few hours or a day. Many ordinary observers will say the kidneys are diseased and others will say the horse has the colic. In rare instances the paralysis may be in one or both front limbs or in one hind and one front limb. Causes. — The predisposing causes are rich diet, es- pecially excessive eating of proteid or nitrogenous feeds, high condition of the animal, and full rations during a day of rest following a period of regular work. Mares are said to be more liable to this disease than geldings or stallions. It is also said to occur most frequently in the prime of the life of the animal. The exciting cause is unknown. Some attribute the cause to a germ ; others believe that m some way suf- ficient lead has been taken into the body to produce lead poisoning. Others claim that the high condition of the system, containing an excess of nitrogenous material, prevents or interferes with the rapid elimi- nation of waste materials from the body, that are thrown into the circulation at the time the horse is brought into the full exercise after the period of rest. This waste material accumulates so rapidly and in such quantity, that it acts as a poison and produces the paralysis. Others assert that exposure to cold after being kept in a warm stable produces the change in the muscles; this, hov\'ever, is largely theory. Treatment. — As soon as possible get the animal in a comfortable position and in a place where it will not be injured by struggling or by attempts to rise. In many cases it may be necessary to pass the cathe- ter and draw off the urine regularly two or three times times per day. Some German authorities advise giv- ing 3 to 4 ounces of carbonate of soda, dissolved in 1-2 to I pint of water. This may be repeated 3 or 4 times per day. A purgative, silch as recommended in cases of colic, may be used here. Recently some practition- ers have met with marked success by giving 1-2 to i ounce of potassium iodide dissolved in 3 ounces of wa- .ter. This is followed every 2 hours by giving i dram of potassium iodide in i ounce of water. This treat- ment should not be kept up beyond i or 2 days, be- cause it is liable to lead to potassium iodide poisoning. 368 Keep the feed troughs clean. It is always well to keep the animal rubbed and in a comfortable position. As long as it is unable to rise it should be turned over from side to side every 3 or 4 hours. When the animal makes attempts to rise the attendants should aid it, and when it gets on its feet rub the legs and body and try to keep it on its feet. The feed should be soft, in order to keep the bowels open and active. Preventative treatment is more effective in the hands of the average man in this disease than cura- Conditions and Diseases of Com- mon Interest Occurring in Breeding Animals. The Organs of Reproduction in the Mare. — Be- ginning at the outside, the first is called the vulva. It has two lips and two corners, and at the lower cor- ner, or just inside of the lower corner, is a small bunch of erectile tissue called the clitoris. Four to six in- ches forward and inward through the vulva is the va- gina. On the floor, at about the union of the vulva and the vagina, is the opening of the tube that is the outlet of the bladder. The vagina is from 6 to 10 in- ches long and is separated from the body of the womb or uterus by the neck of the uterus. The neck of the uterus is the contracted part of the beginning portion of the wall of the uterus. Usually this neck presents a teat-like projection into the vagina and through the center of the projection is a small opening which leads from the vagina into the uterus. Just before and at the time of the delivery of the young at birth, this neck is so expanded that there is no line of demarka- tion between the wall of the vagina and the wall of the uterus. The uterus has a body and a right and a left horn. The cavity of the body is continuous with the cavity of each horn. Extending from each horn is a small tube, which runs from the horn up to the ovary on its respective side. Here this tube ends in a rather wide, cup-like expansion, close to the ovary. There are two ovaries, one on each side. The uterus, the tubes, and the ovaries are held in place by broad expansions of connective tissue, sometimes called liga- ments. When the animal is in "heat", an ovule may tive treatment. Horses that are worked regularly and in high condition should be fed less on rest days than on work days. Sometmies a soft feed may be given the night previous to a rest day. When the animal is it taken out on the morning following a rest dav. watch it very carefully, and if any signs of this dis- ease should appear, stop the horse at once, give it a |j thorough rubbing and return it to the barn or some convenient place where tb.e rubbing may be continued j and a purgative given if necessary. erupt from the ovary and fall into the mouth of the tube, pass down the tube into the uterus. There it meets the spermatozoa that comes from the male when the mare is served by the stallion. The fusing or un- ion of the spermatazoa with the ovule may be desig- nated fertilization. A fertilized ovule is the beginning of the embryo. The period of gestation in the mare is about 48 weeks in length. This period represents the time between the fertilization of the ovule and the birth of the colt. It may vary, occupying more or less time than the average, which is about 340 days. The periods of heat in the mare occur more regu- larly in the spring or fall than any other season of the year. Usually these periods occur about every 2r days, and last each time from one to three or four days. After the birth of the colt the first period will occur in 7 to 9 days, and thereafter every 21 days un- til the mare gets in foal again. In some abnormal cases the periods of heat may appear more or less reg- ularly after the mare has become pregnant. The common signs of pregnancy are cessation of the periods of heat ; the mare becoming more docile and quiet taking on more flesh ; a gradual increase in the size of the abdomen ; after 6 or 7 months move- ments of the kicking colt in the uterus may be ob- served in the flanks, especially just after the mare has had a drink of cold water. With a little experience, one can make a positive diagnosis by inserting the hand into the rectum and feeling for the colt in the TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 369 iterus through the walls of the last part of the intes- ine. This should be done with care lest injury result, he foetus will not be large enough to distinguish un- il three or four months old. Sterility in the mare is not uncommon. It is a con- ition of the mare in which she does not breed. It lay result from various causes. Sometimes it may be ue to a disease of the ovaries. This, however, could ot be discovered in the living animal. At other Jmes it may be due to some disease in the uterus, his might be apparent by excessive discharges com- iig from the uterus through the vagina and vulva. In lat case it may be best to secure an expert to treat lat disease before the animal is bred. In other cases [le neck of the uterus may be closed, so that the sper- jiatazoa cannot reach the ovule. In some cases the leek of the uterus may be opened by gradual twist- g and firm pressure with the index finger. Remem- ;r that the index finger should be thoroughly jeansed with soap and water and disinfected before jiis work is attempted. In case an opening cannot be |oduced without violent pressure, secure the services jl an expert veterinarian. Usually it is best to open pie neck of the uterus when the mare is in heat and jplst before she is served by the stallion. A mare that ii excessively fat or very poor is often predisposed to lerility. In some cases sterility is said to be due to jcondition of the uterus or vagina, which can be rem- Ijhed by inserting a small quantity of yeast in the ,i.gina. The pure yeast used in making bread may be i{ ed for this purpose. Just how it acts has never been tisfactorily explained, and its value seems rather lubtful. Sometimes the apparent sterility in the are is due to the stallion. When other causes can- t !ie found to account for this condition in the mare, is well to take her to another stallion, preferably a ung stallion or a jack. In some instances apparent- sterile mares may be gotten with foal by the use of inipregnator, but there are cases for which there is remedy. During the period of pregnancy or gestation, the ire can do work in the hands of a careful man. No nljt pregnant mares are better off at light work m standing idle in the stable. In many cases they ; kept at light work right up to the period of deliv- !\ however, it is better to let them have rest in pas- ■e at least one month before the birth of the colt, from any cause the foetus is expelled before the time len it can live independent of the mother, the mare is said to abort. The causes of abortion are numer- ous. Over work and rapid, violent exercise may in- duce abortion. Kicks and injuries are also prominent causes. Heavy doses of purgatives may produce abor- tion. Certain grasses, such as wild rye, may contain ergot, and this may cause abortion. Colic attacks, in which the animal tumbles and rolls, may result in abortion. Sometimes infectious germs may produce what is called infectious abortion. In this form of the disease several mares are liable to abort in the same stable or pasture. One abortion predisposes a mare to a second, and the second abortion usually oc- curs about the same time in the period of gestation tjiat the first abortion occurred. Sometimes drugs that irritate the kidneys will also irritate the repro- ductive organs, and result in this trouble. Sometimes the service of the stallion when a pregnant mare is in heat will produce abortion. If a colt is born before the proper time, and can live, that is termed premature parturition or birth of the colt. Prevention of abor- tion is the only logical treatment. As a rule, it will not be discovered until after it is too late to prevent it by use of drugs. Usually it is not best to breed mares that have been exposed to infectious abortion, or that must be kept in barns or pastures where that disease is of common occurrence. Mares that are in foal and have been subject to any other ordinary causes that might lead to abortion, should be watched closely and kept quiet until the danger period shall have passed. Some advise giving drugs, such as morphine, chloro- form to quiet and prevent contractions of the uterus. In breeding mares an accurate record should be kept of the time when the mare became in foal, so that the time of delivery or birth could be determined. When the period of delivery is at hand a careful at- tendant should be present to watch and see that all conditions are favorable. If the mare k& lin the barn she should be in a large, well bedded, box stall. If the colt is being delivered normally, and without de- lay, no assistance will be required. Immediately af- ter it is born the naval cord should be tied with a piece of silk cord, or any other strong "cord that has been disinfected by boiling it in water, or by some other strong disinfectant. The naval cord is tied about 3 inches below the abdomen and the part below the tie is cut away. Then cover the naval cord with either of the dust powders recommended under the subject of wounds. Apply this dust powder to the naval and the cord two or three times per day, until the cord be- 25 Gei-man Army Horse, bred by O'ltman Bros., North Fort Worth, Texas. ^.r^' i^ -T^'^*''*^* Mr. Fleming, of Augnsta, and One of a string of Horses. Mr. J. Lee Barnes. o£ Atlanta, Ga. His roadster one of the best in the South. FIGURE 62. Shows the correct position of the colt when the head and front feet are to be delivered first. The head should be be- tween the front limbs. FIGURE 63. Illustrates how the colt should be delivered when the hind feet are first presented. FIGURE 64. Shows a front end presen- tation with the head turned to one side. With one hand, cr a represser, on the breast cf the colt push its body back into the uterus far enough to permit the other hand to pull the head around between the front limbs. FIGURE 65. Exhibits a front end presen- tation with the head turned on the back. With clean and sterile ropes on the front feet so as to fix them, apply the hand to the breast and push the body back into the uterus and pull the head around be- tween the front legs. FIGURE Co. Front end presentation with hind limbs raised into the outlet. Fix the front feet with clean plow line ropes and hold the front in posi- tion and push the hind feet back out of the outlet. Some- times it may be necessary to push the colt back into the •uterus before the hind feet can be removed from the out- let. injjiwii) > 1' V FIGURE 67. Buttock and croup presenta- tion. Push the colt back in- to the uterus and pull up the hind limbs, flexing them at the hock until the hind feet can be taken out first. Do not get in too big a hurry when looking after your stock. 373 |coines very dry and hard ; thereafter one appHcation per day may be sufficient. The normal position for the birth of the colt should be the front feet and head coming first, as if the colt were slipping out, front end first, belly down and back up on its belly. The next position is hind feet first, as if it were slipping out backwards on its belly. When the colt is delivered front feet and head first, the head comes out so that when the colt must breathe joefore completely delivered it can secure air. If the ihind feet come first, then if the colt must breathe be- iFore complete delivery it may suffocate for want of jiir. Hence in the second method assistance should be &iven to make the delivery as rapid as possible. This Imay be done by catching the hind feet and pulling lirmly and steadily when the mare strains. In doing jthis much patience and careful judgment are required. tn some cases neither of these positions are found, in |act, a veriety of abnormal presentations may occur. i[f an attendant is on hand who knows how to do the |-ight thing at the proper time, much difficulty and bmetimes serious results may be prevented. For in- stance, if the front feet are coming and the head is turned back on one side, this can be righted quite easi- ly in the early stages. Clean the hands thoroughly with .cap and water and a disinfectant; then cover them Vith vaseline. Now with one hand apply pressure — say •m the breast of the colt— when the mare is not strain- ing; with the other hand feel for the nose of the colt or i.he head, and when found, pull it around in its correct joosition, between the front limbs. When this is done Heady pulling on the front limbs will help the mare .Sn delivering the colt. Other abnormal presentations i||nay be corrected according to conditions, and this bn always be done more easily in the early part of '|lie period of delivery than after labor has been in il)rogress some hours. In rare instances the colt can- aot be delivered without first cutting it to pieces in -ihe uterus. This cannot be done except by an ex- jliert veterinarian, and should not be attempted by the average farmer. After the birth of the colt all of the rnveloping membranes or the "after birth" generally jomes away in the mare without any help. Some- lijimes it is retained, or part of it must be removed by ' areful pulling with one hand and separating it from he uterus carefully with the other hand. In doing iWs work be sure to have the hands and arms well leaned and thoroughly disinfected. In some cases he contractions of the uterus continue after the colt is delivered to such an extent that the uterus becomes everted. In other words, an attempt is made to turn the uterus inside out. This is present when there is a large, dark-colored, more or less round body pro- jecting from the vulva. It is sometimes as large as a peck or half bushel measure. This is not very com- mon in the mare, but more frequent in the cow. If replaced at once the life of the mare may be saved. In order to replace it, it may be necessary, first, to clean it. In doing this be sure to use cotton that has been boiled in water containing some baking soda, and also use the water that has been boiled and cool- ed. After it is cleaned is may be necessary to pro- duce presure by wrapping it with broad, sterile ban- dages, or by large, sterilized towels. The pressure causes the blood to flow back into the vessels and reduces its size. This may require considerable time and patience. When it is gotten inside the mare may strain to throw it out again, but it should be held in place until it gets warm, and if the mare still strains, give a dose of 4 to 5 grains of morphine. This may be given per mouth or hypodermically. In some cases it may be necessary to keep an attendant watch- mg and keeping this in for some time after it is re- placed. Some advise taking 3 or 4 deep stitches through the lips of the vulva, so as to prevent the an- imal from throwing out the uterus. As a rule ever- sion of the uterus in the mare is very serious, and often leads to infection and the death of the mare. In cows it can be successfully treated in most in- stances. After the naval cord has been Hgated and covered with dust powder, the colt should be wiped dry and gotten up to suck. It should have the first milk, which usually acts as a purgative, but in some cases it does not; then the colt may be constipated. In that case give 1-2 to i ounce of castor oil and a small injection of warm water into the rectum. In other cases the colt may have diarrhoea. This may be due to laxative food the mare is eating, or to infection of the colt. It may be treated by first giving 1-2 to I ounce of castor oil, and then give i teaspoonful of tincture of opium once or twice per day, until the diarrhoea is checked. Sometimes a little lime water mixed with the mother's milk may be all that is re- quired. At other times a little pulverized magnesia, I or 2 tablespoons in the mother's milk will ef- fectually remedy this trouble. 374 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. Diseases of the Eye. DISEASES OF THE EYELIDS. Tumors of various kinds arc occasionaly found on tlie eyelid. The upper lid is a favorite place for warts — diseased, excessive growths of the outer layers of the skin. The exciting cause of warty growths is at present thought to be a very minute plant or animal parasite. It is best to excise them with a knife ; or if small, to snip them off with the scissors, being careful not to cut deeper into the eyelid than the thickness of the skin. After the bleeding has part'allv ceased and the blood has been wiped away with a clean, moist sponge or cloth, the raw surface may be touched or Fig. 68. — Diagramatic Section ot the Horse's E.ve (after D'Arboval) showing the relative iMsition of the various parts. In reading the description of the anatomy of the e.ve fre- quent reference should be made to this cut. a. Optic nerve; b, Sclerotic; c, Chnrold; d, Retina; e. Cor- nea; f, Iris; g, h, Ciliary circle, (or ligament) and process- es given off by file choroid though represented as isolated from it, in order to indicate their limits more clearly; i, in- sertion of the ciliary processes on the crystalline lens; j, Crystalline lens; k. Crystalline capsule; 1, Vitreous body; b, n, Anterior and posterior chambers; o. Theoretical indica- tion of the membrane of the equeous humorfli p. p, Tarsi; q, q. Fibrous membrane of eyelids; r. Elevator muscle of upper eyelid: s, s, Orliicularis muscle ot the e.velids; t, t, Skin of the eyelids; u. Conjunctiva; v, Epidermic layer of this mem- brane covering the Cornea; x. Posterior rectus muscle; y, Superior rectus muscle; z, Inferior rectus muscle; w. Fib- rous sheath of the orbit (or orbital membrane) ; 1, Section of orbital arch; 2, Lachrymal gland; 3, Section of small ob- lique muscle. cauterized with lunar caustic or a small pledged of cotton dipped in strong oarbolic acid. Melanotic (black, pigmented) tumors are occasionally found on the eyelids of white horses. If they are small and are removed in the early stages of growth they are not so liable to return: but if thev involve considerable tissue' Fig. 69. — Normal Horses Eye (after Goubaux and Barrier). I or are of long existence, they are very liable to return after removal. All small tuinors of the eyelids may! be removed in a similar manner to that described for" warts. Pedunculated tuniors may be litigated by tying a strong cord around the pedicle close to the skin ; if if does not fall off in a few days another strong thread, may be tied around it in the same place. Caustic medicines (Lunar Caustic or Tri-Chlor-Acetic Acid)] may be applied, once every four or five days, unti' the tumor can be pulled away by the fingers. Car( must be taken not to get these caustics into the eyej it is best not to use caustics except on tumors wit! large, thick bases that cannot be litigated or excised. ■ Wounds of the Eyelids. i These occur through bites, tearing on nails, har ness, hooks of snaps, barbs of wire fences, and othe projecting points, about the stable or stall. If th wound is fresh the edges may be brought together b; Stock appreciate kindness, and know their friends. 375 stitches one-third of an inch apart; ordinary white silk thread may be used. Inflammation of the Eyelids. Various injuries and bruises of the eyelids may oc- cur when a horse is rolling or throwing his head dur- ing colic attacks, or other painful diseases ; or neigh- boring tissues may be injured or bruised and the in- flammation extend to the eyelids. The writer has repeatedly observed the eyelids of cattle attacked by ringworm, a transmissable parasit- ic disease of the skin, causing not only inflammation of the eyelids but also of the conjunctiva, extending at times to the cornea. ' Constitutional diseases (anthrax, Texas fever, pur- pura) may be attended by swollen and inflamed eye- lids. Small wounds may admit germs into the tissues of the eyelids and produce inflammatory swellings. Inflammation, resulting from wounds, bruises, etc., may be reduced by bathing the eye in cold water and applying antiseptic solutions. In ringworm the crusts and scales must be washed and scraped from the skin and then a one per cent, solution of corrosive sublim- ate may be applied once per day for three or four days. Other parts of the body and other animals with ring- worm must be treated in the same way; since this parasitic skin disease is transmissable. Inflam^ed, swollen eyelids from constitutional diseases may be remedied by treating the disease with which they are associated. Enthropium — Folding Inward of the Lid. The free margin of the lid is folded in against the eyeball; generally the entire margin of the lid is rolled inward, but, at times, only that half near the inner or nasal angle of the eye is thus affected. This disease occurs most frequently in the dog but occurs also in the horse ; the ox and the sheep. It has been observed in some animals at birth ; and, no doubt, a tendency toward this disease is inherited — I especially among dogs. Spasmodic contractions of the orbicular muscle that closes the eye, a relaxation or loose condition of the skin and an excessive devel- ( opment of the skin and tarsus of the lid, are said to i be prominent factors in producing entropium. Scar li tissue — resulting from wounds, ulcers, etc., on the in- ner surface of the lid — contract, or make tense, the conjunctiva to such a degree that it pulls the free border of the lid inward; while the contraction of the orbicular muscle (in winking) would roll or fold the lid. One or both lids of one or both eyes of the dog may be affected ; but, as a rule, only the lower lid of one eye in the horse is so diseased. The constant friction occasioned by the continual rubbing of the Fig. 70. — Entropium — Folding Inward of tlie lower lid; th& eye-Iaslies and hair rub over tlie conjunctiva and cornea, wtien the eye lid or eye-ball is moved, producing inflamma- tion by constant l:riction. eyelashes over the conjunctiva and the cornea, pro- duces great irritation, which, if long continued results in inflamination. The conjunctiva be- comes congested, light red and slightly swollen, the cornea may be clouded and at times ulcers form on its surface; the tears flow in excess; and the animal constantly attempts to close the eye. As soon as the lid or lids are returned to their normal position, the inflammation, cloudiness, etc., begin to disappear and the eye to retain its normal condition. Treatment consists in removing by excision a portion of the re- laxed and loose skin. In the horse a strip of skin, one-fourth to one-half inch broad, is cut away parallel to, and about one-half inch from, the margin of the lid. The elliptical strip may be removed by using- small, sharp shears. The free edges of the skin are then brought together by silk stitches, about one-half mch from one another. As a rule, in the course of a week the stitches may be removed. In the dog the relaxed skin may be excised much farther from the margin of the lid and the gaping wound may be left to heal without bringing the edges of the skin to- gether with stitches. It is however, safer and better to stitch up the wound. Ectropium — Rolling Outward of the Lid. In this disease the eyelid is drawn away from the eyeball, the conjunctival surface turned outward, the 376 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. free border (lower lid) downward; the eyelid is roll- ed outward and downward, leaving the eye unpro- tected, subject to constant irritation from air and dust and rapid evaporation of tears. This condition produces dhronic inflammation of the conjunctiva and leads to the formation of clouded spots and vas- cularity of the cornea. This disease also occurs most Pig. 71. — Ectropium— Folding outward of tbe lower lid. frequently in dogs, but may appear in the horse, ox and sheep. It is caused mostly, in the horse, by scar tissue in the neighborhood of the lower eyelid ; this makes the skin so tense that the traction pulls the lid from the eyeball. Inflammatory swellings and new growths on the conjunctiva may also cause it. Dogs with deep set eyes and in a poorly nourished condi- tion suffer with this disease. Ectropium is treated by cutting away a narrow strip of the conjunctiva parallel with margin of the lid. The shears may be used but no stitches are required. Ptosis — Falling of the Upper Lid. When the upper lid hangs abnormally downward and outward from the eyeball, without folding or rolling, it is called drooping of the lid or Ptosis. It is usually associated with paralysis of the facial nerve, and may occur on one or both sides. In paralysis of both nerves there is constant dribbling of saliva, par- alysis of the lips, the nostrils and the upper eyelids. This is said to result from an injury of the facial nerve or some of its larger branches. The injury is usually produced by bruises or due to pressure of the bridle or of a yoke. In the first stages of the par- alysis, it may be improved by reducing the inflam- mation or by removing the pressure on the nerve or its branches. But, as a rule, paralysis of one or both facial nerves is incurable. Yet the drooping of the eyelid may be removed by a surgical operation too complicated and difficult for unskilled hands. DISEASES OF THE HAW OR MEMBRANA NICTITANS. The conjunctival mucous membrane which covers the haw may become inflamed when the other parts of the conjunctiva are diseased. Also the haw may be pushed out over the eye when the eyeball is drawn back into the socket, which is done in certain eye diseases for protection. In such cases uninformed persons say the horse has the "hooks" and at once proceed to cruelly cut them out. It is scarcely neces- sary to remark that nearly every case of so-called "hooks" is only a symptom of another disease and would certainly disappear if the real cause were re- moved. In some instances the haw is injured by being torn at the upper part of its free margin or it may be torn or cut in other parts by injuries. Nearly all cases of injury recover without treatment, but should the sep- arated or divided haw continue to irritate the other parts of the eye, it may be removed. Occasionly tumors appear on the haw or eye-washer ; if small and harmless they may be left undisturbed or clipped off with the shears; but if large and harmful, the entire haw (if necessary) may be removed. In cutting away the torn haw, or the tumor and haw, the ani- mal should be securely and safely confined (by cast- ing or otherwise) and a few drops of a ten per cent, solution of cocaine may be put into the eye; af- ter waiting a few minutes for the cocaine to take ef- fect, the haw or tumor may be grasped with small forceps and completely excised with the shears; during the next few days cleanse the eve, two times per day, with warm water, and a one per cent solu- Fig. 72. — Abnormal extension of the haw or "eye-washer as observed in tetanus (lockjaw) inflammation of the haw etc. This continued projection of the haw, is many times called "hooks." If you can't feed and wa/er your own stock, have a responsible man do so. 377 tion of carbolic acid. After repeated or severe at- tacks of inflammation of the conjunctiva, or repeated attacks of moonblindness, the haw remains more prominent and farther projected over the eyeball than normal. In tetanus or lock-jaw in horses the haws are partially or completely extended over the eyeball— especially on exposure to strong light or when the head is elevated. DISEASES OF THE TEAR APPARATUS. In all cases where the tears are running down ov- er the side of the cheek and there is no swelling or redness of the lids in their normal position, it is wise to examine carefully the lachrymal or tear appara- tus. Most frequently the lachrymal canal is obstruct- ed at its opening into the nostril ; this may be reliev- ed as a rule, by removing the dirt and pus-like mat' ter which clogs the opening. Sometimes the canal is obstructed in its superiof part near the tear sack, then it is best to inject by means of a small syringe, carbolized water or a two* per cent solution of boracic acid, into the canal at its lower or nasal opening. If the tear canal, tear sac and tear ducts are open or pervious, the water will pass out at the tear points near the inner angle of the eye on the margin of each lid. Occasionally the canal or the tear ducts are obliterated, resulting from ca- tarrhal or infectious inflammation and from fractures of bones along the course of the canal. In such cases it may be made pervious by forcing a small silver probe into the canal ; but sometimes the canal is so completely obliterated that it is impossible to open the old passage-way for the tears. When the conjunc- tiva or the eyelids are inflamed and when the under lid is everted in ectropium, the openings of the tear ducts are closed or are so displaced as to prevent the passing of the tears into the ducts. After recovery from these diseases, the tears cease to flow over the cheek. DISEASES OF THE TISSUES SURROUNDING THE EYE AND IN THE ORBITAL CAVITY. Fractures, bruises and wounds may take place in the bones and tisues surrounding the eye, and must he treated according to the conditions presented. Generally speaking, continual application of cold wa- ter baths or fomentations to the injured parts will materially reduce and prevent inflammation. Tum- ors or new growths of various kinds may appear in the orbital cavity outside of the eyeball. As a rule, they are very serious and eventually necessitate the re- moval of the eyeball with its surrounding tissues and sometimes requires the excision of the eyelids and the skin with other tissues in the neighborhood of the eye. Whenever cancerous growths begin to spread or extend to the parts around the eye it is well to cut away all the parts involved. Such malig- nant growths are liable to return, even after several removals. Deep-seated spreading tumors of the or- bital region should always be considered as very ser- ious and as nearly always incurable without com- plete excision. DISEASES OF THE CONJUNCTIVA. Conjunctivitis. — Inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the eyelids and reflected over the eyeball around the cornea. Causes. — i. Mechanical and chemical irritants. — Small seeds, pieces of hay, straw, glumes, wheat or 'barley beards, small insects, coal dust and other kinds of dust, sand, hair, smoke, entropium, parasites ■ — all foreign bodies that act as mechanical or chemi- cal irritants may produce conjunctivitis. Not infre- quently has the writer observed this disease in a very severe form, resulting from injudicious and ig- norant application of caustic and blistering salves, liniments or quack eye washes. Striking the animal in the eye with a whip, or stick, bruising or woimd- ing the eyelid or parts near the eye may excite in- flammation in the conjunctiva. Cold, sharp or ex- cessively dry winds may cause it. 2. It is associated with other diseases, as — ulcera- tion of the cornea, periodic opthalmia, occasionally with Texas fever and anthrax, influenza, strangles (distemper in horse), rinderpest, and, now and then, in the course of other infectious diseases : often it is associated with catarrhal inflammation of the mu- cous membrane of the nasal passages, sinuses of the head and of the lachrymal canal and ducts. Inflam- mation of the conjunctiva and the cornea is quite often observed in sheep when they are affected with "head scab," or parasitic skin disease, confined to the short wool regions of the sheep. Conjunctivitis is also associated with sheep pox. Cattle are at- 3/8 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. tacked by an enzootic inflammation of the conjunc- tiva and cornea, which is considered in detail under diseases of the cornea. Diphtheriti'c conjunctivitis ap- pears in fowls. Symptoms. — On the irritated and inflamed fepot of the conjunctiva there will be red streaks of strongly congested blood vessels, the mucous membrane will be slightly swollen ; this inflammation may in a short time extend to all parts of the conjunctiva and in- volve the circumference of the cornea; the eye is very sensitive to light, and is kept closed continually. During the early stages the secretion of tears is greatly increased and they flow in profusion over the cheek, but during the more intensive or severe in- flammation a mucus exudate appears, which is of light gray color and contains semi-transparent flaky particles. If the inflammation is still more severe the exudate or secretion appears as a grayish yellow or a green fluid which consists of pus cells and tears. At one time, in severe cases, the secretion may be pus mixed with serum, and at another it may be pus- mixed with mucous. An organized membraneous ex- udate is present in diphtheretic conjunctivitis and to a limited extent in follicular conjunctivitis. The su- ferficial layer may be involved in severe cases, while in other instances all the layers and the submucous tissue may be involved in the inflammation; these distinctions are not always well defined ; but as a rule, great intensity and long duration of the inflam- mation indicate that the entire conjunctiva and sub- mucous tissues are afTected. Treatment. — The first thing to do is to remove the cause if it can be discovered. If the animal is very sensitive about having the eye examined, it is best to put a twitch on his nose. Place the thumb on the lower lid and the endex finger on the upper; by gradual and firm pressure, open the eye and look carefully for a hay seed or any foreign body or irrita- ting particles that may be in view. After completely cleansing the index finger and removing the long, rough or sharp margin of the finger nail, it may be pushed around under the lids and under the haw in search of the irritant ; this must be done with great care, and it is always best to put a few drops of a three per cent, solution of cocaine into the eye be- fore introducing the finger. Following this search and the removal of the irritant, the eye may be washed with pure cold water or with a solution of corrosive sublimate i part and pure water 5,000 parts. Bathing the eye in very warm water will re- lieve the pain and sensitiveness ; while cold water fo- mentations will remove the fever. A great many cas- es of conjunctivitis readily yield to the simple meth- od of adjusting a large, clean wet cloth over the eye, keeping it moist by pouring cold water on it every hour. It is generally best to put the animal in a dark stall, but unless such a place is well ventilated I pre- fer the open and well ventilated box stall. The fol- lowing prescription has met with great favor in Ger- many : Borax, grains; Aqua Amygdalae Amarae, 2 drachms; Gum Arabic, 2 drachms; Pure Water, 2 ounces. Apply to the conjunctiva by putting sever- al drops into the eye twice per day. In purulent conjunctivitis, when pus is present in the eye secretion, one may employ corrosive subli- mate I part, water 1,000; or nitrate of silver 4 grains and water i ounce. In a few seconds after applying the nitrate of silver solution, the eye may be washed with a weak watery solution of common salt; this checks the burning irritation of the silver nitrate. It is safer to use the solution of corrosive sublimate. Diphtheritic conjunctivitis develops in chickens, doves and other fowls that are affected with diphtheria of the mouth, the throat and the nose. The healthy should be separated from the diseased fowls ; the diphtheritic membranes should be removed from the mouth and eye ; and the mucous membranes should be covered or penciled over (by means of a feather or small brufh) with a I to 2 per cent, solution of corrosive sublimate or with i to 2 per cent, solution of silver nitrate. In 20 to 30 seconds after applying the nitrate of silver solution, bathe the eye and other affected parts with a weak solution of salt water. When chronic inflammation of the folli- cles of the inner surface of the haw is present, it may be relieved by using a i per cent solution of cor- rosive sublimate ; this should be applied as previously directed, being very careful that the fluid does not come in contact with other parts of the eye. As a rule, follicular conjunctivitis occurs only in dogs. When it will not yield to medical treatment, the in- flamed follicular spots are clipped off; or part or all of the haw may be removed. Nitrate of silver solu- tions should be discarded in all cases where the cor- nea is also involved, since it is liable to leave perma- nent opacities of the cornea. i 1 Hilda and Hildagarae. Owued by Oscar Ray, Atiauia, Georgia. 38o It takes just a little more time to Give Fresh Water, than Old Water. DISEASES OF THE CORNEA. Wounds. The transparent cornea may be injured by a stroke of the whip, by hard straw or hay stems, by thistles, and occasionally by sharp objects — glass, nails, splin- ters, hedge thorns, and wire barbs. Small, rough or sharp objects that get into the eye not only injure the conjunctiva but also may scratch or even penetrate the cornea. In fact, many of the chemical and physi- cal causes of injuries to the conjunctiva in like man- ner affect the cornea. The shunning of light by closing the eye and an ex-- tra secretion of tears are always present during the active stages of the inflammation. The seriousness or severity of an injury depends upon the extent of surface affected and wliether the outer or middle lay- ers are separately or conjointly injured; or whether the entire thickness of the cornea is perforated. If there be but a small spot of the outer layer injured, recovery takes place in a few days, by keeping the eye covered with a clean cotton or linen cloth saturated in a solution of i part carljolic acid to loo parts of water. If the deeper or middle layer of the cornea be injured, it will require quite more time for healing and is liable, in the horse, to leave a scar — a whitish opaque spot. Treatment may consist in the continued application of the i per cent carbolic acid solution, or in applying continually a cloth saturated with a solution of 5 to 10 parts antipyrine and 100 parts of water. After the painful and feverish stage is past a few drops of a solution of 2 parts of potas- sium iodide and 100 parts of water may be used two times per day. If the cornea be perforated the aque- ous humor escapes, and this leads, in most cases, to inflammation of the entire eye, resulting in loss of sight and generally in the destruction of the eyeball. Occasionally a perforating wound heals by granula- tion, the iris becomes free and sight is restored. But most frequently in such cases the iris remains attach- ed to the wound or scar tissue of the cornea and pro- hibits the light from passing into the eye. If the per- foration is near the margin of the cornea, a few drops of a solution of i gr. of eserine to I ounce of water may be applied, two times per day. But if the perfo- ration is near the centre of the cornea a few drops of a solution of atropine i gr. to water i oz. may be used, night and morning. By the use of eserine the pupil is contracted and the free borders of the iris are taken away from the marginal wound in the cornea. By the use of atripine the pupil is expanded and the borders of the iris are removed from the edges of the central cornea! wound. Infectious and general in- flammation of the eye may be obviated by adjusting over the eye a cotton or linen cloth moistened every half hour with a solution of carbolic acid i part to wa- ter 100 parts ; or corrosive sublimate i part to water 1,000 parts. KERATITIS OR CORNEITIS. Inflammation of the Cornea may involve the super- ficial layer, or the middle layer of the cornea ; it may embrace only part of the cornea or may be diffuse — extend over the entire cornea. The partial or limited form is generally the result of injuries of the cornea. The friction of the eyelashes in entropium, small, sharp substances, and irritating salves, are common causes of local inflammation of the cornea. Diffuse inflammation is associated, as a rule, with infectious conjunctivitis in cattle or sheep; and, at times, ap- pears in the course of cow-pox and sheep pox, and of diphtheria in fowls; and in the course of influenza and the acute attacks of moon-blindness, in the horse. Symptoms. — When the outer layer alone is affect- ed : As soon as the cornea becomes inflamed the ani- mal avoids the irritating light by partially or entirely closing the eye, and tears flow down over the cheek. The cornea becomes opaque at a not sharply limited spot or over its entire surface; this opacity may be grayish blue, gray or light gray in color. One may see this opacity best by viewing it, not from directly in front of the eye, but from one side. If the inflam- mation is of long duration blood vessels will be found in the cornea, which may be seen in their conjested condition near its border. When the opacity and the other symptoms appear suddenly (without blood ves- sels forming in the cornea), recovery is quite certain to occur in a few days. The darker the opacity or cloudiness the weaker the infiltration or the less dam- age in the cornea to be required. Light gray and v/hite colored opacities denote intensive changes which re- quire eight to ten days for their complete removal. If blood vessels form in the cornea of the horse, a per- manent opaque spot may remain, but in the dog the complete removal of the opacity will usually occur. TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 381 If the middle layer or principal part of the cornea be injured, the opacity develops slowly, is grayish blue, gray or light gray in color. The opacity is gen- erally irregular in form — cloudy, striped or ray shaped; these points or spots extend over the entire cornea. When inflammation produces such spotted or irregular dotted opacity, it is designated keratitis punctata (see Fig. 6). This spotted appearance of the cornea is due to the dotted opacities in the outer layer while the inner layer may be evenly clouded in all its parts. The deeper seated opacity may be ob- served by viewing the cornea from one side ; this is Fig. 73. — Keratitis Punctata— Intlammation of the internal or posterior layer of the cornea produces a spotted apacity; tlie dots or opaque white spots may be larger or smaller than those In the cut and may extend over the entire surface of the cornea. Another form of keratitis punctata is developed as mentioned in the text. perceived best by illuininating the eye in a dark stall or room. A yellow colored, sharply limited opacity, announces the formation of a corneal abscess. Shunning the light and an excessive flow of tears are always present during inflammation of the outer surface of the cornea or the formation of an abscess. In acute cases the opacity may entirely or partially disappear in three to six weeks. Should the opacity continue longer, from improper treatment or non-dis- appearance of the cause, vascularization (formation of blood vessels) with abscess formation or ulceration of the cornea appears ; thus the prospects of recovery are decreased, while the danger of a pus-like exudate ap- pearing in the aqueous humor or the perforation of the cornea increases. Not infrequently do these bad results appear in cow-pox, sheep-pox or infectious conjunctivitis and kerititis among cattle and sheep. Treatment. — Examine the eye critically, being es- pecially careful to discover and remove any irritating foreign body or particles. Bathing the eye in very warm water twice per day and then adjusting over it a clean cloth, saturated with a i per cent, solution of carbolic acid, will, in most cases, be sufficient. But, should there be an abscess or an ulcer present, the cloth might be saturated with a solution of corrosive sublimate i part and water 1,000 parts; and during the reparative stages warm water baths night and morning, and the application of the following salve, will aid in the removal of the opacity : Calomel, 30 gr., iodoform, 30 gr. ; vaseline, 5 drachms. Instead of this salve one may apply with a feather a small quantity of equal parts of pulverized calomel and iodoform. INFECTIOUS CONJUNCTIVITIS AND KERA- TITIS, OR INFECTIOUS INFLAMMATION OF THE CONJUNCTIVA AND CORNEA. This eye disease is most frequently found in cattle, but may appear in sheep, horses and goats. It is said to occur only during the summer months, but the wri- ter saw it in a herd of cattle in February and March in South-eastern Iowa. That winter was exceptionally warm. It attacked cattle of all ages; but calves and young cattle seemed to be predisposed to it. A num- ber of young colts, running in the same field with the cattle were similarly affected. Several outbreaks of this eye disease have been reported to me as occur- ring during the spring and summer months of 1892, in Alabama. The disease announces its presence by an increased flow of tears ; the eyelids are closed and slightly swol- len. The conjunctiva becomes swollen, its blood ves- sels congested and, in severe cases, a purulent dis- charge appears. Fig. 74.— An illustration of an abscess and the attending vascularization of the cornea as observed in infectious ker- atitis and conjunctivitis in cattle. The black spot in the cut represents the yellow abscess and the radiating lines the blood vessels in the cornea. 382 It Does not Cost Much to Haul Straw and Leaves in the Winter. Young animals seem to have a general fever, hang- ing of head, loss of appetite, and consequent emacia- tion ; loss of appetite, etc., is most probably the result of pain instead of fever. These symptoms continue to increase for the first 8 or lo days. About the third day from the first appearance of the disease, the cor- nea will exhibit a small delicately clouded spot, near its center, which will gradually extend over the entire cornea, giving it a milk white appearance. The cen- tre of the opaque cornea is at first pearly white in col- or, but in a short time a straw colored or yellow spot appears; this spot signals the formation of an abscess. The cornea at the yellow spot is rough and surrounded bv a wall of thick, swollen, pearly white tissue. From this yellow centre (see Fig. 7) numerous blood ves- sels take their course toward the sclerotic border of the cornea. The yellow centre is generally longer from side to side, shorter from above to below, and it is said to be occasionally mistaken for "an oat grain in the eye" by unif be prevented by observing a few precautions. Im- pure drinking water is probably the most commor is occasionally observed in the aqueous humor and carrier of the various animal parasites. Hence always It is an easy matter to drive a horse too hard. 39 r give animals water from deep wells or pure springs, and never from ponds, rivers, or stagnant lakes. The digestive tract may become infected with these para- sites by ingesting infected food. In all cases where parasites are found in the alimentary canal (manifest- ed by the occasional passing of parasites with the feces), it is advisable to give one-half to one drachm doses of sulphate of iron or sulphate of copper in the ground food two times per day for one week ; then give a purgative, consisting of one pint of raw linseed oil Or one ounce of Barbadoes aloes. STRABISMUS, SQUINTING OR CROSSEYE. In this defect the visual axis or line of one or both eyes deviates from the normal. In other words, the eye-ball is turned inward, outward, upward or down- ward by the excessive contraction of a muscle or as a result of the paralysis of one of the muscles of the eye. In converging (inward) strabismus, the exter- nal rectus muscle may be paralysed and thus be un- able to counteract the contractions of the internal rec- tus, its antagonist. This weakness, partial or com- ' plete paralysis of one or more muscles of the eye may be due to the pressure of tumors on the nerve of the muscle, rheumatism, tumors at the base of the brain or injuries of the muscle. Squinting or crosseye may be treated by section of the antagonistic muscle, but this can be done only by a skilled veterinarian. How- ever, this defect is rare in domestic animals and may be detected by noting the squinting appearance and carefully comparing one eye with the other. When strabismus is present it causes considerable shving, which is especially annoying in nervous animals. SOME OF THE CAUSES OF INDISTINCT VIS- ION AND SHYING. Hypermetropia or farsightedness is that defective condition of the eye which causes the principal focus to fall behind the retina, as illustrated in figure 8i — H. In other words, the parallel rays which enter the eye come to a focus behind the retina. As a rule, the axis of the eye or the diameter from before to behind is too short and the cornea may appear less convex or ilatter than normal. Convex glasses are used in hy- permetropia in man, but are impractical with animals. Distant objects may be seen distinctly but the images of objects at a short distance are blurred and some- times distorted into frightful forms. Hence farsight- ed horses are frequently frightened, or are caused to shy as a result of indistinct vision. Myopia or shortsightedness is a condition in which the refractive index of the eye is too great or the axis of the eye is too long; the parallel rays come to a fo- cus in front of the retina (as in fig. 8i — 'M.) ; or the principal focus falls in front of the retina. In short- sightedness the cornea may appear very convex or conical as it frequently appears in cattle. Close or near objects can be seen distinctly but distant objects may be distorted or become very indistinct. Concave. H-^ Fig. 81. Diagramatic section of an e.v© (after McElIer) to show: That the jiarallel rays of light, which enter the normal eye,, converge or focus on the retina, E, making a distinct image. That, in the farsighted eye, the parallel rays focus at H be- hind the retina, forming a blurred image on the retina. That, in the shortsighted eye, the parallel rays convergB at M in front of the retina, forming a very indistinct image on the retina. glasse. are used by farsighted persons; but since the use of glasses is impractical for animals, shortsighted- ness, therefore, becomes a permanent cause of shving and fright. In the Normal or Emmetropic eye, the principal focus falls on the retina, and distinct images of all ob- jects, at near or far distances, form on the retina (fig. 8i — E.) The cornea, the aqueous humor, the lens and the vitreous humor take part in the formation of the image. The cornea is the principal refracting me- dium when the eye is at rest ; but the changes in the convexity of the lens (caused by the contractions of the ciliary muscle) are the means by which the eye is adjusted, or accommodates itself, to different dis- tances. In the far-sighted, short-sighted and normal eye the curvature of the cornea and of the lens is regular; but sometimes the curvature of the cornea may be so irregular that one part or meridian may produce short-sightedness while still another meridian may be normal. This condition produces a very much distort- 392 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. ed image and is a fruitful source of shying or the cause of fear and fright. Irregularities in the meri- dians of the cornea produce the condition known as astigmatism. This defective vision may also be caused by an oblique position of the lens. There are several kinds and degrees of astigmatism, all of which are very difficult to distinguish and can only be re- lieved by the use of proper glases which are inap- plicable to animals. Slight cloudines or opaque spots in the cornea, weak cloudiness of the aqueous humor, beginning cataract, beginning amaurosis or beginning glaucoma are ac- companied by indistinct vision, and consequently pro- duce frequent shying. In fact, partial blindness from any cause is always attended by indistinct vision and shying, fear or fright. PERIODIC OPTHALMIA— MOON-BLINDNESS. This is an eye disease peculiar to horses and mules. Before the development of veterinary science the be- lief was prevalent that the moon exerted a direct or indirect influence upon the eyes; because the inflam- matory attacks recurred at monthly or somewhat reg- ular periods. Thus the names "moon blindness" and "mooneyed horses" originated. But as veterinary science progressed, extensive clinical and anatomical investigations made known the fact that moonblind- ness was a periodic or recurring inflammatory disease of the entire eye, involving primarily the iris, the choroid coat and the ciliary bodies. Symptoms. — This disease makes its appearance very suddenly — generally beginning in the night; in the morning the eye is found closed, extremely sensitive to light with a very great flow of tears down over the cheek. In some instances there is systematic fever, while in other milder cases, it is not manifest; but, as a rule, the horse or mule is dull, wanting in vigor, and energy, indicating constitutional disturbance. The eye-ball is drawn backward into the orbital cavity, by the retractor muscle; this makes it appear smaller than the healthy eye; after several attacks the eye- ball is said to shrink in size — decrease in actual vol- ume. The conjunctiva exhibits slight swelling and diffuse reddening; the surface blood vessels of the sclerotic are congested ; this produces a light red ring, or seam around the cornea (pericorneal injection.) The cornea near its outer border exhibits a weak, dif- fuse cloudiness, which soon extends over the entire cornea: in the beginning this cloudiness is weakly marked and the cornea appears as if it were glass with a thin layer of fat spread over it. In the advance- ment of the disease the middle or principal layer of the cornea becomes affected, which leads to intense, diffuse cloudiness and occasionally to vascularization of the cornea ; the latter is distinctly visible at its bor- der in a few days after the beginning of the attack. Sometimes a pearl white opacity may appear at some spot on the outer surface of the cornea. In the be- ginning the slight cloudiness of the cornea does not jjrevent one from viewing the iris, the lens and some- times the vitreous humor and the retina. The puru- lent or flakey exudate in the aqueous humor and the excessive contraction (almost entire obliteration) of the pupil hide from view all the internal parts of the eye. The iris appears rough on its outer surface, slight- Fig. S2. — Diffuse cloudiness of the cornea as observed in moon blindness and in inflammation of the cornea. The In- ternal structures of the eye are cut off from view by the to- tal opacity of the cornea (after Armatage). Iv glazed, lighter colored than normal; at times it is covered with a grey exudate. The ciliary portion of the iris is bulged forward and outward; the move- ments of the iris are slov/ and weak; it is quite insen- sible to variations in light, and the pupil does not ex- pand in the dark. The color of the pupil when visi- ble during its contraction is greyish green. Atropine causes the iris to expand slowly, weakly and irregu- larly; at points the pupillary border of the iris ad- heres to the capsule of the lens; the remaining parts are free; expansion of the pupil under such conditions produce irregularities in the iris and in the outline of the pupil (see fig. 83). At the lower part of the aque- ous humor, in the anterior chamber, there is a gray- yellow, partly sedimentary, partly flocculent exudate, which sometimes is colored with blood. The quan- tity of the exudate varies; in the early stage of the attack — especially in the later attacks — it is visible by focal illumination as a slight cloudiness ; at the height, or severest stage, of the attack the aqueous chamber Never whip a horse or mule when angry. 393 is almost entirely filled ; the exudate settles to the lower part of the aqueous humor, and is gradually ab- sorbed and entirely disappears in the course of ten to fifteen days. No prominent changes are exhibited in the conjunc- i'tiva; however, the pigmentation of the conjunctiva of 'the eye-ball makes it difficult to observe variations in ;'its blood vessels. Occasionally the conjunctiva be- Ncomes swollen and produces a slimy, serous secretion, fln cases where the vitreous humor can be observed in the early stage of the attack it is found to be cloud- ed. In the active, inflammatory stage, the eye-ball is found, by palpation, to be sensitive and hard. Opac- |l'ity of the lens appears during the later attacks, and, Fig. S3. — This cut represents the free border of the iris at- ;aclied at points to the capsule of the lens, producing an ir- ■egular, ragged outline of the pupil and wrinkling of the iris. This may be observed after several attacks in periodic opthal- inia (modified from Armatage). IS a rule, when the lens become entirely opaque (to- al cataract) the periodic attacks cease in that eye. n six to eight days after the beginning of the attack he inflammatory appearances begin to subside, the •ensitiveness to light and extra flow of tears abate ; he exudate in the anterior eye-chamber begins to dis- qipear; the pupil begins to expand and the iris may I e-act with regularity. After about fourteen days from 'he beginning of one of the early attacks the inflam- latory changes will Iiave so completely disappeared liat casual observation fails to discover anything ab- lormal in the recently diseased eye. However, a care- iil and critical examination discovers that the iris is till attached to the capsule of the lens; or one may !nd on the capsule pigment masses which were left here in the breaking away of the iris from the cap- iile; the iris is lighter in color — lighter brown, very ike the color of dead leaves. Occasionally the iris is pressed forward that it come in contact with the ornea and the anterior division of the aqueous cham- ■er appears obliterated. The pale green appearance f the pupil indicates more or less cloudiness of the ?r.S or vitreous humor. In most cases, especially af- ter the later attacks, there remains a bluish ring around the margin of the cornea — a diffuse cloudiness — the upper eyelid, instead of presenting a continuous arch, exhibits an abrupt bend a short distance from the inner angle; the upper lid and the eyebrow are also more wrinkled than usual ; after a few attacks the eye-ball shrinks in volume, is smaller than normal, and in the interval between attacks the eye-ball, by palpation, exhibits uncommon softness. In most in- stances cloudiness of the vitreous humor and detach- ment of the retina can only be discovered by first ex- panding the pupil with atropine and then examining the eye with the opthalmoscope. After the disappear- ance of the acute inflammatory symptoms, or after the inflammation has subsided and all damages are par- tially repaired, or the eye has "cleared up," it may re- main free from another attack for a month, for two or three months or even for a year. However, as a rule, the attacks occur somewhat regularly every four or six weeks until the eye becomes entirely blind.- This disease generally results in the formation of a total cataract and occasionally in paralysis of the ret- ina or optic nerve — amaurosis. The attacks may vary in severity in the different cases, but the sucessive at- tacks in each case grow more severe and leave behind more distinct and prominent signs of approaching to- tal blindness. Five to seven attacks, as a rule, com- pletely destroys the sight; thereafter that eye re- mains free from periodic inflammatory attacks; the other eye is then liable to become similarly affected until it goes blind. Rarely are both eyes thus diseas- ed at the same time, but they may be attacked alter- nately until each one becomes blind. The diagnosis of periodic opthalmia is not difficult. The previously mentioned symptoms and course of the disease are generally quite distinct. There are exceptional conditions and times when the owner or observer will be in doubt. During the first attack, when the cornea and the aqueous humor are so badly clouded that the pupil, the iris and all internal parts of the eye are invisible, one can not determine be- yond question whether it is a case of simple iritis or iritis associated with some form of influenza. In some attacks the cornea may be so opaque for a time that one is unable to discover whether the aqueous humor is clouded or not ; in such a case the owner may be- lieve that the cornea is injured in some way. Time alone will bring forth or make clear the other symp- toms. Again, during the interval between the first and second or between the second and third attacks. TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 394 the before mentioned symptoms may be indistmctly marked; it will then be necessary to wait for the ap- pearance of another attack. But in all the doubtful, indistinct cases, the characteristic fact of its recur- rence in the same eye will remove all doubts in the mind of the owner if not in the mind of the buyer. Causes. — A number of different microbes have been found in the tissues and humors of eyes affected with moon-blindness. Vigezzi has found a micrococcus, which he believes to be the direct cause of the dis- ease; Trinchera discovered an immovable, curved bac- cillus; R. Koch found a short bacillus, rounded at its ends; Richter found a diplococcus and a triplococcus. However, no positive proofs have as yet been discov- ered, by experimentation or otherwise, that would justify a positive declaration in favor of any microbe. In fact the investigators have found a germ associat- ed with the disease ; but, if the microbe has been cul- tivated on artificial media the eye disease has never been artificially transmitted or produced by means of the germ. Willach examined 37 eyes from 24 horses and has discovered a variety of forms and kinds of round and flat worms; most of them were found in the humors and represented the young stage in their develop- ment. Similar parasites were also discovered in the alimentary canal, the liver and the lungs. Willach be- lieves that these worm-like parasites migrate from the alimentary canal during their early life— chiefly by way of the blood vessels— and thus reach the eye ; these migrations take place periodically or at such times as the egg or young forms of the parasites reach the alimentary canal in the food or water. This theory would, of course, explain the periodic nature of the disease and many other phenomena connected with it. But the worm-like forms were found only in the examination of dead eyes, whereas the limited number of cases and want of transmission or actual production of the disease by experiment will not jus- tify, beyond question, the 'far-fetched' conclusions. On river bottoms, on moist clay soils, on marshy grounds, on moist coast lands of seas and lakes, in malarial districts, this disease is said to be most prev- alent. In 1875. a regiment was moved from Frank- furt on the Main to Hofgeismar; at the former place moon-blindness never appeared; during the first year; at the latter place. 5 cases appeared among the horses of the regiment; the second year 12; the third year 11; the fourth year 14. and the fifth year 42. The regiment that was stationed at Hofgeismar was mov- ed to Frankfurt ; during the last five years of this reg- iment at Hofgeismar there were 130 cases of periodic j opthalmia, and during the first five years at Frankfurt ' not a single case appeared. Hofgeismar, Saarburg, ; St. Avoid and other places in Germany seem to be | peculiarly adapted, by their moist clay soils, to the de- \ velopment of the microbe, the parasite, the gas or ^ miasmatic factor that causes this disease. Records al- J so show that on certain low lands of Belgium, France, 3 Spain, Italy, Austria and England, this eye disease ^ prevails extensively. Likewise in our own country j certain localities have more cases of moon-blindness than others. The writer has observed that this disease is more prevalent in the Southern States, than in the Central \ or North-western States. Compare the number of cases in the dry, cool climate of South Dakota with the moist, warm climate of Alabama and the result shows the extremes— the almost complete absence in . the former State and the unpleasant prevalence in the ' latter. It is said to oCcur less frequently on lime soils. Clay soils will retain moisture longer and as a rule are richer in organic materials than sandy soils; con- sequently germs, malarial parasites, etc., will grow abundantly on the moist clay soil. The disease appears on sandy soil if there is suffi- cient moisture ; it will also appear on moderately high rolling land irrespective of the kind of soil if there be I sufficient moisture — as a rainy season followed by a warm season with occasional heavy rains. .A. number! of cases have been observed at Auburn, 800 feet above the sea level, with a gray sandy soil; however, therel are red clay districts not far from Auburn. I, also, have reports of its appearance on sandy soils in other parts of this State. In the period from 1879 to 1890, appeared 2183 cases of periodic opthalmia among the horses of the Prussian army. Of this number 585 were in the 15th army corps; 358 in the first; 339 in the nth; I45_'":| the loth ; 135 in the 5th ; about 80 in the 2nd, the thirdj and the 8th ; about 70 in the 7th ; about 60 in the 4th.j the 6th, the 9th and the 14th; 49 in the guard corps.^ It will be observed from the above records that the disease prevailed quite extensively in the respective localities of the first five of the army corps above- mentioned; while in the districts of those last men- tioned the disease was comparatively rare. Cloudy weather, or moist air, so common and con- .stant on wet lands, is said to be a factor in causing Mr. Lee Douglas, of Atlanta, Ga„ on Ms tilue ribtoon horse. 396 Horses if fed regularly, are never foundered. this disease. Rank, succulent fodders, grown on wet lands, associated with a damp, sultry atmosphere, is conducive to the production of a lymphatic tempera- n:ent or constitution — a horse with a coarse open tex- ture of bones and muscles, with an excess of connec- tive tissue, with thick skin, legs covered with an abun- dance of long hair and with labored, sluggish move- ments. No doubt, such animals are predisposed to moon-blindness. Fodder, hay or grass, from low, swampy or wet soils may also contain the germs or malarial parasites which are believed by some to cause this disease. In some localities of Europe the hay and fodders, grown upon certain soils, are said to be the cause, or the carriers of the cause from the soil to the animal. A constant stimulating diet of corn, rye or barley grain — especially in summer or when given to the •growing colt — contain too much of the fat and heat producing food and not sufficient proportion of the muscle and bone forming food ; the horse so fed may be very fat but less able to resist the germs of dis- ease, more liable not only to moon-blindness but also to ''big head" and other constitutional diseases. Con- stant feeding of corn will certainly make the periodic attacks occur more frequently and also augment their intensity. This has been proven by a number of trials. A, reliable farmer living near Auburn had a fine young mare that had been attacked two or three times ; he believed the corn was making the disease worse ; hence he withheld the corn and thereafter fed her upon oats; the eyes were not again attacked, and they re- covered So completely that her owner could never ob- serve anything wrong with them. Certainly the feed- ing of corn alone did not produce the disease, but af- ter the real exciting cause had established it, the corn either maintained a supply of food for the microbe or diminished the general vigor of the animal or the re- sisting power of the leucocytes — germ destroying cells of the body. High feeding associated with ir- regular exercise, feeding irregularly and using un- wholesome, decayed or partially rotten hav, fodder or grain ; also the surface water of runs, ditches, ponds and shallow wells receiving the impurities from barns, barn yards or outhouses — all these are contributing causes and many times the impure water may convey the microbe, the originating cause, into the system. Overworking an animal, no doubt, depresses the vigor and resisting power of the animal, thus attacks are more liable to begin or recur during the severe, exhausting spring plowing and summer work. Dur- ing the time of breaking the colt and of the eruption of permanent teeth the attacks are excited to greater severity and are called forth more frequently. The eruption of nearly all the permanent teeth occur dur- ing the last half of the third, fourth and fifth years of age. The small teeth that usually appear just in front of the first molar on either side of the upper jaw, very rarely in lower jaw, are commonly called wolf teeth or "blind teeth." Many people believe that this little tooth in some mysterious way affects the eye, causes it to go blind "by pressing on the nerve of the eye." This is, to say the least, very unreasonable if not non- sensical. Those little teeth never affect the eye. No doubt they are broken off many times when a horse has an attack of periodic opthalmia and the eye "clears up" in ten to fifteen days — not because the little tooth was pulled or broken off with a punch — but because that eye disease appears and disappears periodically. Heredity is certainly a strong predisposing cause of the disease. (It does not originate the disease, the offspring inherits the tendency or weakness of the eves, that permits the originating excitant to call forth the disease with little resistance. This transmission, from sire or dam to the offspring, of defective tenden- cies is, no doubt, responsible for the appearance of periodic opthalmia in certain families when the orig- inal blood was so contaminated. In France the gov- ernment discourages, and prohibits when possible, the use of blind stallions or mares for breeding purposes. The farmers and stockmen of the country have ob- served and noted the influence of heredity in the pro- duction of moon-blindness. From the replies to a cir- cular letter which I sent to farmers and stockmen in all the counties of Alabama, twenty-one stated that heredity was a primary or secondary factor in the cause of periodic opthalmia. Poor or badly ventilated and improperly lighted stalls or barns are also casual factors. Prof. Williams of Edinburgh says: "Fifty years ago thousands of horses became annually blind from opthalmia ; nowr a-days one seldom sees a case of blindness from this cause. This happy result is due to the enlightened writings of Coleman on ventilation and the advance of veterinary science — facts which the public seem to ignore." In improperly lighted stalls or barns the lisfht is so weak, or small in quantity, that the eyes '{ are continually strained in order to see distinctly; or i the light enters from a small window directly in front ' of the horse, placing the horse on the shady side of the objects in front of him, and this in combination, TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 397 or contrast^ with the constant glare of the window, is certainly as trying on the eyes as insufficient light. The light should come from behind or from either side of the animal in quantity sufficient to make all objects in the stall distinctly visible. It has been sug- gested that exposure to cold, or to any of the atnios- jjheric influences which ordinarily produce acute ca- tarrh or cold in the head, will cause an attack of moon-blindness. The records of the disease in the Germany army show that more cases occur in winter than during any other season. But in this State the majority of cases appear in the spring and summer. A rheumatic condition of the system is said to play an important part among the long list of causes of moon-blindness. It, however, like many other de- pressing diseases and influences, is only a preparing or predisposing cause or condition which can not originate the disease but may excite frequent attacks and increase its severity. Smoke, pungent vapors, hayseeds, dust or any local irritants or injuries may awake the latent tendency or augment the intensity of an attack. In short, whatever depresses the vigor or debilitates the system will aid in originating the disease and will also increase the intensity and fre- quency of the attacks; anything that strengthens the constitution or improves the animal vigor will be a protective or assist in preventing periodic opthalmia. The essential and originating cause is very proba- bly a microbe, » miasmatic germ, an animal, worm- like parasite or the poisonous product of a germ. The natural habitat or its native place of propagation and development seems to be on moist lands that are, dur- ing one season, extremely wet and at other times dry enough to bring forth crops. The surface water of such districts, and the fodders, grasses and hays grown on such lands, transmit or carry the germs in- to the system of the animal. During January, 1893, the veterinary department of the Alabama Agricultural College issued about two hundred circular letters containing questions relative to eye diseases among domestic animals ; these were mailed to farmers and stockmen in al! the counties of Alabama, and thev were also published in many of the daily and weekly papers of the State. The prin- cipal question in the circular letter read as follows : "Are horses and mules in your beat or county af- fected with what is commonly called moon-blindness? If you have such an eye disease please state how fre- quently it occurs, and what is your view of the cause of it." I received in all nearly 125 replies. From t'hese re- plies I have obtained the following records on pe- riodic opthalmia or moon-blindness: Eighty (80) cases were reported in such a manner as to leave in doubt just when they occurred; 33 cases were reported as being in existence at the time (Jan- uary and February) of replying; 7 parties report that the disease was prevalent in their respective beats ten to twenty years ago, but not of late years. During the first three months of 1892 and during the same time in 1893, 21 cases have come under my observa- tion at the free Saturday clinic ; these cases were from the country and towns surrounding Auburn, and rep- resent fully ten per cent, of all the diseased cases that appeared at the free clinic during the same time. The above records certainly indicate that- periodic opthal- mia is a common disease among horses and mules of Alabama ; and according to the reports on other eye diseases it is the most prevalent and frequent cause of blindness. The reports do not give data sufficient for one to state in just what beats it occurs, but they do show that moon-blindness has been, or is at present, in nearly every county in the State ; that annually a great many valuable horses go blind as a result of it. Generally speaking, the reports seem to indicate that the disease is most prevalent in the low lands or ma- larial districts of the State ; yet the knowledge given of the local geography of the places from which the reports come, is not sufficient for one to make an ac- curate comparison. From the replies I find that a variety of opinions were expressed as to the cause, and a great many fail- ed to express their views, while others said they did not know. Let me now give a concensus of the opin- ions expressed. Six parties believed that improper and irregular feeding are important factors in the cause of moon-blindness ; 3 say "not enough variety in diet;" 4 believe "too much fodder and grain and not enough hay" is the cause ; i says "feeding corn to colts ;" 9 claim "feeding corn as an exclusive grain diet" is the direct cause ; 3 give "exposure to cold" the credit; i says the "eruption of permanent teeth and the shedding of colt teeth;" i says "blind teeth;" I makes "high feeding and irregular exercise" respon- sible ; 1 1 claim that "overwork" in various ways is a potent casual factor; and 21 say heredity, especially in blind or "weak-eyed" breeds, is the chief cause; six (6) parties traced the history directly to a blind sire or dam. Surely the above ideas, relative to the 398 If people treated horses as well as they did themselves bcth would be better off. cause of periodic opthalmi-a, show that the stock own- ers of Alabama have been searching for the cause ; and if they have not discovered the actual originat- ing cause, they have found factors that intensify or conditions that make the disease worse. Some have suggested that homebred horses are more disposed to this disease than horses or mules brbught here from other States; yet others claim that the opposite is true. I am of the opinion that the animals freighted here from Kentucky, Missouri, Illinois, etc., are far more liable to contract periodic opthaimia than home-bred horses, because the diet of the Northern horse is very greatly changed and he must also become .acclimated — his system must be adjusted to new climatic condi- tions. The susceptibility of an animal is determined to some extent by age. From the reports of cases where age was mentioned, and also from the records of European authorities, the period of greatest fre- cpiency is from 3 to 9 years of age. Some have placed this danger period from 2 to 7. Yet it should be re- mend^ered that periodic opthaimia does occur outside of the above age limits, for I have reports of cases 12, 13 and 15 years old. Treatment. — Taking into consideration our indefin- ite knowledge of the originating cause and the nu- merous attending, exciting and predisposing causes, and the fact that the disease generally results in total blindness in one or both eyes, it is evident that pre- ventative treatment is t'he most profitable and reasona- l)le. The drainage, ventilation and light in most barns are sadly neglected and generally very defective. The barn is usually resting on the ground and the stalls are filled with clay which becomes saturated with urine. The clay allows very little moisture to pass through it : the urine, which falls upon it and with which it becomes saturated, passes off mainly by evaporation. With little ventilation or drainage be- low it, the clay rarely becomes dry and the atmos- phere of the stall is constantly saturated with un- healthy gases (ammonia, etc) from the fermenting urine and decomposing organic matter of the feces. Such unhealthy conditions can be greatly improved by following the methods usually adopted in building houses in this climate. The floor of the barn should be two to three feet above the ground; this may be accomplished by making the brick or stone pillars for underpinning the required height and using strong plank two inches thick fpr flooring. Lattice work between the outside pillars will per- mit free circulation of air under the barn and prevent the use of the basement for a dog house, pig pen or as a place for fowls. This will give good, cheap drainage below with excellent under ventilation. The \entilation of the box stall (the best and healthiest kind of stall) should be so arranged that the hot and light air may escape through an opening or series of openings in the upper part of the outer wall, permit- ting it to pass directly out of the barn. Similar open- ings should be located in the outer wall near the floor to allow tlie hea\'y gases (carbonic acid gas e.xhaled by the lungs, etc.) to escape. Besides these openings lattice box stall doors and lattice outer hall doors and windows should always be in use for sumiher ventilation. There may be objections (its hardness and the drying out of the feet) to standing a horse on a plank floor ; but these may be overcome by bed- ding or littering the box stall; by occasionally soak- ing the feet in water, and, when nearly dry, oiling them with an ointment made of one part of pine tar to eight or ten parts of lard or cotton-seed oil. The light should, as before mentioned, enter from behind or from both sides of the animal; in the bo.x stall the light should thus enter when the horse is standing at the manger. Furthermore, the light should be so ar- ranged and of sufficient quantity to enable the horse to see distinctly in all parts of the stall. The water supply and time of giving water to horses should be carefidly considered. .\11 surface Avater, from ponds, brooks, rivers and shallow wells should be avoided. Spring water, taken directly from the spring, filtered rain water or other kinds of filtered water, or water from deep wells are best, and less lia- ble to contain disease-producing germs. The horse and the mule should always be given water before feeding grain — ne\-er after, unles it be given two hours after feeding. A constant corn diet is to be avoided, especially as a food for colts. ]t is extremely doubtful if corn for colts is ever advisable. Furthermore, it is injudicious . to feed horses or mules upon corn as the only grain food at any other time except in the cold period of j winter. In fact, there is no time in this climate when I corn alone is reallv needed or demanded by the sys- ,j tern. Far better results will be obtained by using oats ; as the staple or chief grain food; and, at times, equal j Tround corn, cow peas and oats, or equal parts o' t o-round corn and wheat bran, may be substituted for j TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 399 oats alone. Corn should never be fed to horses with weak eyes or with diseased eyes. Corn and fodder (leaves) form the staple articles of food, for horses and mules, in some part^, of the South with a climate that will produce green rye for soiling during the en- tire winter and green sorghum and green millet for summer. Corn is too stimulating and contains too much heat-producing material ; the corn fodder is a dry, rough food, which in comfcination with corn is liable to lead to attacks of constipation, producing passive congestion of the blood vessels of the brain and the eyes. To be sure this does not always occur, but many times an attack of periodic opthalmia may thus be called forth. \"ariety in rations should al- wavs be considered, and extended according to local 1 supply; watch the effects of the quality and the quantity of the various foods, and many times you Ivill be able to regulate the diet of the animal accord- 11- to your experience in feeding it. No fixed or ab- Milute laws can be made to fit all cases: horses have heir individual peculiarities as well as persons. High feeding, with irregular exercise; excessive and xliausting work; exposure to cold (rheumatic in- fluences) are to be avoided as far as possible, espe- ially with animals affected with periodic opthalmia ir predisposed to it. The indiscriminate use of blind animals for breed- ng purposes can not be too strongly condemned. He- edity is certainly the most potent predisposing cause f periodic opthalmia. Mares with weak eyes and ■ 'nh a lymp'hatic temperament and structure should ot be bred to stallions of similar temperament and "inn. I'roper curative treatment will sometimes check le progress of the disease, and may, in rare instances, ■isult in permanent relief. During the active inflam- latory stage bathe the eye in cold or hot water for to 2 hours morning and evening; after each bathing ut into the eye a iew drops of the following solu- on: Potassium Iodide, lo grains; Atropia Sulphate, 3 grains; Boracic Acid, lo grains; Pure Water, 2 mces. This medicine may be used for 6 to 15 days itil the eye begins to clear up : then use the same escription, omitting the Atropia Sulphate. When ^ssible adjust over the eye a cotton cloth or small ig of cotton, kept constantly wet with cold or hot ater. It is well to keep the horse, during the in- inimatory stage, in a dark box stall if the ventila- 5n, cleanliness and drainage of the stall is healthful id good. If the horse is constipated a mild purga- tive (one-half pound of Glauber's salts or one-half pint of raw linseed oil) may be given. Constipation may be thereafter avoided by giving a bran mash once or twice per week. Moderate and regular exercise or easy work is beneficial, but keeping the affected horse or mule at hard work is decidedly injurious. In every instance it is wise to remove, when possible, all pre- disposing or attending causes. Recently a new treatment has been used in treat- ing periodic opthalmia. Harrison originated the plan of opening the anterior chamber of the eye (the cav- ity containing the aqueous humor) and allowing the aqueous humor and the pus-like material with its germs or parasites to escape. This should be done with great care and the eye washed or bathed, regu- larly every day with water that has been boiled and cooled. It is well to add a little soda, carbolic acid or creolin to the water. The puncture is made in the cornea near its lower border and from below upward. Unless the operator has had experience it is best to employ some veterinarian who is an experienced op- erator. As indicated in several reports from different parts of the State, periodic opthalmia seems to be disappear- ing in certain localities. It will certainly decrease in frequency, or entirely disappear, when the stock raisers comply with the hygienic laws governing the health of horses and mules. The principles of feed- ing, ventilation, drainage, breeding and sanitation in general must be studied and practiced, from a scien- tific stand-point. Besides, the South can and should raise her own mules a'nd horses. Healthier, better and cheaper animals can be bred and raised in the South than the majority of those that are annually shipped here from the North. METHODS OF EXAMINING THE EYES. Remove the blind bridle or any harness obstructions to free vision. Tie a cloth over one eye and then lead the animal over obstructions that will cause stumbling or high stepping. Repeat this test with the other eye blindfolded. If the animal with one eye blindfolded stumbles over low objects the vision of the other eye is defective. Note the attentive and erect position of the ears indicating that they are attempting to com- pensate for the defective sight. Carefully compare the fullness or prominence of one orbital region with the other ; note that in fat or young animals the orbital cavity is full and that in poor or old animals the eye 400 A horse that plows si.r days has no business on the road on the seventh. socket is not completely filled and the orbital rim or bony border is promine-it. Excessive fullness of one orbital region would indicate that the eye-lids or the tissues, surrounding the eye-ball, are swollen, or it would indicate the presence of a tumor in the orbital cavity. Closely observe the form, position and condi- tion of the eye-lids: the presence and position of the eye-lashes ; also, compare the curve of the free border of one upper lid with the same lid of the other eye. Examine carefully the secretion at the miner angle of the eye. The tears are like water; mucus appears gray and flocculent ; pus mixes with the tears and ap- pears yellow and cloudy; in the dog pus sometimes is colored green. If the mucus and pus are mixed, the mucus flakes are colored yellow. An excessive quanti- ty of tears, mucus or pus is manifest by the flowing of the secretions down over the cheek. The presence of the mucus, pus or an extra quantity of tears flow- ing over the cheek should induce the observer to look closely for foreign particles in the eye, inflammation of the conjunctiva, abscess or ulceration of the cornea and closure of the lachrymal ducts. For further ex- amination the animal should be taken to a barn or stall. It is best to use a stall with one window or one door ; the animal's head should be turned to the open door or to the window, allowing the light to fall on the eye from directly in front or from an angle to the right on left of the front. The eye may be opened by gently and firmly pressing the lids apart with the thumb and index finger, using the right hand with the left eye, and the left hand with the right eye. To see the Conjunctiva of the upper lid, it may be everted by grasping the eye-lashes with one hand and evert- ing the lid over the forefinger of the other hand. Ex- amine closely the haw or "eyewasher" and all parts of the conjunctiva for signs of injury, inflammation and irritating particles. Examine also the opening of the tear ducts. The observer's attention is next directed to the size, form and position of the eye-ball. It is al- ways advisable to compare one eye with the other that the abnormal may be judged by its deviation from the normal. If the eye-ball projects outward and forward excessively, dislocation of the eye-ball, hydropthalmus (excess of water in the aqueous humor) or a tumor in or behind the eye may be suspected. If the eye-ball is drawn backward into the eye socket, severe inflam- mation is present, attended by extreme sensitiveness to light, as in the beginning of an attack of moon-blind- ness. A decrease in volume or size of the eye-ball. (after repeated attacks of periodic opthalmia and ir tuberculosis of the eye-ball) is manifest by apparent drawing of the eye into the socket and the more or less' infolding of tlie upper lid near the inner angle of tin eye. The tension and hardness of the eye-ball nia'ii be tested by palpation upon the upper eye lid, witl the inde.x finger; both eyes should be tested at thJ same time that one may be compared with the othei Note the presence or absence of the congestion of th pericorneal blood vessels ; its presence indicates inflam mation of the ciliary bodies, the iris and sometime the choroid coat. The cornea may be next viewed from various pos tions, noting carefully its curvature, its opacities, th presence or absence of ulcers, vascularization, swe ; lings or new growths. The location, color and limit;! tions of the opacities should first he determined. Tlj weaker the opacity or cloudiness the more blue tl color; intense opacities are white. Black opacities ( the cornea signify pigmentation from iris adhesioi or from blood stains. Striped and pearl like opacitie with sharp limitations, point to scars or chron chances in the cornea; chalk spots result from the er ployment of silver and lead salts in wounds and ulce of the cornea. Viewing the cornea in profile, or fro one side, will enable one to locate the opacity, revet ing in a degree what layers of the cornea are involve' and to a certain extent enables one to determine t' curvature of the cornea, especially in partial or tot staphyloma and extremely flat or very conical forrj of the cornea. If the transparency of the cornea w| permit, nivestigate the aqueous humor, searching f| the gray, flocident exudate or the yellow, sedimenta pus exudate in blood effusions; these may be prese in penetrating wounds of the cornea, iritis and moc! blindness. The color, condition of the outer surface, mo\ ments and attachments of the iris should next be ( amined. The iris may become grayish brown by t deposition of inflammatory products in its substan or become .gray from the deposit of an exudate on surface. The bluish-green color of the iris, manif'jt after one or two attacks of periodic opthalmia, is cla to an atrophied (shrinking) condition of the iris, (r casionally in cattle a tubercular growth develops fr-i the iris and completely fills the aqueous chamber jf the eye. The iris may be attached by inflammatc/ adhesions to the caps-ile of the lens (as in iritis r moon-blindness) ; or it may thus adhere to the po^- rior surTice of the cornea (a result of penetrat |g t TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 401 ivounds and ulcers.) By the use of atropine, if the .pupil is small or contracted, or eserine if the pupil is large or expanded, these adhesions may be destroyed pr their permanent presence made known by the im- novable iris and unchangeable form of the pupil. The iris when attached to the capsule of the lens or to the cornea, may appear rough on its outer surface and its pupillary border is more or less irregular. The ■agged, irregular border of the pupil should not be mistaken for the large brown "soot balls" that appear 30 frequently along the upper and lower parts of the pupillary border of the iris. The movements of th.e iris should also be watched when the animal is taken :rom the sunlight into the barn, or from the dark stall into the sunshine. If the pupil contracts regularly in Dright light and expands regularly in partial dark- iiiess, the action of the iris is normal. But should the 'pupil remain greatly expanded under all conditions of j ight and darkness, one would suspect partial or total 'imaurosis. If the pupil remains partially or greatly lontracted under all conditions of light and darkness, Dne should suspect adhesion of the iris to the capsule :pf the lens. i The pupillary reflex or color of the pupil is the re- |lection of light from the retina and the choroid. The Sormal color of the pupil varies with the variations n its size or in its degrees of expansion or contrac- tion; its color also changes with the variations in the iglit. By great expansion of the pupil it appears olue-green; by medium expansion it appears blue- )lack ; by great contraction it appears black. The ,:olor of the pupil in amaurosis is generally lighter, more clear and glassy than in the normal eye. When the pupil is small atropine should be used to produce Imaximum expansion. Or, the animal may be taken jinto a moderately dark stall where the color of the flight reflected from the upper part of the retina and rhoroid will be green, and that reflected from the op- ac papilla (spot where the optic nerve enters the eye oall) will appear light red. This light red color is very distinct in carnivorous animals. Cloudiness of the lens or the vitreous humor chang- es the color of the pupil according to the intensity ;3f the cloudiness. Total cataract gives the pupil a [gray, a white or whitish yellow color: while by a par- tial cataract the normal color of the pupil is cut off at the points or places of local opacities of the lens or its capsule. In cloudiness of the vitreous humor the pupil becomes more or less distinctly green. A liquid condition of the vitreous humor combined with ;7 . cloudiness of tl:e same also produces a distinct green pupil. Sudden or great movement of the cloudy vit- reous humor, is a certain proof of its fluidity. The observer should view the pupil from various posi- tions ; by the use of the hand or a black hat the su- perfluous rays of light, or those comin'g from certain directions, may be cut off. The observer should not mistake the images of white objects (white shirt fronts, windows, holes in the building), for white or gray opacities in the lens or other parts of the eye. Dislocation of the lens, falling of the opaque lens into the anterior or acjueous chamber of the eye has its appearance suggested by figure 79. But if t'he opaque lens should fall into the vitreous humor, the upper part of the pupil may remain transparent, and the small appearing optic papilla might be visible ; yet a portion of the white or gray opaque lens could be seen through the lower part of the pupil; as a rule, the iris remains passively inactive and its pupillary border floats in the aqueous humor. Sometimes the lens may be partially dislocated or may have some shred-like, or hanging thread-like, attachments to its old location; these conditions would present different views in the pupil. In order to be more accurate in locating and discov ering opacities, the animal should be placed in a dark room where the eye may be illuminated by the use of a lamp or candle. The lamp may be placed in differ- ent locations, in front of, and outward from, the eye to be inspected ; opacities will then be made more dis- tinct. Three images of the flame may be seen as il- lustrated in figure 84. In the normal eye the first image is the largest, upright, the most distinct and reflected from the front surface of the cornfea ; the sec- ond image is smaller, upright and reflected from the Fig. 84. — This cut (after Schlampp) shows the images of the 'candle's flame. The animal should be placed in a dark room or stall, or the test may be made at night la an ordinary- stall; the candle is held a short distance in front of th-e eye to be examined and the following images, as above illustrat- ed, will be seen. Tire first upright image is reflected from the cornea; the second upright image of the flame is reflected from the capsul-e on the anterior surface of the lens: the third or inverted and small image of the flame is reflected from the capsule on the posterior surface of th-e lens. The dark back-ground of the cut represents the pupil. 402 A farm horse cannot be driven like a livery horse. anterior surface of the lens; the third one is the small ■est, inverted and reflected from the posterior surface of the lens. In the normal eye it will be noticed that these images are more or less distinct and that, as the lamp or candle is moved, the first two images of the Manie will move in the same direction that the candle moves, but the third or inverted image moves in an opposite direction to that of the candle. As the can- dle is moved about in front of the eye, it may reach a place where the first two upright images remain clear and distinct, but the smallest and inverted image becomes cloudy and indistinct; this would indicate that the substance of the lens or the posterior part of the capsule is opaque at the point or spot where the candle's rays attempt to pass through. If the second image becomes indistinct the opacity lies in the ante- rior part of the capsule; if the first image becomes hazy and diffuse the cloudiness is in the cornea. To- tal cloudiness of the cornea would obliterate all three images, and the diffuse cloudiness of the aqueous hu- mor obliterates the second and the third image. A small double convex lens may be used, as illus- trated in figure 85, to focus or collect the rays from a candle or lamp in a dark room or stall. Or. a con- - cave mirror (with a small, round opening in its cen-1 ter for the observer to look through) can be used to, collect and reflect the rays from a candle or from an, open door or window; in using the mirror the candle or window should be backward from the head and! outward from the shoulder or body. By employing the double convex lens or concave mirror, the trans- parent or opaque condition of the cornea and the aqueous humor may be distinctly observed and manv opacities can thus be seen that are mvisible in ordi nary daylight. By employing atropine to e.xpand the pupil, slight opacities of the lens may be made dis- tinct and cloudiness of the vitreous humor may be observed. These methods of illuminating the eye a!-| so enables one to carefully examine tlie condition of the iris. The opthalmoscope is an mstrument that is used by oculists to look at the retina, its blood vessels, fhe papilla optica, and to determine the degree of far- sightedness, shortsightedness, astigmatism, etc. It^: use, however, requires great skill and much practice:! hence, direction for using it will be omitted, since they would be of little value to the average man. ] Fig. 85. — This cut (after Sclitampp) illustrates the double convex lens is employed in illuminating the eye or parts of the eye for the purpose ot examinatiun. The examination is made in a dark room or at night; the gass lens is moved forward and backward until the candle's rays are focussed upon the di-sired part or various parts, as it is up- on the cornea and lens in the above cut. Controlling the Horse. EDITED BY DR. J C. CURRYER. ASST. SUPT., MANKATO. MINN. DEVICES FOR CONTROLLING SOME OF THE It has been our purpose all through life to careful I BAD HABITS OF OUR HORSES, ETC. ly study horses' habits and the laws of their controi' For the want of a proper education when young, ^ith the least possible inconvenience and punishmeni! together with the careless handling and abuse of our and we are thoroughly convinced that the simples j horses, they contract habits that are both dangerous and most effective means of control is through dc, to themselves, their companions and those who han- vices that harmonize with the laws of his organize die them. tion. TILLINu THE SDIi- FOR PROFiT AND PLEASURE. 403 His strength bclnj, sup:uoi to that of man, pre- ludes, at once, the idea that we should ever go to lialtle with hmi on anything Hke equal grounds; in \ict, we would discourage the idea of ever getting ;,ito a fight with our horses, for this reason, since ihey are endowed with the same passions as our- selves, such as, resentment, courage, revenge, etc., etc. We must banish the idea that our horses are "mere brutes" to be yanked, kicked and pounded at will, without the remembrance of the event being stored up by them, for some opportunity when they will have the best of us. They are not only endowed with passions, but intellect as well, and just in pro- portion to this latter endowment, and their education- al advantages, is the true value of the horse. We es- timate men by their natural ability and education, then why not apply the same rule to our horses? We have good and bad citizens, and for the bad we have made laws and prisons for their control, and if we would correct the bad habits of our horses we must use the means with which to overcome their muscu- lar power without injury, or arousing their passion toward us, as is naturally engendered by whipping, "yanking" and kicking. Let us so confine them that they have to operate against themselves rather than lis, and, our word for it, the results will be much more satisfactory than the usual methods of either indul- gence or punishment. The usefulness of our horses is. to a marked de- gree, just what we make it. We do not advise let- ting our horses control us by their superior strength, neither do we encourage the idea of conquering our horses by punishment and abuse. The true principle of control of horses for the best results, is by such means as would deprive them of their power to op- pose us, and our kind and humane treatment of them whenever we are in close contact with them. When- ever we get our horses into trouble, confinement or entangle, it is far better to be away from them dur- ing their efforts to liberate themselves, and. when they find all efforts fruitless, then is the proper time to go to their assistance and relieve them of any en- tanglement or uncomfortable position they may have i;ot into in the struggle, bearing this one principle in mind strictly, we become masters of the situation, if our means and methods are practically applied. One point of great importance in the management of horses is to be sure we have the absolute means of control, without failure either of principle or appli- ance and when these are properly applied, any except insane horses will readily he made subservient to the reasonable requests of man. EDUCATION OF THE HORSE IN THE STALL- It is a great satisfaction to any owner of a good horse to have him understand and promptly comply with all requests while in the stall, without excite- ment, irritation or annoyance. One of our first du- ties is to show the horse what we want of him in the* stall and how he should comply. After tying him to the manger and getting out of the stall, the next thing is to get back into the stall on either side with- out his resenting or crowding us in the stall — with perfect indifference to being pushed about from side to side. (No. 1.) Many a colt has been forever spoiled the first day he was in the stable, by the treatment he has receiv- ed in trying to get him to stand over in the stall. It is usually commenced by trying to push him over from side to side ; if we have not strength enough to overcome his, then we are too apt to resort to the whip, fork-handle or club to accomplish the desired result, and by this last means frequently make a bad actor in the stall forever. Our first illustration (Fig. i) is designed to show not onl}^ the position frequently taken by the horse in the stall, but the expression and dangerous action towards any one who may desire to enter. He not only refuses to stand over, but indicates that he will kick if he is interferred with. What is to be done? Shall we go at him with a 404 Buggies have ruined many horses and mules. club, so show him what we want him to do? Or shall we anticipate the difficulty, and before placing him in the stall provide the means of easy control, as shown in our illustration (Fig. 2). This consists of a staple and ring just over the manger (to which his halter should be tied) about as high up on the side of the stall as his back. Another ring and staple at the rear of the stall partition (see letters A and B), then tie a (No. 2.) rope or strap into the ring of the nose band of the halter, pass it through the ring A and back to the ring B, to which tie sufficiently long to enable the horse to eat the entire length of the manger. When we go to enter the stall, we place our hand on him, as repre- sented in Fig. I, and if he refuses to stand over, we reach forward as far as possible in the stall and grasp this side-rope or strap and at the very instant we say "stand over" we pull on the rope, which brings stands over in the stall to the right whenever request- ed, without fear, excitement or resentment. When he has fully learned what we want from that side of the stall, then we change the rope to the other side of the stall and proceed as before, and we are soon well paid for our trouble, in having a horse that promptly re- sponds to our every wish in standing over in the stall. This remedy for crowding in the stall is so simple and practical that we are surprised that any horse is permitted to continue the habit. The principle is that when we pull the head to one side of the stall it is perfectly natural that the rear end must go to the op- posite side which gives room and safety to enter. Do not try to whip to submission, but use the means that control the actions, treat kindly, and success will crown our efforts, in the management of our horses in the stable. THE HALTER-PULLER. This habit when once confirmed is quite difficult to entirely eradicate. The first way to avoid this bad habit is proper education to the halter when young. When we have a confirmed halter-puller, in the stable or out of doors, the best method we have tried is to take a rope ten or twelve feet long and say 3-8 to 1-2 inch in diameter, tie a knot in one end, then a loop that will not slip, or a ring tied in the end will do as well. Place this rope around the body of the horse just in front of the hips, with the slip imme- diately under the body at the fiank ; then pass the rope along under the body, between the fore legs, under the noseband of the halter, then through the ring or (No. 3.) his nose to the side of the stall to which the rope is hole of the manger or post to which we want to hitch attached, and, by a slight push at the hind quarter he him and back to the ring of the head-stall, and tie so is forced in the opposite position in the stall, and we as to give him about three feet between his head and step in by his side with perfect safety from kicking, the place to where he is hitched — all as shown in fig- fighting or crowding (see Fig. 2), and this followed ures 3 and 4. Whatever he is afraid of may now be up for a few days (often repeated) the horse readily brought in front of him. and instead of waiting to see TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 405 whether he will pull, we start for him and don't stop until we reach the point to where he is hitched, at which time, nine times in ten he will be there to meet us; as he will only pull while one breath lasts him, when he must come forward for relief. Illustration Fig. 3 shows him doing his utmost to break loose, but being hitched at both ends of his body and the pull equal at front and rear, he suddenly leaps forward to relieve the pressure at the rear end and appears as sliown in Fig 4, with an entire change of expression and demeanor. He may try it two or three times al- ways with the same results. We should not hurt him, 'if^jiiit (No. 4.) ;nor should we give way for him when he pulls: but irather follow him up to show him that he cannot get away from his object of fright, which soon convinces him that his efforts are fruitless. He may now be tied with a halter-strap that will break at only a mod- erate pull, with the rope from his 1jody secured to the hitching post or manger so that the pull on his head comes first, and when it breaks he comes suddenly into the hitch around his body which so surprises him that, in a few days, by 'hitching with a still weaker and weaker tie-strap, he cannot be induced to pull enough to break a mere string. The hitch around his body should not be neglected for quite a time, so that ishould he pull back and break loose, and get away, he jhas intelligence enough to" know when the rope is around his body and when it is not. Ill I Right here we want to say to our readers that there jis a principle with horses, that whatever happens at the front part of their bodies impels them backward, and at the rear part induces them to move forward, and with this ever in mind it will greatly aid us in all dealings with our horses. KICKING AND PAWING IN THE STALL. This is a very disagreeable habit, and unless the proper means are used at the outset it is also quite difficult to break up with a hope of permanent cure. Fig. 5- It can be prevented at any time; and as soon as the horse commences kicking the side of the stall or his stall companion, he should be shackled at the hind legs as shown in Fig. 5. A good, strong strap buckled around each hind leg above the ankle joints, with a coupling strap between, as shown, will effectually prevent it, and if persevered in its use will usually cure the habit. Pawing is prevened by shackling the front legs in the same manner as shown also in Fig. 5. How frequently we see a pair of sharp shod horses put into a stall together and very soon find one, or both. So badly cut from kicking as to render them unserviceable. Now this_ could be prevented by shackles on the hind legs of both, and still giving them sufficient liberty to step about the stall or lie down and get up. It is best, however, to first put the shackles oil for once or twice before getting sharp shod to get them used to them and to prevent calk- ing themselves. Many a valuable young horse has been ruined in the hind legs from kicking- the stall, generally acquiring the habit for the want of exercise. He has no chance to exercise, consequently he goes to kicking the stall until it becomes a confirmed habit. Pawing in the stall generally results from the same cause. The shackles are very effectual with no 4o6 danger after the first few minutes, and then only from self-calking. A trial will convince the most skeptical. EDUCATING THE HORSE TO BACK. Almost everybody endeavors to educate their horses to back by pulling on the reins, and in the majority of cases they are successfulj but there are many horses that do not understand what is wanted of them, and become sullen, and then it is almost an im- possibility to force them backwards by the bits. A very simple and effectual method is to stand in front of the horse and, by only a gentle pressure on the bit with one hand, and a push with the extended fingers of the other hand between the point of the shoulder and breast-bone, he will readily go back- Change feed occasionally. CONTROLLING THE ACTIONS OF THE Fig. 6. ward as shown in Fig. 6. In doing this we should al- ways associate the pressure of the lingers with the word "back,"' and in a very few minutes the horse realizes our v^'ants and moves backward at the word alone. If we have a sluggish or sullen horse a piece of wood (not sharp) may be used to advantage in- stead of the fingers, but usually the fingers alone are sufficient. Don't make the lesson very long, at first, and by the third or fourth trial the horse will respond to the word, together with gentle pressure on the bit. It is altogether wrong to "jerk" or "see-saw'' the bit through the mouth to get the horse to back, when one, two or three lessons, as indicated, will make a willing servant in backing the horse without punish- ment or excitement. With the horse, backing is an art, and must be cultivated with great patience to make a complete success. HORSE BY HIS TAIL. There are other uses for a horse's tail than to brush off the flies. In our hands it becomes a great medium I for controlling the actions of the horse. Our ex- perience with plains' horses is, that there is no other means by which we can accomplish so much in so short a time, as by hitching the subject's head to his own tail so close that he is obliged to gyrate or whirl around in a very small compass. Yes, but the natu- ral query comes to almost everybody, how we are to accomplish this connection of head and tail without danger of getting hurt. Our answer is, that it is best done the very first time he is ever caught with the lasso, and then he should never again have his liber- ty until he is thoroughly acquainted with his controll- er man. This thing of catching the wild horse and then letting him go again and again, soon educates him to have a dread fear of man; besides, he is very apt to learn how to evade the fatal noose, which only serves to make him the more dangerous whenever anything out of the ordinary routine of his experience transpires. When he is lassoed and thrown is just the time to put the halter on his head and secure it to his tail be- fore letting him up. Then, with a long, limber pole, something like a fishing-rod, we begin his education. Fle has the use of his legs — his means of escape and defense — and at our approach and the touch of the pole he attempts to get away by flight ; but his run away is only in a small circle, and, notwithstanding he exerts himself to the utmost of his ability, he does not succeed in getting away from the touch of the pole. If he attempts to kick or strike at the pole he is almost certain to fall, which, of itself, is an admo- nition that he had better not repeat that action. This whirling motion requires but a very few min- utes to render him so dizzy he must either stop or fall, and he generally prefers the former; but in either case, it is the time we should get in our work with the pole without hurting him. We should bring it in contact with every part of his body — as we advised with the young colt and the use of the hand in our first visit to him when he is but one hour or one day old — and as soon as tTie wild hor.se finds that the pole does not hurt him, and he has done his very best to get away from it and failed, he be- comes more docile, and we may now be able to ge:t TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 407 lear enough to him to touch him with the hand. But 1 1 is far better to use articles of clothing, such- as an jld vest, a pair of pants, a coat or a hat securely fas- Mied to shorter poles, and show him that he cannot ct away from any of these. We very soon find that c makes less and less exertion at each attempt with jew objects until finally we get our hands on him. If we make no mistakes, in half an hour we have ac- uiiplished more in satisfying the wild horse that his [tempts to get away from man are fruitless, than , ould be accomplished in three months by the ordinary recess of "breaking," and no danger to horse or man f a serious character. The successful manner of tying the halter-strap or i|ie to the tail, is so important that we have made il- istrations to show to a certainty just how it should c (lone for convenience and security. We puzzled (Ur brain more than thirty-five years ago to evolve his knot, or manner of tying, for this purpose. jtANNER OF TYING THE HALTER STRAP TO r THE TAIL. j; Of course there are a number of methods, but to iur mind the best, easiest, surest and safest is the one c have used for many, many years. A strap with a snap attachment to the head-stall of le halter is preferable. Detach from the head-stall, Fig- 7- len grasp all the hair of the tail just below the ter- iination of the tail-bone, pull the tail around to the de, lay the strap across the tail with the snap-end ist about where the girth or surcingle should encir- le the body as shown in Fig! 7. Mark the strap as shown by the arrow, so as to preserve this proper length ; then turn all the hair of the tail back towards the body and hold with the left hand, while we reach under and bring the other or tapering end of the strap around the tail, and tuck under as shown in Fig. 8. This is a knot that is very easily tied, perfectly se- cure, and instantly untied by pulling on the pendant end of the strap, and we also have hold of the horse by the head at the same time when thus untied. When we have the knot tied and the strap of the proper length to atttach to the halter, we are ready for ac- tive operations. F It is always best to select some place free from stones, posts or other objects of injury, and then sud- denly bring the horse's head far enough around to his side to attach the snap to the ring of the halter and let him go. Then, with a long, slender pole, we ap- proach him near enough so that the legs of the horse come in contact with the pole at every turn, as shown in Fig. 9. If he is a sensitive, touchy, wild fellow, he will make desperate e.xertions to get away from the pole, but if we attend to business and follow him up, he does all the work and we look calmly on until he stops or falls, when we try to touch all parts of his body without hurting him with the pole. After he becomes familiar with the pole, then we bring other objects of all kinds to him until he no longer exerts himself to get away, and then we be- gin handling his legs on the side to which his head is inclined ; first, by the use of a soft strap, he allows us to lift his fore and hind leg, then with the hand. Now unsnap from that side securing his head and tail on the opposite side and see if he will try to run the 4o8 Have good pastures tor your stock. other way, (which he may a little) then handle the legs of that side to which the head is inclined. If he is a western or wild horse that we have difficulty in catching, we now put on the shackles on all the legs as shown in Figs. 5 and 10, and instead of giving him his entire liberty of head, we have a ring or loop tied Fig. 9. in his tail through which we run the strap of the halt- er and attach a long rope, (as seen in Fig. 10) so that at any time when we wish to approach him if he tries to get away, we have only to pick up the rope, and by pulling on it we are able instantly to bring his head and tail together as shown in Fig. 11. and if he persists in turning around he only winds himself up and becomes perfectly helpless, so we can go to him without danger of being hurt. We continue going to Fig. 10. him and handling him, watering and feeding from the hand, caressing him, showing him new objects, etc., etc., until he seems pleased at our coming. Then we unshackle him, or at least lengthen the shackles out until he has more or less use of his legs, and then begin his education of following us, backing, the word "whoa," harnessing him, etc., when he soon becomes a valuable horse, if he is endowed v/ith a fair share of intelligence. It must not be forgotten that the shackle-straps must have the edges nicely rounded or lined with lamb's wool to prevent chafing. The coupling straps for the front and hind legs of shackles should be kept about the same length. If the reader has followed us closely, with frequent reference to the cuts, he can at once see that these appliances are founded on right principles and lead to the ends to be attained in the control of the wild horse withouf injury to horse or man. We should never let the wild horse get away from us or take the ad- vantage of us in any particular from the first time we come in contact with him until he has full confidence fc Fi.E II. in us ; neither should we ever hurt him mediate contact with him, if we expect confidence in us. when in im- him to have NOVEL, BUT PRACTICAL METHOD OF HITCHING HORSES. On our large prairies it is not always that we can 1 readily find a post or object to which we can tie or i hitch our horses. We have tried various methods, , but the one shown in our illustration. Fig. 12, is as convenient and practical as any we have used where ; we have two horses. The illustration speaks for itself ; and consists ouly in tying each horse to the other's ; tail, just sufficiently long to enable them to get their heads to the ground when we want them to graze, I and when we want them they can be found not far from the spot where we left them, as each one must ! follow the other in a circle. This is a safer manner , TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 409 of picketing horses than a stake and rope. This is an excellent method to educate little colts to the halter if they are tied short. They soon learn to follow the halter. double end of the tail tie, and an assistant can hold the hind foot up with ease in spite of the horse's ef- forts. POSITION OF THE HORSE IN SHOEING IMPORTANT. The position in which the horse is made to stand while being shod or having his feet cared for, is of more importance than the majority of people or smiths even think. Usually when horses' feet are being handled, and especially while young, they should always be con- trolled by an attendant holding the horse's head. Now, the attendant's position in relation to that of the horse, is of the utmost importance. Almost in- variably we see the attendant standing on the oppo- CONTROLLING THE HIND FEET IN SHOEING. So many people have trouble in handling the hind legs of horses, in caring for the feet, shoeing, etc., that we think best to give an illustration and a little advice in the manner and method of doing it easily. Fig. 13. We first take a strap or rope two or three feet long and double it. Then lay it across the tail double as seen in Fig. 7, tying a similar knot with the double end of the rope or strap as near the tail as possible, as represented in Fig. 13. Into this double end buckle a strap or tie a rope, let it drop to the ground ; then buckle a short strap around the pastern and over the strap or rope ; pass the strap or rope up throug'h the Fig. 14. site side of the horse from the operator, and general- ly with the horse's head inclined towards him as seen in Fig. 14, and the result is the weight of the horse (to a degree at least) is thrown on the man hold of the foot as also seen in Fig. 14, and, as a natural re- sult, any struggles of the horse will be towards the operator, rendering his position necessarily more or less dangerous ; but if the attendant will always stand on the same side as the operator and incline the horse's head a little to the same side, the operator is relieved of the bearing down of the horse, as that in- clines the weight on the opposite legs as seen in Fig. 15. Besides the easy position thus obtained, there is little or no danger in the horse's struggles, as they will all be away from the operator instead of towards him. The reader may, at first sight, think this friv- olous, but if it is once tested with care, it will, ever after, be practiced, as the results show for themselves. 4IO You haven't much business farming if you don't love stock. BEECHER ON THE HORSE. The details of any department of animal husbandry go to make up the sum total of success, and while we have in this article only dealt with a few ol the many, a careful study and practice of these will be preparatory for the many more to come, the sole ob- ject of which is to render, our horses of more service to us by showing our fellow men some of tlie little details of the methods, as we. fully believe, of true horse education, resulting from our long experience. Fig- 15- We must ever take matters as we find them, and conduct ourselves according to circumstances and conditions. If we will commence the proper educa- tion of our horses when they are very young, we will find the same results as with our children who have the proper training in their youth — no trouble in af- ter life, if naturall}' well disposed ; but if we let our horses run wild until they have attained their mature growth, we must certainly use such means and meth- ods (without violence) as will positively demonstrate to them that we are masters of the situation, yet mer- ciful to the end. We do not obtain our education in a day, v/eek, month or year ; then why expect the horse to under- stand all that is needed of him in the unreasonably sJiorl period that is ordinarily required? Because we ha^'e herein indicated, as well as shown, the means of control, we sincerely hope none of our readers will look upon it as a means of revenge for some of the ac- tions of horses and severely punish them simply be- cause advantages can be so readily taken of them. The whole principle is to avoid danger and trouble with our horses, rather than the correction of acquir- ed bad habits. Let us commence right, ever keep right, and we will always be right. The following article from the pen of the late Rev. Henry Ward lieecher was published in the New York Ledger, April 5, 1862. The title of the article as it originally appeared was "Driving Fast Horses Fast:" "My Dear ]\Ir. Bonner: You once promised me a ride with your never-to-be-excelled horses, and to-day is the very day for it. The sky is clear. It is a long while since we have had bright, clear days. They have been sad and cloudy. Sometimes snow, sometimes rain, sometimes a miserable compromise between botli. But to-day is of one mind, and that a good mind. Nature is in her sweet and grand mood. It is -the first day on which she lus cared to have it known that her mind was maile up to have spring weather. The secret is out now. Snow is melting. I saw grass with a fresh growth of green this very mornmg. No Lirds yet. But the grass said birds as plainly as if i; nad spoken English. They can not be far off. "Is not this a day for a ride? No mud yet; the road is hard and moist. Just the kind for a spin. For I do not want any of your lazy, jogging gaits. I am entirely of your mind that if a horse has had swiftness put in him, it is fair to give him a chance to develop his gifts. Of course t'here is a bound. Reason in all things. Even in trotting it is easier and pleasanter for some horses to go twelve miles an hour than for others to go three. They were made so. Does it hurt a swallow to go swifter than an ox? Why not? Because he was made so. It is easy to do the thing we were made to do easily. And a goo, I horse was made on purpose to go fast. He does it, when wild, of his own accord. He does not lose the relish of speed even when domesticated. "Take a fine fed horse, who in harness looks as if he were a pattern of moderation, a very deacon of sobriety, and turn him loose in pasture. Whew, wliat a change. He takes one or two steps slowly, just to be sure that you have let go of him, and then, with a squeal, he lets fly his heels high in the air, till the sun flashes from his polished shoes, and then off 'he goes, faster and fiercer, clear across the lot, till the fence brings him up. And then, his eye flash- ing, his mane lifted and swelling, his tail up like a king's scepter, he snorts defiance to you from afar, and, with a series of rearings, running sidew'se, pawings and plungings, friskings and whrls, he s'ar*> again, with immense c"'ovment, into another round TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 411 of running. Do you not see that it is more than fun? It is ecstacy. It is horse rapture. "I never see such a spectacle that I am not painful- ly impressed with the inhumanity of not letting horses run. Fastness is a virtue. Our mistaken mod- eration is depriving him of it. I drive fast on princi- ple. I do it for the sake of being at one with na- ture. To drive slow only and always is to treat a horse as if he were an ox. You may be slow if you tliink proper, but your horse should be kept up to nature. He would have had but two legs if it was (meant that he should go only on a 'go-to-meeting' pace. He has four legs. Of course he ought to do a great deal with them. "Now why do I say these things to you? Not to convince you of your duty : Init I feared lest taking me out to ride you would be disposed to think that I had scruples, and would jog along moderately, as if doing me a favor. Not at all. The wind does not go fast enough to suit me. If I were engineer of a six- ty-mile-an-hour express train I should covet twenty I miles an hour more. "Let the horse be well groomed, well harnessed. Let the wagon be thoroughly looked to — no screw ■I loose, no flaw just ready to betray us. Mount. I am by your side. The whip is not needed, yet let it stand in its place, the graceful hint of authority in re- serve, which is always wholesome to men and horses. "Now get out of town cautiously. No speed here. This is. a place for sobriety, moderation and propriety in driving. But, once having shaken off the crowd, I give you a look and disappear instantly in a wild excitement, as if all the trees were crazy and had started off in a race, as if the fences were chalk-lines, as if the earth and skies were commingled and every- thing were wildly mixed in a supernatural excite- ment, neither of earth nor of the skies! "The wind has risen since we started. It did not Mow at this rate, surely. These tears are not of sor- row. But, really, this going like a rocket is new to i,\-ery sense. Do not laugh if I clutch the seat more firmly. I am not afraid. It is only excitement. You may be used to this bird's business of flying. But don't draw the rein. I am getting calm. See that play of muscle! Splendid machinery was put into those horses. Twenty-horse power, at least, in each ! And how they enjoy it ! No forcing here. They do it to please themselves, and thank you for a chance. Look at that head ! Those ears speak like a tongue. The eves flash with eagerness and will. Is it three miles? Impossible! It is not more than half a mile! "Well, draw up. Let me get off now and see these brave creatures. What! Not enough yet? No pain- ful puffing, no throbbing of the flanks. They step nervously and champ the bit, and lean to your caress, as if they said, 'All this we have done to please you ; now just let us go on to please ourselves!" HORSES' TEETH. As the art of veterinary dentistry is, as yet, compar- atively, only in its infancy, few people understand the extent to which a horse's teeth may become dis- eased and the amount of suffering the poor animal has to endure, says the Kansas Farmer. Colts, un- like children, suffer little or no inconvenience from their temporary dentition. But during the cutting of the permanent teeth is the critical epoch in the life of the young horse. Between the ages of two and three is where the trouble generally begins, and it continues until the process of dentition is complete, being at its worst between the ages of four and five, this being the time when the greatest number of den- tal changes are taking place. Hence the common saying that "a three-year-old can do more work than a four-year-old." A horse's upper jaw is always wid- er than the lowe^ one, and sometimes this difference exists to such an extent as to become a malformation. The upper teeth are also beveled downward and- out- ward, while the lower ones are beveled inward and upward, and this, with their limited lateral motion, causes sharp projecting points to wear on the outer edge of the projecting teeth, which lacerate the cheeks, and on the inner edge of the lower ones, which lacerate the tongue. Small stones, nails and other hard substances often get into the grain, and the horse biting on these, breaks off all or part of a tooth, then caries sets in, the nerves become exposed, and the animal must evidently suffer great pain. When a tooth is thus broken off or decayed the tooth in the jaw opposite receiving no pressure, keeps on growing up or down, as the case may be, until it lac- erates the gums of the opposite jaw in a frightful manner! These irregularities and diseased conditions are generally indicated by one or more such symp- toms as slobbering and frothing at the mouth, weak eyes or partial blindness, bolting the grain while grinding, stopping short while eating and dropping the grain from the mouth, quidding the hay, turning the head on one side while eating or after drinking 412 Regular feed adds much to the life of a horse. cold water, loss of appetite, loss of flesh, tender mouth when being driven, carrying the head on one side, pulling on one rein, nasal gleet, swelling or abscesses about the jaws, etc., and the horse is allowed to suf- fer on for months, and often dosed with strong medi- cines, when an examination by a competent man would have revealed the true cause of the difficulty and a few minutes' work on the horse's teeth would have relieved the animal's sufferings and enhanced its value to the owner, as well. HOW LONG HAVE HORSES WORN SHOES? In the ninth century tlicv began to shoe horses, but strange to say, only in time of frost. King W^illiam I. introduced horse-shoeing in England, and six horse shoes are on the coat of arms of the descendants of the man to whom he gave vast estates for caring for his horses in this way. No improvement has been made in horse shoes for years. Better iron has been used and t :':':er nails, but no change has come in shape or manner of putting them on. The "smithy" is a dingy-loo. ing place, with its rows of shoes along the rafter's, its big bellows and its fire and anvil; but the "smith — he's a fine, sturdy fellow," full of anec- 'd'otes and news. The nearest thing we find to the horse shoe of to-day was found in the grave of an old king of France who died in 481. There were four hail holes in the shoe, and this is the first mention of nailing on a shoe. It might be well to notice, just here, the fact that the horse shoe "kept evil spirits away" even as long ago as in the days of this old king, 1500 years ago, and was doubtless placed on his grave for this purpose. MAN'S GREAT HELPER. The horse is so closely allied to man he may well be considered as his subordinate. Wherever civ- ilization extends you will find him. The prosperity of a country depends upon the quality, cjuantity and efficiency of its horses. His importance to the agri- cultural and commercial life of a country is incalcula- ble. When the epizootic prevailed so extensively a few years ago among the horses in some of our prin- cipal cities we remember what a depressing effect it had upon business. The street cars ceased to run, the familiar rumble of the heavy transportation wagon was no longer heard. The freight houses became full for the want of this noble animal to move the grain away. In fact, the wheels of commerce were in a measure blocked. The railroad is but the auxiliary of the horse. The railroad could not exist without him. As I said before, the agricultural and commer- cial thrift of a country depends, largely, upon the ef- ficiency of its horses. One reason to which Napoleon attributed the failure of his disastrous invasion of ■ Russia was the superiority of the Russian over the Norman horse. In every phase of social, political and national life, the horse fills a conspicuous place. In the opening of the mine, the development of the re- sources of the country, in the consummation of its wars, he forms a component part. In fact, through « the modern invention of machinery, he has supersed- I ed the slave. In an agricultural sense he does all the work. He plows all of the ground, plants all of the seed, cultivates all of the crops, cuts down all of the grass, rakes it up, loads it, puts it in t'he mow, har- j vests all the grain, draws it to market and, m con- nection with all this, is burdened with drawing his lazy driver over the fields all day, who, v.'hen night comes, is often too lazy to properly care for him. We should never neglect so great a friend as the horse is to us. W^e should not abuse him in any way. We ; should take great pains in showing him just what we expect of him and in a manner to be intelligent to him, and, our wgrd for it, we will greatly improve the further usefulness of our horses. FEEDING HORSES. The great amount of hard work for the horses of the farm is over in the fall, and, as now they have little or no work to do, it is essential that farmers look to the amount of feed they give them, and espe- cially to the amount of hay. When a horse is working hard all day we give him a liberal supply of grain and usually all the hay he will eat. This is right; but when he is idle most of the time, or at light work, it is a different thing and he should be fed accordingly. Some have fallen into to erroneous idea that As long as a horse will eat hay it should be placed before him, but this is a mistaken idea and should be carefully guarded against, espe- cially at a time when the dollars roll into the farmers' pockets as slowly as they do at the present time. Most of our barns in the fall are nearly filled with hay, but before spring the mows will present a very dif- ferent appearance, and the thought tells us to be as saving with the hay as possible. It is better for our TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 413 horses that we give them a little more grain and less hay. They winter better and if they are well groom- ed and well blanketed after having been driven, will come out in the spring in better condition and be much better fitted to dO' the hard spring and sum- mer's work than would otherwise be the case. A careful farmer will feed a certain amount to his ■horses each day, at regular intervals, and will always be found working on the principle that "a penny sav- ed is a penny earned." — ^National Stockman and Far- mer. ADIRONDACK MURRAY ON SHOEING. There never lived a man who ''knew horse'' or bet- ter understood the noble animal, his needs and the art of caring for him than the once famous W. H. H. Murray, "Adirondack Murray." What he did not know about making the most of a good 'horse and ceeping him sound and healthy no one need bother to ascertain, and Adirondack IMurray has laid down 1 rule in regard to trimming a horse's foot that every horseman in the world should cut out and paste in [lis hat. "Never," he says, "allow the knife to touch :he sole of your horse's foot, nor the least bit of it to DC pared away, because nature needs the full bulk of it and has amply provided for its removal at the prop- er time. Secondly, never allow a knife to be put to :he frog, because nature never provides too much of t to answer the purpose for which the Creator de- iigned it, and the larger it is the more swiftly, easily and safely will your horse go." TEACHING TEAMS TO PULL. It is a real pleasure to have a team that can be re- ied upon to pull whenever wanted to do so. Any earn, if not of a too highly nervous temperament, nay be trained to perfect reliability. We need, first ■f all and forever after, to recognize that the horse as a mind and, at least, the mental qualities of mem- Tv and affection. The consideration of paramount portance in this matter, according to the view of writer in Stockman, is to develop the team's con- [idence in themselves and in their driver. It is just s true of a horse as of man, that he will not exert imself greatly over what he has no hope of accom- ;lisTiing. But different from man, the horse thinks •f previous loads instead of the one to which he is ttached. This is the reason a balky horse is apt to refuse to pull a very light load. He has no way of estimating his load only by pulling upon it. Hitch a horse to a very heavy load, let him pull upon it, then transfer him to any empty wagon and start him. You will see him gather himself for a pull. He has in mind the heavy load. Had the horse been stalled with a heavy load, and whipped until the driver and horse were both certain he could not pull it, you would have a horse thoroughly broken not to pull. This writer says: "Let me impress the truth of this by calling to mind another illustration of the result of similar treatment. I have seen men who had horses given to pulling up- on the halter, put one on them they were confident the horses could not break, and then whip them over the head in order to make them pull. Nearly always when a horse finds he cannot pull loose he will walk up to the hitching post. I have heard men argue that a horse could be so thoroughly broken in this way that a tow-string would hold him. There is some truth in it, though not all horses are to be mana;];cl in the same way. A horse of nervous temperame:t should never be excited. They will always do their best in a perfectly calm state of mind. "Have a definite and small vocabulary to use with your team, and always use the same word for one purpose. Keep the same two horses working togeth- er, and always on the same side. Use open bridles, so that the team can see what is going on around them. Keep all attachments strong, that your team will not be in fear of straining themselves through something breaking. Use close-fitting collars and harness, and never allow a horse to become sore from any part of the harness. Teach your team to start together. Keep them strong and in good spirits by good and regular feeding, and good care in every par- ticular. Let them come to heavy pulling gradually, and not at all until their bones are well matured." HORSES NEED LIGHT. The importance of having stables ventilated in ac- cordance with correct principles of hygiene is gener- ally admitted. That the supply of fresh air should be ample is frequently insisted upon, but that the light should also be abundant is not so commonly recog- nized. Some stables are at middav in a state of semi- darkness — a condition, to say the least, anything but conducive to the well-being of the horse. No animal enjoys the light of day more than he. In his wild state he frequents the open plain or mountain side in the 414 Plant a Forage Crop for the Stock. full light of day. Wild horses are never found to in- habit gloomy forests or dark ravines. The horse is a child of light and he should be treated accordingly in domestication, if lie is to be kept in perfect health and spirits with his eyesight unimpaired. The fre- quent transition from a dark stable into full glare of day cannot fail to act prejudicially on his visual or- gans, and so also must almost permanent gloom and darkness. If we studied only his comfort, we would give him at all times a stable full of cheerful light as v.-ell as refreshing air. — London Live Stock Journal. MEANS AND METHODS FOR CONTROLLING OUR HORSES. While we shall endeavor to impress upon the mind :of ever)' reader the fact that there is fully as much virtue in the methods as the means used, we are quite certain too many wdl adopt the means of control, (as the key of success) and ignore the methods, (man- ner of using the appliances) and then failing in the desired results, will condemn the author. In compliance with the proper methods for using electricity, it has been found to be a valuable servant, but how is it when the means are used regardless of the well established methods? Why, death too often results. The means and methods herein given 'have often been .used by the author and found the most valuable of any he has tried. They are not a mere theory, but principles established upon experience. AVe have, in the preceding paragraphs, tried to impress upon the minds of our readers the importance of com- plying with the simple laws governing our animals and we cannot do justice to our noble servant — the horse— without referring briefly to them again, and, possibly, in a manner that will make it more impres- sive. SOME OF THE LAWS GOVERNING OUR HORSES. ist. Whatever transpires at the front of the horse impels him backward. 2d. Whatever takes place at tlie rear of the horse, inclines forward action. 3d. All side motion effect in like manner — in op- posite direction. 4th. In all of our operations with the horse, it should be our highest aim to avoid giving him pain when in close contact with him. 5th. Whenever lie becomes entangled by accident,| or we do it purposely, we should stay away from him' until he realizes his utter helplessness to free himself,' then go to his assistance and kindly relieve him, when' he will appreciate us, and readily become our willingl servant. But, if, b}- entanglement, we abuse him foij it, then, whenever he finds himself encumbered in an', way, he naturall}^ goes to work to free himself anc get away from his handler — making a dangerousi horse, instead of what he should be — kind and gen- tie. (ith. We should endeavor to control our horses b) means and methods that will demonstrate to thenr that we are the stronger, (through the means used] but associated with kindness whenever in close con tact with them. 7th. In connection with the means to demonstrat< our superior power over the horse, we should neve forget, that the medium of the stomach is tlie mos direct road to his affections — consequently, notwitli standing, we may lay him down, deprive him of th use of his legs, etc., we should feed him sugar, swee apples, cookies, or whatever he relishes from ou j hand, and it is astonishing, to the masses, how sooi' the wild or even vicious horse is as docile as a lamb 8th. The reader will observe that the means sc forth, in this article, are not intended to injure t'h'j horse in any way, but to enable his handler to dc] monstrate his superior muscular power (througl these means) over that of the horse, without an; manifestation of anger or abuse on the part of fh handler. 9th. We should endeavor at all times to keep th horse cool and quiet, and endeavor to show him kind ly what is expected of him, rather than to try to fore ; him to do what he does not understand. I loth. We should always make the lessons shor.j and impressive, and never try to progress faster thai-, the horse fully understands what we want of him. i HANDLING BY THE HEAD. As most of our horses are controlled, through t1i| medium of the mouth, we have thought best to begi ' our illustrated part with easy and effective means an^J methods of controlling the horse through the moutl'| We are decidedly opposed to the use of harsh bitji which lacerate and mutilate the sensitive part of th TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 415 (No. I horse (through its sensitive character) by which we comnuinicate our very thoughts, to this noble animal, through the medium of the reins. For many reasons, we like to begin our education of the horse through the medium of t'he mouth, with a small (comparative- ly soft) rope, instead of iron bits. It is much more effective, will not bruise the soft, sensitive tissues and by its binding character, in which it is applied, makes our work more readily appreciated by the horse. For instance, when we pull on the rope, it binds in ihh mouth, and does not let go until the horse comes to us or we go to Tiim and loosen it, which is at once appreciated by the horse, and makes us looked upon as a friend in need, and not an enemy. STALLION OR SAFETY BRIDLE. We take about twenty feet of one-fourth inch ma- nilla rope, with which we make a better stallion bridle than we have ever used of any other character. We first throw one end of the rope over the neck of t'he horse, with the left hand ; reach under the neck, with tiie right hand and grasp the end of the rope_, and tie a bow — bowline knot quite snug to the neck, (but not really tight or too close) now .pass the left ■land under this part around the neck, .and draw through enough rope to go in the mouth, as shown in cut No. I. Next stand with the face toward the rear of the horse, taking the rope in the right Iiand about =■' :'^Zf- (No. 2.) one foot from the neck of the horse, then reaching over the rope with the left hand, take hold of the rope, with the back of the hand up and forward, as seen in cut No. i. We now pass this rope, as 'held in this way, over the horse's head, bringing the right hand to the base of the ear and left hand down under t'he neck, as seen in cut No. 2. APPLYING THE SAFETY BRIDLE. Now change hands, taking hold of t'he rope with the right hand where held by -the left and open the 4t6 A small patch of millet or sorghum will help out a great deal. mouth of the horse by pressing the soft end of fhe finger, or thumb of the left hand, against the roof of the horse's mouth, when he will readily open the moufh, and we pass the rope through the mouth, an J, changing hands again, taking hold of the rope, just at the left side of the mouth, with the left hand; then pull on the long part of the rope, with the right hand, to adapt the rope to head, and we have the most ef- fective bridle for the control of strong, vicious horses, or biting stallions. By pulling on this rope, only moderately, the lips of the horse are forced between the molar teet'h, so that it is impossible for him to close his mouth and bite, even though we put our hand into his mouth, and hold it there. METHOD OF USING THE SAFETY BRIDLE. When we have it snugly applied to the head of the horse, (not loosely) we permit him to run away from us. the length of the rope, and with a sudden pull, pivct him on his hind feet, or stop him. He is will- izes that he had better not get to the full length of the rope away from us, or if he does, the rope binds his mouth as before. But if he will come to us, we never disappoint him in relief, and kind attentions, when in close contact with him, which insures his confidence in us, that no matter what troubles he en- counters, he is assured we will hcl;i him out of the difficultv. We have given a full description of the method of applying the safety handling bridle, so that our read- ers can readily comprehend t'he principle of handling our vicious horses without serious abuse or danger. The horse is a very apt scholar, to learn either good or evil, and it is for us to direct him aright. A GOOD CHEAP RIDING BRIDLE. Cut. Nil. 3 represents a cheap and very effective J riding bridle. It consists of a piece of quarter inch (No. 4-) (No. 5.) — Blinding the Hoi'se with an Umbrella. ing to stop, no matter how well he feels, for he finds that 'his head and mouth are in a vice, as it were, with apparently no relief. Now, if 'he does not come to us, we go to him, pat him caressingly on the cheek, and gently loosen the rope in his mouth. He is now free again, and. possibly, may be so reckless as to try it again, with the same results. We do as before, three or four times if necessary, when lie fully real- manilla, or cotton rope, from six to eight feet long. Bv placing the middle part on top of the 'horse's head, drawing down on either side of the face and passing through the mouth from each side, up on top of the neck, and tying a knot at the withers to keep from dropping out of the mouth, you 'have a good bridle, as illustrated in cut No. 3 ; down in front of the horse as well as applied to his head. TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 417 HANDLING UMBRELLA. For remember the law, as previously Fcferred to, that what happens at, or toward, the rear of tlie horse, impels him forward, as well as that in front of him, forces him backward. It is well illustrated in cuts 4 and 5 in handling an umbrella on horseback. When the umbrella is back of the center of his body, and he takes fright, he naturally tries to run, but by bring- ing the umbrella over his head, as seen in cut 5, lie stops instantly, and reverses his action so suddenly. from every object he is afraid of. We must not, get in a hurry in the education of our horses, if we would have them fully understand our meaning in all we do with them. POWER OF MAN OVER THE HORSE. Whenever we find the horse does not feel disposed to give us his undivided attention, with the applica- tion of the safety bridle, and its associate treatment, then we proceed to demonstrate to him our superior \-^ilif- (No. C). — Cheap Casting Harness. (No, hat we must be on our guard, or we will go over his lead. Now, how much better it is to understand this Uw, and hold on to the umbrella, until the horse finds le cannot get away from it, than to throw it away at irst fright, and ever after incline him to run awav ,'ith strength, through the means we use, together very kind treatment. We first take about fifteen feet of three-eighth inch rope, double it at about one-t'hird its length, and slip a two-inch iron ring over this doubled portion, and 28 4i8 Patience is a great help. tie a knot in the double rope, so as to 'hold the ring in such position, that the doul:)led end will make a crup- per and back piece the required length, to have the ring rest at the point of the back, w'here the saddle of the harness should be. The remaining portion of the rope forms a circingle as seen in cut 6. Now, we take a fourth inch rope, twenty or thirty feet long, pass one end through the ring on the back, pass it along the right side of the neck of the horse, through the ring of the halter, and back to the ring referred to on the back, and tie securely. Next we take the hold-back or side strap to a single harness, or a good ham-strap will answer, pass it around the pastern of the left front leg, passing throug'h the keeper, so that the buckle will be on the outside of the leg when the strap is pulled backward. Then we lift up the left front foot of the horse, run the strap under the circingle, with the hair, and buckle up quickly and s'hort. as seen in cut 6. As soon as the leg is securely fasten- ed, we let the horse have his liberty to about the slight tension on the small rope, he will soon get tire.l and drop on his knees, when his head should be pull- ed to his side, as seen in cut No. 7. We continue to stay away from the horse and, holding him in this uricomfortable position until he falls over on 'his side, we pull hard enough on the small rope to bring his nose to the ring on his back as seen in cut No. 8. If the reader does not believe this is an uncomfor- table position, let him try to look back over his shoulder one minute by the watch and see 'how his neck will ache. After the horse has lain in this posi- tion one-half minute to a minute, he will make a des- perate struggle to rise but if the small rope is kept_ (No. 8.J— The Horse in Greater Trouble. "^P^ i^i'^mmJlh length of the rope, when he is apt to be halted, as seen in cut No. 6. We do not try to throw him down, but allow him to hobble around on three legs, until he gets tired, being sure to keep at a distance from him all the time, letting him realize that he is in trou- ble. By keeping his head inclined to one side, with (No. 9.)— The Horse in a Comfortable Position. tight it is impossible for him to get up. Just as soon as the struggle is over we approac'h him, (keeping the! hand rope tight) caress him on the head and neck and begin relaxing on the hand rope until he is stretchec out on the ground in an easy position as seen in cut No. 9. TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 419 If he fails to appreciate the comfortable position ' we have given 'him, and attempts to get up, we sim- ' ply spring away from him and again get him into that ■ same uncomfortable position by pulling on the hand '' rope as before. Now we hold him in this very uncom- fortable position a short time, to let him know that ^e are -one from him and he unable to extricate him- Te f If he struggles again, we do as before ; but if he bodv, lying, sitting, or standing, we then begin with other objects, such as the noise of bells, pans, drums, etc. The sight and touch of blankets, robes, or um- brellas, open or closed, as shown in cut No. 10. Bv bringing objects to the horse when down, we can make him acquainted with them, without his get- ting away from us, or injury in any way. The horse examines all things very much as we do, first by sight, (No. 10.)— Bringing Objects to the Horse. submits without a struggle, we never keep him long and then by touch. But if the sight is sufficient to in this position, but go to him and relieve him as be- frighten him away, he never fully satisfies himself by fore. By the second or third round of trial to get up, the touch ; he stays away from the object through fear. he fully comprehends that when we are in close con- Consequently, the importance of having him in a po- tact with him, he is relieved of his troubles ; also, that sition by which we can bring the objects in contact when he attempts to rise we are suddenly gone, and with his body, and shown him, by touch, that there lie is at once in that same uncomfortable position is no cause for pain from them. If we have done our 3-gain. work consistently, and in such order that we have As soon as the horse discovers that we do not mean to hurt him, and that whenever he is in serious trou- ble we corne to his relief, he, very naturally, has con- fidence in us, and cares but little what we do to him. Or with him, that does not give him pain. While we have the horse down in this way, it is a good time to make him familiar with us, from every position, holding on to the hand rope all the time, and being ready to pull his nose to 'his side at any mo- ment, he should strive to avoid us. As soon as the horse is familiar with us from every position, also with our weight, on any part of his carried the horse along with us, in understanding, step by step, we may now take every incumbrance from him, and he will appear as seen in cut No. 11, confident and contented. The above cut was made from a photograph of a handsome four year old mare, and the writer, after having had a lesson of about twenty minutes, on the fair grounds at 'Madison, Minn. She was a powerful mare, active and very nervous to begin with, but very soon became remarkably docile, as almost all horses will, when properly handled. Now, dear reader, please remember what we have 420 In breaking stock, be as easy with them as posible. repeatedly said, that there is as much virtue in the horse through the medium of his legs, we will men-j methods as the means. To be sure we can, by the tion but two or three. means here represented, throw the horse with consid- erable violence, and punish him severely while down and in close contact with him, without his being able to help himself; but by so doing we defeat the very object aimed at, viz., every time thereafter, remember- \Ve commence our operations by taking the saddle and crupper of a single 'harness. We use both girthsi in order to retain the shaft-holders down in position. The lines, for driving, we pass through the shaft- holders, instead of the terrets on the saddle. By liav- ing the punishment received, he would refuse to ing the lines through the shaft-holders, the horse is submit until entirely exhausted. But by our cool, prevented from turning around, and facing us, as th« quiet method and not being in too great a hurry, the lines pull across his thig'hs, instead of over his back. horse realizes his trouble, gets weary, lies down, finds and we are enabled to keep his head from us. (No. 11.) — Contentment of Horse and JTan. he is unable to rise of his own efforts, yet finds he has a friend in us, who comes to his assistance in time of need, and he certainly appreciates it with a kindly re- membrance. Don't let us ever forget that the horse is endowed with intelligence, kindness, fear, passion and revenge ; and we must conduct ourselves accord- ingly, observing closely the laws of correlation be- tween men and animals. Having made ourselves fa- miliar with the horse, by laying him down and prov- ing our superior power, (through the means used) and at the same time relieving him when he got into any serious entanglements, if he still persists in as- serting his wisbes as soon as he is assisted to his feet again, tTien we use other means to control his pow- ers of locomotion. CONTROLLING THE HORSE BY HIS LEGS. Of the many ways and means of controlling the (No. 12.)— Reins to the Legs. Better than the Bits. TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 421 When we have the lines so adjusted, we then buckle a strap around each front pastern. Then take about twenty feet of quarter inch rope and with one end in the hand we put it under the girth of the harness against the hair, pass it down, and under the strap of the pastern, of the right leg, and back under the girth again, with the hair, and down to, and attach to the strap of t'he pastern, of the left leg, when we take the rope and lines in hand, and get behind the horse, and commence proceedings as seen in cut No. 12. If with this means applied, the horse persists in trying to get away from us. or rears, we proceed to draw his front feet to his body, as seen in cut No. 12, by pulling on the rope; or if he attempts to run from the start, we pull on the rope, for the same purpose as seen in cut No. 13. for a few moments and give him time for reflection, ur rest, as you may choose to call it. If we observe conditions carefully, he will soon be driving about cool and docile as seen in cut No. 15. FIRST LESSON IN HARNESS SATISFACTORY. The extremes of use and abuse of this appliance for the control of our horse is very wide apart. One handler will use it with t'he most satisfactory results by going slow and careful, not dropping the horse on his knees, but once or twice, and the horse realizing the advantage taken of him. and not becom- ing confused, quietly adapts himself to the wishes of his teacher. While another handler with the same horse would make some mistakes, get confused or angry himself, and soon get the horse excited and have a (No. 13.) — The Woi-.Icl be r.unav.-ay Cecured. When the horse is determined to get away, with even good treatment, the use of the double foot at- tachment, is ver}' effective, if in the hands of a con- siderate, , and affectionate horseman. If the horse starts by rearing, or running, and we pull on the rope, 'Ij t'he result is the same, in both cases, and is very well shown in cut No. 14. Now, that we have the horse, in this helpless con- dition, we must not keep him here long, or he will get discouraged, and lie down, and possibly refuse to get wp. But if we hold him in this position but a moment, or until he becomes comparatively quiet, then go to him calmly, caress him, put our arm under his neck, loosen t'he reins, and rope, and lift on him a little, with I an encouraging word to get up ; he will get to 'his feet i promptly, and be a little more careful afterwards. If ' we find he is getting warm and excited, we must stop rtai light between horse and man; a condition that should be avoided at all times and under all condi- tions, as no good can result. The natural query to the reader, then, would be, is this method valuable or dangerous in my hands? We can answer only by saying, that by these means we can prevent the horse from running away, or doing mu-ch mischief in any way, which we consider valuable to both man and horse. But we would urge all 'handlers not to put the horse down on his knees any more than can possibly be avoided, for the best results. The horse can trav- el with this appliance about as well as without it. We would advise the use of knee-pads if. the horse is to be driven on the 'hard rough roads. This appliance is more serviceable in driving with only the harness on single, than double harness, and our next device is well adapted for double team. 422 It would be well to put yourself in your horse's place occasionally. PERSUASIVE CONTROL OF THE HORSE. Now, dear readers, please don't complain of our heading; because we mean it in its most forcible sense. Persuasive influence, with both men and ani- mals, is certainly the most effecti\-e, as we shall try to show here ; and if our readers will apply the means and methods here laid down," instead of the whip and other brutal force, we are confident of jjaining our point, with both the horse and his handler. Means and methods, you will observe, are our prin- ciples of convincing the horse, that if he is determin- ed to have a struggle, it must be mostly with himself. We want to take as little part in it as possible, con- (No. 14.) — The Hor.se in a Helpless Position (N,j. 15.) — ?e;■sua^ive Coatrol of tlie Horse. sequently, try to devise the means, by which he can demonstrate to himself that he is fighting himself rather than 'his handler. In the preceding example of handling the horse by his feet, and taking both front feet from him, we thereby stop him in further pro- gress of locomotion, of which if persevered in. will have a tendency to anger or discourage t'he horse. While we like this method of taking the front feet from the horse, in his very first lesson in harness to convince him that at the word whoa, or in an attempt to run away with us, to rear, or kick, we can at once demonstrate to him (without pain) that he is power- less to do so, to any satisfactory degree. But it has its objectional features, as we have before indicated, beyond the first short lesson, which we always use to begin with, to be sure we have all the advantage on our side; after which, we use the persuader, until the horse fully understands What we wish him to do for us. We do not like to depend on the bit, and especially harsh bits, to control the young, ambitious, or even vicious horse, because, in his eagerness to get away, or do mischief, we are too apt to injure his mouth, to such a degree, that it is ever after tender and sore, or. so calloused, that he is a "puller," (lugger.) ever after. But, if we apply our "persuasive" influence, as hereinafter described, we are of the opinion all users will be pleased with its effect, and not take the chances of making a runaway, kicking, dangerous horse, in his primary lessons in harness. By the ues of the "persuader." we are enabled to make the horse a cripple, for the time beine. and vet not necessarily slop, or hurt him ; but impede his progress to such a TILLING THE degree that it is not really dangerous to his handler or encouraging to the horse. If ,the horse proves to be a runa\vaj% we let him run upon three legs instead of all four. If he is a kicker, he must stand on one front leg to do fhe most of his kicking. If he is restless and uneasy about standing, we let him stand on three legs, part of the time. When we find we have a confirmed kicker it is best to attach, bells, tin pans, a fourth of a sack of bran, or other objects to the crupper of t'he harness, and let it hang down to the hocks or near there, and drive about without being hitched to a vehicle at first, as seen in cut No. if). The cut represents the horse in tlie act of doing 'his utmost to rid himself from the bells attached to the 'crupper of his harness, before the persuader has been put into operation. The "persuader" is applied, by having a strap around one front pastern only, t'hen take the end of the small rope, and pass under the SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 423 (No. 10— The -Persuad-ei'" applied to a Kicker. 4.^ - (No. 17.)— Tlie ■■Persuader" applied to a Rest:e:;s Horse. girth from the rear, down under the strap around the pastern and tie to the girth. See cut No. 17. With the confirmed kicker, we prefer to first give him the opportunity once or twice, or even more, at t'he ob- ject attached to induce him to kick, before making it hard work for him by the use of the "persuader." As soon as he gets warmed up to his work in earn- est, or starts to run, we pull on t'he rope which takes one front foot from him, so that he is compelled to balance 'himself on one foot while he does his kick- ing, which soon persuades him that he is making hard work of it for himself. Cr, if he attempts to run and kick, he must do so on three legs, by which he is soon persuaded is too hard work to be enjoyed. If he is a powerful horse and starts to run and kick, we always incline his head toward the opposite side from the leg that is held up, which induces him to run in as small a circle as possible, and by a sudden turn of the head he is very apt to fall broad side, Which again per- suades him he is making hard work of the kicking business, which must be the object to be attained in the correction of the kicker. 424 If you were a horse how would you like to be treated? Mere preventives, such as kicking straps, high checking, etc., rarely ever cure the kicking habit. But if vvc give the horse the opportunity to kick at something that cannot hurt him, and have him in such Before closing our remarks in regard to all the pre- ceding appliances for the sure and safe education of our horses, we would again impress on the reader's mind that a knowledge of the methods is of more position that does not necessarily prevent him from importance than to know how to make and adjust the kicking, but makes hard work of it, 'he is soon per- means. They go hand in 'hand and must be used hu- auaded, that he prefers to have anything hanging tO' manly, or the objects aimed at will be utter failures, him or hitting his heels, rather than work so hard to We consider this one of the very best appliances, get rid of it and fail. too. properly used, to persuade the horse to become man's Evervthing attac'hed to the harness to induce him willing servant, that we have ever had anything to do to show what his natural inclination is should be se- with. It can be used without any inconvenience to curely fastened, as every time he succeeds in getting rid of it, is an evidence to the horse that he can ac- complish his object if he only tries long enough, and he is perfectly willing to try as long as he sees any possibility of succeeding. The restless, uneasy and impatient horse can, ordi- the action of the horse and, if required, can be put in- to immediate effect with the very best results. THE WILLFULLY VICIOUS KICKER. If the persuader. jlher means and methods, fail narily, soon be persuaded to stand until we are ready to accomplish the desired results with the confirmed to give him the word to move, bv simply letting him kicker, then we try a means of self-punishment that stand on three legs a part of the time when he is most, we have never had fail us with this class of unruly horses. It is valuable for t'he reason that the punishment is dealt out the very instant of the \'iolation, and at the anxious to go. But as soon as he becomes at all quiet — even for a few seconds — he should have the benefit of all four of his feet, to assure him that we will give him this benefit if he will only be quiet. This is fair- Iv well shown in cut No. 17. It will be seen by cut No. 17, that the horse is stand- ing on two feet only, which requires good balancing power to maintain his equilibrium. Now isn't it plain that if this is all done quietly, and without apparent effort to simply annoy and tease the horse, that he will soon be persuaded that 'he is only working against himself, and conclude that he is doing a great amount of hard work for nothing? Isn't it also apparent, to even the casual observer, that we can permit the horse to still keep going, though somewhat crippled in one leg, that he will be persuaded to go quietly, much sooner than he will if we take bot'h front feet from him, which stops him from moving entirel}'? We neglected to state before, that when we are ready to hitch the kicker to a vehicle, we prefer to first drive in double harness and be sure to have the "persuader" on the outside front foot, so that if he other, or front end of the horse, which,, naturally, at- should fall at any time he will fall outwardly, instead tracts his attention to the point of punishment with of on the pole, and so, possibly, break it. As a pre- such force that he, as naturally,- forgets what has cautionary measure we always apply the "persuader" transpired at the rear. The means to accomplish the to every colt when first harnessed to a wagon or oth- work, consists of one piece, of one-fourth, or three- er vehicle, so as to persuade him, at once, that if he eighth inc'h rope, about twelve or fourteen feet long attempts to run or kick, that 'he must necessarily find and another piece of five-sixteenths inch rope, about it a hard undertaking. p'>^ feet long; a pulley; four straps one inch and a (No. IS.) — ICicking Attaohmi-nt for Single or Double Harness. TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 425 ourth wide and about one foot long, each, and two ron rings, one and a half inches in diameter. First, thread the long rope through the eye of the )ulley, and the sliort rope around the pulley itself, ^ow, check the horse's head, the desired height, with . good, strong, overhead check. Next draw the short ope backwardly, from the front, and under the girth, the pulley will rest just back of the girth, as shown n cut No. 18. Next, take the ends of the small rope, carry each to he rings of the bridle-bit,- at either side, passing hrough the rings, from the outside, (whic'h will bring he rope over the head, under the headstall of the iridle), and carry over the head, from each side, and lass through the rings again from the inside, and let hem hang there until the balance of the attachment las been adjusted. First, by buckling the straps, hove, and below the hocks, and through the rings, as een in cut No. 18. Then tie the larger and shorter ■fope into these rings at the hocks, by half hitches, so ,s to leave the pulley just back of the girth, and fur- .ish the adjustment by drawing the ropes, moderate- Y taut, at the bit, and tie on either side, by half hitch- s, also, (which makes the rope easily untied, no mat- er how tight drawn), and we are ready for the first jrial. 1 We always prefer to commence this first lesson fiih only the harness and reins, because the first kick lay be a terrible one : but, in all probability, it will e the 'last severe one, as it will never be forgotten !by the horse. We are, naturally, asked why. Well, re Avill tell you. It is for the reason that, when the |ind legs are forced backward, the rope, over the ead, has drawn the bit so far up into the angles of he mouth, and holds it there, that the horse forgets Wiat happened at the rear, from the fact that he is pto so much trouble at his front end (the mouth.) It should be our dutv to go to the horse's 'head and raw the bit down intcf the mouth away from the an- gles, and caress him immediately after a hard kick, atisfying him that notwithstanding he got himself |hto trouble we are c'haritable enough to help him out If it. If, by the first hard kick, any part of the kick- ng attachment has been broken, it should be repair- jd before relieving the horse at the head. This at- ,|achment is applicable to either single or double har- ifess, the wagon, plow or other vehicle ; but we never (ke to hitch a kicking horse to any kind of vehicle, f'here he can injure himself or break the carriage, un- til we are satisfied he knows better than to kick hard, at least. AVitli this kicking attachment the horse can walk, trot or pace, but cannot run to much purpose, as when the hind legs are brought backward together it must produce an effect on the mouth ; whereas, the movements of walking, trotting or pacing, move one leg at a time, the leg rope plays back and forth, through the pulley, withqut any appreciable affect on the mouth. Except, in a very straight hock, the straps will stay in their places, especially if both upper and lower straps are of the proper length to allow the ring to draw from the center of the hock. The reader may wonder why we want to pass the long, small rope up over the horse's head and tie in- to the bit-ring on the opposite side; but, say to him- self, it is just as well to tie to the bit-ring on either side, instead of going to the trouble of passing it over the head and tying on the other side. We answer by saying, if tied directly to the bit-ring, and the horse should kick hard, he will certainly bruise his mouth badly, and may break the bit and get his freedom; whereas, when the rope is passed over the head, as directed, the hard kick draws the bit up intq the an- gles of the mouth so tiglitly (and the rope being un- der the head-stall of the bridle), that the pressure continues until relief is brought to the horse by his handler pulling the bit down into the mouth, which, if done in the spirit of kindness, will soon satisfy the horse that it don't pay to kick any more. Its use should be persevered in for a considerable time. THE SWITCHER AND REIN CATCHER. (No. 19.) — PreventiCB and Prob.ible Cure. 426 See that the stock have plenty of fresh air during the summer. (No. 20.) — The Balky Horse, Hitched for the Start. The rein catcher, witli tlie tail, is often a dantjer- ous character; notwithstancHnt; he, or she, may other- wise be a verv vakiable animal. Alares are generally worse than geldings, and, while they have free use of the tail, may constantly keep, trying to catch the rein under the tail. \Yhen the habit of catching the rein, with the tail,, lias become a constant practice, we endeavor to pre- vent it by tying into a portion of the 'hair of the tail, a little above the terminal end of the tail bone, the middle portion of a string of sufficient length to ex- tend to the tugs, or traces, on either side, and .secure' ly tie. as sliown in cut No. ig. The tie in the tai should be made securely: something in manner of ty ing the tail of the horse, in the first section of this de- partment, Figs. 7 and S, but, with oidy a small portion' of the hair on the under side of the tail, about the size' of a pencil, to that of the size of the finger. If it is done^ in this style the string should be wrapped two 0' three times around the bunch of hair to prevent it:' becoming loose. The string* to the tugs should be drawn taut to be' m^^ (No. 21.)— The Balky Hor^e PrUins ty His Tail. It is very bad policy to try to suddenly pull the rein from under the tail whenever caught by accident or purposely. But, if it is possible to let the rein loose, or t'he tail can be lifted from off the rein, quietly, by the hand, the animal may soon recover from any ner- vousness in consequence. It too often happens that the mischief is done by some unthinking, or inexperienced driver, and the animal rendered dangerous, or, at least, troublesoiue, to say the least. gin with, and, as the animal becomes used to the reir it luay, from time to time, be tied more loosely. It will thus be seen that it is impossible for the an mal to securely catch and hold the rein with the ta w'here this device is used ; and, by gently droppin the rein from side to side, without teasing the anima we soon establish confidence between us and the an mal. and the habit is eventually forgotten. We niic , used this device a whole summer on a very nervor] mare before she entirely gave it up. Prevention an TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 427 confidence must be established before the habit is broken up. THE BALKY HORSE. The reader will, naturally, say to 'himself, you have "tackled" a subject in which we are all interested. But few of us know how to handle it (we refer to the horse), but all of us want to learn. WHAT IS A BALKY HORSE? A balky horse is one that has been badly han- dled or overloaded. His shoulders are sore or he is discouraged, disgusted, or prevented from going w'en he wanted to, and, naturally, says to 'himself, ;i have stopped me, now I will go when I get ' readv. Here wc are, and the question is "what are we going to do about it?" \\'ell, most people will be- gin to whip, yell, yank and pound the poor horse, and at the rear, sends 'him forward. Now we must take advantage of this lav/ in applying the remedy to the balky horse. Instead of the usual confusion, excite- ment and punishment, we quietly get down from the wagon, caress him as though nothing was wrong. We then take a rope or strap strong enough to draw t'he load, and from eight to ten feet long, with the short end toward us we lay the rope or strap across the tail of the horse, as seen in the first section of this department, Figs. 7 and 8, just below the end of the tail bone about three feet from the end of the rope or strap; now turn all t'he hair of the tail back toward the body of the horse, holding the same with the left hand. Reach under the tail and grasp the long part of the rope or strap 'with t'he right hand, bring it around the tail and tuck it under that part around the tail dou- ble, as shown in cut No. 20. As soon as t'he knot in the tail is drawn firmly, we tie the short end of the rope or strap to the end of the (No. 22.) so confuse him that he loses what horse sense he had and stands there like a post, puts his head over the other horse, or, throwing himself to the ground, breaks some part of the harness or wagon, and thus gains his point in the large majority of cases. REMEDY FOR BALKY HORSES. Before giving the remedy, we must repeat the law governing the horse, to-wit: Whatever happens at the front of the horse impels him backward ; and that then we quietly get into the wagon, taking the long tnd of the rope or strap into the wagon, as is well shown in cut No. 20, ready for t'he start. When we are all ready to start (not before) we touch the other horse with the whip or rein for a sudden start, which pulls on the other fellow's tail, and he wonders w'hat has so suddenly happened to him at the rear end, which induces him to, at once, move forward with- out further ceremony, wdiicli is very nicely repre- sented in cut No. 21. We prefer to keep the horse pulling by his tail un- 428 Stpck that are driven hard should not be confined too close stalls immediately. The Stake Winner. King Leaf, Chestnut Horse. Bred by J. D. Smith, Muir, Ky., Registered No. 15T3.5. Owned by The Errol Farm. Plymouth, Fla. til he becames fairly reconciled to that way of draw- ing and going steadily, when we quietly pull on the rope or strap we have in the wagon, whicli releases his tail and permits him to pull in the usual manner without stopping. This .'^hould he done while the horse is in motion, and, if he does not appreciate the change and should stop, we again get down, as quiet- ly as before, and connect him to the wagon by the tail and start as before, and keep it up much longer, repeating as often as necessary, until the liorse de- cides that he prefers to draw the loads by his shoul- ders, rather than his tail, as shown in cut No. 2.2. Our object in writing these articles is twofold ; first, to give a more complete description of the means and especiallv the methods, tlian we 'have heretofore observed Ijy other writers on the subject ; second, to be able, at least, to a degree to ameliorate the suffer- ings of our horses in the hands of those who would treat them more humanely if they only knew the means and methods by which they could effectively do so in an intelligent manner. We do not charge the abuse of our horses to the naturally cruel disposi- tions of their handlers, but to want of the proper means, and, also, to t'he iidierited impression that the horse is only a brute to be driven, driven, driyen, without giving this noble servant credit for scarcely any of his innate intelligence. We have given this subject close attention for more than 40 years, and have studied the natural laws by which the horse can be made as obedient, and useful an animal, as treads tlie earth through the means and methods of his education, ^^'e hope our articles will awaken an interest in the voung men of the South, to a better treatment of our greatest animal servant, the Horse. A Typical Southern Horse. Owned on Diversification Farm No. a, Uniontown, Ala. NOTE -Photographs on pages 339, 347, 370, 372, 379 and 395 were taken by Mr. William F. Nelson especially for this Book. Doses and Actions of Drugs NAME OF DRUG ACTION HORSES CATTLE SHEEP AND SWINE DOGS Acetanilid . . lleduces fever 1 to 8 drams . 2 to 10 dr. . . . 10 to 60 gr . . . 2 to 10 gr Acid, Boric. . . . External and intestinal antiseptic 2 to 8 drams . 2 to 10 dr. . . . 30 to 60 gr . . . 5 to 15 gr Carbolic External and internal antiseptic 15 to 30 graina 15 to CO gr. . . . 5 to 10 gr ... 1 to 2 drops " Gallic . . . Internal astringent 1 to 2 drams . 1 to G dr . . . 2 to 3 dr . . . . 2 to 10 dr. . . 10 to 30 grains 15 to 30 gr . . . 5 to 15 gr Salycylic Intestinal antiseptic, anti-rheumatic 5 to 10 gr '•inuic . ■ External and internal astringent 1 to 4 dr ... 2 to 5 dr. . . 30 to 00 gr ... 1 to 10 gr Aconite, Powder . . '• Extract . - Decrease the force and frequency of the heart Decrease the force and frequency of the hearf. € to V-i gr . . . 2' to .J 5 to 20 gr. . . . 2 to G gr . . . !X to 2 gr .... 1/5 to Vi gr . . 1. 10 to 1 gr 1 10 to 1/3 gr '• Fluid extract Decrease the force and frequency of the heart. S to 20 m . . - 5 to 30 m . . ;-l to 2 m .... 1,5 to 1 m. Aconitlne Alcohol Powerful heart depressent and toxic .... Increases force and frequency of heart. . ,. 1/30 to 1/10 gr 1 to 2 oz 1/30 to 1/8 gr . 2 to 3 oz 1/100 to 1/50 gr 1 to 3 dr. . . . 1/200 to 1/50 gr. Yi to 1 dr Purgative 2 to 10 dr. . . . 1 to 3 dr .... 1 to 2 dr .... 4 to 12 dr . . . . 3 to 12 dr ... 1 to 4 dr ... 1 to 4 dr ... 5 to 15 dr. ... 1 to 4 dr .... 10 to 30 gr . . ■A to 1 dr .... 1 to 2 dr .... 4 to 60 gr tines. ... 1 to 5 dr Ammonia water . . ' Spirit Heart and respiratory stimulant, antl-acjd. . . Heart and respiratory stimulant, anti-ac.d. . . 2 to 10 m 5 to 30 m * Spt aromatic . Ammonium Acetate . Heart, respiratory stim. expectorant, stomachic. D uretic, deaphoretic and anti-acid 4 to i2 dr ... 5 to 15 dr . . . 1 to '^ dr .5 to CO m 2 to 6 oz 3 to 7 oz . . . . 4 to 8 dr .... 1 to 4 dr ** Carbonate . . Heart and respiratory stimulant, expectorant, emetic 1 to 3 dr ... 1 to 4 dr .... 15 to 40 gr . . . ■■ to 8 gr Areca Nut Kills round and tape worms in Intestines. . 4 to S dr . . . . 5 to 10 dr ... 30 to 90 gr . . l5 to 00 gr Arnica, tinct. of flowers .... Stimulates skin. Little valuelnternally. . . ■4 to 1 oz ... '/4 to 1 oz 1 to 2 dr .... 15 to 40 m Arnica, tinct of root Stimulates skin. Little value internayy. . . ,■4 to 1 oz . . . . % to 1 oz . . . . . 1 to 2 dr .... Ul to 20 m Arsenic " Fowler's so- Poison. Destroys intestinal parasites. Tonic. 3 to G gr . . . . i to 10 gr. . . . H to 1 gr .... 1/60 to 1/10 jr 2 to S dr 3 to 10 dr . . . ■/< to 1 dr ... 2 to 10 m " Donovan's so- 2 to 8 dr . . 3 to 6 dr . . . 3 to 10 dr ... 4 to 8 dr .... !4 to 1 dr ... ;/> to 1 dr ... 2 to 10 m Aspidlum F Ext. . . . Destroys round and tape worms in intestines. . 15 to 00 m ^ Oleo res'-n . . Destroys round and tape worms in intestines. . S to 6 dr . . . 4 to 8 dr .... ■/2 to 1 dr ... 15 to 60 m Atropine sulphate. Increases frequency of heart. Checks secre- Vz to m gr . . . 1 to 2 dr . . . . ',< to 2 gr . . .' 1 to 3 dr . . . . 1/15 to 1, 12 gr 10 to 15 m ... 1 100 tn 1 -^0 gr. rtellartonna F. Ext of Increases frequency of heart. Checks secre- tions 1 to 3 m Barium Chloride . . . Purgative, stimulates involuntary muscles. . . 1 to 2 dr . . . . 2 to 4 dr .... 2 to 5 gr ... 1/3 to 1 gr Bismuth Subnitrate . Protects mucous surfaces 1 to 4 dr .... 2 to 5 dr ... 1 to 2 dr .... 10 to 30 gr 2 to 4 oz 1 to 2 oz. ... 1 to 2 dr. ... 1 to 2 oz 20 to 60 gr. . . 1 to 2 oz. ... •4 to W" pts. . . 3 to 6 oz 2 to 3 oz 2 to 4 dr .... 1 to 2 oz 20 to 00 gr . . 1 to 4 oz .... 1 to 2 pts . . . 1 to 2 oz 1 to 2 oz . . % to 1 dr .... 2 to 20 gr . . 2 to 4 dr .... 5 to 15 gr ... 2 to 6 dr .... 3 to fi oz ... 1 to 3 dr .... 1 to 4 dr Buchu leaves 10 to 30 gr 1 to 5 gr . Calomel Purgrativo Camphor spirits . . Stimulates lieart. respirations of stomach and 14 to 1 dr 1 to 8 gr 10 to 60 gr 2 to 4 dr Charcoal Castor Oil .... Depresses brain, heart, respirations, antl-septlc r'sed ia eolio, diarrhoea, rough, anasthesia . 1 to 2 oz. ... -5 to ''O gr Chloroform 1 to 8 dr. . . . 2 to 10 dr ... 20 to CO m ... 10 to 30 m Cinchoric bark . . . . Ton=c. r.stringent. anti-periodic 2 to 6 dr ■-.' to 10 dr ... 1 to 4 dr ... 10 to GO gr Copper Sulphate . . Crotoni oil Antiseptic, astringent, kills round worms. . . Irritant purgative 1 to 2 dr 15 to 30 m. . 2 to 3 dr .... 20 to 40 m . . 3 to 20 gr ... 5 to 10 m ... 1/4 to 2 gr 1/2 to 3 m Digitalis tinct . . . Increases force of heart, and diuretic ■A to dr. ... 1 to 8 dr . . . . !4 to 2 dr ... 10 to 40 m Epsom salts Saline purgatives for cattle and sheep. . . . 4 tu 10 oz. . . . V2 to 1 oz. ~. . . 1 to 2 oz. ... S to 32 oz. ... Vi to 1 oz . . . . 1 to 2 oz .... 1 to 3 oz .... 1 to 2 dr .... 2 to 4 dr .... 1 to 4 dr J^ to 1 dr Ether, nitrous .... General stimulant and diuretic 10 to 60 m Gentian H to 1 oz. ... I'z to 2 oz .... 1 to 3 dr ... 5 to 30 gr " tine comp . linger " Fid ext . . . . 1 to 4 oz. ... 2 to 8 dr. . - . 2 to 8 dr. . . 2 to 4 oz 4 to 10 dr ... 3 to 10 dr . . . 4 to 8 dr .... 1 to 3 dr ... 1 to 3 dr ... 1 to 4 dr Improves appetite, aids in expelling gases. . . . Stomachic and carminative 5 to 30 dr 5 to 30 m 1 to 2 oz. ... 2 to 4 oz. . . . 4 to 8 dr. ... 1 to 2 oz. . . . 2 to 8 dr ... 1 to 3 oz .... "i to 6 oz. ... 5 to 10 dr . . 1 to 2 oz 3 to 10 dr . . . 2 to 4 dr 1 to 2 oz .... 1 to 4 dr .... 10 to 60 m Glycerine Laxative and protective. Turgative 1 to 3 dr ^0 to CO dr Aptringont used in diarrhoea Stimulates motion and secretion in stomach 2 to 4 dr .... ;^ to 2 dr Ilydrast's (Goldeu 1 to 2 dr ... 5 to 60 gr Seal) itTdro'en Dioxide . . 1 to 2 oz . . . 1 to 3 oz . . . . 1 to 4 dr .... Ant'sppfc external and interral; ....... 'J to 2 dr Ilyascyamus Increases frequency of heart beats. rhecris >4 to 1 oz. ... 4 to 10 dr . . . /, to 1 dr .... .f, to ^r, BT - -!"9 NAME OF DRUG Ilyasi/yaniiis, fid. ext Hypopliosphltes, c. syr Iodine LugaTs Sol. . '• Tiuct Iodoform Ipicac Ipicac Iron chlorde tlact. Iron and Qninine citrate ., • • . • Iron su'.piiate. . . . Lime water Liuseed oil IVIagncsia Magnesium sulphate . Mercury wllli clialk Mercury bidiloride . Mercury red iodide Morpliine and its salts Mustard ACTION Mustard . . Nux vomica Oiive oil Opium . Increases frequency of Iieart beats, dilate pils. 1)U- .Siimulates cell activity, and nutritive. ntiseptic, irritant, checks secretions Antiseptic, irritant, checks secretions Antiseptic, irritant, checks secretions .Vni;scpt;c, Irritant, checks secretions ;;xpecturant - L^metic Ponic, astringent, antiseptic, desiroys worms. . Tonic, astringent, antiseptic, antiperiodic. . . Tonic, astringent, antiseptii!; destroys worms. Anti-acid. Checks diarrhoea Purgative and protective Used to check diarrhoea in- calves and cults Saline purgative (best for catf.e) For diarrhoea in calves and colts Externally antiseptic 1 to 1000, Internally an tiseptic, etc Used as blister, 1 part in 4 to S of lard or vaseline arcotic, antispasmodic i water, externally, mild blister, int. a sti mulant as an emetic ilespiratory, heart and bowel stimulant. . . . Uespiratory, heart and*1joweI st-mulant. . . . Laxative, purgative and protective. Xarcnric, depresses actityi and secretion of bowels X.ircolic. depresses action and secretiou,of l^n els *• " Camphtn Pumpkin Seed . . . ■ Petroleum (vaseline) Physostigmine .... Pilocarpine and salts Podophyllin Potassium Carbonate Iodide .... " nitrae " permanganate . Pyrethrum Quinine and Salts Santonin Sodium bicarbonate. Sodium bromide . . . Sodium hyposulphite " salicylate . . . " sulphate . . . Stramonium, fid ext. Strophonthus tinct . Strychnine and salts Rulpliur Sweet spirits of nitre Tallianine 'j'urpentine Tiirpentine Turpentine Veratrum viride, fid. ext Virburnum. prun, fid ext Paregoric, narcoiic, depresses action and cretlon of bowels. Destroys tape worms For sore throat when dry. rougn or raw. ^alycylate or sulphate, purgative, hypoderml- (■ally HORCL3 CATTLE 1 li. S dr. to 2 oz. . to 1 dr. to 4 dr. . to 4 dr. . to 8 dr. . to 2 dr. . 1 to oz. 1 to 4 dr. . . 1 to 2 dr. . 4 to 6 oz. . V2 tolVi pt. . 1 to 4 dr. . 1 to 2 lb. . 10 to 15 gr 5 to 8 gr. . . 3 to 10 gr. . 4 to S dr. . K to 2 dr. . : to 6 dr. . I to IK' pt. 1 to 2 dr. . 1 t(.) 2 oz. . 2 to 4 oz . . 1 to 8 oz. . . Increases saliva and stimulates intestines. . . Stimulates liver, purgative .\nti-acid, alkalizer of the plasma of the blood Stimulates cell activity and lymph glands. . Depresses heart, stimulates kidneys Used chiefly as mild antiseptic externally. Used chiefly to drive away fleas, etc Tonic (small doses) to reduce fever large dose Destroy intestinal worms irastric Sedative, alkalizer of blood plasma. . .Verve depressent. Narcotic Gastro-intestinal. antiseptic. Jaxative .Vnti-rheumatic, intestinal antiseptic (rlaubers Salts," pur.gative ( Jimson weed) action same as Belladonna. . . Decreases frequency and increases force of heart Stimulates heart, respirations and spinaLniotor nerves Gastro-intestinal disinfectant. Purges . . . Same as nitrous ether Given intravenously in lung fever, etc. . . To destroy intestinal worms To stimulate the kidneys . . To expel gases from intestines and antisepi Depresses heart and acts like aconite. Depress Uterus, prevent al>ortion. . . 1 to 1V4 gr. 1 to 3 gr. . 1 to 2 dr. 4 to 8 oz. 4 to 8 dr. . 4 to 8 dr. . ;4 to 5 dr 4 to S dr. . 1 to 4 oz. . 1 to 2 oz . . 1 to 2 oz. 2 to S dr. . 8 to IG oz. 20 to 00 m 1 to 4 dr. . Vi to 2 gr. 2 to* 4 oz. 2', dr. . . 1 to .■> oz. 2 to dr. 1 to 2 oz. 2 to ."i dr. . 1 to 4 oz. JHEEP AND SWINE -1 to 10 dr 1 to 3 oz . 1 to 2 dr. 2 to 4 dr to 4 dr 5 to 10 dr 2 to 3 dr . t to 2 oz . 1 to 8 dr . 1 to 3 dr . to 8 oz . 1 to 2 pts . 2 to 4 dr 1 to 2 lbs 10 to 30 gr 5 to 10 gr 4 to 12 gr 4 to 10 gr 2 to 3 dr 2 to s dr 1 to 2 pt 2 to 4 dr . 1 to 3 oz . 2 to G oz 1 to 10 oz 1 to 2 gr 3 to G gr . 2 to ! dr to 10 dr 4 to 8 dr . 4 to 10 dr 1 to 8 dr . 4 to 10 dr . 2 to 5 oz 1 to 3 oz . 1 to 3 oz . 2 to 10 dr 1 to 2 lb . . 30 to 00 m 1 to 8 dr 1 to 2 gr . 3 to 6 oz 3 dr . . . . 2 to 4 oz 3 to 8 dr 1 to 3 oz . 2 to 3 oz 2 to 5 oz y< to 1 dr . 2 to 4 dr ill to 20 gr 20 to 40 m . 2U to 40 m . 10 to 30 gr ;i to 1 dr . ■4 to 1 dr . 20 to 60 m . ;ii 10 oil gr . 20 to oi' *gr 1 to' 3 oz . (r to 12 oz . . 1 to 2 dr . 4 to S oz . . I to 10 gr. . 1 to 2 gr . 1 to 2 dr . 4 to 8 dr 10 to 20 gr 20 to 40 m 4 to 8 oz . ,T to 30 gr . 2 to dr . 4 to 8 dr 4 to 8 oz . 2 to 4 dr r^ to 30 gr . 30 to 60 gr 10 to 30 gr 30 to 60 gr 5 to 40 gr 1 to 3 dr 2 to 4 dr . . 2 to 4 dr . . 30 to GO gr ■-;. to 2 dr 1 to 2 oz . . .-. to 10 m r. lo 30 m . 1/30 to 1/5 gr 1 to 2 oz . . 5 to 15 m . I.; to 1 oz 1 to 2 dr . . 1 to 4 dr . . 40 to 60 ra . 2 to 4 dr . DOGS to 15 m 1 dr '- to 8 gr 2 to 10 m 2 to 10 m 2 to 8 gr V4 to 2 gr 1.1 to 30 gr 5 to 30 m 5 to 10, gr 1 to 5 gr 1 to 8 dr 4 to 8 dr 5 to GO gr 1 to 3 gr 1/30 to 1/8 gr 1/8 to 1/2 gr 10 to 15 gr 4 dr 1 to 2 gr 5 to 15 m 1 to 3 oz 1 to 3 gr 'i to 30 m 1 to 4 dr 1 to 2 oz 1 to 2 dr 1 to 3 gr 5 to 20 gr 2 to 15 gr 5 to 20 gr to 10 gr lo 20 gr to 30 gr to GO gr to 30 gr to 30 gr to 30 gr to 5 m 2 to 10 m 1/120 to 1/30 gr 1 to 4 dr 2 to 6 m K to 4 dr 5 to 10 m 10 to 30 m 2 to S m 10 to 60 m 430 Book XII « Hog Dfpartment EDITED AND REVISED BY GEN. THOMAS T. MUMFORD, Manager U. S. Diversification Farm No. 3, at Oakland, near Uniontown, Alabama. A Southern Scene. A Good Farmer Raises His Own Meat. 433 INTRODUCTION. The Department of Agriculture at Washington, D. C., has opened the way for a new era. They have estabHshed a Diversification Farm No. 3, on Oak- land, the Munford Plantation, near Uniontown, Ala- bama. It is an object lesson, a reality, and not .an experiment. There they teadh how hogs are raised economically. It is a specialty. The hogs are graz- ed and fed on alfalfa, Bermuda grass, hairy vetch, white clover, peas, beans and sorghum, and the last three weeks of their lives corn and cotton seed thor- to the importer of these Western shippers, who sup- ply not only their corn fed hogs, but also a large part of their corn. We now come to the real business of this matter. Prof. W. J. Spillman, representing the Bureau of An- imal Industry, at Washington, D. C, paid a visit to this section of Alabama, and addressed by invitation a body of planter^ of this vicinity. He made this proposition: "That the Department of Agriculture could demonstrate at a minimum cost the price of a pound of bacon, which could be raised on our lands, if the opportunity was afforded." He said that he SHOrNER'S L. & W. PERrECTION Z^96l C. Fig. 1. — Weighed wlieu 1 year old 535 lbs. Present weiglit 901 lbs. Owned by B. C. Sliafuer, Mulberry, Tenn. ougTily fermented in their food. The aim is not to winter pigs which are intended to be slaughtered, but that the brood sows should be farrowed in April and May and their pigs killed in January or February, the I same year,- weighing froin 150 to 200 pounds, and j raised at a minimum cost. I I have heard it said that everybody cannot raise hogs for profit. Our population increases over 2,- |i 000,000 annually in the U. S. The census shows that I about 47,000,000 hogs are raised annually, and that 'their money value points to $289,000,000.00. Every I man knows that in every village and town of the i South, tons of hog products are brought into the (town, and heavy tribute is paid to the railroads and was prepared to furnish the proper seed and to de- monstrate how the land should be prepared, and would guarantee the best results, if the owner of the land would furnish the land and do the labor, and follow implicitly his plans and specifications. I of- fered him all that he required, and have been delight- ed with the progress and results. He suggested that hogs be the specialty and the entire product of the land should in one form or another pass through the hog, — in other words, we would raise hogs. I asked what kind of hogs? He replied that, per- sonally, he preferred one kind, that it was a matter of fancy or taste; that there are many valuable breeds and that he would leave that to me. The Berkshire 29 434 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. breed pleased both of us, and I at once formulated my plans, but he winked at me and suggested that time was an important factor, for said he. "we must first prepare the food and then get the hogs." "Ours is an object lesson, and I will have sent to you enough alfalfa seed to occupy fifteen acres, and some varie- ties of corn and peas different from what you have, and some sorghum seed, and when these have grown in sight, we will talk about how to use them." We began to prepare for alfalfa in February and in ]\'Iarch it came up beautifully. We used twenty lbs. of seed per acre. In April we had a beautiful green field and in May it was ready to be foraged. This was for the hogs. We had a first-rate old Bermuda pasture well sprinkled with white clover, which is invaluable in wet and muddy weather, as the hogs do not cut it up. We "ring" all our hogs in their noses, and find that a good piece of wire answers as well as anything seen on the market as "Hog Nose Rings." With a keen punch we make an opening, through which the wire is promptly inserted, a stick a half an inch in diam- eter is placed next to the nose, pulled over and twisted and cut with a pair of nippers, and it will generally stay there as long as they live. The wild hog's maxim is "root pig or die" and a choice tuba of many kinds whets his appetite, but it is work. If he is placed where he can get tender herbage at will, and plenty of fresh water, he will eat until he is full and not "pester" himself much about what is under the ground, unless there are roots planted for his consumption, and upon w'hich he has to depend. W^e planted fifteen acres in early corn and laid it by. by seeding about two bushels of peas to the acre, which we covered with a weeder. (And we here exhibit an object lesson from a photograph of the alfalfa, corn, peas and sorghum.) Having seen what was intended to be fed, I col- lected as fine Berkshire hogs as I could find in Mary- land, Virginia, North Carolina and Kentucky, includ- ing crossing of the best imported English Berkshire. Our young boar is a picture. At eighteen months old, he weighed four hundred and fifty-three pounds gross, and we have endeavored to keep down his flesh, rather than crowd him by extra feeding. I now come to shelters. When I asked what I should build, the reply was "that depends upon your taste and surroundings." Professor Spillman only wished an object lesson. Men must be governed by their ability, and are here to raise hogs economically, but there are prerequisites or cardinal principles in- volved to ensure success. I see no necessity for elab orate buildings. What we demand for our hogs ii good, warm, dry shelter from cold Avinds and rains Good beds and plank floors are needed, and goo) troughs to feed in that are not in the mud. Thj hogs must be kept free from dust and vermin, fq these are enemies to hogs and pigs. A plenty o fresh, clean water is absolutely necessary for then to drink. It is a good plan to 'have charcoal fo them, as it is a fine sedative. It is carbon in a dif ferent form, and is assimilated in large quantitie' and hogs improve on it. Also salt, wood ashes anf a little sulphur mixed is acceptable to the hogs They will eat it when they require if When anything is wrong with a hog he should b immediately taken from the rest, and if he dies h,i should be burned or buried. Dogs and buzzards, th" scavengers of the farm, often contaminate water b| their voiding, and propagate diseases as violent a the fly and the mosquito does, and should be guarc' ed against. All ill-formed, sick or injured pigs ha better be given away than mar the beauty of a fin herd of hogs or pigs. Lice can readily be detected and gotten rid of b using a sprav of kerosene oil, turpentine soap an warm water. The hog in self-defense seeks a wallow plasters head, ears and back with soft mud, which n vermin can live in. The vermin are encased in thi mud and when it dries, the. hog rakes it all off by scratching post. If this scratching post is wrappe with a bag which has been saturated with kerosen oil, the hogs will rub agains it, and this will greatlj aid in keeping the vermin off. I FEEDING. We believe that the hog will consume as muc grass in proportion to size as any other animal, an| when just grain enoug'h to keep them gentle, wi thrive as much, and grow as fast towards maturitj as any other animal. They delight in tender herbage A handful of meal given to them daily seems to stici to their kidneys and they lay on fat rapidly. A littl! corn or rice meal, and well fermented cotton seed fe daily to hngs will make an astonishing increase i their weight, and it is a perfectly safe feed. Ra' cotton seed in any quantity is a poison to them. Fc fancy hogs, skimmed milk is an ideal ration, also wi be found to be excellent for pigs. Alfalfa will malxiu mature. They sunscald easily in the South, but are succeed you must study your business. very popular breeds in the East and North. Berkshire. — The Berkshire is a black hog with white feet, white line in the face, pug. up-turned nose, with occasional white spots over the body. Ears are erect. The sows are prolific and active. Good s'hoats weigh from 250 to 300 pounds at from nine to twelve months old. Their bones are small, and consequent- ly are not so good for shipping, as their legs are easily broken. This is a very popular breed in the South. Poland-China. — The Poland-Chinas are black and white spotted hogs weighing from 250 pounds and on upwards from nine to twelve months old. They 'have large hams, short, strong legs, and for that reason make fine shippers. This breed is grown more by the Western farmers. Victorias. — The Victorias are made up of two dis- tinct breeds, the Davis and Curtis. Both are white hogs and weigh from 300 to 400 pounds from nine to twelve months old. It is claimed for the Victorias that t'hey are little subject to mange and sunscald here in the South. The sows are prolific and are good mothers. Yorkshire. — The small Yorkshires are pure white hogs with pink skin. These hogs weigh when ma- ture from 375 to 400 pounds. They will do as well in t'he South as any of the white breeds, but "it is claimed that they cannot compete with the black haired hogs. Let it be added here with emphasis that the larger Fig -Hugs ou U. S. Divei-siUcaliou P'arm No. o. Uuiontuwu, Ala. Duroc-Jersey. — The Duroc-Jersey is a red haired hog, and very much resembles the Poland-China. Well matured shoats from nine to twelve months weigh about 250 to 300 pounds. They are excellent feeders, stand forcing well, and never sun scald. The bones are large, and the sows are very prolific. The hogs when mature weigh from 600 to 700 pounds. The Chester-Whites and the Improved Chester- Whites are both white breeds. The hogs dress from 17s to 250 pounds when from eigfht to nine months old, and go anywhere from 600 to Too pounds when breeds do not always pay. If a good large prize is offered for the largest hog grown in the country, you may compete for the prize, but I would advise not to attempt to raise extra large hogs. Large hogs are! not wanted at t'he butcher pen, and they are not as profitable to the producer as a medium size hog. It does not pay to keep hogs until they are old, for they will soon eat up the profits. Spring pigs should be fattened the same year, for it does not pay to keep them over. They are more liable to disease, and eat too much. Anywhere from 200 to 300 pounds is a^ very good weight for a hog. To go over that weight ^ Peanuts Make A Very Fine Feed For Hogs- 437 is a waste of money. The same corn will produce more meat in smaller hogs. HOW TO RAISE HOGS. In raising hogs common sense should prevail. They must be protected from the cold. Now, of course, it will not be argued that they should have as elaborate buildings as are required in the North. But they should have ample protection. Their sleeping places should be dry and clean. When it comes to pastures and pens, circumstances will have to determine. We would not advise using pens for any length of tmie. It is much cheaper to have a pasture. A hog pasture does not mean a dust lot with a few old weeds in it, but it means a good range with a lot of good feed in there for them. It is a losing game to try to raise hogs in a dry lot, using nothing but corn for food. While in the pen some green food, such as Bermuda srrass, should be fed. i In raising hogs, the owner must have good fences about tiis pasture. A hog can make himself an intol- I erable nuisance unless he be kept in an enclosure, and good fences are necessary to keep him there. The boar is ready for service at from six to eight |, months old, but it is far better to allow him to be- |i come ten months old before he is allowed to serve. The sow is capable of breeding when she is seven or I eight months old, but it is better that she not bring her first litter of pigs until she is fourteen or fifteen months old. Two litters of pigs per year is all that a sow should be allowed to raise, and many breeders are satisfied with one. It is better that the first litter eome by the first of March, and then by the first of the following year they are ready to kill. Pigs thus raised will bring one cent per pound more than if ■ they had been wintered and weighed fifty pounds more. The thing to do is to push their fattening l| from the time they are born until they are killed, for the daily increase in flesh becomes less and less as ; the animal increases in age. Pigs should be weaned in the spring from six to seven weeks old, and in the fall from seven to eight weeks old. In weaning them they should have skim- ' med milk, butter milk, corn meal, or some soft feed. Corn meal is a very poor food for pigs, as it furnish- es fat only, and should not be used except to fatten hogs. Pigs should be castrated when from two to three weeks old, as it is far better to castrate them then than to allow t'hem to get older, as they should have ample time to get well, which requires three weeks, before they are weaned. Castration is a sim- ple operation. Anyone who has ever seen it done can do so without any trouble. Gestation in sows is ac- complished in three months, three weeks and three days. When you once get a good sow, hold on to her, for young sows are quite frequently bad mothers. A sow should continue to be prolific for about eight years, unless she is allowed to become too fat. HOG FEED. Since hogs must be fed the question of greatest im- portance is the feed question. We will consider brief- ly some of the best foods that are used for hogs. The peanut is hard to beat for hogs, especially in the South, and in counties where the land is poor. The good part about peanuts is, that they will grow on land where nothing else scarcely will grow. Land that will not produce other things, often will produce fine peanuts, and these cannot be better used than in feeding to pigs. The place where they are planted should be fenced, and the hogs will do their own har- vesting. The value of peanuts as a fattening food was tested by experiment, and found that it is great- er than either soy beans, corn or chufas. The fat produced by the peanuts is softer and more oily Uian any of the others. Perhaps the table of the experi- ment will be of interest to some. This expe'-iment was published in Bulletin No. 54 of the Arkansas Station. UEST'I.TS OF riO.FEEDI\n EXrEKIMENT. SO ^ ^ J2 ID ^§ 61) = 5 C3 .4- ai l& f," :5 i" 3" a a, % "S >: £5 s be =3 "S 'to M 8 a Lot 1 (peanuts) . . . . 1 406 760 844 294 2.2 Lot 2 (soy beans) . . . 4 499 590 ... 91 Lot 3 (corn) 3 417 646 754 T2i) 2.4 Lot 4 (chufas) .... •i 3fi4 482 562 118 1.4 Corn and corn meal are used to fatten hogs, but should not be used when the pigs are growing. In other words, while the pig is growing they must have something that will produce bone and muscle, and this corn does not do. Shorts is one of the very best feeds for growing pigs, as it -contains a plenty of mat- ter for bone and muscle. 438 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE There are many other feeds that can be raised in t'lie South, and they should be adopted. Molasses that until recently found no sale, has been found to be quite valuable as a hog food, and now commands a good price as such. As to pastures, rape makes a very fine pasture, and is being grown for that purpose quite a great deal now. It makes a quick pasture, and you get quick returns. SCRATCHING POST. Hogs enjoy a good scratch. They are not only comfortable to the hog, but they can be of great ser- vice to hog men, in that they can be wrapped with burlap, which is oiled, and when the hog scratches he gets greased, which will keep vermin off of him. Or you may wrap around the post a good ^Manilla Fig 4.— Head of tne Herd. rope as high as the hog stands, and saturate this with crude petroleum, or kerosene, though petroleum is better, and you 'have an ideal scratching post. This oil is fatal to lice and mites. KEEPING MEAT THROUGH THE SUMMER. Allow all the animal heat to escape by killing the day before packing. Block out the meat over even- ing, taking off the head, feet, loose fat, backbone andt spareribs, and allow it to cool in such blocks, being careful not to let it freeze. After the meat has thor- oughly cooled in that manner, then trim it, taking off the lard and sausage meat that is needed. Cut the meat in sizes that you desire, being careful to rub each piece thoroughly with salt, and pack in a box with plenty of salt. When the meat has taken enough salt, take it out of the box, scrape the salt off, and hang it up. Smoke it with hickory, or corn cobs, us- ing a pod of pepper to drive away flies. When dry, pack away the meat in a box, but do not allow the meat to touch the box, using corn cobs between the meat and box. The 'hams should not be packed down, but should be hung after you have covered them with a paste made from ground black pepper and syrup or molasses. This paste should be thoroughly rub- bed in, and the hams hung where the rats cannot get to them. Borax spoils the flavor of the meat, and should not be used. Saltpeter should not be put on the meat if it will take the salt without it, as it har- dens the meat. TO PICKLE MEAT. Dress the hog late in the afternoon or evening. Cut up and remove the bone, and let it lie until morn- ing. Make a strong brine, — just as strong as salt will make it, boil and skim, and allow it to cool. Then place the pork in it, taking care that it be covered. Let it stand forty-eight 'hours. Then remove the pork, and empty the brine, and bo'l for five minutes and skim. Cool the brine, and place the meat in as before. Allow it to stand for twenty-four hours, re- move the pork and boil as before, placing it back af- ter the brine has cooled. Then place the brine and pork in a cool place and allow it to stand there. If t'he meat gets too salty^ soak in water before cook- ing. Another good plan is as follows: To 400 pounds of meat (fresh) : One-fourth ounce pulverized red pepper. One-half ounce saltpeter. Four pounds sugar. One gallon salt. Mix together and salt down in the usual way and keep t'he meat weighted down tmder the brine. Of course, meat managed in this manner would have to be well bled, hung up to drip an hour or two. That is, leave the hogs hanging after dressing so there will be as little blood as possible, as you do not take it up after first putting down. Beef is especially nice pickled this way. Ycu Ought to Have a Good Hog Pactur 439 WHY HE FAILED V/ITH HOGS Because he bred from worn-out stock. Because his pigs tools: the scours from sleeping in cold, damp beds. Because he failed to provide ample range for his sows. Because he had some litters coming in mid^winter. j Because he did not know that a pig's stomach is j small, and needs constantly replenishing. i Because he did not keep his pigs in clean beds. i Because he did not use his train in keeping and I looking after his pigs. Because he did not feed them plenty of good, whole- some food. Because he did not provide that his pigs should have plenty of good water. Because he did not 'have a good pasture for his hogs to run in. and depended on keeping them up and feeding them corn. HOG PHILOSOPHY. The bacon hog does not stay a bacon hog very long' on corn. Seven or eight pigs to the litter is the proper ca- per; if you will just save and raise them. A runty pig is one that eats his head off three or four times a year. Hogs when properly raised are good mortgage lift- ers. Do not feed the sow until the litter of pigs is a day or two old. It is better that she go hungry a day or so, than to feed her right away. The bed for the brood sow should be changed oc- casionally. In choosing a brood sow, look well to one that has depth of body, good quarters and length, with nice ears common to her kind. Keep the pigs growing from the start. 'A setback to growing pigs is quite easy and it takes more time and feed to recover the loss than many are aware of. STATION OFFICERS. J, M RICHESOM. HI 5. OmtCTOB AND StCBETARJ, J F C0NN6R. V M VETERINARIAN WM MUnrORO, TREASURER. GANEBRAKE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. BOARD OF CONTROL. W h. TAVLOE. CHAIRMAN R A BARDIE. WM M'. ■ FC^O. J S CAREER. J HUCCIKS. R. R POOIE. COM.'B ACR.. EX-OFflCIO ■LrTHOMTOViTM, AL^ ^ /^¥ /^^e 6-'l^H--l-Ty OjL 6 -.^Lyi-^ /ky^ ^ CiiTPt^^^tytn^ 440 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. Contagious Diseases SWINE PLAGUE OR HOG CHOLERA. Cause. — The greatest draw-back to the hog indus- try is the disease commonly known as Hog Cholera, or Swine Plague. The two diseases, Swine Plague, and Hog Cholera, are so closely related that it is in- deed difficult to tell them apart, and the treatment for one is the same as that of the other, so they will be treated together here. This is a germ disease of a virulent nature and very contagious and proves fatal nearly every time. The disease is so important that it will doubtless be well to go into details. While it is a germ disease, and is brought on by be- ing w'here other hogs have it, or in any manner re- ceiving the germs from t'hem, still there are certain surroundings that cause hogs to be affected when they would not be, were they in different conditions. It is almost invariably the case that hog cholera is due to the owner not having suitable accommoda- tions for his hogs. It used to be that the woods af- forded plenty of shelter for hogs, but not so now. A great many people have the idea that hogs do not re- quire any shelter. A greater mistake was never made. Pl'ace a lot of hogs in a filthy lot, with a foul hole of water in it, without a shelter to go in, and feed them filthy food, and you cannot be surprised that you have the hog cholera. Just such as that puts the hog in first-class position to get sick. The disease cannot spread without the small microbes getting from the affected animal to those not affect- ed. These germs or microbes can be carried in sev- eral ways: by the 'hogs themselves; on the clothing of persons, so you see how unwise it is for you to go over to see your neighbors' hogs that are affected, and come back and give yours the same disease, by bringing the germs with you; by vehicles; in feeds; dogs; streams, and, in fact, several other ways. It is very important not to let your hogs get the cholera. Symptoms. — The disease seldom appears in the summer, and usually appears when the first cold spell appears in the fall, the hog taking cold. Some of them run at the nose, others thump at the sides^ w'hile others refuse to eat. Sometimes they swell up in the joints and get down so that they cannot walk. They frequently have high fevers, and the hair comes out. Sometimes t'hey die inniiediately, and sometimes they linger for a month, or perhaps not quite so long. Frequently they swell up all over, and their eyes will close up. The appetite is very poor. At times their jaws appear to be locked, and their ears will get sore and rot off. Treatment. — Hog cholera is a very difficult disease to treat. Prevention is far better than cure. We give, however, some remedies that have been used ^ extensively: One-half pound sulphur, One-half pound copperas. One-half pound black antimony, One gallon powdered charcoal. One pint of salt. One peck of 'hard vvook (oak, liickory) ashes. Mix thoroughly and place under shed where the ' hogs can get to it at will. I Another treatment: i One pound wood -charcoal, I One pound sulphur, I Two pounds sodium chloride, or common salt, i Two pounds sodium bi-carbonate, j Two pounds sodium hypo-sulphate, ' One pound sodium sulphate, ■: One pound antimony sulphid, (black antimony.) ;, A large tablespoonful once a day for each 200J pounds live weight of hogs to be given as a dose. These ingredients should be thoroughly pulverized and thoroughly mixed. The medicine should be thor-i oughly mixed with the feed, which should be soft,! such as bran, middlings, corn meal, ground wheat or' oats mixed with hot water. If the hogs will not eat,! they should be drenched. Now there are wrong ideasj about drenching hogs. They can be drenched, but, should never be turned on their backs to drench i them. The medicine should be poured very slowly^ down them, as it is an easy matter to suffocate them.; Prevention. — There are several ways of preventing t'he disease from spreading. The following remedy is said to be a good preventative : It Is Easier to Prevent Diseases Than to Cure Them. 441 Two parts common salt. One part pulverized sulphur, One part pulverized copperas. Cooking soda, one ounce to ten pounds of the mix- ture. Give one tablespoonful to each grown hog twice a week in their feed. Cleanhness is certainly needed with hogs. It is a wrong idea that hogs should not be kept clean. Hogs i should have dry, warm, well ventilated pens. The j average hog pen of the South is a disgrace to the owner. Many people have no business whatever with hogs, for they certainly do not take care of them. A ' hog is not going to stay in a filthy place, unless com-, pelled to do so. The trough in which a hog is fed should be kept clean, and the drinking water pure. I know that this is not the practice, and I also know that losses in hogs are caused by tliis. Care should be observed that the hogs do not drink watef, or go into a stream which is infected. Keep the hog wal- lows filled as well as possible. Another thing that should be kept v\-atch on, and that is not to allow too many hogs to sleep together. It is better to have too few in a pen, than to have too many. The effect of a quarantine is good, and when a man's hogs take the cholera they should not only be kept up, but the farmer himself should not visit his neighbors, and he should not allow his neighbors in his own hog lot. The contagion is so easily carried that the strictest measures should be adopted. As soon as sickness appears in a herd of hogs, the unaffected hogs should be removed at once to a clean disinfected spot. If any of the hogs die, the carcass should be burned, as this is the only safe method of disposing of them. It is, a good idea to burn the car- cass at the place where it dies, but if it has to be re- moved, see to it that this place is thoroughly infect- ed. The quarters in which the sickness first occur- red should be thoroughly disinfected. The hog chol- era bacilli can live in the ground for three months, so it is very important that everything that is liable to be infected be thoroughly fumigated. Hogs should not be allowed to run at large, for they will cause much trouble. Use lime whitewash to disinfect the premises. Whitewash everything about the place. PNEUMONIA OR INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. Cause. — This disease is caused bv the same thing that produces it in other animals, that is, sudden change in temperature, allowing the animals to suf- fer from colds or exposure to winds and storms, tak- ing animals exposed to the weather in the pasture. Symptoms. — The animal stands up or sits up most of the time; temperature is raised, hog has shivering fits; limbs become cold, frequent cough. Treatment. — Put t'he animal in comfortable quar- ters. Give the following mixture ; Two drams bi-sulphate of soda, Two drams nitrate of potash. This should be thoroughly mix'^d with a pint of gruel, and fed to the animal. Feed the hog all the nourishing food that he will eat. APOPLEXY, STAGGERS OR CONGESTION OF THE BRAIN. Hogs are affacted with the staggers quite frequent- ly. The animal will be stupid, eyes red ; pulse very rapid ; bowels constipated. After the disease has de- veloped, the animal becomes blind, running against objects, and finally becomes unconscious. Treatment. — If possible let a stream of cold water fall on his head from a considerable height. PARALYSIS OF HOGS. Cause. — This disease for the past few years has been quite prevalent. The young pigs are the ones affected most by the disease, and it is caused by over-feeding pigs, especially feeding them too much corn and water. Fat is put on the pigs too rapidly, and as a result the bones of a growing pig are un- able to support the flesh. Symptoms. — The first symptoms of paralysis is that the hogs refuse their feed and walk rather stiff- ly, continuing to grow worse until they are not able to drag themselves about, especially are their hind quarters weak. Treatment. — Prevention is certainly better than cure, especially with hogs, for they are not very good patients, and it is a difficult thing to administer treat- ment. Pigs while nursing their mother should be fed very little corn, but they should be fed some, grad- ually increasing the amount of corn. Wlien they are weaned, feed ground feed or bran shorts, corn meal^ mjlk, etc. »0 !5 Si r c c P B- O B '^ The South Is The Place to Raise Hcgs. 443 After young pigs become parah'zed, all corn should be taken away from them, and see to it that they are placed at a trough of milk in which has been stirred bran, and the following tonic, which is recommended by the Bureau of Animal Industry as a preventative against Swine Plague, or Hog Cholera, and which is a very good tonic for hogs. One pound wood charcoal. One pound sulphur, One pound sodium chloride. One pound sodium bi-carbonate. One pound sodium hyposulphite. One pound sodium sulphate, One pound antimony sulphide (black antimony.) These ingredients should be thoroughly pulverized and mixed. The dose of this mixture is a large ta- blespoonful for each 200 pounds of live weight of hogs to be treated, and should be given once a day. It is a good idea not to feed corn at all, but feed soft feeds. It is said that hogs are very fond of this food, and when once fed on it, they will eat it although nothing else tempts them. If the hogs are too sick to eat their food, they should be drenched. Care ijs-hould be observed in drenching them, not to pour jthe medicine down too fast, as hogs are easily suffo- cated. A great many hogs are lost .in this manner. Never turn a hog on his back to drench him. I Another Treatment.— After removing hogs to a Icomforta'ble place, stop feeding corn at all, but in- Istead feed some soft food, and give very little of that. (Give the 'hog ten drops tincture of nux vomica twice jja day for ten days. RHEUMATISM. It 1 1 Rheumatism is caused by cold, damp premises, and liiexposure. When the hog is affected with rheuma- I'tism, It is with difficulty that the animal walks, and ,|,can only stand on its front legs. When standing, if i^)it stands at all, looks like a badly sprung kneed horse. I When the hog attempts to walk, it falls on his knees sand goes that way. Treatment. — Remove the hog from the others, so that it can be quiet, in warm, dry quarters. Admin- ister a purgative, such as from one to five grains !) calomel, or one to two ounces salts, or an ounce of castor oil. After this medicine has acted, give the. hog from twenty to twenty-five grains salicylate of soda three times a day for five or six days. Re- covery should take place in from one to two weeks. SUNSTROKE. During hot weather hogs in a pasture that is not abundantly supplied with shade are subject to sun- stroke. Also hogs that are driven any distance in hot weather are subject to sunstroke. The first symptoms are fatigue, drooping of the ears, stagger- ing gait, which result in collapse and unconscious-« ness. Convulsions set in at this stage and death re- sults. There is no treatment for sunstroke, so the only thing to do is to prevent the trouble. No ani- mal can stand t'he rays of sun so little as the hog, therefore all hog men, or people who raise hogs should provide them with plenty of shelter. You do not realize how much better they will do where they have access to a shelter during the hot days of the summer. Feeding is not all that is required to pro- duce hogs, you should look to the comfort of the animal. Fig. 6.— As tliey are 'bred in tlie South. THUMPS. Thumps is caused, like most of the diseases of the hogs, on account of not having a good place to sleep in. Also to lack of exercise. Give pigs three grains of calomel to the 100 lbs, which should be mixed with some kind of gruel. ECZEMA. Eczema is a breaking out that appears on the hogs. They are' frequently weak in the back. If it is al- lowed to continue they become sore all over. Treatment.— Have the hogs to sleep in new places, where they will have clean bedding. Give them a 444 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. good washing with soda and water, and then apply a two per cent, creolin solution, such as zenolium. If you cann.ot get the zenolium, use a mixture of tar and lard, using the same amount of each. KIDNEY WORMS. For kidney worms which affect the loins of the hogs, causing them to be crippled in the fore and hind legs, use one teaspoonful spirits of turpentine per hundred pounds live weight, given in milk. Another Treatment. — Take equal parts oi worm seed and arnica nut and give one teaspoonful in corn meal to each animal once a day for three days. PREVENTION AND DESTRUCTION OF VER- MIN. Hogs often sufifer very much from vermin. Lice are introduced from neighboring herds, and the losses In this case a dipping tank will be a great conveni ence. One of the most effective and cheapest prepara-\ tions to use as a dip is a two per cent, solution of cre- olin. The common tobacco dips used for sheep scab are also efficacious. If the hogs are washed, apply the solution with a broom ; if they are sprayed, use the ordinary spray pump ; for dipping, use a dipping tank. When being washed or sprayed the hogs should stand on a tight board floor. Newly purchased hogs should be carefully exam- ined for vermin, and they should not be turned with the herd until they are known to be free from these pests. When the herd is found to be badly infested with lice, all bedding should be burned and loose floors and partitions torn out. Old boards and rubbish should be burned. The quarters should then be thoroughly/ disinfected by spraying with one of the solution - mentioned. (The creolin solution is good). After disinfection, as in the case of a disease outbreak, ev- in feeding are often severe, especially among young ery thing about the place, inside and out, should bej pigs, where death is sometimes a secondary if not an thoroughly whitewashed. immediate result. When very numerous, lice are a serious drain on vitality, fattening is prevented, and in case of exposure to disease the lousy hogs are much more liable to contract and succumb to it. Vermin are most common around the ears, inside the legs and in the folds of the skin on the jowl, sides and flanks. In light and isolated cases they may be destroyed by washing the hogs. In severe cases, however, especially where the whole herd is affected, thorough spraying or dipping should be resorted to. In these remarks on sanitation no attempt has been made to go into the details of the disease affecting hogs or their treatment. They are simply intended to call attention to the simple measures whicTi may be used by any farmer to avoid, to a large extent, the decimation of his herd by epidemics. Cleanliness an- rational methods of management are relied upon bj thousands of farmers to keep their herds in health and vigor. They are the marks of the good farmci and successful hog breeder. Book XIII Sheep Department. EDITED AND REVISED BY WILLIAM LEA, Marietta, Georgia. Anoora Goats, Anderson's Farms, Marietta, Ga. Young- Does, Anderson's Farms, Marietta, Ga. A Typical Angora Goat. It Does Not Cost Much to Raise Goats, But it Pays. 447 Sheep Department. Many sections of the South have found it profita- ble to engage in slieep raising. They are profitable both for wool and for mutton. I^roiu the very earli- est ages the raising of sheep has been found to be a profitable industr)-. Away back in the Biblical times we hear much of the sheep industry. Abraham 'had great flocks of sheep. The demand for mutton is steadily on the increase.. New York City requires over a million pounds of mutton per year. JMutton is taking the place of pork on many tables, and the rais- ing of sheep for mutton is largely increasing. One reason why sheep have not received more attention is on account of ignorance on the part of the sheep raiser. As to the kind of sheep that are in deiuand now, one of the greatest needs of to-day is a mut- ton sheep, distinctively, which is represented by legs of from i6 to 20 pounds in weight. The sheep pro- ducers as a rule, especially in the South, do not give sufficient thought to sheep raising. Not onlv is the item of food produced by the sheep important, but the returns in fleece are quite important, and must be taken into consideration. It will require a great many more sheep in the United States to produce the wool needed, for a great deal of wool is imported. WHAT IT TAKES TO SUCCEED WITH SHEEP There are two or three requisites for sheep busi- ness. In the first place, it is important that you get a suitable location. Sheep cannot stand \vet quar- ters, therefore you do not want an undrained pasture for sheep. Land that is best suited for sheep is a well drained sandy loam or gravelly loam. It should be hilly or rolling rather than flat or level. Low spots or marshes should be avoided, for one place of this kind on a farm that is all right in other respects may cause the sheep to contract deadly diseases. Perhaps there is no animal so easily affected by sur- roundings as sheep. There is more in prevention of disease in sheep than there is in curing them. If the proper care is observed in handling sheep, there will be little sickness in the flock. Another requisite for success in sheep raising is that the raiser have a love for tlie work. Not only must he have a love for his work, but he must possess tact, patience and perse- verance. There will come seasons of depressions, and there will come temptations to abandon sheep rais- ing for some temporarily more promising pursuit. BREEDS OF SHEEP. There are many breeds of sheep, but attention will only be given to those breeds that are adapted to tne South. The Hampshire-Downs. — This is a mixed breed brought about by crossing the South-Down on the native breed of the tiampshire, followed later by the Gotswold. This breed was very popular before the Civil War, in the South. They are a hornless breed, and have a black face, Roman nose. The South-Downs. — This was once one of the most celebrated breed of sheep, but here of late it is not produced so much. They are models of what a mut- ton sheep should be. Wherever it is desired to pro- duce a mutton sheep, perhaps this breed will answer the requirements better than any other. The ewes are very prolific. The American Merino. — This breecj is known all over the L'nited States. It is not necessary to give a description of them. SHROPSHIRE. A breed of sheep that has won popularity more than all the others in the same length of time is the Shropshire. They are some larger than the South-Down. The face and legs are a blackish brown ; the ears are of the same color, and should be short and thick. The wool should extend down over the face, head and on the legs to the hoof. The fleece of the Shropshire is longer than on the South-Down, and closely set on a clear pinkish skin. A good ordinary flock of Shrop- shire will shear from seven to eight pounds per head. The Shropshire is a short legged block budt 448 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. slieep, furnishing a carcass for mutton that is not sur- passed by. any breed. For the grading up of the comnioii sheep of tlie South, tlie Shropshire ram by experience, has proved his superiority over all breeds. Adding size, increase of fleece, and stamina to his offspring. An industry that would be very profitable to the Southern farmer is that of growing early or hot-house lambs, as if is termed in the East. The two breeds of sheep used for this purpose, are the Dorsets and the Tunis. The Dorset sheep are white faced and white le;''::ed, with a tuft of wool in the forehead. The ewes are horned as well as the bucks. They are very solidly built, having a broad back and short Ic'^s. Their most prominent characteristic, however, is their unrivaled feucidity. The ewes will take the ram in Aiay, thereby dropping the Iambs in October so that they are ready for the holiday markets. They can be bred again soon after dropping this fall lamb, and bring another, or other lambs in March and April. With the proper management and handling this is the most prolific of all the breeds of sheep. The Dorse's are pretty well raised in the Eastern States and as far South as Virginia, supplying New York, Boston, Washington and other Eastern cities with tl;eir early lambs. The sheep is a great scavenger, and can be used on the farm to clean the weeds to a great advantage. But the idea that has gotten into the Southern farm- nier's liead that a s'heep does not require much feeding 'has brought about his great failure along this line- When we learn to know that w'e can grow fine root crops he-.e in tlie .South, such as turnips, rutabagas, su- gar beets, etc , and that rape, rye, clover and the cul- tivated grasses will furnish us plenty of grazing for the winter, we will be on the road to success along the sheep line. Then added to this, Bermuda and other native grasses, with the by-products of our cotton, cotton-seed hulls and meal, pea vine hay and sor- ghum hay, we have a ration that cannot be surpass- ed. The growing and feeding of root crops to sheep, has made England famous along this line. The Englis'hman can grow sheep profitably on land worth $4.00 to $5.00 per acre. Why can't we on land worth from $5.00 to $25.00 per acre? The next in importance to good feeding is dipping. This should be done twice a year to free the sheep of lice, ticks, and other external parasites, as well as im- proving the condition of the skin. A good healthy skin produces a good fleece. As to the kind of dip that we should use, will sayj that the day of the home-made dip is past. By ac- tual experience it has been proven that home-madef dips that are made from lime and sulphur are very injurious to the wool, and the sheep as well. We have on market at present a number of prepar- ed dips that are safe, effective and cheap. Every sheep shed or barn should have a creep for the lambs to go to for a feed of chopped oats and bran. This creep should have entrances so that only the lambs could go into, keeping the old shee;i out. There should be rollers on each side of the en- trance so that the lambs would not tear their fleece in squeezing through. The lamb must be kept grow- ing, as it is the steady advance that counts. Of all the diseases of the sheep the internal para-' sites are the most trouljle, and the worst of these art the stomach worms — strongylus cnntertus. They in habit the fourth stomach of the sheep and goat These worms are little thread-like worms; red, am from five to ten inches long. The symptoms arising from this parasite in the stomach are weakness, pale ness of the skin and membranes, some fever, diar | rhoea, and wasting of the body generally. A flock o sheep that are infested with these worms is a prett- liard proposition. The eggs pass out with the droppings of the sheep! waiting a favorable time to hatch out on the ground 1 then the young worm crawls up on a blade of gras: awaiting an opportunity to attract the young lambs One reason why sheep should never be allowed tc drink water around stagnated places is on account o such places being the breeding grounds of stomacl worms. A remedy that has proved very effective foi this disease is gasoline given to the lambs in tea spoonful doses, well sliaken up in^a half pint of swee j milk for three mornings in succession. ' The lamb should be kept away from feed for twelvi hours before administering the gasoline. This an( dogs, we consider the two greatest enemies to tht sheep industry of the South. THE AVERAGE WOOL PER SHEEP. In the United States the average weight of woo per fleece is over five pounds, in Australia it is ovc four pounds, in Great Britain four and three-quarte- pounds, in the German empire three and two-third: It Takes Very Little Feed For Goats. 449 ■ pounds, in France nearly five pounds. So we see by this comparison that tlie United States has a greater average than any other country in the world. And yet the United States does not produce all the wool necessary for home use. THE BREEDING AGE OF. SHEEP. The proper age for s'heep to breed is two years. In the aivtumn after the ewe is one year old, she may be placed with the buck. As a rule it does not pay to breed sheep after they are seven or eight years old. One ram should be kept 'for forty or fifty ewes. WATER FOR SHEEP. Some people claim that sheep do not require water when they are pastured. This is a mistake, and you should not pay any attention to such folly. On very juicy grasses t'hey will use very little water, but they need some, and they should always have access to plenty of fresh water. At times they require more water than at others. Sheep are especially sensitive to impure water, and therefore do not depend upon stag- nant pools to furnish them water. This is quite im- portant, for it is a very easy matter for them to con- tract disease from impure water. SHELTER FOR SHEEP. The house for the sheep need not be expensive, but SDHie place should be provided where they can get in J' from the rain and wind. There are two or three im- ]lj portant things in connection with the barn for sheep. In the first place it must have a good location, and ibe well drained. Sheep and water do not go well to- gether. Do not place your barn on a location where it is wet and marshy. It is a poor policy to place any barn in a damp location, but to place a sheep barn in such a place is the heig'ht of folly. The barn should be well ventilated. Sheep need plenty of fresh air, but do not need a draft. FEEDING PLACES. It will be found necessary to feed sheep some, and this should not be done on the ground. Have a trough made for them, but do not place it too higii. The feeding arrangement here in the Sout'h need not be so extensive as in the North, where t'hey have to feed more than here. DISEASES OF SHEEP. GRUBS IN THE HEAD, OR GADFLY. The gadfly deposits eggs in the nostrils of the sheep in July and August. When these eggs are hatched out, the magots find their way through the meat, causing the sheep much pain. You can generally tell when the gadflies are seeking- the slieep, for the sheep will crowd together, keeping their nose to the ground, stamping violently. Remedy. — After the gadfly has once taken hold, it is a difficult job to dislocate him. The following remedy will do good sometimes: Inject up the nose equal parts of sweet oil and turpentine, but be care- ful not to strangle the sheep. Prevention. — It is much easier to prevent sheep from getting sick than it is to get them well after they have taken sick. Smear the nose of the sheep wit'h pine tar durmg the fly season. If you have a large flock, smear the inside of the salt trough with pine tar, and when they go to get salt, they will do the rest. Goat Industry The goat industry is not so important in America dS it would be were it not for the prejudices of peo- ple. It is quite frequently the case that you hear peo- ple say that they do not like kid, but they are fond of mutton. Now, the truth about the whole matter is, that few people can tell the difference between mutton and kid. When we come to consider the facts in the case, much so-called mutton that is sold from our city butcher shops, is nothing else but kid. Yes, it is just a goat that lias been killed and named 30 '450 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. mutton. It is very often the case that people who say they cannot eat kid are fooled and eat it very gladly when it is called mutton. ]\Iost authors tell us that goat is not much esteemed in the United States as a food, but notwithstanding this assertion, kids always find a ready market in the cities. The goat will live and do well on less attention t'han any animal known. They require practically no attention in the summer, and ver)- little in the win- ter. They will live where other domestic animals would literally starve. If farn^.ers wl:o have a few hill tops that are unproductive will fence it. and place a few goats in there, tl'.ey will find it quite profita- ble. The goats will often bring them in some return when cotton is out of the season. What the South wants is diversification, and the adoption of the goat industry will help to bring this about. jMany farm- ers are now laising cotton, and depending upon that crop altogether, when they could raise a few goats without any outlay of money, and find it a paying in- vestment. And one great advantage in the goat bus- iness is that they are so hardy. There is one enemy to tb.e goat in the South, and that is dogs. If you can keep the dogs away from them, there should be little trouble in raising goats. They are subject to ver}' few diseases, have unusual digestive ability, will thrive on oak leaves and a little of nothing. As to what kind of goats you should raise depends upon t'he object }-ou have in raising them. If you de- sire to raise, them for the fleece, you would want the Angora, but if you simply wanted to raise them for the meat, a short haired goat would answer your pur- pose better than a long haired goat. You should not cross the long haired and the short haired goats, for they will not do well. THE ANGORA GOAT. The Angora goat gets its name from Angora, a province in Turkey, Asia Minor. People who are not posted on the subject often make the mistake of call- ing the Angora goats Cashmere. \\'e feel safe in saying that there is not a Cashmere goat in America. During the adrriinistration of President Polk, the Sultan of Turkey requested of him that he recom- mend some one who would experiment in the culture of cotton in Turkey, S. D. James B. Davis, of Co- lumbia, .S. C, was recommended, and received the aijpointinent. Dr. Davis' work proved so satisfac- tory to the Sultan, tliat he desired to reciprocate the courtesy of the President, presented him with nine choice goats of his domain. So these were the first Angoras ever brought into the U. S. During the year 1S54, Col. Richard Peters, of Atlanta, Ga., boug'ht all or a part of these goats from Davis, and from all information at hand Col. Peters owned about all the Angoras in the U. S. previous to the outbreak of the Civil ^Var. Two of these goats were sold in the spring of 1854 to \\'i\- liam M. Landrum, of San Jeaquin County, California. }\Ir. Landrum is still breeding Angoras at Laguna, Tex. More than half the Angora goats of the U. S. would trace back to these nine goats. W'e mention this little sketch just to show what wonderful devel- opment can come from a small beginning and it will interest many, especially in the South, to know that this great industry had its origin here. A\'e will say in the outset that there are three principal reasons for the present interest in the in- dustry, wdiich are as follows: (i) They are very effective brushweed and weed destroyers ; (2) they are mohair producers; (3) they yield a carcass tb.at is very palatable and highly nutritious. DESCRIPTION OF THE MODERN ANGORA GOAT. While there has been no effort by an association or body of goat breeders to adopt a standard or a description of an ideal goat, we believe that the fol- lowing description will be accepted by most breeders: The Angora is smaller than the ordinary goat. It will weigh from 60 to 100 pounds, although some will weigh considerably more. The back should be straight with shoulders and hips of equal height. The chest should be broad and deep, denoting a good constitu- tion, the body round, legs short and strong. The head should be erect, clean cut, with bright eyes and broad muzzle. The horns are grayish, never black. All grades show more or less kemp- There is a demand for fleeces that are over twelve inches, and they Avill l>ring on the New York market from one to two dollars per pound. New York and Bosto;i are the markets for mohair in the United States. All goats are browsers by nature, but the Angora is more so than all others. We have never seen any kind of weed, vine or bush that an Angora would not eat. After he has 'his fill of pine tops, sumach ber- ries, sassafras buds, and what not, he will finish up on I Kids Bring a Good Price at the City Markets. 451 the bark gnawed from thunder wood, (or poison, for sumach is a very deadly poison.) never seeming tlie worse for the same. They will clean up all the un- dergrowth in two years where enough is put on for the space to be cleaned. Every leaf and twig in their reach is greedily eaten, and this constant nibbling off of the leaves and buds soon kills out the weeds and bushes. They will desert the finest grass pasture for such an outlay. A thicket so denje that a man can- not get through will soon be converted into an open woodland. Angoras have done some wonderful work for us here, cleaning up such places, while at the same time he is paying more t'han any other live stock on the farm. The South has thousands of acres v/here they could be used profitably for the only pur- pose of cleaning up the land. Then the land is left rich after they have cleaned it up. from their drop- pings, and the grasses native to the locality "come in," making a fine pasture for other stock. Different from most other animals, the Angora buck comes into heat. Their breeding season is from July through a period of about six months and the gestation in goats is about five months. The mating cf the buck to the does should be along in November so as to have the kids to drop in April or May, so liiat there will be plenty of green browse for the does ; I furnish a good flow of milk for the kids. Angora 1 ids are delicate for the first week or two and cannot s'.and exposure to cold, damp weather. After the l.ids are two or three weeks old they are very hardy and active, and can care for themselves as well as any animal of the same age. We think that there is no animal so pretty and intelligent as the Angora kid. A good, strong, healthy buck that is in good health can be mated to from forty to sixty does. A buck like any other domestic animal should be in the best possiible condition wlien put to service. Pure bred Angoras do not generally drop more than one kid at a time. We always figure on an increase of 100 per cent, during the year. There is generally enough twins dropped to make up for any losses that may occur. When an Angora buck is used on common or prade does, they drop the usual number of kids, two to three. The increase in a flock of Angoras depends on the care and management of the same. We have known of an increase as high as 120 per cent, from a pure bred flock. In this section of tl.e country we shear only once a year, during April or May, but in some sections of the South-west they shear twice a year. The shear- ing of the goat is the same as the shearing of sheep. Anyone who is a good sheep shearer can shear goats, the only difference being that one should use shears with short, blunt blades when they are sheared by hand. We have used here with success the hand power clipping machine. With the clippers there is no double cutting of the mohair, and then it does smoother work. Another source of profit from Angoras is their skins. Taken when the mohair is from 4 to 6" inches long they make the most beautiful rugs and robes. The mohair retains its original luster and may be used in the natural white, or dyed any color desired. The demand for these rugs cannot be supplied. They bring on the market from four to eight dollars each. The kid's finest fleeces adorn the collar and border of the ladies' most handsome opera cloaks. In the stores they are sold under some peculiar name, the purchas- er being unaware of the true name of the "furs." Angoras can stand any amount of heat and cold. They must not be allowed to stay out in the cold rains. If they stand in a cold rain during the winter season, when they are carrying heavy fleeces, it will prove detrimental to them, causing them to take cold, bringing on rheumatism, and the does to lose their kids. They need a good dry shed to go in. It need not be a warm one, just so it is dry. Goats need very little feed in the South. A few cotton seed during the severest weather, along with some hay will ke?^ them in good shape. There is a ^reat demand in the South for Angoras at the present time, and we know of no like stock that will pay Z3 well. It has been fully demonstrat- ed that they will do well here. Tliey are subject to no disease and much of our 'hilly or rough country could be profitably turned into this industry. We have the browse, the good, pure water, and an abun- dance of rough land that is good for nothing else. We think that the opportunity is ripe for the goat industry -in this section, and the first man into the field \vi\\ reap the benefits of the same. ^Ego:^iId-r Book XIV. Cow Department EDITED AND REVISED BY C. L. WILLOUGHBY, B. Agri. Secretary Georgia Dairy and Live Stock Associption; Dairyman and Animal Husbandman, Georgia Experiment Station, Experiment, Ga. 454- TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. Diseases of Cattle CONTAGIOUS DISEASES. Contagious Pleuro-Pneumonia. Cause. — This is a contagious disease, and one of tlie most fatal that cows are subject to. It was in- troduced in America in 1843 in Brooklin, L. I. when a cow was purchased from an English captain. It is caused by a specific virus which gains access to the system through the lungs. It is slow in developing, sometimes going for two months before there is any outward manifestation. It was stamped out by the U. S. Bureau of Animal Industrj', and no cases re- ported in America for several years. Symptoms. — The first symptoms likely to be no- ticed are a rise in the temperature to 103 to 106 de- germs live a long time before they develop, and the whole herd is liable to be affected. Treatment. — There is no medical treatment that will a\-ail anything. When the disease gets started there is no cure. Sometimes people think that they i have a cure, but not so. Mild cases show signs of ' recovery; they appear to be in good health, will feed well, fatten fast; the milk cows produce -milk again, but they 'have not recovered, and are lialile to break out at any time. As soon as the disease is known to be contagious Pleuro-Pneumonia, have the animal killed at once, and buricvv out all matter. Thev should heal up in three or four weeks. If the bowels are con- stipated, give a pint of melted lard. If the bowels are loose, give the following as a drench of one dose: One pint of infusion of quassia. One ounce laudanum, One-half ounce sulphuric ether. One pint thin gruel, cold. Repeat the dose in six or eight hours if there is no action. But w'hether the bowels are loose or consti- pated, use the following remedy: Three ounces spirits of nitre. Two drams tincture aconite root. One-half ounce fluid extract belladonna. Two ounces nitrate of potash. Two ounces muriate of ammonia. Water enough to make one quart. }.rix thoroughly, and give a half-teaspoonful every three hours until better. If the animal exmeriences 464 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT aND PLEASURE. difficulty in breathing, steam the 'head by placing blanket over head as shown in the illustration. sound will be heard. The cow lies down a great deal in this disease. SORE THROAT OR LARYNGITIS. Cause. — This disease is caused by the same thing that produces cold, that is, standing in bad weather, lying upon damp, cold ground, exposure to Avinds and storms, etc- It is an inflammation of the upper wind- pipe, and interferes with the breathing. Fig. 12. — Nose-bag for Steaming. Treatment. — Place the animal in a warm, well-ven- tilated place. By a well-ventilated place, we do not mean where there will be a draft on the animal, as some would suppose, but where she can get fresh air •without a draft. If the disease be in its first state give the following: Two ounces acetate of ammonia, Twenty drops tincture of Aconite root. One half-pint of water. Mix thoroughly, and give as one dose. Repeat ev- ery two l.rurs until the chill is over, and tlie pulse beats naturally. Then give the following remedy un- til the cow gets well: Three drams cooperas, Two drams Gentian : '■ One dram Ginger, One dram Foenugreek Seed, Mix and give as one dose morning and night. Mustard applied to the sides will be of much bene- fit to the animal. Allow her to drink all the water she desires, and give her plenty of soft feed. Symptoms. — The cow experiences difficulty in swallowing, has hard, tickling cough, loss of appetite, cud not chewed, and there is a flow of saliva from the mouth. Avhen it is open. If the cow attempts to drink water it comes back through t'he nose. Treatment. — Place a bran poultice on the back. If this docs not relieve, rnb mustard paste well on the throat. This s'ho-uld be washed off in an hour and more rubbed in. Give one-h.alf ounce of salt-peter or chlorate of potash in the water, morning and evening. BRONCHITIS. Cause. — Bronc'hitis is an inflammation of the mu- cous membrane of the bronchial tubes. It is caused by exposure to wet and cold, inhaling smokes, fumes, or the introduction of foods and fluids into the wind- pipe. Symptoms, — Wheezing, difficult breathing, deep, hard, distressing cough, and after it has run for sever- al hours, a high fever will be noticed. By placing the ear by t'he front and sides of the chest, a dry, grating PNEUMONIA. Cause. — This is an inflnmmation of the lungs them- selves, and should ha\-e prompt attention, for if re- j lief is not furnished, the d'isease will pr.ove fatal. In 1 most cases it is the result of a cold or catarrh, laryn- gitis, bronchitis, etc. It is sometimes caused by per- mitting medicines to enter the windpipe and lungs when drenching the animal. Symptoms. — The disease is first shown by the ani- mal lia\ ing a shivering fit, loss of appetite, cjuick and labored breathing, severe cough. The cow does not j like to lie down as it increases the pressure upon her chest. If you tap the sides of the animal a dull, heavy sound is heard, the muzzle of t'he cow becomes dry and hot, the expired air is hot, the ribs are fixed. ' Treatment. — The animal should be placed in a 1 warm stall, which should be kept thoroug'hly clean. Feed the animal plenty of good, nutritious 'food, and give plenty of fresh water. Give the following each morning in a pint of gruel: Two drams saltpeter. Two drams Bisulphate of soda. '\ Be Careful to Keep Everything Very Clecn. 46: Apply mustard to the chest. Another Treatment. — U?e the same treatment as prescribed for Bronc'hitis. PLEURISY. ' Cause. — Pleurisy is an inflammation of the lining which lines the cavity of the c'hest, and infests the lungs. It is caused by exposure to cold, and injuries to the wall of the chest. This may be done by the an- imal swallowing a nail, and it working itself into the chest throughout the intestines usually from the sec- ond stomach. Symptoms. — The breathing is painful, something like a person with pneumonia ; the ribs fixed ; pres- sure between the ribs cause intense pain. By apply- ing the ear to th.e side, a grating, rasping sound is heard; the head is hung low, t'he ears drooped; the expired breath is not hot as in pneumonia. Treatment. — No matter how slight the attack, the animal should be placed in a drv stall, with plenty of fresh air, t'he animal's body should be well clothed, the legs rubbed well, and l^andaged. To reduce' the fever, give from fifteen to twenty-five drops of tinc- ture of aconite every two hours, and one-half ounce nitrate of potassium. If the animal appears to be suf- fering great pain, give one dram of opium three times a day in a little gruel. Blankets dipped in liot. boiling water and wrung out, and applied everv half hour, should be used. If the pain continues after using the above treatment, apply a blister made of two drams of cant'harides and one and a half ounces of lard. Af- ter the acute stage has passed, give the following stim- ulant: One ounce tincture of Gentian, One ounce Ginger, One ounce chloride of Iron. Give as a dose in a pint of water three times a dav. DISEASES OF THE DIGES- TIVE ORGANS. INFLAMMATION AND PARALYSIS OF THE TONGUE. Cause. — Paralysis of the tongue is t'lie effect of care- lessness in drenching, that is, wounding the tongue, 3J and mouth, also by getting foreign bodies in the fod- der, such as fhorns, etc. Symptoms. — By an examination of the tongue, one can readily tell if the tongue has been injured. Fre- quently the tongue will swell, and if the paralysis be complete, the tongue will hang out lifeless. Treatment. — First examine the tongue and remove the cause, if it still be persistent. If the tongue hangs out of the mouth it should be bled slightly. Apply the following solutions : One ounce vinegar. Two ounces honey. One half pint water. Mix thoroughly and apply with swab three or four times a da}'' to the tongue. BLOAT. HOVEN. OR TYPHANITIS. Cause. — This is a swelling of the painich wit'h gas on account of fermentation in the first stomach. It is usually indigestion. It is caused by feeding too much clover, green feed, or changing food too qnicklv. Pig. 13 — Trocar and Canmila. Symptoms. — At first the animal shows signs of un- easiness, swells up badly, groans all the time; back is arched ; if the hide is tapped between the last ribs and the point of the hip, it is resonant and sounds like a drum, especially on the left side; the nostrils are dis- tended, the eyes blood-shot, and run matter, the pulse at times very slow and at other times verv rapid. Treatment. — Give one and a half pounds of Epsom salts in a 'half-gallon of water as a drench to cleanse the system. Add one ounce of vinegar to the drench. Then take Four ounces sulphate of iron, Two ounces of nu.x vomica, Mix thoroughly together and divide into twenty- four doses, giving one morning and night in a bran masli. 466 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE Another Treatment. — Pour col 1 water continuous- ly over the back and loins of the animal, and lead or drive her around the lot until the exercise brings re- lief. Another Treatment. — If the animal be sufferiiiT too much, perhaps the following treatment is better. I'lunge a trocbar and cannula into t'.'.e region o; t'.ie greatest swelling at the point midway between tlie spines of the loins, last rib and point of hip, on the left side, pointing the trocl ar downwards, letting it Fig. 14. — Showing where to insi^i-t trocar. Where aib dc cross is the place to insert trocar. pass in obliquely to avoid the kidneys. The trocar is an instrument as shown here in this illustration. If the trocar be not convenient, use a pocket knife, keeping it in the wound until the largest quill obtain- able can be inserted in its place, and the gas allowed to escape. \Mien the gas has passed off, give a good dose of linseed oil. The wound being small, will us- ually heal without trouble. IMPACTION OF THE THIRD STOMACH. Impaction is otherwise called Dry Murrain, and Grass Staggers. It is occasionally mistaken for Spin- al Meningitis. The trouble occurs in the third stom- ach, called the manifold, manyplies, or honeycomb, which becomes overloaded with coarse, hard feed, causing inflammation and stoppage of the entire di- gestive apparatus. Impaction in ay be caused by an excess of green feed, but it usually comes from eat- ing hard, withered grass late in the summer when pastures are dry and short and the supply of water is insufficient. Eating smutted cornstalks, withered wheat or oat hay, or uncurcd vetch are also frequent causes. The symptoms vary considerably with the severi- ty of the disease. In light cases the signs are loss of appetite, stopping of rumination or chewing the cud, 1/owels constipated, and the aniinal appears dull and feverish or sluggish. The cow lies down most of the time on the left side and moans frequently. There is much tenderness on the right side under the short ribs when punched with the fist, the back is often arched, and the hind legs unsteady. The hardened contents of the stomach can sometimes be felt with the hand, or bloating will occasionally be present, which should be treated by tapping. In acute stages the animal becomes highly excited, bellowing and staggering, turning round and round, or falling in convulsion. They will rush blindly about, running over objects as if blind, or pushing the head against trees or fences for ininutes at a time, and pawing the earth. The breathing is loud, the heart beats hard and fast, and toward th.e last profuse diarrhoea may set in. Death will occur often in a few hours after the first symp- toms appear. Treatment for Impaction. — As will be readily recog- ni.'^ed from the r.ature of the disease, the first treat- ment should be to induce action of the stomach and bowels to throw off the offending substance. To ac- comjdish tl is, it is sometimes neccssar)- to use the strongest purgatives known to medicine, as well as frequent injections throu'^h the rectum. It would be best to begin with a medicine purgative, such as the j following formula: Epsom salts, one pound, common salt, half-pound, pinger, two ounces, all dissolved in ! two or three pints warm water given as a drench. An- other formula wdiich is just as good would be; Castor- oil, one ])int, raw linseed oil, half-pint, mixed and given as a drench. The animal shoidd have plenty of water if it will drink and watery foods if it will eat. An injection with a large syringe or a sprav pump and hose, forcing two or three gallons of warm watery soap-suds into the bowels should also be used. If the bowels do not operate in eight or ten hours, repeat the purgative, or if the case is becoming des- perate, use the following formula; Sulphate or soda. (Glauber salts) half pound, calomel, two drams, dis- solved in a pint of water, and Croton oil, twenty-five or thirtA' drops, given as a drench. The only chance IS to use sufficiently strong cathartics to break up the hardened contents of the stoinach and force them out- During the time while the purgatives are acting, the strength and nervous force of the animal shotdrl be Milk Absorbs Many Impurities. 467 kept up by stimulants, Any of tlie following will serve well; Powdered Nux Vomica, forty grains dis- solved in a little water, or Carbonate of Ammonia, five or six drams in pint of water, or half-pint of whis- key diluted with wate-, This tonic may be giveii three times daily during the sickness. After free action of the bowels is secured it is best to use green foods, soft mashes^ and plenty of water and even keep up small doses of salts to insure per- fect breaking up of all the impaction. The tonic mig'ht also be continued for several days in small doses. It would probably be best to move the cattle away from land that has been in pasture many years to fresh spots. DYSPEPSIA OR INDIGESTION. Cause.- — Indigestion or Dyspepsia is caused by im- proper feeding, exposure tc colds and storms. Treatment. — Give the cow one pound of Epsom salts, and one ounce ground ginger, dissloved in half- gallon cold water, at one dose. After this medicine has acted, boil a teacup of linseed into a pulp with a gallon of water, and while hot pour it over a half-pail of bran, making a mash of it. When the mash is cold put in some of the following powders: Four ounces sulphate of iron. Four ounces nitrate of potassium. Divided into twenty-four doses. Give one daily for several weeks, if necessary. Another Treatment. — Give phosphate of lime in the form of ground bones, and a little lime water, about a half-teacupful morning and night in bran mash. Still Another Treatment. — Give morning and night the following prescription : Three drams bicarbonate of soda. Two drams gentian. Two drams ginger. Fig. 15.— Herd pure bred Jerseys, Anderson's Farms, Marietta. Georgia. Symptoms. — One of the first symptoms that will be noticed in a cow suffering from indigestion is ca- pricious appetite. They will eat constantly, but are never satisfied, will sometimes eat heartily of one diet once of twice, and then will not eat again until the diet is changed Sometimes the animal will be seen licking the walls, eating dirt or lime, chewing sticks, trying to eat straw, rocks, coal, or other indi- gestible materials. The animal loses flesh, belches up most everything that she eats, manure is small in quantity, dry and glazed ; she frequently has little thirst for water. CONSTIPATION. Cause. — Constipation is caused by feeding too hard food, insufficient or impure water and too little ex- ercise. Symptoms. — It can be readily recognised by hard dry manure which is sometimes glazed. Treatment. — Make a complete change 'in the diet. If the attack be in the fall or winter, give from one to two quarts of melted lard, or a pint of raw linseed oil. If it be in the spring or summer, give once a day the following prescription: 468 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. Twelve ounces Epsom Salts, One ounce ginger, One ounce gentian, Wiater sufficient to make two quarts. Prevention. — The cattle should be salted twice a week in the wniter, and three times a week in the summer, also give plenty of fresh water. Cattle suf- fer a great deal m the winter for lack of water. As a rule, the weather is cold, and the careless farmer al- lows his cattle to suffer for t'he want of fresh water. It IS not sufficient that they have plenty of water, but the water should be of a temperature that they can drink with comfort. Just because the trough is full of water covered with ice an inch thick is not sufficient. Cattle do not enjoy ice water, when tihey are about to freeze from the chilling wind. See to it that your cattle have plenty of fresh water, of a temperature that thev can drink, and plenty of salt, and they will not be troubled much wit'h Constipation. DIARRHOEA OR SCOURS. Cause. — This disease is caused I)_\' improper feed- ing, and in calves impure milk, over heating, etc. Symptoms. — The actions are too thin, watery, and occur too often. If it is allowed to continue, there is great thirst on account of t'he feverish condition of the stomach, but no appetite: the milk dries up. the belly is tucked up, and back arched. After a little the animal loses flesh and the temperature falls below mormal. Treatment. — If it be in the calf, special care should ^ be given to the health of the mother. It is quite frequently the case that if you ciiange the diet of the other, you will experience no further trouble. If there are irritating substances in the stomach or bowels, give the following: Three ounces castor-oil. One teaspoonful of Ginger. Follow this wit'h two ounces lime water, and two ounces infusion of gentian. Give this two or three limes a dav in the milk or linseed gruel. It is a good idea to add a half ounce of chlorate of potash to a pailful of water. Especial Treatment for Calves. Two drams Salol, Four drams oxide bismuth. One ounce carbonate of lime. Mix thoroughly and divide into six eqiral doses, and give the first two doses at an interval of two hours, and the four -remaining doses every four hours. Give the medicine in a glass of calomel infusion. If the calf be very bad, add a glass of wine. Another good treatment for mild cases is to feed a teaspoontul of dried blood twice daily in the feed. DYSENTERY. Cause. — This disease is caused by eating poison- ous plants, and by neglecting diarrhoea. Symptoms. — This disease will be known by se- vere straining, watery, offensive and bloody discharg- es, hig'h fever with excessive thirst: loss of appetite; cow ceases to give milk; eyes discharges; back arched and tail elevated Treatment. — Give at one dose, one pint and a half raw linseed oi] and two ounces tincture of opium. Then give t'he following: One O'Unce turpentine. One ounce prepared chalk. One quart boiled flaxseed, ^lix and give as one dose. Give tliis three times a dav. Fig, 16 — Showing Ti-uss used for Riiptiire. Another Treatment. — Give the following: Seven ounces Epsom Salts, Two drams powdered opium. Two drams powdered gentian. One pint of gruel. Mix thoroughly and give as one dose once a day. HERNIA OR RUPTURE. Cause. — This is a rupture of the investing mem- If You Are Going to Sell Milk, do Not Water It. 469 brane of the abdomen caused by some external injury or severe strain, letting- the intestines out into the ad- jacent spaces. The swelling of the hernia as some- times seen is as larL^e as a half-bushel, but it is soft and can be easily pushed back. Sonieti'.iies a great quantity of the intestines are cut, and this is called strangulated hernia, and must be rerkiced, or deatli will follow from inflammation and mortification. Treatment. — For calves a truss is used, as shown in the illustration. The skin may be pulled together and placed between two wooden clamps, but care should be exercised not to get it too tight. In the rup- ture of the belly, the same appliances (an be vised. DISEASES OF THE URI- NARY ORGANS CYSTITIS OR INFLAMIrlATION OF THE BLADDER. Cause. — Tliis is an inflammation of the lining of t'he bladder. It is caused by feeding on musty hay, over-ripe grasses, or grain ; also from the improper use of diuretic medicines, especially is fhe cantharides apt to produce it, on accotint of being spread over too large a surface which is absorbed in large quantities, Or being given in too large doses internally. Symptoms. — Great uneasiness, colicky pains, nose turned towards the flank, efforts to vomit, if a male, the testicles are drawn up towards the body ; urine is passed with pain, and is scanty ; the urine in health, is alkaline, w'hile during this disease it is acid. Treatm.ent. — Give the animal plenty of linseed tea, or gum arable water. Evacuate the bladder by the use of the catheter. GRAVEL OR LITHASIS. Cause. — This is the formation of sand-like deposits in the bladder by the union of the acids or alkalies with the urea in a c'hanged condition. These sand de- posits cause the bladder to contract, and this causes the urination to be very painful. The disease affects the males more than it does the females. Treatment. — One dram citrate of lithium given in, One l:alf-pint of water daily. Another Treatment — Twenty drops Ilyurocliloric acid, Three drams gentian. One pint oat meal gruel. Give this morning and night for a few days. In same cases the stones have to be removed, in which cases an operation must be performed. If an opera- tion is necessary a veterinarian should be called in. DISEASES OF THE NER- VOUS SYSTEM. INFLAr.iMATION OF THE BRAIN. Cause. — The immediate cause of this disease is too great flow of blood which presses on the arteries and causes increased action in all circulatory vessels. Symptoms. — The pulse in the temporal arteries will be strong, the cow will suffer greatly, and will Ijc raving; eyes inflamed; the animal will fall suddenly; will attempt to rise again. Treatment. — Keep the head of the animal cool by using ice or the coldest water that can be had. Give once a day fhe following dose : Twelve ounces Epsom salts. One ounce Ginger, One ounce gentian. Water sufficient to make two quarts. If this dose does not cleanse the system readily, in- jections of warm water and soap will prove beneficial. LOCKJAW OR TETANUS. Cause. — This disease is caused l)y the introduction through the wound of a microbe called bacillus tetani. This microbe thrives best in a wound where little or no air can get to it, hence in a small wound there is more danger of lockjaw than in a large wound. The microbe increases very rapidly, and produces a chemi- cal poison that is absorbed by the blood, and poisons the nervous systems, producing cramps in the mtiscles. Lockia.w occurs mostlv in wounds of the feet, for the microbe exists in the soil. 4/0 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. Symptoms. — The disease operates under cover, that is, in most cases you do not know that the animal is afflicted at all until the dangerous stage is upon us. Lockjaw does not always lock the jaws of the animal. The animal is usually dull, and disinclined to move; the muscles are stiff, and the head poked out in front, and the tail almost straight out be'hind; the animal persists in standing up; the hind legs are held apart; and frequently the back is depressed downward, and sometimes it is arched upwards. Treatment. — The first thing to be done is to give a drench of 'i'en ounces Epsom Salts, Ten ounces common table salt, Two drams calomel. One ounce pulverized gentian, Two quarts of warm water. This should be given as a drench, if t'he jaws are not locked so as to prevent it;. After giving the above (Irenc'h, do not give any more dreu'ches. You should now search for the wound. Ren:ember that the wound may be, and probably is, very small, and it will be dif- ficult to find, as it may be hid by the hair. \Mien found wash it thoroughly, using hot water, soap, and a clean ra'^. Then apply to the wound some lotion made by using Thirty grains bichloride of mercury. One ounce pure carbolic acid. One quart of water. Pour some of it into ll;e wound, and swp.l) aV. part^ witli it. I'd not be afraid of getting too much on, and rubbing it in too deep. Make soaking wet with some lotion on absorbent cotton, and bind the wound with it, changing tie dressin:^- once a day. Keep the anim;;; in a dark stall, give her any food that she will eat. I ' the ji'.ws ,-'.:-c Ijc'xed }'0'i cirinot give a'lvthing inter- nally, but you can use the latter part of this treatment. But little hope is offered where t''e jaws are lo-^ked. A serum is now offered on the market, which is a great aid in preventing tetanus or c.ivin-^ it in t'..^ carli'^'- stages, bv iniectin'T; the material under the skin. PARASITIC DISEASES. LICE. Poor, neglected, lialf-star\eil animals are the ones most seriously affected with lice. One of fhe simplest and best remedies for lice, or any other parasitic dis- ease is a decoction of tobacco. Take two or three ounces to a quart of water. Another Treatment. — Take forty per cent, solution of pennyroyal, and apply every fourth day. Another Simple Treatment is the use of kerosene in small quantities. Too much kerosene will likely re- move the hair. Whenever the modern coal tar disin- fectants are available, such as Creolin, Chloro, Napth- oleum, Carsul, etc., they will serve the purpose of kill- ing parasites and producing healthy growth of skin and hair better than almost any other material. WOLVES OR GRUBS. For wolves in cattle, saturate the lumps on the cow's back three times a week with spirits of turpen- tine, cottonseed oil, or kerosene. Usually three appli- cations are sufficient, but sometimes more is required. The grtibs ir.ay also be squeezed out and killed to pre- vent further propagation. RINGWORM. This affection is due to a fungus or vegetable para- site that gets into the hair. It is very contagious, go- ing from man to the lower animal, and from lower an- imal to man. It will 1 e known by the circular patch of scaly crusts, which first appear to stick close to the hide, but which in time become detached. Treatment. — The first thing to be done is to sepa- rate the ai.'ejlcl animal frora the rest. Remove the crusts and destioy them so that some other animal or man will not take the disease. After cleansing the parts wi'.h soap and water, apply tl;e following: One 'half dram iodine, 0::c 1 alf dram of iodide of potash, ( 're oun^e vaseline. Another Treatment. — After cleansing the affected parts as above directed, paint the places with One part carbolic acid. Twenty parts acetic acid. ECZEMA. This is an affection causing great itching. In treat- A Few Dishonest Dairymen Ruin the Reputation of Many Honest Men. 471 ing this affection, change the food if possible. Bathe the affected parts with a half-ounce carbolic acid, and two quarts of water. The disease should be attended to as promptly as possible, for if neglected, it will be- come chronic, tlie skin thickens and cracks, from which cracks there is a constant discharge of semi- purulent fluid. MILK FEVER. This disease usually occurs within three days fol- lowing t'he time of calving, and never occurs after the first calving, and rarely after the second. It most fre- quently occurs after the third, and subsequent calving times. Cows that are in good condition, and good milkers are more subject to this disease than any oth- er. The symptoms are: weakness; muscular trem- ors; unsteady gait; inability to stand; loss of appetite; while the cow is down, the head is generally thrown around on t'he side ; consciousness is lost to a great degree; the cow not noticing her calf; saliva drops from the mouth ; bloating sometimes takes place, but this as a rule is the result of too liberal feeding just at the time of calving. Treatment. — Treatment should begin as soon as the first symptoms are observed. It is a very good idea to keep close watch over the cow for the first t'hree days after calving, so if the disease should begin, you can check it. In treating this disease, the udder should first be filled with either air, oxygen, or a solution of iodide of potash. The air treatment is the latest discovery. and when successful, no other work is necessary. The only apparatus required is a tube to insert in the teat, connected with a syringe bulb, bicycle a'r pump, or bellows. The best teat tubes are metal, but in emergencies a small rubber or glass tube, or a small chicken quill may be used. The instruments should be clean and the air pure. The older treat'.r.ent with solution of iodide of pot- ash was performed with a teat tube, a long rubber tubing, and a funnel through which to pour the liqui 1 mto the udder. The solution is prepared bv dissolv- ing two dr-TT.s of iodide of potash in a quart of clean, boiled water, that h?s been cooled to blood heat. Di- vide the quart of solution into four equal parts and inject or pour one part into each of t'he quarters of the udder, hands and instruments clean. Som.e practi- tioners have used warm water and an ordinary house- hold bulb syringe with good effect. The new air treatment is doubtless the best. Additional medical treatment is sometimes neces- sary to get the bowels and stomach started to work well again after an attack of milk fever. A good pur- gative may help matters, such as salts or oil, and a tonic, such as copperas or nux vomica. ^ MISCELLANEOUS RE- CEIPTS AND DISEASES. INFLAMMATION OF UDDER OR MAMMITIS. Cause. — This disease is most common just after calving, and before the secretion of the milk has as- ^ A'^jfer-iiJ-.l^ lg '^'!!fSZjijSt~U&)lt;^iiS&.£i^ iio- 15 Qikcii Bessie Land.seer. Farm of E. J. Hewlett, StepHensville, Tex. sumed a normal condition. However, it frequentlv has no connection with calving, and is contracted by ly- ing on cold, damp ground. Cows that are in poor con- dition, or arc neglected are most affected by it. Symptoms. — The bag swells, becomes hard, red and sore, and very tender; the milk is often curdled and sometimes bloody. Treatment. — The trouble should receive attention as early as possible. If allowed to continue, it may go into suppuration, that is, the formation of pus, which is discharged inside and, comes out with the milk. Sometimes the pus does not come out with the milk, but through an opening in the outside. In suc'h cases the milk from that affected quarter will usuallv be 472 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. soiled. Give the animal one and a half pounds of Ep- som Salts, and one ounce pulverized ginger, dissolved in a half gallon of warm water, and give as one drench. After this medicine has acted, give the ani- mal half an ounce of nitrate of potassium twice a day in tlie water she drinks. This should be continued for three or four days. Fro^m the first, bathe the udder Avith hot water, for an hour, three times a day. After eacli bathnig, rub m well a niixture of one half ounce £!cetate of lead, one half ounce sulphate of zinc, and cue quart of salt water, s'hake well before using. Con- tinue this until all the inflammation is gone. and abuses her. Remember that the cow has feelings, and if her teats are sore, that it hurts her to be milked. After milking rub on Two ounces Witch Hazel, Two ounces sulphate of zinc. Two ounces of lard. Rub on the aftected parts a few times. This is a fav. orite treatment among dairymen. Another Treatment. — After milking use 0-!e dram pulverized alum. Two ounces vaseline. Fis ly— imujoi-ted Red Polled Heiters. Owned by W. R. Clifton, Waco, Texas. Another Treatment. — ^Give the internal treatment as i;rcscribed in the treatmert above, but bathe the ud- der with the following lotion: Four ounces liquid camphor. One ounce turpentine. Two ounces of lard, One teaspoonful of coal-nil, or kerosene. SORE TEATS. A cow's teats frequently become sore, chapped, anrl cracked. In such cases, the milking is quite painful to the cow, and annoying to the milker. The milker frequently becomes enraged because the cow suffers. LUMPS IN TEATS. For some cause, lumps are formed in the bag, and the}' frequently get down in the teats, whic'h prevents the milk from coming down those teats. Sometimes the lumps can be forced back in the bag, in which case the lump will doubtless disappear before the next season. If not. yon will have to use a milk tube, w'hich can be procured from your druggist. HARD MILKER. If frequently happens that cows tliat are valuable are hard milkers. In such cases, it is of the. greatest If You Are Going Into the Dairy Business, Buy a C ood Separator. 473 importance to remedy this defect. Take a chicken feather, from the wings is best, and insert it in the teat, without touching the feather with a knife, foi that would then cause the feather to hurt the teat ; work it up gently, turning it around and around, un- til you have worked it up an inch or more. Then draw it out, and proceed with the milking. Do this for a week or more, and the cure will be permanent. Sometimes it requires the operation of a veterinarian to open up the teats. Metal teat dilators may also be secured from any sur2"ical house. GARGET. Cause. — This disease aiTects heavy milking cattle more than others. It is often the result of careless inations of ammonia, ether and whiskey. A severe case of garget results in the loss of the milking function in one or more quarters of the udder, and shrinking of the parts. If half of the udder be lost, it would be better to sell such animal to the II 474 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. butcher before calving time Occurs again, to prevent further trouble. In light cases the milk flow will be established naturally again, or return to its usual work at the succeeding calving time. BLOODY OR STRINGY MILK. When the udder has been injured by blows, or con- gested for any ceason, the milk may become tinged with blood. When the cow is in heat and under con- siderable excitement, blood may flow through the teats. Other causes are, changing suddenly from poor to rich, heavy feeds, and eating of carid resinous Stringy milk is genrally caused by the entrance in- to the udder of germs which collect from various sources on tha end of the teats, enter the opening and gradually work their way up inside the teat, spread- ing through the entire mass of milk. It can be con- trolled by keeping the cattle away from any contam- ination, such as mud-holes or manure filth, and in ob- stinate case? by giving a drench containing one-fourth ounce Hyposulphate of Soda. WARTS. Warts frequently appear on fhe cow, and tJhey are fr' 'r««K'^-v^n> Fig. 20 — A round up iu Florida. weeds or plants. Some cows are more subject to this than others, being what are called "thin skinned." the small blood vessels are liable to break inside the bladder and discharge blood in the milk canals. To cure the trouble, ascertain the cause and if necessary reduce the feed or change pastures. If injury or con- gestion has occurred, treat the same as for garget, by hot water bathing and greasing with lard or oint- ments or a weak solution of iodine. Always milk out and throw away all bloody milk. For internal treat- ment give a drench of one pound of salts and half an ounce of saltpeter. especially troublesome v^dien on the teats. Tie a silk thread around the warts. In a few days they will come off. Then apply terchloride of antimony to the affected parts, and you will have no trouble with them. If the warts are fat, or for any reason you cannot tie a string around them, take a knife and scarifv the;n. and then apply a little nitrate of silver or terchloride of antimonv every third day. After the warts have dropped off. heal the parts with two ounces tincture of catechu, two drams carbolic acid, eight ounces wa- ter. Another remedy.— Apply nitric acid on wart daily. Do Not Buy Dairy Utensils Because They are Cheap. 475 til it is removed. If you should get too much nitric d, use vaseline or some other kind of grease. CHOKING. This is the result of feeding roots, apples, etc. The perfect chewed particle lodges in the gullet, which quite small in cattle, and resists all efforts of the an- al to dislodge it. The symptoms are : the head is :ended and stretched out ; saliva flows from the lUth; the animal is restless; and shows pain; she !;ps chewing and making efforts to swallow. Open mouth of the animal and place something like 3 iw clevis in it to keep open, and run your hand n her throat and remove the obstruction. If you unable to reach it, or for any reason the above s, give the animal ne ounce sulphuric, ether ne quarter pint linseed oil. f thil plan does not avail? a probe will have to be lerted. In such case, a veterinan'an should be em- yed, or one familiar with its use. TUMORS, [Tumors frequently appear on the cow. Sometimes y come on the udder, sometimes on the jaw and at ious places. Open the tumor, and bathe it well |ee times a day with hot water, and after each hing rub it well a little> with the following lotion : )ne half ounce acetate of lead, ne half ounce sulphate of zinc. )ne quart soft water. iha'ke well before using. The tumors should be tinguished from LAimpy Jaw which requires differ- internal treatment. FOOT EVIL. •"oot Evil is a swelling just above the fetlock of the v's foot. Where the foot divides, there is usually ore. If there is a sore where the foot divides, dis- ^'e one tablespoon blue vitriol in a pint of soft wa- I and apply to the affected part twice a day for fee days. If the place where the foot divides is not |e, apply a bag of salt to the affected part, and mois- this with vinegar. COW TONIC. jt frequently happens that cows need tonics, just as \>' people do. The following tonics are recommended: Two ounces sweet spirits of nitre, Two ounces tincture of gentian, Two ounces tincture of ginger. One ounce tincture of chloride of iron. Mix thoroughly and give as one dose in a quart of oatmeal gruel. Another tonic. — Four ounces sulphate of iron. Four ounces nitrate of potassium, Two ounces nux vomica. Mi.x and divide into twenty-four doses, and give dose morning and night in a bran mash. This tonic is especially recommended to stimulate blood circula- tion. BITTER MILK. It is often found that cows, eating some kind of weed, give bitter milk. In such cases the only thing to be done is to keep them in the lot^ or change pas- tures so that they cannot eat the weed that causes the trouble. Feeding- small amount of charcoal and salt- peter will often remove the disagreeable taste. Again bitter milk comes from uncleanliness. Few people re- alize the importance of cleanliness in handling milk. It is frequently the case that the stable is not kept as clean as it should be. So often is this true that milk absorbs bacteria from the cow stable. If the milk is allowed to stand there for some time while the cow fimshes eating or the calf is separated from its moth- er, it will all the time become more unfit for use. Then be certain that the milk is in a clean, cool place after bringing it into the house. The milk utensils should be kept perfectly clean. If everything is kept clean, and the cow fed proper food, the milk will al- ways be pure and sweet. DEHORNING. Althoug'h dehorning has been adopted for many years, it has only recently come into such common use. Horns were evidently given to the cow as weap- ons of defense, but under the present feeding and stabling methods, they become a trouble and at times are dangerous to other cattle and people as well. De- horning is considered by many as a cruel operation, but it is no more so than permitting a "boss" cow in a herd to be constantly injuring weaker animals. Dai- 476 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. ry cattle require less room when dehorned, and t'he operation seldom has any effect on milk flow. There are several methods of dehorning, the oldest being by the use of a saw. This is more painful than other methods, and should be used only on adult an- imals over fhree years of age, with hard tough horns. The use of clippers in sucn cases may crush the horn or crack the skull bones. The head of the animal should be confined in a stanchion or tied close to a strong post, the hair clipped at base of 'horn, and the horn sawed off close enough to the skull to take off with the horn about a ring or a quarter of an inch of .•-kin at its base. A fine toothed wood saw, or a regu- lar butcher's saw may be used. The wound s'hould be treated with pine tar or vaseline, and the openings plugged with cotton for a few days. For animals not over two years old, it is better to use the dehorning clippers sold for the purpose, as they do the work much quicker, leaving a smooth, clean cut whic'h readily heals. The horn at this age is soft enough to prevent any danger as mentioned in re- gard to adults. When the button begins to grow, scrape with a knife till raw, and apply a little caustic potash to the spot, rubbing well on the button. The next day if there is a little dent there, the horn is dead. JSut if no dent appears, make a second application of caustic. This is certainly a better plan than to wait till the nary halter on the head, and a surcingle around he chest, just be'hind th'e front, then take a stick and ti gain anything from a financial point, where y all vour feed. It is far more satisfactory to r: the feed that your cow will consume. Of co^ a man has any feed at all, he s'hould have a sm: ture. A pasture is almost necessary. Many hi Keep Your Blood Pure- M'i and others plots of land that are now idle could be turned into money by converting them into pastures. Look about your place and see if there is not some land that could very easily be turned into a pasture, and your cow ahiiost entirely fed there. With a good pasture in the summer, you will only have to feed your cow a little ground feed. Some of the waste from the kitchen may be fed to t'he cow and some to chick- ens and hogs. Hpw many farmers allow this waste to be thrown away, when it could be converted into food. They enjoy eating vegetables and will eat them either cooked or raw- The skim milk can be poured over her food, and r.S' d to advantage, if there are no hogs to be fed. And then there is a great deal of waste from the garden. The cornstalks from which the roasting ears are taken should not be allow to stand and dry -no. but should be fed to the cow. And then there are the potato vines, they should be fed to Fig. 2G— Dairy House Nacoochee Valley Farm. Owned by Dr. L. G. Hardmau of Commerce, Ga. the cow. In fact, if vnu will only try. you can feed your cow upon many things that would othei-wise be ■ft'asted. But if you cannot pasture t'he cow, a great deal of food can be raised, such as millet, sorglium, and such other foods, on small space and cut for feed- ing. If yoii have to "buy feed, the following ration is about the average for the American cow. Xow we do not claim that it is the proper amount, but it is an av- erage. It may be that your cow will need more, or it may be she will not need so much : (Northern Advice) 15 pounds good, sound hay. 10 pounds wheat bran, 5 pounds corn meal. This ration should be divided so as to cover the en- tire day. Cheaper foods can be prepared than this food, but this is considered the best. A ration much used in t'he South is .5 pounds Cottonseed Meal. 15-20 pounds Cottonseed hulls, 5 pounds hay or fodder. See that your cow is milked. — Milking a cow is not simply going to her and drawing the milk properly from her. He wlio milks successfully should study the work. The cow should be milked as quickly as possible, as she will give more milk w'hen it is drawn from her rapidl3\ than when it takes a long time for her to be milked. And then a good milker will get ev- ery drop of milk. The last milk is the richest. A cow mav be dried up by not ta!:in^- all the milk. She produces the milk as it is taken from her. If some be left wit'h her, then the next time she will not give nuite as much. Al)ove all. the milker sliould practice cleanliness. It is not an uncommon thing for the milker to moisten his hands with milk and then proceed to fill the pail. 'rbis practice does not make the milking- any easie", p.nd it is simply inexcusable to use fhe milk bucket for a wash basin. Before beginning to milk, the udder and teats should be washed thorou'rhly clean, and then dried with a cloth. It is best ta milk with the hands drv. As soon as the milk is drawn from t'he cow, it slionld be carried into the house and strained, and rot a'lowed to stand in the barn for a halfJio--'-. absorb-'nof imnuri'-ic';. The m.ilk should be strained immediatclv into sballovv' pans, or deep cooling cans, ?.nd r''"'--e'' to cool. Do not imake the mistake that ma'^-'- f-^r'-'-'c'-s' wives make in allowing the milk to sit aro'ind until after supper before it is strained. One ite"T in m-i'cinfr the best hu*:ter is to clii"-'i often. Do not allow the milk to stand after the cream has ripened. It is a poor plan to wait until vou get more cream, ^^"hen it is ripe, then is the time to churn. And just a word about the place where the milk is kept. Did you ever study t'he places that the average 48o TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. family keep their milk and butter? Let us just take a peep into an ice chest. The ice chest, as a rule, does not contain over six cubic feet of space. Strawber- ries have a very pung-ent odor, but they appear first 5 and then there is some cheese, and then a bowl of vegetable soup that was left over, and that must be kept on ice, or it will sour. And there is beef, and the butter and the milk, and a great many other things. The milk and butter all the time are absorbing these odors- The milk should be kept by itself. It may be more expensive, but it will be more satisfactory. The cow appreciates kindness. — ^Many things can be done witli a cow I)v treating her kindly, that cannot be done in any other way. She should have plenty of salt. Do not forget to salt her at least three times a week. It is a very good plan to keep salt where she can get it all the time. It is not necessarv to feed while milking. The cow is a creature of habit, and ,will do as she is trained. DAIRYING. ■With butter selling at from 25 to -10 cents per pound, and milk from 18 to 25 cents per gallon the year nround there is good money in dairving, — a rrer,: deal more than raising cotton at 10 cents per pound. The South is pre-eminently the place for dairy work. It is easier to raise feed here than any place in the United States. It should only be a matter of a few ■v'ears when the old hills of the South that are now producing three hundreds pounds of cotton pvr acre will be producing feed stuff, or used as pastures for dairy cattle. The dairy business is an occupation. It rcf]uires time and patience to learn it, Imt there is no calling that will give better results for the amount in- vested than the dairy business. To the man wdio has been making only cotton for the jiast ten or fifteen vears, it will take but a little reasoning for him to see how much better it would have been for him to have devoted some of his time to other work. Cotton is an easy crop to raise. As a rule, it takes only a few months to raise it, and very little exposure to cold, rainy weather. But not so in the dairy business. Cows must be milked, fed, groomed, and the milk at- tended to twice a day, seven days in the week, and fiftv-two weeks in t'he year. Atlanta. Georgia, uses ,^00,000 pounds of butter per year, and the most of it it shipped' from the North and West. This butter costs the grocers from twenty-five to t'hirty-five cents a pound. Other Southern cities are the same way. They need butter, and the people of the South can supply them, and do it easily, if they will, while helping to enrich their lands. To embark in the dairy business requires some capi- tal, a great deal of common sense and determination. If the business is managed right, it can be made to pay from the very beginning. If you have had no ex- perience, do not go into it too heavily, or on too large a scale. You do not know just w'hat is best, and must learn from experience. There are many things that cannot be taug'ht in books. The school of experience will teach you many things- Th.e average farmer will find it a profitable IjusinesLi to carry on a dairy busi- rig. 26 — Cow of Mr. Williamson, Commerce, Ga. Producing over 500 lbs. of butter each year. ness as a side line. Every good farmer lias a few good cows. Now it will not be costly for him to pur chase a good pure bull, and perhaps one or two pur' cows. In connection with his farm business, in t! course of a few years, t'iiere is no reason why he can not have a first-class dairv herd. Of cotirse. in brecil ing up a dairy herd, all the poor cows should fin' their Avay to the butcher's pen. A poor cow is a bm investment for milking purposes. W'eed them on and get the very best. But if the man will look fact in the face he will be convinced that dairying pa}'' so that the next question that 'Comes up is, what an how must 'he go about the business. Produce First-Class Goods, and Demand First Class Prices. 481 THE BARN. There can be no definite plans or rules laid down for the construction of the barn or farm buildings. If ihe side of a hill with a south or east exposure can be secured it will be better to build on it, as it will save time in doing the chores. And then the barn must be built according to circumstances. The floor of the barn should be of cement. Dig out the place to a depth of six or eight inches, and make the bottom where the floor is to be laid level Then fill in with gravel and broken stones, and t'hoi- oughly wet and trample down. Give a slant in the stable from the manger to the gutter of one or two inches. It is very important that you get the gra\-el and stones thoroughly packed, as this will prevent t'he floor from cracking. If it is not packed thorough- ly the floor will be sure to crack. Then you sihould mark the place for the gutter, which should be from Mix thoroughly together one part cement, and nine parts gravel, and sprinkle it, until it is damper than freshly dug earth. A box s'hould be made, whose out- side measurements are the same as the gutter, so that it can be used in making the gutter. The concrete, as mixed above, should be put on to a thickness of two and a half inches in depth. It can be smoothed over with a straight edge. Then on top of this should be placed another layer of cement and sifted sand, usmg one part cement and three parts sand. Care should be observed that t'he sand be free from dirt. After you have made the floor smooth, it is a good idea to go over the floor with a rake, letting the teet'h go in the cement just a little. Go over it both lengthwise and crosswise. This will prevent t'he floor from being slick, and keep the cattle from slipping. The sire of the stalls depends upon the length of the animal, and should be from 3 to 3 1-2 ft. wide, and ^ - iT *-„ -«- , —.----. ....^^^ *:\{'- ^^ * ■ 1 mm- .. ..-^t: ' B ""'■■-^"r^^S . .^J^ Fig. 28 — Showing bull paddock, cow lot and barn of W. R. Clifton, Waco. Texas. six feet three inches to six feet eight inches from the manger* .depending, of course, upon the size of the cows- The gutter should be dug three inches wider and deeper than wanted when finished. It should be nearly level from end to end, and should he about eight inches deep, and sixteen inches wide when finished. If you intend to use foundation posts, measure from the manger the proper distance, that is, the distance you want the foundation posts from the manger, and drive one inch pipes into the ground for eighteen inches, leav- ing six inches above the surface to set the posts on, holes being bored in the lower end of t'he posts to re- ceive the pipe. This is better than putting t'he posts into cement. 32 from six to seven feet long. There are a great many forms of ties, stanchion and patent stalls, each having some advantages- The simplest is a rope, strap or chain to tie the cow to the front or side of the stall. If stanchions are used they should be of the swinging or chain hanging variety to give freedom to the cow. Some stalls are arranged to fit the animal exactly wit'h- otit tying, confining her bv means of a rope or chain across the back of the stall. The most economical and satisfactory method of watering is to have one or two large drinking troughs in protected places, where there is footing without mud, and allow the cattle to have access to this at least twice a da}'. Separate watering devices in each stall 482 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. ■"have not proved satisfactory in practical use on ac- count of being unsanitary. The partitions between the stalls can be made of wire or boards, but should be movable, so that the tarn can be more easily cleansed. The cow should have a good bed made of saw-dust, leaves or some- thing of the kind. This will cause extra trouble, to be sure, but it will pay for itself in the saving of the ma- nure. The bedding should be renewed at least once a day. This is much better than having the cow lying upon the cold cement. A 4 or 6 board may be fas- tened on edge of gutter to hold bedding in place. In planning your barn, perhaps the cheapest plan is to build a barn thirty-two feet wide. This will allow a ten-foot hall-way down the center, and two rows of ■stalls, one on each side- The cows can be placed wntli their heads towards the hallway, and this will facilitate feeding them. However, some prefer turning the cows the other way, as it is more convenient in carting off the manure. The barn should be long enough to give every cow a stall, and have two or three extra box stalls ten by ten feet to be used for hospitals, calves, etc. Fig. 29 — Cow barn which can be converted into hog barn. Erroll Farm, Plymouth, Fla. Of course, behind the gutter there should be a walk for getting into and from the cows A good plan has been used by some dairymen in having tTie outside wall of the barn made of cloth fastened at the top. By this plan, at night in the summer, and the summer in the South lasts raost of the year, this canvas wall can be raised, and the cows will keep as cool as out- side. Then in the winter, and cool nights it can bo lowered, and the cows kept warm. If the winters are I severe it may necessitate using a blanket on each cow, but the comfort they will get in the summer will coin- , pensate for the extra trouble in keeping them warm in i the winter. Then the canvas sides afford better op- . portunities for ventilating and letting the Hg'ht in than ' a board wall. Another good plan for the South is to have a small ' well-built stable room for milking and feeding pur- poses, to contain half or a third of the total number of cows, permitting them to eat the grain ration here while being milked The remainder of the time they are kept under a large, open, covered shed, where they can secure water freely, hay or fodder from racks, and lie down at will. The floor should be kept well-bedded with leaves, pine straw or saw dust, and the manure be allowed to accumulate with the bedding and hauled out once a week to the field. This plan give the cat- tle freedom and comfort, produces more manure, and saves space of a tightly built barn. FEED FOR DAIRY CATTLE. The question of feed in the dairy business is one of the largest items. It is a question that every dairy- man must study. You cannot hope to succeed in the dairy business without the proper feeding. The ra- tion or feed of a working animal should be quite dif- ferent from that of a fattening animal, and the ration of a young, growing animal sihould be different from that of an old, mature animal. In feeding a coiw, the object is not to fatten, but to make her produce milk. Certain kinds of foods produce bone and muscle, and repair all the waste. These are called proteids. Pro- teids also produce the casein or cheesy part of the milk. Then there are foods that produce the heat and supply the fats to the cow. These are called car- bohydrates, and are also used to produce the butter fat of the milk. Experiments have determined that there should be twenty-five pounds of dry vegetable matter to every thousand pounds of live weight of cows. Of this twen- ty-five pounds required for a 1000 pound cow, there ougiht to "be two and a half pounds of digestible pro- tein or flesh producing foods, twelve and a half pounds of carbohydrates, and four-tenths of a pound of fat. This ration, of course, is an average and not com- puted for every cow. As the cow gives milk, and the amount of protein and fat should be materially in- creased, while the increase in the amount of carbohy- drates should be only sliglitly increased. Perhaps we Appearance Adds A Great Deal to a Value of an Article. 483 :,in do no better than to give the complete tables as ./en in the Bulletin issued by the Georgia Experi- ::nt Station on the question of feeding cattle. "Nutritive Ratio. — This expression means the pro- rtion between the amount of digestible proteins in a i';ding stuff, or ration, and the amount of digestible ■rbohdyrates and fats it contains. It is found by multiplying the amount of fats by ;^.25 (2 1-4), adding ne product to the amount of carbohydrates and divid- ■ g this sum by the aniount of proteins. This is done » cause the fat is considered to be two and one-fourth :nesthe foodvalue of the carbohydrates. The stand- d for an average milch cow, as given in Table No. 1. jat a nutritive ratio of 1 :5.4, which means that the car- jihydrates and two and one-fourth times the fat ,'.dded together) are 5.4 times greater than the pro- jin. Thus: Take field corn, the first feeding stuff in fig. 30 — Silo on TJ. S. Diversification farm at Talladega. '1 Ala.. weatherboarded as a house. '^able No. 2. It contains 4.3 pounds of fat in 100 ounds, which multiplied by 2.25 (2 1-4), equals 9.7. idd this 9.7 to G6.7 — fhe amount of carbohydrates in leld corn — and we 76.4 pounds. Divide tihis 7G.4 by ht 7.9— the amount of proteins in field corn and we lave 9.6, which is the nutritive ratio cxf corn or corn "Feeding Standards. — Table No. 1 gives what are called the "Feeding Standards" for different kinds and conditions of animals, based on 1,000 pounds live weight. It is known as the Wolff-Lehmann standard, and is adapted from Henry's "Feeds and Feeding." The original Wolff standard ratio for the average milch caw in fhe table as indicated. "This calls for a daily ration for a 1,0<}'0 pound cow of 25 pounds of organic matter, including 2.50 pounds of digestible protein, 12.50 pounds of digestible carbo- hydrates, and 0.40 pound of digestible fats. This standard is the basis for the suggested feeding formu- las for milch cows, w'hic'h will be found on this page. "Substantially the same principles and conditions that should control in the make-up of a daily ration for a milk cow apply also to rations for fattening cat- the hogs, sheep, etc. Table No. I. Feeding Standards. Per day and per l.CCO pounds live weight. (Wwlff-Lehmanii.)' Total Dry Digestible Nutrients. Nutri- tive KI.ND OF AXIMALS Matter Protein Carbo- lydrates Fats ratio Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. 1 ; — 1 O-ren— At rest in stall . . 18 0.7 8.0 0.1 11.8 At ligUt work . . 22 1.4 10.0 0.3 7.7 At heavy work . . 28 2.8 13.0 0.8 5.3 2 Fattening Cattle— First Period . . ■ SO 2.5 15.0 0.5 6.5 Second period . . . SO 3.0 14.5 0.7 5.4 Third period . . . 26 2.7 15.0 U.7 6.2 3 Milch Cr.irs— When yielding daily- 4 quarts of milk . 24 1.6 111.0 0.3 6.7 8 qr.rrts of milk . 27 2.0 11.0 0.4 6.0 12 quarts of milk . 29 2.5 13.0 0.5 5.7 U quarts of milk . 32 3.3 13.0 0.8 4.5 Average Cow (Wolff) 25 2.50 12.5 0.4 5.4 4 Horses— At moderate work . 23 1.8 11.2 0.6 6.9 At heavy work . . 25 2.8 13.4 0.8 5.4 5 Fattening Swine— First period . . . 36 4.5 25.0 0.7 5.9 Second period . . . 32 4.0 24.0 0.5 6.3 Third per'.od . . . 25 2.7 18.0 0.4 7.0 6 Fattening Sheep— First period . . . 26 3.0 15.2 0.5 5.4 Second period . . 25 3.0 14.4 0.6 4.5 7 Growing Cattle (Dairy Breeds') Age in Av. live wt. months a hd., lbs. 2-3 IM 23 4.0 13.0 2.0 4.5 3-6 30( 24 3.0 12.8 1.0 5.1 6-12 50f 27 2.0 12.5 0.5 6.8 12-18 70( 26 1.8 12.5 0.4 7.5 18-24 9« 26 1.5 12.0 0.3 8.5 ^84 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. KIND OF ANIMALS Total l>iy Matter rounds. Digestible Nutrients. I'rotein I'ounds. Carbo- i Fats hydrates Pounds. I Pounds Nutri- tive ratio 1 : — Grotring Ciiitic — (Beef Breeds) 2- 3 3- 6 6-12 12-18 lS-24 9 Groirliig Sii'ine — ( Breeding Stocli) 2-3 50 3-5 100, 5-6 120' 6- S 200^ 8-12 250l 10 Groiving, Fatlnihiy Siciiie — 2-3 50 3-5 -.1110 5- C 15U 6-8 200 9-12 .Si;il 11 Brood Soirs .... 23 24 25 24 24 44 35 32 2S 25 3.5 2.5 2.0 1.8 7.6 7.6 2.8 2.1 44 7.6 35 5.0 33 4.3 30 3.6 26 3.0 IJ.O 1 1 2.0 12. S 1.5 13.2 0.7 12.5 0.5 12.0 0.4 28. 1.0 23.1 o.s 21.1 0.4 16.7 0.3 15.3 0.2 28. II 1.0 23.1 (1.8 22.3 0.6 20.5 0.4 IS. 3 0.3 15.5 0.4 4.2 4.7 6.0 0.8 7.2 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 7.5 4.0 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.4 6.6 It is not insisted that the ration for milch cows should exactly correspond either in total amount of "dry matter" or in the proportion of protein, carbohy- drates and fats. The ciuantities and proportions given in Table No. 1 are the averages of a large number of feeding experiments- In the nature .of the case, differ- ent animals, dillerent conditions of t'he same animal, different outward surrounding^^ — such as temperature, stable comfort, etc. — will call for different proportions of elements, and different quantities. It is for t'he in- telligent dairyman to study these conditions, to note the personal peculiarities of each cow, the cjuality of the component foods, and the results in milk produc- tion, and to govern himself accordingly in making up the feed formulas. A careful and painstaking feeder will make changes in feed according to the observed peculiarities or conditions of the several cows. The "feeding standards" are for general guidance and not for implicit compliance in matters of detail. It should be remembered that no ordinary change in lhe composition, or in the proportions of the nutri- tive elements of the ration will cause any change in the qualitv of the milk, i.e., the percentage of butter fat. It is now generallv admitted that we cannot "feed fat into the milk." Each individual cow has 'her own opinion as to the amount of water she will put into her milk, or, in other words, how rich her milk should be. and no art or device of feeding will materially or permanently change the result. Feeding even the most til succulent and watery foods does not — as was long, lieved — materially affect t'he richness of the milkj Quality, or richness of the milk, depends (1) on' breed, and C2) on the individual cow, and can nO(' changed by changing the feed. Quantity of milk i be the aim of the expectant dairyman when he i- stricted to a given cow, or a herd of cows. 1 quality and quantity should be t'he aim of the in1 gent breeder. Of course there are other qualities of milk be? richness in butter fats. Flavor, l-ceeping qualities, both of t'he milk and of the butter, and the firmne the latter are materially affected by the charactt the food consumed. ANALYSIS OF FEED STUFFS. For convenience, the following table (No. 2) been compiled, giving t'he pro.ximate analyses of stock foods in common use, including especially t most popular and available in the South. The t also includes the average amount of fertilizing con? ents in one ton of each kind of feeding stuff a' column showing the commercial value of the s. based on the following prices of the three valuabi ements: Nitrogen, fourteen cents per pound; ax ble phosphoric acid, five cents per pound; and pol five cents per pound. On an average, about ei per cent, of the fertilizing elements contained in a f ing stuff will be found in the manure. ' Table No. II. .\verage Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing Con it uents in American Feeding Stuffs- ' NAME OF FEED Dig:estible Perti izin.L -a a Nutrients in Constituent 3- o a 100 lbs. in 2000 ibs S -o "-• *j w a ^ < u rs u V es &i S •D o E-. o c CO P >» u Xi a Q U t3 y. - GRAINS AND SEEDS Corn, Field Corn, Sweet Corn, Cnh Corn and Cob Meal .... Gluten Meal Wheat. Whole Wheat Bran Wheat Shorts Wheat Middlings RO.llI 7.9!66.7| 4.3 91.2|| 8.8|63.7| 7.0 89.31 I 0.4|52 84.9|| 4.4160 91.81125.8143 89.5||10.2|n9 88. 1 ,.6| 1. 01 2, 1|112.2| 8S.2|!12.2I50 87.91 1 12.8153 3|11 2|1 21 2 ,0| 3 01 s 4|14.( 0|... ,01 1 2[11. 51 6, 2|15 ,4|57 4|27, 6119. ,2112.1 4 9.- 1.1 15.1 32.; 11.1 12.1 Test Your Milk and See How Much Butter Fat Each Cow Produces. 485 NAME OF FEED Digestible Nutrients in 100 lbs. Fertilizing Constituents in 2000 lbs. -o K = t < != 1. r s a a; a> a: r; a 'A -^ C^ C rheat Screenings . . . ye arley Ualt Sprouts ;rewers' Grains, wet . . fats fatmeal tice tire Bran ice, Polish lorghum Seed Sroom Corn Seed . . . tatfir Corn Seed .... "lax Seed Linseed Meal, Xew Process totton Seed L'otton Seed Kernels (Meats) Cotton Seed Meal .... jlotton Seed Hulls . . . >uii flower Seed lunflower Seed Cake . . . 'eanuts, Hulled 'eanut Cake loja Beau (Japan I'ea) . ^ow Pea, seed . lorse Bean Velvet Bean (clean .seed) ;hina Berries lover GREEN FORAGE 'asture Grass 'odder Corn, green . . 'eosiute Lentucky Blue Grass . . 'imothy Grass .... irchard Grass .... [ungarian Grass . . . ert Top Grass .... 'rab Grass lermuda Grass .... obnson Grass .epedeza Striata (Jap. C toesmodium Molle (Beg'r Wd) joat Fodder . . iRye Fodder I I Barley, Green . . . Jwiieat Fodder . . . j!Sugar Cane Fodder . I'Scjrghum. Whole . . MRed Clover 'jAlsike Clover . . . || Crimson Clover . . . 'iBiirr Clover . . . . I Vetch (Vicia Sativa) j[| Vetch (Vicia Villosa) II Lucerne (Alfalfa) . . I ' Cowpea ' ' Soja Bean ' Sweet Potato Vines . 88.4 89.1 89.8 •24.3 89.0 92.1 87.6 90.3 90.0 87. 2 85.9 84. S 90.8 89.9 89.7 90.0 91.8 88.9 92.0 91.8 93.7 89.3 89.2 85.2 85. T 83.5 20.0 20.7 25.0 34.9 33. 4 27.0 28.9 34.7 33.0 33.0 34.0 30.0 30. Oj 37.8 23.4] 21.01 3{;.o 20 ()l 29.21 25.2 19.1 9.9 8.7 18.6 3.9 9.2 11.5 4.8 5.3 9.0 7.0 7.4 12.5 29.1 37.2 0.3 12.1 31.2 22.5 42.9 20.6 18.8 .4 21.4 1.0 2.4 3.0 1.2 1.5 2.0 2.1 1.9 2.6 2.4 2.7 3.4 2.7 2.1 1.9 2.80 0.6 2.9 2.7 2.4 25.0|1 2.6 25.01 j 4.4 SILAGE. ! ! Corn. 28.21 16. 4| 24. 9| 20.0 10.2 11.6 13.5 19.8 19.1 11.4 16.0 21.2 14.0 14.8 16 5 14.4 13.2 18.9 14.1 10.2 18.0 12 2 14.8 13.1 9.1 17.5 9.2 12.7 8.7 22.0 II 1 20.911 0.9|11.3 48.8 23.4 16.8 8.84 1.1 35.2 16.4 10.8 6.29 1.6 30.2 15.8 9.6 5 50 1.7 71.0 28.6 32.6 13.00 1.4 17.8 6.2 1.0 2.85 4.2 41.2 16.4 12.4 7.21 5.9 47.0 0.3 21.6 3.6 1.8 3.29 7.3 14.2 5.8 4.8 2.52 6.5 39.4 53.4 14.2 8.90 3.1 29.6 16.2 8.4 5.37 2.9 32.6 29.0 72.2 27.8 20.6 12.53 2.S 115.6 36.6 27.8 19.40 17.3 62.6 25.4 23.4 11.20 24.3 99.6 34.6 22.8 15.67 12.2 135.8 57.6 17.4 22.76 1.7 13.8 5.0 20.4 3.20 20.0 45.6 24.4 11.2 8.16 12.8 111.0 43.0 23.4 18.19 00.0 90.0 24.8 25.4 15.11 6.9 151.2 26.2 30.0 23.97 14.4 106.0 37.4 39.8 18.70 1.1 66.6 1.2 81.4 24.0 25.8 13.89 7.1 23.8 8.6 46.6 6.09 0.5 18.2 4.6 15.0 3.52 0.4 8.2 3.0 6.6 1.63 0.2 0.8 10.5 3.5 13.8 2.33 0.6 9.6 5.2 15.2 2.36 0.5 8.6 3.2 15.2 2.12 0.4 7.8 3.2 U.O 1.80 0.6 8.7 2.7 7.7 1.73 0.0 9.9 5.3 11.6 2.29 0.3 16.0 3.5 12.8 3.05 0.5 12.9 3.8 14.3 2.72 0.6 14.4 2.1 9.7 2.60 0.4 8.7 5.5 14.0 2.19 1.0 9.8 2.6 7.6 1.78 0.4 6.6 3.0 14.6 1.80 0.4 6.6 4.0 10.2 1.63 0.9 10.8 3.0 14.0 2.36 0.4 4.6 1.8 4.6 0.96 0.7 10.6 2.6 9.2 2.07 0.6 8.8 2.2 4.0 1.54 0.5 8.6 2.6 9.8 1.82 13.0 2.2 9.6 2.46 0.7 13.6 6.4 12.2 2.83 1.0 14.4 2.6 11.2 2.70 0.2 3.4 2.0 6.2 O.SS 1.0 5.4 3.0 10.6 1 1.43 8.4 1.4 14.6|| 1.97 II 0.7 5.6 2.2 7.4| 1 1 1.26 NAME OF FEED Digestible TS Nutrients in 3 100 lbs. ^ c] TT >) c3 a E K (^ (U J2 u ^ t-i A Q ^ u H Fertilizing Constituents in 2000 lbs. a > Red Clover Sorghum . Lucerne. . Cowpea. . Soja Bean HAYS, DRY FORAGE AND STKAVi'. Mixed Grass Hay Kentucky Blue Grass Hay. Timothy Grass Hay .... Orchard Grass Hay . ... Hungarian Grass Hay . . Redtop Grass Hay Creat '"romus Secalinus) Crabgrass Hay Bermuda Grass Hay Johnson Grass I.epodeza Striata (Jap. Clover) Desmodium Molle (Beg'r Wd) Shredded Corn StoTer .... Corn Stalks— Butts Corn Stalks— Tops Corn Blades (Corn rodder). Corn Shucks (Husks) .... Red Clover Hay White Clover Hay Lucerne (Alfalfa) Hay . .. Peanut Hay Cowpea Hay Burr Clover (Medick) Hay . Alsike Clover Hay Crimson Clover Hay Vetch Hay (Vicia Sativa). . Cotton-seed Hulls Wheat Straw Oat Straw Rye Straw Barley Straw Wheat Chaff Oat Chaff ROOTS, TUBERS. UNDER- GROUND SEEDS, Sweet Potata Irish Potato .\rtiehnke (Jerusalem) Sugar Beet Mangel Beet Common Garden Beet. Flat Turnip Rutabaga Carrot Chufa Peanut (Hulled) .... MISCELLANEOUS, Cabbage Spurry Sugar Beet Tops. . . Rutabaga Tops. . . . Pumpkin 2S.0 23.9 ^7.1 78.8 SO. 8 90.1 78.8 91.1 Sli.O 86.0 86.0 85 86.0 86.0 80.0 80.0 80.0 80.0 80.0 84.7 90.3 91.6 92.4 89.3 83.3 90.3 90.4 Sn.3 88.9 90.4 90.8 92.9 85.8 85.7 85.7 5.9 4.8 2.8 4.9 4.8 4.8 3.9 4.3 6.9 6.0 7.8 9.7 2.3 0.5 1.1 4.0 1.3 6.8 11.5 11.0 6.7 jlO.S 8.8 8.4 10.5 14.6 0.3 0.4 1.2 0.6 0.7 0.3 1.5 13.5 14.9 8.5 S 0|| 1, 6||1. 4]l 1. 4 i 0. 1 19. 8 15.3|| 1.8 20.0|| 1.5 12.0|| 1.7 11.2|| 2.1 9.111 1.0 2.0 0.2 l.U 0.9 40.9 1.2 37.3 2.0 43.4 1.4 42.3 1.4 37.3 2.0 46.9 1.0 45.0 1.7 30.4 1.5 39.0 0.8 41.4 1.2 41.4 1.8 37.0 1.2 43.2 o.u 54.0 0.8 42.8 0.7 40.8 0.6 49.9 0.3 35.8 1.7 42.2 1.5 39.6 1.2 42.1 3.4 38.6 1.1 36.5 42.5 1.5 34.9 1.2 30.6 2.3 33.1 1.7 36.3 0.4 38.6 0.8 40.6 0.4 41.2 0.6 23.3 0.5 33.0 0.7 5 3 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 2| 0.2 1| 0.2 8 0.2 8.6135.6 8.2| 0.4 9.81 0.3 4.61 0.2 6.S| 0.5 5.81 0.3 10.2 2.4 9.0 2.00 4.4 1.6 4.4 0.92 H.2 2.5 11.0 2.66 3.2 2.0 6.0 0.85 5.3 2.8 10.4 1.40 2S.2 5.2 31.0 5.76 i3.8 8.0 31.4 5.30 23.2 10.6 18.0 4.90 26.2 8.2 37.6 5.96 23.(1 7.2 20.4 4.60 26.8 13.8 30.0 5.94 24.0 8.7 32.2 5.40 32.4 9.6 35.7| '.■.79 41.4 6.0 27. 8| 7.48 26.0 16.5 42.0 6.56 27.4 7.6 36.0 6.02 41.4 7.6 44.0 8.38 35.0 10.4 36.21 10.03 '3.8 10.2'33.6| 8.32 33.2 5.8 3:).o 10.4 2r.4 7.45 43.3 10.7 32.0 8.20 46.8 13.4 .54.6 9.45 41.0 8.0 26.2 7.45 45.4 21.4 56.6 10.25 13.8 5.0 20.4 3.20 n.8 2.4 10.2 2.28 12.4 4.0 24.8 3 i8 9.2 5.6 15.8 2.36 11.2 6.0 41. 8| 3.96 15.8 14.0 8.4 3.33 6.4 2.4 9.2 1.48 5.2 2.8 9.4 1.34 4.4 2.0 9.6 1.20 3.8 1.8 7.6 1.00 4.S 1.8 8.8 1.20 3.6 2.0 7.8 0.99 3.8 2.4 9.8 1.14 3.0 1.8 10.2 1.02 20.8 2.8 16.2 3.86 7.6 2.2 8.6 1.60 7.6 5.0 11. 8| 1 1.90 9.2 3.0 7.2 1.77 5.0 1.8 5.6 1.21 486 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. Digestible Pertilizin g Nutrients in Constituents o 100 lbs. in 2n0f) lbs. ' C zL •"■ 0) :, NAME OF FEED :: ~< -— ' C -■ c O a c z fee o u c >■ ■- o ^ — 1-. ^ - K Ys ^ K O Rape Acorns Sugar Cane Bagasse. . Sorghum Bagasse. . . Cow's Mill; Cow's Milk. Colostrum Sk-m Milk, gra'vit.T . Skim Milk. Centrifugal Putter Milk Wlie.v Chees .... .... Butter Fat 34.4 8.94 4.9 2.V 4.7 5.2 4.0 4.7 0.2 1.7 3.7 S.6 0.8 0.3 1.1 0.3 100.0 9.2 10.6 56.4 11.2 11.2 12. S 3.0 90.8 00.0 3.0 S.S 13.2 4.0 4.0 3.4 2.8 23.0 0070 7.2 3.6 2.2 3.8 3.8 3.2 3.6 5.0 0.0 1.77 1.85 8.67 1.96 1.96 2.12 0.75 4.08 00.00 Feeding Formulas. From Tables 1 and 3 we may noiw calculate a ration for a dairy cow weighing 1,000 pounds, with a view to inducing a full flow of milk. Suppose we have available the following feeding stuffs, the comiposition of each of which is given in Table No. 2 : Cowpea hay, corn silage and wheat bran : Table No. 2 shows that cow'pea hay contains, in eve- ry IDO pounds, as follows : Dry matter, 89.3 pounds ; proteins, 10.8 pounds ; carbo-hydrates, 38.6 pounds ; and fat 1-1 pounds. We want to know haw much of t'hese elements there are in one pound of cowpea hay ; so we divide the 89.3 pounds of dry matter by 100, or 89.3 by 100 equals 893 pounds, or simiply set the decimal point two places to the left. Then, as there are .893 pounds of dry matter in one pound of cowpea hay, there must be .893x15 in fifteen pounds of the hay, or 13.39 pounds. This amount is placed in the column of "Dry Matter." Then, as Table No. 2 shows t'hat 100 pounds of cowpea hay contain 10.8 pounds of protein, proceed as before: 10.8 by 100 equals .108, and .108 multi- plied by fifteen gives 1.02 pounds of proteins in the fifteen pounds of cowpea hay, and we place the 1.62 in the column of proteins. Then proceed in like man- ner with the carbohydrates and fats and place the amounts of each that is contained in fifteen pounds of hay in its appropriate column. Then proceed, in like manner, to calculate the amounts of dry matter, proteins, carbohydrates and fats that are contained in forty pounds of corn silage and three pounds of wheat bran and place each amount in its column. Add up the columns and ■ find that on the first trial we get : Dry matter, 24.!: protein. 235; carbohydrates, 11.48; fats, 0.52, which the ratio is 1:5.3 (1 to 3.3). The result nearly right. It is a little short in the amounts dry matter, and in each of the ingredients except ff " But t'he ratio is 1 :5.4- — exactly correct. It is pri evident that if we add two pounds of wheat br making live pounds in all of bran, that the form will be correct. It may make it appear more clearly to show i different steps of the calculation, as follows: ' Cowpea Hay. In liiO Libs. In 1 Ijb. In 15 1 Dry Matter 89.3 Protein CaAohydrates Fats Dry Matter . Proteins . . . Carbohydrates Fats 100 = .893 X 15 = i:; ) . .10.8 -^ 100 = .lOS X IS = IjJ . 38.6 ^ lOO = .386 X 15 = '51) . 1.1 -^ 100 = .011 X 15 = 0|> Corn Silage. In lO'O Libs. In 1 'Lib. 20.9 0.9 -f- 100 11.3 0.7 100 = .200 X 40 .009 X 40 = - 100 = .113 X -10 = ^ 100 = .007 X 40 = In 401 8' 4 Dry Matter . Proteins 12.2 Carbohydrates . . 39.2 Wheat Bran. In lOO Ubs. In 1 'Lib. . 88.1 100 = .881 X 100 = .122 X lOO = .392 X Fats 2.7 ~ 100 = .027 X Now arrange the above in tabular form together ' • comipairison with the Wolff-Lehman ave ge standa , we have : InSi . 3 = 3=0 j? 3 = 1 ]' 3 = oi? FEEDING STUFFS I..,1-.STIBI.E O c A Kequired b.v an aver- age cow 15 pounds cowpea hay 40 pounds corn silage . 3 ])()uuds wheat bran First trial ration ■i pounds wheat bran . Second trial ration Lbs. 25.00 Lbs. 2.50 Lbs. 12.50 Lbs. 0.40 1 1 : B 13.39 S.36 2.64 1.62 0.36 0.37 5.79 4.. 50 1.17 0.16 0.28 0.08 1: 1 :li 1 : :: c 24.39 1.76 2.35 0.24 11. <8 0.79 52 0.05 1 : ■ 1 : 26.15 2.59 12.27 1 0.57 l: In the same manner feeding formulas may be co Cows Appreciate Good, Pure Water. 487 structed of a mixture of two, three, four or more of the different feeding stufEs that may be available. "For convenience of such as may not be ready at "figuring," a number of calculated feeding formulas are given in Table No. 3. It will be observed that these formulas vary wifhin moderate limits in their proportions of the constituent nutritive ingredients. Some of them are "narrow," which means that they contain a larger proportion of proteins than the stand- ard ; others are "wide," which means that the pro- portions of proteins is less, or that of the carbohy- drates is greaer than the standard. A ratio of less than 1:5.4 is said to be "narrow," if greater, it is "wide." TABLE No. III. Udiiy JxaLiuus iut j-.wwv ; ± 1. V Clgli For Milch Cows. I.I; s. No s. Xo. 1. 20 Crab grass hay. 2n nay. mixed grasses. Sorghum seed. crroimd. Vilest rti-an. 3 C. S. meal. ■2 r. S. Meal. Ratio. . . . . . 1 : .5.2 - Corn Meal. Ratio 1 :50 No. 9. No. 2. 1.5 Cowpea bay 20 3 4 Hay. mixed grasses. ('. S. SVeal. Corn Meal. in 2_ Shredded corn C. S. Meal. Corn Meal. Ratio . . 5talks. . . .1 :5.5 27 No. 10. No. 3. l.") Cowpea bay. 20 6 Corn fodder (blades). C. S. Meal. 5 Corn Silage. Wheat bran. 20 Green, fodder corn. Ratio 1 : 4.0 Ratio . . . No. 11. . .1 : 6.3 No. i. 20 Cowpea hay. 25 Shredded oorn shucks. 8 Corn Meal. 5 C. S. meal. Ratio . . . .1 : ."J.! 3 Wheat Bran. Ratio 1 : 5.2 No. 12. No. 5. 15 10 Cowpea hay. C. S. hulls. 24 C. S. hulls. 5 Cowpea meal. 6 C. S. meal Ratio . . . 1 : ».7 Ratio . . . No. 13. . ;i : 5.0 No. C. 28 Bermuda hay. 20 C. S. hulls. 8 Shelled oats. 4 C 8. Meal. 1 C. S. meal. 5 Wheat bran. Ratio 1 : 5.3 Ratio . . . No. 14. . .1 : 5.3 No. 7. 20 Cowpea hay. 20 Cowpea hay. 1.5 Sweet potatoes. 10 Shredded corn stalks. 4 Corn meal Ratio . . . 1 : 5.7 Ratio . . . . .1 : 5.6 12 Corn "shucks" (busks) 10 Cowpea hay. 4 Corn meal. 3 C. S. meal. Ratio 1 : No. IC. 35 Lucerne (Alfalfa) green. 10 Oat straw. 6 Cowpea meal. Ratio 1 : No. 17. IS Lucerne (green). Corn meal. 3 Shelled oats. Ratio 1 : No. 18. 14 Vetch hay. 10 C. S. hulls. G Corn meal. Ratio . No. 19. 15 Cowpea bay. S Cotton seed. e Corn meal. Ratio . For Fattening Steers. Ratio. Ratio 5.3 Nu. 21 Xo. 24. 20 C. S. hulls. IS C. S. bulls. 5 C. S. meal. 7 So.ia bean meal. 5 Corn meal. (i Corn meal. Ratio . . . . . 1 .5.8 Ratio 1 Xo. 25. 6.5 No. 22 40 Sweet potatoes. 25 5 C. S. hulls. C. S. meal. 10 5 2 Corn fodder (lilades). C. S. meal. Corn meal. Ratio . . . . . 1 0.0 Ratio 1 6.0 No. 23. 40 No. 26. Artichokes. 20 Shredded corn stalks. 10 Shredded corn stalks. 5 C. S. meal. 4 C. S. meal. • 6 Corn meal. Corn and cob meal. SILOS AND ENSILAGE. The question of silos and ensilage is a new one to most of the people of the .South. But if we take the testimony of those who have had experience with them, they are certainly a help to the farmer, or dairyman. Silage is canned grass, or corn, or forage of any kind. The silos are to the forage what the cans are to fruit. Ensilage was first prepared in the United States by Manly Miles, of Michigan, in 1875. The advantages claimed for silage are as follows : Succulent palatable food for the cattle may be kept all the year, maintaining a good milk supply the year round. In order for cows to keep up their milk sup- ply, especially in t'he South, they must have good succulent food all the time. This is the only method by which the food can be kept in a succulent state in winter. 3nd. A larger per cent, of the food bar- 488 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. vested can be kept by the silo than either by hay or fodder. There is practically no waste in the silo. 3rd. A great deal more food can be placed in a given amount of space by using a silo. The item of space on a farm, especially large stock farms and dairy farms, is no small item, for it is certainly important to have plenty of food for the stock to carry them over the winter. Most heavy forage crops may be used for ensilage. The crops of t'he South thnt are best adapted to make silage out of are corn, millet, sorghum and cowpeas. In planting corn for ensilage it should not be broadcast, as a great many people ihink. In planting the corn, you want a variety that will produce a small ear. Kg. 31 — Silo on dairy farm, Selma, Ala. Built with staves. The rows should be from three to three and a half feet apart. The corn should be planted from eight to ten inc'hes apart in the drill, depending of course upon the fertility of the land. The corn should be cut and placed in the silo when the kernels begin to glaze, or when denting is well established. It should be cut up before placed in the silo, into pieces about half inch long. Care should be observed tliat the corn be pack- ed down thoroughly, especially around the edge of the silo. The silo may be filled as rapidly as the corn can be placed in it, or by repeated fillings. When the silo is filled, it should be thoroughly packed every two or three davs, for eight or ten days, and then covered with a six-inch layer of straw well dampened with water. This will cause the first eight or ten inches to rot, and form a kind or air-tight covering. The most modern machinery for filling silos in- cludes a blower that elevates the cut material through . a sheet iron tube over the top of the silo by air power. Com should be the main dependence in the South- for silage. It may be mixed half and half with sor- ghum, or with cowpeas. Peas and sorglium do^ not make good silage alone, becoming too sour and slimy in the Southern climate. A good way to get peas in the silo is to let the vines run up the corn stalk in the field, and run them through the cutter together- .\ few years ago there was considerable complaint from consumers of milk against the s'lo, stating that the use of the silo afl'ected the milk. This matter was thoroughly tested, and it was found that the trouble was in the method of handling the ensilage. For instance, when' the cows did not eat up all the ensi- lage, it was left in t'he manger, or used as bedding, and it very quickly soured. If any silage is left by anv of the cows, it should not be left in the barn, nor should it be used for bedding, as it quickly sours, and the milk takes up the odor. Again, when you be- gin using ensilage at least two inches should be taken off every day in the winter, and three itiches in the summer, for if this is not done it spoils. For milk cows, it is better than any other food we know of. r.ut in feeding to dairy cows, it should nnt be fed un- til after the cows are milked, as it may taint the milk. From thirty to thirty-five pounds a day along with the hay and grain is considered a very good amount to feed dairy cows. Silage, so the Kansas Experiment Station says, should not be fed to bulls, as they lose their virilitv, and become slow and uncertain breed- ers. Horses, chickens, and sheep do well on certain amounts of ensilage. The silo is a building, or can, for the preservation of the forage crops. They may be built of wood, stone, brick, cement, etc., but as the first cost of wood is less, more wood silos are built than any other kind. If possible, a silo should be twenty-five feet deep, in order that the silage may be packed down by the weight, and exclude all the air. A silo can be built v\hich is only twenty feet high, but it is better to have one thirty than twenty feet high. The walls of the silo should be vertical, and as smooth as possible. It is far better to build a round silo, or nearlv so, than a The Dairy Herd Needs Exercise During Bad Weather, But Net Too Much. 489 square one, as most of t'he spoiling, where any takes same kind of covering as you would use on a house place, occurs at the corners. The size of the silo de- pends, of course, upon the amount of feed that is to be preserved. A cubic foot of silage well-packed will weigli on an average^etween 35 and 40 pounds, which is the amount that should be fed to a cow weighing 1000 pounds. If you feed the cow silage for six months, each cow would consume about 3 1-3 tons of silage. An acre of good corn will produce anywhere from eig'ht to fifteen tons of silage. The foliowing table will give you the capacity of silos: will be sufficient, or plain board will, do. SOILING. Soiling has long been familiar to farmers of some sections, but in the South, with so much cheap land, not many are familiar with it. Soiling is a system ofi raising various forage crops, which are cut and fedj green, instead of pasturing fhem. By doing this, you' can secure from two to three times as much from thej same land each year, and the land is maintained in a' — pth Silo feet Inside diameter of silo In feet. and capacity in tons. De of in 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 ■'3 24 25 2'6 Tns 59 Ij'i 67 72 76 SI 85 9'0 95 10« 1U5 110 115 Tns 67 72 77 82 87 92 97 103 108 114 119 125 130 Tns 76 81 86 92 98 104 110 116 122 128 135 141 148 Tns 85 91 97 103 110 116 123 130 137 144 151 158 106 Tns 94 101 108 115 122 129 137 145 152 160 168 176 185 Tns lUo 112 120 127 135 143 152 160 169 178 187 195 205 Tns 115 125 132 141 149 158 167 177 186 196 20 G 216 226 Tns 127 135 145 154 164 174 184 194 205 215 226 236 247 Tns 138 148 158 169 179 190 201 212 223 235 247 258 270 Tns 150 161 172 184 195 206 219 231 243 256 269 282 295 Tns 163 175 187 199 211 224 237 251 264 278 292 305 320 Tns - ' 177 1 21 189 ')•> 202 216 94 229 9CI 242 27. IS 257 271 285 300 'JO 315 '. 31 32 330 346 Of course some of the silage will be lost by spoiling, etc., and a little more than the above amount should he allowed for a cow. The cost of building a round silo is small w'hen com- pared to its advantages. As a rule, anyone that can build a barn can build a silo. The hands on the farm can be used in this work during rainy days. In build- ing a silo, it is perhaps better to have a rock, or bnck foundation, as this preserves the wood from decay. Then use 2x4 studding, placing them 12 inches apart in a circle. Then ceil this with two layers of ceiling, with tar paper in between. Linseed oil or tar should be applied to the inside, as it helps to make the silo nearer air-tight. Sometimes they are budt on the fash- ion of a tank or tub, using staves, and being bound •with hoops- Where the door is to be made, the stud- ding should be set double, and the staves sawed out as wide and high as the door is to be. The door is made to fit over this air-tight. Some advocate not using a cover on the silo, but it is better to use a cover. The higher state of cultivation, and the manure is better preserved. When land was plentiful, the people of t'he South did not need to practice soiling so much as they do now. This is especially true around our cit- ies, for land there is too valuable to be used for pas- tures, when from two to three times as much can be produced by other uses. In doing this, it is necessary to have a suitable rotation of crops. With the excep- tion of corn and sorghum soiling crops do not do well for longer periods than ten days. It is therefore best to plan<- a small-sized plot, just large enough to run for a week, and plant each week such a plot. This keeps vour stock in fresh forage all the time, and enables them to get it while it is at its best. In the fall you mav sow barley or rye, and will be ready to feed early in the spring. Winter oats or vetch make a fine com- bination for use in the spring. Sorghum and corn can be grown nearly all summer, also millet. Alfalfa makes an excellent soiling crop, with four or five cuttings per year, beginning in IMarch and growing constantly till frost. 49° TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. GRAINS. The dairy herd must have some grairs if the best results are to be had. For the South, corn is better than most any other grain to be fed to milk cows, un- less it be cotton seed meal. But corn meal is better fed with some other food, such as bran, shorts, cotton- teed meal, etc. Cottonseed meal produces a firmer butter, and raises the melting point of butter, and is therefore recommended. But care should be observed in feeding it, not to get too muc'h. In some States it has one effect, and in some another. It should always be thoTOUghlv mixed with cut hay or fodder or cotton- seed hulls to give bulk to the mixture. DAIRY UTENSILS. Cream Separator. Every man with five or more cows selling cream or butter, should have a Separator, he stands in his own ligiht if he refuses to buy one. Any of the standard makes of separators are good. Of course the dairy with a large number of cows will require a power separator, but for only a few cows, the hand separator will answer every purpose. To make the very best grade of butter, the time must be as short as possible after the milk is drawn from the cow, until it is made into butter. Every minute the milk is exposed to the warm air increases the danger of spoiling. By using the hand separator, the cream is taken from the milk as 'Soon as it is drawn from the cow, and the cream can then be easily reduced in temperature. Again you can 'nake from 10 to 50 per cent more butter by using a separator than by shallow setting. The gen- eral rule holds good that the best is cheapest, so buy a first-class machine. By a first-class machine we do not mean a large machine, but a machine that will do the work satisfactorily. When you set up the nia- chine, be sure to read and re-read the instructions carefully. Remember that this machine has to make about five thousands revolutions per minute, and therefore must be put up right. It must be placed upon a solid foundation, and must he set perfectly level. If it is not level this will cause it to run hard, and wear out on the upper side. It is a good plan to go slow in setting up a machine. It is very important that it be washed clean every time it is used, not- withstanding what some agents may tell you- Do not believe them when they tell you that the machine will not have to be washed each time it is used, for it is not so. Immediately after getting through with the machine, run some water through it, so that it will not dry before you can wash it. BABCOCK TESTER. In this day of competition, a cow that does not pay a profit cannot be kept in a herd. The same princi- ple works in other lines as in this. A merchant does not want a clerk who does not earn a profit, nor does he want to handle a line of goods that does not pay. It is very important that we should know just what each cow produces. The milk of each cow should be' weiglied at every milking and a record made of it. Not only must the dairyinan know the amount of milk she produces, but he should know the value of this milk so far as butter fat is concerned. One of the best testers is Babcock's Tester. Before making the test the milk should be thoroughly stirred so that an average sample can be secured. These samples are then mixed with sulphuric acid, and whirled in a centifrugal machine. T!ie heavv parts r^ the milk fly to the bottoni, and the butter fat, which is lighter than the other part of the milk, comes to t'he to.p. and the percentage of butter fat may be read on the grad- uated scale on the bottle. The principle back of it is that the sulphuric acid dissolves the other solids of the milk, leaving the fat globules free, and thev, being lighter than the other solids, collect nearest the ax:» of the machine. Few dairymen fully realize the importance of this matter of testing. For instance, recently two cows of similar breeding, with exactly the same milking, feed, etc., one yielded 20 pounds of butter per month, and the other 63 lbs. per month. Supposing that the butter sold for 25 cents per pound, the profit of'one above the other is $10.75 a month, which is quite an item in itself. Another illustration, two cows were fed and managed as near alike as possible for a year. One produced 252 pounds of butter fat more than the oth- er, yet the two were under the same treatment, and received the same amount of food. You can readily see the importance of testing your cows, and seeing which one pays and which does not. .\nd when you find a cow that does not pay, that does not produce at least 5000 pounds of milk per year, containing S'OO pounds of butter, get rid of her. She may make good beef, but she is not fit for the dairy herd. • During the Winter See That The Cows Have Plenty of Fresh Water. 491 AERATORS AND COOLERS. As soon as milk is drawn from the cow, it should be immediately strained, and cooled down as low as -10 degrees F., if possible. Of course where you can- not get it down that low, 60 degrees will help. There are several ways to do this. There are several milk aerators and coolers that have been devised to do the work. The object of cooling the milk is to re- lieve it of all animal odor and animal heat. This pre- vents bacteria from multiplying, and enables the milk- to remain sweet much longer than it would do other- wise. Secure from son-ie dairy supply house a good ]V.\\k aerator or cooler, and you will find it a profitable investment. Fig. 23 — Showing Creansery, LnGrange. Ga, CHURNS. Many dairymen have paid hard-earned money for churns that were utterly worthless to them. At the ('airy Fairs it is no uncommon thing for the churn man to be there with his patented churn, and if you will just let him, he can show you its advantages without anv trouble. But he never shows you its dis- advantages. There are two things necessary in a dairy churn- It must be practical, and it must be so simple that it can be thoroughly cleansed. The one-minute churn it not practical. Before purchasing a churn of any kind, ask yourself have you the power to run the churn as the agent has. Do not be deceived in letting him make you believe that any old power will do. And then again, is the churn offered for sale, simple enough in construction that it can be kept clean? The matter of not being able to keep them clean, is the objection to most patented churns. It is a matter of great importance to the dairyman, for if the churn cannot be kept clean, good, pure butter cannot be made. The more parts a churn has, the harder it is to keep clean. There is the great objection to butter workers and churns combined, and it is a serious objection. See to it that the churn is simple, and that it can be thoroughly cleansed without too much ef- fort. A Isarrel churn is the best and most practical. Cream should be churned at a temperature of from 60 to 64 degrees. If the cream be in the proper con- dition, and churned at the correct Temperature, it will not take long to bring the butter- The best but- ter is produced by churning from 30 to 4-5 minutes. It might be said that giving the cows salt regularlv causes the butter to come quicker than otherwise would be. If considerable cottonseed meal is fed, it is sometimes necessary to churn as high as 70 de- grees. DAIRY THERMOMETER. No man who wants to be up-to-date in the dairy business is going to be without a dairy thermometer, especially when they can be bought for 25 cents apiece. He simply cannot afford to do so. I'here is no trse in guessing in a matter so important as hav- ing the correct temperature in milk, when you can be accurate by having a thermometer- There are many other dairy utensils that must be kept at the up-to-date dairy. Mention of each one cannot be made. Of course the strainers should be thoroughly up-to-date, and easily cleansed, and above all things, they should be strainers, that is, should get every form of trash out of the milk. And then there are milk bottles, and milk cans, and many other things. Remember that the greatest questions to be asked before any utensil is bought for the dairy is. can it be cleaned? and is it simple? THE DAIRY BREEDS. Much depends upon the cow in the dairy. If a cow produces enough milk and butter fat, she will be pretty likely to pay. As to the breeds, a discussion of this question cannot be gone into, for the simple reason that there is no definite way to determine which is the best breed. Some very prominent dairy- men like one breed, while other dairymen equally as prominent like another breed. There are four eood o 492 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. breeds, the purchase of one of whicli will be a good selection. But do not try to cross breeds, for you will make a failure. Purchase the breed that you like, and keep it pure. The Jerseys and Guernseys are re- markable for their richness of milk, and the ease with which it is converted into butter. If you are to run a butter dairy, perhaps one of these breeds will be best suited. The Holstein is a very large animal, and is remarkable for her large milk yield, but she is a low butter fat producer. When she becomes un- profitable for the dair}' herd, she fattens well, and makes a good return for beef. The Ayrshire is also noted for her large yield of milk, but like the Hol- stein, she does not make butter. She does not suit for beef production either. It is safe to say for a but- ter dairy, use either Jerseys or Guernscvs, and for milk producers, that is, wdiere the milk is to be sold direct, use either Ilolstc'ns or Ayrshires. As to the appearance of the individual cow, the reader is re- ferred to three stanzas given under the head of "THE CO'W," in another part of this work. In selecting a cow do not place too much importance on the size of the cow. It is true that breeders and owners of the Holsteins claim a great deal for size, but remember that to be a beef producer is one thing, and milk and butter producers another. Most people, especially those who are not posted on the subject of cows, nat- urally think the larger a cow, t'he better dairy cow she is. This rule will not hold good. And you cannot re- ly on the amount of milk, for you must take into con- sideration the amount of butter fat t-.at is in the milk. When it comes to milk yield alone, it will be granted that the larger cow, as a rule, gives more quantity than the smaller cow, but they eat more, and the milk is not so rich in butter fat. Prof. T- L. Haecker, who is perhaps the best authority in the United States on profitable cows, in explaining whv the small cows produce butter more economicallv than the large cow, has this to say: "The question is naturally asked, w'hy does the small cow produce more economicallv than the large one? In the first place cows that give milk containing 3 per cent, butter fat, yield 2.6 pounds of ' milk solids not fat, to one pound of butter fat, while cows that give 5.,'i per cent, butter fat. yield only l.f! pounds solids not fat, to one of fat. So, for every pound of butter yielded by the cow that gives the lower grade of mi.lk, she 'has to make an additional pound of solids not fat, and hence it takes more nutri- ment to produce the one pound butter fat in the thin milk. The large cow also requires three pounds more nutriment daily for maintaining her body.'' There are exceptions to this rule, for no definite rule can be laid down- However, these are the facts taken as a whole. TAKING CARE OF THE MILK ON THE FARM. Milk when it is drawn from the cow, is practically free from germs. The germs that cause most trouble witih milk get in immediately after tbe milk is drawn from the cow. so the important thing is to keep them out. When the calf takes milk from the cow, he closes his mout'h around the teats so that no germs can get in. When man takes the imilk from a cow, he takes a very wide bucket, with oipportunity for getting many germs in it. You cannot keep sweet milk longer than six hours, if it is exposed to the bad atmosphere very much. It is better to spend five or ten minutes on the cow Ijefore beginning to milk. Some people are very careful to see to it that the udd'er is clean, when the rest of tlie cow is iilthy. Take pains with your milk, especially in drawing it from the cow If you use pans or crocks to conl it. strain it into these as early as possilile. but do not allow these pans or crocks to re; main in the k'tchen. bi't remove them to some place where they can cool off as quickly as possible. When milk is set in shallow pans or crocks, it should be skimmed, just as soon as the milk begins to clabber at the bottom. This is a very important matter for as soon as the milk begins to clabber, the cream not only stops rising, but it begins immediatelv to get stale. In the winter, if the milk is liable to freeze, a blanket thrown over the millc as soon as it is strained, and it will be very apt to keep from freezing. Tall shotgun cans are better than s'hallow pans for cooling and permitting cream to rise. HOW TO START A DAIRY. Perhaps a few suggestions, for they are only sug- gestions, upon the important subject of starting a dai- ry will not be out of place. In the first place, you must learn the trade. Dairy papers, schools, and books will be much help to you, and you should take advantage of all of these, but these are only supple- mentary to the great sc'hools of experience. If you have never had experience in the actual Avork itself, you had better stav out of the business until you ,get that experience. Hire yo'urself to some first-class dai- ryman, learn the business, and learn it correctly- Learn everything alxjut the work. Do not merely Look After the By-Products. 493 watch others do the work, or you will prove a failure as a dairyman. And then t'here is another advantage in hiring to some dairyman, and that is, you have an op- portunity of learning whether you l:ke the business or not. If you do not like such business, of course you will miake a failure of it. It is better to work for some one else for a while, to find out as to whether you have the "everlasting-stick-to-it-iveness" to succeed than it is to invest money, and have to sell out for fift}' cents on the dollar. Do not be in a hurry to locate. — You may make a good dair\nnan, but be in a location in which you can- not dispose of your prodiucts. Stud)^ the local situa- tion thoroughly before you think of locating anywhere. Get where the people consume butter and milk, and where there is a good demand for it. If you can get betwee.i two cities that consume a great deal of butter, then yDu have the advantage, if you will take both markets. It makes no difference if there is a competi- tion, for it is far better to go into a market where there are -a large number of competitors, than it is to go to a place w'here there is neither a market nor coimipetition- And then you must take into considera- tion the matter of transportation. It is expensive to keep a horse and wagon, and j^ou will have to watch this matter. If your local market is not good, ship your butter to the cities. The express companies give a special rate upon milk proiducts. and this will be ■cheaper than getting a horse and wagon. The best trade for good butter is a high-vlass family trade- Hotels and restaurants, as a rule, do not give the highest price for milk products, for they depend upon getting it in job lots. The grocers do not pay the best price, for they must make a commission. Go riglit into the fight of selling to the consumers, and take a product that will sell. THINGS NOT TO DO IN THE DAIRY BUSI- NESS. Strange to say that books and dairy papers as a rule do not pay any aittention to the "dont's" that make up the dairy business. The dont's are as impor- tant as the "do's," and must be attended to, if a first- class dairy is to be kept- Let us look at a few of the "dont's." ' In the first place, don't let j^our "know-all" neigh- bors, who knoAv praictically nothing about the business, convince }'0u that it does not pay. Remember that the dairy business -does pay, when you run it as a bus- iness. Like all businesses, it will not pay if allowed to run by itself. The facts in the case are, that it does pay. Just because some man makes a failure at the business, is not a conclusive proof that it does not pay. It will pay if it is backed by a man with plenty of com- mon sense and determination. That there will be difficulties, there is no doubt. That you will have trouble there will be no doubt. But these are some- times necessary to the best success. Don't believe that you know it all. Be willing to learn. Remember that there is someone else that know a few thing more aboait some things than you do. Be willing to learn from anyone, no matter how low in life 'lie may be. The wise man learns from the experience of others, and the men who know it all, do not learn at all. Don't be a know-all. Don't run after fads- There are some men who take up their business to get up new fads. Be open to con- viction, but be convicted before you change your plans or ways of doing things. If you have a cow that pays, and 3'O'U know she does so, do not get rid of her just because she does not come up to some oth- er man's ideal. The thing you'want is results, and be sure that you will get better results before you make a change. Don't let some one persuade you that it does not pay to feed. Remember that 3fOu must feed to get re- sults. Cows cannot give milk unless thev are fed. Get your feed as reasonable as possible, and if the cows do not pay for it. dispose of the cows, for it is better to dispose of them than it is to keep them on half feed. If a cow will not pay for her feed, when given all she will eat, she will not pay for it when given one-fourth as much as she wants. You are in the business for money and that is what you want. Don't let the laughs of anyone keep you from hav- ing everything as clean as it is possible for it to be. Remeanber that dirt causes dairymen to lose custom- ers, and that people like to buy from dairies where ev- erything is kept scrupulously clean. Don't let the horns grow on cattle. Sentiment sa\s for you to aJlow the horns to grow out, but common sense says take t'hem off. This can be done easily, especially if you do so before the calf is t'hirty-six hours old. The calf will suffer practically no pain, and it will cause you a great deal of trouble if you allow t'hem to grow out. Don't neglect to keep books on the cows. You must know which one is paying, and which is not, to carry on a successful dairy business. 494 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. A mercliant who did not keep books would go under, and so will the diairyman. Know how muc'h each cow pays. If you will do this, you will l^e surprised at the results. Don't use any kind of preservatives in your milk and butter- It is far better to be honest, than it is to carry on this kind of practice. Be a man as a dairy- man. Preservatives are the resort of the ignorant or the lazy. Don't fail to raise all the hay you can, and other feeds. Remember th?t one of fhe greatest expenses to a dairy is the feed bill. All tliat you can successfully make on your dairy is that much profit. Start out to raise vour feed. a b (Fig. 32 — Showing door of silo. A is tlie door, b shows how it fits; should open on the inside. Don't fail to save the manure. You need it on t'he fields where you propose to raise your feed. Don't stay at the bottom of tlie ladder in dairying. Remember that there is a top and a bottom in the dairy 'business and that it is left entirely wiith you, as to whether you are on the top or the bottom. Be at the top. Don't fail to study your business. You need to think and plan in the dairy business as in any other. Be a thinker and a planner. Know you business. Don't be discouraged. Keep at it. Don't mix beef and milk blood. If you want to make beef, do so, but don't try to mi.x these two bloods. You cannot do it successfully. If you have to use scrubs on your d'airy farm, do so, but don't mix beef blood and dairy blood together. The beef cow takes the feed and turns it into fat, wihereas the thing }-oii want is butter and milk. Don't abuse your cows, or allow them to be abused. Kindness will work wonders. Remember that when you use a cow for commercial purposes you are using a mother that is giving miik for the sake of her young, and that this action is not voluntary, and any slight cause may prevent her from giving the very best re- turns. Remember the more regularly she is handled, the more comfortable she is kept, and the more kind- ness shown her, the greater will be her flow of milk- There are some very peculiar things about cows. It 'has been a long disputed question as to whether a cow could of her own accord hold up her milk. This is a theoretical' question, for we all know she does so, whether voluntarily or involuntarily. If you take a cow's young calf away from her, or frighten 'her, or whip her, the milk ceases instantly to flow. If she be cliilled or otherwise made uncomfortable, the same results follow. If anv of these things happeri to a marked degree, the stoppage of the milk is equally as marked. If a man be not blind to his own interest, he will not allow such. .\ cow th.us treated will show it in her milk yield. Do not allow the boys to frighten the cows, for they are not race horses. The cow should look upon the farmer as her friend- Be kind to vour cows. Learn to love them. Don't allow them to be abused. LITTLE THINGS ON THE DAIRY FARM. A man who cannot observe and take note of little things is alreatly a failure so far as the dairy business is concerned. The little things are the ones that bring success or failure in the ilairv business as well as in other business. The young man who is above all these little t'hings cannot succeed. But let us no- tice some of the little things on the dairy farm. There is cleanliness- It is not such an item to al- low a little dirt or filth to accumulate, but it means t'he loss of customers. The supposed dairyman who is too high above such things a sto give 'his personal attention to the matter of keeping everything clean, cannot hold customers. The little cracks in the cow barn let in large amounts of cold wind, and this wind makes the stable uncomfortable. These cracks are but little things, but they call for feed, for t'he temperature of the cow must be kept up. And they frequently cause the cow to drop oft in her milk and butter products. Little mice and rats spoil many dollars worth of feed. Get a lot of cats, and the little mice will seek headquar- ters somewhere else. To keep these cats at the cow barn, give them a little drink of milk once a day. In See to It Tl.at Your Dairy House Is Perfectly Clean. 495 passing tlirough the stable you smell a bad odor. It is a litUe odor, l)ut it must be attended to. See that tliere are no holes in the floor, and that the floor is even, for an uneven flooi* is a very uncoiunfortable thing for a cow to lie upon- It. is not such a great thing to look at the udder of^each cow once a day, but it may save you money, in that you discover a small injury, which if allowed to run on, may throw the cow^ out for six months. But it is a small thing. It is a small t'hing to watch the new milker to see if he is kind to the cows, and if he knows how to milk. Some milkers have a powerful grip in their 'hands, and squeeze the teats entirely too hard. This is a small matter, but it is worth lookincr after. Britisher No. 145096. After the milk vessels have been washed, rub your finger along the inside and outside of the vessels. If they are not clean, your fingers will slip along, but if they are clean, they will stick. Do not alloAV the but- ter-m.ilk to stand in the churn after it has been churn- ed. Keep the churn clean. Do not allow musty smells to accumulate. Be careful about these little things, and the large ones will take care of them- selves- BY-PRODUCTS. Milk, butter, and cheese are the main products of the dairy. The products of minor importance are calves, whey, buttermilk, skim-milk, manure, pigs, poultry. In this work a long discussion of these products can- no* be entered into. But many farmers allow these products to be wasted. Why men will allow such, when they can be turned into ready cash, is a hard matter to explain. Skim-milk is an excellent food for humans, and its sale should be encouraged by law. One question that has been before the wide-awake dairyman, Tias been how to supply milk to the trade. Skirrtmed milk, when allowed to be churned, does not prodiuce buttermilk, and cannot be sold for butter- milk. This is on account of bacteria that work in the milk on account of the cream. It has been found out that if you take a gallon of buttermilk and churn it with several gallons of skimmed milk, that you will g'et as good buttermilk as when produced from t'.ie cream itself. This is on account of the bacteria that is introduced into the skimmed milk through the real buttermilk itself. And every dairyman wlio is alive to his own interest 'has a drove of hogs around, to help to use up the skimmed milk. Indeed, it is a loss not to have them. And the up-to-date dairyman can raise poultry very profitably, if he will do so, and can do it with practi- cally no expense. DAIRY NOTES. Feed at the same time every day. Then the cows will not be worrying abO'Ut their feed. If you do not have the stables well ventilated, do not let another day pass until they are ventilated. Keep the bedding well under the cov/s knees. 'K cow can have very little comfort with her knees bruised on a hard floor. Only the rich can afford to keep poor cows, and they don't- It is hard to tell which is the more useful, the man behind wiitli the milk pail, or the man in front with the feed pail. It does- not always pay to try to fatten the old cow. You had better sell her for wliat she will bring. It is alright to have books, and be able to figure back, and tell who your cow's great, great grandmoth- er was. But the great question with you is, who is your cow and vv'hat is she doing? Is she making you money, and how much? F .J*. 1 •^ I- :« m^A ^ " 1^^ Wi mS^. ll " ^^^H ^'w '.J J-J& ■HB^^^^^HI British Blossom No. 204533. Always be kind to your cows. Remember what Ward C. White said, '"Always speak to a cow as you would to a lady." Grow your own cows. To do so is cheaper and bet- ter, for you can then control the quality of your herd. As the calf is trained, the cow will incline. I/- / V ■< V — ■ :-. /'-« SILVER PENCILED WYANDOTTES. Book XV. Poultry Department. Edited and revised by H. F. REILS, Editor Southern Fancier, .Secretary Atlanta Poultry Association, Atlanta, Ga. . . AND . . J. A. P. WOLF, Member National White Wyandotte Club; Member North Carolina Poultry Association; Member Pied- mont Poultry Association; Director Poultry Department, Forsyth County Fair, Winston, N. C, and Central Carolina Fair, Greensboro, N. C, Rurall Hall. N. C. 33 498 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. Poultry Department. INTRODUCTORY. Before taking up the subject of "Poultry Culture," it is deemed advisable to give a brief resume of the industry in this country, to familiarize our readers with the vastness of its importance, so that the busi- ness will become fully understood, and the prospec- t'he ages of two or three months it is difificult to say, * ibut we are all aware that it is considerable. After I making these deductions, we gather that the balance ' remaining represents quite accurately these fowls j that have been kept for breeding and laying. These birds produced for market in one year poultry worth $136,891,877.00 and eggs \vorth $i44,2''6,37o.oo, a tive poultry breeder, contemplating taking up this line of work will be fully alive to his responsibilities, and the magnitude of this industry as shown by the last census report. From the nineteenth annual report of the Bureau of Animal Industry, we gather the following facts: The valuation of fowls on the farms throughout the country in 1900 was estimated at $85,794,996.00. How much of this amount represents fowls under total value of $281,178,2^7.00, showing that the in- vestment yielded an income of over 400 per cent. What other legitimate business can do this? If we consider the amount invested and compare results we find that poultry and poultry products easily stand first, and compared with the wool crops it exceeds it in money value by over one hundred and eighty-nine million dollars. This, of course, is quite contrary to the generally Do It Yourself Is a Very Good Motto- 499 accepted view that the poultry industry is of little importance when compared with the standard crops and products of the country. When another census s'hall have been taken, we predict that this industry will eclipse most of the industries now ranking with it, for with improved breeds now finding their way from every farm from Maine to California it is the aggregate of the millions of small flocks which gives this business its economic importance. The beginner who starts with poultry should have in mind that upon his foundation stock will depend his success or failure, and too much stress cannot be laid upon the importance of starting right. This re- fers as much to the selection of incuibators, brooders, houses, etc., and the management and handling of the stock as to anything else. It does not require a learn- ed man, in the general acceptation of the term, to run every other business, it takes push and .hustle to make anything out of it. We do not mean to say, when we say that the poultry business is a paying business, that you can make money at it without work and attention, for it is not true. A great many men have lost money at the poultry business, but this was because of non-attention, or lack of judg- ment on their part. Many farmers would find it profitable to raise poultry as a side line. There is a lot of food that goes to waste if there are no chickens to use it. This grain and other matter that goes to waste can be turned into profit by raising poultry. The great trouble with most farmers is in not giving their chickens enough attention and thought. Eggs sell at a good price all the year, and a part of the season they sell at very high prices. Chickens are the same. But if you decide to enter the poultry business, do not go into it on too large Fig. 2. — Laying House witti separate scratcliing pen attach- ment. A good house tor tlie South. a poultry plant, for we have seen men who made their reputations in the learned professions fail aljsolutely as poultry farmers. It does require an industrious one. however, and one who will look after every lit- tle detail. There is no more paying business taken from a financial point of view than the poultry business. This is especially true in the South, and many farm- ers would find it far more profitable to raise poultry than to raise cotton. The poultry business is like a scale. Experience can be had with a few fowls, and this experience will be worth no little to you. Start off on a small scale, and let the increase in your business graduate itself as you become capable of taking care of it. A business that does not pay ex- penses and a little besides is not a paying business. If you cannot make ten hens pay e.xpenses it will be quite difficult for you to make a hundred hens do so. If you can make money out of a dozen hens, increase the number to two dozen and see what the results will be. There are several questions of vital interest 500 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. to the poultry raiser that we desire to give attention to. LOCATION. The location of the poultry farm is of some impor- tance. It is better to get near a town when possible, or a city, for then your products can be put on the market in a fresh condition. You will want to be . close to a railroad or steamboat landing. It will re- quire grain for poultry, and it is a good deal of trou- ble to haul it over many miles of rough road. If you can produce a part or all of this food so mucli the better. It is not so important that you be near a city if transportation is good, as the additional expense in the value of lands near to a city will more than off- set any advantages you may secure through it. Some people have the idea that any worn-out land is suit- able for a poultry farm, but this is not true. In the first place it is the by-products that show the profit. The manure of poultry is quite important. With land that is untillable, this by-product cannot be used to an advantage. Select rolling, well drained land, sandy preferred, and you will be a long way towards success. HOUSES. The question of the house for chickens is quite im- portant. But this questions is not so important here in the South as it is in the North. In fact, the house depends altogether upon the purpose in view and to w'hat extent you are going into the poultry business. If 3'ou have only a few chickens on the farm, you will want a small house for them, especially to protect them from the winter rains. If you are going into the business on a more extensive scale you will want more extensive quarters for your chickens. Outside of the house should be a shed under which you can feed them, especially in bad weather. It is never ad- visable to feed t'hem in the house. A puddled clay floor one-half foot higher than the ground outside, makes a very satisfactory and cheap floor for the hen house. The roosts should all be of the same height so that there will be no crowding by the fowls for the highest -places. They should not be over two and a half feet from the ground. Have boxes one-half foot square on low shelves for nests and dust fre- quently with wood ashes to prevent insects. Al- ways have clean straw in them. Pine straw is very good where obtainable. Do not neglect to burn nests- so soon as setting hens come off. Although more difficult to build, those who can will find those nests w'hich project on the outside of the poultry house, with openings for hen on inside and hinged, and slop- ing lid cover on outside for the eggs to be gathered from and setting hens attended to, decidedly more satisfactory. These nests should be two feet above the fioor and with running board in front of nests for hens to walk on. Always have enough nests to prevent crowding, or annoying setting hens. White- Fig. 3. — Colony House, Ciickadotte P'arm. Rural Hall, N. C. wash house and nests every month during summer, and do not allow fertilizer to accumulate if you do not desire insects and disease. Many practical poultry raisers use loose nest boxes, (soap boxes,) as they are so easily removed from the house for cleaning and to be burned out inside, thus ridding them of lice and their eggs. A house ten by fourteen feet should accommodate 30 chickens. In some sections, the houses have win- dows, but this is not necessary here in the middle South. Perhaps best results can be had by dividing the house into two parts, one for roosting, the other for feeding and scratching shed in the day time. If it can be so located as to front the South, have the lower two-thirds of the front covered only with wire netting. This gives sunlight and air. Balance of the 'house boarded tight, with roof sloped toward the north. The roosting side might be closed all around, but for most of the southern sections we say not. The selection of a dry location, sheltered as much as possible from prevailing winds is one of the essen- It Takes Work to Succeed With Poultry. 501 tials of an ideal house. If the soil is not naturally dry, good drainage should be the first consideration. Wet and damp soils are unsuited to successful poul- try culture, and becomes a breeding place for disease germs, and is withal a most fruitful source of roup, one of the most destructive of poultry diseases. A high elevation is often warmer and more suitable for poultry than low ground, where the air is likely to be damp and cold. If the houses face the east or south they will have more sunlight and in consequence give greater comfort and cheerfulness in winter than they would through any other exposure. for the fowls in these 16 houses, provided that the rounds were made six times a day, three times to feed ; once to water, once to clean and once to gath- er eggs, besides in inclement weather the poultry- man would be exposed when forced to go from house to house. All these matters deserve serious consid'eration. Then too, separate houses entail greater expense, both in cost of erection and material necessary to t'heir construction. One end of each house is saved by bringing the ends together, and this applies as well to yard fences. Every time a division fence is Fig. 4. — iStyle of house used at the West Virginia Experiment Station. The form and location of poultry houses have much to do with their convenience, and steps may be saved by studying the form and location of the building. Time is money and a poultry plant should be built with a view to saving steps. If the colony house plan of keeping poultry, in which each flock has its own little house and yard, a great deal of time is spent in going from house to house. If a plat of ground 300 feet square and containing slightly more than two acres is divided into 16 square runs, and a house located in the center of each, then a man would be obliged to walk nearly 550 miles in a year to care taken out, each flock has twice as much liberty as before. Fences increase labor. The labor of culti- vating small yards is much greater than it would be if all were in one field. Large flocks can pasture in the same field. Hens know enough to return to their own roost. The biggest bump on a hen's head is her "bump of location." The yards as a rule should be long and narrow, and double yards are desirable, allowing one to ro- tate crops, which practically converts the filth, which would otherwise become a source of danger, in- to a valuable food crop. Long and narrow yards fa- 502 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. cilitate cultivation. Making them 35 feet wide and 150 feet long would' readily accommodate fifty hens, although the more room the better. Planting a row of fruit trees through the center of these yards will produce shade and give a fine yield of luscious fruit. Now, in building houses we must remember the nearer square a house is, other things being equal, the less lumber it will require. It is twenty feet further around a house ten feet wide and forty-five feet long, than it is around a house fifteen feet wide and 30 feet long, although both houses have the same floor space. expense of building a shed roof 'house as compared with the gable or combination roof house. Shingle roofs should generally be one-third pitch. Most of the roofing fabrics last longer on rather flat roofs as chickens have less tendency to creep down the roof and thus tear loose from the nails. Usually a slope of one foot in eight or ten feet will be sufficient. In sections w'here much snow falls, flat roofs must be substantially built to withstand the heavy burdens of snow which they may have to carry. Each form of roof has its advantages and disad- vantages. The single span roof is the easiest to build. Fig. 5. — \ good poultry house for the South. O^peu fiffnt at top admitting sufficient ventilation at all seasons, and can be closed during bad weather. The shape of the roof affects the value of a poultry house. It takes the same amount of material to build a gaible roof, a one pitch roof, or a combination roof, if the pitch of the roof and the ground plan are similar. If we assume that the window is six feet hig'h in a building fifteen feet wide it would be nec- essary to have both sides of the house the same height, which makes more interior air space than is necessary and requires the rear wall one and a half feet higher than would be needed with a one-pitch or combination !Oof. A one slope roof will cost the ex- tra lumber to build three feet higher in front than is required by the combination house. The steeper the pitch the greater the comparative It gives the highest vertical front exposed to the stin's rays which are reflected back, drying the ground and making a warm shelter. It throws all the rain water to the rear, lessening the length of the eave troughs one-half, and keeping the front of the house dry where no eave troughs are used. A tarred paper roof will last many years longer if not exposed to the ver- tical rays of fhe sun. The gable roof provides for a larger garret space, which can be utilized in storing away odds and ends. Sunlight is a necessity, carries good cheer and tends to arrest and prevent disease. Too much glass makes a house too cold at night and too warm dur- ing the day, besides increases the cost of construe- Some Farmers Believe that Chickens Will Live Wilhcut Feed. 503 tion. Allow one square foot glass surface to sixteen square feet of floor surface, if windows are properly placed. The windows should be high and placed up and down rather than horizontally and low. In the former the sunlight passes over the entire floor dur- ing the day from west to east drying and purifying practically the whole interior. The time when sun- shine is most needed is when the sun is lowe.^t, that is, from September 21st to March 21st. Window sash with small glass seriously obstruct the light. Very large lights break too easy, and are too expen- sive. 8 X 10 is a good size glass to be used in a twelve light sash, making it about 3 ft. 9 in. high by 2 ft. 5 in. wide. Use two of these in a house that is about fifteen feet square. Single sash are usually cd to touch the sides of the house. If they do the wall must be kept tight and vermin proof. Roosts should be placed in the warmest places out of drafts on same level, allowing from six to twelve inches lor each fowl, according to the breed. The form of perch most desirable is a 2x4 set edgewise and the narrow edge rounded. Under the perches should be a plat- form for the droppings, far enougli below to permit cleaning without removing the perches. As 1-cns prefer darkened nests they should be so arranged to exclude the light, which will tend to please them, and to mitigate the egg-eating habit. Under the dropping boards will make a good place for them, raised from the ground and so placed that the eggs can Ijc rathered without much trouble. Fig. 6. — A modern 'breeding house. Owned by the Chen'y Grove Poultry Yards, Kuoxville, Tcun. less expensive than double sash of the same size and the cost for window frames is less. Single sash raay swing from the side or top, or be made to shove to one side and are against the wall where least likely to be broken. With double sash this is more dif- ficult. Whitewashing the inside of the house makes it as much lighter as an extra window. Interior Arrangement. — While considering con- struction of houses, we should at the same time con- sider the interior arrangements, such as roosting places, nest boxes, dropping boards, etc. Movable fixtures facilitate in cleaning the house. For the most part they should be portable to facilitate in fighting mites. Generally they should not be allow- Short cut straw makes a good nesting material, for if moss, long straw, etc., are used the fowls in scratch- ing alaout preliminary to her laying operation is apt to throw out any eggs already in the nest, and tan- gle her feet in it and cause trouble. As the open-front house is advised in our Southern States, a good provision against extra cold or dis- agreeable weather is to have a curtain of any close material which can be let down at will. If the cur- tain is oiled with hot linseed oil it becomes practical- ly water proof, as well as wind proof, forming a good barrier against wind and cold, and aiding in making the open front house one much to be desired in the Sout'h. 504 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. COOPS. The question of coops is one of ir.iportance. And yet this question is not so imiportant here as in the North, for here the greater part of the year coops are not needed at all. But the successful poultry raiser will use coops in caring for little chicks. There are Fig. 7. — Poultry house -without scratching shed and with glass front. many methods or plans for building coops. There are two or three things which a person must bear in mind in making a chicken coop, one of which is that it must be constructed so as to be dry and at the same time admit of plenty of sunlight, and a plenty of fresh air. If you can get a coop up that meets these requirements, that is just what is wanted. We ■present here direction for two kinds of coops. There are others just as good. Take a grocery box and nail three or four half hoops over the top. Over them stretch cotton cloth and secure the ends and edges. The air will now gently pass through the coop all night, though the slatted front be closed Hinge the front in order to provide shade for the hens and chicks. The sec- ond plan is as follows: take frame like the gable roof. Slats for sides are to be made of boards five inches wide and one-'half inch thick. Nail on a slant like half turned shutters in a window blind. To do this start at the bottom and nail up shinglitig fash- ion. To make coop absolutely rain proof, nail one board upon about one inch of the other. When you make a coop in this way tlie door is the only means of iiigress and egress. Far more important than the coop is the number of chicks in the coop. ]\Tore hrrm is caused by crowd- ing than any one thing. Have more coops and fewer chicks is the advice that can always be profitably followed. The older they get the more room they need, so look forward to that in planning your coop. WATER FOR CHICKENS. Perhaps there is more trouble in raising chickens on account of impure water than from any other ■cause. And nowhere is there more trouble than on the farm, where chicken raising is not made a spe- cialty. Many farmers have an iron trough or cook- ing vessel, and they fill that when it is empty, usual- ly about twice a week. The water is so hot that the chickens cannot drink it over one-half the day dur- ing the summer, and in the winter it frequently stays frozen over all the day. It never occurs to these peo- ple that chickens like fresh cool water. And still these same people complain of "hard luck" when their chickens all die. There is no excuse for the poultry not having plenty of fresh water. If you will take an ordinary jar or jug made of earthenware and fill it full of water bottom-side upwards in a plate or sau- Pig. S. — Colony House. cer, it will make a splendid drinking fountain. The water will run down in the fountain as it is used out. This fount should be kept in shade in the summer, and should be filled with fresh water every day. In winter a good supplv of warm water once a day will be greedily swallowed by the hens and go a long wav towards inducing them to lay. INCUBATORS AND BROODERS. Nearly every successful poultryman now uses in- See to it That Yhat Your Poultry Have Plenty of Water. 505 cubators. As to how long artificial breeding has been practiced, we are unable to tell. In Egypt ovens wefe used. It is not claimed that incubators will hajch every fertile egg, and neither will the 'hen. It is tlaimed, however, that the incubator will hatch as mariy eggs in warm weather as the hen, and more in coU weather. The brooder takes care of the little chicjks better t'han the hen. for the brogoder "does not I drag them through the dew and dirt and I neither does the brooder cover t'he little chicles witli lice. One reason w'hy the incubator and broobler have not been used more, is that the opera- tor lias not understood how to operate them. They have had the opinion that the incubator could be operated without attention, and as a result have fail- Pig. 9. — A new all metal incuibator. a style that is coming into use in the Soutli. ed. For a long time the farmers were afraid of them, and thought that they were for the fancy poultry- men, but they are fast dropping this idea and taking up with the machine that will make them dollars where they made pennies before. There are many advantages to be gained by the use of the incubator, so if you desire to be up-to-date you had better use one. As to which make is best we cannot say. There are a great many good makes on the market as well as any number of worthless ones. \\'ith the incubator you can have chicks at any time that you can get the eggs. You do not have to wait until the notion strikes the hen to set. In otiier words, you are in- dependent of the notions of hens. By the use of the incubator you can have spring chickens the year round. It is claimed by some that breeding chickens should not be hatched by the incubator, as their sys-,i tern is not so strong as when hatched t)y "Mother- Hien." This theory is without foundation, and the contrary has been proven time and again. If you are raising for the market broilers, fryers, etc., it would ■be well to use the incubator altogether. However, you do not know all about incubators, and it will pay you to get one of the medium sized ma- chines, rather than one of the largest ones. There are several advantages to be gained in purchasing a sinall incubator, for in experimental work if you lose a hatch, your loss is less than if you had run a large machine. It is true that the advertiser claims that they are so simple that a child can operate them, hut when it comes to a test a child cannot operate "them. It is more than some grown people can do. And even if you wanted to operate on a large scale, you could get two or t'hree medium sized machines in preference to one large one. There are several advantags in having three or four machines over having just one large machine. One advantage is that you can use a different machine for different kinds of eggs. For instance, suppose you want a capacity of three hundred eggs. You could purchase three incubators of 100 eggs each. You can use hen, duck and turkey eggs, using a separate mac'hine for each. Having three machines, you can fill one and start it, while you are getting eggs for the next one, and so on. It takes different amounts of moisture for different eggs, and you must learn this. If you make a mistake you will come nearer discovering it when using a few small machines than when using just one large one. After you have received your in- cubator, you should study it. Nine out of ten who use standard and up-to-date makes of machines are successful with them and would not part with them and go back to the hens for anything. A good ma- chine with care and common sense methods will bring success. Remember that it takes time to learn and that you must do a little experimenting with your machine. Mr. J. A. Hunt, a very successful user of the incubator, says : "WHien you receive your machine and get it set up and in running order, take a whole day if necessary to study it in its various parts. The regulating ap- paratus should receive particular attention ; do not be satisfied in knowing that it does the work, but find out how it does it. Familiarize yourself with every part, as it may be useful knowledge to you in 5o6 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. future operations, for should your regulator through any accident or without accident fail to work, you will be able to discover the difficulty and remedy it without delay." September marks the beginning of activity in poul- try matters in the South, so we propose to give here- with a few hints tliat will be found useful by those who will take up the work for the first time, as well as those iwho for various reasons have been unsuccess- ful in previous attempts. Cheapness in an incubator should offer no induce- ment for a beginner, nor for that matter, to any one else. The experienced breeders, the men who have so in the hands of careless ones. Some ire better suited to certain localities than others, al- though the modern up-to-date machine is guaranteed to excel in any climate, under any conditions. Tl ere are machines operated in the South that do away en- tirely with the moisture question, because the sys- tem of ventilation is so nearly perfect that the hatch- es will average as well as under hens, under same conditions. Others again require supplied mois:ure, or at least do better with it, and so it goes through- out the list. Every manufacturer claims to have the best machine, and so the beginner stands in a Tiaze of conflicting claims of superiority, unable to decide Fig. 10. — A Modern Incubator House. long since passed the experimental stage, steer clear of such and buy the best, liy the best we do not mean a machine in a mahogan}' case, for while there are such on the market, they represent nothing new in modern incubator construction, except in useless ornamentation, which appeals only to the "extrava- gant rich." The same machine in a pine case will give you equally good results, so when we say buy the best, we do not want to confuse the reader into believing that the .best is represented by the costliest machine. What we desire to emphasize is the fact that a machine considerably below the market price of a standard make of an incubator is doubtless also below them in the hatching possibilities. Nearly all the standard makes give good results in the hands of careful, observing operators; none do for himself. If a manufacturer has the confidence in his machine that he claims he has, he will send you ' the same on trial. You can deposit the money with ', your postmaster, express agent or merchant, with the distinct understanding that if the machine fails to meet your expectations, you can return it, and your receipt from the railroad showing its return shall be authority on which you can secure your money from whoever you deposited it with. Don't sign any paper obligating yourselves to go beyond this. Some concerns make sales by forc- ing their goods on unwilling people, and once they , get your money, you have considerable trouble in getting it back. Taking it for granted now, that your machine has , Corn Does Not Produce Eggs. 507 arrived and been set up, you will have to run it a dlay at least, may be longer, to get the heat under control. In starting it up, we would run the ventil- ator wide open for a few hours. When you have ad- justed your regulator according to the instructions coming with your machine, and it maintains an even temperature of 102 or 103 degrees, you are ready to place your eggs in it. We will suppose that you have provided eggs that are from strong, healthy stock, and that will show good fertility, that they are 'as near one color and uniform size as possible, for the eggs of Brahmas, Cochins and other heavy breeds never do well when incubated with eggs from Leg- horns, etc. The best results from eggs as nearly as possible of the same kind. The Asiatics are always later in hatching, and being thick shelled, require more ventilation to dry tliem down, or, secure the proper air-space, hence, if two lots of eggs of Brah- mas and Leghorns are incubated at the same time, if von provide the correct ventilation for the former it will be to the detriment of the latter, so that point is easily explained, and even the novice will grasp the idea. After the eggs are placed in the machine, the tem- perature will drop considerably, and it will take sev- eral hours before it will be back to where you start- ed it. If your regulation has been correct, however, you will see it come back to 103 degrees and stay there. We will assume that you are operating your machine in a living-room, (seventy-five per cent, of them are), and you should see to it that there is no direct draft on the lamp, as it will cause it to smoke, and also cause the machine to become unevenly heat- ed. After second day, you should begin to turn the eggs at a regular hour morning and night, also cool- :' ing once a day, preferably in the morning, and fill- ing lamp too. If the filling of the lamp is done at night, you are not in a position to watch the temper- ature, and if you have given too much lamp light, j the regulator may not be able to take care of the ' surplus heat, and you endanger your hatch. For this [reason we prefer cooling and filling lamps every i morning. When there are very marked changes in [the weather, a little care should be exercised to see ! that a little more lamp fl,ame is given if weather turns considerably colder, and a little less, if the re- verse. You will soon get the hang of t'he thing and then you will wonder how you ever got so nervous and' "icared, and why you looked at the thermometer every 5-4 minutes. Looking- at the thermometer will not hurt, if you will quit working with the regulator, for if you start the thing right, the regulator will within rea- son take care of any little inside changes. Don't get frightened if it runs up a little, just turn down lamp flame a little, but let the regulator alone. If there is any adjusting to be done it should «be before the eggs go in, and after that you can do the greater part of bal- ance by controlling lamp flame. On the seventh day you will be ready to test the eggs. If you have a good tester before a strong light, you will be able to tell fertile eggs by examin- ing closely. It is better for you to start with thin- shelled, light eggs, as they show better the germ in the egg, which will look like a spider with little blood veins for legs. You v/ill see it move, contract and expand, and after that it will be easy for you to pick out the strong fertile eggs, but in case of thick-shell- ed eggs and others, you will find it more difficult. Whenever in doubt, take a saucer and break the egg and you will soon learn. You may lose a few chicks by this process, but it is the best of all teachers. It is generally conceded that the first week of in- cubation is the most critical, and we advise a careful following of the instructions going with the machine. No writer can advise you along this line, as there are certain directions which must be observed, peculiar to each incubator. If your eggs are good and strong, and your hatch a good one, you may continue the same way for the ne.xt hatch, but if the reverse, you should immediately write your incubator manufactur- ers, giving details, and they will doubtless set you straight. They cannot afford to have a displeased customer, and should be more than willing to help you out. About moisture, if a no-moisture machine, follow instructions and take off hatch without supplying any, but if you find the weather exceedingly dry, it might be well to place a tub under the machine or about the room in which incubator stands. Don't sprinkle the eggs. On the seventeenth day all e,ggs with a hatchable c'hance will appear perfectly dark, except the air space. Those which are not are worth- less. If the air space is too small, your ventilators must be opened wider; if too large, they must be clos- up some. Your operating instructions will give you correct size that air spaces should be at certain stages. When the eighteenth day comes around, some of the eggs will probably commence pipping. Don't open machine after this until the ihatch is over, not SoS TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. even to help out a strugigling chick. If you do, you endanger the balance of the hatch, and a chicken that can't help itself out will never amount to anything. Keep them in the machine for twenty-four hours, throwing ventilators wide open after hatch is over. Don't forget to clean out incubator thoroughly after each hatch, nor get excited if the heat runs up to 105 degrees when hatching. This is all right. All eggs that are not hatched by the twenty-first day are usually worthless. Ventilation in Incubators. — II is the popular idea that ventilation evaporates the moisture from eggs during incubation, and so it does, to a limited ex- tent, but t'he main cause is the pressure in the egg due to the growth of the chick and the shrinkage of the shell. Eggs, during incubation, get rid of the ex- cess moisture more on account of the pressure with- in than on account of the ventilation. At least the ventilation can only carry off the poisonous gases. As proof that pressure forces the moisture out of fertile eggs during incubation, we point to the infer- tile eggs in the same machine. Infertile eggs only perceptibly shrink in size and weight. If ventilation controlled the evaporation, then there should not be so much difference between fertile and infertile eggs under the same conditions. I have been operating incubators for a long while, I feel sure that I can voice the opinion of nearly ev- ery operator of incubators, that getting the air cell too large is more imaginary t'han real. We all read about it, but few have seen it. The lack of sufficient ventilation fails to carry off the gases arising from the eggs, and the natural conditions and actions of the egg are interfered with; the chick fails to devel- op naturally, hence wet, weak chicks, with an unripe appearance. It is very evident to any one who thinks (beyond what they read of) that moisture and ventilation are so mixed up t'hat the influence of one is taken for the other. Excessive applied moisture has exactly the same effect as the lack of ventilation; it makes the air too heavy, it's the same with poor ventilation. This heavy mucky conditions of the air blocks the expelled or evaporated moisture from the egg. An- other proof of the pressure within the eggs during incubation is t'he enlargement of the air cell as the incubation progresses. I dispute that the air cell is for the purpose of fur- nishing air to the chick except just before it pips the shell. The division between the air cell and balance of egg is air and moisture tight ; if it were not tight, it would fill with moisture; the chick could not pos- sibly use the air, even its movements and different positions would dispute the theory. Just before the ' chick pips the shell it usually breaks through to the air cell, but not always. I contend that the first real | breathing of the chick is after it pips the shell, and from the time it pips the shell until it makes further effort it is accustoming itself to real air. The air cell has a purpose, it helps form a pressuri in the other end of the egg; it has still another pur- pose, it holds the contents of the egg intact; it makes , a back stop and makes it possible for the chick to 1 brace for action. If it were not for the air cell the contents of the egg would float. Ventilation is just as important as the temperature in incubation. Ventilation does the same work in in- cubators as in other things. Doctors draw a line on draughts of air, but make no attempt to exclude or curtail it, and why should we in ventilating incuba- 1 tors? As stated, such a thing as air cells becoming too large is more imaginary than real. We read of the Fig. 11. — New style of brooder wltb outside runs for ohick- ■ ens. In much use throughout the South. cautions, but the real thing is rarely in evidence. Fertile eggs, during incubation, get rid of the exces- moisture through pressure more than through ventil- ation. In incubators, like in houses we live in, the] question of ventilation is settled when we correctly draw a line between plenty of air and draughts of air This is such a simple and well-known problem that it hardly needs mentioning. The theories about car- bon, oxygen and other component parts of air serve to muddle more than to explain, and insomuch as these things are rarely mentioned in connection with air for ourselves, we cannot see the great need of using up space on the question in connection with incubators, except perhaps in some cases wherein the lamip might burn the air 'before it enters the eg; chamber. Oats Makes a Very Fine Single Grain Food. 509 BROODER. The one great difficulty with the ifse of the incuba- tor was the taking care of the cliicks after they were hatched. But this is now done by tlie brooder. The question of the brooder is one of importance. And very little is known of brooders either. The great trouble is that most poultrymen place the importance on the incubator, while they consider the brooder of secondary importance. Some one has said that it is easier to haiich healthy chicks in an incubator than to keep them healthy afterwards in a brooder. It is often the case that the beginner studies with dili- gence the use and work of the hatcher, while he never really considers the brooder at all. As a result his chicks are hatched out all right but they die after a few days' confinement in the brooder. There are many good brooders on the market, and most of them are good. While the brooder is not intricate or as hard to understand as t'he incubator, yet it is very es- sential that its construction should be on right lines. There are many things to be considered. How to avoid crowding, • over-heating, getting too cool and chilling the chicks, either of which (too much heat or too little) will cause losses at the expiration of three or four days' time. It seems advisable to pur- chase a first-class brooder until you become thor- oughly familiar with the methods, then if you wish to attempt to make your own well and good. The price of first-class makes would not warrant anyone in building his own machine, however. By brooding is meant the care and nurture of little chicks. The subject of brooding may be discussed under two natural divisions, brooding by hens and brooding by artificial means. BROODING BY MEANS OF HENS. This is the natural way of raising chicks and wTien only a small flock is kept it is undoubtedly the best method to follow. The hen should be kept free from lice by the use of insect powder or other means, and it is usually a good plan to confine her for a few days until the chicks become strong enough to follow her readily. The coop for this purpose should be dry and clean, and the slats across one end should be far enough apart to allow the chicks to run in and out at will. In a few days the hen also may be allowed to run at large. If she remains unmolested by vermin at night she usually will return each evening to her own coop, which can then be closed to be opened as-ain the next morninq; after the dew has dried off the grass. BROODING BY ARTIFICIAL MEANS. As it is not an easy matter, especially for a begin- ner, to raise chicks successfully by artificial means, it is worth while to consider how an ideal hen cares for her chicks until they are weaned. In the first place, the hen remains on the nest until after the last chick has hatched, dried off, and gained strength to follow her. By this time the chicks which hatched first may be a day or so old. If the weather is warm enoug'h the hen then wanders a short distance from the nest calling the chicks to her by chuckling, and attempts to find something for them to eat. Scratch- ing in the earth, she now and then finds a tiny bug or worm and calling her brood to her with eager clucks she indicates with 'her beak the tempting mor- sel. If the ,hen is allowed to raise her brood in her own way, the chicks are on the move from morning until night, wandering a few feet away while search- ing for tidbits on their own account, and now run- ning with all their might when their mother an- nounces the discovery of a choice morsel, which if too large is broken into suitable pieces for them. If at any time the chickens become too cold and send forth their plaintive peep, then the hen answers with her motherly cluck, and the little ones run under her protecting feathers, become thoroughly warm in a few minutes, and then are ready to run away again on another foraging expedition. In other words, a chick- en raised under normal and hence natural conditions is busy from morning until night searching for food which is eaten in small quantities at a time, and only when night comes is the craw full, and chick's hun- ger fully appeased. Not only is the food eaten slow- ly, but it consists of a large variety of materials, bugs and worms, the tender tips of sprouting, grain, the grain itself more or less softened by its exposure to the moisture of the soil and now and then a little piece of gravel and a sip of water. Grit, green fcx>d, grain, animal matter and pure water with plenty of exercise during the day and a sufficient degree of warmth during the night are the main requisites for successful brooding. Taking off the Hatch. — If the incubator has been handled properly, the temperature of tlie egg cham- her will be about 95 degrees when the chicks are ready 510 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. to be removed. If the weather is cold, and it is nec- essar}^ to transfer them some distance to the brooder house or to the brooders, a warm cloth-Uned box should be used and the little fellows tucked up snug- ly, as they are very tender. A few minutes' exposure at this time may chill them sufficiently to cause in- flammation of the lungs, which may destroy half or more of them in ten days. In fact, during the first two weeks of a chick's life it is of very first impor- tance to keep the temperature just right. If the tem- perature of the brooder is too high or too low the re- sults will be unsatisfactory even thoug'h all the other conditions are ideal. Kg. 13. — The S. D. McMillan Brooder. This brooder is ex- tensively used throughout the Soutli. The Proper Hover Temperature. — When the chicks are placed under the hover the temperature should be between 95 and 100 de.grees. The temperature should not be allowed to fall below 95 degrees during the first week, and n 't below 90 degrees during the second week. From tnis time on the hover tempera- ture can be lowered more rapidly, depending some- w'hat on the outside temperature. At no time should the chicks be uncomfortable, either on account of cold or too much heat. If they are too cold they huddle together, those inside the bunch become too warm, and pass to the outside, there becoming too cold again. Under these conditions the chicks catch cold, and soon die. On the other hand, if the hover tem- perature is too high, the chicks will be forced outside, where it is too cold for them. If the temperature is high enougli thev will not bunch to.gether when ly- ing down, but will scatter promiscuously over the hover floor, and a day or too later many will be found with their heads projecting from under the hover fringe. For the first few days they must be kept very close to the hover, for if they get a short distance away, they will bunch together to get warm, instead of running under the hover. Under these circum- stances, the attendant must assume to a certain ex- tent the duties and responsibilities of the mother hen. FEEDING. A chick just hatched out has quite a large supply uf food stored up for it in the unabsorbed contents of the yolk sac, and as a consequence feeding may be delaved for a while. Practice differs somewhat re- garding the age of the chick when it should receive its first meal, but most breeders delay feeding until the chick is at least -IS hours old. By this time, the reserve material is about used up. and the digestive system has been materially strengthened. What to Feed. — What is fed during the first few days is of less importance than how it is fed, and how much is fed. A chick when in a brooder or brooder house takes far less exercise than when following a hen, and if fed too liberally becomes sluggish and sleepy and digestive troubles soon carry it off. A brooder chick should be induced to take as much ex- ercise as possible, and this can be accomplis'hed but l)v feeding dry food scattered in short litter. Crack- ed wheat, corn cracked in pieces as large as one-half of a wheat grain, granulated oat meal and a small amount of millet seed will answer the purpose, ad- mirably for the first few days. It is surprising to see how quick they learn to scratch for their grain. Hay and straw cut into inch lengths make a good lit- ter for this purpose. Care should be exercised, how- ever, that the material cut up for this purpose does not contain sharp beards which are apt to get in the chickens' eyes, and thtis cause trouble. Ripe clover heads are especially to be avoided. Fine chick grit should be scattered on the floor of the broods, so that they will take some grit with their first meal. Pure water should be supplied from tlie start, and the drinking dishes should be cleaned fre- quently, as they become foul in a short time. After the chicks are a few days old a small amount of ground fresh meat and bone or beef scraps should be fed and some tender green food supplied to them. Lettuce is excellent for this purpose, but frequently cannot be secured, when recourse must be had to cabbage or the beets, the latter whic'h may be slick- ed and tacked up, so that the chicks can just reach it. Chickens on the Farm Need a House for the Winter Rains. 5" I have had very good success raising chicks ac- cording to the method outlined above. While differ- ent breeders use different methods to mine, no one will fail if they follow fhe plan above outlined. The beginner must always remember, however, that in or- der to raise chickens successfully by artificial means. ,J Fig. 12. — iMicMillan's Brooders witli runs for exercising tlie little chicks. i several things must be done just right: the chicks •I must be fed properly; the temperature at which they (jare kept must be suitable: they must be in a healthy ^condition when hatched ; and finallv the parent stock jmust have been vigorous and thrifty. Just as the strength of a chain depends upon its weakest length, so does the success in raising chickens depend upon that factor which is relatively the weakest. If a considerable number of chickens are to be raised, a brooder house equipped with a hot water rheater is a practical necessity. In my experience out- door brooders cannot be used to t'he best advantage early in the season, when the weather is variable. ilLater, when the nights become warmer, and less ar- jjtificial heat is required, they may be used out of doors ||successfully. The individual brooder whether in-door ^or out-door, is expensive to operate, both in respect tn material and labor. The oil which must be used 'in the brooder lamps cost relativelv much more than the coal which is used m the heater m the brooder bouse, and a large amount of labor is required to clean, fill and light the brooder lamps and care for tlie individual brooders properly. In the case of in- door brooders, there is in addition, a considerable ri^k from fire, which may not only destroy the brood- ers and their contents, but also the building in which they are located. On the other hand, the relatively large first cost for a special brooder house pre- vents its adoption by a majority of people who keep fowls. Therefore, it is of importance to discuss the best way of hanrlling individual brooders. Location of Brooders. — Outdoor brooders should be located so as to shelter as much as possible from the prevailing winds, for in such a place a more equita- ble temperature can be maintined, and when the chicks begin to run on the ground they will be more comfortable in a sheltered location. An eastern or southern exposure is best, and on the east and north there should be a windbreak of some sort, either the farm buildings, a hedge or a tight board fence. The brooders should be located near the farm buildings so that the chicks can be cared for conveniently. Be- fore placing the chicks in the brooder, the floor may be covered with sand or chaff. These are used to add to the comfort of the chicks and to facilitate the daily cleaning of the brooders. The brooders should be warm and thoroughly dry, especially if the chick- ens are placed in them directly from the incubator. For the first few days it will be necessary to confine the chicks to the brooder until they become accus- tomed to their surroundings and learn where to go Pig. 14. — ^An out-door brooder, -R-ith solid top cover, much preferred to glass top broo'3ers, foi-merly used. when cold. Particular care should be taken at night to see that they are not huddled together in the outer compartment. If they have done so, they must be placed under the hover. Before allowing the chicks to run out of the brooder onto the ground, it is usual- ly best to build a yard containing 25 to 50 square feet for them to run in for the first week or so. The yard prevents them from getting lost when small, and is also a great help when thunderstorms come up and it is necessary to get the chicks quickly under the shel- ;i2 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. ter. As soon as the cliickcns begin to roost on top of disorder. There is no remedy so far as we are aware. the brooders, they may be removed to colony houses, Preventative mca.-ures alone are of value, and the sexes separated. BOWEL TROUBLE. DISEASES OF THE BROODER CHICKS. J. A. P. WOLF. ■Although the diseases of poultry will be discussed under a separate head, it seems wise here to consider the diseases of brooder c'hicks, for the reason that these diseases are usuall}^ due to mistakes made eit'her in handling the parent stock, in hatching or in brood- ing. When the brooder chicks begin to die and the cause of the death can be discovered, then the opera- tor can usually remedy the trouble without mucli dif- ficulty, while on the other hand, if the source of trou- ble cannot be located, the beginner usually gives up the poultry business in disgust. NON-ABSORPTION OF THE CONTENTS OF THE YOLK SAC. Symptoms. — For the first three or four days the chickens may apparently be vigorous and hearty. Soon, however, many of them become drowsy during the day, and stand nodding. Bowel trouble sets in. Deatlis occur most rapidly when the chicks are from six to ten days old. If the abdominal cavity of a chick be opened at this time, the yolk sac will be found to contain a large amoiint of semi-fluid sub- stance which, not having been absorbed and digest- ed, has suffered a putrifactive c'hange, thus causing the death of the chick. Sometimes a chick may not die from this cause until it is two or three weeks old. In these cases the contents of the yolk sac is of a yel- lowish cheesy nature. Causes. — It is quite probable that the non-absorp- tion of the contents of the yolk sac may be brought about in more than one way. If the eggs have been laid by hens which are so fat and sluggish that the germs are weak ; if the eggs 'have been subject to a variable temperature during incubation; if there. has not been a sufficient amount of oxygen during the hatch ; or if the chickens are fed too soon or too much, then thev will be more liable to die from this Symptoms. — The droppings of the chicks instead ■ of being of a proper consistency, are soft and sticky, j and frequently collect in masses about the vent. The chicks become drowsy and have a tendency to seek the heat under the hover. Causes. — The non-absorption of the contents of 'J- yolk sac frequently causes this trouble. It may be caused, however, by improper food or by a slight cold which settles in the bowels instead of in the lungs. There is no remedy if it be caused from non- absorption of the yolk sac. If caused by improper food, or a cold, the remedy is evident. INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. If the temperature in the brooder or broodtr house is too variable one-half or more of the chicks may die of this trouble. Symptoms. — The chicks become drowsy and seem to require a hi.gh ho\'er temperature. In severe cases, the chickens nia}' e\en gasp for breath, appearing as though affected with gapes. If the lungs be examin- ed in the first stage of the disease, one or more may be congested and of a darker color than usual. Later little tubercles of a lightish color may be found scat- tered through the tissue. Whether these tubercles contain the germs of fowl tuberculo'^is is unknown. It would appear, however, as though they resulted sim- ply from the breaking down 'of tlie lung tissue dur to the intense inflammation present. DISEASE OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. If the food which the young chicks receive does not contain the elements essential to growth in right pro- portion, digestive disturbances may be set up which may cause the death of the chicks. At the Rliodc Island Experiinent Station 826 brooder chicks which died from sundry causes were examined. Of the chicks examined 75 per cent, had abnormal livers, 30 per cent, had various forms of intestinal disorders. "In order to ascertain the cause of the mortality a feeding experiment was instituted. Two hundred and Don't Get Discouraged, But Keep Trying. 513 nineteen chicks of Several breeds hatc'hed under sim- ilar conditions were placed in four pens of approxi- mately 50 each, all conditions being identical, so far as apparent, except in the single factor of food. All pens for 30 days after hatching were fed at the same time as much as they would eat. The composition of the ration varied in each case. The following facts confirmed by these experiments show : ^HP^^^ ~:^^,A ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^Bh H 1^ "^mnp^ "v^ "^**''^^^BWB ^^^^^^t7 1 '**^£ Fig. 16. — ^Brood Oooips Ready for a Siunn, Als.. .sli.jws a part of the poultry houses. C'hickadotte Farm, Rural Hall, N. C. 1st. Careful external and internal examination (such as anyone can readily make) of the dead chick- ens will generallv disclose the cause of the death. The necessary remedies are usually not difficult to find. 2nd. iDeath from overcrowding, suffocation and trampling can be readily corrected. It is more fre- quent than is generally suspected. 4th. Trouble of the liver and gall bladder are usually easily recognized from the green stain. For correcting this feed more animal food. The use of the proper proportion of animal food will pay a hand- some profit through decreased mortality and increas- ed weiglit of chicks. In feeding bear in mind that chicks in a state of nature spend practically all their working hours in search of food, and that they do not fill their craws in ten minutes every two hours. Feeding should be, as far as the time of the attend- ant renders possible, a continuous process, but by no means a continuous gorge. 5th. Diarrhoea, etc., frequently results from feed- 34 ing a too large proportion of animal food, and is also brought on often by cold, exposure, etc. 6th. If the 3-olk is present in a considerable quan- tity in chicks a week old, or if more than i or 2 per cent, of deformed chicks appears, look to the better regulation of the incubators, or to the health of the breeding pens. LEG WEAKNESS. This usually is an ailment of chickens which have been forced into too rapid growth by the use of rich mashes, by being kept at too 'high a temperature and through lack of exercise. Symptoms. — The chick walks in an unsteady man- ner and frequently squats down. The hocks are gen- erally swollen and hot to the touch. Treatment. — Feed dry grain scattered in littter so that the chickens will be obliged to exercise. Re- duce the temperature and provide plenty of green food or steamed clover, which will tend to allay the feveris'h condition. GAPES. This is a parasitic disease caused by the presence in the wind pipe of the affected chick small worms which are attached by their heads to the mucous membrane. This parasite, known scientifically by the name of Synganus trachealis, when removed from the trachea has a branched appearance. The longer part which is about one-half inch long is the female, while the shorter part is the male. The female does not lay eggs during her lifetime, but after reaching maturity she is expelled from the windpipe, and the eggs es- cape after her deat'h through a rent in the body wall. Other chicks take these eggs into their systems, eith- er with their food or water, and thus the disease is propagated. Symptoms. — The chick when badly infested, gasps for breath, coughs as -though suffocating, and fre- quently stands witTi wings drooping and eyes closed. Treatment. — In practice only preventative measures are of value. The worms can be removed by means of a gape worm extractor, if one has the necessarv skill and patience, but on a large scale, this is impos- 514 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. sible, and all possible effort should be directed toward preventing further infection. All diseased chicks should be placed by themselves and the runs and houses thoroughly cleaned up and disinfected. If in- dividual brooders are used, the simple expedi- ent of placing them in a new location each year, often causes almost the total disappear- ance of the trouble. If permanent runs become infected, they may be disinfected by the frequent use of caustic lime which is spread thickly over the sur- face and worked into the soil. Or the run may be hen and chicks from the nest until 25 hours after the last chick has hatched. For hen and chicken shed we use a south side wired up, with sand floor. Place the hens and chicks in a clean new nest in a nest box made of a cracker box, with a round hole sawed in one side next to one end. This makes an ideal sit- ting nest and nest for hen and chicks. We place near the end a pan of dry flaked oatmeal, grit and fresh, clean water and leave the hen and chicks to come out at will. The hen will call the chicks out and in this way any chicks t'hat are not strong will remain in the rrr r. «»»"■ Fig. IG. — Raising .Jersey Red Cliiclvens at towmter, La. sprinkled thoroughly with a 2 per cent, solution of sulp'huric acid in water. The lime and acid, howev- er, should never be used in combination. CARE OF LITTLE CHICKS. By J. A. P. Wolf. We do not remove chicks from incubator or take nest, and the hen after feeding the chicks that came out, will return to the nest vvith the chicks and all is well. We have watched them do it many times. This nest arrangement may be placed immediately in the colony house, placing one in each end and plac- ing two 'hens with chicks in each colony house, es- pecially as the weather grows warmer. This does away with the little brood coops and is a great sav- There Is No Easy Road to Success With Poultry. 515 ing of time and labor and money, besides giving the chicks more room on a stormy day, when they should be confined to the colony house. Our second feed is dry bread crumbs, and the third Ciphers or any other good chick feed, feeding only tliree or four times per day for two or three weeks, never giving the same food twice in succession. When the chicks are one week old, we give once a day, usually at noon very finely chopped onions, cab- bage, salad or fine grass. \\'hen from four to six weeks old, :f the weather will permit, the hen and chicks should have access to rye, grass and clover at will. The houses are thoroughly cleaned from two to four times per week, and sand sprinkled on the floor. In the use of brooders we place them in or be- side the colon}' houses, making little runs around the brooders until the chicks learn to go into the brood- ers. The brooder chicks are fed and treated the sam^. as those with the hens. AMien the chicks are old enough, we remove the brooders and the chicks nat- urally go into the colony house, and you have them where you want them. W'hen chicks are from 8 to 10 weeks old we feed wheat in the morning, or a small feed of chick feed, and at noon beef scraps, and at nig'ht cracked corn. Sometimes I keep beef scraps in a self-feeding bin before them at all times. When the hens wean the chicks, you only have to place them back in the breeding pens and the chicks come home to roost, and you do not have to go night after night v.-ith a basket and remove them from the brood coops to the colony house. They know where they should roost, and will remain there until fall, when they can be removed to their winter quarters, the cockerels and pullets liaving been separated at the proper time. NOTES ON LITTLE CHICKS. One should see to it that the chicks are not chill- ed, while being transferred from the incubator to the brooder, and that the hover temperature at the be- ginning is as high as the temperature of the incuba- tor from which the chicks are taken. In flie brooder or brooder house, the chicks must be taught where to go to get warm. It usually takes about a week for them to learn this lesson. The hover temperature should not fall below 90 de- grees during the first week, nor below 85 degrees r'ur- ing the second week. Brooder chicks must not be overfed. If fed too much they droop and die. Alake the chicks exercise by scattering dry cracked grain in deep but short litter. They will go to the bottom for grain if kept a little hungry. Grit, green food, animal matter and grain, togeth- er with plenty of exercise, pure air and fresh water are necessary for the highest degree of success in raising chickens. Keep the brooders clean, dry and free from lice. A brooder to be satisfactory must be simple, dura- ble and easily cleaned. The lamp must be accessible and have ample power to keep the brooder at the right temperature. Do net overcrowd. If a brooder is made for 50 chicks, do not place 100 in it. Fifty chicks are as many as should be together. If some of the chicks die, cut them open and find nut what the trouble is; then rectify it. If the lungs are inflamed or have whitish nodules scattered through them, then the chicks have caught cold. If the gall bladder is enlarged, there has been a de- ficiency of animal food in the ration, and more should be supplied. If the contents of the yolk sac remain unabsorbed. then either the incubation was impioper- ly performed or the chicks were fed too soon or too much or the parent stock was in an unhealthy condi- tion. Do not permit incubator hatched chickens to come _ in contact with stock hatched under hens. This is a prolific source for the spread of lice, and should be avoided. Open water vessels are not dfesirable for drinking fountains. Many birds are lost by falling into such a death trap, besides such vessels accumulate filth and dirt and are unsanitary. Watch the brooder lamps. Make your last round before retiring and see that everything is snug and safe. You will be amply rewarded both in content- ment of mind and better stock for any little extra at- tention you give your birds. BROODING THE CHICKS. This subject has been worn almost threadbare, so we think, who have handled it continually season af- ter season, but whenever we come in contact with a new beginner, full of enthusiasm and hope, and who must depend upon us for advise which will assist him on to success, we feel that we can not dwell too long 5i6 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. or too forcibly upon t'his subject, because in successful brooding it is the key to the whole situation. There are many good incubators, in fact, nearly all the old standard makes do good work in the hands of care- ful, observing operators, but of brooders, we have so few that we feel it a duty to warn not only beginners, but old operators as well, that here is the danger line, and t'his the block upon which so many stumble. Most of the brooders are built at the North, and with a view to withstanding :!xtremes of cokl weath- er, while 'n our section we seldom have to encounter zero weatl'er, and ii we do, only for a day or two at most. Working on the lines of instructions usually sent with incubators and brooders, beginners take everything for granted. They rv.n the heat up as in- structed, paying very little attention to ventilation, Fig. 17. — Isi Prize Hen, Atlanta, Ga. Also winner of silver cuip. Bred and exhibited by J. K. Ottley, Atlanta, Ga. the very essential in our clime. So far as getting up sufficient heat is concerned, we can take a dry goods box and carry a brood throu.gh, if we have solved the question of ventilation. It is a well-known and ac- cepted fact ihat less ventilation is needed in cold than in warm weather, but sufficient must be provided at all times to carry off the poisonous gases which are generated, and 'to enable the chick to breathe the sweet, pure, life-invi.gorating atmo.sphere which nature intended for it. If we observe the chickens under the hen, we will notice that while their bodies are snugly protrude and they breathe t'he pure air, while their hidden among the downy feathers, their little heads bodies are warmed from the animal heat the hens throw off. We prefer a brooder that enables the chicks to hover, and we have seen them when a com- fortable degree of heat was given to hover their little bodies under the flannel strips of cloth, their little heads protruding and an air of contentment about them, which assured us of their welfare. In many brooders, sufficient provision is not made for hover- ing the number of chicks at which it is rated, without crowding some beneath it, where they cannot get the necessary pure air. Chicks naturally are inclined to huddle, and in brooders not provided with hovers, we usually find them piled up in a corner, unless the chamber is overheated, which is just about as inju- rious. If we had to err on the side of too much or too little heat, we would choose the latter, although there is no excuse for either. Too many people rely on their thermometers as to correct temperature. A chick can stand considerable cold, if it has access to a warm place wherein to get comfortable, and we would prefer to give plenty of ventilation, even to burning twice as much oil to bring up the desired temperature, rather than economize at the expense of the health of the entire hatch. During our fine spring weather we are able to supply all the ventilation nec- essary, even to raising the cover, provided the chicks have a place, a hover, under which they will find comfort, as they do under a hen. We would advise beginners and others to look care- fully into this question of brooding and observe these things, as upon them will rest your success in the business. Too many buy a 300-egg incubator and but one brooder. Manufacturers are much to blame here. In the battles of fierce competition now rag- ing, too little regard is had for truth and honesty. They know as well as we do that fifty birds to any one brooder is sufficient, no matter whether rated a 50, 100 or 200-chick size. The fact of the matter is they do not do well in larger numbers, and I would prefer a half dozen small brooders to one large one any time. Another thing to be observed is in sepa- rating the weak, stunted looking c'hicks from the oth- ers. They leach the others the crowding habit, and besides this never recover if left to be run over and trampled by t'he others. Lots of failures in brooding chicks are charged to feeding, when the whole thing is due to bad ventilation, overheating and c'hilling. Another thing observable in brooder chicks incor- their feet. Compared with the full, moist, shiny-look- rectly brooded is the dried, shriveled appearance of Peas Make a Very Fine Food for the Chickens. 517 ing feet of the hen's biddies, the comparison is strik- ing and noticeable. We prefer to liave a generous amount of clean sand in .the brooder — an inch deep is not too much — and it is advisable and 'helpful to stand in each brooder a can of water, so placed that the chicks can't get to it, which will be found very help- ful to them. You all know how hard and dry the air become in a room where a stove is burning, and how placing a kettle of water on it renders the atmosphere moist and more agreeable. It is similar in a brooder, and at best can do no harm and a little experimenting along this line will soon give you an insight into its value. With the heating and ventilating controlled, the feeding becomes easy. At the present price of all or- dinary grains, we would advise the use of the well- known brands of chick-feed advertised, as with this on hand the beginner is on an even footing with the oldest breeder in the land, for besides being about as cheap, it is a well-balanced ration prepared especially for young chicks, and contains everything necessary, even to grit and meat scraps. It eliminates the dan- ger of feeding stuff injurious to young chickens, saves time, insures raising the greatest number of chicks possible, and fed in litter, provides exercise necessary to the best development of the growing chicks. For the first few days, in cold weather, the chicks should be confined to the brooder, and not allowed to roam. After they become active and sprightly, they may be allowed a small inclosure about t'hree feet square to run in, and this should be increased daily until after a week's time they may run at will, they will know their home and return to it when cold, or at roosting time at night. Care should be paid to gathering in any stragglers. The heat should be gradually reduced, and in mild weather in the South, after they are several weeks old, tTieir bodies will generate sufficient heat to maintain the necessary temperat-ure for their comfort. BROODER CHICKS. Give water to drink from the start. Remove the chicks to new runs, if confined in pens, and plant oats, rye or other green feed. Tiny brooder chicks sometimes peck each others feet until sore. Keep them busy by feeding grain in short litter and they will forget these small vices. Don't feed your brooder chicks like mother used to do. Mother's chicks were brooded by hens, and were quite a different proposition. Keep out the sunlight let in the doctor. Assafoedita in the drinking water is good for little chicks with gapes. Remove your chicks from ground on which your chicks become infected with gape worms. Sprinkle lime freely, then spade the run and lime a^ain. Scrub treatment will make scrubs of thorough- breds. Accumulated manure breeds disease. Fresh water is worthless if poured into a filthy vessel. Clean the brooders dailv. "Goi_.DEN Queen" <^. Fig. 18. — A fine Buff Rock Hen, winner at Atlanta, Charles- ton, S. U., M.acon, Ga., and other shows. Owned by C. Wayne Fowier, Smyi-na, Ga. STARTING A "BROILER PLANT" ON LIMIT- ED CAPITAL. So long as the demand exceeds the source of sup- ply, so long will the raising of poultry for market or for eggs remain a profitable industry, when conduct- ed by persons who are adapted to the work. No one need attempt the undertaking with the expectation of running up against a "snap." It is work, work all the time, early morning until night with the closest 5i8 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. attention necessary to details, cleanliness, regularity in feeding, guarding against vermin, and supplying every want of the fowl, and looking after its comfort. In going into t'his line of business, we should first determine upon the wants of the market which we aim to supply, whether it is broilers, or eggs or both, as upon this desire will depend the first steps to be taken in securing breeding stock, incubators, brood- ers, etc., as well as location, nearness to market be- ing a prime essential in some cases. We will suppose in this instance that broilers for the market is the main consideration, and take up the "egg farm" under a separate head. during the year under contract, if the breeder can give ample assurance of his ability to supply this de- mand. Two hundred hens should supply in season suffi- cient eggs to run two incubators of 200 egg capacity per week, and give you a surplus besides. In the off seasons more hens may be required, depending upon your ability to create the "laying habit" in your fowls. This would require six 200 egg machines with an ad- ditional smaller machine to start at the same time you do your large ones, so that at testing- time you can fill in from the surplus to offset the un'fertile and doubtful eggs removed from them. The first week ^ FiffST PRIZED CUP . ' NEW YORK 1<^03 - WILL?W BROOK PARn Fig. 19. — An ideal BiifiE Plymouth Rock. For this purpose one should have sufficient means at his disposal to b'ly his breeding stock, his incuba- tors and brooders, as well as feed, and look for no in- come the first 6 months. In the .'^outh broilers are mar- keted at from ]0 to 12 weeks old, and bring an aver- age of from 20 to 25 cents each in the markets where a demand has been created, and which can be regu- larly supplied. We have in mind several cities in the lower Sout'h that will take a large number of birds you start two, 2CO egg machines, together with the smaller one. One week later you start two more, testing out the unfertile eggs from your first lot, and refilling from your "tender" as we will call it. This will probably leave your "tender" empty, and readv to start again with your second hatch. Should it not do so, it might be well to have two small machines for "tenders," say of 100 egg size capacity, so that in event the first tender is not ready for use, the second If You Are Going to Make Poultry Raising a Business, use Pure Breeds. 519 may be brought into play, and on 14th or 15th day of last test you will have used up all surplus eggs from first tender leaving it ready for starting with your third 'hatch, which will now put in use all six of your machines, the first of which is already two weel s under way, so that when the last hatch has run one week, jour first machines are three weeks under way, and are hatching. Every week after the third you will have a hatch coming off. and at the lowest reasonable calculations you should get out 60 per cent, of all eggs put in. or 240 chicks every week, this expense and further losses which one experiences when depending upon outside help. In arranging your yards and brooding accommoda- tions, you must figure on supplying your yard room for at least ten or twelve hatches of 250 chicks, for your first hatch will be from ten to twelve weeks old before coming to marketable age. so that you will have from ten to eleven subsequent hatches on vour hands ranging in age from one week to eleven, as the case mav be. Fig. 20. — A typical Brown Leghorn. from which you should raise to twelve weeks old at least 200, which should bring you $50.00 in your lo- cal market. This then wouid be your income from a small broiler plant running 6 200-egg machines with two small "tenders" from which you would have to deduct cost of feeding, expenses, etc. Besides this profit, you would have surplus eggs from your main flock, and if you have provided ample brooding facili- ties and prepared to keep your different ages sepa- rated, vou will with little or no outside labor avoid To handle them to the best advantage, your brood- er yards should be so arranged that they will increase in size, so that the one intended for the youngest hatches being suited to their ages, and each succeed- ing one being larger, to take care of tlie different ages, and if hawks and other vermin are trouble- some, it will be necessary for you to string meshed wire, the writer having found single strand No. 14 wire or smaller well adapted for this ptirpose, string- ing it six inches apart. No hawk will attempt to go 520 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. through, and if so, his hawkship will be unable to get out. You will experience little trouble with skunks, opossums, etc., during the day time, but care should be observed that houses are carefully closed at night before these prowlers are on the move. Snakes are sometimes very destructive to small chickens, and no high weeds or hiding places should be tolerated near your chicken yards. Many a prom- ising bird has given a meal to these "thieves" and are hard to detect in their stealthy work. In selecting the stock for the production of eggs for your incubators, birds of one variety are always pre- ferred, and for broilers, none surpass the Plymouth Rocks or Wyandottes. The whites in both varieties are the most popular, 'having no dark pin feathers, and make an ideal bird for broiler purposes. The first cost for good layers may be a little more than for a lot of mongrels, but then one should not embark in this business unless sufficiently equipped with capital to start right. While the income from the broiler plant practically begins with the maturity of the first hatch at 3 months, it is always advisable for "the operator to have sufficient surplus on hand to meet any disap- pointment that may 'happen to him. He must also bear in mind that while his first 200 birds are getting to marketable age, he has a large number constantly coming on that require feeding, which is a consider- able item when 100 to 200 chicks are considered, to say nothing of the hens that are kepi for supplying the eggs. One should never depend on eggs purchased from outsiders to run the incubators. This has been the source of more failures in the broiler business than all the other causes combined. No matter 'how well you think you know the people or the flocks from which they originate, it is seldom that the results will even pay the actual cost of the eggs. If your advent in the broiler business is dependent upon this source of supply of eggs, we say emphatically "don't." Many of the largest plants in this country amply capitaliz- ed have failed because of this same trouble that we are now warning our readers against. The treatment of the chicks while in the nursery is about the same w'hether intended for broilers or breeders, the object being to carry the chickens safe- ly past the many dangers which beset them during the first three or four weeks. The prepared chick feeds supplemented with grit and green feed, and plenty of exercise is now used by the most successful ' broiler people in the business. The thing of greatest '< importance is cleanliness and this applies not alone > to the brooders but to the runs as well. These should be plowed or spaded and if possible planted frequent- | ly in green feed of some kind. Foul ground is one or the causes of great mortality in chicks. If the broiler business of the past has been extremely hazardous, it ' has not been due to a lack of ready markets at good ' prices, but rather from causes entirely within the con- trol of the operator. Experience alone can give the desired information as to details, etc., and this must be supplemented with proper equipment of incubators, brooders and brooder ' houses. EGG FARMING IN THE SOUTH. There is no branch of poultry husbandry that ' carries with it less risk from losses, nor greater certainty of immediate profits with quick returns j than '"Egg Farming." As the greatest layers are- among the Mediterranean breeds, consequently non- setters, the successful egg- farmer relies ahnost w'hol- ly on artificial incubation and brooding for obtaining his annual supply of new stock birds which are to furnish the eggs for another year. On the majority of the egg farms in this country the non-setting varieties are used almost exclusively, with the preference greatly in favor of the A\'hite Leg- 'horns. There are also some very successful plants in w'hich the American varieties are given full sway, no- tably the Barred, Buff, and White Plymouth Rocks, White and Buff Wyandottes, and tlie Rhode Island Reds. These birds become broody however, and some develop remarkabje tastes for obstinate broodi- ness. The successful egg farmer will, however, break up this broodiness as early as possible, usually at tlie very first sign of it, and a method employed with nnich success, w'hich eleminates any resemblance to cruelty is practiced on some of our largest egg farms. The method is as follows: A box such as is usually employed for the use of setting hens is procured, the bottom taken out and regular poultry netting nailed in its place, allowing it to sag down a little to form a hollow the shape of a nest. This box is nailed up from the floor, high enough to allow the air to circulate under it very freely. It seems as though the 'hen cannot stand this cooling off process, having nothing under her to If You Have Good Stock, You Will Have to Pay For Them. 521 break the air currents, and in two or three days all signs of broodiness disappear. This method is sup- plemented with another which usually effects a radi- cal cure. By placing this hen for a day with a young, vigorous male bird, all ambition for setthig seems to be obliterated and she soon resumes her egg lay- ing, to the satisfaction and profit of the owner. A notable observation where the practice has been in vogue for some years, shows that the tendency to broodiness is gradually .reduced, the birds exhibiting less and less inclination to set and devoting more time to egg production, which is what the egg farm- er is after. The remarkable demand for eggs, which increases as the years roll on, makes this branch of the poul- try industry an ideal one for anyone having the nee- |M ^^^smr^ ^^■^^■1 r ■ ' m^ ' BHjjHH K\ ^^r^^^^B^^I w ' '^':*, ' hIh w l^^l E^' .^^^1 P^-' ^^^HH L ^^^■RRI K> ' jd^^^^t^cSm R - ' jfl^^^^^^Hfifl 1 ■B ■ Fig. 21. — A typical Leshorn as grown by Joo. R. McMillan, LiOuisvtlle Ky. essary capital and love for the business to undertake it. It is conceded that the value of tlie laying pullet is $1.00, also that the food and labor fijr the year will average $1.25; this then would make a total of $2.25 for one laying fowl for a year. This will be found an average cost throughout the country. While this cost may be somewhat higher than here in the South, this is balanced by the fact that we get a little less probab- ly for our product. Now, figuring that a laying pullet will produce lier first year one hundred and fifty Qggs, these at 25 cts. per dozen would bring $3. 13. At the end of her first laying year, this hen will have a market value of at least 60 cts. This makes a total of $3.73 which may be figured as the returns of one layer kept for egg production exclusively, and shows t profit of $1.48 or over 60 per ce 1-^48 W: ^^ gy^Jift. -. **■ fS/Hs ^t' &£■'■•"■ ■ ■'■^Si .j^S^*J\Y l^^^^'^-' i^^S ■BL-'^^t " ^ ■^tS^^ jl Av^B ' ' Hb^^m [i^; ■ Mgfe?. a ..i.J kIi Hi Fig. 22. — Partial View of tiie Poultry Houses and Yards at West Virginia E^xperiment Staiion. tion of each individual's environments, and if the birds are to be yarded, as large a run should be given them as possible. In this case it is necessary to feed all grain in litter to induce exercise, without which best results are not obtainable. As regards the kind of house, this subject has been fully treated clsew'here in this book, and will convey a very good idea of the different styles of buildings adapted to ihe business. All rules of cleanliness must be carefulh observed, as much so in this line of poultry culture as any oth- er. Fowls cannot do their owner justice Tf lice and vermin thrive; and filthy quarters are a most fruitful source of disease and vermin. Chicken houses should be cleaned regularly, the accumulated droppings re- moved and appdied to the land used for crops, and the work necessary to do this will be greatly compensat- ed for in t'he increase of the yield of grain, as well as which a steady income is possible all the year round, it offers extra inducements to those of limited means w'ho can not wait over-long for the mcome to begin. The inexperienced often make the mistake of fig- uring too largely, basing their calculations too often on the misleading statements of catalogue writers and would-be poultry experts who never raised a bird in their lives. The 200-egg hen was an unheard of proposftion not many years ago, but piclc up a poul- try journal .ind go through the advertisements to-day and you will find hundreds of reputablef?) breeders ach-ertising stock and eggs of this 200 and 250-egg strain anywhere from $1 to $5 per setting. It is an easv matter to figure a fine profit on the basis of 200 eggs per hen per annum, and this the enthusiastic be- ginner is more than apt to do, and wdien, therefore, he realizes only 100 eggs per hen cr less and his dream of fabulous wealth goes glimmering and the Hired Help Cannot be Depended on With Poultry V^ry Much. 523 reality forces itself upon him, too oft^:;i when too late his little earnings 'have sunk with hi,-, venture. It is more reasonable to figure on an average of 25 cents per dozen than to select layers that will yield 200 eggs per year. One hundred and twenty eggs are nearer what you will get, and this .average is only possible in large flocks under systeir.atic feeding and with care and cleanliness observed. To realize 25 cents one must have access to a good market, or have acquired a reputation for his product that will command him a premium over the regular market quotations. One collar per head, thoug'h being generally allow- ed as the cost of feeding a fowl for a year, will hard- ly be sufficient with feed at its present prices — $1.50 would be nearer the mark. So we see that with a flock averaging 10 doze-i eggs per annum and these Fig. 23. — Winner 1st prizes at Winston and Raleigh, N. C, 1902. Owned by Cliickadotte Farm, Rural Hall, N. C. bringing $2.50, from which the feeding takes $1.50, leaves us a profit of $1.00 per head, providing we have no other losses to take from t'hese figures. The novice will be content to figure an this basis, and get great consolation from it, for if 100 hens will earn him $100 net. won't 1,000 earn him $1,000? Here is where he strikes a snag, for no beginner, and few older breeders, can make i.ooo pay the same propor- tion as the smaller number. So many things enter into this arrangement to cut down the profits that it is always best to take up the business on a small scale and work up to larger proportions. If any one thinks they have a flock of the 200-egg hens, you may dissipate this illusion by trap-nesting what you con- sider your best layers. Even the 200-egg hen can not be relied upon to reproduce chicks that will aver- age this number, so that when you purchase and pay for the reputation some breeder has made on a few birds, don't feel assured of what you have bought until the trap-nest has proven the fact. THE CARE OF BREEDING STOCK. About the middle of December we mate our birds for eggs used for hatching. lUil do not send out an egg for two or fou r weeks aftc rds have been mat- ed up, usually not until after incubating enough < ggs to test their fertility. We feed wheat, oats or cane seed in litter for morning feed, cabbage, turnips, beets or rape at noon unless t'here is ample green stuff in the runs, and the weather favorable to running out of doors ; at night we feed one evening corn, then the next evening a mash composed of 2-3 wheat bran and 1-3 corn meal to which is added once or twice a week 10 per cent, beef scraps. Once or twice a month after February, we add to this mash 2 lbs. of sulphur, or 2 lbs. Ep- som salts for every fifty or si.xty hens. We find that this keeps the fowls in good condition and in the spring time when cholera is apt to make its appear- ance, prevents it. ^^'e keep grit, oyster shell and ■charcoal, or coal cinders in self-feeding bins before them all the time, also clean, fresh water. Once or twice a week we feed small quantities of green cut bone, and twice a week we feed clover hav thrown in the straw in the scratching room, or place it in little racks. We have never yet failed to get a rcn- sonable amount of eggs, and usually a verv Fati-i'a-- tory number. After June when our breeding pens are broken up, we usually let our 'hens have their own wav about the place, and are not quite so careful about our feed- ing, and feed much less corn until the hens begin to molt, when we begin to feed more heavilv, espe- cially on wheat and oats. We have tried the starva- tion molting process, but do not find that it is so sat- isfactory as some recommend it to be. With us the hens do better under a reasonable feed than to starve them from two to four weeks, and then increase the feed, as this method runs them down in condition, which takes longer to build up than it would if thev are fed during the time and feed more heavily when 524 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. the hens show signs of molt. Take the hen that has the late brood that lives around the old garden or around the stable and is well fed, and she is the first to put on her new coat of feathers. The above method is not so necessary with farm- ers whose flocks run at large and secure a great many things that yarded fowls cannot secure. A good way to feed oats in the winter is to pour boiling water over them the night before and feed in troughs the same as a mash. With yarded fowls a great many things can be done to increase the egg production, suc'h as throwing in sliced onions, celery scraps, apple paiings, etc. every animal should get its sustenance. It was not intended that any animal should get its food without , working for it. So we can easily see the evils of lack , of exercise. Allowed to remain idle and given plenty. of feed will soon destroy the usefulness of any bird in- tended for laying purposes. And it will take longer to get the bird back to the proper condition for lay- ing than it would to get it too fat. Exercise is as we may say life to the bird, for it is only the active bird that proves itself an egg-producer. If we fail to. make them exercise they get fat and certainly will , not lay. A fowl too fat is liable to get some disease, suc'h as indigestion, etc. No need of allowing the , Fig. 24. — Single Comb Wliite Leghorns. EXERCISE. I wonder how many of the poultrymen of to-day still fail to give the fowls plenty of exercise, or rather to feed them in such a way that they will be com- pelled to work? Of course no one who calls himself up to the times would fail in this part of the work. A few will say, "Why must exercise be given ?" Look for a moment at the way wTiich nature intended that birds to get fat except when intended for market and. at no other time should they be allowed to become, fat. There is a proper condition for the laying hen^ to be in which can be learned by experience. To be. healthy and a good egg-producer the hen must be fed, well and yet be made to exercise enough to keep; down surplus fat other than that which should al- ways be present. There must be some fat, but not enough to be a detriment to egg-production. Do Not Let the Mites Get Started About the Houses. 525 Now, in regard to the way of giving them the ex- ercise. In summer, on the range, they will get it in hunting for bugs, etc., but in winter it will be neces- sary to keep six or eight inches of straw or leaves on the floor and scatter the grain in it so they will have to scratch to find it. They should be given a small amount of grain in the litter early in the morning so they can get to work the first thing and not stand around. It is a good idea to scatter the grain in the litter at night after dark so you will have it ready for them as soon as they come off the roost in the morning before you will want to get out to feed them. The first feed s'hould be a little grain in the Fig. 25. — ^A. B. B. Red Game Brood Cock. litter, then if a mash is fed it may be given along some time in the forenoon after the fowls have warm- ed themselves up working in the litter; then give a little more grain to keep them at work. Also give them green food, etc. Then at night the full feed of grain that is usually given may be scattered in the litter. Care must be taken that this last feed is given early enough that they may have time to get a full iTop before dark. It will not be too early to give it to them along in the middle of the afternoon, as the days are short during the winter, and it will take them some time to dig it out of the litter. — Percy W. Shepard. FEED FOR CHICKENS. The quiesticn of feed for chickens is one of impor- tance to the poultrymen, for it is by feeding that eggs and chickens are produced. The domestic fowls that receive very little attention from the farmer, that is, approach more nearly the natural conditions, lay most of their eggs in the springtime. There is a rea- son for this and that is the surroundings and food that are best suited for egg production. The weath- er is warm, the fowls have plenty of green food, some grain, a great many insects and plenty of exercise and fresh air. When all these conditions are met the fowl produces eggs. The successful poultryman will try to meet these conditions the year round, and let the fowls have a "continual springtime. Many farm- ers and poultrymen feed entirely too much corn. By some cause many people 'have the idea that corn will produce eggs. Indeed, until recently corn has been considered the universal poultry food of America. Experiments have clearly demonstrated that corn should not be fed to laying hens exclusively. Corn is too fattening to be fed to fowls kept in close con- finement. Wheat is perhaps a better food for lay- ing hens than corn, but since farmers in the South raise more corn than w'heat, corn will remain a standard food for poultry among farmers for a long time. Where corn is fed so constantly, green food s'hould be supplied. Oats is better than wheat or corn, and comes nearer being an ideal food than any single grain. When browned in the oven it will ' be relished more and aid egg production very great- ly. But there is no one grain, or no one food for that matter, that will be successful in itself. Fowls need a variety in their food just the same as any animal. Experiments have been made which s'how that a larg- . er per cent, of the food is digested when a great number of foods are fed together, than where* just one or two different kinds of food are used. To have a large variety of foods is more nearly natural and like the wild birds feed. So it is much cheaper in the long run and your returns larger to use a combina- tion food. .\lso, most poultrymen concede that ground or soft food should be fed as well as grains. Grain should be scattored in leaves and straw, as it furnishes them exercise. They need exercise and this will come nearer furnishing it to them than any- thing we know of. But they should not be fed more than they will eat up clean. Fowls should always be kept active and on the lookout for another grain of corn, wheat or oats. Most farmers do not realize the importance of green feeds. In the spring they have all the green 5-^6 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. food that they want. And we remember that this is the time of the year that they do most of their lay- ing. In order to make a success in raising poultry you must see to it that they have green food the year round. Rye makes an excellent food for chickens, and it comes in at a time when fowls are sadly in need of some green food. Turnips, stock beets and cabbage make a good variety and are easily pro- duced. If you make the right kind of effort you can supply them with green food t'he year round. Fowls that are confined need some meat. Fresh bone that is obtained from the butcher shop makes an excellent food, if cut finely with -a good bone cut- ter manufactured forthe purpose. You can with this cutter turn bones into the best of food. Tainted bones should never be fed to poultry. See to it that the meat you give t'hem is fresh and not spoiled. If you cannot obtain meat, skim milk may be substitut- ed. If you are living on the coast and can obtain fish cheaply, you will find that they make an excellent food either baked or boiled. Cotton-seed meal is a good food. Many poultry- men do not realize the value of cotton-seed meal as an egg producer. One authority says that he con- siders cotton-seed meal as valuable as cut bone as an ^Sg producer. In feeding cotton-seed meal it should be dampened, but it should not be wet. It should be fed in proportion to one teaspoonful to two fowls. Do not, however, feed it too constantly, -l)ut alternate it with other things. It should be fed mi.\ed with some ground feed, preferably oats, corn and wheat- bran in equal parts, finely ground. These soft feeds .should be seasoned with salt and a little dash of red pepper. Soft feed should be moistened with warm water. It should not be fed boiling hot even in cold weather. Do not feed moldy or spoiled grain at any time, although it may be bought for a small price. It would be dear in the end, causing bowel trouble, and all kinds of similar troubles. There are many ready mixed grains for sale, which seem to be the very thing needed for the scratching pen, and are cheaper in the end than buying separate grains. THE MOLTING SEASON. Mr. R. M. Drake has the following to say concern- ing the Molting Season: "There is no season of the year when mature fowls need more careful attention than during t'he molt. At this time the fowl replaces its old coat of feathers which has become worn and dirty with a year's use, by one that is new and clean and beautiful. The making of this new coat taxes severely the powers of the bird, usually stopping egg-production and some- times so overtaxing a weaker constitution as to bring about death. "Time of Molt. — The time of molting varies with t'he age, condition and treatment of the individual. It frequently begins in June or July but may not do so until late in the fall. As a rule younger birds molt earlier than older ones, and fall-hatched pullets are usually through with their molt by the end of their first summer and are ready to get to laying again. On the other hand, pullets hatched verv early in the spring are apt to shed their first mature coat toward the end of the fall and to be in molt when the cold weather sets in. Hence if eggs are- wanted in the early fall months when the most of the, hens are tak- ing a vacation, it is wise to hatch fall and winter pul- lets. But these should be marketed when t'he later spring pullets come to the nest, in November or De- cember. The first because they are not likely to come up to standard size or to be good breeders having l;een retarded by the winter coming in their growing season, and the latter because they will probably take a long vacation during the season when eggs are high and the cost of keeping animals is greatest. ■'An early molt is considered desirable, as t'he warm summer months are more propitious for this change (if clothes and the hens can return to their laying in the fall when eggs are especially desirable. "It has been asserted that the period at which molt- ing takes place can be controlled. What is called the \ an Dresser system consists of penning t'he fowls pretty closely for two weeks about July ist on' half rations (which is thought to cause the feathers to be- gin dropping) and then to give Ihem free range with abundance of food best fitted to form feathers. It is claimed that this brings about an early and quick molt, and certain experiments reported from the West Virginia Experiment Station seem to sustain the claim. "I 'have been creditably informed that in a certain community in Tennessee a more vigorous method is adopted. The hens are picked and left bare to get new feathers as best they can. The results are said to be good. I should, however, be cautious in trying such a method. "During the period of molt the hens should be at- A Few Turkeys Will Pay on Most Every Farm. 527 tended to with more than usual care. Their quarters should be kept clean and dry, and they should be kept free of lice and mites. "In regard to feed they should have a plenty, and it should include some feather-forming elements. Sunflower seed are highly recommended at this time. Oats make a good feed. If it is practicable to turn the flock on oat stubble that ought to be of great benefit. A mash consisting of equal parts of w'heat, bran and corn hearts has given good results for me. Some corn should be fed also. If on range fowls will probably provide themselves with animal food, but if they do not it should be provided for them. Clabber makes a very good feed at this time or at almost any time of the year. "With a little attention the hens should be soon filling the egg baskets again and more than paying for their keep." for incubating. Before setting the hen she should be well dusted with some good insecticide, and given a nest of clean straw in some quiet place where she will be free from intrusion from the balance of the flock. A few days before hatching she should be again well dusted with insecticide. After the hatch, grease the head of each chick with lard, and give the hen another dusting, rubbing the powder well into the feathers ; then remove the. hen and brood to a clean coop with slatted front, and a good close, slant- ing top that will shed rain; put a few handsful of straw in coop with a generous supply of clean sand or grit ; this should be renewed once or twice a week. Attach to coop a movable pen 2x4 without bottom, made of plastering laths, in which the hen can dust and exercise. We keep the hen in this coop until chicks are ready for weaning, when we remove them to their permanent quarters. Fig. 20. — Winner of 1st prize Winston Fair. O'wiied by the Chiokadotte Farm, Rural Hall, N. C. Feed. — Young chicks should be fed about five times a day, and just so much as they will eat up clean at a feeding. We find that chicks do well and grow off nicely on the following foods, which we al- ternate at each feeding: Corn bread, cooked until crumbly, millet seed, cracked corn, cane seed, wheat, etc. We are strong advocates of dry feeding, and seldom ever feed soft food, especially to summer- hatched chicks. And last, but by no means least, is the question of water. We believe that stale and im- pure water causes the death of more fowls and chicks every year than any other two causes combined, so look well to it that your chicks have before them all the time a goodly allowance of fresh water, and our word for it, that with due regard for cleanliness, proper food, and a generous supply of clean, fresh water you can raise prize-winners, even in the sum- mer-time. Some of the finest birds in our yards to- dav were late hatched. SUMMER CHICKS. There are three important essentials to the success- ful raising of summer chicks, viz., cleanliness, proper food, and a generous supply of clean, fresh water; and taking up the subject in the order named, we will endeavor to present a few facts from our experience, together with the methods we have used and found to give the best results. We will presume that we have decided to get off some late hatched chicks, and that we will use hens LITERATURE THAT SHOULD BE IN THE HANDS OF ALL POULTRYMEN. The U. S. Department of Agriculture at Washing- ton, D. C, has just issued a pamphlet on "Incuba- tion and Incubators," by Richard H. Wood, M.D., that will be of interest to poultrymen generally. In the summary, the following rules have been laid down ; Study your incubator. Acquaint yourself with all of its parts. 52» TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. Read the manufacturer's directions for setting it up. Set it up carefully according to instructions. Never try to run an incubator in a drafty place, nor near a stove, nor where t'he sun shines upon it. Set fertile eggs only. Waste no effort upon those that»are infertile. Learn how to> trim and clean a lamp. Keep the lamps full and the wick and tube clean. Avoid smoke. See that the eggs are clean and dry before setting. Balance the eggs, large end up, a few hours before setting them. Do not overfill the tray. Cool the eggs every morning. Be sure your hands are clean when handling eggs. Test all eggs by the 7t'h day. Test again by the nth day. Test again by the 15th day. If the air space is too large, supply moisture ; if too small, put a saucer of dry lime in the room and run without moisture a day or too. Do not expect to learn all about the air cell the first hatch. You will learn that later. Do rot disturb the eggs after the evening of the 1 8th day. Have a regular hour for incubator work. Do not tinker too much with the regulator. Get the adjustment right and keep it so. Heat your machine and make your adjustment be- fore placing the eggs in the chamber. Experience comes from the work itself. Among the many publications of the Department of Agriculture that are free to all, the following: are of interest to poultrymen and can be had without charge by sending reciuest to Secretary of Agricul- ture, Division of Publications, Washington, D. C. No. 22, The Feeding of Farm Animal, No. 37, Kaffir Corn, Culture and Uses, No? 41, Fowls, Care and Feeding, No. 51, Standard Varieties of Chickens, No. 59, Bee Keeping. No. 64, Ducks and Geese, No. 74, Milk. as a Food, No. 85, Fish as Food, No*. 94, The Vegetable Garden, No. 98, Suggestions to Southern Farmers, No. loi. Millets, No. 102, Southern Forage Crops, No. 118, Grape Growing in the South, No. 125, Protection of Food products from injuri- ous temperatures, No. 126, Practical Suggestions for Farm Buildings, No. 128, Eggs and their uses as food. No. 141, Poultry raising on the Farm, No. 154, The Home Fruit Garden, No. 156. The Home A'ineyard, No. 182, Poultry as Food, No. 183, Meat on the Farm, Butc'hering, Curing, etc., No. 185, Beautifying the Home Grounds, No. 200, Turkeys, No. 234. The Guinea Fowl and its use as food. No. 236, Incubation and Incubators. A perusal of these works will prove of benefit to our readers, and they make a handy library for use- ful reference. Diseases of Poultry. By J. A. P. WOLF. Cleanliness is next to Godliness, so goes the oIq maxim. This we do know tliat cleanliness is neces- sary to healthfulness. Plenty of clean fresh water, sound wholesome food in variety and moderation are the best cures or rather preventatives for all diseases, as they keep the birds in good health and condition, thereby preventing to a great extent, and when con- tracted give the fowl the constitution to withstand the ravages of disease. CHOLERA. Cholera, which is a liver trouble is attended with fever, often very high, but easily controlled if taken Keep Every Thing Clean Around the Poultry Yard. 529 in time, by separating the sick fowls and giving one- fourth teaspoonful kerosene oil to each sick bird once a day, giving water and food only once per day. We find wheat is the best food at this time, although soft food with plenty of Epsom salts is good. After you have separated your sick birds, do not neglect the rest of your flock. Cut down your feed one-fourth and add 10 drops of carbolic acid to each gallon of drinking water. Once a day feed one tablespoonful kerosene oil to each gallon of mash, made of one- third corn meal and two-thirds wheat bran, until you are satisfied that you are past danger. COLDS AND ROUP. Colds and roup, the most dreaded of all diseases, will first be noticed by a discharge from the nose, usually one or both nostrils being pasted over with a feather, dirt or other substance by the discharge. This is a cold, and if not attended to will run into roup. The eyes and head swell, and sometimes there is a disagreeable odor. Birds often contract colds at shows, and this will run into roup, if neglected. Remedy.— For colds feed 2 lbs. Epsom salts in 2 Fig. 27. — An excellent specimen of the Brown Leghorn hen. Another Remedy. — For 12 grown fowls taice one quart of meal, one large tablespoonful coal oil (kero- sene,) one heaping teaspoonful black pepper, one tea- spoonful table salt. Mix it all together and dampen it and place it where the chickens can get to it once a week and you will seldom have cholera in your flock. However, if they do have it make them eat this prescription even if you have to force it down them. gallons mash to every 30 or 40 fowls two or three times a week. Take equal parts sweet oil and kero- sene oil and inject into the nostrils of the sick fowls a few drops of the mixture. Use 10 drops carbolic acid to each gallon drinking water as in cholera. For 'oup treat in the same way, first washing the fowl's lead in a weak solution of carbolic acid or strong carbolic soap suds and warm water to clean the af- fected parts. Keep the fowls in clean, dry, warm 35 ' 530 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. quarters and feed well. In very severe cases anoint the swollen or inflamed parts with carbonated vase- line or camphorated sweet oil. The above treatment will be found to be effective in the treatment of sore head, canker and chicken pox. Clean and whitewash all houses and coops and spray with water to w'hich has been added a tablespoonful of carbolic acid to each gallon of water. SCALY LEGS. Scaly legs is caused by a parasite burrowing under the scales of the legs. Treatment. — For yellow legged fowls use lard and sulphur mixed into a good paste and grease the legs two or three times per week until cured. For white legged fowls wash the feet and legs in kerosene oil. This remedy would be better for the yellow legged, except for the fact t'hat it fades the yellow legs and r'ins them white. CHICKEN POX OR SORE HEAD. This is a disease peculiar to Southern States where the climate is warm. The disease is caused by over- crowding of the fowls in the house and yard and the lack of cleanliness. It makes its appearance as a rule on the head, a small eruption appearing near the eye, ear or on t'he bill. These eruptions spread until finally the eyes are covered and the whole body is infested. It sometimes appears on the legs of the fowls. As soon as the disease appears, the affected fowls should be removed and the premises disinfect- ed by using whitewash, Bordeaux mi.xture or carbol- ic acid. For the diseased fowls take one part of car- bolic acid and mi.x with twenty parts soft soap and apply it on the sores and unfeathered parts of t'he head. This should be put on until a cure is effected. Another Remedy. — Take one part calomel and eight parts of vaseline and mix and apply to the sores and unfeathered parts of the head once a day until a cure is effected. Another remedy is to put a little pine tar on the sores each day until they get well. LIMBERNECK. This disease is a new one and the authorities say that it is caused by fowls eating maggots that prey on dead carcasses of fowls or animals. One author- ity says that when a case of limberneck is reported to him he always advises that all possible sources of deca3'ed meat be cleaned up. The chickens seem all right when they go to roost at night and on the next morning the affected ones will remain on the perch with their heads hanging down and their necks ap- pear to be broken. The head and neck are bluish and feverish. The fowls are very sleepy and thirsty and if their skins are examined they will be found to be red. There is no sure cure for this disease. The best plan is to prevent it. All decayed meats should be burned or buried deep especially in the summer time. When the disease is developed give your birds a dose of castor oil. Allow one teaspoonful of oil to each bird, mix with corn meal to a stiff mash and feed so that each bird gets its share. But it is safer to prevent the trouble than to try to cure it after it has taken hold of your fowls. Be careful to keep everything clean and do not throw the refuse of the chickens that you kill where the live ones will get it. GAPES. (Treated in another part of this work under same head.) Gapes are caused by little white worms in the throats of fowls. These worms are so numerous at times as to completely choke the fowls. This dis- ease, like most others with poultry, is not so easily cured, but can be prevented without much trouble. The pens and yards should be kept clean and dry, and the chickens kept in as healthy condition as possible. For treatment of, say, 35 chickens, take one teaspoon- ful of flowers of sulphur, mix in wet corn meal, and give one feed once a day for three days, then omit this medicine for three days, and then givv: it to them again, once a day for three days. Another Remedy. — Moisten a feather in turpentine or kerosene oil and insert in the windpipe of fowls, and turn it around until the worms are removed. This is a popular remedy. PNEUMONIA. Pneumonia is a disease brought on by shipping fowls in very cold weather, keeping fowls in houses that are not ventilated, and exposure to the winds. The fowls make a noise in t'he throat, droop and sit around with their head back in their feathers and fi- nally they die. The comb turns light and not dark. See That Your Poultry Have Fresh Water in Wini:r. 531 The disease as a rule kills the fowls before you realize that they are sick. There is little that you can do in treating this disease. The fowls should have plenty of fresh air, but they should not be in a draft. The house should be sunny and kept as near the same temperature day and night. HOW TO KEEP RID OF HEN'S LICE. There is a tendency on the part of fowls to be in- fested with lice. They do a great deal of harm, cov- ering the body of- the hen to such an extent that sometimes you are unable to tell the natural color of t'heir feathers. But by a little attention you can rid your poultry of lice and it will pay you to do so. Remedy. — Sprinkle the nests and the brooders with Scotch snuff or flower of sulphur at intervals of two or three days. Keep the hen-house and all houses connected with the poultry business white-washed. Another Remedy. — Close the house up tightly and burn sulphur in it. The sulphur fumes will go into every crack and destroy the lice. CHICKEN MITES. The chicken mite is one of the worst enemies to the chicken and it is very important that your poul- try yard be kept free from them. It is a very easy matter to keep the house and yards free from mites if you will only start in time. Dusting the house in- side by throwing the ashes so the house will be fill-- ed with dust and keeping dry ashes where the fowls can dust in them will keep the chickens free from mites. However, if they should get the start of you, you can rid your place of them by smoking the house out with tobacco. First stop the cracks and then burn tobacco or tobacco stems in it, keeping as much of the smoke in the house as possible. Another Treatment. — It is quite important that all old nests and straw be removed from the house and burned. Then white-wash house, roosts and every- thing connected with the house with a mixture of lime and kerosene. Then make a mixture of ashes, Scotch snuff and air-slacked lime, using equal parts of each, and take the chickens by their legs and while suspended in the air thoroughly dust their feathers. Get this dust thoroughly in them and you .should have no more trouble with mites. Another Remedy. Take an empty quart bottle and fill two-thirds full of kerosene and add four table- spoonsful of spirits turpentine, also four spoonsful of camphor gum dissolved in whiskey or alcohol. Shake well together and sprinkle the roosts, nests and all places infested with this mixture. This is said to be an excellent remedy. INDIGESTION. Liver disease or, more properly speaking, indiges- tion ; is the result, direct or indirect, of improperly feeding fowls. It may be that the food is not wholesome, or per- haps the fowls are permitted to eat decaying animal or vegetable matter, or oftener still the food given the fowls is not of the kind that they need, and is not given at the proper time and way. Fig. 28.— First Prize Wliite Plymouth Rock at Atlant;i, Ga. By degrees the digestion of the fowls is impaired, and by degrees the system gives way, until the final breakdown, and then it js that we begin to search for the cause and the cure. During the warm months fowls need but little food other than that which they gather. Bugs, w^orms and insects swarm over the fields, and the fowls enjoy them. Dtiring their pursuit they not only get exercise, but they obtain the very kind of food that gives them health and vigor. Fowls that show symptoms of indigestion, that droop or decline to eat, should be driven to a shaded field or pasture and left to seek their food as best 532 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. they may. A few weeks of such outdoor living will restore them to health. STIFF JOINTS. Mr. H. B. Greer, of Nashville, Tenn., has the fol- lowing to say concerning stiff joints : It is a little singular that there should at this time be so much complaint about chickens developing stiff joints and lameness, with a tendency to sit about '^- -SEASON , ^ ■ 8^ iEA50N St; iEA50N Fig. 34. — Showing 'the effect of line breeding as shown in the matter referring to this cut. Now, then, for a start, select a male and female with great care, seeing to it that no same serious de- fect appears in both, but let them offset each other in weak points, bearing in mind that we are aiming at the "standard of perfection ;" therefore, if you are breeding Cornish Indians and the standard calls for "broad heads with over-hanging brows," don't let both of your selections have heads inclined to nar- row, or if your breed is Barred Rocks, you are wast- ing your time if you select two birds with faded or maicd to original female, gives ns in group 7 chicks with seven-eighths blood of original female No. 2 (3d season.) Now a male from group 6 and female from group 7 gives us in group 8 chicks once more with half blood of each original sire and dam (4th season.) but if we 'have been careful in our selection of breed- ers the chicks should show a marked improvement over those that came in group 3. for by the fusion of blood we ought to have eliminated some of the de- fects of the original pair. Make The Chickens Scratch. 543 Now for our new strains, cockerel and pullet lines. Up to this time we have closely watched the product of the different matings, and have carefully noted where the finest cockerels came from, as well as the choicest females, say, for illustration, that we have seen that our best cockerels came from matings where there was a predominance of male blood, i. e., groups 4 and 6, and the most desirable females from the oth- er side of the line, where the original female blood was in excess, i. e., groups 5 and 7, why the way is clear. Preserve those dominant forces by two ways. Take a choice male from group 6 and number him 20 in chart 3 ; select a female from group 8 and num- ber her 21 in same chart. A fusion of these two will form a base for our cockerel line in group 22, which, though not mathematically correct, is to all practical purposes three-fourths the original blood of the male (No. I,) and one-fourth that of the original dam (No. 2.) A female from group 22, mated to male No. 20 maintains the supremacy of the male line in group 23. From this number on down we get our cockerels and cockerel-breeding females. Please note that in every mating here (except one) in both sides and center the male blood predominates; only once was it allowed to become one-half. In this line all the birds, male and female, should be selected with traits decidedly after the original male, except defects. To establish a pullet line, the same course is pursued, except that here (chart 3) we select the female from group 7 and the male from group 8, the fusion in 42 forming the base of this line, while the line-bred pul- lets and pullet breeding cockerels came from 43 and on down. Here the inverse of chart 2 is seen, for in all these matings, with one exception, the female blood is dominant. All the selections in this line should resemble the original female. Now, look at our charts once more. Take a male from 27 and a female from 47, mate them together and what do we get in group 48? Why, as to blood just what we had in 3, 3-8 and 48, being mathematically the same rat- ings ; but after eight seasons' breeding, if we have used good judgment in our matings, our stock is not only not deteriorated but actually improved, for in groups 25 and 45 we should have better individual specimens, higher scoring birds (weight not except- ed) than we had in Nos. i and 2, while the chicks in fusion 48 should outclass those we had in 3. Why? Because we have fused the best traits, of two high- grade birds into one, thus attaining nearer the stand- ard. This process should be carried on in single mat- ings and in no case should more than two females be used and they full sisters and as much alike as "peas in the same pod." But, says the thrifty, practical breeder, "Am I to lose the revenue from my flock while all this is going on?" By no means: you can have choice birds even from the first matings, and after that as many as you want to make up your large pens and to sell to the man who wants first-class, line-bred stock ; but the birds in the chart-pens constitute your vital forces, your cream, your "royal blood," if you please. Band all of these last with their group numbers and care- fully keep your charts or you'll get all in a muddle, and watch your diamond groups; it is fitting that they should be so designated, for if you get any "gems" for the breeding-pen or show-room it will be through these fountains of blood. THE TRAP NEST AND ITS VALUE TO POUL- TRY-KEEPERS. F. O. Wellcome, of Yarmouth, Maine, inventor of "The Ideal Trap Nest," wrote the following article on the Trap Nest : For various reasons which need not be discussed here, the great majority of poultry keepers cveryr where know nothing whatever of the trap nest sys- tem in its best and most practical form. So my Southern readers need not feel that they are in this respect to any great extent behind the poultry keep- ers of New England or elsewhere. The practical trap nest system is as 3'et a brand new proposition to the majority of the poultry keep- ers, although it has been completely and thoroughly tested for years by many in various parts of the coun- try — especially in California — and they value it so highly that they would hardly know how to get along without it. The best patented trap nest and also the best "free plan" trap are both products of the State of Maine. The most common type of the trap nest is merely a nest box so constructed that any hen that wants to can enter it, but can not get out until released. If she lays an egg while in the box, it necessarily fol- lows that the attendant when visiting the pen will find the eggs in the nests in company with the hens that laid them. If each hen wears a leg band with a number stamped upon it — a different number for each hen, of course — it will be seen at once that the poul- 544 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. try-keeper can keep a record of the product of each lien, just as the practical dairyman keeps account of the product of each one of his cows. Now that I have described in a general way what a trap nest is, I can understand how some ingenious reader with a mechanical trend will set about devis- ing a nest box fitted with a trap door which will al- low a hen to go in but will close after her and pre- vent her escape. He will very naturally do what hundreds of others have done ; that is, he will adopt some familiar type of hinged or sliding door to a box of some sort and arrange a string, a spring, or some other contrivance that will cause the trap to admit the hen and close after her. That will be alright enough for a more or less costly experiment ; a great many have tried it and learned things that they did not know before. I believe that I am familiar with the results of some two score or more of such experiments and most of them were failures. Althoug'h exploited more or less — often gratuitously in the interest of the something-for-nothing schemer — very few if any of them have ever been installed in adequate numbers by practical people and used continuously for busi- ness purposes in business blocks; which is the final and true test of merit. Something like twenty patents have been granted for trap nest devices and among t'hese patented traps are to be found the very best trap nests as well as the worst, the least expensive (worthy of note) as well as the most costly. One of the hardest problems that has confronted the trap nest inventor has been to devise a trap that in practical and general use would allow but one hen to occupy the nest at one time and would surely keep her there until 'her number and egg were taken. That problem has been satisfactorily solved. An- other problem, that few have considered, has been to so design the trap that a hen would not enter the nest unless she wanted to use it. That also has been thorougTily solved. Another has been to so construct the trap that the hen could lay and remain in the same small nest with- out too much danger of breaking her egg. Some seem to think that impossible. It has been done. Another problem that some poultry novices seem to be working at quite persistently is to devise a nest that will automatically record the work of each layer without labor or attention on the part of the poultry- man. Those who are honest in that effort have per- haps been deceived by "gold brick" advertising that has occasionally appeared in very interesting places. Unfortunately, poultry journalism 'has not yet be- come courageous enough to bar those humbugs that do so much to injure legitimate advertising, and the ' novices who alone invest in "gold bricks." Such a nest is inherently impossible, so far as prac- | tical results are concerned. Any nest that will mark the hen that occupies it and then passes out will re- quire much more of the time and attention of the care- taker — even if the desired record could be obtained in that manner — than would any trap nest properly installed. A little knowledge of hen nature and habits, and the details of practical poultry keeping would prevent much self-delusion in this connection. Rut I must Fig. 35. — Winner 1st prize Winston, N. C. and Raleig-h, N. C Owned by Oiickadotte Farm, Rural Hall. N. C. not weary the reader with details. Suffice it to say, we have some practical trap nests that are designed for and are used by practical poultry keepers for bus- iness purposes. In trap nest installation there should be about two- thirds as many nests as the average number of eggs laid daily ; or about one nest for eac'h three hens that are actually laying well. The total number of hens has no 'bearing aside from that. It is by no means necessary to watch the nests, neither is it desirable, and it is not important that the hens should be released soon after having laid. Do Not Overfeed. 545 llie trap nest user who is a practical person and has a practical installation of nests, will so arrange his work with his flock that he will visit them at least four times a day during the time that abundant laying is in progress. With the "Ideal" system he can collect and record from four to eight eggs per minute after he has gained practical experience in at- tending to them. Mr. Davis Lawtom, of Winstead, Conn., a market poultryman who has kept careful account of the mat- ter, says that it requires about twelve minutes extra time per day to attend the traps for each hundred l.ens in the flock. M. K. Boyer, whom every "old timer" knows, says that it does not take five minutes to look after fifty hens. Those who only keep a few hens and have no one to visit the pens during the day, can only use the nests as traps at intervals w'hen they can be attended to, using them at other times as self-releasing nests, the hens going and coming at will. In such circum- stances individual egg records that will be continu- ous and accurate are impossible to obtain by any means, unless it be an extremely small flock of hens that are much mixed in blood and lay eggs that dif- fer much in appearance. The office of the trap nest is to identify each layer and her egg at any time or all of the time at the op- tion or convenience of the user. It shows which hen laid t'he egg. That knowledge enables the poultry 'keeper to learn which hens pay profitably fpr him, and which do not, w'hich lay good eggs and which do not. He can convert the non-layers, the poor lay- ers and the layers of imperfect eggs into ready money, retaining only those which produce good goods in profitable quantity. He can breed from good layers only, discarding those, which, in his opinion, would not be likely to transmit a persistent laying tendency and other desired qualities to their offspring. He can pedigree his stock if he likes, just as other animals are pedigreed, for he can keep a re- cord of the sire and dam of each and every chick. I would rather know the dam of the 200-egg pullets than to know how manv eggs that dam laid. In short, the trap nest assists the poultryman to learn all about eac'h individual hen, her good and her bad qualities for stock purposes, and also her breed- ing value if desired. The domestic hen when compared with other do- mestic animals, is a fearfully mixed up proposition. There seems to be no stable system of breeding, or feeding or caring for hens and no such thing as uni- formity in production than can be depended upon year after year. A practically universal lack of knowledge of the individual bird and failure to build upon known in- dividual producti\-e ability, combined with the prac- tice of mi.xing blood without guide or reason, is suf- ficient to account for the condition as it is. The trap nest system is practical. Those who are fortunate enough to own a suitable equipment of good traps, and are practically interested in poultry work, give it their unqualified endorsement. Some widely exploited trap nests have limitations which make them expensive to install and also make excessive demands upon the time of the user, but those specific faults should not be charged against the trap-nesting system as a system. HOW SOON AND LONG ARE EGGS FERTILE? The question. How soon are eggs lertile 'is often asked during the hatching season and very few can answer it or come anywhere near doing so. We give below an experiment which certainly throws consid- erable light upon the subject. A number of experi- ments have been made, but one of the most thorough of those experiments was that made some years ago by M. C. E. Spires, of Ohio, says the Farmer's Voice. It was directed to the solutions of the two related questions, how soon after the introduction of the cock in the pen can fertile eggs be expected, and for how long after the removal' of the male will the eggs continue fertile? In carrying out the experiment forty Leghorns were divided into three pens, with suitable runs, and males of the same variety were placed in the pens on February 18. They were the first males that had been on the place, so that there had been no opportunity for any previous fertiliza- tion. Twenty-one eggs were secured on the first dav, none of which were fertile; eighteen on the sec- ond day, with two fertile ; twenty-four were laid on the third day and twenty on the fourth and of these twelve were fertile in each lot ; twenty were laid on the fifth day, of which fifteen were fertile; twenty- four on the sixth day, of which nineteen were fertile ; fifteen were obtained on the seventh day, of which twelve were fertile ; nineteen on the eighth day. of which seventeen were fertile, and nineteen on the ninth day, of which eighteen were fertile. The males were removed on July i, on that day 35 546 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. nine eggs were obtained, of w'liich six were fertile; on the second day thirteen eggs were laid, all of which were fertile ; on the fifth day twelve were laid, of which ten were fertile; on the seventh nine were laid, all being fertile; on the eighth thirteen eggs gave twelve fertile; on the nint'h day eleven eggs gave nine that were fertile; on the tenth day twelve eggs gave nine that were fertile ; on the eleventh day nine eggs gave six that were fertile ; on the twelfth day nine eggs gave three that were fertile; on the thirteenth day nine eggs gave three that were fer- tile ; on the fourteenth day eight eggs v/ere laid, of which but one was fertile, and on the fifteenth day ten eggs gave two that were fertile. From this experiment it would seem that with breeding stock in good health and vigor eggs may be expected to be fertile after the birds have been mated for a week, and that they will continue to be fertile for about ten days after the male has been 'removed from the pen. KEEPING POULTRY IN HEALTH. There is no reason why we should not have strains of strictly hardy stock, and yet it seems to be a fact that contagion and a multitude of ailments continue to be the "besetting sins" of poultry in the hands of the farmer. A glance at the "querv departments" of the lead- ing poultr)- journals shows that now, as of yore, there are cases of cholera, roup, liver complaint, ver- tigo, apoplexy, scaly legs, bronchitis, canker, swelled head, diarrhoea, crop bound, indigestion, catarrh, egg bound, soft eggs, bumble foot, scurvey and scroful- ous troubles, and so on. "We mention them as they come to mind. Now, from past experience, we know that at least two-thirds of these "besetting sins" can be avoided. And we further know that it is possible to 'have a strain of strictly hardy stock. In the first place, lice cause more trouble than anything else. These mis- erable pests sap the life out of the stock, both old and young, niiey weaken the body, and any other dis- ease has. in consequence, easy prey. Dyspepsia or indigestion can be avoided by the use of sharp grit. But it must be sharp, or it is not worth anything. Oyster shells will not do for grit. neither will coal ashes. Something harder is requir- ed. Neglected indigestion will lead on to liver trou- bles. Keep the fowls free from indigestion, and liver complaint will be more scarce. The combination of life and indigestion is what makes up the average case of so-called "cholera." Genuine cholera is a i verv rare article in this country. Over-feeding is the direct cause of vertigo and ' apoplexy. The blood rushes to the heads of the fowls, the body becomes sort of paralyzed — death I suddenly winds up the case. This getting hens too fat ends in cases of egg- | bound and soft-shelled eggs, where it does not reach the vertigo or apoplexy stage. Uronchitis comes from exposure to damp or wet weather, and when neglected results in consumption, i Roup, canker, distemper and swelled head have their origin in some neglect by which fowls catch cold. Diarrhoea, too, follows exposure to damp, cold and wet weather ; and filtln- houses and runs, or too much green food and not enough grain, are also guilty. Sleeping in draught, or confinement in damp places, not only gives swelled head, but also shows itself in dyphtheria or ulcerated throat. Costiveness and constipation are due to continual feeding on dr}' food, without sufficient green stuff. Also to a want of sufficient supply of pure drinking water, or too close confinement. . Rheumatism and cramp come from e.xposute to cold or wet weather, or roosting in damp and cool houses. Leg weakness is another penalty for over-feeding. Bumble foot comes from flying from high roosts. Too close confinement, damp and muddy runs, and not sufficient meat or green food, are the prime causes for scaly leg. ^^'llen fowls are sick they should at once be placed in warm, dry quarters. Colds, roup, dyphtheria, diar- rhoea, cholera and scaly legs are contagious, and should never be allowed in well flocks. No matter how slight the ailment may seem, the bird should be isolated. Over-crowding is a common evil, and should be avoided. Nothing is gained. It is false economy of space. Lice more rapidly accumulate in crowded quarters. Filth is more sure to present itself only to introduce sickness and death. The vice of feath- er pulling. owes its origin to this condition. Inbreeding. — Need we say Swnything concerning in- breeding? Some fanciers are endeavoring to stretch a point by saying "No harm is done." Can any wise Naturally it Takes a Chicken All Day to Earn its Food. 547 person be of such an opinion? Can any one who has bred stock of any kind s'how that new blood is not highly essential to good health? War^ jays con- sumption is the disease most carefully to be guarded against. A consumptive strain will be a constant source of care and disappointment. Squirrel tail is sure to be reproduced in many of the young birds. Wry tail is also hereditary. Crooked breasts, thumb marks on combs, or any peculiarity in the spikes of the comb, white face where red is the proper color, is dangerously hereditary ; ear-lobes splashed or marked with red where pure white is a point, vultured hock — all these defects will be reproduced. Birds with malformations or anything missing, such as be- ing short a toe, or having any peculiarities, should not be used for breeding. So, in short, to have a good and sound strain of fowls, all deformities and evils in breeding fowls must be noted; the stock must be kept free from lice, have clean, warm, dry and roomy quarters ; must be compelled to exercise to gain a good appetite — and sharp grit to masticate the food. During cold, wet weather, the birds must not be exposed, and must be equally protected from the hot suns of sum- mer. Prevention is an art, and if we know the cause of disease, how- easy it is to check it before it starts, and how hard to cure it after it has begun to root itself. STICK TO ONE BREED. It is a hard matter to convince the beginner that his chances o.f success are multiplied when he con- fines himself to one lireed, but this fact is admitted by experienced breeders in every section of the coun- try. The uninitiated will put forth what to him ap- pears very good argument against sticking to one variety, but we have noticed that those who began with many breeds, if t'hey succeeded at all, dropped them, one by one, imtil finally the one breed which paid them best, received their entire time and atten- tion. The selection of the breeds depends a great deal upon the end in view. An egg farm would undoubt- edly get best results from the Leghorns, while a combination broiler and egg plant would prefer the Wyandottes, Plymouth Rocks, or some other similar variety. For the farmer there are few breeds that can beat the Plymouth Rocks and Wyandottes, and no one will make a mistake in selecting either of these va- rieties for their foundation stock, whether buff, bar- red or while, this being merely a matter of prefer- ence. The advantages of one breed over several are many. A man who starts with several breeds, must confine each separately, and to do this requires time and money. It also means denying them the free use of the range, and although confined birds have produced as well as any others, the free range birds always show the greater stamina and vitality. The best breeders may tell you that their birds do equally^ well penned, but it is more expensive, and as breeders, their eggs are not usually as fertile, nor are the offspring as vigorous and healthy. Howev- er^ the fancy breeder handling several varieties, has usually no other recourse, but why should the farm- er want more than one breed? Mixing* them don't get him better results, that is sure. If he thinks so, let him select two coops of birds, one to be all of one color, the other the usual coop of farm-yard mong,rels. Take them to town, offer them for sale, and we venture it will not take him long to decide which is the most profitable. It is not alonu the farmer, however, whom we would pin down to one variety. The beginner, whether he is going in for fancy or utility, should decide on one breed. Look over j-our poultry jour- nals to-day, select the names of the foremost breeders in the land, and invariably you find them concentrat- ing all their time and energy perfecting one breed, and reaping a golden harvest in consequence. If you think otherwise, write to any breeder who through his success is entitled to speak with author- ity, and we think he will bear us out in our advice, stick to one breed. THE VARIOUS STANDARD BREEDS OF FOWLS. American Class. Plymouth Rocks— Barred, White, Buff, Black, Partridge, Silver Penciled. Javas — Black and Mottled. Domineques — Rose Comb. Rhode Island — Reds, Single Comb. Buckeyes — Pea Comb. Asiatic Class. Brahmas — Light and Dark. 548 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. Cochins— Buff, Black, White and Partridge. Langhanis — Black and White. MEDITERRANEAN. Leghorns — Single Comb Brown, Rose Comb Brown, Single Comb White, Rose Comb White, Sin- gle Comb Buff, Double Comb Buff, Silver Duckning. Minorcas— Single Comb Black, Rose Comb Black, Single Comb White. Spanish — White-faced Black. Andalusians — Blue. Anconas — ^Mottled. ENGLISH. -Dorkings — White, Silver Gray, Colored. Red Caps — Rose Comb. Orpingtons — Single Comb Buff, Single Comb White. POLISH. Polis'h— White Crested Black, Bearded Golden, Bearded Silver, Bearded White, Buff Laced, Non- Bearded Golden, Non-Bearded Silver, Non-Bearded White. DUTCH. Hamburgs — Golden Spangled, Silver Spangled, Golden Penciled, Silver Penciled, White, Black. FRENCH. Hondams — Mottled. Cuvecoeus — Black. La Fleche — Black. GAMES AND GAME BANTAMS. Games — Black Breasted Red, Brown Red, Golden Duckning, Birchen, Red Pyle, White, Black. Game Bantams — Black Breasted Red, Brown Red, Golden Duckning. Sih'er Duckning, Birchen, Red Pyle, White. Black. ORIENTAL GAMES AND BANTAMS. Indians — Cornish, \\''hite. Sumatras — Black, Malays — Black Breasted Red. Malay Bantams — Black Breasted Red. ORNAMENTAL BANTAMS. Seabrights — Golden. Silver. Rose Comb— White Black. Booted— White. Brahma — Light, Dark. Cochin— Buff, Partridge, White, Black. Japanese — Black Tailed, White, Black. Polish— Bearded White, Buff Laced, Non-Bearded. MISCELLANEOUS. Silkers— White. Sultans — White. Frizzles — Any Color. TURKEYS. Bronze, Narragansett, Buff, Slate, White, Black. DUCKS. Pekin— White. Aylesburry — White. Rowen — Colored. Cayuga — Black. Call— Gray, White. East India — Black. Crested — White. Muscovey — Colored, White. Indian Runner — ' Swedish — Blue. GEESE. Tonlouse — Gray. Embden — \\'hite. African — Gray. Chinese — Brown, White. Wild or Canadian — Gray. Egyptian — Colored. WHAT BREED TO SELECT. Many mistakes are made by the beginner in select- ing breeds that are not suited for the purposes which they are needed. In selecting breeds that are want- ed for egg production we should not make mistake in securing those breeds that are needed for .this characteristic. The same will apply if in want of breeds for the amount of meat we should not secure the smaller breeds. What is wanted is heavy-bodied fowls. Before purchasing fowls to make a start, we should decide what we want and what is expected of the breeds we are going to keep. If we want fowls for egg production we have a large variety to select from, any variety of which will pay a good profit if properly cared for. The Mediterranean class produce large quantities of eggs. These fowls are so strong physically t'hat they will stand much pushing for egg production. They are regular egg machines. They Study Your Incubator and Know Your Brooder. 549 do not stand confinement as well as most other breeds; if given free range their egg production will be doubled. The leading varieties of this class are Black and White Minorcas, White and Brown Leg- horns. The Minorca resembles the Leghorn in shape and style, but is much larger. This breed can be safely recommended to lay as many or more eggs than other breed of fowls. They lay large, white eggs. Both as chicks and fowls are very hardy, ma- ture early, and are non-setters. Leghorns, both white and brown, are the most popular of the Leg- horn class, and are wonderful egg producers. They are much smaller than the Minorca. Leghorns are considered to be non-setters, but 1 have had the Brown to set and make good' mothers. If fowls for meat are wanted, sel'ect some variety of the Asiatic class. The most popular are Black and White Lang- shangs. Light Brahma and Buff Cochin. Lang- shans should be placed in the middle class ; our per- sonal experience 'has taught us to prize them very highly as a general purpose fowl. For eggs and broilers they are not surpassed by any breed. They are smaller than other Asiatic varieties, and mature much quicker; they produce more eggs during the winter than any other breed. Light Brahmas stand at the head of all breeds as meat producers, t'hey are the largest of all other fowls ; they are good winter layers and stand confinement better than other breeds. Buff Cochins are not quite as large as Brahmas, but look much heavier on account of their being more fluffy; they are fair layers of large, brown eggs ; make good setters and first-class mothers. If you wish to raise fowls for general purposes, that is, meat and eggs, select some variety of the American class. The most popular are White and Barred Ply- mouth Rock, White and Silver Wyandotte. As a utility fowl any of these varieties cannot be surpass- ed. Barred Plymouth Rocks are great favorites; they are adapted to both farmer and fancier; they do well on free range or small runs. They are good egg producers, good setters and good mothers ; chicks are hardy and mature rapidly. Silver and White Wyandottes are the ideal farmers' fowl — have the same qualities as Plymouth Rock, but their chicks mature two to three weeks earlier than any other breed. BREEDS OF FOWLS. There are many popular breeds of fowls. As to which breed you should select, that depends upon sev- eial matters. A great many poultrymen advise that you select the breed that suits your individual taste or fancy the best. But to advise thus is wrong. If you are breeding fancy fowls, that advice may do, but if you are raising eggs or poultry for the market that advice will not do. For instance, if you are raising eggs for the market, you do not want to select a breed that will not produce eggs. For egg producers, you want not the large fowls that are noted for the meat production. Should you want a meat producer, you will not want a small, nervous, active egg pro- ducer. And there are other questions that will af- fect this matter. We give here the characteristics of the different breeds and you should study this matter with a great deal of care, for many mistakes are made regarding the breed that is selected. There is a medi- um class that is good for both meat and egg produc- ers. These are not as large as the Asiatic breed, and are not so good for meat producers, but still they grow large enough to be profitably raised. And they a^e good when it comes to egg producers. The Wy- andottes and Plymouth Rocks are good specimens of the American class of fowls, and the Leghorns of the Mediterranean. It will not be out of place here to insist upon your selecting a pure breed. Many poultrymen make the mistake of selecting anything in the shape of a chick- en. You will find it more profitable to have a pure breed and stick to it. Scrubs do not pay. If you are going to raise poultry for your family use, you can select a pure breed just as well as you can a mixed breed, or a scrub. If you have not the money to start out on a large scale in the pure breed, select just a few and get rid of your scrub stock. You do not need mongrels if you are going to make money out of the poultry business. If you have a pure breed you will take much more pride in them, and secure better results than if you had a mixed stock., WHITE GEORGIAN GAMES. This Southern B-owl makes one of the prettiest sights that you can see on a lawn. They are pure white in color, have an elegant carriage, have great courage and intelligence. They are now pure bred in the South, and are popular wherever known. As a farm fowl, they are excellent, producing a goodly number of eggs. They should be pure white all over, with no shade on the neck, breast, hock or tail. The 550 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. legs have to be wliite or yellow and the beak should harmonize with the legs. GAME BANTAMS. The Game JJantams are wonderful birds, being but little larger than pigeons, but having wonderful cour- age, brilliant plumage, and carrying themselves erect. They can be kept in the yard with large breeds with- out any danger of intermixture, but at the same time they will be found masters of the yard. They will be found quite profitable in protecting the fowls from in- truders, as fhey will give due warning of approach of danger. There are other varieties of Bantams, such as the Black, the Cochin, the Vs'hite. the Brahma, the Sea- bright, and the Japanese. The Seabright is also di- vided into two classes, the Golden and the Silver. The cocks of the Seabright should not weight more than twenty ounces, and the hen more than sixteen ounces. The Japanese variety is the most striking -of any vari- ety of Bantams. The variety cannot stand cold ■weather, and for that reason are very suitable for the South. COCHINS. This is one of the largest of the many breeds of birds, and is quite popular. There are several varie- ties of this breed, and the characteristics for several of these varieties are as follows: The comb of the cock is single, rather fine, upright and straight, stout at the base and tapering to a point ; the eye is bright and mild in expression; hackles of the neck full and abundant, reaching well to the shoulders and cape ; the back broad with a gentle rise to the middle of the tail, with a great many saddle feathers; the wings small ; the tail small, curved feathers numerous, the tail being carried horizontally rather than upright; the breast deep, broad and full ; thighs large and strong, covered with soft feathers. This variety still contin- ues to hold a higli place in the estimation of the pub- lic, the Buff variety being the most popular. Like the Brahma, they are good winter layers and being of good size make excellent roasters. There are four varieties, the Buff, Partridge, White and Black, the two former having the preference in the estimation of the public. LANGHANS. Another deserving breed, of which there are less shown every year, although one of the best winter layers of all the large varieties ; very hardy, easily kept thriving in confinement, and layers of dark shell- ed-eggs of medium size. The Black is the most pop- ular color, the surface of ^he plumage throughout be- ing close and smooth, very brilliant with greenish re- flections. The standard weights are as follows: Coclc 10 pounds, cockerels 8 pounds, hens 7 pounds and pul- lets 6 pounds. WYANDOTTES. The Wyandottes are another American breed that have sprung into public favor by virtue of their good qualities. They are a fine combination breed, being good la3'ers and a fine table fowl. Under strong specialty club work the Wyandottes have been rap- idly placed in the front ranks, which position they will maintain. Hamburg and Dark Brahma blood runs in their veins, and in breeding the white varietv it is found to be a hard matter to get them free from creaminess. Their standard weights are: Cock 8 1-3 pounds, Cock- erel 7 1-2 pounds, Hens 6 1-2 pounds, Pullets 5 1-2 pounds. BRAHMAS. This grand breed of birds deserves a place in the houses of more breeders than are at present 'handling them, but they are not found at the shows in numbers like in former days. They are among the most beau- tiful of all birds, hardy, fine winter lavers and lar.e:- est of all the breeds, standard weight of the male be- ing 12 pounds, hen 9 1-2 pounds. There are two va- rieties, the Light and Dark Brahmas, the former be- ing the most popular. PLYMOUTH ROCKS. The Plymouth Rock is an ideal fowl, and probably one of the most popular of all the breeds, being found on nearly all the farms of the country, mak- ing a good combination egg and meat bird. It is somewhat larger than the Wyandotte, not so blocky, and different in all sections. The three varieties of this breed, the Barred, White and Buff are all identical except in color, that of the Barred Rock being extremely hard to describe, and can only be learned by observation. Good specimens are extremely hard to raise, and in the Barred varie- It Requires Intelligence to Raise Poultry. 551 ty the same shade of color should prevail in all sec- tions, and should be barred to the skin. The White Plymouth Rock is fast eclipsing all others, plumage should be clear and white and free from all business, as well as creaminess. The Buff Plymouth Rock plumage should be a rich golden Buff, very light and very dark, being two ex- tremes that are undesirable. The same shade should prevail throughout every section. The cock should weight 9 1-2 pounds, cockerel 8 pounds, hen 1' ]-:3 pounds, pullet 6 1-2 pounds. LEGHORNS. A breed so well and favorably known as to require very little introduction. They originated in Italy, are somewhat small in size, with yellow legs, white ear lobes and active and sprightly in disposition. They are hardy and prolific, non-setters, few of them ever showing a tendency to broodiness. As producers of good sized eggs in great numbers, they stand unriv- aled and on the egg farm are readily the preferred fowl. !.<>• Fig. 37. — ^Nomenclature Di.Tgvom of Fowl. 0. Beak. 1. Comb, 2. Face. 3. Wattles, 4. Ear Lobe, 5. Hackle, G. Breast, 7. Back. 8. Saddle, 9. SacUlle Feattiers. 10. Sickles, 11. Lesser Sickles, 24. Spur, 12. Tail Coverts, 13. Main Tail Feathers, 14. Wing bow. 1.5. Wing Coverts. 16. Secondaries, wing-bay; 18. Flight Coverts, 19. Point of Breast Bone, 19-20. Body and Fluff, 21. Thigh, 22. Knee Joints, 17. Primaries or Flight feathers, 23. Shanks, 25. Toes or Claws. 552 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. There are seven distinct varieties, but the White and Brown are the ones that hold the favor of the breeders everywhere. They are too small to hold a place as broilers, but are the ideal fowl for the man who wishes to produce eggs for the market. MINORCAS. The largest of the Mediterranean class, formerly known as Red Faced, Black Spanish. Like the Leg- horns, they are non-setters, layers of the largest white shelled eggs of any breed and one of the prettiest fowls in the entire list. In the Black variety purple shade in surface color is a distinct detriment, a green brilliant black being the desired color. The single comb variety is the most popular, the Rose Combs not being popular in the South. For cold climates, the latter are preferred, the single comb variety be- ing susceptible to cold, owing to t'heir large comb and wattles, which are easily frozen. Their general appearance is graceful, aggressive and commanding, and as layers they excel many of the other breeds. The White Minorcas resemble the White Leghorn to a considerable extent, and are not very popular here. ORPINGTONS. We now come to one of the English classes that has gained marked popularity throughout the coun- try by virtue of their niany meritorious qualities. They are the latest importation from England, are large and stately in appearance, very full in the breast and in the development of the back. They are docile, easily kept in confinement, and a fine combination fowl for their stately appearance and they are rapidly becoming a general favorite with all who breed them. Good specimens are high, but the demand is such that these are readily obtained. HAMBURGS. In the Dutch class, we have the Hamburgs among the prettiest of the entire feathered tribe. There are six varieties, the Golden, Silver Spangled, and Golden and Silver penciled leading in popularity. The White and Black are not seen much at the shows. They are excellent layers of medium sized eggs, and good for- agers. They have been bred to that degree which makes them a general favorite wherever introduced. CORNISH AND WHITE INDIAN GAMES. In the Oriental games we have two that excel and have earned their popularity in the estimation of breeders everywhere, these are the Cornish and the White Indian. They are of English origin and pro- duced by crossing a low Derby Black Breasted Red Game with a Red Aseel imported from India, the blood of the -Sumatra Game having also been later in- troduced. They have short thick legs, large thighs and deep and broad breast, great width of back at shoulders, with comparativelj short neck. Their plumage is beautiful, that of the Cornish having great lustre, and as layers they rank with the best. JUDGING. In judging any of the Standard Breeds of land and water fowls, the judges either use the Score- card or judge by comparison. The latter system is used al- most entirely at all the large shows, and is gaining advocates even among those who formerly stood fast for the Score-Card system. We append herewith a copy of the Score-Card as now used, which will give the reader an idea as to what sections are considered by the judge in cutting for defects. OFFICIAL SCORE-CARD OF THE ATLANTA (Georgia) POULTRY ASSOCIATION. There are two. ways of judging a chicken, by score card and by comparison, the latter is principally used at early shows and fall fairs, when birds are not in full feather, and is not near so satisfactory as the score card, for under the comparison system if you do not accompany your birds to the fairs, if you are fortunate enough to win a ribbon or two, you have no means of knowing which bird or birds won, as there is no record kept of the particular bird win- ning, and you are only notified of your success with- out telling you which bird was the successful com- petitor, and a breeder, especially if he is just start- ing out, would like to know his best bird, so that he may be able to compare it with others of his flock, and see how many are like it. The score card system is much more exacting, and where a class is well fit- ted as the Rocks, Wyandottes, Leghorns and Minor- cas are at most shows to win in these classes is an honor, especially is this true when the judge is an ex- perienced man and knows his business. The ideal bird should score 100 points, but the ideal has never been attained, 96 points is as near a top notch as com- petent judges go, and a 94 or 95 point bird is a "thing A few Ducks Will Pay On Mcst Any Farm. 553 of beauty" in the show room (even if it 'is not much of a breeder or egg-laj'er.) The score is divided in- to sections, and run as follows: weight, symmetry, .condition, head shape and color, comb, shape and col- or, wattles and lobes, shape and color, neck shape and color, back shape and color, breast s'hape and color, body and fluff shape and color, wings shape and col- or, tail shape and color, legs and feet shape and color, so you can see that it would be almost impossible for a bird to be perfect in all these points, and it takes long and hard study for one to be able to pick from a flock of pen or trio to exhibit, in fact, it is almost an impossibility to do so without one has a copy of the Standard at hand, and then to go over each bird sec- tion hv section. And at shows where the score card are a yellowish flesh color. A pair of Plymouth Rocks with clean, bright, yellow legs is a rarity, and not often seen. In the above I 'have briefly related one or two of the Standard requirements of the B. P. Rock, another great point is color, which should be grayish white with blue bars across each feather, which should be even on all parts of the plumage, and the male and female should be exactly alike in color, and those who are breeding Rocks know how hard it is to do this, as nine times out of ten the cockerels are light and the pullets dark and, in fact, are sometimes almost black. Such birds would stand no chance in the show room, and the only way to produce such birds is to go "agin" nature, and double mate; t'hat is, all Fig. 38. — Part of poultry farm of G. B. Tliraslier, Dallas, Tex. is used you receive the score card from the secretary of the show, showing wherein your bird or birds were defective. The heaviest cut is for weight, for instance the Standard weight of a B. P. Rock cock is 9 1-2 pounds and the specimen shown only weighs 8 1-2 pounds, he is cut two points, one point of every one- 'half pound he is short ; that would bring his score down to 98 points on the start, and with such handi- cap, the bird could not score over 90 or 91, if that. The comb on any breed is hard to get true, and on most scores a cut of 3-4 to 1 1-2 will generally be found. The comb of a Rock should be medium sizei, single and straight, with regular serrations or points five in number. Then again, the Standard says Rocks should 'have yellow legs and bill, and it is almost im- possible to produce them, a little brown or black will crop out on bill, and the shanks are more or less cloudy with blue black scales, and instead of the legs of either sex being yellow, the larger number of them the dark hens and dark males to produce cockerels, and all the very lightest hens and light males to pro- duce pullets; the cockerels from the pullet yard are worthless and the pullets from the cockerel yard ate only fit for table. THE AMERICAN STANDARD OF PERFECTION No one who raises poultry can expect to do so in- telligently unless he is familiar with the rules w'hich govern the judgm'ent of fowls, as laid down by the American Poultry Association in their work known as the American Standard of Perfection. This work is absolutely necessary, and should be in the hands of every breeder of thoroughbred or rath- er standard-bred fowls. It is a valuable aid to the beginner and an essential to the older breeder, and so far the new edition has already passed flie 10,000 mark in copies sold. 554 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE It fully covers the ground which every breeder has to know, in order to breed fowls intelligent!}', gives a full description of all the breeds recognized in the Standard, and defines and illustrates the various sec- tions of the bird, gives a glossary of technical terms, general disqualifications, etc. A full description, with illustrations of all the breeds are given and with this work in hand any one can soon familiarize himself with the rules, so that he can score his birds with a certainty and satisfac- tion. A STUDY OF THE POINTS OF FOWLS'NEC- ESSARY. If you are going to raise poultry, especially fancy poultry, you must -make a close study of the makeup of fowls. You must not only know the physical char- acteristics of fowls, but you must have a close dis- crimination for the various feathers, markings and characteristics, for these are quite important especial- ly with fancy breeders. SEASONABLE HINTS. Do not permit the old fowls to have access to the same inclosure in which your brooder c'hicks are kept, nor mix the chicks reared under hens with those that come from the incubator, as lice and mites are often thus communicated to the detriment of the entire flock. Chicks hatched in incubators are free from vermin, provided you have kept the machine clean, but all this is of no .avail if the chicks from a lousy hen have access to these ouarters. The beginner 'having a lot of breeding stock to pur- chase in getting his foundation slock, is bound to get some birds inferior to others, birds that it would pay him to cull out entirely. It is imperative to start with young stock, preferably pullets headed by vigorous matured males, and by doing so you Avill liave less occasion for losses, and with care and attention yotir profit will commence the first season. The old notion that old hens would produce better and stronger chicks than a young 'hen, has long since been exploded. Pullets with a vigorous cock bird is the wa)^ to mate for strong healthy offspring. Culling is one of the most impoTtant requisites in successful poultry breeding. It takes more to weed out everything in the Hock that should go, but it pays ni the end- An egg-eating or feather-pulling hen ; no matter how fine a bird or how excellent a layer; should be killed and marketed at once. Besides teaching the vice to others she will in a short while eat up more tiian her worth in eggs. The hen that develops a mania for broodiness is all right in that particular line, but in no other, and should l.^e promptly disposed, of Likewise, the lazy hen that lingers on the roost late in the day, cull out and replace with others or fewer hens, but have them good, which means profit. Any ot'her means loss and disappointment. One of the great secrets of success in profitable poul- try keeping is the prompt isolation of droopy or sick fowls from the flock, and the killing and burning of diseased fowls, as soon as discovered where the case seems beyond cure. The bird must indeed be a valualde one to warrant the breeder in risking the balance of his flock in the attempt to cure. Every well-regulated poultry estab- lishment should have its quarantine and it will many times re'pay the cost oif construction, and insure against spread of contagion from diseased birds. The man who succeeds with poultry is usually a close observer an.d critically examines his birds on ever}' occasion. A visit to the hen house at night will eventually impress you with its importance. If you 'hear any wheezing or sneezing or see any shaking of head, take these birds in hand at once- Few who make a practice of visiting the houses at night have occasion to complain of spread of conta- gion, as by this process we are enabled to nip in the bud any disease with which the birds became affected. Avoid damaged and musty grain, and feed no carris or tainted meats. The meat scrap should be sweet and fresh, and the grain good and sound. Have the water fresh and clean, cool in summer and not froz- en in winter. Supply grit, also lime in some shape, such as crushed oyster shells, plaster, rubbish or its equivalent, and granulated or broken charcoal contin- uousl_y. Of equal importance are comfortable and clean quarters. You may observe all other rules and still fail if you neglect to protect 3^our fowls against lice and mites, tainted ground and draughty houses- One of the villainous practices which are still observed by unscrupulous breeders, is the killing, dressing, and The Man That Does Not Feed Chickens Ought Not To Eat Them. 555 marketing of diseased poultry. It is a good rule nev- er to sell a fowl that you cannot leave the head on, nor buy one with the head off. The offering of dressed poultrj- so presented that evidence of disease is not discernable, gives opportunity to rascally deal- ers and hucksters which they eagerly grasp. Just as some eggs look best '"scrambled" so some birds look best "heads off." One needs only to look into the dealers' coops throughout tne country to appreciate the luxury of a farm-raised, healthy fowl. The servants entrusted with the buying of the table fowl are often careless of his or her responsibility, and many an unhealthy bird finds its way to the table that one would spurn to eat, were the facts known. The trap nest, while not much in use in our section, has everything to recommiend it to our people. Those who use them become their firm advocates and they should be used by every breeder in the land. Fattening broilers is an art worthy of greater study on the part of those engaged in supplying market de- mands. Free range is neither essential rior desirable. The young chicks put on better growth and develop a larger frame when given the raug'e, but fully two Vv'eeks before marketing they can be fattened quicker and to greater advantage by confining, which causes relaxation of any of the m.uscles that have de- veloped on the range, and makes the fattening process surer and cjuicker at less expense than otherwise- Forcing food will do very well for broilers, Avhere the profitable age is short, but it is a mistake to force chicks intended for breeders. For these nothing is better than free range, sound, hard grain, freedom from crowding on the roost, and clean, well-ventilated quarters. The practice of feeding chicks under four weeks of age mash feed has its ardent advocates, but we advise our readers to stick to the successful tried methods of hard grain, which eliminates or at least minimizes the chances of bowel trouble, and a hundred other ills which follow the other method when used by inex- perienced people. The number of excellent brooders now on the mar- ket are the result of a demand for less death-traps and more chicken-raisers. Buy the best, regardless of first cost, as it will save yon loss of time, worry and ex- pense. In the South much attention must be paid to ventilation in the brooders. Disregard operating in- structions when your own judgment prompts yon to do so. It is safe to give plenty ventilation at all times, provided the temperature is kept rig!ht. As long as the chicks crowd they are not comfortable and more heat should be given. The brooder should be kept clean by using sand or earth on the floor. Dusty sand is not best, coarse sand is what is needed- By using a coarse comb "as a rake, the droppings are easily removable without changing the sand often. As soon as the chicks show an inclination to roost, get them out of the broders into conveniently arranged chick houses, witih low roosting poles, and if necessary place them on these a time or two, when they will take to them naturally and teach any of those otherwise inclined to do like- wise. DUCK RAISING FOR PROFIT. This branch of the ponltry business holds special in- ducements for those whose yarding space is limited or circumscribed, for the reason that ducks are quiet creatures. An inclosure twelve inches high suffices for duckling- harbors, and a two, and at the most, a three-foot-high fence for large ducks. The fence does not rgquire to be so firmly built, es- pecially at the base, as for other birds, ducks having no "scratchers," but if properly fed and watered are "contented in their lot." More pounds of ducks may be raised to the square foot than of any other fowl. In three months twenty- five ducks will market between 125 and 150 pounds and produce five pounds of fine feathers and do^-n. Ducks mature more quickly and get out from un- der the mother wing sooner than onr other standard varieties of poultry. The ducklings are independent little creatures. After the first month or six weeks they require very little attention from the parent bird- I have tried ducks and found them verv satisfacto- ry. On a quarter of an acre we annually raise between one and two thousand birds. The rest -of the place except along the river, is left at peace. I used hens for incubating the eggs, at first having five female ducks, and a drake and about a dozen good, motherly hens. About four hens were set at a time, nine eggs under each hen. In about ten days the eggs were tested out, the nests doubled up so each still held nine eggs. In this way we secured a good sized flock of the same age. that at about six weeks of age were separated from the hens, yarded and fed to- srether. 556 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. Ducks need little exercise on an extended range, especially where preparing for market. But they need clean, dry bedding at night and shade from the sun during tlie day. and they must not be exposed to long, cold rain-storms. They do well in feeding from a V- sliaped trough and the same for drinking. There may be a slat running lengt'hwise through the center, so as to keep the birds, all but their bills out of tlie trough. They need a pan or box of warm sand or fine grit in the yards, near the feeding troughs. Regarding their housing or shelter. When it is pos- sible, a good roof is a great comfort to the care taker, and a floor space protected from the rains, but they can be raised out-doors in roomy packing boxes quite successfully. Mortality among ducklings is mostly due to over and improper feeding and the chilling of young birds. They can be fed to good advantage four times a day, all that they will eat up clean and quick in about fen minutes. The troughs should be sufficiently roomy to give each bird an equal chance at the food and no danger of the weaker being crowded away and los- ing the nourishment that it specially stands in need of- It is better to water the birds after, not before thev are fed. Tlie drinking vessels should be suffici- entlv deep to submerge tlie entire bill so the little fellows can squirt the water through (and thus cleanse out the nostrils'). Otherwise the nostrils be- come clogged and the birds are liable to smother. AVhen in this condition they tlirow back their heads, tumble over on their backs, a few kicks and they are amone the vesterdays. The same symptoms accom- panv indigestion and sunstroke. Indigestion is due to a forcing diet and overfeed- ing. Also a sudden chill — the change from a hot brooder to a cold outer atmosphere, especially at feed- ing time. Ducks require more freslr air, and will stand more cold than 'chicks. It is t'he sudden c'hanges and the fetid brooder atmosphere that is in- jurious. A good diet for the first week is one-third wheat bran, one-third brown middlings, one-third corn, to which is added a tenth of coarse sand or fine grit all mixed into a creamy mash- For fhe balance of the first month to the above add 5 per cent, or one-twen- tieth of fine beef scrap or blood meal. During the second luonth increase the beef to one-tenth (in weight nine parts of grain and one part beef) and add about one-fourth in bulk green stuff, cut clover, lettuce, grass, etc. During the last two weeks of the third month give one part bran, one part mid- dlings, two parts coarse meal and one-seventh of beef with same proportion of green stuff till within a vyeek of marketing, wdien green must be discontinued. Ducks will onlv stand this last high-forcing diet about two weeks and musit be then promptly market- ed, else they fall back in flesh and it is never possi- ble to get them up to as good weight again, besides the extra expense. During the high-forcing it is very important to watch their 'eed and keep them a little hungry all the time. THE BEST HATCHING SEASON. Spring is the season of the most rapid growth and quickest dcA^elopment of all the year. It is the wild fowds' and the birds' hatching tiiue — nature's own time. The Marc'h winds have ceased, the cold, blowing rains are o-'er. the April showers are giving way to the more settled and calm period that comes with ]\[ay- Indeed, all Ihings are now favorable to the hatching of the chicks and their rapid development. Nearly every egg set now means a cliicken at hatch- in.g time, for the highest per cent, of fertilitv is now. There is a certain aggressiveness in human nature that makes us trv to do things out of season, and to ac" complish that whicli ordinarilv is ciuite impossible. That is wihy we study the methods that will make hens lay in winter; and the same natural bent pro- duces t'he artificial hatcher and brooder. We all love to overcome the seeminghr impossible, and to be ahead of t'he seasons — to circumvent natru'e, as it were. And so we rush through the hatching process pre- maturely, and then, when nature has just settled down to it. we are through. .'Vt least, the man witli the incubator is W'ell supplied with voung chicks when the trees are in full leaf- And yet it is then- — t'he present time, that things have just gotten in good shape for natural hatcliing, as we have cited in the case of the wild fowl and the songsters of the groves and the fields. In the spring is really the best time for hatching and brooding chickens with hens, because the conditions are so favorable for foraging. The cbickens that are hatched now will soon take to the range with their mothers and earn the greater part of tlieir own living. .'Knd that which is true in this respect now will hold good for the next six weeks followingf. for the latter Keep The Nests Clean. 557 part of April and the first half of May comprise the ideal hatching period; and if kerosene oil should be used freely about the nests and coops the young, chickens will suiter no setback whatever in growth and development. Let no one who has not yet taken action in regard to getting out some chickens this year hesitate tmder the impression that it is now too late, for such a con- clusion would be erroneous, for better results and quicker returns could, not be obtained at any season for one's work and money in the hatching line than in the spring. This is particuarly true of the .smaller varieties of thoroughbreds and of Pit Games ■\vTiich are rapid growers, and which also develop ear- ly. Neither is it too late to hatch the larger breeds successfully. Only to-day we saw a fine young Barred Plymouth Rock cockerel in a breeding yard — a cockerel wliich wias hatched as late as July, and yet he is now well developed and a very fine bird. Pul- lets of the same mating with him are now laying; and yet they are good sized young 'hens, too. But it is notjuly yet, nor June — not even May, btrt mid-April, the zenith of the laying and hatching season, and we should utilize it fully by unusual activity among our fowls. PINFOLD'S PIN FEATHERS. Sometimes the hens get tired of raw vegetables, no matter whether given to them whole or chopped. Try them with some that have been cooked, drained and mas'hed with a little meal. A little salt in the food will render it more appetizing and 'healthful. Do not forget to put some charcoal in the box with the shell. The hens like it in pieces as fine as cracked corn. If the hens show any disposition to "sour crop," put a little cooking soda in their drinking water. Tlie best layers should be noted and their eggs re- served for settings. Keep some of them on hand readv for the first old biddy that will set well. It does not hurt a hen — if she has been properly cared for — ^to hatch out two settings in succession. I have done this a number of times when the hen 'has proved to be a good, quiet setter, and broody hens have been scarce. The hen has set the six weeks and then has come out in fairly good condition because she had come off the nest every day for food, water and exercise- Freedom from lice as insured by allow- ing her to dust and by keeping the nest clean. It is never advisable to set two hatches in succession un- less it is absolutely necessary. When hens steal their nests it is a pretty good sign that the proper nests need investigating-. Look them over and see if the biddies have any real excuse for deserting them. Allow ten 'hens 100 square feet of space. The cheap "rolled oats" is the best food for little chicks. CHICKENS AND THEIR CARE. Keep a record of each hatch. _ Never set a hen with scaly legs. Pullets are unreliable as setters. A wild hen will 'have wild chickens. Neglected chickens will be stunted- Set eac'h hen in an apartment alone. When the chick droops look for lice. Dust the hen well before setting her. Make this the banner vear for chicks. Keep the coops and nests clean. Be sure and set the hen in a warm place. Keep small grit constantly within reach. The fres'her the eggs the better the hatch. There are not positive non-setting breeds. Sprinkle insect powder in the nests every week. Leave the hen with her young so long as she clucks- It is not always the fat hen that becomes broodv. Covered runs are a protection from hawks, cats or dogs. They should be moved to fre.s^h plots every week. PREPARATORY TREATMENT OF SHOW BIRDS. As it takes some time to prepare a bird for sTiow purposes, and as we hope all our readers who have anything worth exhibiting intend to prove their faith by sending it along to their agricultural fairs, we have captured a few hints for their benefit. These methods are practiced by most experienced exhibitors, and there is no reason why they are not legitimate for the amateur's use, provided he desires to benefit by the experience of others. It is needless to say select your very finest and most perfect bird to put in trim. The healthiest birds y^iW always win, so it is needless to waste time trying to prepare any other. As your exhibition cock and hen are apt to be moulding now, and as their new 558 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE feathers will very largely determine their success or defeat, great care must be taken to have them moult correctly, as well as looking to their new feathers. The following tonic fed to those intended for exhibi- tion is highly recommended by one of the most suc- cessful exhibitors in America: One ounce carbonate of iron, pulverized gentian root, black antimony, man- drake, ginger and flowers of sulphur ; one ounce bi-car- bonate of soda; fourteen ounces flaxseed meal. Mix level teaspoonful in each quart of soft feed. The ton- ic is to be fed every other morning regularly, from the beginning of the moulting until the bird is completely clothed in its new feathers. Here is the treatment followed by the above mentioned fancier: The birds intended for exhibition are placed to themselves in clean, comfortable quarters, where t'here is shade enough to prevent the burning of their plumage. (Rain and dampness are likewise bad for the new feathers, which should certainly receive as much attention as a delicately tinted dress). A lit- tle ammonia added to the drinking water is recom-" mended to help remove the straw color from plumage, but it is much easier to prevent by judicious shading, than to remove after the mischief is done. The above tonic is mixed with ground oats, bran and shorts, which is thoroughly cooked and fed mornings, the tonic being added only every other morning. (Of course the cocks are kept by themselves"). They are on grass runs, but where this is net possible, are fed chopped vegetables, besides receiving regular feeds of hulled oats, wheat, barley, millet, etc., liberally. A month before the date for their exhibition the birds are placed in fitting pens where the weight-forcing is begun- The tonic is then discontinued, after hav- ing given them appetites like hunters. Great care is now exercised in keeping a variety of feeds before the birds, not to get them "ofF feed." They still receive the soft food mornings, a moderate stipplv of raw vege- tables are fed often, a liberal supply of cracked corn every night, and a small feed of lean beef every other nig^t. Once or twice a week they must be dusted with insect powder, and each pen is kept bedded in clean, soft, cut straw. In putting on the finishing touches, the legs are ■washed several times a week in warm, soft water, to which a little alcohol is added. They are then dried carefully and greased with a little .sweet oil. after which t'hey are thoroughly rtibbed with a flannel rag. As redness of the leg is to be avoided, a little oxide of zinc it applied to remove the redness. To give a handsome red face, ten drops of calchicum wine in one teaspoonful of water is administered daily, for ten days before exhibition. For comb and wattles, apply a little glycerine daily, working it in gently, with the fingers and thumb. Towards the end of treatment add a little alcohol to the glycerine. Whites lobes should be handled carefully to avoid reddening. To such as need whitening, bathe in wanm milk twice a day, and after drying apply a lit- tle oxide of zimc. The following instructions should be strictly ob- served in shipping: On each coop securely fasten a card on wihich is plainly written, first, the breed of fowl it contains ; second, name and address of exhibit- or : third, cock, hen, etc.; fourtTi, 'T.y Express." This will insure safe delivery, and avert confusion and mis- takes on the part of the =;how management. ROOSTER TALK. There is more in this subject than may appear on the surface totthe casual reader. There is much in it, because the suhiect of roosters has muc'h to do with the prosperity of pullets, and the pullets have a direct bearing on the profits of the poultry yard. The truth is. there are about eleven more young roosters in everv dozen hatched than we need. Because thev are consumers and non^pmducers. And. in ad- dition, they soon become a nuisance in the poultry yard, and tend to run down the whole flock of young .«tock by the crowding, quarreling, etc. It certainly does not pay to keep a number ot them on the place until they reach maturity. They should be disposed of early in the season. We 'have 'had this subject up before, but. as it Is a seasonable topic, it mav not be amiss to consider it again. If we will only stop to think — think what a differ- ence it would make in the appearance of the flock of young chickens, to have none but pullets, and how much easier it would be to force their growth then, and bring them to early development and laying, we would think luore then of clearing the yard of the un- profitable half of the flock. Let the rascals be bundled up and marketed Just as soon as they are large enough to eat. There is some profit in them then, and the advantage of their absence in the advancement of the pullets will add an addition- al profit to the season's work. Have You House in a Dry Place. 559 The exception to ttiis plan is -vvhere one has pur- chased some fine eggs, with a view of starting a yard or mating of thoroughbreds. Then, of course, it is best to retain all of the roosters until grown, in order to select the best for mating the follo'wing season, and for the double purpose of selling the surplus ones to other poultrvmen for breeding purposes. The worst specimens in a flock of thoroughbreds may be utilized to advantage in cross-mating with common hens. For, if of the great laying strains, they carry the char- acteristics of their breed with them ; and if of the large heavy-weight kind tliey will produce chicks, when mated with the ordinary stock, that will be superior in size and usually of quicker growth and earlier ma- turity than the common run. Indeed, it is worth our while to consider the rooster question from several different standpoints. POULTRY POINTERS. Lice cause more trouble to the poultryman than all else. A little oil meal will help your poultry as well as other stock. Keep the lice down, or down goes the profits of the poultryman. Season the mash you feed your hens with a little pepper, or ginger, or both. Many so-called poultry powders have but little val- ue except to the seller. Don't allcnv your fowls to go thirsty. They need water, especially the laying hens. We advocate pure breeds, because experience has taught Us that scrubs and crosses are not profitable. Lime is a verv good product about the poultry house. Liberal use of whitewash cannot be too highly recommended. Lime is essential in the formation of the shell. See that your layers are provived with a little lime, but not unslaked lime. If fowls have a good range, feeding will be light, as they will gather most of their living and destroy mil- lions of insects. A good mash is made of ground wheat, oats and corn and buckwheat, to which add a little meat scrap, bone meal and pepper. Hens muist have exercise. If they have not free range, give their feed in pens littered with straiw when they will have to scratch to find it. Scratching is ac- cording to their nature and makes them healthy. The best whitewash for a poultry house is made by slacking the lime with hot water. It should be about the consistency of soft soap, then thin it with coal oil to the proper consistency for applying and your white" wash will stick where applied and you will find it "death to lice." The infusion of new blood into the flock is of much importance, but be sure that the new blood introduced be of a high grade. The perches should be removed and cleaned fre- quentlv. Treated with a good coating of coal oil at each cleaning will be found the best and quickest way of exterminating lice. It is best to remove the old nest immediately up- on taking the brood off, and so prevent the spread of anv insects which might have incubated with the hen. Thoroughly grease with melted lard the heads of both hen and chicks on taking off: The hen may need greasing along the under side of the roots of large wing feathers, also. At little pepper in the morning feed will stimulate, and correct bowel trouble in little chicks. Never feed sloppv foods to young chickens nor oth- er poultry. Most foods can be crumply with corn meal. P>e sure rain ^cannot make their sleeping places damp. Dampness ranks next to insects in its death- reaping power. Alwavs keep drv wood ashes or dry dust and lime where the flock can dust at liberty. They are sure to take frequent advantage of this opportunity to bathe. Don't let the little chicks get damp or chilled. A. little care for the first few weeks will save much loss and worry. Don't be in a hurry to feed the little chicks. Nature has provided them with sufificient food for twentyfour hours. Don't crowd too many little chicks in one brooder or give too manv to one hen. Twelve now and twenty later are sufficient for a brood. Don't grease the little chicks, esipecially in cold weather. Insect powder will destroy mites and do no injury. Don't put too many eggs under the setting hen. One too many will often cause half or more not to hatch. Don't let the vounsr chicks roost in filthv boxes. 56o TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE Move them around every few days and sprinkle lime where they stood. Don't let brooder chicks become lazy. Scatter grain in litter and make them scratch. Goose, duck, guinea, turkey and chicken eggs that are s'hipped a great distance will 'hatch well if they are turned upside down in the basket and left to stand for twenty-four hours and then put under a good hen or in an incubator. The hens prefer good nests, and when they refuse to lay in the poultry house and begin to deposit their eggs in the hay loft, the chances are that lice have taken possession of the nests. Let turkeys roost on trees until it gets real cold, as they do better that way than if confined to close quar- ters. Whitewash and clean up your poultry-houses in t'he fall and have everything in first-class shape and see to it that your house is warm and then feed right and vou can get eggs when they are 'bringing good prices. Laying hens need extra good care through win- ter. Do not feed too much pepper to make hens lay. Pepper is a stimulant, not a food, and should be used M'ith great caution. If vou do your part by your chickens, your chickens will do t'heir part by you. Tlie poultrv' business is one of give and take: if you give fair treatment to your fowls, they will reciprocate with gold dollars and plen- ty 0:f them. Fresh ground bone is a splendid animal food for both eg-,g production and growtb. Select hens that lay the greatest number of eggs, for your breeding stock, if you want to increase egg production. Feeding good, healthy feed together with good care, will require less running to the drugstores for chicken medicine. In selecting a male for breeding purposes you will miake no mistake in choosing the cock that carries his head highest, is so full of nervous energy that he dances on his tiptoes in strutting around, and who is most gallant and gentlemanly with his hens. Always select your incubator or setting eggs with care. Pick out the largest, roundest and least chalky eggs. Nor should a "shiny" egg ever be set. They are very a^Dt to prove unsatisfactory, and yoti will find them unhatched w'hen your hen comes off. Really fresh egsfs are seldom glossy, you will find. No fooid is better for young ducks than cornmeal and bran in equal parts, made into a mush with milk. Before being fed to young chickens corn should be crushed or cracked. The whole grains are unmanage- able. In arranging perches it is best to place theim on the same level and not, as is often done, with some higher than others. The average farmer will find it the best plan to keep only one breed of poultry, but of course he should see that it is a good one. When ducks get to be two weeks old they must have some green food, or they will begin to pine away and. if they do not diie, will not thrive. An ill-ventilated poultry house is sure to become a breeder of disease and debility. Fowls must have plenty of fres'h air or they won't thrive. Two-year-old hens produce the best eggs for hatch- ing purposes. They possess the necessary fertility and all the elements for vigorous offspring. Good cornmeal has been found to be one of the best of fatteners. Give the fowls all they will eat up clean, and rapid putting on of flesh will be noticed as a re- sult. In arranging nests, it is important that they sbould be so placed that the hens in getting in and out, will not break the eggs. Allow plenty of room, avoid crowding. While whole Avheat is an excellent food for 'hens it must not be made an exclusive diet. Variety is de- manded to produce the best results, just as in the case of all inimals. Every business requires attention to bring success and poultry raising is no exception to the rule. Fowls* especially the young ones, are silly and helpless things and need constant care. If chickens show loss of appetite, and do not eat their food with relish, it is a sign that tbey need more exercise and a change in the''bill of fare. It is the busi- ness of the owner to look after these things. To keep both the fowls and their house clean, is the w'hole law and the pror)ihets in poultry raising. Oth- er things are essential, bnt wdthout cleanliness as a basis there will be no permanent success in the busi- ness. The dust bath is where the hen rids herself of ver- min. The roosting perches should be so arranged as to be movable. The Poultry Yard Ought To Be In a Shady Place. 561 Chickens and "chinck" are certain results of good care of the flocks. A rpod dusting place for chickens is as necessary as anything about the poultry yard. Keep on good terms with your hens, for wild hens that are afraid of you are not desirable. Early hatched chicks are the best. Select breeders from earl)'- hatches as they are more vigorous. Alwavs aim to make your poultry better. There is much room for improvement in the poultry flocks yet. Good shape, graceful carriage and general symmetry should be well considered in selecting 3'our breeding stock. Remember that overfat hens will not lay, and are li- able to leg weakness and suddent death. If your hens are overfat, shorten the feed, espcially corn, force ex- ercise and you'll see a change for the better. Do not cease to guard against insects in your flock. Kerosene and crude carbolic acid are cheap, and time 5s money where poultry are concerned. We are told on good authority, that perfectly healthy, properly fed poultry are never troubled by insects. The poi«on thrown out of the fowl's system breeds the parasites as scavengers. Never try rushing the hens with patent "e^g stim- ulants.'' whose eggs von expect to set. Egg-producing "foods" are verv apt to weaken the vitality of the e Cow Tonic 475 Dairy Breeds 491 Dairy Notes 495 Dairy Ftensils 490 Dairying 480 Dehorning 475 Diarrhoea 468 Dysentery 403 Dyspepsia or Indigestion 467 Eczema 470 Feed for Dairy Cattle 482 Foot Evil 475 Garget 473 Gravel or Lithasls 459 Haematuria 462 Hard Milker 472 Hernia or Rupture 46S Hollow Horn 463 How to start a Dairy 492 Impaction of the Third Stomach . 466 Inflammation of the Bladder . . . 469 Inflammation of the Brain 469 Inflammation of the Udder .... 471 Little Things on Dairy Farm . . . 494 I'iee 470 Lock Jaw 469 Lumps in Teats 472 Lumpy Jaw 461 Malignant Catarrh 463 565 I'age. Milk Fever 471 I'ai-alysis of the Tongue 4G5 Plethora 401 rieurisy 465 Pueumonia 464 lUieumatism 462 Ring Worm 470 Self Sucker 476 Soiling 489 Sore Teats 472 Sore Throat 464 The Baby or Calf 478 ^ The Barn 481 The Bull 476 The l''armer's ( .>„• 47S The Milk Cow 477 Things not to do 493 Tick Fever 456 Tuberculosis 460 Tumor 475 Warts 474 "Wolves or Grubs 470 "ow : The Fanner's 478 Cow : The 471 Cow Pea Pod Weevil 211 " Pox 45.J " Peas 23 " Tonic 475 Cracks in Hoof 322 Crabb Grass 26 Cranberry Fruit Worm 246 Cress : Seed Requied 80 Crimson Clover 16 Crops: Rotation of 8 Crocus 140 Crosseye 391 Cucumbers 70 " Seed Required 86 Curing Cow Peas 24 Curing Tobacco 51 Curl : Peach 112 Curculio : Apple 204 " Cherry 246 " Peach 102, 104 Cucumber Beetle 221 ■' Squash Vine Borer 246 Currant Leaf Spot 248 Currant Worm 248 Curb 331 Cushion Scale : Cotton 233, 249 Cutworms 220 Cutworm : Tobacco 252 Cutworm ; Vegetables 253 Cypress vine 136 Cystitis 469 D Dahlias 130 Dairy Breeds 491 '• How to Start a 492 " Notes 495 Dairying 480 Dairy Utensils 400 Daisy : Double English 187 Damping Off 85 Dead Matter : r>etinition of 4 Deep Seated Abscesses 335 Dehorning 476 Depth of Drains 265 Delphinium 131 Dewberry 92 " Anihracnose 257 " Orange Rust 252 ■• r>ose Scale 251 Page. Dewberry San Jose Scale 251 '• Slug 251 Dianthus 130 Diarrhoea : llorse 349 Diarrhoea : Cows and Caives 468 Digestive Organs : Diseases oi .... 512 Diseases Associated with Lamja-os . 317 Diseases of Digestive Organs 343 Diseases of Hip Region 335 Disease of the Large Vessels at Shoul- der 334 Diseases I^roducing Lameness at Shoul- der 333 Diseases of Tendons and Ligaments . 329 Diseases of Brooder Chicks 512 Diseases of Digestive Organs : Chick- ens 512 f Dieases of Respiratory Orgaus .... 350 Diseases of the Eye 374 Diser.se of the Huw 376 D.seases of the Conjunct. va 377 Diseases of the Cornea 380 Diseases of the Iris 384 Diseases of the Tear Apparatus . . . 377 Diaphragm : Spasm of the 354 D.seases of the Urinary Organs . . .356 D. stance between Drains 265 Downy Mildew: Grape 113, 248 Downy Mildew 85 Drainage . .• 263 Dropsied Condition of Synov.al Sacs. 331 Drugs 429 Dry Murrain 466 Dutchman's Pipe 136 Duck liaising 533, 555 Duroc Jersey Hog 430 Dysentery : Cow 468 Dyspepsia : Cow 467 E Early Cabbage 67 Eczema : Cow .' 470 '• Hog 443 Egg Plant 71 ■■ Farming 520 ■■ Leaf Spot 248 •• Potato Beetle 248 " Seed Required 86 Enemies to the Farm 270-273 Bermuda Grass 273 Johnson Grass 273 Mice and Rats 272 Moles 272 Rabbits ':72 Ensilage 487 Endive 86 I']nthropium 375 j:s. hschollzia 131 Evil : I'oll 242 Exopthalmus 390 Exercise of Chickens 524 Eye : Diseases of the 374 Eyes: Method of Examining 399 E^-elids : Inflammation of 375 " Wounds of the 374 F Rail for Drains 266 Fall Web Worm : Apple 244 Farmer's Cow 47S Farm : Fruit on the '. 119 Farmer's Garden 62 Page. Fai-m Department . 1-55 Agriculture as a Science 3 Alfalfa or Lucerne 11 Barley 13 Beggar Weed 14 Broom Corn 14 Castor Bean 15 Chufas 15 Corn 16 Cotton 21 Cow Peas 23 Crimson Clover 16 Field Crops 11 Firming the Soil About Seed Nec- essary 10 Grasses 25 How Plants Feed 6 How Plants Grow 6 How to Keep Land Fertile .... 7 Large or Small Seeds 9 Lespedeza 27 Millet 27 Oats 28 Parts of the Flowvr 10 I'eanut 28 Potatoes 29 Preparation of Land 9 Rice 34 Rotation of Crops 8 The Soil and Water 6 Rye 38 Sorghum 39 Sugar Cane 40 Sun Flower 44 Tobacco 43 Velvet Bean 52 Vetch 53 Wheat 54 Feed : How Plants 6 Feed tor Chickens 510, 525 Feeding Formulas 486 Feed for Dairy Cattle 482 Feeding Horses 412 " Hogs 437 •' of Bees 288 Fertile : How to Keep Land 7 '■ Eggs 545 Fertilizer Department 148-173 Barnyard Manure 159 Chemical Analysis of the Soil . . 163 Cotton Seed 160 Composition of SoJs 152 Fertilizer Formulas .\162 Introduction 150 Land Plaster 161 Nitrogen 153 Phosphorus 154 I'otash 155 Fertilizer Formulas 162 Fescue : Meadow 27 Fever. Milk 471 " Potechlal 360 •' Splenetic 456 " Tick 456 Field Crops 11-55 Fig 93 " Mealey Bog 248 Fire Blight HI •' Pear 250 Firming Soil About Seed 10 Fish as a Fertilizer 161 Fistulous Withers 342 666 Page. Flat-Headed Borer 202 Flea Beetles 222, 251 Flea Beetles: Cantaloupe 246 •• Egg I'lant 248 " Grape 248 " Potato 251 •' Tomato 253 Flies : How to get rid of 237 Floral Department 122-147 A plea for more Flowers 124 About Seed Buying 138 Abronia 125 Ageratum 125 Atyssum 125 Amaranthus 126 Anteri-hinum 127 Aristolocbia or Dutchman s IMpe, 13G Asters 12S Balloon Vine 136 Balsam 127 Balsam Apple 136 Bellis I'erennls 127 Bulbs for Spring Planting 142 Bulbs— Pot and Water Culture . . 141 Cacalia 128 Caladiums 143 Cannas 128 Carnations 127 Chrysanthemums 129 Corbea Soandens 137 Cosmos .' 129 Climbers for Porches and Trellis. 136 Coleus 12S Crocus 140 Cultivation 146 Cypress Vine 136 Dahlias 130 Delphinium .131 Dianthus or Garden Pinks 130 Eschscholtzia 131 Flowers from Bulbs 139 Flowers from Seeds 124 Forget-me-nots 131 Gaillardia 131 Gladioli 143 How to Sow Flower Seed 124 Heliotrope 131 Hollyhock ! 131 Iberis or Candytuft 132 Japanese Morning Glories 137 Japanese Hop 137 Lantana 132 Marvel of Peru 132 Marigolds 133 Moon-flowers 137 Nasturtiums 132 Out Door Culture 139 ' Pansies 133 Petunias 133 Phlox Drummondi 133 Poppies 134 Kicinus or Castor Bean 134 Salvia Splendeus 134 Soil Preparation . . . : 144 Sweet Peas 134 Sweet Williams 135 The Narcissus Family 140 The Rose, The Queen of Flowers, 143 Time of Planting 144 Transplanting 145 Trimming and Pruning 146 Tuberoses 142 Page. Verbena 135 Violets 135 Vinca 135 Watering 146 Zinnias 136 Flowers from Seeds 124 Flowers from Bulbs 13'J Flour Beetles 229 '" Moths 22* Fly : Hessian Wheat 255 " White 232, 249 Fodder 20 Food Value of Honey 290 Foot Evil : Cows 4T5 Forget-me-Nots 131 Formulas : Fertilizer 162 Formalin 242 Formaldehyde 242 Four O'clocks 1»2 Founder 319 Fractures 33s Fruit on the Farm 119 Fruit Notes 120 Fruits and Nuts 87-120 Apple 89 Black-berry 91 Budding and Grafting 114 Chestnuts 92 Chinkapin 93 Dewberry 92 Figs 93 J'ruit Notes 120 Fruit on the Farm 119 Fungus Diseases 110-114 Grapes 95 Increasing the size of the Fruit, 120 Japanese Persimmon 104 Mulberry 97 Oranges 97 Peach 95 I"ear 103 i'ecan 104 Pine Apple 105 PUim 106 I railing 117 Uaspberry 107 Straw-berry 107 Quince 106 Fungus Diseases of Garden Plants . 82-85 Anthracnose 83 Asparagus Rust 82 Black Rot of Cabbage 83 Club Foot 84 Damping Off 85 Downy Mildew 85 Leaf Blight 84 I'owdery Mildew 85 Rust 83 Tomato Blight 85 Tomato Black Rot 85 Fruit Tree Bark Beetle 190 Fruit Worm : Cranberry 246 •• Tomato 253 Fungicides 239 Fungus Diseases of Fruits and Nuts. 110-114 Anthracnose 112 Apple Scab 110 Black Knot 112 Black Rot Ill BrowH Rot Ill Cane Rust 113 Page. Cedar .\pple Fungus 110 Downy .Mildew 113 Leaf Blight Ill ■• Blight Ill Mildew 114 Peach Scab Ill Peach Curl 112 " Yellows 112 •• Rosette 112 Plum Pocket 112 Powdery Mildew 113 Shot Hole Fungus 112 Strawberry Leaf Blight 114 Gadfly 449 Gaillardia 131 Gall ; Crown Apple 264 Gall : .Nematode 198 Game Bantams 550 Gapes 513, 530 Garden Department 56-86 Anthracnose 83 Artichokes 64 Asparagus 65 Asparagus Rust 82 Beans 66 Beets 67 " Blight 113 Black Rot of Cabbage 83 Cabbage 67 Carrots 71 Celery 69 Clubfoot 84 Collards 70 Cold Frames 59 Cucumbers 70 Damping Off 85 Downy Mildew 85 Egg Plant 71 Farmer's Garden 62 Fungous Diseases of Plants .... 82 Germination of Seed 60 How to Prepare a Seed Bed ... 58 Kale 72 Leaf Blight 84 Lettuce 72 Market Gardening . . 58 Mushrooms 73 Muskmelon 74 Mustard 75 Okra or Gumbo 75 Onions 76 Packing and Shipping Vegetables . 62 Powdery Mildew 85 Pumpkins 77 Quantity of Seed Required .... 85 Radishes 78 Rotation of Garden Crops 61 Rutabagas ..." 78 Rust 83 Sage 79 Salsify or Vegetable Oyster* .... 79 Sowing Seeds 60 Squash 79 Sweet Corn 80 " Potato 80 Tea 80 Tomatoes 80 Tomato Blight 85 Tomato Black Rot 85 Turnip 81 5S7 \'egetable Notes 63 Watermelon S'2 Gaiden Crops : Rotation of 61 Garden ; The Farmer's 62 Garden I'lnks 130 Garlic : Seed Itequired 86 Garget 473 Geese 534 Germination of Seed 60 Gladioli 142 Glaucoma 389 Glanders 357 Goat Department 440-457 Golden Bugs : I'otato 251 Gourd : Seed Kequ.red 86 Gooseberry : Leaf Spot 248 " Worm 248 Grain for Cattle 490 Grain Moths 227 Grain Weevils 226 Grafting Trees 114 Grapes 95 " Anthracnose 248 Grape: Downy Mildew 248 •• I<"lea Beetles 248 "Rot 248 Grape Slug 248 Grasses 25-27 Bermuda Grass 25 Carpet Grass 26 Crab Grass 26 Johnson Grass 26 Kentucky Blue Grass 27 Meadow Fescue 27 Grass Insects : Army Worms 248 •' Grasshoppers 248 Grasshoppers 248 fjrass : Seed Required 86 Grass Staggers 466 Grubs : Horses 348 " Cows 470 •■ Sheep 449 Gravel : Horses 356 " Cows 469 Gumbo 75 " Seed Required 86 H Haematuria 462 Hairy Vetch 53 Halter fuller : How to Break 404 Hamburgs Chickens 552 Hampshire Down Sheep 447 Harlequin Bug : Cabbage 245 Hard Alilker 472 Harvesting Corn 20 Hatching Season 556 Hay : How to Cure 24 Head: Big 364 Health of Poultry 546 Head of the Horse 296 Heaves 354 Heliotrope 131 Hellebore 241 Hemp : Seed Required 86 Hen Lice 531 Hernia 468 Hessian Fly : Wheat 253 Hip Joint Disease 336 Hipped Animal 336 Hives for Bees 286 Hog Department 431-444 I'age. Apoplexy 441 Breeds of Hogs 435 Cholera 440 Destroying Vermin 447 Eczema 443 Feeding 434 Hog Feed 437 How to Raise Hogs 437 Kidney Worms 444 Paralysis 441 Pneumonia 441 Pure Water 435 Rheumatism 443 Salt and Ashes 435 Scratching Post 438 Sunstroke 443 Thumps 443 Hog Feed . . . 437 Holly Hock 131 Hollow Horn 463 Honey as a Food 290 Horn Worm : Tobacco 225. 252 Horse Department 292-430 Age of the Horse 309 Anatomy of the Horse 295 Anthrax 361 Azoturia 367 Beecher on the Horse 410 Bellowsed Horse or Heaves .... 354 Big Head 364 Bone Spavin 328 Bots or Grubs 348 Bronchitis 350 Canker 318 Corns 318 Cracks in the Hoof 322 Curb 331 Choke 343 Cerebro-Spinal Meningitis 300 Controlling the Horse 402 Doses and Actions of Drugs . . . 429 Diseases of Breed iig Aii.mals . . 3uS Diseases of the Eye 374 Diseases of Urinary Orga-'s . . . .350 Diseases of Respiratory t>rgans . . 350 Distemper ^ 350 Diarrhoea 349 Diseases of Digestive Organs . . .343 Disease of the Blood Vessels . . . 336 Disease of the Stifle 336 Deep Seated Abscesses 335 Diseases of the Hip Region .... 335 Disease of Large Blood Vessels at Shoulder 3:i i Disease of the Tendons 3110 Dropsical Condition of the Syno- vial Sac 331 Fractures 338 Fistulous Withers '. . . .342 Feeding Horses 412 Glanders 3.'i7 Hip Joint Disease 330 Horny Tumor 32! .Horses' Teeth 411 Halter Puller 404 Inflammation of the K dievs ... 3" • Irritable Condition of the Bladder, 3.'i'> Infectious Diseases 357 Influenza 358 Inflammation of an Artic\ilation .332 Inflammation of Shoulder Muscle, 335 Indigestion and Colic 344 Pago. Inflammation of the Bowels . . . .340 Kicking and Pawing in Stall , . .40.% , Lice .' . . . 360 Lameness or Founder 319 Navicular Disease 324 Novel Methods of Hitching Horses, 408 I Outward Dislocation of Patella . .337 Poll Evil 342 Pneumonia or Lung Fever 351 Pleurisy 353 Potechial Fever 360 Punctures of the Foot 317 Paralysis of the Nerves of the Shoulder ,333 Paralys s of Rad'al Nerve 334 Paralysis of Nerves 335 Quiftar 321 Rabies 35i> Ring Bone 326 Shoeing the Iloise 307 Side Bones 323 Splint 327 Shoe Bo Is 337 Snake Bites 342 Spasmodic Colic 345 Spasm of the Diaphragm 354 Skin Disease 365 Skin Tumors 366 Shoe'ng Horses 409 Tetanus 362 The I'alky Horse 421 Thrush 313 \\'ounds 34Q Worms 347 Horse: Controlling the 402 " Beecher on the 410 " Feeding 412 '• Horse in the Stall 403 " Teeth 411 Horny Tumor 323 Houses for Chickens 500 Hoven 465 Hot House Plant Lice 248 " Red Spider 248 Hot Bed 59 How to Keep the Boys on the Farm . 3 Humus: Definition of 5 How Plants Feed 6 " Grow 6 Humulus Japonicus 137 Hydropthalmus 389 I Iberis 132 Impaction of the Th.rJ S.uma. U . . .466 Imperfect Flower 11 Improved Farm Machl.;er.v . . . .274-280 Incubators 504 Indian Games 552 Indian Peach Scale: 'Vest 184 Indigestion 467 Indigestion in Chickens 531 Indigestion in Horses 344 Indgestlon : Chronic 344 Indistinct Vision 391 Infectious Dlscises 357 Infectious Conjunctivitis 381 Inflammation of the Articulation . . .332 Inflammation of the Bladder 469 Inflammation of the Brain 469 Inflammation, of the Bowels 349 Inflammation qf the Kidney 356 568 rage. Inflammation of the Eyelids 374 Inflammation of the Lungs : Chicliens, 512 Inflammation of the Muscle 335 Inflammation of the Tongue 465 Inflammation of the Udder 471 Influenza 358 Inoculated Seed 12 Insect Department 174-253 Acorn and Chestnut Weevil .... 211 Apple Tree Borers 201 Apple Curculio ' . . 204 Black reach Aph.s 198 Bed Bugs 234 Blood Weed Weev.l 212 Bud Worms 225 Cabbage Worm 222 Canker Worms 205 Carpet Beetle 235 Caterpillars I'J'J. 204 Cherry Scale 183 Click Beetle 212 Codling Moth 202 Colorado Potato Beetle 221 Corn Root Worm 218 Corn Stalk Borer 217 Curculio 194 Cotton Boll Weevil 205 Cotton Boll Worm 213 Cotton Caterpillar 216 Cotton Cushion Scale 233 Cotton Sharpshooter 212 Cow Pea Pod Weev.l 211 Cutworms 220 Cucumber Beetle 221 Flat Headed Borers 202 Flea Beetle 222 Fleas 234 Grain Weevils 226 Horn Worms 225 Insecticides and Fungicides .... 239 New Plum Aphis 197 Orange San Jose Scale 232 Peach Tree Borer 187 Peach Tree Bark Beetle 190 Peach Twig Borer 192 Peach Lecanium 185 Plant Lice 223 Plum Pulvinaria 186 Putnam's Scale Insect 182 Red Orange Scale 234 Root Knot 198 San Jose Scale 176 Screw Worm 239 Seventeen Year Locusts 205 Spincd Tobacco Bug 225 Spray Calendar 244 Squash Vine Borer 219 Squash Bug 221 Tobacco Stalk Worm Tj4 Tobacco Leaf Miner 225 West Indian Peach Sca'.e 184 Woolly Aphis 200 White Fly 232 Insecticides 239 Ipomea 137 Irrigation and Drainage 254-269 Drainage 263 Irrigation 256 Irrigating Celery 262 Irrigating Onions 262 Irrigating Orchards 261 Irrigating Rice 262 Page. Terracing 267 Water Supply 258 Irrigation of Rice 34, 36, 262 Irrigation of Celery 70, 262 Irish Potatoes 29 Iris : Diseases of the 384 J Japanese Hop 137 Japanese Morning Glories 137 Japanese Persimmons 104 Japanese Sugar Cane 44 Jaw Lumpy 461 Johnson Grass 26 •' How to Destroy 273 Joints: Stiff 532 K Kale 72 Kale: Seed Required 86 Kentucky Blue Grass 27 Kerosene Emulsion 182, 240 Keratitis 380 Kicking in the Stall 403 Kicker: How to Break the 424 Kidneys: Inflammation of 356 Kidney Worms : Hog 444 Kind of Drains 265 Knot Root 108 Kohn Rabi : Seed Required 8S L Lady Slipper 127 Lameness of Horses 317 Lameness at the Shoulder 333 Laminitis 319 Land : How to Keep it Fertile .... 7 " Preparation of 9 " Plaster 161 Langsbans 550 Lantana 132 Larkspur 131 Large or small seeds 9 Laryngitis 464 Laws Governing Plants 3 Leaf Blight 84, 111 Leaf Blight: Apple 244 Leaf Blight : Pear 250 " Strawberry 114. 252 •• Bean 245 " Quince 251 Leaf Disease of Nursery Stock .... 249 Leaf Curl : Pear 250 Leaf Miner: Tobacco 225 Leaf Mold Potato 251 Leaf Roll : Strawberry 252 Leaf Rust Violet 253 Leaf Spot Ill " Beet 245 •• Cherry 247 " Carnation 240 " Celery 246 " Chrysanthemum 246 '• Egg Plant 248 " Gooseberry 248 •■ Potato 251 " Rose 252 Leek : Seed Required 86 Lecanium : Peach 185, 250 Leg Weakness: Chickens 513 I^eghorn Chickens 551 Lespedeza 27 Page. Lettuce 72 " Seed Required 86 Lice 470 '■ Cabbage 224 " Cherry 246 " Cotton 247 " Hen 531 " Horse 366 " Hot House Plants 248 " Peach 249 " Plant 223 Light for Horses 413 Lime-Sulphur-Salt Wash 178, 240 Lime-Sulphur 179 Lime-Sulphur Tar Mixture 189 Lime and Potash Wash 189 Lime leo Limbemeck 530 Line Breeding 54X Lithasis 469 Literature for Poultry Raisers .... 527 Liver of Sulphur 242 Living Matter: Definition of 4 Lockjaw 4Qi Location of Poultry Farm 500 '..ocust : Seventeen Year 205 Louse Cantaloupe 246 "Tea 249 Lucerne or Alfalfa 11 Lumps In Teats 472 Lung Fever 351 " Inflammation of Chicken 512 M Malignant Catarrh 463 Mammitis 47^ Manure : Barnyard 159 Market Gardening 5^ -Marigold 132 Marvel of I'eru 132 Mealy Bag : Fig 248 Meadow Fescue 27 Meal Moths 228 Meal Worms 230 Meningitis : Horse 36O Medicine : How much to give 429 Methods of Examining Eyes 399 Melon : Water : Seed Required .... 86 Melon : Water 82 Melon : Musk 74 " Musk : Seed Required 86 Mexican Cotton Boll Weevil 205 Mice 272 Mildew ... ; 246, 250 Mildew: Downy 85 " Downy Grapes 113, '248 " Powdery 85 ■■ Powdery : Grapes 113 " Strawberry U4, 252 Milk: Bitter 475 " Bloody or Stringy 474 '■ Fever 470 Milker: Hard 472 Millet 27 MInorcas 552 Miner : Tobacco Leaf 225 MIrabills 132 Mites : Chicken .-,31 Motes 272 Molting Season 526 Money In Bees 284 Moon Blindness 39J T,an Page. Mole : Sooty Orange H9 Moon Flowers 137 Morning Glories : Japanese KT Moth : Clothes ^36 •• Codling 202 " Codling I'ea -50 " Flour --^ " Grain •■- ' •• Meal --^ Mulberry ^"^ Murrain: Dry *'^*^ Muskmelon '^* Muskmelon : Seed Required 86 Mushroom '^ Mustard ''•' N Narcissus l*" Nasturtiums ^32 Nasturtium : Seed Required 86 Navicular Disease 32-1 Nematode Gall I'JS Nest : Trap ^^3 New Plum Aphis 1'**^ Nitrogen 1''3 Notes : Fruit ^-^ •• Vegetable *>3 Nursery Stock Leaf U.sc-asd 240 O Gates 28 Oaies : Seed Required . . . 8G Oat Smut 249 Okra ''^ •• Seed Required 88 Onions '*' ■■ Seed Required 86 " Irrigation of 262 Opthalmia : I'eriodic 30:: Opacities of the Cornea 383 Oranges 07 Orange Insects -3-, 249 Orange Rust : Blackberry 252 ■ Dewberry 252 " liaspbei ly 252 Orpington Chickens 552 Oyster: Vegetable ,• . . 70 P Packing Soil Around Seed 10 Packing Vegetables 62 Pansies 133 Paris of a Flower 10 Paris Green 240 I'arls Green-Bordeaux Mixture .... 240 Parsnip : Seed Required 86 Parsley : Seed Required 86 Paralysis of Hogs 441 Paralysis of the Tongue 405 Paralysis of Nerves of the Shoulder . 333 Paralysis of the Nerves 335 Paralysis of the Radial Nerve .... 334 Patella : Dislocation of the 336 Pawing In the Stall 405 Peas 23 •• Seed Required 86 I'ea Louse 249 • Weevil 249 Peach 93 " Aphis : Black 198. 249 •■ Black Aphis 198, 240 •• Borer 249 Page. Peach CurcuUo 194, 249 Curl 112 Lecjnium 185, 250 Plant Lice 197 Rosette 112 Scab Ill Scale Insects 1T6, 250 Twig liorer 102, 250 Peachtree Borer 186 Peach Yellows 112 Peanut 28 Pear 103 •' Bud Worm 250 '• Codling Moth 250 " Fire Blight 250 •• Leaf Blight 250 ■■ Leaf Curl 250 '• San Jose Scale 250 •■ Scab 250 " Slug 250 Pecan ^^* Pepper : Seed Required 8« Perfect Flower H Periodic Opthalmia 392 Persimmon : Japanese 104 Petals of a Flower 10 Petunias 133 Phosphorus 154 Phlox Drummondl 133 Pickling Meat -138 Pine Apple 105 Pink : Garden 130 Pistils of a Flower 10 Plague : Swine 440 Plant Food 4 Plant Roots 7 Plants : How they Feed 6 " How they Grow 6 •• Lice 107, 223 " Lice: Peach 197 Plethora 461 Pleuropneumonia : Contagious .... 454 Pleurisy : Cow 465 •• Horse 3.53 Plum IfS Plum Aphis : The New 107 " Bladder 112 " Insects 250 ■• Pockets 112. 250 •' Pulvinaria 186 " Shot hole Fungous 250 Plymouth Rock Chickens 550 Pneumonia : Chicken 530 Pneumonia : ContaglousPIeuro .... 454 '• Cow 464 " Horses 351 Poland-China Hogs 436 Pollen 10 Pollination 10 Poll Evil 342 Poor Land 8 Popples 134 Poppy: California 131 Potash 155 •• Spray 241 Potatoes 29 " Seed Required 80 Potato Black Rot 251 Potato Blight 251 " Beetle : Egg Plant 24S " Tomatoes 253 " Colorado Beetle 2.50 Page. Potato Beetle : Colorado 221, 250 " Flea Beetles 251 " Golden Bugs 251 " Scab 251 Potechial Fever 360 Poultry Department 496-563 Best Hatching Season 556 Bowel Trouble 512 Breeds of Fowls 547 Brooding the Chicks 515 Brooding by Hens 509 Care of Breeding Stock 523 Care of Little Chicks 514 Chicken Pox 530 Chicken Mites 531 Cholera 528 Colds and Roupe 529 Coops 504 Disease of Digestive Organs . . . 512 Duck Raising 533 Duck Raising tor Profit 555 Egg Farming in the South .... 520 Exercise 524 Feed for Chickens 525 Feeding Chickens 509 Fertile Eggs 545 Gapes 513, 530 Geese 534 Health of Poultry 546 Hen Lice 531 Houses and Yards 500 Incubators and Brooders 504 Indigestion 531 Inflammation of Lungs 512 Introductory 498 Leg Weakness 513 Literature for Poultrymen 527 Limberneck 530 Line Breeding 541 Location of Farm 500 Moulting Season 526 Non-Absorption of Contents of Yolk Sac 512 Notes on Little Chicks 515 Official Score Card 552 Poultry Ailments 532 Poultry Pointers 559 Pneumonia 530 Rooster Talk 558 Seasonable Hints 554 Starting a Broiler Plant 517 Stiff Joints 532 Summer Chicks . . . 527 Trap Nest 543 Treatment of Show Birds 557 Turkeys 537 Water for Chickens 504 Poultry Ailments 532 Powdery Mildew 85 Powdery Mildew : Grapes 113 Pox : Cow 455 Preparation of Land 9 Pruning 117 Ptosis 376 Puivinarin. Plum 186 Pumpkin 77 Pumpkin : Seed Required 86 Pupil: Closure of the 385 Putnam's Scale Insects 182 . Pyrethrum 241 570 Q Page. Quantity of Seed Required 85, 86 Queen Bee 291 Quince 106 Quince Leaf Blight 251 Quince Bust 251 Quince Slug 251 Quittor 321 R Kabbits : How to Destroy 272 Rabies ; Horse 359 Radial Nerve ; I'aralysis of i-o . •. . . 334 Radisb iS " Seed Required 86 " Cabbage Web \Voim 'loA Raspberry 107 " Anthracnose 251 " Orange Rust 252 " Rose Scale 251 " San J use Scale 251 " Slug 251 Rats, liow to Destroy 272 Red Orange Scale 234 Red Spider 248 Red Water 402 Rlieumatism of Cows 462 " of Hogs 443 Ribbon Cane 40 Rice . 34 '• H-rigation of 262 Ricinus 134 Ring Bone 326 Ringworm 470 Rice Weevil 227 Rooster Talk 558 Root Borers ; Botatoes 251 Boots of I'lants 7 ' Root Knot 198 Boot Worm : Corn 218 Roses 143 Rose Chafer 252 Rose Beetle 252 " Leaf Spot 252 " San Jose Scale 252 " Scale 251, 252 •• Slug 252 Rosette : Peach 112 Rot: Brown Ill, 250 " Bitter Apple 244 " Black : Cabbage 83 " " Tomato 85 " Grape 248 " Potato Black 251 Rotation of Garden Crops 61 " of Crops S Round-Headed Borer 201 Roupe 529 Rupture 468 Rutabaga Turnip 78 Rust 83. 110 " Apple 245 *' Asparagus 82, 245 " Carnation 246 " Quince 251 " Strawberry 252 ■ '• Violet Leaf 253 Rye 38 •• Seed Required 86 S Safety Bridle 415 Page. Sage 79 Salsify 79 " Seed Required 8G Salvia Splendeus 134 Salt for Hogs 435 Sand Soil 5 San Jose Scale : Apple 244 " Blackberry 251 " Cherry 245 " Dewberry 251 " Orange 233. 249 " Peach i7(j, 250 " t'far . . : 250 " Raspberry 251 " Rose 252 Scab : Apple 245 '* Orange 249 " Grape 112 " Peach Ill " Pear 250 " Potato 251 Scale : Cherry 183 " Cotton Cushion 233. 249 *• Insects : Peach 176, 250 " Putnam's 182 " Red Orange 234 " Rose 232 " San Jose : Apple 244 " Cherry 245 '■ Orange 233, 249 " West Indian Peach 184, 250 Scarlet Sage . 134 Screw Worm 239 Science : Agriculture as a 3 ■■ Definition of 3 Self Sucker 476 Score Card : Poultry 552 Scours 468 Scrtchlng Post 438 Seed Bed : How to Prepare a 58 " Buying 138 •' Corn 17 " Germination of 60 " Firming Soil About 10 " Quantity Required 85-86 •• Small or Large 9 '• Sowing 60 Sepals of a Flower 10 Seventeen Year Locust . . '. 205 Shade Tree Caterpillars ........ 252 Sharpshooter ; Cotton 212 Sheep and Coat Department . . . 44.5-451 How to Succeed 447 Breeds of S'eep 447 Average Wool per Sheep 448 Breeding Age of Sheep 449 Water for Sheep 449 Shelter for Sheep 449 Feeding Places for Sheep 449 Diseases of Sheep 449 Goats 449 Shipping Vegetables 62 Shoeing Horses 307, 409 Shoe Boil 1, 337 Shoulder Lameness 333 Show Birds 5o7 Shropshire Sheep 447 Shying : Cause of 391 Side Bones 323 '• Grafting 116 Size of Fruit 120 Silos 487 Page. Skin Diseases 3^5 " Tumors 305 Slug : Blackberry 251 " Cherry "247 " Currant 248 " Dewberry gsi " Grape ' 2iii " Pear _^j " Quince ! . 251 " Raspberry 251 Shot Hole Fungous 112 " Kose ! ^252 " Strawberry 252 Snake Bites 342 Snap Dragon 127 Smut : Oats 249 " ^'heat 1253 Small or Large Seed 9 Snout Beetle 212 Soils g Soil : Functions of 5 Soil and Water g " Composition of . . 152 '• Firming about seed necessary . . 10 Soiling 4gg Soil as related to Irrigation 258 Sooty Mole : Orange 249 Sorghum 39 Sowing Seeds gg Sore Head .' ." 'ggo •• Teats 472 " Throat : Cow 464 South Down Sheep 447 Spiders 236 Spasmodic Colic 345 Spasm of the Diaphragm 354 Spider Bites 236 " Red 248 Spined Tobacco Bug 225 Spraying 239 Spavin : Bone 323 Splenetic Fever 455 Splints 327 Spinach : Seed Required 86 Squash 79 " Bug 221 " Cantaloupe 246 " Seed Required go " Vine Borer 219, 246 Squinting 392 Stamen of a flower 10 Starch g Stems of a Plant 7 Stalk Borer : Corn 217 " Worm : Tobacco 224 Staphyloma of the Coraea 383 Sting of Bees 288 Stifle 336 Stiff Joints 532 Staggers 5»i Stallion Bridle 415 Stomach : Impaction of Third .... 466 Stone in Bladder 3,50 Strabismus 391 Strangles 359 Strawberry 197 •• Leaf Blight 114, 252 " Strawberry Leaf Roller 252 '* Mildew 252 " Rust 252 '• Tarnished Plant Bug . 252 " '""^ ; ." .'252 571 / Page. Stringy Milk 474 Striped I'oetles : Cantaloupe -40 Sugar Caue 40 •■ Caue Borer 252 Sunflower 44 Swarming of Bees 287 Sweetcorn 80 •• Peas 134 " Wiiliam 13.") Summer Savory : See Required . . . S',; Sunstrul7 Tent" Caterpillar : American IC'.) " Apple 244 Tendons : Disease of 32'J Tester : Babcock 40(1 Tetanus: Horse . . . 31'.-; " Cow 469 Texas Fever 456 Thrush 318 Thumps : Hogs 443 Tick Fever 45G Tile Drains: Size to use 2i'i7 Tobacco 45 •' Seed Kequired 86 ■' Bug : Spined 225 " Bud Worm 225, 252 " Cutworm 224, 252 " Horn Worm . . 252 " Leaf Miner 225 " Stalk Worm 224 •' Worm 225 *' a.'^ an Insecticide 241 Tomato 80 " Seed Required 86 " Blight 85, 25.^ " Eiack Rot 85 " Blossom End Rot 253 '• Potato Beetle 25."! " Worm 253 Tools for the Preparation of Land . 277 Tools for Planting and CuItiMtion .278 Tools for Harvesting 279 Tongue Grafting 116 " Inflammation of 465 Page. Topping Cotton 23 Topping Tobacco 50 Touch-me-not 127 Trap Nest 543 Tube Rose 142 Tuberculosis of Cows 460 Tumors on Cows 475 Tumor of the Wall o£ the Foot . . . 323 Tree Pruning 117 Turnip 81 *' Seed Required 86 ■' Cabbage Web V orm 252 Turkeys 537 Twig Borer : Peach 192, 250 •• Blight : Pear 250 Typhanitis 465 U Udder: Inflammation of 471 Ulcer of the Cornea 383 Umbrella Behind a Horse 417 V Vaccinae: Variola 455 Variola Vaccinae 455 \'erbena : Land or California 125 Verbena 135 Vegetable Cut Worms 253 Vegetable Notes t'.3 Vegetable Oyster "9 Vegetables: Packing and Sb.pping . . . 62 Velvet Beans 52 Vermin : To destroy 444 Vetch 53 Victoria Hog 436 Vinca 135 Violet 135 Violet Leaf Rust 253 W Wart: Black 112 Warts on Cows 474 Wasp stings 236 Water : The Soil and 6 Watermelon 82 Water Melon : Seed Required 86 •• tor Chickens 504 " for Hogs 435 " tor Sheep 449 " Supply for Irrigation 25H Watermelon Blight 246 " Louse 246 " Squash Bug 240 " Striped Beetles 246 Weevil : Blood weed 212 " Cow pea pod 211 " Grain 220 : •^ Page Weevil, Pea . .. 24ij '■ Potato 251 " Rice 227 West Indian Peach Scale 184 Whale Oil Soap 241 Wheat ■■ Seed Required 8ti " Chinch Bug 25:i " Hessian Fly 253 " Smut 25:.! White Grubs: Corn 247i White Fly 232, 24tM Whip Grafting m White Georgian Games 540 Wlit : Cotton 2471 *' Tomato 253 Wind Colic 345 Wire Worms : Corn 24* Withers : Fistulous Z4 Wolves : Cow 4- Woolly Aphis 2< Aphis : Apple 2 Worm : Apple 2 Apple Bud 2 Bud Pear 2 1 Bud, Tobacco i Cabbage 222 ^ Canker ; Canker Apple ^ Collard ; Corn Root ; Cotton Boll 213. L Cut Tobacco : Fail Web Apple i" Fruit 1 Fruit, Cranberry 2 Horn. Tobacco 2 Meal 2 Screw . ; 2: Stomach 3. Tobacco 2" Tobacco Stalk 2'. Tomato o.' Vegetable Cut 2." Worming Tobacco r, Wounds 341 Wounds of the Eyelids 37^ Wyandotte Chickens 55( Yellows: Peach n^ Yolk Snc : Non-absorption of Con- tents of 51; Yorkshire Hog 43{ .13( 572 'i?:S-x '■-:'!' i^;;;!?!^;