\h Class ___£XZS:_ Book__. HZi -2. ()op>Tight]^^.. COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. "A O o "A (—1 < -< o r-i I— I w American History Government and Institutions A MANUAL OF CITIZENSHIP FOR YOUNG AMERICANS AND NEW AMERICANS BY DANIEL HOWARD, A. M., I\ Superintendent of Schools for Windsor and Windsor Locks, Connecticut; Member Board of Directors of Lincoln, Institute. THE PALMER COMPANY. i20 hoylston street, Boston, Mass. r//cf Copyright 1908, 1914, by Daniel Howard. JAN -2 1915 ©Cl.A3931i:i PREFACE. This book has been written by request. The needs of the immigrant population of Windsor Locks first led the writer to consider what could be done to help them. Prof. Alberto Pecorini, of the American International College of Spring- field, Mass., next approached him with an urgent solicitation to prepare such a book as has been attempted. Several prominent educators expressed the need that they felt for something of this sort. The work has been undertaken and carried out in the hope that it would be useful in inspiring a love for and some knowledge of American history, government, and institu- tions. It aims to be merely an elementary manual ex- pressed in simple language. It is hoped that it may prove of use to a multitude of new citizens to whom America is the home of their adoption, as well as find a welcome in the hands of many of our native born youth who may desire something elementary and concise pertaining to the sub- jects of which it treats. It is submitted to the public in the hope that it may justify its existence and have an honorable part in helping to supply the need that caused it to be written. DANIEL HOWARD. Windsor Locks, Conn., Aug. 31, 1914. CONTENTS. AMERICAN HISTORY. Sections Era of Discovery and Exploration 1-19 Era of Colonization 20-32 Life in the Colonies 33-42 French and Indian W ar 43-48 Revolutionary War 49-63 Era of Federation 64-74 Civil W^ar 75-91 Era of Expansion 92-105 AMERICAN GEOGRAPHY. ]Map of America 106 Acquisition of Territory 107-117 Map of the United States 118-126 AMERICAN GOVERNMENT. General Outline and Legislative Department 127-144 Executive Department 145-156 Judicial Department 157-162 State Government 163-176 Municipal Government 177-186 Political Parties 187-196 Ai'NlERICAN BIOGRAPHY. ('Eetween 196 and 197.) George Washington. Benjamin Franklin. Thomas Jcfierson. Ab»-aharn Lincoln. LHysses S. Grant. William McKinley. AMERICAN CITIZENSHIP. Laws and Courts 197-215 Business Methods 216-225 Naturalization 226-229 AMERICAN LIFE. Education 230-237 Religion 238-242 Law and Order 243 Opportunities for Work 244-245 How to be L'seful and Respected Citizens 246 THE ERA OF DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATIONS. 1. Knowledge in the 15th Century. America was dis- covered in the year 1492. Fifty years before that time the people of Europe knew very little about any people except themselves. They knew something about the countries of Northern Africa because those countries bordered on the Mediterranean Sea and were easy for them to visit in their boats. They also knew something about India, and Euro- pean traders purchased many goods that were brought to them from that country. Marco Polo, a traveler from Venice, after spending many years in Asia had returned to Europe in 1295 with wonderful stories about the countries he had visited. Such stories furnished all the information that Europeans had about distant countries. No ships then crossed the Atlantic Ocean and no man in Europe knew that America existed. How did Europeans happen to discover this new coun- try? They did it by trying to find a new route to India. 2. Trade with India. Before the year 1453 two routes between Europe and Asia were used by the traders. The merchants of Genoa used one. Their ships went to Con- stantino[)le, where they met caravans that had come over- land horn the Persian Gulf. These caravans brought silks, spices, perl limes, pearls, and precious stones received from India and near by countries. Venice used the other route. Her vessels went to Cairo and Alexandria, where they met traders who brought them 1. What did Europeans know about the world in the 15th century? 2. What kind of trade was carried on between Europe and India? What routes were used? What hap- pened in 1453? How did this affect trade? What did the King of Portugal try to do? 10 . AMERICAN HISTORY goods received from India by way of the Red Sea and the waters beyond. In 1453 the Turks from Asia captured the city of Con- stantinople. The Turks were enemies of the Christians and they would not let the ships of Genoa come to their city to trade with the caravans. So the trade of Genoa was ruined. The Turks continued to move toward the Red Sea and Venice feared that in a few years her route would be in the hands of the Turks and her trade would be ruined. The people of Europe knew that they must stop trading with India or find a new route to that country. The King of Portugal thought that ships could go around Africa and reach India in that way. He did not think Africa as large as it really is, and when his sailors went a long distance down the coast without coming to the end they were frightened and discouraged and returned home. They feared they never could reach India in that way, and even if they could they thought the route would be too long. Could anybody find a shorter way? 3. Columbus. Christopher Columbus said he believed he could find a shorter w^ay to India by sailing west across the Atlantic ocean. Nearly everybody thought this a foolish thing to say. There were a few learned men in Europe who believed the earth to be round like a ball. Columbus had studied geography, and he, too, believed the earth to be round. i 3. What did Christopher Columbus say about the way to reach India? Did the people think he was right? What did he do to get aid for a voyage? Describe the voyage. What did he discover? In what year? Where did he make a settlement? What happened on his return to Spain? What did Columbus do after that? What can you say of his last days ? AMERICAN HISTORY . 11 If it was round he was sure a ship could sail around it and reach countries on the other side of it. So he felt sure that he could find India in that way. He was a sailor and had made many voyages and he was not afraid to sail upon the great ocean where no ship had ever sailed before. But he was a poor man. He had no money and no ships. He asked the people of his city, Genoa, to help him, but they thought he was crazy. Then he Vvcnt to Portugal to get heln from the king. The king would do nothing for him. He next went to Spain and for eight years tried to get help from the king and queen. The learned men laughed at him and the king and queen could not be interested be- cause they w^ere too busy w'ith their war against the Moors, who lived in their country. At last the war was over and they had more time to listen to Columbus, but he could not persuade them to help him. He was discouraged and started to go to France. Soon some of his friends sent for him to come back. They had persuaded Queen Isabella to give him help. Some friends in Palos also lent him money and soon he had three small ships ready to sail. He had much trouble to find sailors brave enough to go with him. At last ninety sailors and thirty adventurers and priests agreed to go. They sailed from Palos, Spain, on August 3, 1492. When they sailed for weeks and saw no land the sailors were afraid. They thought they should never see home again. Columbus encouraged them to go on and on until the morn- ing of October 12, when they reached an island. How happy they were! Columbus and many of his men went ashore. Kneeling he kissed the ground while tears of joy ran down his cheeks. Then he raised a cross and the royal banner of Spain and took possession of the land in the name of Ferdi- nand and Isabella. The island was one of the Bahamas. 12 AMERICAN HISTORY He named it San Salvador. He thought that he had reached India. So he called the people Indians. For three months he explored the waters near San Salvador, discovering many islands. The largest of these were Cuba and Hayti. Every- where he went he asked for spices, gold, and precious stones, but all he could find was a few gold trinkets worn by the natives in their noses. These they gladly gave to the Spaniards in exchange for beads and bells. In January, 1493, Columbus left about forty of his men on the island of Hayti and sailed back to Spain. The people were wild with joy when they heard of his discovery. Everywhere he went bells were rung and crowds of people gathered to see him. The king and queen listened to his story, saw the gold, the strange birds and new plants, and the nine Indians that he had brought with him, and then fell on their knees and thanked God for what Columbus had done for their kingdom. They at once claimed all the lands that had been discovered. Columbus made three other voyages, discovered more islands and the coast of South America, and returned to Spain, where he died in 1506. His last days were full of sorrow. Queen Isabella, who had been his friend, was dead, and King Ferdinand, disappointed because Columbus had not found rich mines of gold, treated him meanly and let him die in poverty and neglect. What a shame that the man who had found a new world for Spain should be left by her selfish king to suffer in his old age ! 4. Spanish Adventurers. Though Columbus had not discovered gold mines, the people of Spain believed they could find them and many sailed to the New World hoping 4. What was done by Spanish adventurers? What did Balboa do? AMERICAN HISTORY 13 to become rich quickly. The large islands, Hayti, Cuba, Porto Rico, and some others, were soon settled by these adventurers. From the islands they soon went to the mainland. Balboa went from Hayti to the Isthmus of Panama in search of gold. The Indians told him that there was a great sea to the south and that rivers flowed into this sea over beds of gold. He started with a band of Spaniards and some Indian guides to find it. After traveling many days he reached the shore of a great ocean. Wading into the water with a sword in one hand and a flag in the other, he declared that this ocean and all the land upon its shores belonged to the King of Spain. This w^as in the year 1513. He named the new ocean the South Sea, but it is now called the Pacific Ocean. 5. Ponce de Leon. In the year 1513 another Spanish adventurer went to the mainland from Porto Rico. He had been governor of that island, but was not successful and the king removed him from office. Then an Indian told him that toward the north was a land where he could find much gold and a fountain that would make him young again if he bathed in its waters. He sailed with three ships. He searched many islands for gold and the fountain, but could not find them. Then he discovered a land bright wdth flowers and sailed along its shore. He named it Florida and sailed back to Porto Rico. In 1521 he w^ent to Florida again in order to make his home there. This time he had a fight with the Indians and was so badly wounded that he died. 5. What discovery was made by Ponce de Leon? What happened to him on a second visit to the land he had discovered? 14 AMERICAN HISTORY 6. De Narvaez. In 1528 another Spaniard named De Narvaez started with 400 men to explore Florida. The Spaniards had already conquered Mexico and found gold there and they hoped to find more in the land of flowers. They found nothing but swamps, the huts of savages, un- friendly Indians, and sickness. Only four of them lived to tell the story to their friends in Mexico. 7. De Soto. In 1539 another company sailed for Florida. Their leader was De Soto. He had six hundred men, two hundred horses, a herd of hogs for food, and blood- hounds to hunt the Indians. When he asked for gold the Indians told him it was just ahead. He went on and on, stealing from the Indians, fighting with them and burning their villages. Many died from fever and want of food. In 1541 they came to a great river. They had discovered the Mississippi, "The Father of Waters." A few months later De Soto died and was buried in the river that he had dis- covered. The rest of his party wandered about for a while and then sailed dow^n the Mississippi and joined their friends in Mexico. 8. Explorations on the Pacific. The natives in Mexico told the Spaniards that their gold came from a land to the northwest. The Spaniards tried hard to find it. In 1542 Cabrillo sailed to the coast of California, where he died. Some of his sailors went farther north, but found no gold. 9. Coronado. Some Indians told the Spaniards about their rich villages to the north of Mexico. In 1540 Coronado cover 6. What was done by De Narvaez? 7. Describe De Soto's expedition. What did he dis- What led to explorations on the Pacific? 9. What was done by Coronado? AMERICAN HISTORY 15 with a large company of men started to find these rich towns which they called the ''Seven cities of Cibola/' They traveled hundreds of miles. In New Mexico they found large Indian villages, but no cities and no gold. They dis- covered the Colorado River and explored the country as far as Kansas and Nebraska. The Spaniards had explored a large part of what is now the United States, but they had not yet made a settlement north of Mexico. English Explorers 10. The Cabots. As soon as the other great nations of Europe heard of the discoveries that Columbus had made for Spain they, too, wanted to make discoveries. England sent John Cabot on a voyage in 1497. His purpose was to find the way to India, which Columbus had failed to find. He thought he could sail north of America and get to India in that way. So he tried to find a northwest passage to Asia. He landed somewhere near the coast of Labrador and saw the mainland before it was seen by any of the Spaniards. He could not find the northwest passage and he soon sailed back to England. The next year his son Sebastian sailed to x\merica. His landing place was near Nova Scotia. From there he sailed south and explored the coast as far as Chesapeake Bay. These two voyages gave England her claim to the main part of North America. 11. Sir Francis Drake. In 1577 Sir Francis Drake sailed from England to rob the Spanish settlements and ships. He sailed around South America and went as far 10. Describe the explorations of the Cabots. What did England gain by tliem? 11. What was done by Sir Francis Drake? 16 AMERICAN HISTORY north as Oregon. He landed near San Francisco, named the country New Albion, and claimed it for the King of England. Then he crossed the Pacific Ocean and went around Africa to England. He was the first Englishman to sail around the world, which one ship (Magellan's) had already proved to be round. French Explorers. 12. French Fishermen. When the Cabots returned to England they reported that they had seen many codfish in the waters near Newfoundland. Fishermen on the coast of France heard of this report and they sailed across the ocean to find these new fishing places. While making these voyages they discovered an island and named it Cape Breton. One of these fishermen also discovered and ex- plored the Gulf of St. Lawrence about 1506. 13. Verrazano. A few years later King Francis I be- gan to make explorations in the new world. He thought that a part of America ought to belong to France and he wanted to trade w4th India. In 1524 he sent Verrazano, an Italian sailor, to make explorations and find a route to India. Verrazano sailed to the coast of North Carolina and then followed the coast as far as New England. When he went home the French claimed all the land he had seen. 14. Cartier. Ten years later the French sailed again. Jacques Cartier was their leader. In 1534 he entered the Gulf of St. Lawrence, landed, and claimed the country for his king. The next year he sailed up the St. Lawrence as 12. What caused the first Frenchmen to come to the new world? What did they discover? 13. What was done by Verrazano? What did France claim? 14. What did Cartier explore? What city and country did he name? AMERICAN HISTORY 17 far as an Indian village near a high hill. He climbed this hill and named it Montreal (Royal Mountain), calling the whole country New France. 15. The Huguenots in Florida. In 1562 a company of Frenchmen left their home because a religious war was going on in France, and they wanted to find a new home where they could have peace. They crossed the ocean and landed on the coast of Florida. This did not please them and they sailed north to a place that they named Port Royal. Here they built a small fort. Then their leader, Jean Ribault, sailed back to France. These men were an idle company. For a while the Indians fed them. When the Indians would feed them no more they built a ship and sailed for France. They had so little food that they would have starved if an English ship had not found them and taken them home. The next year another company of Frenchmen, under Laudonniere, went to Florida and built a fort near the St. Johns River. This was on land discovered by the Spanish and the King of Spain sent a company under a leader named Menendez to drive the French away. Menendez captured the fort and cruelly murdered men, w^omen and children. 16. First Settlements in Canada. Fish and furs attracted the French to the north. In 1605 the first settlement in Canada was made at a place called Port Royal. Three years later (1608) a French explorer named Samuel de Champlain built a fort at Quebec in order to buy furs of the Indians. Quebec soon became a very important town. Its fur trade brought wealth to the French and its position on the 15. What caused some Frenchmen to go to Florida? What did they do there? 16. What caused the French to settle Canada? 18 AMERICAN HISTORY St. Lawrence River made it easy to send out exploring par- ties and missionaries to the Indians. The French priests were very eager to make friends with the Indians and to teach them Christianity. 17. Champlain's Mistake. The Indians around Quebec were called Hurons. They Vvcre having a war with the Iroquois, who lived in what is now the state of New York. Champlain went with the Hurons and helped them fight. He shot some of the Iroquois with his gun. The Indians had never before seen or heard a gun and they were terribly frightened. The Hurons won the fight, but the Iroquois were always the enemies of Champlain and the French. They would not let the French trade or settle in their country and they fought against them many times. 18. Marquette and Joliet. The French w^ould have moved up the St. Lawrence to the Great Lakes if the Iroquois had been their friends, but because they were enemies they went up the Ottawa River and then across to Lake Huron. Flere they built trading-stations and mission houses. The Indians told them about a great river to the west and the governor of New France, as the French called Canada, sent a priest named Pierre Marquette and an ex- plorer named Louis Joliet to find the river. With a few friends and some Indians they started from Lake Michigan in two canoes on a long and dangerous journey. They car- ried their canoes through the swamps to the Wisconsin River and then floated down it to the Mississippi. They explored the Mississippi for several days and then w^ent back to their friends in Canada. 17. What was Champlain's mistake? 18. How did Champlain's mistake change French plans? What was done by Marquette and Joliet? AMERICAN HISTORY 19 19. La Salle. Five years later (in 1678) Robert de la Salle left Canada to finish the exploration of the Mississippi. His explorations lasted three years. He went down the river to the Gulf of Mexico and took possession of- the Mis- sissippi Valley in the name of France. He named the valley Louisiana. The French also claimed the valley of the Ohio River and all other rivers that flowed into the Mississippi. They began at once to build forts to protect the valley that they had explored. La Salle attempted to make a settlement at the mouth of the Mississippi, but was not successful. 19. What did LaSalle explore? What did he name? What did the French do as a result? ERA OF COLONIZATION. Spanish Settlements. 20. St. Augustine. Spain made the first settlements in the United States. In 1565, when Menendez went from Spain to Florida to drive out the French, he built a fort which he named St. Augustine. This fort grew to be a town and is the oldest settlement north of Mexico. Seven- teen years later the Spaniards made another settlement at Santa Fe, in New Mexico. They soon made many more settlements and mission-stations in that part of the United States which is north of Mexico. Spain owned Mexico at that time and she called these new settlements a part of that country. English Settlements 21. Walter Raleigh. A few years after the Spanish settled Florida the English tried to make a settlement in America. Queen Elizabeth gave Sir Walter Raleigh per- mission to settle a colony anywhere he wished on the coast of America, provided no other Europeans were there before he was. He sent out an exploring party in 1584. , This party visited Roanoke Island, near the coast of North Carolina. When they went back to England the queen was delighted 20. Describe the settlement of St. Augustine. What other settlements were made by Spaniards? 21. What did Walter Raleigh try to do? Describe his first colony. His second. AMERICAN HISTORY 21 with their description of the land they had seen and she named it Virginia. The next year Raleigh sent 108 men to settle on Roanoke Island. Instead of cultivating the soil and raising crops these men spent their time hunting for gold and silver and they almost starved to death. Sir Francis Drake was mak- ing a voyage to America and when he stopped at the island the settlers all went on board his ship and he carried them back to England. Two years later Raleigh sent over another colony of men and their families. They settled on the same Roanoke Island. Their leader, Governor White, soon went back to England to get supplies for them. A war was going on between England and Spain and he and his ships were needed at home. It w^as three years before he could sail back to Roanoke. When he reached there his settlers w^ere gone. Nobody knows what became of them. Perhaps they went away and starved, or it may be that the Indians killed them. Raleigh spent a fortune trying to find his lost colony, but could learn nothing. 22. The Two Virginia Companies. All the Atlantic coast from Maine to Florida was named Virginia by Queen Elizabeth. In 1606 King James I gave two companies permission to make settlements on this coast. The south- ern part of the coast could be settled by a company of mer- chants whose home was in London. The northern part of the coast could be settled by a company of merchants who lived in Plymouth. The king promised that settlers should have the same rights and privileges in America that Englishmen had at home. 22. How large was Virginia? What two companies were formed to settle it? What did the King promise them? 22 AMERICAN HISTORY 23. The Jamestown Colony. The London company started first. Three ships sailed to Virginia and entered Chesapeake Bay in the spring of 1607. The colonists found a river which they named James River, in honor of their king. Then they sailed up this river about thirty miles and made a settlement which they named Jamestown. Before summer was past half of the men died of a fever. John Smith, their leader, saved the rest. He punished those w^ho would not work and made them build huts to live in. He helped them to get food from the Indians. Two years later 500 new settlers from England came over to Jamestown. They were a worthless lot of idlers and criminals and did not want to work. They had little food and starvation and sickness soon wore them out. That winter was called the "starving time." At the end of six months only sixty were alive. Then three ships loaded with men and supplies arrived and saved the rest. The next year their governor, Sir Thomas Dale, made a new rule to encourage them to raise crops. Before Dale came it was the rule that no one should have any land of his own. They were all asked to work together and put what they raised into one common storehouse. Then all shared alike and each was to receive his share as he needed it. It was a foolish rule, because the lazy would not work and those who did work had to feed the idlers. Governor Dale gave every man some land and each one worked on his own lot and raised crops for himself. Now they had 23. Describe the settlement of Jamestown. In what year was it made? What was the ''starving time"? Did the people work well at first? Why was this? What made them work harder? What did they raise? What great change was made in 1619? What helped the settlers to have better homes? AMERICAN HISTORY fl 23 better times and the colony began to prosper. They raised a great deal of tobacco and sent it to England. Many English farmers came to Jamestown and other places on the James River in order to get land and raise tobacco. Other men came to get work. By 1619 there were 4,000 people in Virginia living in eleven settlements. In that year a great change was made in the government. Some of the governors had treated their people cruelly and none of the governors had let them vote or make their own laws. Now the London Company sent over a new governor named Yeardley and told him to let the settlers help make their own laws. Governor Yeardley asked the people to elect two men from each settlement. The eleven settle- ments elected twenty-two men and sent them to Jamestown to make laws, punish lawbreakers, and manage their affairs. These men wxre called burgesses, a name which meant rep- resentatives of the settlements or towns. Their first meet- ing was held in the church on July 30, 1619. The governor and his council, or men wdio advised him, met wdth the Imrgesses. This House of Burgesses was the first body of law-makers in the new w^orld. Virginia was now a better place to live in. Many new settlers came from England. Most of them were men. The London Company soon sent over a large number of young women to become their wdves. After this they had better homes and happy families. 24. New England. In the same year that the London Company sent its first colonists to Jamestown, the Ply- mouth Company sent a colony of 120 people to the Ken- nebec River, in New England. The country was so cold 24. Where did the English first try to make a settle- ment in New England? What was the result? 24 AMERICAN HISTORY and wild that more than half these men went back to Eng- land on the same ships that brought them over. Forty-five men built huts and stayed through the winter. They almost froze to death and when some ships came from England they all went on board and sailed for home. The Plymouth Company was a failure. 25. Plymouth. Twelve years later another colony came to New England by accident. In England at that time there were some people who hated the ceremonies of the English Church so much that they would not attend service in that church. They formed a separate church of their own and appointed their own minister. For this reason they were called "Separatists." The king punished them for trying to form a separate church and they fled from England to Holland, where they lived twelve years. Because of their travels they were called "Pilgrims." In Holland their children were learning the Dutch language and they were afraid that when they grew up they would marry among the Dutch. They did not wish this. They wanted to be Englishmen, so they decided to go to America and settle on land owned by England. They thought that in America nobody would trouble them and they could have the kind of church they wanted. The London Company gave them permission to settle in Virginia and some English merchants lent them money. In 1620 about one hundred of them crossed th^ ocean in a ship named the "Mayflower." A storm drove them far to the north of Virginia and when they saw land they were near the shores of Cape Cod, which belonged to the Ply- 25. Describe the "Separatists". What other name did they have? Why did they come to America? A\'here did they land? What settlement did they make? AMERICAN HISTORY 25 mouth Company. They spent a month exploring the coast for a good place to settle. On December 21, 1620, they landed and began their settlement. They named it Plymouth because they had sailed from Plymouth in England. There is a story which says that when the Pilgrims landed at Plymouth they all stepped from their boat upon a rock on the shore. For this reason Plymouth Rock is very famous in our history. The next year, 1621, the Plymouth Company disbanded and a new^ company called the Council for New England took its place. The new company gave the Pilgrims large tracts of land and they soon had comfortable log homes and a church. 26. The Puritans. Another group of people in Eng- land were called Puritans. They did not like the ceremonies of the English Church, but they thought they could purify or reform the church. The king punished them and many of them decided to go to America as the Pilgrims had done. In 1628 they bought a tract of land from the Council for New England and John Endicott and sixty others made the first settlement upon it at Salem. The next year the Puri- tans obtained from the king a charter w^hich gave them the right to govern themselves and make such laws as they wished, provided these were not contrary to the laws of England. Several hundred Puritans came over in 1630 and settled Boston. Boston and the settlements near it were called the Massachusetts Bay Colony. During the next ten years twentv thousand English emijrrants came to New Eng-land 26. Who were the "Puritans"? What settlement did they make? Why did some of them move to the Con- necticut V^alley? What great thing was done at Hartford in 1639? 26 AMERICAN HISTORY and settled. Some of these went north to the coast of Maine and New Hampshire. Others went farther south. In 1633 a few men in a boat went from Plymouth to the Connecticut Valley and built a house at Windsor for trad- ing with the Indians. They found rich farming land in the Connecticut Valley and in the next three years many people came from Massachusetts and settled at Windsor, Wethers- field, and Hartford. Rich farming land was not the only thing that made these emigrants settle in Connecticut. The Puritans would not let them vote in Massachusetts unless they were church members. They did not think this was right and after they were settled in Connecticut their minister, Thomas Hooker, helped them to make a written constitution which said all freemen should have the right to vote. This was the first written constitution made in America. It was made at Hartford in 1639 and Hartford is sometimes called the birthplace of our American form of government. In 1638 a number of Puritans had come from England and made another important settlement in Connecticut. They named their settlement New Haven. 27. Roger Williams. Roger Williams was another Massachusetts minister who said the Puritan church did not give men freedom enough. The Puritans punished those who did not like their preaching, or who stayed at home from church service. Roger Williams said this was wrong. He said, too, that it was wrong for the king to give the white men land that belonged to the Indians. The Puritans said they would send Roger Williams back 27. What did Roger Williams say about the Puritans and freedom? What settlement did he make? What did his colony do that had never been done before? AMERICAN HISTORY 27 to England, but he ran away and went to Rhode Island. An Indian chief sold him some land and he and his friends began a settlement which they named Providence. This was the beginning of the Rhode Island colony in 1636. In this colony every honest man w^as welcomed, no mat- ter what his religion w^as. It was the first colony to grant religious freedom to everybody, and many people who had been punished for their religious beliefs were glad to settle in Rhode Island. 28. New York. People from Holland settled one colony. That was New York. In 1609 Henry Hudson, a Dutch trader, discovered the Hudson River and began to trade with the Indians. About 1613 Dutch fur traders built some houses on Manhattan Island. That was the beginning of the great city of New York, to-day the largest city in America. Dutch traders and farmers soon made many settlements on the Hudson River between New York and Albany. 29. Maryland. In England Catholics were made to pay fines because they did not attend the English Church. One of their leaders, named Lord Baltimore, w^anted to make a home for them in America, where they could have their own church and not be punished for it. He asked the king for a charter giving him the right to make settlements on both sides of Chesapeake Bay. He named this land Alary- land. Lord Baltimore died, but his sons carried out his plans. In 1634 they bought an Indian village in Maryland and made a settlement which they named St. Mary's. 28. What people settled New York? Why? 29. Who settled Maryland? Why? What was the Toleration Act? 28 AMERICAN HISTORY Maryland was a new kind of colony. Lord Baltimore's family appointed the governors and the judges. The people elected the lawmakers in the same way that the people elected burgesses in Virginia. They passed a law called the Toleration Act. This law said that all Christians, whether they were Catholics or Protestants, should be treated alike. 30. Pennsylvania. Pennsylvania was settled by the Quakers. These people loved peace and wanted to be friendly to all men. They did not like the Church of Eng- land ; so the English punished them and treated them cruelly. Thev decided to come to America. The king owed a large sum of money to one of these Quakers, named William Penn. Penn asked the king to give him some land instead of the money. The king gave him about forty thousand square miles of land in America. Here Penn began the city of Philadelphia in 1681. He in- vited the Quakers to come and live in his colony. He also let other people come and. if they believed in God they could worship as they pleased. He and his people made a law called the Great Law, which said every man could vote or hold office if he be- lieved in Christ. Settlers came from England, Germany, Holland, France, and Sweden. Everybody liked William Penn and his colony grew very rapidly. He treated the Indians like brothefrs and they were always his friends. He and his family appointed the governors, but the people elected the law-makers. 30. Who settled Pennsylvania? Why? How did they treat the Indians? How were officers chosen? AMERICAN HISTORY 29 31. Other Colonies. All along the x\tlantic coast other settlements were made. Some of them were made by emi- grants from Europe. Others were made by men who left the first settlements to get new land or to find new homes that suited them better. Emigrants from Sweden settled Delaware. The Dutch in New York claimed this land and made the Swedes give it to^them. Then the English took it away from the Dutch. Finally William Penn bought it of the English and made it a part of Pennsylvania. The people of Delaware did not like the union; so Penn let them elect law-makers of their own. New Jersey was first settled by Dutch fur traders from New York. Then other settlers came from England and Connecticut. North Carolina was first settled by people from Vir- ginia. Then many Germans, Scotchmen and Irishmen set- tled along the coast. Some of these people were seeking religious freedom, some, land and new homes, others, trade with the Indians. The first settlement in South Carolina was made by emigrants who came from England. A few Germans and Scotchmen joined them. There were also many French who settled in the colony. King Charles II gave both the Carolinas to eight of his friends, who were to be called the proprietors, or owners, and appoint the governors. The people did not like the proprietors nor their governors and they had many quarrels and much trouble. Finally the proprietors sold their rights back to the king, who then appointed the governors. 31. Tell the early history of Delaware. Of New Jersey. Of North Carolina. Of South Carolina. Of Georgia. 30 AMERICAN HISTORY The last of all the colonies on the Atlantic was Georgia. It was settled in 1733. This colony was different from all the rest. It was settled for two reasons. The first w^as to make a home for poor debtors. In Eng- land, at that time, there was a law that an honest poor man could be put in prison for a debt of a dollar or less and kept there a long time, while his familv suffered and his health was ruined. General George Oglethorpe pitied these poor debtors and got permission from the king to send them to America and to make homes for them. They were glad to be carried across the ocean free and to have free land and free tools in Oglethorpe's colony. He named it Georgia in honor of King George II. The second reason for making a settlement in Georgia was to protect the English colonists against the Spaniards in Florida. The Spaniards were trying to drive away the settlers in South Carolina. Oglethorpe meant to make the Spaniards stay in Florida and to punish them if they made any trouble for the English. 32. Moving Inland. The whole Atlantic coast was now^ settled. These settlers did not know much about the rest of the country, but many of them thought they owned all that was west of them to the Pacific Ocean. The King of England had given the London Company the right to settle from "sea to sea" ; so Virginia claimed all the land to the west. Massachusetts and Connecticut also had charters that gave them the right to settle from "sea .to sea," but New York and Pennsylvania wxre west of these colonies ; so Massachusetts and Connecticut had to give up part of their land to the Dutch and Quakers. The French in the Mississippi Valley were also west of 32. What caused the settlers to move inland? AMERICAN HISTORY 31 the English colonies ; so it was sure that there would be wars to see who should have the land. The settlers on the coast began to move farther and farther inland to find new homjs for their families. When a new group of settlers went farther into the new country it was called "going out West." Settlements in the new world grew rapidly. In 1700 the population of the Atlantic colonies was a little more than a quarter of a million. Fifty years later the number was more than a million and a quarter. LIFE IN THE COLONIES. 33. Indian Wars. Many of the colonists had trouble with the Indians and had to fight for their lives and their homes. The Indians lived partly by raising corn, beans, squashes, and other vegetables, but they got most of their food by hunting and fishing. When the white people set- tled on their hunting grounds and their corn land many of them were jealous and wanted to kill the settlers. In Virginia at first the Indians w^ere friendly to the set- tlers and sold them food. Then one of the Indian chiefs thought the whites were taking too much land for their settlements and he planned to kill them all. In 1622 the Indians suddenly murdered 347 men, women and children in a single day. The settlers made war on the Indians and destroyed many of their villages and warriors. In 1644 the Indians again tried to murder the white men and killed 500 persons. This time the settlers drove them into the forest far from the English settlements. In Connecticut, a tribe of Indians called the Pequots tried to destroy the first settlers. Ninety men from Hart- ford, Wethersfield, and Windsor marched to their village and destroyed nearly all the tribe. The worst of the Indian troubles was King Philip's War. King Philip was chief of a Rhode Island tribe. He per- 33. How did the Indians live? What caused trouble between them and the white men? How did the Indians treat the settlers in Virginia? In Connecticut? Tell about King Philip's War. In what colonies did the Indians look upon the white people as their friends'" AMERICAN HISTORY 33 suaded nearly all the New England Indians to make war on the settlers. There was terrible fighting in the Plymouth Colony and in the Connecticut Valley. Twelve settlements were destroyed and more than a thousand settlers were killed. So many of the Indians were slain that they never again made war on the New England settlers. Some of the Indians treated the white people as friends. They were kind to Roger Williams in Rhode Island and to the first settlers in Maryland. In Pennsylvania, too, Wil- liam Penn had peace with the Indians. He paid them for their land, made them presents, and treated them like brothers. They in turn were friendly to the Quakers as long as Penn lived and for years afterward. In most of the other colonies the early settlers kept their guns close at hand for fear of Indian attacks. 34. Occupations. In New England most of the people who lived on the sea-coast were engaged in fishing, building ships, and trading with the West Indies. Their ships car- ried horses, oxen, meat, and fish to the West Indies and brought back sugar and molasses. Some of their ships went to Africa for slaves and sold them to farmers in the Southern Colonies. Most of the people who lived inland were farmers. They planted corn, potatoes, and garden vegetables, and also raised many horses and cattle. Every family had a loom and the women wove cloth from flax raised on the farm or from wool brought from England or cut from the backs of their own sheep. In all the colonies the women also spun their own yarn and thread. 34. What occupations did the people follow in New England? In New York? In the Middle Colonies? In the Southern Colonies? 34 AMERICAN HISTORY Most of the people of New York were traders. They did a good business in furs, lumber, and flour. The people of the Middle Colonies were farmers. They also did much trading at Philadelphia, which was then the most important city in the country. All the Southern Colo- nies except South Carolina raised and sold tobacco. In South Carolina rice was the main crop. 35. Slavery. In 1619 a Dutch ship brought twenty negroes from Africa and sold them to the farmers of Vir- ginia for slaves. They were so profitable that more were soon brought to America and sold in all the colonies. The Northern and Middle Colonies bought only a few, for none but the wealthy could afford to keep them for servants, while in the South the farmers bought thousands of them to work in the tobacco fields and rice sw^amps. 36. Religion. A large part of the people were very religious. Many of them had come to America in order to have the kind of church they wished. In New England a minister and his congregation had come together to almost every one of the early settlements. In England they had been Pilgrims or Puritans. In New^ England most of them were Congregationalists and they paid taxes to support the church. Roger Williams was a Baptist and his church at Providence was the first Baptist church in America. In New^ York many people attended the Dutch Church. In Virginia and the Carolinas most of the people were Episco- 35. How was slavery introduced into the United States ? 36. What church was most prominent in New Eng- land? In New York? In Virginia? In the Carolinas? In Maryland? Which colonies granted the riiost freedom in religion? AMERICAN HISTORY 35 palians. In Maryland, also, the Episcopal Church was established by law and supported by taxes, though the colony had been first settled by Catholics. At first most of the colonies tried to have only one church and to keep out settlers w^ho would not attend that church. The Massachusetts people tried to drive away the Episcopalians and the Quakers ; the Dutch were unkind to the Quakers ; the people of Virginia drove away Congrega- tionalists and Baptists. Maryland and Rhode Island gave the people religious freedom. Pennsylvania and Georgia treated all sects kindly and after a while all the colonies saw that this w^as the right thing to do. Every man wanted to choose his own church and be free himself and it w^as best to give others the right to choose for themselves. The ministers wxre usually the best educated men in the settlements and everybody went to them for advice of all kinds. On Sunday nearly all the people went to church and listened to sermons an hour long. 37. Education.. At first there were not many free schools. The ministers taught the children reading, wait- ing, and arithmetic. Soon the New England people began to build schoolhouses. Here the boys w^ent to school, but not many of the girls. Philadelphia had good public schools for both boys and girls. The Southern Colonies did not have many schools. The farmers lived too far apart on their large farms. Those who were rich enough had tutors for their children at home or sent them to England to be educated. All the New England colonies, and New York, New- Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Virginia had colleges for young 37. What was done for education by the early colo- nists? 36 AMERICAN HISTORY men. The colonists knew that their children needed to be educated and intelligent in order to be successful and hannv. 38. Homes. The early settlers lived in log cabins. After a while they built saw-mills. Then those who could afford it had houses built of lumber. A few of the rich had fine houses built of brick. They had no stoves, but they built large fireplaces to warm the houses and do the cook- ing. Most of the colonists made their own tables, chairs, and furniture. They used wooden and pewter dishes. The rich had furniture and china and silver dishes brought from Eng- land. 39. Social Customs. In many ways the colonists helped one another do their work. This also helped them to visit and enjoy themselves together. When a man built a house his neighbors came and spent a day helping him put the heavy timbers in place. When the neighbors went home at night the frame of the house would be ready for the owner to cover with boards. Thev called their day's work a "house raising." When the corn was ripe they had husking parties. All the people of a neighborhood would come together and husk one man's corn in a single day. When a settler's wife had a bed-quilt to make she would invite her neighbors to come and help her and, they w^ould have a quilting party. In the evening the young people would come to these parties and have a dance. 38. What kind of homes did the early settlers have? 39. What were ''house raisings"? Husking parties? Quilting parties? How was Thanksgiving celebrated? What is said of the drinking habit? Of ''training days"? AMERICAN HISTORY 37 On Thanksgiving Day large families would have a fine dinner together and the table would be loaded with turkey, chicken, vegetables, pies, puddings, and cake. When the long winter evenings came the colonists liked to visit their neighbors. Sitting together before the wide fireplaces they would talk, tell stories, eat nuts and apples, and drink cider. On all social occasions and whenever they met to do business the colonists drank a great deal of liquor and there was much drunkenness, poverty, and suffering as the result. In the Southern Colonies the slaves did nearly all the work and the owners of the great plantations spent much of their time visiting one another, hunting with their dogs and horses, going to social gatherings, and attending to politics. In all the colonies ''training days" were held. On these days hundreds of men came together with their guns to be taught how to act as soldiers. Their officers trained them to march together and to load and fire their guns at the word of command. When the training was over there would be trials of skill to see who could shoot best with the rifle. This practice made them very good marksmen. The young men would also have running, jumping, and wrestling matches and other games and sports. 40. Travel. Most of the early settlements were on the seacoast and the banks of rivers, so that the colonists could travel from one to another by boats. When settlements were made at a distance from the coast and rivers people had to travel to them on foot or on horseback. There were no good roads and very few wheeled carriages. It was a common thing to see a man and his wife riding together on 40. How did people travel? 38 AMERICAN HISTORY the same horse along the poor country roads and the paths cut through the woods. In 1766, when a stage-coach went from New York to Philadelphia in two days, people called it a ''flying machine." 41. Government. When the Atlantic colonies were first settled they all had some sort of charter or written permission from the king or from some company appointed by the king. These charters told them what kind of govern- ment they could have. In some colonies the people did not like their governments and asked the king to change them. In other colonies the king did not like the way the people managed their governments and he quarreled with them and took away some of their privileges. The Dutch colony of New York was conquered by sol- diers sent from England and became an English colony. Plymouth and the Massachusetts Bay colony united into one. Hartford, New Haven, and the other colonies in Con- necticut united and were all called Connecticut. When all these changes had been made there were thir- teen English colonies. Four were called New England colo- nies. These were New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut. Four were called Middle Colonies. These were New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Del- aware. Five were Southern Colonies. These were Mary- land, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. i Each of the colonies had a legislature, or body of law makers, to look after its public affairs. The legislature was made up of two parts, or houses. There was an assembly, 41. Describe the Charter colonies. The Proprietary colonies. The Royal colonies. What laws caused the colonists to complain? AMERICAN HISTORY 39 called the lower house, or House of Representatives, chosen by the people themselves. The other part, called the upper house, was the Governor's Council. Besides helping make the laws, this body also gave advice to the governor and aided him in his duties. The colonies were divided into three groups according to the way in which the governor and his council were chosen. Rhode Island and Connecticut were called Charter Colo- nies, because their charters gave them the right to elect their own governors and councils. Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Maryland were called Proprietary Colonies, because the proprietors appointed the governors and their councils. The other eight colonies were Royal Colonies. In all of these the king appointed the governors and he also appointed the councils in the Southern Colonies, but in Massachusetts the council was appointed by the assembly. In the small towns the people held elections to vote for their local officers, and attend to local affairs. Each colony was independent of all the others ; so they had no w^ay of making laws that should be obeyed by all the people in all the colonies. This kind of government suited the people very well when the kings left them alone, but the royal governors sometimes hindered them from making the kind of laws they wanted and the kings tried to make the people obey many laws made for them in England in order to benefit the Englishmen. This the people did not like. The king and his people at home wanted to make money out of the trade and business of their colonies in America and they did not want the colonies to become strong and independ- ent and able to take care of themselves. In 1651 a law was made in England called the Naviga- 40 AMERICAN HISTORY tion Act. This law said that England was the only country to which the colonists could sell their goods, and they must send their goods across the ocean in English or colonial ships. Another law said that the colonists could not buy any goods made anyv/here else in the world unless they were brought across the ocean in English ships. Another law hindered the people in one colony from trading with their neighbors in another colony. If the people in Rhode Island wanted to trade certain things that they made for certain things made in Massachusetts, the articles would have to be sent first to England and then sent back across the ocean in an English ship. If the people were not willing to send the goods across the ocean and back they might trade with one another by paying a tax to England for the privilege. Twenty-nine different Navigation Acts were passed by England in order to make a profit out of the trade of the colonists. Then the king and his friends appointed a number of men called a Board of Trade to go to America to see what could be done to make "the colonies most useful and bene- ficial to England." The Board of Trade told the king what was going on in America. This helped him to make the kind of laws he wanted. When he found out that the colonists were making woolen goods to sell abroad a law was passed saying that if any of the colonists attempted to ship any wool or woolen goods to any place in the world their ship and cargo should be taken away from them and they would have to pay a fine of $2,500.00. One law forbade the colonists to have any forges or iron mills. They could not have any furnaces to make steel. AMERICAN HISTORY 41 They were told that their mills for making nails must be destroyed. The people of one colony could not make hats to sell to people in another colony. If they put any hats on a ship, a wagon, or a horse, to carry them to another colony, the hats could be seized by the king's officers and the owners made to pay a fine of $2,500.00. About the time that England was making these laws she was having trouble with France. This trouble gave the king so much to do that he did not enforce his unjust laws very w^ell for some years and the people did considerable trading in spite of him. 42. Intercolonial Wars. We have seen that England and France both claimed much of the same territory in America. England and France also had many wars in Europe. These two causes made wars in America. In 1688 a war broke out in England over who should be king. The people of England wanted William of Orange. The King of France wanted his friend, James II., who had been driven out of England, to go back and be king again. When England and France began to fight each other their colonies in America also began to fight. The war which lasted from 1689 to 1697 was called King William's War. The Indians all joined the French, except the Iroquois in central New York. These Indians remembered how Champlain and his Frenchmen had fought against them and they joined the English. The French tried to come down from Canada and cap- 42. What caused King William's War? What was the result of the war? What caused Queen Anne's War? What was the result? What caused King George's War? What place was captured by the English? What was the result of the war? 42 AMERICAN HISTORY tiire New York, but the Iroquois drove them back. Then the Canadians and their Indians began to burn homes and villages all along the New York and New England frontier. One party came into New York one cold winter night when all the people were asleep and burned the town of Schenectady and murdered most of its inhabitants. The Indians also went into the Connecticut valley and de- stroyed many towns in New Hampshire and Massachu- setts. The colonists sent two small armies into Canada. One of them captured Port Royal. The other started to capture Quebec, but accomplished nothing. After eight years of fighting, France and England made a treaty and agreed that each country should have exactly the same land in America that it had before the w^ar. Four years later England and France were in another war over who should be on the throne of Spain. Their colo- nists in America began to fight again. We call this war, which lasted from 1702 to 1713, Queen Anne's War. All along the New York and New England frontier the Indians burned homes and murdered the English. Some soldiers from England helped the colonists capture Port Royal again. Another army sent to take Quebec failed and nearly 1,000 of the men died. When this war ended Port Royal and a large territory called Acadia were given to England by France. In 1744 a third war began. In Europe, France, England and some other nations were fighting to see who should be on the throne of Austria. In America the w^ar was called King George's War and lasted four years, from 1744 to 1748. There was only one important battle. The English ships and the New England soldiers captured Louisburg, on the Island of Cape Breton. This was one of the strongest forts in the world and the colonists felt very proud of their victory. But when the war was over England gave it back to France in exchange for some English land that France had captured. THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 43. The Fourth War Begins. Though England and France had fought three times in America, they had not decided which should rule. Both claimed the country to the west of the English colonies. Both meant to hold it. For years the French had been building forts from Canada down into the Mississippi valley. The Virginia farmers and traders now applied to the King of England and got permission to settle on half a million acres in the valley of the Ohio River. They called themselves the Ohio Company. They began to build a road from Virginia. They soon heard that the French were building forts on their land. The governor of Virginia sent a young man named George Washington to tell the French that they must not settle there. It was a very long and dangerous journey that young Washington had to make, but he and a few English and Indian guides found the French forts and told their com- mander that the governor of Virginia said the French must not stay there. The commander treated Washington well, but said his people should stay and hold the land. Washington went back to Virginia, and when he told what the French commander had said, men Avere quickly sent to build a fort on the Ohio. Washington followed the men with some soldiers. 43. What caused the French and Indian War? What was the Ohio Company? Describe Washington's journey to the French forts. What followed? 44 AMERICAN HISTORY While Washington was on the journey the French drove away the men who were building the fort. They finished it themselves and named it Fort Duquesne, after the gov- ernor of Canada. The French then sent soldiers to meet Washington. In the first attack Washington was successful. The French commander and many of his men were killed. But a larger band of French and Indians surrounded Washington a few days later and compelled him to surrender. Then they allowed him to go back to Virginia. England and France both sent soldiers across the ocean to help their colonies and they began to prepare for war. 44. Plans for Union. The English colonists saw that a great struggle was coming. All the colonies must work together and help one another in order to win. Benjamin Franklin, the editor of a newspaper called the Pennsylvania Gazette, printed in his newspaper a picture of a snake cut into several pieces. These pieces were marked with the names of the English colonies. Under the picture it read "Join or Die." Union was a very important thing for the colonies, but they had been slow in learning it. In 1643 the four settle- ments at Plymouth, Massachusetts Bay, Hartford, and New Haven had formed a union in order to protect themselves against attacks from the Dutch, French, and Indians.- This union lasted forty-one years. , In 1690 Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New York sent men to a meeting to make plans to help one another during King William's War. 44. When before this had the colonists tried to unite for protection? What was Franklin's plan now? Why did it fail? AMERICAN HISTORY 45 These unions did some good, but what was needed was a union of all the colonies. After the people read what Benjamin Franklin said in his newspaper the four New England Colonies and New York, Pennsylvania, and Maryland sent men to Albany to try to make a union of all the thirteen colonies. The king also wanted them to unite. Franklin helped the men at Albany and they made a plan for a union which said the king should appoint a president for the colonies and the people should elect a council. The president and the council should manage the affairs of the union. The people voted against the plan because they thought it gave too much power to the king. The king did not like the plan because he thought it gave too much power to the people ; so the plan failed, but it was a good thing for the people to talk and think about union and they learned to help one another. They fought together w^ith England against the French. 45. Plan of the War. The English and the colonists planned to do five things: 1. They must capture Fort Duquesne, because they needed it in order to hold the Ohio Valley and protect Pennsylvania and Virginia. 2. They must capture Louisburg again and control the French set- tlers of Nova Scotia in order to protect New England. 3. The French forts at Crown Point and Ticonderoga must be captured, because these protected the route from Canada through Lake Champlain and Lake George into New York. 4. The English must get possession of Fort Niagara be- tween Lake Erie and Lake Ontario in order to protect their 45. What was the plan of the w^ar? Tell what General Braddock did. What was done by Colonel Moncton and Colonel Winslow? What was done by General Loudoun? By General Johnson? By General Shirley? 46 AMERICAN HISTORY fur traders around the Great Lakes. 5. Quebec must be captured. This would make the EngHsh masters of the St. Lawrence Valley. 1. Fort Duquesne. General Braddock came over from England in 1755 to capture this fort. He chose George Washington to go w^ith him and command the Virginia troops. General Braddock was brave, but he did not know how to fight Indians. On the way to the fort the French and Indians suddenly attacked him in the woods. The Indians hid behind trees and rocks and shot many of the English. General Braddock was killed. His soldiers began to run and were saved by Washington and the Virginia troops. The English then retreated to Philadelphia and Washing- ton returned to Virginia. 2. Nova Scotia and Louisburg. Colonel Moncton with 300 English soldiers and Colonel Winslow with 2000 troops from Massachusetts went to Nova Scotia. England had owned this ever since Queen Anne's War, but the settlers were French and would not obey the English rulers ; so now (1755) Colonel Moncton and Colonel Winslow con- quered a strong F'rench fort (Beau Sejour), in the north of Nova Scotia, and then seized 6000 French Acadians (the people who then lived in Nova Scotia), and put them on board the English ships. These Acadians were carried to the English colonies and scattered all the way from New Hampshire to Georgia. This was one of the most cruel acts of the w^ar. General Loudoun drilled an army all summer in Nova Scotia in order to attack Louisburg, but w^hen he learned that some French ships had come to Louisburg he w^as afraid to go and did nothing. 3. Crown Point. General William Johnson of New York marched against Crown Point. A battle was fought AMERICAN HISTORY 47 near Lake George in which General Johnson was wounded. General Lyman, who was with him, then took command and won a victory. General Johnson decided to do nothing more. 4. Niagara. General Shirley, governor of Massachu- setts, started to capture Niagara. When he heard of Brad- dock's defeat and death he built a fort near Lake Ontario and went home. 46. William Pitt. During the first two years of the war the English lost most of the battles. The French had good generals. Those sent over by England were not the right kind. The English now decided to make a change. They ap- pointed a new man, William Pitt, to manage their wars. He sent more soldiers and better generals to America. The colonists now had hope of success and more of them en- tered the army. L Fort Duquesne Taken. One of Pitt's good com- manders, General Forbes, started for another attack on Fort Duquesne. Washington went with him and showed him how to fight the Indians. As they approached the fort the French set it on fire and ran away. The English raised their flag where the fort had been and named the place Fort Pitt. 2. Louisburg Taken. Admiral Boscawen and Generals Amherst and Wolfe sailed to Louisburg. In six weeks they had captured the fort and 5000 French soldiers. 46. Who was William Pitt? What change did he make in the management of the war? How was Fort Duquesne taken? Louisburg? Crown Point and Ticon- deroga? Niagara? Quebec? Tell about the death of Wolfe and Montcalm. 48 AMERICAN HISTORY 3. Crown Point and Ticondero^a Taken. General Howe was sent with an army of 15,000 men to take Ticon- deroga. Unfortunately he was killed before the army' reached the fort. This left General Abercrombie in com- mand. He was a worthless general and stayed where it was safe while he sent his men to take the fort. Two thousand of his men were killed and nothing was gained. The next year (1759) General Amherst approached w4th a large army and both Crown Point and Ticonderoga sur- rendered. 4. Niagara. On July 1, 1759, General Prideaux march- ed from Oswego, New York, with an army of English and American troops. Thev reached Niagara and prepared for an attack. General Prideaux was accidentally killed by the bursting of a shell, but General Johnson carried out his plan of attack and the French surrendered the fort. 5. Ouebec. The city of Quebec and its fort must now be captured. This fort was on a solid rock high above the St. Lawrence River. It was surrounded by high and thick walls of stone. It seemed impossible to capture it, but General James Wolfe, who had helped capture Louisburg, was sent to take it. He had 9000 men. The French had 16,000. General Wolfe sailed up the St. Lawrence. The French soldiers guarded the river for miles from the city. After weeks of fighting Wolfe sailed past the fort and went some miles up the river. He tried to find some way to climb the steep bank up to the fort. Finally he discovered a narrow path up through the woods. One dark night his army came down the river in their boats and landed near this path. They climbed the steep bank and in the morning the^^ were on the Heights of Abraham, a level plain, back of the city. Montcalm, the French commander, at once led his army against the AMERICAN HISTORY 49 English. They had a terrible battle. Both generals were fatally wounded. The English were victorious. As Wolfe was dying he heard some one say, ''They run ! They run!" "Who run?" he asked. ''The French," was the answer. "Now God be praised; I die happy!" he murmured. In a few minutes he was dead. When they told Montcalm that he was dying, he said, "So much the better; I shall not live to see the surrender of Quebec." In the city of Quebec to-day one can see the common monument which has been erected to the memory of these two brave men. On the monument is this inscription : "Valor gave a united death, History a united fame, Posterity a united monument." September 18, 1759, five days after the battle, the city and fort surrendered to the English. 47. End of the War. The next year France tried to re- capture Quebec, but failed. General Amherst and a large army captured Montreal. All the rest of Canada surren- dered to England. The English and Americans now sent an army to Cuba because Spain had helped France. After two months' fight- ing they captured Havana. Another English army went to the Philippine Islands, which belonged to Spain. This army captured the city of Alanila, the capital of the islands. 48. The Treaty of Peace. England, France, and Spain sent men to Paris in 1763 to make peace. France gave England all she owned in Canada and all her land east of the Mississippi River, except New Orleans. New Orleans and all France owned west of the Mississippi were given to 47. W hat was done after the capture of Quebec ? 48. What was the result of the war? 50 AMERICAN HISTORY Spain. Spain gave England Florida in exchange for Havana and ]\Ianila. All that France had left in North America was a group of small islands at the mouth of the Gulf of St. Lawrence south of Newfoundland. England let her keep these in order to have a place to carry on cod-fishing. THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 49. Effects of the French and Indian War. This war made England master of North America. It also made the colonists better acquainted with one another. Men from many colonies now learned to plan and work and fight together. They saw, too, better than they had ever seen before, that the English government was selfish and would not treat them justly. The English soldiers laughed at the Americans and treated them rudely because they were awkward. The English generals made the best American officers take low positions in the army in order to make high positions for young Englishmen. The Americans had to pay twice as much money as the English for the expenses of the army, but when the war was over the English tried to make the Americans pay them larger taxes so that they could get back what they had spent in all the wars that had been fought in America. The Americans refused to pay these taxes. 50. Causes of the Revolution. England's treatment of the colonies caused another war. This time it was between the English and the Americans. One of the causes was the Navigation Acts. The Americans had never obeyed some of these laws because they said England had no right to 49. What were some of the effects of the French and Indian War? 50. What were the main causes of the Revolutionary War? Tell about the Boston Massacre. 52 AMERICAN HISTORY make such laws. England could not punish them while the wars with France were going on. When Canada surrendered, England said she would make the Americans obey these laws. The Americans re- fused and a quarrel began. England also said that she was going to keep an army in America to protect her land and the Americans must pay the expenses of this army. The Americans would not pay. England passed a law called the Stamp Act. This law said that all newspapers, almanacs, and all kinds of legal papers must have a stamp on them. These stamps cost from one cent to sixty dollars and must be bought of English officers. The colonists would not buy them. Men from nine of the colonies met at New York and held a Stamp Act Congress in 1765. They said it was one of the rights of English colonists that they should pay no taxes to anybody but their own officers. They could not be taxed by anybody else without their own consent. They did not send any men, or representatives, to the English Parliament. Therefore they said that the Stamp Act and all other tax laws made by Parliament could not be en- forced in the colonies. Parliament repealed the Stamp Act, but said they had a right to make any law they wished for America. In 1767 they made another law which said the Americans must pay a tax on all glass, lead, paper, paint, and tea brought into the colonies. The king sent soldiers to America to make the people pay the taxes. In Boston, one evening, (March 5, 1770), some young men got into a quarrel with the soldiers and the soldiers shot three of them dead and wounded eight others. This was called the Boston Massacre. All over the colonies the people said they would not pay AMERICAN HISTORY 53 the taxes to England. Ship loads of tea were sent to New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore, but the people would not let it land. The ships had to carry it back to England. At Boston also an English ship attempted to land some tea, but the people threw it into the sea. Parliament passed a la'v that no ship could trade with Boston until the people paid for the tea, but they did not pay. 51. The First Continental Congress. In 1774 men from all the colonies but Georgia met at Philadelphia and said the colonies would not trade with England until the unjust tax-laws were repealed. They also asked the king to treat them justly and sent letters explaining their trouble to the people of England, the people of Canada, and the colonists. They voted to have another meeting in Phila- delphia in May, 1775. 52. War Begins. In the spring of 1775 General Gage, who commanded the English soldiers in Boston, made up his mind to capture Samuel Adams and John Hancock These men were the leaders of the American patriots in Massachusetts. The night of the 18th of April these two men were staying at a house near Lexington, a few miles from Boston. Gage sent some soldiers to capture them and also get some powder and supplies, which the patriots had collected at Concord, a few miles beyond Lexington. When the English soldiers left Boston a patriot named Paul Revere started on horseback for Lexington and Con- cord. During the night he warned the farmers that the English were coming. In the morning when the English reached Lexington fifty patriots were there waiting foi 51. AA'here and when did the First Continental Con- gress meet? What did they do? 52. Describe the battle of Lexington. 54 AMERICAN HISTORY them. The EngHsh fired and killed eight. Then thev went to Concord. Four hundred patriots were there ready to fight. They had a battle and the English wxre driven back and started for Boston. From all directions the farmers came running to attack them. All the way back to Lexington, a distance of ten miles, the farmers fired at them from behind houses, trees, Boulder markin^^ the position of the line held b}' the ^linute Men at the Battle of Lexington. and stone w^alls. At Lexington they met some more English soldiers who had come from Boston to help their comrades. The Americans fired upon them and chased all the English back to Boston. Three hundred of the English w^ere killed. The Americans lost ei^'hty-eight men. 53. The Effect. When the American patriots heard 53. What was the efifect of the battle of Lexington? AMERICAN HISTORY 55 that a battle had been fought, they took their guns and hurried to Boston from all over New England. In a few days sixteen thousand men were camped near Boston ready for war. 54. The Second Continental Congress. When the Con- tinental Congress met the second time at Philadelphia, in May, 1775, the patriots asked the delegates to make plans for the war. They had not been elected to do this, but somebody must do it quickly and they thought that they ought to do what the people wished ; so they voted to call the patriots w^ho were camped around Boston the Conti- nental Army. Troops from Pennsylvania and Marvland were ordered to join the Boston troops. Congress appointed George Washington commander-in-chief of this army. Washington went to Cambridge, near Boston, and took command of the army July 3, 1775. 55 Bunker Hill. On June 17, before Washington could get there, the Americans and the English fought another battle near Boston. The Americans had begun to fortify a hill near the city. The Engflish went to attack them. The Americans drove back the English twice. When they came up the hill the third time the Americans had no more powder, but they fought with their gunstocks and with stones. The English captured the hill, but they lost twice as many men as the Americans lost. 56. The English Driven from Boston. For months Washington tried to drive the English out of Boston. At last, in the spring of 1776, he got possession of a hill called 54. When and where did the Second Continental Con- gress meet? What did they at once do? Why? Who was appointed to lead the American army? 55. Describe the battle of Bunker Hill. 56. How were the English driven from Boston? 56 AMERICAN HISTORY Dorchester Heights. This hill overlooked the city, and when the English saw Washington's soldiers and their cannon on the hill they left the city and sailed away to Halifax, in Nova Scotia. Washington thought that the English would soon try to capture New York ; so he went there and fortified Brooklyn Heights, on Long Island. 57. Independence. While the fighting around Boston had been going on the Continental Congress had sent a man named Richard Penn to England to try to get the king to make peace and give the Americans their rights. The king refused. He also hired Hessian soldiers in Germany and sent them to America, because the Englishmen did not like to fight the Americans. The Americans now began to talk about being free from England. Before this they were willing to belong to Eng- land if they could have their rights. Now they said they w^ould fight to be free and have a separate nation of their own. On July 4, 1776, the Continental Congress voted "that these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states." That day was the birthday of American freedom. There were many people who thought it wrong to op- pose the king. These were called Tories. Some of them joined the English army ; some went to Canada ; some stayed in the colonies and had much trouble with the patriots. 58. Battle of Long Island. Soon the English army was joined by more soldiers from England and they went to 57. What did the Americans fight for at first? What was done on July 4, 1776? 58. Describe the battle of Long Island. AMERICAN HISTORY 57 capture New York. A terrible battle was fought on Long Island and the Americans were beaten. They fled to New York City and then crossed the Hudson River into New Jersey. The English took possession of New York and then chased the Americans to the Delaware River. Washing- ton's army crossed into Pennsylvania and the English could not follow because the Americans had all the boats. The English and Hessians took possession of Trenton, and their commander, Lord Cornwallis, went back to New York to celebrate Christmas. 59. Public Sentiment. The patriot soldiers were dis- couraged. Many of them left the army. People found fault with Washington because he had been beaten. Many be- came Tories. But there were some who had faith in Washington. Robert ^lorris of Philadelphia was one of his best friends. He borrowed a great deal of money and gave it to W ash- ington for the army. 60. The Battle of Trenton. On Christmas night Wash- ington went back across the Delaware River with 2400 men and surprised the Hessians, who were having a good time, eating and drinking. He captured 1000 men and lost only four of his own soldiers. This filled the patriots with hope. A few days later he captured 200 more men at Prince- ton. Soon the Americans drove nearly all the English out of New Jersey. During the next fall (1777) the English won a battle at Brandywine and another at Germantown. Then they took possession of Philadelphia and Washing- 59. What is said of public sentiment at this time? 60. What took place at Trenton? How did it affect the patriots? What happened at Valley Forge? 58 AMERICAN HISTORY ton made his camp at Valley Forge, about twenty-two miles from the city. Here his army stayed all winter and nearly starved and almost froze to death. They suffered terribly and that winter was the saddest of all during the war. 61 Burgoyne's Surrender. Another English army was sent to Canada to try to capture the state of New York. General Burgoyne, the commander, led part of this army to Lake George and then started for Albany. The rest of the army was to come by other routes and join him there, but every one of his plans failed. General Stark killed and captured one thousand of his men at Bennington, Vermont. General Herkimer defeated another of Burgoyne's generals at Fort Stanwix, in the Mohawk valley, and General Arnold drove the English out of central New York and back to Canada. All the rest of Burgoyne's large army was defeated at Saratoga and surrendered to General Gates, October 17, 1777. This victory made many friends for the Americans. France had already sent money to help the Americans fight against England. Now the King of France sent ships and soldiers. Spain and Holland had also sent money to help the Americans and both these countries now made war on England. 62. The Close of the War. The war lasted three years after the French army joined the Americans, but the patriots were now hopeful and full of courage. Sir Henry Clinton was in command of the English in Philadelphia. 61. What did Burgoyne try to do? Flow did he suc- ceed? What was the effect on the Americans? On other nations ? 62. What occurred at Philadelphia? Near New York? In the South? At West Point? At Yorktown? What did King George III. wish? What did Parliament say? AMERICAN HISTORY 59 When he heard that the French were coming he and his army left the city and went to New York. Several battles were fought around New York and near the New England coast, but the main part of the war was in the South. The state of Georgia was conquered by the English and also a large part of South Carolina. At Camden, in South Carolina, Lord Cornwallis and the English won a great victory over General Gates and the Americans. Paul Jones and some other sea captains with a few American ships did much damage to the English vessels and won many vic- tories. General Benedict Arnold became a traitor and tried to sell the American fort at West Point, on the Hudson River, to the English. Washington discovered his plan and it failed, but Arnold joined the English army and fought against his own country. In 1781 General Nathaniel Greene led the Americans in the South. The English were driven out of Georgia. The traitor Arnold and the English general, Cornwallis, then burned houses and destroyed ten million dollars' worth of American property. After this Cornwallis fortified a camp at Yorktown, in Virginia. Here General Lafayette, a young French officer who had come to America to help Washington, kept guard and watched the English army while Greene again went South and drove the English out of most of South Carolina. In a short time a French fleet arrived and prevented Corn- wallis from escaping by sea. Washington hurried from the Hudson River to Yorktown to prevent Cornwallis from escaping by land. Count Rochambeau and the French army were with Washington. The English army was in a trap. After fighting a week Cornwallis surrendered and the Revo- lutionary War was over. King George III. wanted to fight again, but Parliament said "No !" and he had to make peace. 60 AMERICAN HISTORY 63. Boundaries. On September 3, 1783, some men chosen by England and America signed a treaty of peace at Paris. They agreed that the United States should be free and should extend from the Atlantic Ocean on the east to the Mississippi River on the west. Canada on the north should belong to England. All Florida was given to Spain; the country west of the Mississippi River already belonged to Spain. The thirteen colonies w^ere now the thirteen United States of America. 63. Where was peace made? In what year? What were the boundaries of the United States? THE ERA OF FEDERATION. 64. The Articles of Confederation. The new United States needed a new ^g^overnment. When the w^ar was over the union that held the thirteen states together was ^veak. While the war was going on danger had held them together. They knew^ that if they did not unite and fight together they could not win their freedom from England. Now all that held them together was the Articles of Confederation. The Articles of Confederation were a written agreement made by the states during the w^ar. On the same day that the Continental Congress appointed a committee to wTite the Declaration of Independence they also appointed another committee to wTite a plan of union for the new states. This com,mittee wrote a plan called the Articles of Con- federation. The Congress approved the plan in 1777. Then it was sent to the legislatures of all the states to see if they would vote for it. If all the legislatures voted for the plan it was to be a law for all the states. Some of the states had no western land. Massachusetts, Connecticut, Virginia, and some other states claimed the unsettled land west of them as far as the Mississippi River. They could sell this land to pay their part of the cost of the war, or they could give the land to their soldiers to pay what they owed them. The states that had no western land said this would be unfair. The western land ought to belong to all the United States and to be used for the good of the union, not for part of the states. Maryland said she 64. What wxre the Articles of Confederation? Who made them? 62 AMERICAN HISTORY would not vote for the Articles of Confederation unless the states gave their western land to the union. Finally the states agreed to give nearly all this land to the union and let Congress use it or sell it for the benefit of all the people and make new states which should join the union. This satisfied Maryland and she joined the other twelve states and voted for the Articles of Confederation and made them a law. 65. Defects of the Articles of Confederation. The new government had many troubles. 1. It could not get money to pay its debts. During the war the Congress had made $200,000,000 of paper money called Continental bills and used it to pay the expenses of the army. Paper money is good when it can be changed for gold or silver or for valuable property that people are willing to have instead of money. When a government has no gold, or silver, or val- uable property that it can give in exchange for its paper money, this money becomes worthless and cannot be used to buy anything. The Congress thought that the people of the states would pay taxes and give gold and silver to make the paper money good. The states would not do this ; so the money would buy nothing. Many people became poor be- cause they had sold their land and their goods for this money. Under the Articles of Confederation there w^ould always be trouble about money, for the Congress had no right to tax the people. The states could 'tax themselves, but if Congress wanted any money to spend the states would not give it unless they wished to do so. 2. Congress could not make laws to protect trade. If Americans sent goods to England the English made them 65. What were the defects of the Articles of Con- federation ? AMERICAN HISTORY 63 pay a tax, but when England sent goods to America Con- gress had no power to tax them. New York made Con- necticut and New Jersey farmers pay a tax on what they sold in New York City. Other states made their neighbors pay taxes for the right to sell them goods. This made trouble and was bad for business, but Congress could do nothing to help it. 3. Congress could not make the people obey the laws. In Massachusetts a number of people refused to pay their debts and taxes and tried to break up the courts. These people had been made poor by the w^ar and the government ought to have helped them, but it could not. They did wrong in fighting the law^s and courts of their own state, but Congress could not help the courts any more than it could help these poor men. 4. The government had no president to enforce its laws. It had no judges to try cases and settle disputes. It had a Congress, but Congress could not do much. It could tell the states what they ought to do, but could not make them do it. The people needed a government that was strong enough to do something. 66. Adoption of the Constitution. Four years after they made peace with England the people of the United States decided that they must change the Articles of Con- federation. They could never prosper and be happy until they had a better government. All the states except Rhode Island sent delegates to attend a convention at Philadelphia to decide what ought to be done. They decided to make a new plan of government and ask the states to adopt it. 66. Describe the making and adoption of the Constitu- tion of the United States. Name the three departments of government. 64 AMERICAN HISTORY This Convention worked almost four months, from May 25 to September 17, 1787. George Washington was presi- dent and the delegates were very wise and able men. When they finished their plan they called it the Constitution of the United States. They sent it to all the states and asked them to vote for it. If nine of the thirteen states voted for it that made it a law and those nine states would belong to the new Union. The other four states could do as they liked about joining this Union. If they did not join they w^ould have to be little nations by themselves and take care of themselves and their own affairs. There were many things in the new Constitution that some of the people did not like and they argued a long time before they would vote for it. The friends of the Constitu- tion said that it was best to vote for it and form a new Union. Then they could change the Constitution and make it better by adding "amendments." Within a year all the states except Rhode Island and North Carolina voted for the Constitution. These eleven states said that now they had a "New Roof" over their heads and they were happy. The Constitution divided the new government into three great departments. 1. The legislative department, or Con- gress, which has power to make laws and do business for the whole Union. 2. The executive department, which is the President and all his assistants, who see that the laws are obeyed. 3. The judicial department, which consists of the supreme court and other United States courts. 67 The First President. The states that had now come under the "New Roof" at once made plans to choose the 67. Who was the first President of the United States? In what year was he elected? AMERICAN HISTORY 65 first President and a new Congress. George Washington was the choice of every state for President. John Adams of Massachusetts was elected Vice President. Congress met in New York City in the spring of 1789 and on April 30 they were ready for President Washington to take his office. He stood on the balcony of Federal Hall, where the people could see him. When he had taken the oath of office and promised to do his duty to his country, the people in the streets and on the housetops all shouted ''Long live George Washington, President of the United States !" 68. Beginning of the New Government. One of the first things that Washington did was to choose four of the best men he knew to help him. He called these men his Cabinet, or council. He chose Thomas JefTerson to be his Secretary of State and help him when he had business with other nations. Alexander Hamilton was his Secretary of the Treasury to help take care of the country's money. General Henry Knox was his Secretary of War to take care of the affairs of the army. Edmund Randolph was Attorney General. His duty was to give the President advice on questions of law. Washington also chose John Jay to be the first Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. 69. Hamilton's Work. The first thing that Hamilton had to do was to pay the debts of the government. By his advice Congress passed five important laws. 1. A law put- ting a tax on goods brought to this country from other countries. This law helped the United States in two ways. It gave the government a great deal of money to use and 68. Who were in Washington's Cabinet? 69. What important laws did Hamilton ask Congress to pass ? 66 AMERICAN HISTORY it helped the Americans to sell their own goods, because they did not have to pay the tax and could sell for less than foreigners who must pay it. 2. A law requiring the gov- ernment to pay what the Americans owed to foreign coun- tries for helping carry on the Revolutionary War. 3. A law requiring the national government to pay the expenses of the different states for carrying on the war. 4. A law establishing a United States Bank in which to keep the government's money. 5. A law putting a tax on whiskey and other liquors. 70. Trouble Begins. One of the first serious troubles occurred in Pennsylvania. The people there raised grain and made it into whiskey. They did not like the w^hiskey tax and refused to pay it. Two thousand of them prepared to fight. Washington sent twelve thousand soldiers to subdue them and they obeyed the law without fighting. Another trouble came from France. France and Eng- land were having a war and France wanted the United States to help her, because she had helped the United States during the Revolution. W^ashington said that the Americans could not help. Some of the people did not agree w4th Washington, and Genet, the French minister to the United States, tried to get help in spite of Washington. He was making trouble among the people and Washington asked France to call him home. He gave up his office but the French were very angry about it. Another thing that made trouble was the meaning of the new Constitution. Some people thought it gave Con- gress the right to do things which were not mentioned in 70. What was the Whiskey Rebellion? What trouble occurred with France ? Who were called "loose construc- tionists"? Who were called "close constructionists"? AMERICAN HISTORY 67 it. If these things needed to be done and the Constitution did not say anything against doing them, they said Con- gress ought to do them. These people were called loose constructionists. Most of them were also Federalists be- cause they believed in having a strong Union, or federation of states. Hamilton was their leader. Other people thought that Congress should do nothing except what the Constitu- tion said they should do. They were called close construc- tionists, or Republicans. After a while they changed their name to Democrats. Jefferson was their leader. When Washington and Adams had been in office four years they were elected again for four years more. Wash- ington declined to be President for a third term and issued a farewell address advising his people to be true to their Union which gave them liberty and prosperity. At the next Presidential election the people wxre divided into parties. The Federalists wanted John Adams to be President. The Republicans voted for Thomas Jefferson. Adams was elected President and Jefferson Vice-President. Ever since that time there have been political parties and when election time comes the voters of each party try to elect men of their own party to office. Some very im- portant questions have been settled by these parties. Let us study a few of them. 71. The Slavery Question. When the Constitution of the United States was made many people thought it would 71. Why did the South have more slaves than the North? When the Constitution was made what did many people think would be done w4th the slaves? What made them change their minds? How many states freed their slaves? How many kept themi? How did the North and South differ on the tariff question ? What was the Missouri Compromise? The Compromise of 1850? The Kansas- Nebraska Law? What caused war? 68 AMERICAN HISTORY not be long before all the states would give up keeping slaves. The people of New England and the Northern States had two reasons why they did not want slaves. 1. Their business and the cold climate made slaves less profitable than they were in the Southern States. 2. Many of the people thought it was wTong to deprive negroes of their freedom. In the South many also thought the slaves ought to be free and some wealthy men like George Wash- ington made arrangements to give freedom to their negroes. Something soon happened that made many Southerners change their minds. In 1794 Eli Whitney invented the cot- ton gin, a machine for separating cotton from its seed. One slave with this machine could clean as much cotton as a hundred could clean without it. It became very profitable to raise cotton and so much was planted that the Southern- ers needed all their slaves and wanted more. New England ship owners made a business of going to Africa to get negroes to sell to the cotton planters. In the North seven of the original thirteen states had freed their slaves. In the South the other six kept them. The North manufactured goods to sell and wanted a protective tariff to keep foreign goods from being brought to this country. The South had to buy its manufactured goods and wanted a low tariff to make them cheaper. So the free states and the slave states were jealous of each other. Each side feared the other would get too strong in the government and make laws for its own benefit. For this reason when new states wished to join the Union members of Congress from the free and the slave states disputed whether the new states should have slaves or not. For years the number of free states and the number of slave states were kept as nearly equal as possible. Many AMERICAN HISTORY 69 compromises were made to keep peace between the two groups of states. When Missouri was admitted into the Union it was agreed that she should be a slave state, but that no more slave states should be admitted north of 36 degrees and 30 minutes, which was the southern boundary of Missouri. In 1850 another compromise was made regarding the new territory that the United States had obtained from Mexico as the result of a war with that country. California was a part of this territory. It was agreed by Congress to let California join the Union as a free state. The rest of the territory was left to decide for itself, which meant that the people there could have slaves if they wished. Four years later (1854) Congress passed the Kansas- Nebraska Law, saying that these two territories could have slaves or not as they wished. Both territories are north of the southern boundary of Missouri ; so this law repealed the Missouri Compromise. The North and the South sent men to Kansas to settle and there was much fighting and bloodshed. The free states wtre determined that slavery should not spread into any more northern territory, and when they elected Abraham Lincoln President several of the slave states decided to break up the L^hion and have a separate government of their own where they could do as they wished about slav- ery. This brought on the war between the states of the North and the States of the South, commonly called the Civil War. This war settled the slavery question by making all the slaves free as we shall see when we come to study about it. 72. The Bank Question. Soon after the government 72. Who asked Congress to charter a National Bank? Who opposed the plan ? Give the history of the bank. 70 AMERICAN HISTORY was organized Alexander Hamilton asked Congress to char- ter a National Bank. This bank was to be at Philadelphia and it was to have branches in the large cities all over the country. The government was to own part of the bank but private persons were to own most of it. It was to keep all the revenues of the government and act as agent for the government in collecting, borrowing, and paying out money. It could make paper money which should be good to pay all kinds of debts anywhere in the country. Jefiferson and the strict constructionists did not want the bank and said that Congress had no right to charter it. Congress and the President accepted Hamilton's advice and chartered the bank for twenty years. At the end of the twenty years Jefferson's party was in office and refused to renew the charter. For about five years the only banks were state banks. The people were afraid to trust these banks and business suffered so much that in 1816 the bank was chartered for another twenty years. When the time came to renew the second charter An- drew Jackson was President and he vetoed the bill passed by Congress and thus killed the bank. He believed that the bank favored the rich instead of the poor and during the last three years that the bank w^as in existence he kept the government's money in state banks. The state banks made it easy for the people to borrow money and many used it carelessly in specul'ation. This made it seem unwise to trust them with the government's money and in 1840 Congress established an independent treasury at Washington with branches in other cities and the government has since kept its money in its own treas- ury. During President Tyler's term Congress passed a bill AMERICAN HISTORY 71 to charter a third bank but the President vetoed the bill and killed it. During the Civil War Congress passed a law to establish a new kind of National Banks. These are not to keep the government's money, but to make it easier for the government to borrow money, because the law requires that each bank must buy bonds of the government. To buy bonds of the government means to lend money to the government and take the government's note, called a bond, in return. Under this law we now have National Banks in nearly all our cities and large towns. Any five persons who have sufficient capital may or- ganize a bank. They must pay the government for all the bonds they wish and then leave them in the treasury of the United States for safe keeping. The government at Wash- ington sends the bank unsigned paper bills equal to nine tenths the amount of the bonds. These bills must be signed by the President and Treasurer of the bank. Then they pass as money anywhere in the country. If the bank should get in debt and fail in business the government would sell its bonds to someone else and get gold to ex- change for all the bills the bank has issued. This makes it perfectly safe to trust the paper money issued by any Na- tional Bank. While the organization of banks that has been described made National Bank bills safe many people claimed that some additional laws were necessary in order to allow banks to issue an extra amount of money in times when special business conditions or some emergency shows that extra money is needed. A law called the Federal Reserve Act was passed in 1913 to provide a \\ay to do this as well as to help banks and business men in other ways. Under this new law not less than eight nor more than twelve cities in different parts of the country are to have special Federal Reserve Banks. All national banks are to buv stock in 72 AMERICAN HISTORY these banks and the national government is responsible for the safety of the money that they issue. The law provides a way by which these banks may issue notes at such times and in such quantities as business conditions may require. These notes are redeemable at the reserve banks in lawful money or at the United States treasury in gold. This makes them safe. The Secretary of the Treasury, the Comptroller of the Currency, and five men specially appointed by the I^resident are called the Reserve Board to have the over- sight of organizing and managing the reserve banks. 73. States' Rights. What are the relations of a state to the Union? This question has made much trouble. At one time some of the states said that the Constitution is a contract between the states ; that Congress has no right to pass any laws except such as the states say they may pass ; and if Congress should make a law that the states have not given them permission to make any state could refuse to obey it. Most of the people who said this lived in the Southern states and at one time when the people of South Carolina did not like a tariff law that Congress had made the government of that state refused to pay the taxes and would not obey the law. President Jackson prepared to send soldiers to make them pay the taxes. Congress wanted to prevent blood- shed and passed a law gradually reducing the taxes each year for ten years. South Carolina then obeyed the law, but the question of states' rights was not settl'ed. In 1860 when South Carolina feared that Congress and President Lincoln would make laws unfavorable to slavery she 72>. What did the people in the South say about states' rights? Has a state a right to leave the Union? What kind of laws does Congress make ? Who must decide if there is a dispute about a law? AMERICAN HISTORY 73 claimed the right to secede, or leave the Union. Ten other slave states claimed the same right and these eleven states tried to leave the Union and form a new government. So the states' rights question as well as the slavery question had to be settled by war. The states had to remain in the Union. To-dav it is understood that no state can leave the Union or decide for itself what kind of laws Congress shall make. Congress makes all the National laws. All the state laws are made by the states themselves. Neither can interfere with the rights of the other. In case of doubt or dispute about these rights the Supreme Court of the United States must be the judge to decide all questions. 74. Other Questions. ]Many great questions are yet unsettled. Men do not agree about the tariff. The tem- perance question, how to prevent drunkenness and all the poverty, crime, and suffering caused by it, is very import- ant. The labor question, how to make laws to prevent trouble between workmen and those who employ them and to make sure that all are treated fairly is one of the great- est questions of this new century. Every good citizen should study all these questions carefully in order to help settle them ris^htlv and for the good of all. • . 74. What are some of the greatest questions now to be settled? THE CIVIL WAR. 75. Causes. Why did the men who lived in some of the Southern States and kept slaves fight against the men Civil War Map.— The United States in 1861. Union States are plain White. Seven States that seceded before the attack on Fort Sumter are marked * • * • Four States that seceded after the attack on Fort Sumter are marked Indian Territory which was controlled by the Confederacy is marked 1 . . . . The area of the Territories under Union control is marked 2. . .. *• Washington (2) Fort Donelson (5) Gettysburg # Richmond (3) New Orleans (6) Vicksburg (1) Bull Run (4) Antietam (7) Appomattox in the Northern States who did not keep slaves ? Abraham Lincoln was elected President by the Republican party. 75. What caused the Civil War? How many states seceded at first? What was the first battle of the war? AMERICAN HISTORY 75 He and his party did not want slaves in any more new states. They wanted to keep slavery where it was. That meant in the Southern States. The Southerners were afraid that the Northerners would try to set their slaves free and the people in seven of the slave states voted that they would not be a part of the United States any longer. They said they would secede. This meant that they would leave the Union and make a new government of their own called the Confederate States of America. If they had a government all their own they thought the people of the North could not interfere. They selected the city of Montgomery, Alabama, to be their capital and elected Jefferson Davis to be their Presi- dent. President Lincoln and the people in the Northern States said they could not do this because they had no right to leave the Union. The Southerners took possession of the forts and United States property in their states. They meant to fight. Fort Sumter, near Charleston, South Carolina, was still held by Union soldiers. These soldiers would soon starve unless some one sent them food. One ship (the Star of the West) that tried to carry them supplies had been fired upon and driven back by Southern soldiers. President Lincoln said he should send men and food to this fort. When the Southerners heard this they said they would capture the fort. They fired upon it and began a battle. The soldiers in the fort fought bravely. At last their food and pow^der were almost gone and the fort was on fire. They had to surrender. General Beauregard, the Con- federate General, let them go on board a Union ship which carried them to New York. 76 I AMERICAN HISTORY 76. What Followed. All over the Southern States the people rejoiced. Four more states joined the Confederacy and they changed their capital. Instead of the city of Montgomery they now chose Richmond, Virginia. In the North men were ready to fight. The questions that must be decided were these : Shall the United States remain one Union or be divided into two? Shall part of the states have the right to leave the Union without the consent of the rest? Shall the majority of the people rule and elect the kind of President and make the kind of laws they want? President Lincoln called for 75,000 men to defend the Union. Soon twice that number were ready for war. Little did they know what kind of war it was to be. They thought that in a few months the trouble would be over. Alas! What a mistake they made! The war lasted four years. Again and again the President called for more soldiers. Sometimes more than a million Union men were fighting. The South sent almost all her able bodied men and some of her old men and boys to fight against them. More than a quarter of a million men were killed on each side. Let us study a few of the great battles. 77. Bull Run. The men in the North wanted to cap- ture the Confederate capital. "On to Richmond!" was their cry. General Irvin McDowell was at Washington to protect the capital of the LInited States. With thirty thou- sand men he started for Richmond. When they had gone about thirty miles they met General Beauregard and the Southern army near a little river called Bull Run. The 76. What was the effect of the fall of Fort Sumter? What were the questions that must be decided? 77. Describe the battle of Bull Run? AMERICAN HISTORY 77 Union soldiers rushed upon the Southerners and drove most of them from their places. Only the men under Gen- eral Jackson did not run. Then General Bee, a Southern officer, cried to his men, ''Look at Jackson's Brigade! It stands like a stone wall !" His soldiers stopped running and began to fight again. General Johnson and another Southern army came just in time to help them. They drove all the Union army before them and won a victory. The Northern men ran back to Washington as fast as they could go. What joy in the South! What sorrow in the North! What fear at Washington ! Perhaps the Southern army would attack the city. But they did not. Too many of their men were killed or wounded. What was the North to do? General George B. McClellan had won some victories in West Virginia and saved it for the Union. He was made commander and told to drill a new army at Washing- ton. 78. Driving Back the Confederates. While McClellan was drilling his men the other Northern Generals tried to drive back the Confederates. General Thomas drove them out of eastern Kentucky and General Grant went to cap- ture their forts in Tennessee. At Fort Donelson the Southern General, after fighting three days, asked General Grant what terms he would give him to surrender. General Grant replied, ''No terms ex- cept unconditional and immediate surrender can be ac- cepted. I propose to move immediately upon your works." The Southern General surrendered the fort and over twelve thousand soldiers. It was now the North's turn to rejoice. The Union 78. Who captured Fort Donelson? 78 AMERICAN HISTORY army soon chased the Southerners out of Western Ten- nessee and took possession of the upper part of the Mis- sissippi River. 79. New Orleans. New Orleans was the city where the Southerners sent their cotton to be shipped away. It would be a great victory for the Union army to capture this city. Captain Farragut was sent with his gun-boats to take it. General Butler went with an army to help him. They found two great iron chains stretched across the river. Above the chains were two strong forts and the river was full of gun-boats. For six days Farragut's boats threw^ shot and shell into the forts. The forts tried to sink his boats. Then he cut the chains, rushed up the river, destroyed the Southern gunboats, and took the city. It was a brilliant victory. It helped the North and hurt the South in many ways. One way was by its effect on England and France. The Southerners had hoped that these nations would help them stop the war and break up the Union. Now that hope was gone. Their chance of winning was so poor that they could not get other nations to help them openly. But many Eng- lishmen helped them secretly. They wanted them to win ; they wanted their friendship ; they wanted to buy their cotton. War ships were built in England to help the South and these ships captured and destroyed many Northern vessels. ' When the war was over England paid the United States fifteen million dollars to settle for the damage these ships had done. 79. How was New Orleans captured? WHiich side did England help in the war? AMERICAN HISTORY 79 80. The Blockade. The North did not want any na- tion to sell anything to the South; so they tried to block- ade the Southern cities. This meant that Union warships were kept on the ocean all along the Southern coast to prevent vessels from going to Southern cities. The South- erners would wait for a dark night. Then one of their ships would try to steal by the Northern ships and go to sea with a load of cotton. If this ship was not captured, it would go to one of the West India Islands and sell its cotton to an English ship and buy all sorts of goods that had been brought from England. Then it would sail back and wait for another dark night to steal into its own harbor again. 81. The Merrimac and the Monitor. Running the blockade was very dangerous and the Southerners could get only a small part of the things they needed. They made up their mind to ''break the blockade." All the warships in the world were then made of wood. They said they would have one of iron. There was a Union ship at Nor- folk which the Union men had sunk when the war began, to keep it from being of use to the Southerners. It Avas called the Merrimac. The Southerners now raised this sunken ship, covered it with iron, and fastened a great iron beak, called a ram, to its bow. They thought they v/ere ready to break the blockade. Some warships were near by in Hampton Roads. They would destroy these first: so they started for the Cumberland, one of the finest of them all. They drove the great iron ram into her side and made a great hole. The water poured in and she went to the bottom. Then the Merrimac destroyed the Congress and 80. What was meant by the blockade? 81. Describe the battle between the ]\Ierrimac and the Monitor. What eflFect did it have on the navies of the world ? 80 AMERICAN HISTORY the Southerners thought they had done enough for one day. The next day they would go forth and break the blockade. But that night another iron ship arrived. The Union men had built one too. It was called the Monitor. It looked like "3. cheese box on a raft," but the ''cheese box" was made of iron and in it wxre two immense guns that could be pointed in any direction. The next day when the Merrimac went to destroy the rest of the Union ships she met the Monitor. For four hours each fired shots against the other. Then the Merri- mac went home. The Monitor could not sink her but it could prevent her from hurting the other ships. The South now knew that they could not break the blockade. They were too poor to build iron ships but the North were rich enough to build as many Monitors as they needed. That battle changed all the navies in the world. Since that time every nation has built its warships of iron and steel. 82. The Peninsular Campaign. McClellan had now drilled his army and was ready to try to take Richmond. He took his army to the peninsula between the York and James Rivers and started for that city. He fought his way almost there but failed to reach it. He was then called back to Washington. 83. Antietam. General Lee, the head of the Southern army, now saw his chance to go North. From Richmond he started for Maryland. On the way he defeated a North- ern army under General Pope. There was great excite- ment and fear at Washington. General McClellan was ordered to take both his own army and General Pope's 82. What was the result of the Peninsular Campaign? 83. Describe the battle of Antietam. AMERICAN HISTORY 81 army and go after Lee. He overtook him at Antietam, beat him in a bloody battle, and drove him back into Vir- ginia. 84. Emancipation. The battle of Antietam made President Lincoln free the slaves. For a long time many men in the North had said that he ought to do this. He had a right to do it because he was Commander-in-chief of the army and the owners of the slaves were fighting against the army. He said he would do it if the Northern army won this battle. When he heard of ]\IcClellan's victory he gave the Southerners one hundred days' notice. If they did not stop fighting by the end of that time he would make their slaves free. The hundred days were up on January 1, 1863. The Southerners were still fighting ; so he issued a statement called the Emancipation Proclamation. This told them that all their slaves were free persons. Of course he could not make them actually free on that day, but he meant that he gave them the right to be free and they would be free just as soon as the L'nion army could conquer their masters and make them so. There were a few Southern States that did not fight against the Union. President Lincoln said nothing about the slaves in those states. He could not set them free because their masters were not at war with the L'nited States. 85. Gettysburg. Six months after President Lincoln had made the slaves free General Lee saw another chance 84. What gave President Lincoln the right to free the slaves? When did he issue the Emancipation Proclama- tion? 85. Why did General Lee start north? Where did he fight a great battle with the L'nion Armv? Describe the battle. 82 AMERICAN HISTORY to go against the North. He had just beaten the Union army twice. First at Fredericksburg in Virginia and then at Chancellorsville near by. These victories filled the South with hope. Now if Lee could go North and capture some large city they thought President Lincoln would have to make peace. Lee was soon in Pennsylvania with his fine army of seventy thousand men. General Meade was sent Nationa' Monument at (jettysbnrg. to stop him with ninety thousand Union soldiers. They met at Gettysburg. Two days they fought and neither side won. On the third day the armies faced each other from two long hills with a valley between them. In front of each army was a long line of cannon. When all was ready the battle began. For two hours more than two hundred cannon roared and sent death across the valley. Then the AMERICAN HISTORY 83 best part of the Southern army started to drive the Union army from their hill. They got half way acrosh the valley when the Union army turned their guns upon them. They mowed them down like grass. The living filled up the gaps where the dead had fallen and rushed on and up the hill to fight the Union soldiers hand to hand. The struggle was soon over. The Union army had won and the South- ern army, what was left of it, went back to Virginia. Each army had lost more than twenty thousand men. Gettysburg was the greatest battle of the war. It is sometimes called the "turning point". After this there was little hope that the South could win but they kept on fight- ing. 86. Vicksburg. The next day after the battle of Get- tysburg another great victory brought joy to the North. This was at Vicksburg on the Mississippi River. We have already learned how the Union armies first took possession of the upper Mississippi and then captured New Orleans, but Vicksburg was between these two and it was held by Southerners. It had strong forts and many soldiers. This city must be captured before Union vessels could go up and down the river. General Grant went to take it. After more than four months of hard work and terrible fighting he drove a large Southern army inside the city and attacked the city itself. For seven weeks his cannon sent shot and shell into the city day and night. The houses were shot to pieces and the people lived in caves and holes dug in the ground. Their food was gone and they killed their mules and ate them. In a little while they would have starved General Grant's men dug under one side of 86. What happened at Vicksburg' 84 AMERICAN HISTORY their fort and then blew it up with powder. His army was getting ready to fight" its way inside when the Southerners raised white flags which meant that they would surrender. General Pemberton, the commander, surrendered the city and his great army of nearly thirty thousand men. A few days later the Union army had control of the whole length of the Mississippi. 87. The Great Campaign. The next spring General Grant was made Lieutenant-General, a higher position than w^as held by any other Union General. He planned the last great campaign. The South had two more large armies to conquer. One was General Johnson's army ^t Dalton, Georgia. The other was General Lee's army which had been in Virginia ever since the battle of Gettysburg. Gen- eral Grant decided that he must keep these two armies apart and beat them one at a time. He sent General Sher- man to conquer Johnson while he went after General Lee. 88. What Sherman Did. He started for Dalton with one hundred thousand men. Step by step he drove the Southern army toward Atlanta. Again and again they turned and fought. Four months of fighting brought them to Atlanta. This city had many factories making supplies for the Southern army. When their General saw that he must loose the city he blew up the powder magazines and then escaped with his army. General Sherman captured Atlanta and started for Savannah. For weeks no one in the North knew what he was doing. On Christmas eve President Lincoln received a telegram which read : 87. Who was made the head of the army? What did he plan to do? 88. What was done by General Sherman ? AMERICAN HISTORY 85 "Savannah, Georgia, December 22, 1864. "To his Excellency, President Lincoln, Washington, D. C. "I beg to present you as a Christmas gift the city of Sa- vannah, with one hundred and fifty heavy guns and plenty of ammunition ; also about twenty-five thousand bales of cotton. "W. T. SHERMAN, Major General." How the President rejoiced ! But what was General Grant doing? 89. What Grant Did. He led his army into the great forest, called the \\ ilderness, that was between him and Richmond. Here he fought battle after battle in the woods. Sometimes he won, sometimes he lost, but he did not stop. He wrote to another General, "I propose to fight it out on this line if it takes all summer." It took almost a year. In April, 1865, General Lee left the city of Richmond and the Union army marched in. Then they hurried on to catch General Lee. Seventy-five miles to the west they overtook him at the village of Appomattox. Here he sur- rendered his brave but almost starved army to General Grant and the last great struggle of the Civil War was at an end. 90. The Grand Review. The war was over ana the L'nion was saved. A million Union soldiers were ready to go home. But first there was to be a grand parade and review in the city of Washington. The President, Con- gress, and thousands of their friends from home were there to greet them. Two days the great army was passing down Pennsylvania Avenue, forming a procession thirty miles in 89. What was done by General Grant? 90. Describe the Grand Review of the Union Army. 86 AMERICAN HISTORY length. Then the vast throng was gone. They had gone to their homes, their farms, their shops, their offices, to take up again the work they laid down when called to the war. 91. Reconstruction. After the war there must be peace. How was it to be made? It took four years to de- cide just how the South and the North should agree to live again under the same flag, but at last all the states agreed to send men to Congress and to belong to the Union as they had done before the war. Three new amendments to the Constitution were made. They were numbered thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth. The first made all the slaves in the Union free. Their number was about four millions. The second gave them the rights of citizens. This means that the laws will protect them the same as they do white citizens. The third amendment gave them the same right to vote that white people have. When all these questions were settled the North and the South began to forget the trouble they had had. To-day they are all brothers. All belong to the same Union, the same flag waves over all, and all love the country that is their common home. 91. What amendments to the Constitution were made after the war? What do they mean? THE ERA OF EXPANSION. Since the Civil War the growth of business in the United States has been wonderful. Let us notice a few great changes. 92. New Mines. Just before the war began new gold mines w^ere discovered in Colorado and silver mines in Nevada. Thousands of people rushed there hoping to get rich. Large towns and cities were built in a few months. Other mines were soon found in Montana and Idaho. A great region that had been only a desert before was now immensely rich. The mines added great wealth to the country and made several new states that have joined the Union. 93. Railroads. New England and the East were full of factories. The mountains farther West w^ere full of coal and iron. Beyond the mountains was one of the largest and best farming regions in the w^orld. Beyond this were the mines of gold and silver. In the South w^as the land of cotton, the greatest cotton country of the world. One thing was needed. That was railroads to connect these parts of the country. How to build them was one of the first great questions after the war. To help build roads across the country the government lent different companies money and gave them land in the 92. Where w^ere new mines discovered just before the war? The result? 93. What caused new railroads to be built? 88 AMERICAN HISTORY West. The Union Pacific road was started west from Omaha. The Central Pacific started east from Sacramento on the Pacific coast. These two roads met in Utah and con- nected the East and the West in 1869. Soon many other roads were running east and w^est across the country. James J. Hill built one called the Great Northern to carry lumber from the Pacific coast to the East. He car- ried back to the Pacific cotton and wheat and sent these across the ocean to Japan and China. His success is one of the wonders of commerce. 94. Steel Making. There was so much freight to carry over the new roads that the railroad companies needed more cars with larger and faster engines. But these would ruin the iron rails and spoil the tracks. What could they do? A new and cheap way to make steel (called the Bessemer process) had just been found out. They would make the rails of steel. The first steel rails were made in Chicago in 1865. Next thev used the same kind of steel to make boilers for the engines. One engine could now haul twice as many cars and go twice as fast as before. This made it easy for the railroads to do much more business. It also made a great deal of work for miners and steel-makers. The best ore for making steel is found south of Lake Superior. These mines have helped make the United States the greatest steel-making country in the world. 95. A New Navy. The growth of trade and the pro- tection of commerce and other interests of the people needed navy ? 94. How did steel-making help the railroads ? 95. Why did the United States want a new and larger AMERICAN HISTORY 89 a new navy. Twenty years after the Civil War our navy w^as very weak. There were only a few poor monitors and old steamboats. William C. Whitney, Secretary of the Navy, wanted Congress to vote money for some new steel vessels. Three new ships Avere built. Since then we have been building hundreds of war ves- sels and to-day we have a strong navy. More warships are being built to protect our people and their trade in every part of the world. 96. Tne War With Spain. In 1898 something hap- pened that showed the United States that it is a good thing for the country to have a strong navy. We got into a war with Spain. This war was caused by trouble in Cuba. Cuba was owned and governed by Spain. Spain sent over officers and soldiers to manage the affairs of the island. Many of these Spanish officers treated the Cubans cruelly, but the Cubans had to obey them and pay heavy taxes. They suffered so much that they tried again and again to get free from Spain. In 1895 they made a hard fight for freedom. They declared themselves free and formed a republic. Spain sent over a large army to conquer them. Many were killed. Thousands were shut up in camps without food and starved to death. The people of the United States sent money to help the starving Cubans. Congress voted fifty thousand dollars to aid them. Many Americans lived in Cuba. Their business was being ruined and their property was being destroyed. These things led the United States to try to make peace between Spain and Cuba. They failed in this and the w^ar 96. What caused a war with Spain? In what year? What happened to the Maine ? 90 AMERICAN HISTORY went on. Spain was angry because the United States sent food to the dying Cubans. In 1898 the United States sent a warship called the Maine to look after our interests in Cuba. This ship was blown up in the harbor of Havana. Two hundred and sixty-six sailors were killed. Nobody knew who caused the ship to blow up, but the Americans believed that the Spaniards were to blame for it. A few weeks later Congress voted that Cuba ought to be free. They also told President McKinley to drive Spain out of Cuba if she did not stop fighting the Cubans. That meant war. In a few weeks President McKinley had raised a large army of volunteers and was ready. Most of the fighting, however, was done by the navy. 97. Manila Bay. Commodore George Dewey was near China with a fleet of warships. He was told to go to the Philippine Islands to capture some Spanish war ships that were there. He sailed to the harbor of Manila, where he attacked the Spaniards, May 1, 1898. In four hours he had destroyed eleven Spanish warships and had not lost a single man. This victory excited the whole world. Commodore Dewey was made an Admiral. More soldiers were sent to help him and in a few weeks he took possession of the Philippine Islands. 98. Santiago. There was another Spanish fleet in the West Indies. Admiral Sampson and Commodore Schley went to capture it. They found it at Santiago. ^ The Spanish ships tried to escape. The American ves- sels chased them and fired upon them. After four hours 97. What took place in Manila Bay? 98. What took place at Santiago? What was the result of the war? AMERICAN HISTORY 91 of fighting all the Spanish ships were wrecks. The Amer- ican vessels were little damaged. American soldiers led by General Shafter then captured the city of Santiago. General Miles and another army soon afterward conquered the islanrl of Porto Rico. Spain was beaten. Her power in America was gone. She was ready to make a treatv of peace. This was done and Cuba became free. Porto Rico, the P'hilippines, and some other islands in the Pacific were given to the United States. The United States paid Spain twenty million dollars. 99. Trouble in the Phillippines. About 9,000,000 people live in the Philippine Islands. Some are civilized. Most of them are partly civilized. About 600,000 are savage. They tried to drive out the Americans and there w^as much fighting for about two years. At last their leader, Aguinal- do, was captured and they stopped fighting. A new government was formed for them by the Amer- icans. The natives support this loyally. They are now building roads, learning better ways of farming, and send- ing their children to school. Many hundred American teachers have gone there to help teach them. 100. The Boxer War. In 1900 there was trouble in China. A secret society called the Boxers tried to murder all the foreigners in the country. They thought that some of these foreigners had treated them unfairly in trade and meddled wuth their affairs. The United States sent an army there to rescue the Americans. European soldiers joined them on their way to Peking, the Chinese Capital. They rescued the Euro- 99. What trouble occurred in the Philippines? What is said about the new government of the islands? 100. What was the Boxer War? 92 AMERICAN HISTORY peans and Americans and made the Chinese pay for the loss of life and property that they had caused. 101. Since the Boxer War. The United States now has great influence in the far East. The Chinese feel that the United States treated them fairly in the settlement of the Boxer troubles. Th^y promised to pay the United States $24,440,000 because of the damage that the Boxers had done to x\mericans and their property. When the United States found that only about half of this money was needed to pay all the claims of those who had suffered loss, the rest of the money was given back to China. The Chinese were very grateful for this act of kindness and immediately arranged to use the money to send several hundred Chinese students to our country to be educated in our schools and colleges in order that China may have the benefit of their education and that the two countries may become more and more friendly. In 1905 President Roosevelt used his influence to make peace between Japan and Russia, when those nations had carried on a terrible war for many months. This gained the respect of the world for our countrv. Our influence and our possessions in the Pacific lead us to believe that in a few years we shall be carrying on an enormous business with China and other countries in that part of the w^orld. In the summer of 1914 the greatest war in all the history of the world broke out in Europe and spread into Asia and Africa. Many of the great nations showed their confidence in our government by asking our ambassadors to take charge of their affairs at the capitals of the nations with which they were at war. We wish to be at war with none 101. Why has the United States increased in influence in the far East? AMERICAN HISTORY 93 but friendly to all and our people are working and praying for the coming of the day when wars shall cease. The opening of the Panama Canal in 1914 marked the completion of one of the world's greatest engineering pro- jects. This canal will benefit not only the United States but the whole world by helping travel and trade. The ex- periences of the United States soldiers and workmen in Cuba after the Spanish War and on the Isthmus of Panama while digging the canal have also benefitted the whole world in another way even more important. They have taught the world how to conquer yellow fever and malaria, two great scourges in tropical climates, and have shown how to great- ly reduce the dangers of typhoid and many other dread diseases that afflict all mankind. They did this by proving that mosquitoes and flies are two of man's worst enemies and the cause of these diseases. Our government spent millions of dollars destroying mosquitoes and flies and making the Isthmus clean. Havana had already been clean- ed up in the same way. As a result these places are now free from diseases which had always been a scourge until our government sent physicians and men and money to fight mosquitoes, flies, and filth. Havana has no yellow fever. The Panama Canal zone is the most healthful region under tropic skies. ^Mosquitoes and flies cause the death of thousands of children and many grown people every- where. \\ e must destroy these enemies wherever we can and protect our houses by screens. 102. Immigration. The Immigration Question is one of the great questions in the United States. The chance to 102. Why do so many immigrants come to America? About how many have come each year since 1905? What kind of immigrants are welcomed ? What kind are not wanted? What is the government doing to help the immi- grants ? 94 AMERICAN HISTORY have a better home and live a happier Hfe brings millions of foreigners to America. They have been coming for a hundred years, but at first the number was very small. In 1820 eight thousand came from Europe. For many years a few thousand came each year. By 1842 there were over one hundred thousand who came in a single year. In 1850 over three hundred thousand came from the old world. Since then the number has increased in "good times." In years when business was not so good fewer would come and some would return to their former homes. In 1905 and 1906 over one million came each year. For the vear ending June 30, 1907, the number was 1,285,349, the largest number that ever came in one year. The largest number from one country was 285,731, from Italy. The next largest number was 258,943 from Russia. The rest came mainly from other countries of Europe with some from the countries north and south of the United States and some from Asia. Thirty thousand, one hundred twenty-six came from Japan. For the year ending June 30, 1913, the total number of immigrants was 1,197,892. Of these 291,040 came from Russia, 265,542, from Italy, and 254,825, from Austria-Hun- gary. The total number from 1820 to 1913 was 30,808,944. Most of these came to make their homes here, to engage in useful labor, and to become good American citizens. All such are gladly welcomed by Americans. We do all we can to help them learn our language, our customs, and our laws. Sometimes criminals and others who will not make good citizens try to come. These we do not want. Congress has made laws to help the kind of immigrants that make good citizens and to keep out those that ought not to come here. AMERICAN HISTORY 95 The immigration ofificers must examine all persons who come to this country. Those who have serious physical de- fects or disease are sent back to the country from which they came. The steamship company that brings them over must carrv them back free of charge. Idiots, insane per- sons, paupers, beggars, criminals, polygamists, anarchists, and other persons whose past lives show that thev are not likely to be good citizens are not allowed to land. They are sent back home. Another class of oeople who can not come to this coun- try is ''contract laborers." These are people who have been persuaded to come here by men who promise to hire them to work. The government employs men to help the immigrants go where they can find work and good homes. Every im- migrant must pay a tax of four dollars, called a head tax. This is used to pay the expense of what the government does to help them. 103. The Civil Service. For more than fifty years be- fore 1883 almost everybody vv^ho held any United States office had to belong to the political party that was in power. Onlv the higher officers are elected by the votes of the people. The President either alone or with the help of Congressmen and other men of great influence had to ap- point many thousands of revenue collectors, mail clerks, and government clerks and officers. This work took a great deal of the President's time. Many of the officeholders did not give the people good service because they worked for the party that gave them 103. How were almost all government positions for- merly filled? What change was begun in 1883? Why? What good has been done by the Civil Service Law? 96 AMERICAN HISTORY office when they ought to work for the good of all the peoole. Bad men who could not get the offices they wanted often caused a great deal of trouble. In 1881 one of these rmm shot President Garfield. In 1883 Congress decided to put a stop to this evil. A Civil Service law was passed allowing the President to have most of these offices filled by those who passed examinations showing that they were fitted to hold the offices they wanted. Now more than 200,000 of these offices are filled by examinations. The ex- aminations show whether the men who take them know how to do the work required or not. The men who give the examinations are not allowed to ask any questions about a man's politics or religion. All parties and all churches must have the same rights. Such positions as those of superintendents, clerks, and employees of the Railway Mail Service, letter carriers in cities, and revenue collectors, government clerks, and em- ployees of many kinds, depend upon examinations and are eagerly sought by young men who have the necessary edu- cation with gooa character, good habits, and ability to work. The Civil Service Law has done a great deal of good. The people get better service, and a good man can not be turned out of office in order to make a place for somebody else simply because that somebody else belongs to the party in power. Some of the states are also beginning to, have State Civil Service Laws to select men for public positions. New York and Massachusetts havi such laws, and Wisconsin and Illinois appoint some of their city officers in the same way. 104. The Secret Ballot. It used to be the custom for 104. Why is the secret ballot a good thing? AMERICAN HISTORY 97 voters to place their ballots in the ballot boxes openly. That is, everybody who wished could watch them and see what kind of ticket they voted. Sometimes the ballots of one party were on a different colored paper from the ballots of another party, in order to make it easy to tell how^ a man voted. This w^as a great evil. It made it easy for bad politicians to bribe voters by giving them money to vote their ticket. Laws have now^ been passed nearly everywhere in the United States requiring voters to cast their ballots secretlv. Each voter must take his ballot into a bootn where no one can see him, and there he puts it into an envelope or marks it, whichever the law in his state says. Then he comes out of the booth and drops it into the ballot box without letting any one see which party he is voting for. In some places voting machines are used instead of ballots. This way of voting has done ,a great deal to make elec- tions fair and honest. Every man can vote as he wishes without fear of being troubled by others who wish him to vote their ticket. 105. The Monroe Doctrine. This doctrine was de- clared to the world by President Monroe. It seems to be- long to an earlier era than the present, but it has had so much to do with our growth and expansion that we men- tion it here. Napoleon Bonaparte was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. He Lad done much to make the people of Europe dissatisfied with their kings and rulers. Soon 105. What was the Holy Alliance? What did the allies plan to do in America? What did President Monroe say? What has the Monroe Doctrine helped to do? What have made America's past history glorious? What ar& needed to make her future more glorious? 98 AMERICAN HISTORY after the battle of Waterloo the rulers of Austria, Prussia, and Russia, who had helped defeat Napoleon, made a new league called the "Holy Alliance." The object of this alliance was to put down uprisings among the people when they tried to form popular governments. The kings feared the people would try to choose their own rulers and make their own laws. In case of trouble with the people these kings would send their armies to help one another. Mexico and several South American countries had just turned their Spanish governors out of office and elected officers of their own. They declared themselves free from Spain and said they were going to be republics. The "Holy Alliance" began to talk of helping Spain to conquer these countries again. Russia owned Alaska. She began to try to get more land on the Pacific coast of America. She claimed Oregon and tried to make settlements on the coast of California, which then belonged to Mexico. The United States saw that if European nations were allowed to interfere in affairs in America they would make no end of trouble. So President Monroe sent a message to Congress in 1823 in which he said that the American continents are not to be "considered as subjects for future colonization by any European powers" ; that we should consider it "dangerous to our peace and safety," if the Allied Powers attempted "to extend their systems of gov- ernment to any part of this hemisphere"; and that any at- tempt made by the European nations to conquer or control independent countries in America (Mexico and the South American Republics) would be considered the manifesta- tion of an unfriendly disposition toward the United States." President Monroe's statement was heeded by Europe. The Holy Alliance did not meddle in America and Russia gave up trying to make settlements in California. AMERICAN HISTORY 99 The Monroe Doctrine has helped settle many troubles in the New World. About the time of the Civil War France took possession of the government of Mexico. When the war was over and the United States could spare the soldiers they were sent to help the Mexicans drive out the French. The French went home leaving Mexico free again. In 1895 England and Venezuela were in a dispute over a boundary line and England wanted to take by force some land claimed by Venezuela. The United States said this must not be done and the dispute was settled by arbitra- tion. It was the Monroe Doctrine that kept European nations from interfering with the affairs of Cuba, when the United States helped Cuba to get free from Spain in 1898. The Monroe Doctrine led the United States to take con- trol of the Panama Canal. It is now recognized and re- spected by all the great powers of the world. It is under- stood that the United States is the country to settle ques- tions about American affairs. Europe does not interfere. Liberty, law and education ! These tell the story of America's glorious past. These are the hope of her more glorious future. From education come truth and knowledge, before whose light error and ignorance flee away carrying with them hate and strife. In their place comes the universal brother- hood of man, with faith and hope and love, the foundations of all greatness and all happiness. America is the inspiration of the world. Her civilization is fast becoming a model for all the nations of the earth. Like the rising of the sun, she is bringing light and joy to all. AMERICA'S DESTINY. We see glad gleamings of a brighter light than e'er earth saw before. Help and speed its coming, that its radiance full and free may pour O'er our new and wide horizon, o'er our islands of the sea, Scattering wrong's old darkness, ushering in the new day of the free. In this light we'll read our future, not by dim flickering torches of the past. Then, cherishing the fathers' virtues, go forward to new fields and duties vast. Welcome be the struggle arduous, freedom's price since days of yore ! Struggle strengthens life and manhood. When it ceases, life is o'er. Pointing onward, upward, toward the higher destiny of man, In the march of nations, be America the leader of the van. Star of hope and pledge of progress, be her banner high un- furled. Deliverer, teacher, guardian, be her name the glory of the world. AMERICAN HISTORY 101 OUR PRESIDENTS NO. NAME. 1. George Washington, 2. John Adams, 3. Thomas Jefferson, 4. James Madison, 5. James Monroe, 6. John Quincy Adams, 7. Andrew Jackson, 8. Martin Van Buren, 9. William H. Harrison, 10. John Tyler, 11. James K. Polk, 12. Zachary Taylor, 13. Millard Fillmore, 14. Franklin Pierce, 15. James Buchanan, 16. Abraham Lincoln, 17. Andrew Johnson, 18. Ulysses S. Grant, 19. Rutherford B. Hayes, 20. James A. Garfield, 21. Chester A. Arthur, 22. Grover Cleveland, 23. Benjamin Harrison, 24. Grover Cleveland, 25. William McKinley, 26. Theodore Roosevelt, Republicans, ELECTED BY TERM OF OFFICE. People,2 terms; 1789-1797. L term; 1797-1801. terms; 1801-1809. terms; 1809-1817. terms; 1817-1825. 27. William H. Taft, 28. Woodrow Wilson, Whole Federalists, Democratic- Republicans, Democratic- Republicans, Democratic- Republicans, House of Rep.l term; 1825-1829. Democrats 2 terms; 1829-1837. Democrats 1 term; 1837-1841. Whigs, 1 month; 1841. Whigs, 3 yrs., 11 mos.; 1841-1845. Democrats 1 term, 1845-1849. Whigs, 1 yr., 4 mos.; 1849-1850. Whigs, 2 yrs., 8 mos.; 1850-1853. Democrats 1 term; 1853-1857. Democrats 1 term; 1857-1861. Republicans, 1 term, 6 wks.; 1861-65. Republicans, 3 yrs., 10 J mos.; 1865-69. Republicans, 2 terms; 1869-1877. Republicans, 1 term; 1877-1881. Republicans, 6 mos., 15 days; 1881. Republicans, ^ ^T88M88^°'"' ^^ ^^^^' Democrats 1 term; 1885-1889. Republicans, 1 term; 1889-1893. Democrats 1 term; 1893-1897. Republicans, ^ '^TgV-WoT'" " ^^^^' terms lacking 6 mos., 10 days; 1901-1909. Republicans, 1 term; 1909-1913. Democrats Began March 4, 1913. AMERICAN GEOGRAPHY. 106. If we study the map on the opposite page we can easily understand why the islands of the West Indies, and the eastern parts of Mexico, the United States, and Canada were the first parts of North America to be settled by white people. Columbus sailed across the Atlantic and discovered the West Indies. All the other Europeans who followed him explored the Atlantic coast and the valleys of the great rivers that flow into the Atlantic and the Gulf of Mexico. Even after they found their way around South America and explored the Pacific coast Europeans did not care to settle there. There were two reasons why they settled on the Atlantic and not on the Pacific. First, the Atlantic was nearer. Second, it was easier to build homes, trade, and get a living near the Atlantic and the great rivers. The Atlantic coast had many good harbors; the Pacific had only three, San Diego, San Francisco, and Puget Sound. On the Atlantic side the mountains are low and far back leaving from one hundred to two hundred miles of sloping country favorable for settlements, while the river valleys are even more favorable. On the Pacific side high mountains are near the coast. But the settlers on the Atlantic kept moving toward the west and to-day the whole country is settled. Great cities 106. Why did Europeans settle on the Atlantic coast before they settled on the Pacific? Why did the people of the United States want a canal across the Isthmus oi Panama? 104 AMERICAN HISTORY are on the Pacific as well as on the Atlantic. Railroads cross the country from ocean to ocean. Great ships sail from one coast to the other by going through the Panama Canal. Formerly these ships had to sail around South x\merica. What a long journey they had to make ! Ever since the country was first explored men had talked about digging a canal across the Isthmus of Panama. This would save the journe around South America and would help every ship going from one coast of the United States to the other. Ships from Europe to the Pacific coast, or from the Atlantic coast to China and other places in Asia would also save manv thousand miles. In 1880 a French company began to dig the canal. Af- ter working many years and spending $300,000,000 the French gave up the work. They had finished about one- third of it. In 1903 they sold all their right to the canal to the United States, which finished it in 1914. It cost the United States $375,000,000. It runs from Colon to Panama, a dis- tance of nearly fifty miles. The distance from New York to San Francisco around South America is about 13,400 miles. The distance between these cities by way of the canal is 5,300 miles. The canal saves 8,100 miles. ACQUISITION OF TERRITORY. 107. The Original Territory. The map on the opposite page shows us that when the United States made peace with England after the Revolutionary War its territory was entirely on the east side of the Mississippi River. It consisted of two parts. One part was the thirteen original states, all on the Atlantic coast. The other part was the public land owned by the United States government, lying between the thirteen states and the Mississippi River. All this land was afterward made into states and joined the Union with the other thirteen. 108. The Louisiana Purchase. This great territory be- tween the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains was purchased from France by President Jefferson in 1803. The price paid was $15,000,000. 109. Florida. After the Revolutionary War Spain owned Florida until 1819. Florida then included what is now known by that name and also a narrow strip extend- ing farther to the west. Under President Monroe the United States purchased this territory for $5,000,000. 110. Texas. Texas joined the Union in a way which was then new\ This territory was once a part of Mexico. Most of it was settled by people from the United States. 107. How many states were there in the original terri- tory of the Union? Of what two parts did this territory consist? 108. How was the Louisiana territory obtained? 109. How was Florida obtained? 110. How did Texas join the Union? AMERICAN HISTORY 107 These people had trouble with the Mexican government and fought to become free. When they won their freedom they asked the United States to annex them to the Union. Congress made them a state in 1845. 111. Oregon. — The Oregon territory, between Califor- nia and Alaska, was claimed by both the United States and England. In 1846 the two countries agreed to divide the territory. The United States kept the southern part and the northern part was annexed to Canada. 112. California. When Texas was annexed to the Union, the United States and Mexico disputed over the boundary line. They went to war and Mexico was de- feated. By the treaty of peace made in 1848 Mexico gave up her claim to the disputed territory and also sold to the United States a large tract of land called the California territory. The United States paid Mexico $15,000,000 and in addition $3,000,000 to American citizens to settle debts owed them by Mexico. 113. The Mesilla Valley. Another dispute soon oc- curred between the United States and ]\Iexico over the southern boundary of the California territory. In 1853 they made another treaty to settle this dispute. The United States bought the ]\Iesilla Valley south of the Gila River and paid $10,000,000. 114. Alaska. In 1867 William H. Seward, Secretary of State, arranged to purchase Alaska from Russia. The United States paid Russia $7,200,000. The country was so cold and desolate that many people thought it was not 111. How was the Oregon territory obtained? 112. How was the California territory oDtained? 113. W^here is the Mesilla Vallev? 114. How did the United States obtain Alaska? AMERICAN HISTORY 109 worth buying. They called it ''Seward's Folly." The cli- mate along the coast, however, is mild, and the country has proven to be rich in minerals and timber. Its mines have in one year produced more than enough gold to pay for it. Its fisheries and seals are very valuable. 115. The Hawaiian Islands. When the war broke out in 1898 between the United States and Spain, the people of the Hawaiian Islands in the Pacific Ocean were trying to persuade the United States to annex them. They had been asking this for five years but it had not been done. After the battle of Manila Bay some of the most eminent men in the navy said that the islands would be very valu- able to the United States as a naval station. In July they were annexed. This was the first territory acquired by the United States at a distance from the mainland and marks the beginning of the country as a world power. 116. Territory Acquired by the Spanish War. By the treaty of peace which closed the war with Spain in 1898, Spain gave to the United States the island of Porto Rico in the West Indies, the great group of Philippine Islands more than 400 in number in the Pacific ocean southeast of China ; and the Island of Guam, about 100 miles in circum- ference, situated about 1,500 miles east of the Philippines. Early in the following year, 1899, the United States raised its flag on Wake Island, a rocky islet about one square mile in area 1,550 miles northeast of Guam. This island, before unoccupied by any nation, now became valu- able as a station on the route to the Philippines. 115. How did the United States obtain the Hawaiian Islands? 116. What territory did the United States acquire as a result of the war with Spain? 110 AMERICAN HISTORY 117. Tutuila. For ten years beginning in 1889 the Sa- moan Islands in the Pacific ocean were ruled by native chiefs under the control of England, Germany, and the United States. So many disputes and troubles arose that it seemed best to divide the islands and a treaty was made in December, 1899, giving Tutuila and a number of small islands to the United States. These island possessions of the United States afford her excellent opportunities to build stations and will doubtless be of great value in her trade with Asia. 117. How did the United States get Tutuila? ' 2 iOS NORTH oaVh;ota 105 The Capitol of Oklahoma is Oklahoma City. THE UNITED S \TES IN 1914 MAP OF THE UNITED STATES. The map on the opposite page shows us the United States as it is to-day. There are forty-eight states besides the District of Columbia. ^ Alaska, Hawaii, and the island possessions are shown on the preceding map. 118. Mountains. The Appalachian Mountains are in the eastern part of the United States and extend from Can- ada to within about two hundred miles of the Gulf of Mexico. These mountains are mostly low and are divided into many ranges by the river valleys. In New Hamp- shire they are called the White Mountains, in Vermont the Green Mountains, in New^ York the Adirondacks and the Catskills, while farther south are the Blue Ridge Moun- tains, the Allegheny Mountains, and the Cumberland Mountains. The highest peaks in the White Mountains are a little over one mile above the level of the sea. Mt. Mitchell in North Carolina, the highest peak of all is about one mile and a quarter in height. The Rocky Mountains cross the country from north to south at an average distance of about 800 miles from the Pacific coast. The highest peaks are about 14,000 feet above sea level. The California Mountains also cross the country from north to south running along the Pacific coast. Mt. Whit- ney in California 14,900 feet high, is the highest peak. 118. Locate the main mountain ranges of the United States. 112 AMERICAN HISTORY 119. Natural Divisions. The mountains divide the country into three principal sections. East of the Appalachian Mountains is the Atlantic slope with many small rivers furnishing excellent water power for manufacturing. West of the Rocky Mountains is the Pacific Slope. Much of this land is a desert and was valuable in the past mainly for its mines of gold, silver, and other minerals, but portions of it are now made into good farming land by irrigation from the mountain streams. The northern part of the country wxst of the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Mountains is covered with fine forests while the southern part is very fertile and farming is the main business. Between the Rocky Mountains and the Appalachian Mountains is the Great Central Plain through which flow the great rivers, the Mississippi, the Missouri, and the Ohio. This is one of the richest farming regions in the whole world. On the northern border of the eastern half of the coun- try is a chain of five great inland seas forming the grandest group of lakes in the whole world. They are called the "Great Lakes." The states near them are rich in minerals and in farm- ing products. Many great cities are on their shores and in trade and commerce the Great Lake region is one of the busiest in America. The whole country is covered with a network of rail- 119. Into what three sections is the United States divided by the mountain ranges? Describe them. Where are the Great Lakes? What is said of railroads? AMERICAN HISTORY 113 roads. A few of the most important of the long lines called "Trunk Lines" are marked on the map. Other Trunk Lines, branches, and separate short roads reach nearly every city and village in the L^nited States. 120. Canals. The Erie canal from Buffalo to Albany connects the Great Lakes with the Hudson River. The Saint Mary's Canal commonly called the "Soo" connects Lake Superior with Lake Huron. More tons of freight pass through this canal in a year than through any other canal in the world. The Delaware and Chesapeake Canal connects the Delaware River with Chesapeake Bay. Many other canals connect lakes and rivers and enable ships to pass around rapids. In the great western desert they are used to carry water for irrigation purposes. The Panama Canal is described in section 106. 121. Large Cities. The ten largest cities in the United States are : 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 New York, which has 4,766,883 inhabitants. Chicago, which has 2,185,283 inhabitants. Philadelphia, which has 1.549.008 inhabitants. St. Louis, w^hich has 687,029 inhabitants. Boston, which has 670,585 inhabitants. Cleveland, which has 560,663 inhabitants. Baltimore, which has 558,485 inhabitants. Pittsburg, which has 533,905 inhabitants. Detroit, which has 465,766 inhabitants. Buffalo, which has 423,715 inhabitants. 120. Where is the Erie Canal? The Saint Mary's Canal? 121. Where are the ten largest cities in the United States? (See map.) 114 AMERICAN HISTORY 122. Productions. Farmin.^ is carried on largely in the eastern and central parts of the United States and near the Pacific coast. More people are engaged in farming than in any other occupation. Three-fourths of the corn raised in the world is raised in the United States. The great corn belt lies in the north- ern part of the Mississippi valley. Iowa, TITinois, and In- diana are the three leading states. The United States raises one-fifth of the world's wheat crop. It is raised mainly a little farther north than corn. Kansas, North Dakota, and Minnesota are the leading states. Three-fourths of the world's cotton grows in the south- ern states. Texas, Georgia, and Alabama are the lead- ing states. One-half of the hogs in the world are raised in the United States, largely in the grain growing sections. Iowa, Illinois, and Missouri take the lead. Texas, Iowa, and Kansas lead in cattle raising. The great lumber regions are on the Pacific coast, in the Southern States, around the Great Lakes, and in Maine. The United States produces one-third the iron, one- third the coal, and one-fourth the gold and silver of the world. Minnesota and Michigan produce the most iron, Pennsylvania and Illinois the most coal, California and Colorado the most gold, Nevada and Utah the most silver. 123. Manufactures. In manufacturing the United 122. What part of the world's supply of Corn is pro- duced in the United States? What part of the wheat? What part of the cotton? What part of the hogs? What part of the iron ? What part of the coal ? W^hat part of the gold and silver? 123. What is the rank of the United States as a manu- facturing nation? Where is manufacturing mainly carried on? AMERICAN HISTORY 115 States leads the world. Most of the manufacturing is done in cities and villages. About nine-tenths of it is done in the north-eastern quarter of the country. Clothing, boots, shoes, machinery, books, and paper are produced in New England. Iron and steel are manufactured between the coal pro- ducing states and the Great Lakes. Meat packing and the manufacture of flour are carried on in the upper part of the Mississippi valley. 124. Commerce. If both domestic and foreign com- merce are considered, the United States has a greater com- merce than any other two countries. Large quantities of cotton, meat, breadstuffs, iron, steel, and kerosene, are sent to other countries. We import silk, wool, sugar, cofifee, hides, and India rubber. On January 1, 1913, the United States put into operation a system of parcel post that has been of great benefit to people who have small packages to send from one place to another. At first packages weighing not more than eleven pounds could be sent, but in 1914 new rules were made to allow people to send larger packages. Under these new rules one can carry a package to the post office and if the package does not weigh more than four ounces it will be carried in the mail any distance for one cent an ounce. Books weighing not more than eight ounces will be carried for one cent for each two ounces. Other packages weigh- ing not more than fifty pounds will be carried anywhere in the same city or on a local rural delivery route for five cents for the first pound and one cent for every additional two pounds, or they will be carried anywhere within a distance 124. What is the rank of the United States in com- merce? Name some things that the L^nited States exports. Name some things that are imported. 116 AMERICAN HISTORY of 150 miles for five cents for the first pound and one cent for each additional pound. Packages weighing not more than 20 pounds can be sent anywhere in the country. In order to determine the rates to be paid the whole country is divided into districts each 30 miles square and from the center of each district eight circles are drawn, the first circle having a radius of 50 miles; the second, 150 miles ; the third, 300 miles ; the fourth, 600 miles ; the fifth, 1000; the sixth, 1400 miles ; the seventh, 1800 miles ; the eighth having a radius long enough to take in all places in our country outside the seventh circle. The belts made by these circles are called zones, and are numbered from one to eight, the smallest circle being zone one and the out- side belt being zone eight. The rates for distances greater than 150 miles are as follow^s : 3rd zone, first pound 6 cents, each extra pound 2 cents. 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 7 8 9 11 12 4 6 8 10 12 but our These rates are likely to change at any time, local postmaster will tell us what it will cost to send a package to any of these zones. 125. Standard Time Belts. To avoid mistakes and trouble caused by the differences in time when one travels east and wxst, the railroad companies have divided the country into belts running north and south. The eastern portion of the country on both sides of the 125. What is meant by Standard Time belts? Locate the belts. What must be done to our watches when w^e go from one belt to another? AMERICAN HISTORY 117 75th meridian sets all its clocks and watches to agree with the correct time of that meridian. This is called eastern time. The next belt is on both sides of the 90th meridian. All places in this belt have time just one hour earlier than eastern time. This is called central time. The next belt takes its time from the 105th meridian. The fourth belt is both sides of the 120th meridian and has Pacific time. When a person travels west he must set his watch back one hour when he passes from one belt into the next. When returning he must set his watch one hour ahead. 126. Population. At the close of the Revolutionary War there were about 4,000,000 people in the United States. Nearly all of these lived near the Atlantic coast. To-day the population is 100,000,000 and they are spread over the entire country."^' No other nation ever grew so rapidly. Millions of people from Europe and from Asia have crossed the ocean to find new homes under a free government in a country where land is cheap and the opportunities for earn- ing a living and acquiring property are better than can be found elsewhere. The northeastern portion of the country is very thickly settled. Large parts of the South and the great West are still but thinly settled. *About 10,000,000 more live on the islands belonging to the United States. 126. What was the population of the United States at the close of the Revolutionary War? What is the popula- tion now? AMERICAN GOVERNMENT. 127. The Constitution of the United States. The Con- stitution is the highest law in the United States. It tells what kind of laws Congress can make and what are the rights of the people. If Congress or the legislature of any state makes a law of a kind that the Constitution forbids that law can not be enforced because the courts will not punish a man who disobeys such a law. If a law agrees with the Constitution all the courts in the United States must punish people who disobey it; so it is very important to know what the Constitution says. 128. How the Constitution was made. When the thirteen United States became free from England after the Revolutionary War they had no good government. When the war was going on all the states had agreed to a set of laws called the Articles of Confederation. After the w^ar the states had many troubles trying to live together accord- ing to these laws and they decided that they must make some changes. They agreed to have a government with three depart- 127. What is the highest law in the United States? What is said about any law that conflicts with the.Constitu- tion of the United States? 128. Why was a convention called in Philadelphia in 1787? How many states sent delegates ? What did they do? What was the Connecticut Compromise? What agreement was made about counting slaves? What agreement was made about taxing exports? About importing slaves? After the Constitution was made why w^as it sent to the states ? AMERICAN HISTORY 119 ments ; one department to make the laws, one to enforce the laws, and another to settle disputes about the laws and punish law-breakers. Before they could agree to the rest of the Constitution the delegates had to make three great compromises : — 1. The Connecticut Compromise. The large states wanted to elect Congressmen, or lawmakers, according to the population. If a state was large it should have many Congressmen. If it was small it should have few. The small states said this was not fair. They wanted all states to be equal and have the same number of Congressmen. The Connecticut delegates advised that one body of law- makers should be elected by the states according to popula- tion. This was called the House of Representatives. Another body, called the Senate, should have two men from each state. Thus both the large and small states could be suited and these two bodies together could make the laws. This was agreed to. 2. In counting the people to decide how many Con- gressmen a state should have, ought slaves to be counted? The states that had slaves said *'Yes." The others said "No." They agreed to count three-fifths of the slaves and all the free people. 3. The states that manufactured goods to sell in other countries did not want Congress to have the right to tax the goods that they exported for sale. The farmers of the Southern states wanted Congress to have the right to make such a tax. The Southern states also wanted the right to import slaves from Africa. The Northern states did not want them to buy any more slaves. They agreed that people who wanted slaves could import them for twenty years and that goods exported should never be taxed. After it was finished it was sent to the states. If nine 120 AMERICAN HISTORY of the states voted for it their votes made it a law and those nine states would form a Union. In about a year eleven states had voted for it and the Union was formed. North Carolina joined the Union a few weeks later. Rhode Island joined about three years afterwards. All the thirteen states were now in the Union and the Constitution was the su- preme law for them all. 129. Amendments to the Constitution. The Constitu- tion provides that changes may be made in it or additions made to it at any time by three-fourths of the states in the Union. Ten such additions were made very soon after the government was organized. One more was made in 1798 and another in 1804. After the close of the Civil War three others w^ere added in order to prevent any more slavery in the United States and to give colored citizens the same rights that w^hite citizens have. In 1913 the sixteenth amendment was added. This gives Congress the power to lay and collect taxes on incomes. To carry out this amendment Congress passed a law putting a tax upon all incomes of more than $3,000 a year, for an unmarried person, or more than $4,000 for a married man living with his wife or a mlarried woman living w4th her husband. During the same year (1913) the seventeenth amendment became a part of the constitution. This provides that United States Sena- tors shall be elected by the votes of the people. Before 1913 they were elected by the state legislatures. 129. How many amendments have been made to the Constitution ? THE LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT. Congress consists of a Senate and a House of Repre- sentatives. They hold their sessions, to make laws, in the Capitol in the city of Washington. 130. The House of Representatives. The people vote for members of the House of Representatives every two years. To be a Representative a man must be at least twenty-five years old and he must have been a citizen of the United States for seven years, or more, and he must have his home in the state that elects him. The number of Representatives that a state has depends upon the number of people that live in the state. Every ten years a census is taken, that is, the people are counted. Then Congress decides how many Representatives there shall be and divides the number of people by the number of Representatives. This tells how many people there must be for each Representative and each state knows how many to vote for. The state is divided into as many congressional districts as it has Representatives and elects one man from each district. No matter how few people live in a state it must have at least one Representative. 130. How often are Representatives elected? What are the requirements for a Representative? How is the num- ber of Representatives from each state decided? When are elections of Representatives held? How is a vacancy filled? What name is given to the presiding officer of the House of Representatives ? 122 AMERICAN HISTORY The election is held in most of the states on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November in the even years, as 1908, 1910, etc. The Representatives take their office the odd year after they are elected and continue in office until the fourth of March of the next odd year. When a Representative dies or there is a vacancy for any reason the Governor of his state orders a special election to choose another man to fill his place. The Representatives choose their own officers. Their president is called the Speaker of the House. 131. The Senate. The Senate of the United States is composed of two Senators from each state. They are elected by the voters of the states and hold office for a term of six years. Their terms are so arranged that one third of them go out of office every two years. This plan makes it sure that two-thirds of the Senators shall always be men who have had experience in the Senate. To be a Senator a man must be at least thirty years old and he must have been a citizen of the United States for nine years, or more, and he must have his home m the state that elects him. The Vice-President of the United States is the President of the Senate. The Senators elect the rest of their own officers. They also elect one of their own members Presi- dent pro tempore and he presides when the Vice-President is absent. 131. How many Senators has each state? How are they elected? How long is their term of office? How are their terms arranged? What are the requirements for a Senator? Who presides over the Senate? AMERICAN HISTORY 123 132. Meetings of Congress. The Constitution says "The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year ; and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall, by law, appoint a different day." Every two years there is a new Congress. This does not mean that all the old Congressmen go home and new men come to take all their places, but it does mean that the states elect their Representatives for two years at a time and when the two years are up the people must elect these men again or elect somebody else to fill their places. Also every two years one-third of the Senators go out of office and their states must re-elect them or elect other men to fill their places. The House of Representatives has to elect a new set of officers for itself every two years ; so, although a great many of the old Congressmen continue in office for many years, there are always so many changes at the end of two years that it is right to say we have a new Congress. The term of Congress is from the fourth of March of one odd year, like 1907, or 1909, to the fourth of March of the next odd year. During this term Congress has two regular sessions. They meet on the first Monday in De- cember of the odd year and may hold meetings for a whole year, if they have business to do for so long a time. This is called the long session, though they usually go home some time in the spring or summer. The second session begins on the first Monday in De- cember of the even year and must end by noon on the fourth 132. When does Congress regularly meet? When does a term of Congress begin and end? How many regular sessions in a term of Congress? Who can call a special session ot Congress? 124 AMERICAN HISTORY day of the next March, because the Representatives' term of office ends then. The term of the new Congress begins the moment the old pne ends, but they do not meet until the next December, unless there is special business for them to do. If there is need for them to meet the President of the United States can call them together at any time. Such a meeting is called a special meeting of Congress. 133. Membership of Congress. Sometimes it happens that there is a dispute about the election of a Senator or a Representative. Two men both think that they have been elected to the same office. The Constitution says : "Each house shall be the judge of the elections, returns, and qual- ifications of its own members" ; so in case of a dispute be- tween two men who claim to be Senators, the Senate de- cides which one shall have the office ; if the dispute is be- tween two men who claim to be Representatives, the House of Representatives must decide which one shall have the office. 134. Quorum. Neither house can do business unless a majority (more than half) of its members are present. If at any time there are not enough present to do business those who are there can send for the absent members and compel them to come, or suffer a penalty. 135. Committees. Each member of Congress can not have time to examine and find out what ought to be done with every piece of business that Congress has to do ; so committees are appointed to help them and eich committee 133. Who decides disputes about the election of Sena- tors and Representatives? 134. How many persons does it take to do business in Congress? 135. What is the use of Committees in Congress ? How manv committees has each House of Congress ? AMERICAN HISTORY 125 examines one kind of business. There are committees on Commerce, on Agriculture, on Revenue (called Ways and Means in the House, and Finance in the Senate), on For- eign affairs, on Military affairs, on Naval affairs, etc. In the House there are 56 of these committees. In the Senate there are almost as many. These committees report to the rest of Congress and give them advice. 136. Punishment and Expulsion. Each house of Con- gress can punish one of its members in such a way as they think proper, if that member is disorderly or hinders the rest from doing business. If a member of either house does anything so improper that the rest of the members think he ought not to be in Congress, he may be expelled, if two- thirds of the members vote against him. 137. Freedom of Speech. Senators and Representa- tives when they are in Congress have the right to say what they believe and tell what they know about any matter oi business that they may have to do. This is an important right, for it protects the Congressmen and gives them cour- age to say and do what they think is right. 138. Salaries. The salaries of Senators and Represent- atives are paid by the United States, not by the states that send them to Congress. Each Senator and each Repre- sentative is paid $7500 a year. The Speaker of the House of Representatives and the President pro tempore of the Senate, in case he becomes permanent President of the Senate, each receive $12,000 a year. It costs a great deal of money to be a Congressman and 136. When may members of Congress be punished or expelled? 137. Why is freedom of speech important in Congress? 138. What salaries are paid to Congressmen? 126 AMERICAN HISTORY live in Washington. It is said that many Congressmen spend much more than their salaries. Their best reward is not the money they receive. They enjoy the honor and hap- piness that come to them from making good laws to help the people. These are worth more than the money they get. 139. How Laws Are Made. Let us see how Congress makes a law. Either the Senate or the House may begin the work. Suppose that the House begins it. First some Representative tells the House what kind of law he wants made and gives them a written copy of it. This is called introducing a bill. The Speaker of the House orders the bill to be sent to the Committee that have charge of that kind of bills. The Committee examine the bill and tell the House whether they think it ought to be a law or not. If they think it should be made a law the clerk of the House has copies of the bill printed and gives a copy to each mem- ber of the House. Then the bill is read aloud twice to the House, usually on different days. This is to make sure that all the members know just what the bill is before they vote on it. If they do not like some part of it they can change it. This is called amending it. Then the clerk writes it in large plain letters. This is called engrossing it. The clerk then reads it the third and last time. After this the Speaker asks the members to vote. Those who wish the bill to be a law vote for it. If more vote for it than against it, it ''passes" the House. Then it goes to the Senate, where the same things have to be done again. If it is passed by the Senate it is carried back to the House and "enrolled." This means that it is written on sheepskin, called parchment. The Speaker of the House and the President of the Senate both sign it. Then it is sent to the President of the United 139. Describe the work of making a law? AMERICAN HISTORY 127 States. If he thinks it ought to be a law he signs his name to it. This makes it a law. After this the President gives it to the Secretary of State, who puts it away for safe keeping. If the bill had started in the Senate the same things would have been done, but the Senate would have done their part first and the House their part last. Of course, if either house voted against it, it could not be a law. 140. The President's Veto. After Congress has passed a bill the President of the United States may think that it ought not to be a law. In that case he will not sign his name to it, but he will send it back to that house of Con- gress where it was introduced. He will also send a message telling why he thinks it ought not to be a law. This is called vetoing the bill. If two-thirds of the members of each house of Congress still think that it ought to be a law, and they vote for it again, it will be a law without the President's name on it, but if two-thirds of the members of each house do not vote for it, it can not be a law. 141. Ten Days for Vetoing Bills. The Constitution gives the President ten days after he receives a bill to de- cide whether he will sign it or not. If he keeps the bill ten days that Congress is in session and does not sign it, then it becomes a law without his name on it. If Congress should adjourn and the members go home before the ten days are past, the Constitution says that the "bill can not 140. What is meant by the President's veto? How may a law be made if the President will not sign it? 141. How long can the President take to decide whether or not he will sign a bill? What happens if the time runs out and the President does not act? What hap- pens if Congress adjourns before the time is up? 128 AMERICAN HISTORY be a law unless the President signs it. The Constitution says this because the President has the right to send back any bill he does not like and object to it before it can be a law. If Congress could send him a bill and then have it become a law by going home before he had time to send it back, this would take away his right to object to it, or veto it. To cause the President to lose this right would be unfair and wrong. 142, The Powers of Congress. The following are some of the things that Congress can do. — 1. They can collect taxes from the people. This is not often done unless there is a w^ar or some special need for large sums of money. 2. They can put a tax on goods brought to this country from other countries. This is called an indirect tax. This tax is collected at the custom-houses when the goods are brought to the United States. The government gets a great deal of money from this tax. 3. They can put a tax on tobacco, cigars, liquors, and other things made for sale in this country. 4. They can borrow money to pay the expenses of the government. 5. They can make rules for trading between people who live in the United States and people who live in other countries ; also for trading betwxen people who live in one state and those who live in another state of the United States. 6. "^hey can make laws called naturalization laws. They tell how men w^ho have come from other countries to live 142. Name the most important things that Congress can do. AMERICAN HISTORY 129 in the United States can be made citizens of this country and have the rights and privileges that Americans have. Such laws help immigrants and make them want to live here. 7. They can make rules for coining money. Nobody except men employed by the government has the right to make gold and silver or other metals into money. If every- body could do it bad men would cheat and make poor money and such money would cause a great deal of trouble ; so Congress makes laws to punish any one who tries to coin money for himself. Such a man is called a counterfeiter. 8. They can make laws for managing post-ofifices and for carrying the mail from place to place. Most of the money to pay the expenses of this work is got by selling postage stamps. 9. They can declare w^ar on any other country that tries to do wrong to the United States. If they do this they also make rules for getting soldiers to carry on the war and for taking care of them while the war lasts. 10. Congress can make new states and tell them how to join the Union. They can also do a great many other things when they are for the good of all the people in the United States. To learn what they all are one should read the Constitution of the United States. 143. Some Things That Congress Can Not Do, The Constitution forbids the following: — 1. Congress can not make an ex post facto law. This means that they can not make a law to punish a man for what he did before the law was made. Everybody has a 143. Name the most important things that Congress can not do. 130 AMERICAN HISTORY right to know what the laws are and the people can not know beforehand what laws Congress is going to pass. Therefore it would be wrong to punish people for what they do unless there is a law against it at the time they do it. 2. Congress can not put a tax on goods sent from one state into another state to sell there. 3. Congress can not suspend the writ of habeas corpus except in time of war. This means that a man who is ar- rested for crime can not be put in jail and kept there a long time without being brought before a judge. The judge must know what the complaint against the man is, and if the complaint is not enough to keep the man in jail the judge must let him go. 144. What the Constitution Says About Gifts. The Constitution says that a person who holds any United States office can not accept a gift, or office, or title of any kind from any ruler in a foreign country. If an officer could accept gifts from foreign countries he might work for those countries in order to get the gifts. This would not be just and fair to the people in the United States. 144. What does the Constitution say about gifts? Why does it say this? ' THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 145. Who Execute the Laws? The President of the United States and his cabinet and all officers everywhere who are appointed to see that the laws of the United States The White House — the President's Home. are obeyed, are called the executive department of the gov ernment. 145. Who are called the executive department of the government? 132 AMERICAN HISTORY 146. Duties of the President of the United States. He is Commander-in-Chief of the army and navy. This does not mean that he must go into battles and lead the soldiers unless he thinks best. It means that he gives orders to all the generals and commanders and they must do what he tells them to do. He selects a number of assistants called his Cabinet. These men must give him advice and information about any business in their departments. He can pardon men who have been sent to prison by the courts for some crime against the United States. This means that if he finds that there has been some mistake and that the prisoners ought to be free he can order them to be let out of prison. He can appoint men to make treaties with other coun- tries. Before any treaty can become a law it must be sent to the Senate and approved by two-thirds of the Senators who are present. He appoints ambassadors, ministers, and consuls to rep- resent the United States in other countries. He also ap- points the judges of the Supreme Court, many postmasters, and nearly all important United States officers. The men that he selects must be approved by the Senate, except in special cases. The men who assist him directly in his own work are appointed by him alone. He sends messages to Congress at the beginning of every session and at other times when he thinks best-. In these messages he gives Congress information about the affairs of the country and tells what kind of laws he thinks ought to be made. He must see that the laws made by Congress are obeyed. 146. Name the chief duties of the President. AMERICAN HISTORY 133 This great duty gives him the title of the Chief Executive of the Nation. When he learns that any man is not obeying the laws he must send the proper officer to make the man obey. If the President himself does not do his duty he may be impeached by the House of Representatives and removed from office by the Senate. 147. Who May Be President. The President must be a citizen of the United States who was also born a citizen of the United States. He must be thirty-five years of age and must have lived in the United States for fourteen years. 148. Vacancies. In case the President dies, is removed from office, or can not do the duties of President, the Vice- President shall take his place and become President. In case the Vice-President also dies or can not perform his duties, the duties of Acting President shall be performed by the Secretary of State. In case of more vacancies these duties shall be performed by other Cabinet officers in the following order : Secretary of the Treasury, Secretary of War, Attor- ney-General, Postmaster-General, Secretary of the Navy, Se- cretary of the Interior. There are now three other officers in the President's Cabinet, but as there were only seven when the law^ was passed giving them the right to become Acting President, those added since the law was made are not included. 149. Salaries of the President and Vice-President. The President receives a salary of $75,000 a year and has the use of a house which is owmed and furnished by the govern- ment. This house is in the city of Washington and is called 147. Who may be President? 148. In case the office of President becomes vacant how is the vacancy filled. 149. What salaries are paid the President and Vice- President. 134 AMERICAN HISTORY the "Executive Mansion" or the ''White House." The Vice- President receives a salary of $12,000 a year. 150. The Cabinet. The President selects ten men to be the heads of departments to assist him and give him ad- vice. He calls these men together at the Executive Mansion whenever he sees fit. At these meetings he hears their opinions, but is free to agree or disagree with them and acts as he thinks best. Each member of the Cabinet receives a salary of $12,000 a year. Their duties are described in the following paragraphs. 151. The Secretary of State. The Secretary of State transacts all business with foreign states. He also takes care of all the laws and treaties of the United States. 152. The Secretary of the Treasury. The Secretary of the Treasury has charge of the collection of all United States taxes and revenues and the general management of the nation's money affairs. He gives orders for the payment of all money voted by Congress. Once a year he makes a report to Congress telling how much money the government has received and spent and how much the government will probably receive and spend in the following year. 153. The Secretary of War. The Secretary of War has charge of the military affairs of the government. He has the oversight of the United States military academy at West Point. 154. Secretary of the Navy. The Secretary of the Navy 150. How many men in the President's Cabinet? What are their duties? What is the salary of each member? 151. W^hat are the duties of the Secretary of State? 152. What are the duties of the Secretary of the Treas- ury^ 153. What are the duties of the Secretary of War? 154. What are the duties of the Secretary of the Navy? AMERICAN HISTORY 135 has charge of the construction of war-vessels and their equipment and use. 155. Other Members of the Cabinet. The Attorney- General is the one to give advice to the President about questions of law. He also takes care of the interests of the United States whenever the government has a case before the Supreme Court. The Postmaster-General manages the affairs of all post- offices and makes postal treaties with foreign countries. The Secretary of the Interior and the commissioners associated with him have charge of the public lands, the col- lection of information and statistics about education, pen- sion business, and Indian affairs. The Secretary of Agricultural collects and publishes in- formation on the subject of agriculture. His department distributes large quantities of seeds free to the people in order to introduce new and valuable varieties of crops. Weather predictions are published daily for the benefit of the people. The Secretary of Commerce endeavors to promote the commercial, manufacturing, mining, and transportation in- terests of the people of the United States. The Census Bureau is part of the Department of Commerce. This Bu- reau takes a census of the United States every ten years and collects such statistics as are required by Congress. The Secretary of Labor works to "foster, promote and develop the welfare of the wage-earners of the United States, to improve their working conditions and to advance 155. What are the duties of the Attorney-General? Of the Postmaster-General? Of the Secretary of the Interior? Of the Secretary of Agriculture ? Of the Secretary of Com- merce and Labor? 136 AMERICAN HISTORY their opportunities for profitable employment." He does this mainly by securing and publishing information regard- ing the conditions under which laborers live and work and all other matters which affect them. The Department of Labor also includes the Bureau of Immigration, which has oversight over immigrants and foreigners living in the United States, the Ijureau of Naturalization, which has oversight of the work of conferring citizenship upon people born in other countries, and the Children's Bureau, wdiich deals with problems of child labor and welfare. 156. Impeachment. In case the President of the United States or any other man who holds a United States office is accused of not doing his duty, the House of Representa- tives may inquire into the complaints against him, and if they think he ought to be put out of office they may make complaint against him and he must be tried. When they make charges in such a case they impeach the oft'ice-holder. Members of Congress themselves can not be impeached. If any one who holds a United States office is impeached by the House of Representatives the Senate must try his case. If the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Jus- tice presides at the trial. If two-thirds of the Senators who try the case vote against the oft'icer who is tried he must lose his office and also his right to hold any other United States office. 156. Who may be impeached? Who must make the complaint? Who must try the case? What is the punish- ment if the case is decided against the officer who has been tried? THE JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT. 157. United States Court. The Judicial department of the United States consists of three classes of regular courts and two kinds of special courts. The judges for all these courts are appointed by the President with the consent o^ the Senate. They hold their office during good behavior, which generally means for life, or as long as they are able to perform their duties as judges. 158. The Supreme Court. The Supreme Court is the highest court in the United States. Its decision is final and must be respected by all the people in the United States. In case of dispute this court decides what is the meaning of laws that have been made by Congress. It also decides whether or not Congress had the right to make a particular law, and in case it decides that Congress had no right to make such a law that law becomes useless. This court consists of a Chief Justice and eight Associate Justices. The salary of the Chief Justice is $15,000 a year. The salary of each Associate is $14,500 a year. 159. Circuit Courts of Appeals. The United States is divided into nine circuits. One Justice of the Supreme 157. How many classes of United States courts are there? How are their judges appointed? For how long? 158. What is done bv the Supreme Court? How many judges has this court? What are their salaries ? 159. How many Circuit Courts are there in the United States? How many Circuit Courts of Appeals? What salarv do Circuit judges receive? 138 AMERICAN HISTORY Court holds court in each circuit and he is assisted by from two to five Circuit Judges, according to the number of cases to be tried. They hear cases that are appealed to them from the district courts. Circuit judges receive a salary of $7,000 a year. 160. District Court. Each circuit is divided into dis- tricts. In each district a judge who resides there is ap- pointed to preside over the district court. His salary is $6,000. 161. Special Courts. It is a principle of government that a nation can not properly be sued by its own citizens. But citizens often have claims against the government which need to be examined by some court before they can be settled. In order to settle such cases Congress has created a special court called the Court of Claims. This court consists of a chief judge and four other judges. They are in session in the city of Washington for several months each year. The other special court is the Court of Customs Appeals, which settles all disputes about the meaning of the customs laws and the way they are enforced. 162. Trial by Jury. All persons arrested for crime, ex- cept United States ofl^ice holders, who are impeached, shall have the right to a speedy and public trial by an impartial jury in the state where the crime was committed. 160. How are the circuits divided? 161. What is done by the Court of Clamis? What other special courts are mentioned? 162. Who has the right to a trial by jury? THE STATE GOVERNMENT. 163. Relation of the State to the Nation. In some countries of Europe the nation is divided into provinces or districts. This makes it easier for the government to en- force its laws and manage pubhc affairs. The officers know just what they are to do and where they are to do it. This is not at all the reason why the United States is divided into states. In fact, we ought not to say that the United States is divided. The fact is that the states are united to form the Union. The states are older than the nation. Be- fore they formed the Union each state was a little nation by itself. After the states got free from England all the power was in the hands of the people themselves. They managed all their public affairs in the states. Then they saw that there were many things that they could do better for them- selves if they had a national government or Union of all the states. So the people formed the Union and said, "We will have our President, our Congress, and our Supreme Court do certain things for us because these things are for the good of us all." The Constitution tells what these things are,, and the National government and nobody else has the right and power to do them, because the people say so. The people also said, ''We will not give the national gov- ernment the right to manage the affairs that belong simply 163. How does a state in the United States dift'er from a province in a European country? What affairs are man- aged by the national government? What things belong to the state to do? Who always rule? 140 AMERICAN HISTORY to the people at home. The affairs that concern each state shall be managed by the people of that state alone." Neither the National government nor any other state can interfere in the state and local affairs of Massachusetts. Every other state has the same relation to the national gov- ernment that Massachusetts has. Each state has its own Connecticut State Capitol Building at Hartford constitution and makes its own laws. These state constitu- tions and state laws must not oppose the national Constitu- tion and the national laws. That would make trouble, but so long as the national government and the st^te govern- ments do just what the people have given each the right to do, each manages its own affairs without any interference from the other. One thing should never be forgotten in America, and that is, the people govern themselves. They tell their state government and the national government just what each AMERICAN HISTORY 141 can do. If their government does not suit them the people can change it. If their officers do not suit them the people can choose new officers at the next election, 164. The Rights of the State. All our purely local pub- lic aft'airs concern only ourselves and are cared for by our own state. Our religious rights and privileges ; our schools and every means of education ; the right to vote ; the laws about marriage and the rights of parents and children ; laws about local business, collecting debts, exchanging property, protecting the lives and property of the people at home, punishing common crimes ; in fact, nearly everything that concerns the welfare of the people at home and does not concern the people in other states or countries, is the bus- iness of the state. The state makes laws to care for all these things. 165. What the States Can Not Do. When studying the Constitution we discover that some things are forbidden to the states. For example : the states can not make wars and settle w^ars. They can not coin money, nor make rules for trade between the states themselves or with foreign coun- tries. They can not put a tax on goods brought from other countries. In short, they can not make laws that affect people in other states. Such laws must be made and en- forced by the nation for the safety and good of all. 166. Interstate Commerce. The railroads in the United States carry goods from one state into another and often across many states. Their business concerns the people of 164. Name the main things that the state has the right to do. 165. What things are the states forbidden to do? 166. What is interstate commerce ? What law did Con- gress make about commerce in 1887? 142 AMERICAN HISTORY the whole country. This gives Congress the right to say that the railroads must treat all the people in the states alike. Men who carried on a small business and had a few goods for the railroads to carry complained that they had to pay more to get their goods carried than the men paid who had a larger business. This was unfair. The rich man could drive the poor man out of business and when he had all the business, then he could charge the public high prices for his goods. In 1887 Congress passed a law which said that commis- sioners should be appointed to see that all charges for carry- ing passengers and freight are reasonable and just and that all shippers are treated alike. These commissioners require all railroads and everybody engaged in carrying interstate commerce to make an annual report showing how they do business. These reports are published by the government so that everybody can know what they are. 167. State Constitutions. We have seen that the United States has a national Constitution which tells what kind of laws Congress shall make and what kind of na- tional government the people shall have. Since the states have governments of their own to manage their state affairs it is just as necessary that they should have state constitu- tions which tell what kind of laws the state legislature shall make and what kind of governmenL ije state sbc^ll have. These constitutions have been mad" by the people them- selves, but all the people of a state could not meet together in one place, so they chose delegates to represent them and act for them. These delegates held a convention and made the kind of constitution that they thought the people wanted. 167. How are state constitutions made? AMERICAN HISTORY 143 Then the people of the state held an election to decide whether or not they would accept the constitution. If a majority of the voters were in favor of it the constitution became the law of the state. If a majority of the people should vote against it another constitution would have to be made. Every constitution tells how it can be changed and how additions can be made to it. These changes and additions are called amendments. 168. How the States are Divided. — States are divided into counties, and counties are divided into towns and cities. Cities and large towns are again divided into wards and districts. Each of these divisions has officers of its own to attend to its local affairs. 169. Who Can Vote. Xot all the people have the right to vote. Men over twenty-one years of age have the right on certain conditions. They must be citizens or must declare that they intend to become citizens. In some states, as in Massachusetts and Connecticut, they must know how to read. They must live a certain time in a state and town before they can vote there. The law of each state tells how long this must be. In the states of Washington, Oregon, California, Idaho, Utah, Arizona, Wyoming, Color- ado, and Kansas, and in the territory of Alaska, women also vote under the same conditions as men, and in many of the other states they may vote upon school questions and a few special matters. 170. The Legislature. The state legislatures, like the national Congress, are composed of two houses, a Senate 168. Into what are the states divided? 169. Who have the right to vote? Who can not vote? 170. Into what are the state legislatures divided? How are members of the legislature chosen? What are their duties? 144 AMERICAN HISTORY and a House of Representatives. In some states the legis- lature has a special name. For example, in Massachusetts it is called the General Court, and in Connecticut it is called the General Assembly. The members of the legislature are chosen by the direct vote of the people. Tlijey make state laws in much the same way that national laws are made by Congress. Many of the states also require their Governor to sign or veto every law. 171. State Officers. The Governor is the head of the ex- ecutive department and is the highest officer in the state. He is elected by the direct vote of the people. His chief duty is to see that the laws of the state are enforced and obeyed. He sends messages to the legislature telling what kind of laws he thinks ought to be made. He is Commander-in- Chief of the state militia except when they are in the service of the national government. In case a man has been un- justly sent to prison he can pardon him. The Lieutenant-Governor is the presiding officer of the Senate and he becomes Governor in case the Governor dies or is unable to perform his duties. The Secretary of State has charge of all state records and the original copies of all laws. The State Treasurer takes care of all money belonging to the state and keeps an account of what is received and paid out. Most states have an Attorney-General, who gives advice to the Governor about questions of law and has charge of all state cases in the Supreme Court. 171. Who is the highest officer in a state? How is he elected? What are his duties? What are the duties of the Lieutenant Governor? Of the Secretary of State? Of the State Treasurer? Of the Attorney-General? AMERICAN HISTORY 145 172. State Courts. The state courts consist of a Su- preme Court and many lower courts. These try state cases in about the same way that United States Courts try na- tional cases. 173. Town Officers. The chief officers to look after the affairs of a town, especially in New England, are the Selectmen. In some states they are called Trustees, in others, the Town Council. Their main duties are to repre- sent the town in all its business transactions. They gen- erally have the care of highways and public property, make up the list of jurors, and attend to the town's law suits. The Town Clerk keeps a record of all the votes passed in town meeting; administers the oath of office to all other town officers ; issues marriage licenses ; records births, mar- riages, and deaths ; licenses dogs ; keeps a record of deeds and mortgages. The Assessors find out the value of every person's prop- erty and make a list showing how much tax each one must pay. The Tax Collector collects all the money due for taxes. If any person does not pay his tax the Collector can sell his property. He will then take the amount of the tax and the expense of selling the property out of what he receives from the sale and pay what is left to the owner. The Town Treasurer takes care of all the town's money and pays the town's expenses when ordered to do so by the Selectmen or other officers who have the right to tell him 172. What name is given to the highest state courts? 173. What are the duties of selectmen? Of a town clerk? Of tax assessors? Of a tax collector? Of a town treasurer? Of an overseer of the poor? Of a school com- mittee ? 10 146 AMERICAN HISTORY to do so. Once a year he must make a report showing how- much money he has received and what he has done with it. The Overseer of the Poor sees that residents of the town who are too poor to take care of themselves are cared for at the town's expense. The Constables keep order on the streets and in public places and arrest people who are accused of crime. They serve warrants and summon witnesses and jurors when they are needed in the courts. The School Committee have the general oversight of the schools of the town. They care for the school houses and school property; they arrange courses of study and select text-books to be used in the schools ; they examine, hire, and dismiss the teachers. Sometimes they employ a Superin- tendent of Schools to perform some of these duties for them. 174. Town Meetings. All the voters of a town meet once a year to hold a town meeting. The business of this meeting is very important and every voter should attend. The town officers are elected by vote ; reports are heard from the town oft'icers of the past year; a tax is voted to pay the expenses of the coming year; any other important town business may be done, provided it has been mentioned in the notice of the meeting. All business to be done in town meeting must be men- tioned in the notice in order that the voters may know about it beforehand and have time to form their opinions before voting. 175. The Caucuses. We have spoken of caucuses in the chapter on the national government. They are so im- portant that they deserve to be mentioned again. In the 174. What business is usually done in a town meeting? 175. What business is usually done in a caucus? AMERICAN HISTORY 147 caucuses the men are selected who are to be voted for on election day. Every voter should attend in order to help select good men. The voter must first see that his own name is on the list of those who have a right to take part in the caucuses. Nowhere else can he do a greater service for the cause of good local government than by working for what he believes is right in the caucus. 176. The County Sheriff. The chief executive officer of the county is the Sheriff. He does for the county what the constable does for the town and has additional import- ant duties. He attends court and keeps order; arrests mur- derers and other criminals and takes them to court ; sees that the sentence of the court is carried out. He appoints a number of deputies to assist him. In case of special need he can call upon any citizen to give him aid and he even has the right to call upon the Governor to send soldiers to help him. 176. What are the duties of a sheriff? MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT. 177. General Plan. The general plan of a city govern- ment is like that of a state. It has a special kind of constitu- tion called a charter. Its government is divided into three departments, legislative, executive, and judicial. 178. The Charter. The legislature of the state grants the city permission to have a charter. This is a written doc- ument which gives the city the right to manage its local affairs and tells what sort of local government it shall have. It names certain special things that the city can do for itself and other things that the city must not do. 179. The City Legislature. The city legislature is called the City Council or the Board of Aldermen. Some- times this body of men is divided into two parts like the two houses of the state legislature, but in most cities they all meet as one Council. The members are elected by the voters of the wards into which the city is divided. The laws passed by this legislature for the city are called ordinances. They are simply local rules about such public matters as the erection of buildings, the digging of sewers, the preven- tion of fires, the checking of contagious diseases, and the peace and safety of the people, and must not conflict with the laws of the state or nation. 177. What are the three departments of a city's gov- ernment? 178. What is a citv's charter? 179. Describe the legislature of a city. What are ordi- nances? AMERICAN HISTORY 149 180. The Mayor. The head officer of the executive de- partment of a city is the Mayor. It is his duty to see that the laws are enforced and that all the officers who are under his authority do their duties. He gives advice to the city, council and tells them what kind of ordinances he thinks should be made. 181. The Fire Department. Every city must have a large number of men whose business it is to put out fires and save houses and property from being burned. These men must live in stations in all parts of the city. They have ladders, hose pipe, wagons, engines, and other apparatus needed for their work, and strong and swift horses or motor carriages to take them and their apparatus to any place where there is a fire. If their alarm bell rings at any hour of the day or night they must hurry to the place where they are wanted. 182. The Police Department. The police officers of a city are like a small army. They have their chief, or com- mander, and are divided into groups under captains and other officers. Most of the time, however, they do their duties singly. They must keep order, protect persons and property, and arrest those who make a disturbance or com- mit crimes. 183. The Health Department. This department is very important. It is the business of the health officers to ex- amine the city's water supply and see that it is pure. They inspect the sewers and everything that might cause disease ; 180. What are the duties of a mayor? 181. What work is done by a fire department? 182. How are police officers organized? W^hat are their duties ? 183. What is done by a health department? 150 AMERICAN HISTORY they punish men who sell impure milk or food. They should also see that people do not live in tenements that are likely to cause illness and that too many people do not crowd together in one home. People w^ho become ill and have dis- eases not only suffer themselves, but they often cause others to suffer or take the diseases. For this reason the people have a right to say that everybody must obey the rules of the health officers and do what they can to prevent disease. 184. Other Departments. There are many other de- partments in a large city, each having charge of one kind of public work. It is wise to have one group of men give all their time to the work of one department, for then they learn to do it wxU and can give it careful attention. The school department is a group of men who see that the city has good schools and that all have the privilege of getting an education. The law in most cities says that children must go to school whether they wish to or not. This is right because if children do not learn how to earn their own living and take care of themselves other people will have to support them. Uneducated people, too, break many laws and can not be as useful citizens as those who are educated. The street department takes care of the streets. The charity department takes care of the people who can not care for themselves. Other men look after public libraries to supply the people with good books ; others have charge of parks and play grounds, which add much to the health and happiness of children and their parents ;' still others have their special duties, for a great city must have many things done by the officers of its government. 184. Why should the law require children to go to school? Name some of the departments that have special w^ork to, do in a city. AMERICAN HISTORY 151 185. Franchises. In most cities there are some kinds of DubHc service that the city allows private persons or companies to do for the people. Lighting the streets, fur- nishing water, and running the street cars, are examples. Before a company can do work of this kind they must get a franchise from the city. A franchise is a written permis- sion given by the city legislature telling what the company have a right to do and how long they can do it. It also provides that the company must carry on their work in such a way as to render good service to the people. 186. Municipal Ownership. Sometimes companies ob- tain franchises from the city and then treat the people un- fairly. They may not do the best they can to serve the people, or they may charge too much for w hat they do. This causes a great many people to say that the city ought to own and manage its own street cars, water works, lighting plants, and everything that is for the good of all. Some cities are already trying the experiment of doing these things for themselves. It is a great problem. Neither pri- vate companies nor municipal ownership will satisfy the people unless the men w^ho have charge of the work are honest, competent, and willing to serve the public as well as themselves. When all the people are well enough educated to understand the problem they can decide which way is the better one. Every one should educate himself for his duties as a voter and then help see to it that only the best men have charge of public offices and public affairs. Then this problem and all other public questions can be settled in the best Avay. 185. What is a franchise? 186. What is meant by municipal ow^nership? POLITICAL PARTIES. 187. Origin of Parties. Political parties in the United States began while George Washington was President. There is a clause in the Constitution which says that Con- gress shall have powxr to make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution its own powers and the powers of the government. Men very soon began to disagree over the questions : "What laws are necessary?" "What laws should Congress make?" They said, "This clause is elastic. It means few laws or many laws according to the way one stretches it." Alexander Hamil- ton, the Secretary of the Treasury, wanted to have the na- tional government made very strong. He said that Con- gress ought to make such laws as they thought best for the good of all the people, except when the Constitution said Congress could not make them. Thomas Jefferson, the Secretary of State, thought that the states and the people at home should rule themselves as much as possible and he did not want Congress to make any laws except those that the Constitution plainly told them to make. The people who agreed with Hamilton called themselves Federalists. The people who agreed wnth Jefferson called themselves Republicans. After Washington was President these two parties tried to see which could get the larger number of votes and elect men to office who thought as they did. Since that time there have been two great political parties most of the time 187. What was the first great question that caused the formation of political parties? Who were the first leaders? AMERICAN HISTORY 153 and much of the time there has been one or more smaller parties of men who did not agree with either of the great parties, for any group of men who want some change in the way public affairs are managed, or some new law, may form a new party and work for what they want. 188. History of Parties. The Federalist party was beaten by the Republicans in 1800 and Thomas Jefferson was elected President. A few years later the United States got into a war with England. This was called the War of 1812. The republicans believed in fighting England until the United States got their right to trade and sail the ocean without being disturbed by England. The Federalists tried to stop the war because it interfered with business. Most of the people agreed with the Republicans and for a few years the Republican party was the only large party. In 1824 this party could not agree upon the man they wanted to have for President. Those in New^ England wanted John Quincy Adams ; the Western states wanted Henry Clay; the Southern states wanted William H. Craw- ford ; the Southwestern states wanted Andrew Jackson. No one was chosen at the election and the House of Repre- sentatives had to decide who should have the office. They gave it to John Quincy Adams. When the Federalists were in office they had passed a protective tariff law\ Adams and Clay thought it a good law and wished to have a high tariff and also a United States Bank. Jackson believed in a low tariff and state banks. This 188. What caused the Federalist party to lose their power? What caused a division of the Republican party in 1824? What made two great parties again in 1828? What was the next great question to divide the parties ? What was the result in 1860? What have been the leading parties since 1860? 154 AMERICAN HISTORY made two parties again at the next presidential election. Jackson's friends called themselves the Democratic party and that party has the same name today. The other party called themselves National Republicans at first, then they changed the name to Whigs. The next great question to divide the parties was the slavery question. A new party w^as formed which wanted to stop the spread of slavery. Many who had been Whigs and many who had been Democrats joined the new party. In 1860 this party elected Abraham Lincoln as their first President. After that year until 1912 the Republicans elect- ed all the Presidents except President Cleveland, w^ho was elected twice by the Democrats. In 1912 a new party enter- ed into the contest for the presidency, making three great parties besides many smaller ones. The new party was called the Progressive party. Many Republicans and some others joined it. Its candidate was Ex-President Roosevelt. The Republican candidate was Ex-President Taft. The Democratic candidate was Woodrow Wilson, who had been President of Princeton University and was Governor of New Jersey. Governor Wilson was elected and became President March 4, 1913. The Payne-Aldrich tariff passed in 1909 w^hile President Taft was in of^ce had created a great deal of controversy and became one of the chief issues in national politics. The Democrats claimed that the rates were too high and when they w^ere successful in the election of 1912 they declared that the people w-ished the rates made lower. -As a result the Underwood tariff bill w^as passed in 1913 and produced a great change in the policy of the country, making the aver- age rate of duties about 26 per cent, w^hich is claimed to be the low^est imposed in seventy-five years. Many articles used for food and clothing, on w^hich there had formerly AMERICAN HISTORY 155 been a tax, were put on the free list and allowed to be im- ported without any tax. Congress has been divided between the two parties, be- cause at every election part of the men elected are Repub- licans and part are Democrats. vSometimes, too, some of the other parties have elected men to Congress. In 1912 the Progressives elected several representatives. In the states the Governors and the members of the legislatures are also elected by these parties. 189. Principles of the Different Parties. In many of their beliefs all the great parties and most of the small ones are alike. They agree in their love and loyalty to the land that is their home. They agree that their law^ makers and officers should do everything in their power to make it possi- ble for every one to enjoy peace, safety, protection of prop- erty, the rewards of labor, and the blessings of education, justice, and liberty. They differ in their opinion as to the best kind of laws to secure some of these things that they all love. They disagree especially about the kind of laws that will help make business and trade successful and give men plenty of work and good wages. For instance the leading men in the Republican party believe that a protective tariff helps manufacturers to make and sell more goods and thus makes more work and better wages for laborers. The leading men in the Democratic party also believe in a tariff, but they say that the taxes, or duties, which the Republicans w-ant, are too high and that the main object of the tariff should be to get money to pay the expenses of the government. The Progressive party endorses the ''initiative," the "ref- erendum," and the "recall." The "initiative" means the 189. Name the leading parties at the present time and tell what are the leading principles of each. 156 AMERICAN HISTORY right of the people to initiate legislation, or to take the first steps in making laws. When a certain number of the voters of a state sign a petition asking their legislature to pass a law that they desire, the legislature must take some action either for or against the desired law. The "referendum" provides that when any law has been passed by a legisla- ture, if a certain number of voters sign a petition asking that the new law be referred to the people, it must be sent to the voters for their approval or rejection and it can not become a law until the voters have approved it. The ''re- call" gives the voters under certain conditions the right to vote to recall or dismiss from office a law maker or official wdio fails to perform his duties in a way that is satisfactory to the people. In several states the people have adopted these and other methods of exercising a direct influence over public officials. The Prohibition party believe that the use of intoxicat- ing liquors produces so much poverty, suffering, and crime that laws ought to be made to stop the manufacture and sale of such liquors to be used as beverages. The Socialists wish to have laws that will prevent com- petition between business men or between workmen. They want men to co-operate. They think that the property and means used for the production and distribution of wealth should be owned by all the working people collectively, not by individuals or groups of individuals, as they now are. Of course, there are many other things about which the parties do not think alike. Even men in the same party do not all agree about some things. Then, too, questions about which the parties disagree one year may be settled the next year and there will always be new questions to settle ; so that the only way to know just what each party wants to do is to read and study what the leaders of the parties say in their speeches and what they say and do in their political AMERICAN HISTORY 157 conventions and elsewhere. It is very important for the people to study the parties and learn what they want to do. If w^e do not study them we can not tell what men we ought to vote for to hold office and make the best laws for us. 190. Party Organizations. In order to do its work each party must be organized like an army. The men who be- long to one party in a small town get together and choose a committee to look after the affairs of the party in that town. In the cities there is a committee in each ward and another committee for the whole city made up of delegates from each w^ard. Delegates from the towns and cities and sometimes counties are chosen to form the state committee. Delegates from the states make up the national committee. These committees all work together to select men for their party to vote for on election day. Their object is to select the men who have the best chance to win. Then they hold meetings and make speeches, publish articles in the news- papers, and distribute literature to persuade the voters to vote for the men that have been selected. 191. How Presidents are Nominated. Presidential elections are held on the Tuesday after the first Alonday in November every fourth year, as in 1904, 1908, 1912, and so on. A few months before election day the members of the national committee of each party hold a meeting and select the time and place for holding the national conven- tion of their party. Then the state committees meet and 190. Tell how parties are organized and how they do their work. 191. Describe the method of nominating candidates for President. 158 AMERICAN HISTORY select the time and place for holding the state conventions. After this the county, city, and town committees are notified to select men to attend the state conventions. They begin by holding caucuses in the wards and towns. Delegates are chosen to attend the state convention. At the state convention delegates are chosen to attend the na- tional convention. The number of these delegates is twice the number of men that the state sends to Congress. For instance, if the state has a small population like Delaware and sends one Representative and two Senators to Congress, then the number of delegates to the national convention will be six. If the state has a very large population like New York, which sends 45 men to Congress, there will be 90 delegates. The state convention also chooses another group of men containing the same number that the state sends to Congress. These are to be voted for on election day and if elected w^ll be the presidential electors for the state. When the appointed day arrives delegates from all the states meet to hold the national convention. The main work done here is divided into two parts. 1. To write a platform, or statement, telling the people what the party think about the most important public questions and what they hope to do if successful on election day. 2. To nomi- nate candidates for President and Vice-President of the United States. It is a rule of the Republican party that a majority of the delegates shall make the nominations in the national conventions. In the Democratic conventions two- thirds of all the delegates must vote for a candidate in order to nominate him. 192. The Campaign. National conventions are usually 192. Tell how a campaign is carried on. Do the voters cast their ballots directly for President and Vice-President? For whom do they cast ballots? AMERICAN HISTORY 159 held in the summer. This leaves several months before the election and gives the parties time to carry on their cam- paign. They hold political meetings, send letters and liter- ature to the people, publish articles in the newspapers and magazines in favor of their party and candidates, and do every thing they can to get the people to go to the polls and vote for their candidates. The people do not vote directly for President and Vice-President. They vote for the presi- dential electors that were nominated at the state conven- tions. These electors will later vote for President and Vice-President. They will vote for the candidates of their party. 193. Work of the Electors. On the second Monday in January after their election the electors meet in their own state, usually in the State Capitol. They vote on separate ballots for President and Vice-President. The votes are counted and lists are made telling what candidates have been voted for and how many votes each has received. These lists are signed by all the electors. They are called the election returns and one copy of them is sent by mail and another by special messenger to the President of the Senate. The third copy is deposited with a judge of the United States district court for safe keeping. 194. Hov^ the Votes Are Counted. On the second Wednesday of the following February both houses of Con- gress meet together to count the votes. The President of the Senate opens all the returns and hands them to tellers who have been appointed by Congress to do the counting. 193. What are the duties of electors? Describe their method of voting. 194. Describe the method of counting the votes cast by the electors. What happens if the electors fail to choose a President and Vice-President? 160 AMERICAN HISTORY When they have counted them all and reported the number for each candidate, the one who has a majority of all the votes for President is declared elected President of the United States. The votes for Vice-President are counted and his election declared in the same way. In case no per- son receives a majority of all the votes for President the House of Representatives must choose as President one of the three candidates who have the largest number of votes. If there is no election for Vice-President the Senate must choose between the two candidates who have the largest number of votes. 195. Other Conventions and Elections. Nearly the same methods that are used to hold caucuses in the towns, cities, and states, when preparing to choose candidates for President, are used when choosing candidates for town, city, and state officers. In the towns, for example, the town committee of each party call a caucus of their party. All who belong to the party and have a right to vote in the caucus can go and help select the candidates for all the town offices. In recent years many states have been introducing the method of choosing candidates for office by means of direct primaries which allow the voters in each party to select their candidates by ballot instead of by caucuses and con- ventions. On election day the voters choose which party they will vote for or perhaps they may vote for some men of one party and some of another. Most of the town and city off'icers have nothing to do with the making of laws and the settlement of the questions that divide the political par- ties. It is therefore foolish for a voter to say that every 195. What is the work of a caucus? What is said about party politics? AMERICAN HISTORY 161 man who holds a town office, ought to belong to his own party in order to do such work as seeing that the streets are kept in good order, that the health of the people is pro- tected, that there are good schools, and that the public money is honestly spent for the good of the whole town. The same is true of most city officers. In order to have the best city to live in we must have the best men in office no matter what party they belong to. Only in the election of law-makers, such as members of the legislature, and in the election of state and national officers is it important to know what party a man belongs to. In small and local offices a good, honest and capable man is the main thing. State officers such as Governor are nominated in state conventions and voted for by all the voters of their state. 196. Holding an Election. On election day all the voters who wish to vote go to the polls, or voting places. Each voter is given a ballot on which are all the names of the candidates of the different parties, or it may be that in some states he is given a number of tickets, one for each party. He then goes into the little stall or booth, where he can prepare his ballot as he wishes without being seen or disturbed by anyone. He marks his ballot with a pencil or does whatever the law of his state says in order to show which candidates he wishes to vote for. Then he goes to the ballot box where a clerk puts a mark against his name on the voting list to show that he has voted, and an election officer takes his ballot and drops it into the ballot box. At night all the ballots are counted and the person who has re- ceived the most votes for a particular office is elected. 196. How are elections carried on ? 11 GEORGE WASHINGTON. George Washington, the first President of the United States, did so much to help his people that he is called the ''Father of his Country." All good Americans love to read the story of his life. He was born in Virginia, near the Potomac River, on February 22, 1732. His father owned three large farms called plantations. On these farms George grew to be a strong and healthy boy. When he was four years old a neighbor taught him his letters. Then he went to school and studied reading, Avriting, spelling and arithmetic. When he was about eleven his father died. At the age of fourteen he made plans to become a sailor, but just as he was ready to go to sea upon an English ship his mother begged him to stay with her. He went to school again and studied sur- veying until he was sixteen years of age. Besides what he learned from books he also learned much about the life and business of Virginia farmers. He was tall and strong. He loved sports and games and was fond of riding on horse- back. He knew a great deal about the Indians and their life in the forests. Everybody who knew him liked him and trusted him because he was good, brave, and honest. Such a boy could have no trouble in finding employment. As soon as he left school a wealthy gentleman named Lord Fairfax employed him to survey his large estate. Lord Fairfax owned many thousand acres of land. Most of this land was covered with forests. The work he asked George Washington to do was very difficult, but he did it all and did it well. He lived in the forest. Sometimes he slept on AMERICAN HISTORY 163 the ground, sometimes in the huts of poor settlers. Some- times he met and talked with savage Indians. When he had finished the work Lord Fairfax was so wxll pleased that he helped him to obtain the office of public surveyor. For the next three years he held this office and was very busy. George Washington In 1751 he had to leave this work to take care of a sick brother. His brother died and left him the care of a large estate on the Potomac River. This estate was called Mount Vernon and later it became famous as Washington's home. During the years that Washington had worked as a sur- 164 AMERICAN HISTORY veyor he had used his leisure hours and days to learn the duties of a soldier. This was a wise thing for him to do. There was danger from the Indians. Soldiers were needed to protect the homes and lives of the people. There was danger, too, of trouble between the English and the French settlers in America. They now got into a quarrel over land in the valley of the Ohio River. The French said that they had explored this river and that its valley belonged to them. The people of Virs^inia said that the Ohio Valley was a part of Mrginia because the King of England had given it to them. So both the English and the French got ready to fight for the land. The French built some forts near the river. The Governor of Virginia determined to send some- body with a letter to the French telling them not to build forts or settle on land belonging to Virginia. Who was the best man for him to send? He must have a brave man because it was a dangerous journey. He selected Wash- ington, who was now a young man twenty-one years of age. Washington selected some guides and some Indians to go with him. It took them many weeks to go through the woods and over the mountains. They found the French forts and delivered the letter. The French officers treated them well but said thev should stay in the Ohio Valley. This meant war. Washington returned to Virginia and told the Governor what the French had said. The Governor immediately appointed him lieutenant-colonel and sent him back with two companies of soldiers to protect a fort that the Virginians were building near the Ohio Riv.er. Before he arrived at the fort a large companv of French had cap- tured it. Washington at once went to fight the French. They were too manv for him and he was beaten, but he showed himself so brave that everybody oraised him for being a hero. AMERICAN HISTORY 165 The next year an army came from England to Virginia to fight against the French. This army was commanded by General Braddock. When General Braddock learned how brave and popular Washington was he wanted him to go with him against the French, and he appointed him a colonel in his army. Washington was glad to aid him and to go with him to the Ohio Valley. Alas ! It was a sad journey. Suddenly the English Avere attacked by the French and their Indian friends. Gen- eral Braddock was killed. Washington took his place. He called upon the soldiers to do their duty and be brave. He rode where the danger was greatest. His horse was killed. He got another. That also was shot. Four bullets went through his coat, but he himself was not harmed and he saved the army. Then he went back to Virginia where he was soon made commander over all the soldiers in that col- ony. For three years he remained in Virginia to protect it against its enemies. In 1759 he was married to a young, beautiful, and wealthy widow named Martha Curtis. For the next sixteen years they lived on his estate at Mount Vernon. Here he was a very successful farmer. He was chosen one of the Burgesses, or law makers, of Virginia, and gave much of his time and thought to benefit his fellow citizens. In 1775 his peaceful life at Mount Vernon was interrupt- ed. England was trying to make her thirteen American colonies pay unjust taxes. Because the colonies refused to pay these taxes England was sending soldiers to make them pay. How could the Americans protect themselves ? There was but one w^ay. They must fight. Who should be their general? Washington was the man. The people asked him to be their commander-in-chief. He left his home and went to Cambridge, Massachusetts, where an army of 15,000 untrained men was waiting for him. For more than six 166 AMERICAN HISTORY years he led the armies of the thirteen colonies. Their war with England was a terrible struggle. Sometimes they were defeated and discouraged. Sometimes they thought they never could Avin. Timid men deserted them. Bad Washington Monument, Washington, D. C. men tried to destroy the good name of Washington. They told lies about him. They tried to make him lose his posi- tion at the head of the army. But they failed. The people trusted him and at last he won a great victory at Yorktown AMERICAN HISTORY 167 in Virginia. The British surrendered and the thirteen col- onies were free. Now a new kind of trouble caused great sorrow to Wash- ington. The new United States had not yet made for them- selves a good system of government. They had no Presi- dent to enforce their laws. They had no supreme court to settle their disagreements. They could not collect taxes to pay their debts to the soldiers and other people. The people quarreled and were almost ready to fight one an- other. Some men in the army asked Washington to be their king. They thought that he could make a good government and give them their pay. It made him very sad to think his army wanted another king after thev had fought so long to get free from the King of England, and he told them never to say anything more to him about a thing so foolish and so wrong. As soon as he w^as sure that England would not try to renew the war he resigned his office as general and became a private citizen. He refused to accept any pay for his years of service in the army. The gratitude of his people was all the pav he wanted. Five years later the states decided that they must have a better government and thev sent delegates to Philadelphia to hold a convention and decide what kind of government they ought to have. Washington was chosen president of this convention. It took four months for the delegates to decide what they wanted and nrobably thev never would have agreed to anything if it had not been for what Wash- ington said and did. He persuaded them that every state could not have all that it wanted, but that each one must think of the good of all the rest and do what would be best for all the states. They finally yielded to his advice and in September, 1787, they agreed upon the Constitution of the 168 AMERICAN HISTORY Linited States and went home to their own states and asked the people to approve what they had done. When the Constitution had been approved by the people they held an election to choose their first President of the United States. George Washington was the choice of every state and he took the office on April 30, 1789. For eight years he governed wisely and well. His task was very dif- ficult. He had to organize and put into operation every department of the new government. There were trouble- some questions to settle with France and England. He met every difficulty with honesty and fairness and when he re- tired from office he was loved at home and respected abroad. Many of the people wished him to be their President for another four years but failing health made it necessary for him to rest. He wxnt to his home in Mount Vernon hoping to spend the rest of his life in peace and quiet. This peace w^as soon disturbed. The United States had trouble with France and the two countries began to fight upon the- sea. Washington was appointed to be the head of the army and he prepared for a struggle. Fortunately the trouble was soon settled and his life was peaceful again. At Mount \>rnon he managed his estate and entertained his friends until his death on December 14, 1799. When he died the whole country mourned. To-day his name and memory are respected throughout the civilized world. He was a great general and a great President, but his people love him most of all because he was a great and true man who served his country all his life and was always a good < citizen. BENJAMIN FRANKLIN. Benjamin Franklin was born in the city of Boston, in the state of Massachusetts on the 17th of January, 1706. His father was a poor man who earned a Hving by making soap and tallow candles to sell. As Benjamin had sixteen brothers and sisters his father could not give him much money to spend and when he did get a few pennies he was very happy. In his old age he was fond of telling how he spent some money when he was seven years old. It was his birthday and his friends filled his pocket with pennies. He started for the store to spend them. On the way he met a boy blowing a penny whistle, but he did not know how much a whistle was worth and he wanted one ; so he gave the boy all the money he had and took the whistle and ran home blowing it. When he told his brothers and sisters what he had done they laughed at him, and told him how foolish he had been and how many nice things he might have bought with his money. Benjamin cried to think he had paid so much for a penny whistle but it taught him a lesson that he remembered all his life. When he saw men and women spending their time and strength and money to get showy trifles, or when he saw them do a wrong or dishonest act in order to gain some- thing, he would think how sorry they would afterwards be for what they were doing and he would say, "Don't pay too much for your whistle." He began to learn to read when he was a very small boy and he went to school until he was ten vears old. He 170 AMERICAN HISTORY was so fond of books and reading that his father wanted to educate him to be a clergyman. His father was so poor, however, that he had to give up this plan and w^hen Ben- jamin was ten years old he left school to help his father make candles. His brother James was a printer and when ne was twelve years old he hired out to James to help him with his work and learn the trade. His brother had some good books and Benjamin spent his spare time studying them and waiting coniDOsitions, for he wanted to learn to write good English. He wrote some articles about public affairs and had them published in his brother's newspaper w^ithout letting his brother know who wrote them. The people who read them liked them very much, but James was angry because Ben- jamin had written them for the paper without telling him about it. The brothers had a quarrel and after that they had so much trouble that Benjamin ran away from home. He was then seventeen years old. He wxnt on board a sailing boat which carried him to New York. Here he tried to get w^ork as a printer, but New York w-as then only a small tow^n and did not have much work for printers to do. He failed to find work there ; so he started for Phila- delphia. A boat carrieci him oart of the w^ay and the rest of the w^ay he walked. In Philadelphia he found plenty of work. After a while the Governor of Pennsylvania offered to make him the pub- lic printer and sent him to London to buy wdi9,t he needed for the printing office saying he would pay for it. The Gov- ernor did not keep his promise and young Franklin could not buy anything for his office because the Governor did not send him the money. He found work in London and w^orked there as a print- er for about a year. Then he sailed back to Philadelphia AMERICAN HISTORY 171 and in a little while had saved money enough to have a small printing office of his own. He worked hard and saved his money. He married Miss Deborah Read, who helped him in his Benjamin Franklin business, and in a few years he was one of the best known printers in the country. He published an almanac called, ''Poor Richard's Al- manac." This was full of funny paragraphs and wise say- ings such as: "Diligence is the mother of good luck," "Plow deep while sluggards sleep and you'll have corn to sell and to keep," "One to-day is worth two to-morrows," "God helps them that help themselves." Everybody read this almanac and Franklin published one every year for twenty years. 172 AMERICAN HISTORY He also published a newspaper called "The Pennsylvania Gazette." What he said in this paper about public affairs showed that he was one of the wisest men in America. He used his influence to help others get an education and got the people of Philadelphia to build a public library and a college. The college is now called the University of Penn- sylvania. Franklin became a rich man and spent much of his time studying science. He made a silk kite and went out to fly it in a thunder storm. When lightning came down his kite string the way it acted proved that lightning and electricity are the same thing. This experiment set him and other men to studying electricity and they have since learned how to invent the telegraph, the telephone, the electric light, the electric cars, and all the other things that use electricity. Franklin was made Postmaster of Philadelphia and the Postmaster-General of all the thirteen colonies. He was the first man that ever held that office and he had to make many rules and plans for carrying the mail. When the French and Indian war began he tried to get all the colonies to form a union in order to protect them- selves from their enemies. He wrote a plan of government for the colonies which said that the king should appoint them a president and the people should elect a council. The president and the council should manage the aff'airs of the union. The people voted against the plan because they thought it gave the king too much power and the king did not like the plan because he thought it gave the people too much power. The plan failed but the people learned to know Franklin better and after the French and Indian war when England began to pass new laws to tax the colonies Franklin was sent to England to try to get the laws changed. He did not get many of them repealed, and finally the king became so unreasonable that Franklin came home. AMERICAN HISTORY 173 When the Revolutionary War broke out he was a mem- ber of the Continental Congress, which chose him as one of the five men to w^ite the Declaration of Independence. Thomas Jefiferson did most of the writing but Franklin gave him some help. After this he was sent to France to get help for the Americans. Through his influence France at first secretly sent money and war supplies to help the American army and later, after the Americans had captured Burgoyne's army, the French king joined the United States in their war against England and sent ships and an army to help them fight. Franklin remained in Europe nine years. Most of the time he was in Paris. In 1783 he was one of the men ap- pointed by the United States to meet men from England to make a treaty of peace. This treaty which made the United States free from England was made at Paris. Two years later Franklin returned to Philadelphia. The people of Pennsylvania at once made him President of the state. This oft'ice w^as the same as the office of Gov- ernor in other states. He w as now an old man eighty years of age, but his peo- ple asked him to do them one more great service before he died. They asked him to be one of the delegates to the great convention that met in Philadelphia in 1787 to make a new Constitution for the United States. All through the four months of that convention he worked to help make a better government for his country. His common sense and good advice did much to make the convention a success. No other man except George Washington was so well loved by all the delegates. Three years later, on April 17, 1790, he died. He was a great man. He w^as great as a man of science and what he 174 AMERICAN HISTORY learned about electricity has blessed the world. He was great because of his good deeds. He was great also as a statesman who always served his country well, but he him- self simply asked the world to remember him as a printer. Years before his death he wrote his own epitaph. This was inscribed upon the plain slab of stone that rests upon his grave and to-day one may stand beside that grave in the city of Philadelphia and read these words : "The Body of Benjamin Franklin, Printer, (Like the cover of an old book, Its contents torn out. And stripped of its lettering and gilding,) Lies here food for worms. Yet the work itself shall not be lost, For it will, (as he believed) appear once more In a new And more beautiful edition Corrected and Amended By The Author." THOMAS JEFFERSON. Thomas Jefferson was born in Albermarle count}^ in Vir- ginia, April 13, 1743. His father was a farmer who owned a large farm of nearly two thousand acres and had about thirty slaves. As a boy he had excellent opportunities to get a good education. Until he was fourteen years old he had a private teacher. He was a good scholar and learned Latin, Greek, French, and mathematics. When he was fourteen his father died and he was sent to a school and prepared himself to go to college. At the age of seventeen he entered \\'illiam and Mary College at Williamsburg. Virginia. This college was then the best school in America and Jefferson advanced in his studies rapidly. After two years of college work he studied law with a very able lawyer and when he was twenty-four years old he began to practice in the Virginia courts. Besides caring for his large farm he w^as soon earning three thousand dol- lars a year as a lawyer. Two years after he began to practice law he was elected a member of the house of Burgesses, which was the legis- lature of Virginia. The colonies were then having trouble with England over taxes. Jefferson advised the people of Virginia not to pay the unjust taxes and he signed a paper agreeing not to buy goods that came from England. When the colonies began to prepare for war he was sent as a delegate to the Second Continental Congress at Phila- delphia. Here his great skill as a writer was well known 176 AMERICAN HISTORY and he was appointed chairman of a committee of five to write the Declaration of Independence. All but a few sen- tences of the writing were done by his own hand and were approved by the Congress wdthout change. This one thing made Jefferson famous for all time. After 1776 he went back to the Virginia legislature and served his state for three years. By his influence many Thomas Jefferson good laws w^ere made. One of these gave perfect religious liberty to the people of Virginia and was the first law of the kind ever passed by any legislature. From 1779 to 1781 he was Governor of his state and did all in his powder to protect his people from the English army under Cornwallis. When the war was over Virginia sent him again to the Congress of the United States. He asked Congress to make a law saying that the United States should have a new kind of money, dollars and cents. Before this time the people had used pounds, shillings and pence. AMERICAN HISTORY 177 In 1784 he was sent to France to help Benjamin Frank- lin and John Adams, who were trying to make agreements with European countries so that the United States could trade with them. The next year the Congress asked him to be the American Minister to represent the United States in France. When Washington was made President he wanted Jef- ferson to be his Secretary of State. Jefferson accepted the position, but he and Alexander Hamilton, the Secretary of the Treasury, did not agree well about the kind of laws that ought to be made. Hamilton wanted the President and Congress to do many things for the people. Jefferson thought it would be better to let the states do some of these things. He wanted to see the people manage their own af- fairs as much as possible and he said Congress ought to do nothing except what the Constitution told them to do. Many people agreed with Jefferson and they were called Republi- cans. Some years afterward they changed the name to Democrats. This is why Jefiferson is sometimes called the ''Father of the Democratic Party." In 1797 he was elected Vice-President of the United States. Four years later he was made President and held that office eight years. While he was President he did one of the greatest and best things for his country that was ever done by any President. He purchased Louisiana from France. Louisiana was then a very large country. It in- cluded the land north of Mexico and west of the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains. It was larger than all of the United States east of the Mississippi. This land was very valuable and Jefferson bought it all for $15,000,000.00. This was about two cents and a half an acre. Some people said he had no right to buy it. The Constitution did not say he could, but he knew that most of the people wished him to do it and he believed it was right. It was for the good 12 178 AMERICAN HISTORY of all the people that he did it and everybody now praises him for it. After he had been President eight years he went back to his home in Virginia and spent the last seventeen years of his life there. His home was built on a high hill and named Monticello. People called him the ''Sage of Monticello." He spent his last days giving his people help and ad- vice about better schools and better government. By his influence Virginia made a good system of public schools beginning with the primary school and ending with the uni- versity. It took years of his time to get the university established and he thought this was one of the best things he did in his whole life. During the last years of his life so many people came to see him and ask his advice that his home was like a hotel. Often his housekeeper v/ould have to provide beds for fifty visitors. To entertain so many people cost him much money. He w^as a rich man but he spent all his fortune and died poor. He died July 4, 1826, just fifty years after the day that the Declaration of Independence was passed. He asked to have three things inscribed on his tomb — the three greatest and best acts of his life — "Author of the Declaration of Independence ; of the Statute for Religious Liberty in Virginia, and Founder of the University of Vir- ginia." Jefferson believed in government by the people ; in uni- versal education ; in religious freedom, and that nobody should have to pay taxes for the support of anj church ; in the freedom of the slaves ; in the growth of the United States by adding new territory; in a strong union of the states. What he taught about good government has been a blessing to all the people of his country. ABRAHAM LINCOLN. Abraham Lincoln was born in a log cabin in Hardin county in the state of Kentucky on February 12, 1809. His father and mother were poor. His father had no education and his mother had very little ; so they could not teach the boy much at home and they had no good schools where they could send him. He was sent to a poor school a few weeks and perhaps his mother helped him to read a little, but he did not learn much until he was ten or eleven years old. His mother died when he was nine years old and the next year his father married again. The new wife was a good woman who treated little Abe, as he was called, and his sister like her own children. They now lived in a log cabin which Abe's father had built in the state of Indiana. A school was started in a log cabin about a mile and a half from Abe's home and his new mother sent him and his sister to this school for a few weeks when he was about eleven years old. He went again for one term the next year. About six years later he wxnt one term to a school about five miles from his home. This was all the schooling he ever had. In all he went to school about one year. But though he had little chance to go to school he became very fond of reading and learned a great deal by himself. He had only a few books but these few he read many times. He borrowed what books he could from his neighbors and read them over and over again. He spent a great deal of time studying the Bible and the life of George Washington. He had to work hard helping his father dig out stumps, plow, plant, mow grass, chop wood, and build fences, but all his 180 AMERICAN HISTORY spare time he gave to study. When he came home from work he would take a piece of corn bread in his hand for supper and sit down to read his book and then he would study till late at night by the light of the wood fire in the cabin. During the long winter evenings he would do ex- amples in arithmetic with a piece of charcoal on the back of a large wooden shovel and when the shovel was covered with figures he would shave them ofif with his knife because he had nothing else to do examples on. When he was nineteen years old he and some friends be- gan to make voyages down to the city of New Orleans on flat boats. On one of these voyages he saw negro slaves chained and flogged cruelly. He came home determined to do all he could to help the slaves. He told a friend that if he ever got a chance to hit slavery he would hit it hard. About two years after he began to make voyages to New Orleans his father moved again. This was in the year 1830 and Abe was now a young man twenty-one years of age, nearly six feet and four inches in height, and famous for his great strength. He went with his father's family to their new home at Decatur, Illinois, nearly two hundred miles away, walking and driving an ox team all the way. At Decatur a new log cabin had to be built. Abe helped his father cut the trees, hew them into timber, and build the house. When the house was done he cut and split rails to build a fence around his father's farm. Then he and his father planted a field of corn and he left home to take care of himself. ' For a while he was a clerk in a grocery store at New Salem and was so faithful and honest that people called him "Honest Abe." The Indians began to burn houses and kill settlers near where he lived and he was elected captain of a company of AMERICAN HISTORY 181 troops and started to help fight but another company drove off the Indians before he reached them and he did not have any share in the fighting. After he returned from the Indian war he was a store- keeper and postmaster and worked some of the time as a surveyor. While he was doing these things he used all Abraham Lincoln his spare time to study law. Ever since he was a boy he had wanted to be a lawyer and now he began to plead cases before justices of the peace and in the small country courts. He also talked politics and made speeches to the people. They liked his honesty, his common sense, and his speeches so well that they elected him to be their representative in the legislature. In the legislature he served them well for 182 AMERICAN HISTORY eight years. After this he was married and continued to practice law in the city of Springfield, the capital of Illinois. In this city he showed the people that he was one of the best lawyers among them, but he still kept studying and reading. He was not satisfied with his education and he meant to learn everything he could that would help him to be more successful. His speeches were full of wit ana good stories and his advice was full of common sense and wisdom. The people liked such a man and they trusted him so much that they sent him as their representative to Congress to help make laws for the nation. He was in Congress two years where he made many speeches against the war with Mexico because he thought the United States did wrong to fight with that country. After this he was a lawyer again in his home city of Springfield. While he was practicing law Congress passed a law giving new states the right to choose w^hether men could own slaves in them or not. Before this law was made the people could have slaves in the new states south and southwest of Missouri but they could not have them in the new states made farther north. The new law gave them the right to have slaves farther north than the old law and Mr. Lincoln did not like it. He went to a state fair in Illinois and made a speech against it. This speech greatly pleased the people. His party want- ed to send him to the United States Senate. In 1858 the new^ Republican party tried to elect him to be Senator. The Democrats wanted to elect Stephen A. Douglass, the man who had got Congress to pass the law allowing slaves north and west of Missouri. Lincoln challenged Douglass to debate the question whether or not the new states ought to have slaves. Douglass accepted the challenge. They went from town to town together and made many speeches. AMERICAN HISTORY 183 These speeches were printed in the newspapers and read all over the United States. The people saw that Lincoln was one of the wisest men in the country. Douglass won the election and was made Senator, but Lincoln was not disappointed. He did not expect to win. He knew that Douglass's party had more votes than his own party in Illinois, but he was thinking of something else. Douglass wanted to be President of the United States. So did Lincoln and he thought that if the people read their speeches it would help him to become President. He was right. Two years later, in 1860, his party voted for him for President and he was elected. The people in the Southern states, who had slaves, were angry and alarmed. They feared that President Lincoln would do something to take away their slaves. Seven of the slave states told their Congressmen to come home. They said they would no longer be a part of the United States. They w^ould have a nation of their own where they could have slaves. They elected Jefferson Davis to be their President and called their government the ''Confederate States of America." The Confederate States then asked the United States to give them all the forts and public buildings in their terri- tory. President Lincoln told them that they had no right to leave the Union without the consent of the rest of the states and he said that they could not have any property that belonged to the Union. The Southern states then be- gan war by firing on Fort Sumter and capturing it. President Lincoln called for soldiers to protect the L^nion and four more Southern states joined the Confederates. The war was long and bloody. At first President Lin- coln did not know whether it was wise to free the slaves or not, but after a while he decided that it ought to be done. On January 1, 1863, he issued a statement called the Eman- 184 AMERICAN HISTORY cipation Proclamation which said that all the slaves in the states that were lighting against the Union should be free. This was the grandest thing done by President Lincoln in his life. Millions of slaves were made free men and women and this deed w-ill cause Lincoln's name to be always re- membered. About six months after the Emancipation Proclamation was issued, the great battle of the war was fought at Gettys- burg in the state of Pennsylvania. The Confederate army under General Lee was defeated and driven south to Vir- ginia. Many thousands of the L'nion soldiers wdio were killed in that battle were buried on the field w^here they had fought and died. A few w^eeks later the ground where they were buried was dedicated as a National Cemetery. Presi- dent Lincoln was there to attend the exercises. A great orator named Edward Everett made a long speech and w^hen he had finished thousands of people applauded what he had said. Then President Lincoln rose and spoke a few kind and beautiful words. The people listened as if charmed. When he had finished there was little applause. The people were silent because their hearts were thrilled by the simple words of the great kindhearted man. At first the President thought they did not care for what he had said, but in a few days he got letters from all over the Union telling him how much the people loved his Gettysburg address. It is one of the finest speeches ever spoken. Thousands of school children have learned its beautiful words by heart. Every year on Memorial Day the old soldiers of the Union Army ask to hear these words read or spoken* to them as they meet to place flowers on the graves of their comrades. The Battle of Gettysburg was a great loss to the Confed- eracy, still they would not give up fighting. The war last- ed almost two years longer. There were many more great battles. President Lincoln gave all his time and strength AMERICAN HISTORY 185 to save the Union. He was elected President for another four years and began his second term of office March 4, 1865. The next month the war was ended. The Confed- erates surrendered. The Union was saved and there was great rejoicing in the Northern states. But in a few days the rejoicing changed to mourning. A misguided man who thought that Lincoln ought to be killed shot him one even- ing as he was listening to a play at a theater. On April 15, 1865, he died. He was one of the wisest and best of men and his country will never cease to love and honor his name. EXTRACTS FROM THE EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION. Now, therefore, I, Abraham Lincoln, President of the United States, by virtue of the power in me vested as Com- mander-in-Chief of the army and navy of the United States, in time of actual rebellion against the authority and govern- ment of the United States, and as a fit and necessary war measure for suppressing said rebellion do, on this first day of January, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hun- dred and sixty-three, order and declare that all persons held as slaves within said designated states and parts of states are and henceforward shall be free ; and that the Executive Government of the United States, including the military and naval authorities thereof, will recognize and maintain the freedom of said persons. x\nd I hereby enjoin upon the people so declared to be free, to abstain from all violence, unless in necessary self-defence ; and I recommend to them that, in all cases when allowed, they labor faithfully for reasonable wages. Lincoln's Gettysburg address. Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation, conceived in liberty, and ded- icated to the proposition that all men are created equal. 186 AMERICAN HISTORY Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battlefield of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field as a final resting-place for those who here gave their lives that the nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that w^e should do this. But, in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we cannot hallow, this ground. The brave men, living and dead, w^ho struggled here, have consecrated it far above our power to add or detract. The world will little note nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us, the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work w^hich they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining be- fore us, that from these honored dead wx take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion ; that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain ; that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom ; and that govern- ment of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth. ULYSSES S. GRANT. On the 27th of April, 1822, a boy was born in a small two-room cabin in the village of Point Pleasant in southern Ohio. The name given to this boy was Hiram Ulysses Grant. His father was a farmer and when the boy was old enough he was taught to do such w^ork as boys can do on a farm and also wxnt regularly to the village school. He liked horses and could ride very well. When he w^as about ten years old his father's family moved to Georgetow'U, Ohio, and there owmed a tannery, a place wdiere the hides of cattle were made into leather. For about seven years young Grant helped his father at the tannery, and did the ploughing and teaming on the farm. When he was seventeen years old his father wanted him to go to the military school at West Point on the Hudson. A congressman from Ohio was asked to help the boy enter the school. The congressman forgot the boy's first name and w^hen he filled out the paper needed to get him permis- sion to go to West Point he wTOte the name Ulysses Simp- son Grant. Young Grant kept this name all his life. He passed the examinations required to enter the school. Four years later he was graduated. He had learned much that would be of use to him as a soldier and he was famous as a horseman. He wanted to be a cavalryman in the army but was disappointed. He w^as sent to St. Louis and given a position as an officer in the infantry. In 1846 the United States got into a w^ar with Mexico. Grant was sent to this Avar and was in it from the beginning 188 AMERICAN HISTORY to the end taking an active part in every battle but one. He was noted for his bravery and self-control. At the battle of Monterey his skill as a horseman was of great value to his soldiers. They needed powder. General Twiggs, who had the powder, was four miles away. Grant offered to go to General Twiggs and ask him to send it to the soldiers. To do so he must go through a part of the town where the enemy were. At the street crossings the enemy would fire at hijn and the ride would be very dangerous. Fixing one ^'■'-—'-^■~- - " 'S^I^-WSmf J ll : -^ ' w Ulysses S. Grant foot in his saddle he clung to his horse's neck with one arm and let his body swing at the side of the horse away from the enemy. Then he started his horse as fast as it could run and crossed the streets so quickly that the Mexicans hardly had time to fire before he was out of sight. He made the journey unharmed. When the war was over he returned home and was mar- ried to Miss Julia Dent. After this he was sent with a regiment of soldiers to V^ancouver, Oregon, and a year later was made captain and sent to Fort Humbolt in California. AMERICAN HISTORY 189 He did not like this kind of life and wanted to be with his wife ana children. He resigned from the army and went to St. Louis. Near the city his wife had a farm. On this he built a log cabin and named it ''Hard Scrabble." For about four years he was a farmer and worked hard raising corn, wheat, and potatoes. He and his wife's cousin also tried the business of buying and selling land but finding that this business was not large enough to support two families they gave it up. He next went to Galena, Illinois, and w^orked as a clerk in his father's store. The Civil War began and President Lincoln asked for troops. A meeting was held in Galena to form a company to join the Union army. Captain Grant was made president of the meeting because he had been a soldier and when the company was formed he left his work in the store in order to drill the men for war. They asked him to be their captain, but he said, 'T have been a captain in the regular army. I am fitted to command a regiment." The Governor of Illinois employed him to form other com- panies of troops and at the end of five wxeks he w^as appoint- ed colonel of a regiment, the Twenty-first Regiment of Illi- nois Infantry. He made this regiment the best regiment from his state and was appointed commander of all the troops at Mexico, Missouri. Here he showed himself so good a comamnder that President Lincoln made him a brigadier-general. In February, 1862, he was sent with seventeen thousand men and a number of gunboats to capture two strong forts held by the Confederate army in northern Tennessee. After three days' fighting. General Buckner, the commander of one of the forts, sent a message to General Grant asking what terms he would give him if he surrendered the fort. General Grant sent back this leply: ''No terms except un- conditional and immediate surrender can be accepted. I 190 AMERICAN HISTORY propose to move immediatelv upon your works." General Buckner knew that General Grant meant exactly what he said and he surrendered the fort and 15,000 men. This was the greatest victory that the Union army had won and there was great rejoicing. General U. S. Grant was called "Unconditional Surrender Grant." He was now promoted and made a major-general. General Grant now fought against the Confederate gen- eral, Albert Sidney Johnson, at Shiloh, in southern Ten- nessee. General Johnson was killed and his army driven into Mississippi. The next great battle of General Grant was at Vicksburg, *'the Gilbraltar of the Alississippi River." In five battles he drove back the Confederates outside the city. He next de- termined to starve the city until it should surrender. Many people thought this could not be done and believed that Grant ought not to be allowed to try to do a thing so fool- ish. In a few weeks the city had nothing to eat and had to surrender to General Grant. He received nearly 30,000 pris- oners, the largest army at that time that any general had ever captured on the American Continent. The praises of the hero of V^icksburg were heard throughout the Union. He was made commander of all the armies in the Mississippi Valley. In 1864 President Lincoln decided to make him com- mander of all the armies of the Union. The war had been going on three years and the President had been disappoint- ed in nearly all his generals except General Grant. Others had won some splendid victories. General Meade had won the battle of Gettysburg, one of the greatest battles of the war, but no one seemed equal to General Grant. He suc- ceeded everywhere that success was possible ; so in IMarch, AMERICAN HISTORY 191 1864, he was asked to go to Washington to be made Lieu- tenant-General. General Grant now had an army of 700,000 men. Vir- ginia was the greatest battle ground of the war. General Lee was there and for three years he had defeated every army sent against him. Grant determined to defeat Lee's army and capture the city of Richmond, the capital of the Confederacy. It took him a year to carry out his plan. Battle after battle was fought, still Lee was not defeated, but Grant never thought of giving up. He said, "I shall fight it out on this line if it takes all summer." It did take all summer and it also took all w^inter, but in the spring on April 3, 1865, General Grant entered the city of Richmond. He had won the prize. Six days later General Lee surrendered all that was left of the Confederate army. General Grant did not make prisoners of these soldiers. They promised not to fight any more and he sent them home. He told them to take their horses also for they would need them for the spring plowing and the work on the farms. General Lee was very thank- ful to General Grant because he had been so kind to his soldiers. To honor General Grant for what he had done for his country Congress voted him a higher title than any man, except Washington, had ever had before. They made him General of the United States armies. At the next Presidential election General Grant was hon- ored with the office of President of the United States and four years later he was elected for another term. While he was President he did all he could to make peace and friend- ship between the states that had been at war. His kindness made friends of many Southern soldiers who had fought against him in battle. 192 AMERICAN HISTORY In 1878 he started on a journey around the world. Every- where that he went he was welcomed and honored by kings and emperors and the people of their countries. After he returned to the United States he moved to the city of New York and wxnt into business with a partner. All his money was put into the firm. He was in poor health and allowed others to manage the business. The firm failed and he lost every dollar he had. He was now an old man, with no money, and suffering from disease which he knew would soon send him to his grave. Still he did not surrender to despair. He thought of his wife who would be left penniless when he was gone and he began to write a book to earn money to take care of her. In his illness and pain he worked upon this book al- most to the day of his death. On July 1, 1885, he wrote the last words of his ''Memoirs," a history of his life. On July 23, he died. His widow received more than $400,000 from the sale of the Memoirs. The grateful people of his country con- tributed hundreds of thousands of dollars to erect a tomb above his body on the bank of the beautiful Hudson River. At his funeral was seen the largest and grandest procession that had ever honored the funeral of any American. When his body was carried to its tomb on the Hudson the Presi- dent and Vice-President of the United States and the rep- resentatives of many states and nations came to witness the ceremony. Great warships from the American navy and the navies of foreign countries were on the Hudson. The river bank for miles was decorated with the flags of many nations and 60,000 men walked in procession to honor the memory of the hero who fought for his country's honor and glory and when the war was over, said to all his country- men, "Let us have peace." WILLIAM McKINLEY. AVilliam IMcKinley was born January 29, 1843, in the village of Niles in the state of Ohio. As soon as he was old enough he was sent to the village school, which he attended regularly until he was eleven years old. His teachers found that he was a good boy, bright and healthy and willing to study. He did well in his studies and when he was about eleven years old his father moved with the family to Po- land, Ohio, because the schools were better there. William at once entered an excellent school called the Union Seminary. Here he studied until he was seventeen years of age and was known as one of the best scholars in the school. He was fond of mathematics and languages and loved to read the poems of Longfellow^ and Whittier. The students of the school had a debating society and young McKinley was one of their best debaters. This practice in speaking was a good thing for the young students and it helped McKinley to become one of the best debaters and speakers in the whole country. In 1860 he left the Seminary and went to Allegheny Col- lege at Meadville, Pennsylvania. Here he entered one of the higher classes and would have graduated the next year if his health had been good. He had studied so hard that he had to leave school to rest and get back his strength. As soon as he was strong enough he taught a country school for a few months and then got a position as clerk in the Poland post office. 13 194 AMERICAN HISTORY When he was working in the post office the Civil War began and one evening in June, 1861, a war meeting was held at the Sparrow Inn, the village hotel of Poland. One of the men made a speech which ended with these words : "Our country's flag has been shot at. * * * Who will be the first to defend it?" Many men and grown up boys William McKinley arose and said they would fight to save their country. One of the first to give his name was William McKinley, then a slim gray-eyed youth eighteen years of age. Without delay these volunteers went to Columbus, Ohio, and enlist- ed in the Twenty-third Ohio Regiment of Infantry. This regiment was one of the most noted in the war. In it were AMERICAN HISTORY 195 many men who afterward became famous in the history of the country. Within a year McKinley was appointed sergeant of a company of soldiers. He was in many battles and proved himself a good and brave officer. He was promoted many times and finally received from President Lincoln the title of Major because of ''gallant and meritorious services." Mc- Kinley served four years in the war and when it was over he went back to Ohio and studied law for two years. He began his practice as a lawyer at Canton, Ohio. Be- sides attending to his duties as a lawyer he also took an in- terest in politics. After the war was over some people thought the negroes in the southern states ought to have the right to vote. Other people said "No!" McKinley said "Yes !" and he made many speeches in favor of the negroes. These speeches made him many friends and he was asked to make speeches on many other political ques- tions. So famous did he become that the people of Ohio sent him to Congress. In Congress he made many speeches in favor of a high protective tariff. He thought the United States ought to put a high tax, or tariff, on goods brought here from other countries because this would prevent foreign goods from being sold at a low price. If the price of foreign goods was kept high he said it would make more and bet- ter sales for goods made in the United States. He said the tax would protect the sale of home-made goods. That is why it is called a protective tariff. Congressman McKinley was made Chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, one of the most important committees of Congress. This committee helps Congress prepare tariff' laws whenever they think a new lav/ is needed. 196 . AMERICAN HISTORY When McKinley was Chairman he helped make a. new tariff law which Congress approved. It was called the Mc- Kinley Tariff law. This law made McKinley so many friends that the next year he was made Governor of Ohio As Governor he was so well liked that the people elected him a second time. Then all over the country his friends in the Republican party said he must be their candidate for President. In 1896 they made him their candidate and he was elected to the highest office in the United States While he was President a cruel war was going on in Cuba. Spain owned the island and treated the people so cruelly that they rebelled and fought for their liberty. When the Spanish generals saw that they could not conquer the Cubans in any other way they began to drive the Cu- bans who werie not in the army into camps and there starve them to death. President McKinley asked Congress to give him the right to stop the war in Cuba. Congress gave the President this right and when Spain refused to leave the island he declared war. He then sent soldiers and warships against Spain and destroyed her warships and conquered her army. Spain surrendered Cuba and also many other islands that had been captured by the Americans. Among these were the Philip- pine Islands, in the Pacific Ocean, which now belong to the United States. The people were so well pleased with President McKin- ley that they elected him again in 1900. Everywhere in the world he had friends because of his kindness and goodness. Men of all political parties loved him and respected him. Onl}^ one class of men hated him. These were the cruel anarchists who hate all law and all rulers and who seek to kill and destroy all Presidents and officers who make them obey the laws and punish them for their crimes. AMERICAN HISTORY 197 One of these men followed President McKinley to the city of Bufifalo where he went to attend a great exposition and speak to the people. While the President was shaking hands with the men and women who came to greet him, this man who had come to murder him, shot him twice. A few days later, September 14, 1901, the President died. All the nation mourned. For five minutes during his funeral all factories, all railroad trains and street cars, and all machin- ery in the United States stood still while the people paused in their work to think kindly of the friend they had lost, the good man who had gone to his rest. AMERICAN CITIZENSHIP. 197. Criminal Laws. Criminal laws are made to pro- tect the lives, the property, and the rights of the people. If persons destroy the property that others have earned, or take it for their own use without pay; if they deprive their neighbors of any of their rights, or prevent them from en- joying life and liberty, the government must interfere. The government must protect those who suffer from any wrong. If it did not do this it would not be a good government. A good government must protect its citizens and make them free to do what is right. It cannot do this so long as bad people or even careless people are free to interfere with others and to do what is wrong; so the people decide what things it is wrong to do and then make laws to stop people from doing them. Those who break the laws may be made to pay a fine or to go to jail, and if they commit a very serious crime, such as robbery or destroying valuable prop- erty, or putting another's life in danger they may be sent to prison for many years. The main object of the law is not to punish for doing wrong but to prevent wrong doing and to cause people to do right. 198. Courts. In order to enforce the laws there must be officers to arrest those who break then'i, and courts to 197. Why are criminal laws necessary? What must a good government do? 198. What kind of courts tries criminal cases that are not very serious ? What cases are taken to the county or the state court? AMERICAN HISTORY 199 hear what the lawbreakers have done and to decide what to do with them. In villages and towns criminal cases that are not very serious are heard by the local judge, or justice. In the cities such cases are tried in the police courts. If a case is too serious to be tried in these courts it is taken to the county or the state court. 199. Kinds of Cases. When one person or a business firm or corporation owes money to another and does not pay when asked to do so, or when any two persons or parties can not agree about the settlement of their business deal- ings with each other, the one who thinks he has been wronged may sue the other and make him go to court and have the case settled. Such a case is called a civil case. All cases where the court is asked to settle a dispute about property or business belong to this class. The man or party who sues another and makes him go to court is called the plaintiff. The one who is sued is called the defendant. It may be that neither party in such a case breaks any law or commits any crime, but when a person steals, or creates a disturbance in the street, or strikes another and injures him, or does anything that the law forbids because the people say it is wrong, such a person is a criminal. He breaks the law and the government must interfere. When he is arrested the town, the city or the state is the plaintiff. The criminal is the defendant. His case is called a criminal case. 200. A Criminal Case. If a man has committed a crime, some one who is injured by it goes to a justice and makes a 199. What is a civil case? Who is the plaintiff? The defendant? What is a criminal case? 200. How is the complaint in a criminal case made? What is a warrant? What is a subpoena? 200 AMERICAN HISTORY complaint. The complaint must be in writing. It tells the name and residence of the person who is charged with the crime, and w^hen and where the crime was committed. It then asks to have the person arrested. The justice gives a constable or a policeman a war- rant which tells him to find the person who is charged wdth the crime and bring him to the court. When the person is brought to the court the justice sets a time for his trial, or examination. The next step is for the justice to give the officer a paper called a subpoena telling him to summon witnesses to come to the trial and tell what they know about the case. 201. The Trial. At the trial the prisoner is asked to plead. The charges against him are first read to him and then he is asked whether he is guilty or not guilty. If he pleads "guilty," the justice sentences him. The sentence is usually to pay a certain fine or to spend a certain time in jail, or to do both. If he pleads "not guilty," his case must be tried. 202. The Testimony. The witnesses against him are first examined. When they have told their story the prison- er or his law^yer may cross-question them to test their truth- fulness and to bring out other facts in favor of the prisoner. Then the witnesses for the prisoner are examined. These may be cross-questioned by the lawyer for the government. 203. Argument. After all the witnesses have been ex- amined each of the lawyers makes an address to the court and tries to show reasons why the court should make a de- cision in favor of his side. 201. What is a prisoner in court always asked before he is tried? 202. Why are witnesses examined? 203. What is the purpose of arguments by lawyers? AMERICAN HISTORY 201 204. The Verdict. After the evidence and the argu- ments comes the judge's decision. If he thinks the case against the prisoner has been proved he decides that the prisoner is guilty and tells him what his fine or his sentence is to be. If he does not think the prisoner guilty he tells him that he is free. 205. Appeal. If the prisoner is declared guilty and he is not satisfied with his trial he can appeal. This means that the justice must let his case go to the county court to be tried over again. 206. Jurisdiction. The law tells what kind of cases the justice and the police courts can try. Usually these courts can try only small cases, that is. cases w'here the sentence can be only a small fine or a short time in jail. We say that a court has jurisdiction over the kind of cases that it can try. If a case is too large for the lower court to try the justice examines the prisoner and, if he thinks there is suf- ficient evidence against him, orders him to be held for trial at the next session of the higher court. 207. Bail. When the justice in the lowest court orders a prisoner to be held for trial by the higher court w^e say that he ''binds him over." This means that the prisoner must get some responsible citizen to sign a bond agreeing to pay the government a certain sum of money in case the prisoner does not appear at the higher court when he is called for. This is called giving bail. The amount of money to be paid is fixed by the justice and named in the bond. 204. What is meant by the "verdict"? 205. What is an appeal? 206. What is meant by "jurisdiction"? 207. What does it mean to "bind over" a prisoner? What does it mean to give bail? 202 AMERICAN HISTORY The object is to prevent the prisoner from running away. If he does run away the man who signed his bond has the right to arrest him if he can find him. If the prisoner has no friends who are wilHng to sign a bond for him then he must go to jail and wait until the time of his trial. When a prisoner is charged with a very serious crime, such as murder, he is not allowed to give bail. In such a case he must go to jail. 208. The Grand Jury. Before a prisoner is tried by the county court the evidence against him must be examined by a number of men selected for that purpose, who are called the grand jury. The lawyer for the government writes the charges against the prisoner. These charges are called the indictment. If a majority (more than half) of the grand jurors vote that the prisoner should be tried, he is indicted. This means that the foreman of the jury takes the indict- ment and writes upon it these words, "A true bill." If the jurors vote that the prisoner ought not to be tried, the fore- man writes upon the indictment the words ''Not found," and the prisoner is free. 209. The Petit Jury. Cases that are tried by the county court are decided by a jury of twelve men selected for the purpose. They are called the petit jury. They take an oath to decide the case according to the evidence. 210. The Trial. The trial of a case in the county court begins in the w^ay that has already been described for the justice court. The plea, the testimony, and the arguments, are just the same. Then comes the judge's charge to the jury. The judge tells the jury what the law is, what kind 208. AVhat is the duty of a grand jury? 209. How many men are required for a petit jury? How must they decide a case ? 210. Describe a case in the countv court. AMERICAN HISTORY 203 of verdict they must give if they think the charges have been proven, and what their verdict should be if they think the charges have not been proven. 211. The Decision. After the judge has made his charge to the jurors they leave the court room and go to a room by themselves, where they remain in secret until they agree. All of the twelve men must vote the same way be- fore they can give a verdict. When they have agreed they return to the court room and the foreman reports to the court what they have decided. Sometimes they can not agree and the foreman must report a disagreement. The case may then be tried again by another jury. 212. The Sentence. When a jury have given a verdict that a prisoner is guilty the judge must give the sentence. He tells the prisoner what his punishment is to be. 213. Exceptions. While the trial is going on the judge makes decisions about the kind of questions that the lawyers have a right to ask the witnesses, and about the right way for them to manage the case. Sometimes the defendant's lawyer thinks these decisions are not correct and he takes exceptions to them. The judge may allow these exceptions to be recorded. If the defendant is not satisfied with the verdict of the jury the exceptions must be examined by the Supreme Court before the prisoner can be punished. If the Supreme Court decides that the judge was correct the ver- dict must stand. If it decides that the judge was wrong the case must be tried over again. 211. What is the method of a jury when deciding a case? 212. Who gives the sentence? 213. What is meant by taking ''exceptions"? 204 AMERICAN HISTORY 214. Civil Cases. In a civil case the parts taken by the judge, the lawyers, and the jury are much the same as in a criminal case, but the case begins and ends quite differ- ently. The defendant is not arrested. He is sued and gen- erally some of his property is attached. This means that it is held by an officer to be used in settling the case if it is decided against the defendant. If the jury give a verdict against the defendant they also decide how much money he shall pay to settle the case. Certain cases are tried without a jury and then the judge decides how^ much shall be paid. This decision is called the judgment of the court. If the defendant settles that ends the case. If he refuses to settle the court orders a sheriff to sell some of his property to get money with w^hich to settle. The law does not allow the sheriff to sell a laborer's tools or clothing or household goods, because this would take away his means of working and earning a living. 215. Probate Courts. These are a special kind of courts to care for the estates of deceased persons, orphans, and per- sons who can not take care of their own property. Connecticut and Vermont are divided into districts, each having a probate court consisting of a single judge without any jury. 214. How does the trial of a civil case differ Jroni the trial of a criminal case? 215. Why do we have probate courts? Who are the court in Connecticut and Vermont? In Rhode Island? In other New England states ? What must be done if a person dies and leaves a will ? If a person who owns property dies without a will, what must be done? When does the court appoint a guardian? AMERICAN HISTORY 205 In Rhode Island each town and city has a probate court. In some of the cities this court is a single judge. In the small towns the town council usually acts as the court. The other three New England states have a probate court consisting of a single judge in each county. If a person dies and leaves a will telling what is to be done with his property, this will must be examined by the probate court to see if it is genuine. If the court finds that the will is properly made it is recorded. Then the executor or person named in the wdll to distribute the property re- ceives papers from the court giving him authority to do what the will says shall be done. If a person who owns property dies and leaves no will the court appoints an administrator to distribute the prop- erty among the heirs according to the law of the state. If any of the heirs who are to receive property are under twenty-one years of age the court appoints a guardian to take care of their part of the property until they are twenty- one years old. If persons become insane or weak minded and cannot care for their own property the court appoints a guardian, or conservator, to manage their business for them. The court must see to it that all these estates are cared for honestly and properly. If disputes arise the court must settle them. When the decisions of this court do not satisfy the parties concerned they may appeal and have the dispute settled by the county court and sometimes by the supreme court. BUSINESS METHODS. 216. Making Contracts. In doing business we must make a great many bargains and agreements with others. Often a long time must pass after an agreement is made before it is all carried out. Sometimes people forget their agreements. Sometimes they are unwilling to carry them out. For this reason the law gives certain rules that should be followed in making bargains and contracts. If these rules are followed the courts will make the parties keep their agreements. 217. Nature of a Contract. When any two persons make an agreement in which each one says that he will do something for the other in return for something which he is to receive from the other, such an agreement is called a contract. If the agreement is an ordinary bargain, such as where one person sells another a certain article for which the other agrees to pay a certain price in a short time, the agreement does not have to be in writing. A verbal contract is good in law and the courts will enforce it if they have proof that it was made and understood by both parties. Verbal con- tracts, however, are never so safe as written ones, because if there is a dispute it is hard to prove just what the agree- 216. Why is it necessary to have rules about making contracts? 217. What is a contract? When is a verbal contract good in law? What is better than a verbal contract? AMERICAN HISTORY 207 ment was. Verbal contracts should be made only when we know that we are dealing with persons who are thoroughly reliable and when the amount of property involved is small and the time between the agreement and the settlement is to be short. 218. Written Contracts. There are some kinds of con- tracts that the law says must be in writing. If they are not written the courts will not help enforce them. For instance : 1. Every contract to sell real estate must be in writing. 2. Every contract which is not to be carried out until a year or more after it is made must be written. 3. A lease for a store or any other property is not good for more than one year unless it is in writing. 4. An agreement to be re- sponsible for another person's debts must be in writing. 219. Poor Contracts. Some contracts are not good even when made in writing. For example, the law will not compel a man to try to do what is impossible even though he has made a bargain to do it. If a man agrees to do something that is contrary to law his agreement is worth- less. If drunken persons or insane persons or idiots make contracts, the law will not enforce such contracts against them, but it will protect them against others who try to take advantage of them. A contract made with a minor (a person who is under twenty-one years of age) is not good against the minor unless it is for things which are necessary for a minor to have, such as food, clothing, or education. 220. Conditions of a Good Contract. Two things are always necessary to make a contract lawful : — 218. What four classes of contracts must be made in writing? 219. What kinds of contracts are worthless? 220. What two conditions are necessary to make a good contract? 208 AMERICAN HISTORY 1. Both parties must understand what the contract is and what it means. 2. There must be some consideration. This means that if A agrees to do something for B, B must also agree to do something for A in return. 221. Form of Written Contract. The law does not re- quire any particular form for a written contract. Any writ- ing which shows clearly just what each party agrees to do for the other and when and where it is to be done is a good contract if it is signed by both parties. While any form that does this is good, it is the safest and best way to use that form which is commonly used by others in the town or city where we are doing business. 222. Buying and Selling. When we go to the bakery and buy a loaf of bread or to the shoe-store and buy a pair of shoes we usually carry the money and pay for what we buy. When the storekeeper buys a large quantity of goods for his store he does not do this. Almost all people in business w^ho buy and sell large quantities of goods trust one another. They buy and sell on credit. This means that if we are in business and buy goods, the man who sells them to us will wait thirty days before he asks for his money. Sometimes he will agree to wait longer. Before the end of the thirty days we usually send him a check for what we owe him. For example, instead of sending him our money we keep a sum of money in a bank. 221. What does the law say about the form of a written contract? 222. What is meant by buying and selling on credit? How are payments generally made? What is the form of a check? What is the usual form of a note? What is a deed? Who must record it? What is a mortgage? AMERICAN HISTORY 209 This sum must be large enough to pay all we owe. Then when it is time to pay w^e send the man a paper called a check. This paper he can send to the bank and get his money. If he lives a long distance from our bank he can send it to his own bank and get the money. His bank will send it to another bank and it will keep going until it reaches our bank where our money will be used to pay back to the other banks the money that they have used to pay the check. The following is the form of a check. If John Doe lives in SufTield, Conn., and keeps his money in the First National Bank and owes Richard Roe fifty dollars and twenty-five cents, his check would read like this : — • No. 25 Suffieldy Conn.^ Aug. 31, 1914 Wf^t Jf irgt ilational pank PAY TO THE Richard Roe ORDER OF -— Fifty and 25/100 Dollars $50,25 John Doe, Of course we must always have the money in our bank before we can give a man a check. If we do not, neither the bank nor other people will trust us and we shall have to pay cash for all we buy. There is another way to buy property if we do not have the money on hand. If people know that we are honest and can pay them later when they want the money they 14 210 AMERICAN HISTORY will sell us property and take our note. A note is a promise to pay at a later day. The following is the form of a note : — $100,00 Hartford, Conn., August /, t9t4. Six months from date, for value received, I promise to pay James Day, or order. One Hundred T)ollars* John Doe* Sometimes we have to pay interest to the man who waits for his money. Perhaps we pay five cents or six cents a year on every dollar we owe. If there is to be interest this must also be mentioned in the note. When wx give a man our note we ought always to be quite sure that we can pay it on time. After they are due we must pay interest on all notes. If we wait a long time and pay interest this may amount to a large sum of extra money that we must pay. When people buy land and houses they receive a deed showing that they own what they have bought. This deed must be taken to the town clerk or the city registrar and recorded. If they do not have the money to pay for their house and land they give a note and also give' a mortgage to the man who sells them the property. The mortgage is a kind of deed that gives the man a right to take the property again and sell it to some one else if we do not pay our note on time. Poor people should be very careful about giving mortgages. AMERICAN HISTORY 211 223. Savings Banks. These are the poor man's friends. They take our money and lend it to business men and use it in ways that will bring them a profit. They pay us interest for the use of it and keep it safe for us. By putting money in these banks people save enough to buy themselves good homes and to take care of themselves when they are old. There is one thing to be careful about. Do not put money in a bank unless the men who manage it are honest. The larger post offices all over the United States also receive money and the United States government guaran- tees to keep it safe. The government pays two per cent, interest for every full year, but does not pay interest for a part of a year. 224. Corporations. Companies of business men called Industrial Companies or Corporations, do a large part of the business in America. These men go to the state legisla- ture or to some state officer and get a charter. This tells what kind of business they want to do. The laws tell them how they must do it. These companies usually sell shares in their business. These shares are called stocks. If the value of one share is One Hundred Dollars, we can buy it at that price. xA.t the end of a year, if the company have done a good business, they divide the profits among the people who own the shares. Our part of the profit is called our dividend. If we want our money back we can sell our share, or shares, to someone else. If our dividend was large w^e can get more than One Hundred Dollars for each share. If our dividend was small we may have to sell for less than we paid. People called brokers buy and sell stocks for a living. They sell the stocks of railroad companies, mining compa- nies, banking companies, manufacturing companies, and trading companies of all sorts. It is a good thing to own shares in these companies if wx are very sure that the men 223. How are savings banks helpful to people ? 224. What is a corporation? What are stocks? What are dividends? What are brokers? What is said of com- panies that tell us how to "get rich quick"? 212 AMERICAN HISTORY who manage them are honest and know how to be suc- cessful. Sometimes dishonest men form companies and sell stocks to get people's money and then cheat them. Some- times, too, honest men fail in business and people who buy their stocks lose their money. We should be very, very careful to know that a company is good before we buy its stocks. We should never trust companies Vvdio tell us we shall be sure to ''get rich quick" if we buy their stocks or let them have our money. Many people have lost all their money by trusting such companies. They are never safe. 225. Receipts. When we pay a man any large sum of money we should always get a receipt from him to prove that we have paid it. The following are good forms : — $25.00 Hartford, Conn., August /, 1914. Received of John Doe, Twenty-five Dollars, in full of account to date, John Smith, If we pay part of what we owe our receipt may read: $15.00 Springfield, Mass., August 1, 1914 Received of John Roe, Fifteen Dollars, to apply on his account, John Doe, 225. What is a receipt? AMERICAN HISTORY 213 Useful Facts. The following facts and tables are much used in business : 10 mills make one cent. 10 cents make one dime. 10 dimes make one dollar. 100 cents make one dollar. We have no piece of money called a mill, but we use mills in reckoning interest and taxes. 12 things make one dozen. 144 things make one gross 16 ounces make one pound. 100 pounds make one hundred weight. 2000 pounds make one ton. 2 pints make one quart. 4 quarts make one gallon. We use these measures when we buy and sell milk, molasses, oil, etc. 2 pints make one quart. 8 quarts make one peck 4 pecks make one bushel. We use these measures for apples, potatoes, beans, ber- ries, etc. 12 inches make one foot. 3 feet make one yard. 16^ feet make one rod. 320 rods make one mile. NATURALIZATION. 226. Definition. The process by which a person who was born in a foreign country may become a citizen of the United States is called Naturalization. Every person who is to live in this country should become a citizen. In this way he can vote and help make the laws and make his life more useful and happy. 227. Intention. Any foreigner who is eighteen years of age, or older, may go to the clerk of one of the courts in the state where he lives and fill out a paper declaring his inten- tion to become a citizen of the United States and to give up his citizenship in any other country. He then pays a fee of one dollar and receives a certificate commonly called the "first papers." 226. What is naturalization? Why should people who come to America to live be naturalized? 227. Who may declare his intention to become a citizen of the United States ? AMERICAN HISTORY 215 The following is the form to be used when declaring one's intention to become a citizen : — UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Department of Labor Bureau of Naturalization DECLARATION OF INTENTION (Invalid for all purposes seven years after the date hereof) In the Court ss: of : I, , aged years, , declare on oath , occupation , do affirm ^^ P^^^o^^^ description is : Color , complexion , height feet inches, weight pounds, color of hair , color of eyes other visible distinctive marks ; I was born in , on the day of , anno Domini 1 ; I now reside at I emigrated to the United States of America from on the vessel ; my last foreign residence was It is my bona fide intention to renounce forever all allegiance and fidelity to any foreign prince, potentate, state, or sov- ereignty, and particularly to citizen ; I , of which I am now a subject ; I arrived at the port of , in the State District Territory of on or about the day of , anno Domini 1 ; I am not an anarchist ; I am not a polygamist nor a believer in the practice of 216 AMERICAN HISTORY polygamy ; and it is my intention in good faith to become a citizen of the United States of America and to permanently reside therein ; SO HELP ME GOD. (Original signature of declarant.) sworn to Subscribed and affirmed before me this day of , anno Domini 19 SEAL. Clerk of the Court. By Clerk. 228. The Petition. After he has lived in the United States five years, provided it is two years since he declared his intention to become a citizen and one year since he made his home in the state wdiere he applies for citizenship, he ma}^ go to court again and petition to be made a citizen. The following is the form of the petition he must use : — UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Department of Labor Bureau of Naturalization PETITION FOR NATURALIZATION. Court of In the matter of the petition of to be admitted a citizen of the United States of America. To the Court of ; The petition of respectfully shows : First. My full name is 228. When may a foreigner petition to be made a citizen? What must he prove by witnesses? What oath must he take? Who besides himself are made citizens when a man receives his certificate of naturalization? AMERICAN HISTORY 217 Second. My place of residence is number street, town city ^^ State District Territory of Third. My occupation is Fourth. I was born on the day of anno Domini 1 , at Fifth. I emigrated to the United States from on or about the day of anno Domini 1 , and arrived at the port of in the United States, on the vessel Sixth. I declared my intention to become a citizen of the United States on the day of anno Domini 1 at , in the Court of Seventh. I am .... married. My wife's name is She was born in and now resides at I have children, and the name, date and place of birth, and place of resi- dence of each of said children is as follows : Eighth. I am not a disbeliever in or opposed to organ- ized government or a member of or affiliated with any or- ganization or body of persons teaching disbelief in organized government. I am not a polygamist nor a believer in the practice of polygamy. I am attached to the principles of the Constitution of the United States, and it is my intention to become a citizen of the United States and to renounce absolutely and forever all allegiance and fidelity to any for- 218 AMERICAN HISTORY eign prince, potentate, state, or sovereignty, and particular- ly to of which at this time T citizen , . . . . . , , 1 am a ciihiert ^ ^^ ^•'"'^ nitention to reside permanently in the United States. Ninth. I am able to speak the English language. Tenth. I have resided continuously in the United States of America for a term of five years at least immediately pre- ceding the date of this petition, to wit, since the day of anno Domini 1 , and in the State District Territory of for one year at least preceding the date of this petition, to wit, since the day of , anno Domini 19 ... . Eleventh. I have not heretofore made oetition for citi- zenship to any court (I made petition for citizenship to the Court of at , on the day of , anno Domini 1 .... , and the said petition was denied by the said Court for the following reasons and causes, to wit, and the cause of such denial has since been cured or re- moved). Attached hereto and made a part of this petition are my declaration of intention to become a citizen of the United States and the certificate from the Department of La- bor required by law. Wherefore your petitioner prays that he may be admitted a citizen of the United States of Ameri- ca. AMERICAN HISTORY 219 Dated , 19 (Signature of petitioner.) ss : , being duly sworn, deposes and says that he is the petitioner in the above entitled pro- ceeding ; that he has read the foregoing petition and knows the contents thereof ; that the same is true of his own knowl- edge, except as to matters therein stated to be alleged upon information and belief, and that as to those matters he be- lieves it to be true. Subscribed and sworn to before me this day of , anno Domini 19. . . . , Clerk, By Clerk. Seal. Ninety days after he makes this petition he must go again with tw^o witnesses. They must testify that he has lived in the country five years and is a man of good moral character. He must take an oath to support the Consti- tution of the United States and to give up being a citizen of any other country. He must also speak the English language. He then pays a fee of two dollars and receives his certificate of naturalization. This makes him a citizen. It also makes citizens of his wife and his children who are under twenty-one years of age. The following shows the statement that must be made 220 AMERICAN HISTORY by the two witnesses who testify to the residence and char- acter of the man who wishes to become a citizen : AFFIDAVIT OF WITNESSES. Court of In the matter of the petition of to be admitted a citizen of the United States of America. ss : , occupation , residing at and occu- pation residing at each being severally, duly, and respectively sworn, deposes and says that he is a citizen of the United States of Ameri- ca ; that he has personally known , the petitioner above mentioned, to be a resident of the United States for a period of at least five years continuously immediately preceding the date of filing his petition, and State of the Territory in which the above-entitled application is District made for a period of years immediately preceding the date of filing his petition ; and that he has personal knowledge that the said petitioner is a person of good moral character, attached to the principles of the Constitu- tion of the United States, and that he is in every way quali- fied, in his opinion, to be admitted a citizen of the United States. Subscribed and sworn to before me this day of , anno Domini 19 ... . Seal. , Clerk, By Clerk. AMERICAN HISTORY 221 After all these papers have been filled out and found satisfactory to the court the applicant receives a certificate like the following and is a citizen of the United States. CERTIFICATE OF NATURALIZATION. Number Petition, volume , page Stub, volume , page (Signature of holder) Description of holder; Age ; height color complexion ; color of eyes ; color of hair visible distinguishing marks ; Name, age, and place of residence of wife, Names, ages, and places of residence of minor children,. . . . , ss ; Be it remembered, that at a term of the court of , held at on the day of , in the year of our Lord nineteen hundred and , , who previous to his (her) naturalization was a citizen (or subject) of , at present residing at number street, city (town), (State Territory or District), hav- ing applied to be admitted a citizen of the United States of America pursuant to law, and the court having found that the petitioner had resided continuously within the United States for at least five years and in this State for one year immediately preceding the date of the hearing of his (her) petition, and that said petitioner intends to reside perma- nently in the United States, had in all respects complied with the law in relation thereto, and that, .he was entitled to be so admitted, it was thereupon ordered by the said court that, .he be admitted as a citizen of the L^nited States of America. In testimony whereof the seal of said court is hereunto 222 AMERICAN HISTORY affixed on the day of , in the year of our Lord, nineteen hundred and. . . . and of our independence the (L.S.) (Official character of Attestor.) 229. Voting. Citizens can vote if they fulfill cer- tain conditions. They must be twenty-one years of age. They must live in the state a certain time. In most states this is one year. In some states it is less than one year. In Rhode Island it is two years. In Connecticut, Massa- chusetts, and Rhode Island they must also live in the town or city six months. Other states have rules of their own about this residence. Every one who has fulfilled these conditions must also go to the proper clerk or registration officer and see that his name is placed on the list of voters. The right to vote is one of the most important rights that an American citizen can have and he should neglect none of its conditions, but be sure to use all its privileges. 229. What is necessary before a man can vote? AMERICAN LIFE. EDUCATION. 230. Public Schools. We need to be educated so as to know how to work and get a good living for ourselves and our relatives who depend upon us. But it is not enough to know how^ to work. We need also to know about our country and our government in order to know how to do our part in governing ourselves and others and making our country a good place to live in. If we are educated and our neighbors are not they may make a great deal of trouble by not knowing the laws and what is right or wrong to do. So we have laws in all the states that all children must go to school and we make the public schools free so that all, even the poorest, can go. In many schools the books are also free. For example, in all the schools of Massachusetts and Rhode Island and in many of the towns and cities of Connecticut, the books are bought by the town or city and lent to the pupils. 231. Evening Schools. Many working people want to get an education but cannot attend day schools. Most large towns and cities have evening schools to help such people. Many thousands of those who come from foreign countries wish to learn to read and write English and to learn what 230. Why is education important? 231. Why are evening schools held in cities and large towns? What are some of the important studies? 224 AMERICAN HISTORY will be useful to them in getting a living. These schools take especial pains to teach things that will help make good workmen and good citizens. One very useful subject for all who work in machine shops, or for carpenters or builders, is drawing. Arithmetic is very important in every kind of business. The study of our country's history and our laws and customs will help make us more useful and happy. Many people are clomg better work and earning larger wages because of the educa- tion they have received in evening schools. 232. High Schools. Every boy or girl who goes through our town or city graded schools and learns well what is taught in the common English subjects such as reading, waiting, spelling, arithmetic, grammar, geography and history, can go to high school and get a still better education. The high schools, like the graded schools, are free to the pupils. In the large cities there are evening high schools for those who are prepared to enter them. 233. Colleges. There are colleges in all parts of the country for those who can go farther than the high schools. These help prepare men and women to become lawyers, doctors, clergymen, teachers, and to fill positions requiring much learning and training. In many of the Western states the colleges are free. In New England they are usually not quite free, but they charge students only a small part of wdiat it really costs to teach them. Those who are poor can often get special help to make it easier for them to pay their expenses. Ameri- 232. What is said about high schools? 233. Why do people go to college? Are colleges free to the people? AMERICAN HISTORY 225 cans believe that it pays to have good schools of every kind and to give the people as much education as possible, and as nearly free as possible. 234. Special Schools. There are many special schools that fit persons for some one kind of work. For example there are free Normal Schools where teachers are trained ; agricultural schools to teach the best ways of managing a farm ; business schools and trade schools. Another kind of special schools teaches the blind, the deaf, orphans, and others who are unfortunate. Many of this kind of schools are paid for by churches and by kind people who wish to help the unfortunate. 235. Attendance Laws. The law usually says that chil- dren must begin to go to school when they are seven years old and go until they are fourteen. If they cannot read and write when they are fourteen they can be made to go until they are sixteen. For example, in Connecticut they must go to school all the time that school keeps after they are seven until they are fourteen. Then they must either go to work or stay in school until they are sixteen. The school authorities may examine them when they are fourteen or fifteen to see how much they have learned. If the school officers think they have not learned enough so that they ought to leave school they can send them back to school until they are sixteen. In Massachusetts they must read and write well enough to go into the fourth grade or they must stay in the day schools imtil they are sixteen. Massachusetts also says that they must go every year to a night school or some other 234. What kind of special schools are common 235. What is the law about attending school necticut? In Massachusetts? In Rhode Island? 15 226 AMERICAN HISTORY school until they are twenty-one years old, if they cannot read and write. In Rhode Island the law says that no child over seven years of age and under thirteen shall be employed to labor or engage in business while the schools are in session, unless he has completed the work of the first eight grades, or been excused by the school committee for certain reasons that the law allows. If a pupil has not completed the work of eight grades and is not working he must go to school until he is fifteen. Of course all children may go to school before they are seven years old and may stay after they are fifteen, but the law does not make them do this. Parents may decide this for themselves. Each state has school laws and attendance laws of its own and it is important that we learn what these laws are in our own state. 236. Public Libraries. In these libraries we find all kinds of good books. We may read them in the reading rooms or take them home and keep them two wrecks without paying anything. The town or city, or people who wish to help the public, pay for them so that all may have plenty of good reading. 237. Opportunity for All. Education is for all. Ameri- cans are glad and proud to see their children and their neighbors' children learn. They do all they can to help them. In the schools rich and poor sit side by side, study and play together, have the same teachers, use the same books, learn the same lessons. Poor boys become rich, happy, and useful men. Then they w^ant to help others. All have a chance. Their success depends upon themselves. If they are idle, or lazy, or careless they will not succeed. If they study hard, work well, and take pains, and are honest, kind, and useful, they will be loved and helped by others and will have an opportunity to become good citi- zens and successful and happy men and women. America is the land of opportunity. 236. Who pay for public libraries ? 237. On what does success depend? RELIGION. 238. Religious Liberty. The Constitution, which is the highest law in the United States, says that everybody shall be free to have their own church and their own reli- gion. The law does not try to tell anybody what church to attend. All are free to attend church or not to attend church as they prefer. 239. Church and State. In many countries of Europe the government helps some one church which is called the State Church. In America there can be no State Church. People are not taxed to support any church. The churche? are supported by the gifts of people who wish to help them. Everyone is free to give as much or as little as he wishes. The people believe it is a good thing to help the churches, so they do not make them pay taxes on their land or their buildings that are used for church work. 240. Denominations. In America there are all kinds of churches. There is the Catholic Church. There is the Protestant Church, which has many denominations such as the Baptists, the Methodists, the Episcopalians, the Congre- gationalists, and others. There is the Jewish Church, and churches of other religions that have been brought here 238. What does the Constitution say about religion? 239. How are churches supported? How do the people help all churches? 240. What kinds of churches are found in the United States? Does the law favor any one of them more than the others? 228 AMERICAN HISTORY from Europe and Asia. They all have the same liberty and the same rights so long as they do not interfere with one another. 241. Church Work. The churches do a great deal to help people live the best lives. They teach them what is right and what is wTong. They conduct missions to aid those who are poor, sick, out of work, or in trouble. They help strangers and foreigners to keep out of bad company. They encourage people to be good and kind and true and to do to others what they would like to have others do to them. 242. Sunday Schools. The Sunday schools are cared for by the churches and help to do the church work. They teach both children and grown folks wiiat the churches think wall help them to live religious lives and be good citi- zens. Americans believe it is a good thing to encourage all kinds of religious work that helps people live together more peaceably, to treat one another more kindly, and to be more happy. 241. What kind of work is done for the people by the churches ? 242. What do the Sunday Schools teach? LAW AND ORDER. 243. To have liberty means to be free to do what is right. Ignorant people sometimes think that liberty means freedom to do anything they wish. If this were so the strong man could take the weak man's food, or money, or clothes, or home. People who did not agree would fight to settle all their disputes. Nobody would be safe. There must be laws and all must agree to obey them. So in every city we have many policemen to see that people do not disturb others, and to arrest those who break the laws. In the towns there are constables wdio have to keep order. We also have soldiers in every state, but the American people are so well behaved that there is very little for sol- diers to do. Some people live all their lives without ever seeing soldiers in their tow^n to settle any trouble. But sometimes it happens that large numbers of men get into trouble and begin to fight or to destroy property belonging to some one that they think has done them a wrong. If the police and the constables and the sheriffs cannot make the crowds obey the laws and have their trouble settled by the courts or in some peaceful Avay, they may send to the Gov- ernor of the state for soldiers to help them. 243. What does liberty mean? What would happen if there were no laws? AVhy are policemen and constables needed? When are soldiers needed to keep order? OPPORTUNITIES FOR WORK. 244. Where Can We Find Work. In our country there is almost always work enough for everybody. Occasionally we may have "hard times" for a few weeks or months. Then some of the factories and workshops may close for a while and in all kinds of business those who hire labor may not need so many workmen. Some people will be out of work. But these hard times do not come often nor last long and all the rest of the time those who learn how to do useful work will find work enough to do. If we keep our- selves strong and well ; if we learn what kind of work is needed and how to do it ; and if we are honest, faithful, and well behaved we shall never be long without work. 245. The Industrial Centers. In New England and in the large towns and cities of the eastern part of the United States the main business is some kind of manufacturing. There is a great need for workmen who can work in all kinds of mills and factories and shops. At first one cannot earn large wages because he has to learn the business, but as soon as he has learned to do good work he can earn good wages. He must learn to be a skilled workman if he would get the best positions. Un- 244. What kind of people can almost always find work to do? 245. What is the main business in the New England cities and large towns? What kind of workmen get the best positions? What kind of workmen are needed in the Southern States? Why? Where are many miners needed? What is meant by the saying, ''There is always room at the top"? AMERICAN HISTORY 231 skilled workmen usually learn this and want their children to be educated and trained to do skilled work. In the Southern and Western States farming and min- ing are now making great demand for laborers. In South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Tennessee, Texas, in fact all over the Southern States, the farmers are inviting immigrants from Europe to come and settle. They have millions and millions of acres of good land that cannot now be cultivated because there are not laborers enough. Here, too, the immigrants can find more healthful and pleasant homes than in the great cities like New York or Chicago, or Boston, where they often have to live closely crowded in unhealthful tenements. In the towns and small cities of these Southern States there are good opportunities for shop- keepers and all kinds of laborers. In the coal mines of Texas and Indian Territory and in the mining centers of the West good workmen are much needed. The South and West are but thinly settled. This is why they now need so many laborers. Since July 1, 1907, a number of United States officers have been busy finding out where laborers are needed in all parts of the country. They do this in order to help foreign- ers who come to this country to find work. Any immigrant who wants to find work can inquire of the Bureau of Immi- gration, Division of Information. These officers will help thousands of laborers to go where their work is needed and where they can find good homes and learn to be Ameri- cans. They must learn to live and do as good Americans do in order to get. the most good out of life in America. It is well for all to remember that there is always *'room at the top." This means that those who educate themselves to do the best work in every business and trade and occupa- tion will "rise in the world and find that they can be suc- cessful. HOW TO BE USEFUL AND RESPECTED CITIZENS. 246. In some countries men receive high honor because of their birth, or class, or title. In America men count for what they are and what they do. The son of the poorest laborer may rise to the highest position of honor. Abra- ham Lincoln, one of our greatest Presidents, came from one of the poorest and humblest homes in the land. So it is in every trade, profession, and office. The very best places are often filled by those who have struggled up from pov- erty. Honesty, kindness, education, sobriety, and hard work win against all difficulties. We must be useful if we would be successful. If we can do work or carry on busi- ness that helps other people other people will gladly pay us for our vvork and we shall prosper. This means that we must take care of our health, make ourselves strong, be clean and temperate in our life and habits, learn to do useful work and learn to aid and help others in every way. We wish to be respected. We must deserve the good will and respect of others, then we shall be respected. If we are selfish people will not like us. If we are not honest they will not trust us. If we are lazy, or careless, we shall not be wanted in good positions. If we are intemperate we ruin our health, lose the respect of our friends, ^nd hurt our chances of success and happiness. If we do not respect others, obey the laws, and follow the customs that are right we cannot have the honor and respect of our friends. If we 246. What must we do to be successful ? What must we do to be respected? What is the golden rule of life? AMERICAN HISTORY 233 wish to be respected we must begin by respecting ourselves. We must take care of ourselves. If we are well and strong it is a disgrace not to earn our own living and to provide a home for our family and our own old age. We must treat others as we wish others to treat us. This is the golden rule of life. W^e should add to the wealth of our town and country. We should help make our town a good place to live in. We should help and encourage our neighbors. We should support good schools, help to make good laws, encourage the churches and every good society in all their work to help us and our children. We must love our home, our town, our state, our coun- try. Our government helps to educate us. It protects us and our homes. It does a great deal to make it possible for us to be successful and happy. We should study all public questions and be always ready to do what is needed to make our government better. If we do our duty to ourselves, our neighbors, and our country we shall have a good conscience, our neighbors will respect us, and our country will be proud of us. We, too, shall be proud of our part in helping make America a coun- try that is loved and respected by the whole world. INDEX. Numbers indicate the Sections. A. Acadians, the, expelled... 45 Adams, John 70 Alaska purchased 114 Albion, New 11 Amendments to the Con- stitution 129 Antietam 82 Arnold, Benedict 62 B. Bail 207 Balboa 4 Ballot, the secret 104 Baltimore, Lord 29 Bank question, the 72 Blockade, the 80 Boston evacuated 56 Boston Massacre, the 50 Boston settled 26 Boxer War 100 Braddock's defeat 45 Burgesses, house of 23 Bull Run, battle of 77 Bunker Hill 55 Burgoyne's surrender 61 Buying and selling 222 C. Cabinet, the, organized... 68 Cabinet, the 150-155 Cabot, John 10 Cabot, Sebastian 10 Cabrillo 8 California acquired 112 Canal, Panama 101 Canals 120 Cartier 14 Cases, kinds of 199 Caucuses 175 Champlain's mistake 17 Check, bank, form of 222 Chinese Indemnity 101 Cibola, the seven cities of, 9 Cities, ten largest in United States 121 City charters 178 City legislature 179 Civil cases 214 Civil Service 103 Civil War, the, its cause, 75 Columbus 3 Commerce 124 Commerce, interstate 166 Confederation, Articles of, 64-65 Congress, the First Conti- nental 51 Congress, the Second Con- tinental 54 Congress, meetings of 132 Congress, membership of. . 133 Congress, powers of . . . .142-143 Congressional committees. 135 Connecticut settled 26 Constantinople, the fall of, 2 Constitution, the, adopted, 66 Constitution, the first writ- ten 26 INDEX 11 Constitution of the United States 127-128 Constitutions, State 167 Constructionists, close ... 70 Constructionists, loose, ... 70 Contracts 216-221 Conventions 195 Corporations 224 Cornwallis, General 62 Coronado 9 Counting votes for Presi- dent 194 Courts, Probate 215 Courts, state 172 Courts, United States ...157-161 Criminal case 200 Criminal laws 197 Crown Point 45-46 Cuba settled 4 D. Dale, Sir Thomas 23 Delaware, settled 31 Delaware united with Pennsylvania 31 De Narvaez 6 De Soto 7 Dewey made an admiral . . 97 Divisions, natural, of the United States 119 Donelson, Fort, captured.. 78 Drake, Sir Francis 11, 21 E. Education 230-237 Education in colonial times, 37 Elections 196 Emancipation Proclama tion 84 F. Ferdinand of Spain 3 Fire department 181 Fishermen, French 12 French, the, in Mexico.... 105 Florida discovered 5 Florida purchased 109 Fort Duquesne 45-46 Franchises 185 Franklin, Benjamin 44 Franklin, Benjamin, under American biography which follows 196 Freedom of speech 137 French and Indian War 43 G. Genoa, and trade with India 2 Geography of America . . . 106 Georgia settled 31 Gettysburg 85 Gifts from foreign coun- tries 144 Government of the colonies 41 Grant made Lieutenant- General 87 Grant's advance on Rich- mond 89 Grant, Ulysses S., under American biographj- fol- lowing 196 Green, Nathaniel 62 Guam 116 H. Hamilton, Alexander 69 Hawaiian Islands, annexed, 115 Hayti, settled 4 Health department 183 Holy Alliance 105 Homes of the colonists ... 38 Hooker, Thomas 26 House of Representatives, 130 Ill INDEX How to be useful and re- spected 246 Huguenots in Florida 15 I. Impeachment 3 56 Immigration 102 Independence declared .... 57 India, trade with 2 Indians, the 33 Indian Massacres 33 Initiative 189 Inter colonial wars 42 Isabella aids Columbus... 3 J. Jamestown settled 23 Jefferson, Thomas, under American Biography which follows 196 Joliet IS Jurisdiction of courts , . . 206 Jury, grand 208 Jury, petit 209 Jury trial 162 K. Kennebec River, attempted settlement on 24 King George III 62 King George's War 42 King William's War 42 L. Lafayette, General 62 La Salle 19 Law and order 243 Lee's surrender 89 Legislatures 170 Lexington, battle of 52 Lincoln, Abraham, under American biography which follows 196 London Company, the 22 Long Island, battle of . . . . 58 Louisiana purchased 108 Louisburg 46 M. McClellan, Geo. B 77 McKinley, William, under American biography which follows 196 Manufactures 123 Manila Bay, battle of 97 Marco Polo 1 Marquette 18 Maryland settled 29 Mayor, his duties 180 Menendez 15 Merrimac and Monitor .... 81 Mesilla Valley 113 Mines, gold and silver ... 92 Mississippi River discov- ered 7 Monroe Doctrine 105 Montreal, named 14 Mountains of the United States 119 Municipal ownership 186 N. Naturalization 226-228 Navy, the new 95 New Jersey settled 31 New Orleans captured .... 79 New York settled 28 Niagara ^ 45-46 North Carolina settled .... 31 Note, form of 222 0. Occupations of Colonists, 34 Officers of the state 171 Officers, town 173 INDEX IV Oglethorpe, George 31 Ohio Company 43 Opportunities for work. .244-245 Oregon treaty Ill P. Pacific Ocean discovered.. 4 Panama Canal 106 Parcel Post 124 Parties, history of 188 Party organizations 190 Parties, principles of 189 Parties, origin of 187 Peninsular Campaign .... 82 Penn, William 30 Pennsylvania settled 30 Philippine Insurrection . . 99 Philippine Islands acquired, 116 Pilgrims, the 25 Pitt, William 46 Plymouth Company, the . . 22 Plymouth settled 25 Police department 182 Ponce de Leon 5 Porto Kico settled 4 Port Royal 16 Post, Parcel 124 President, duties of 146 President, qualifications for 147 Presidential campaigns . . 192 Presidential electors 193 Presidential nominations.. 191 Primaries, direct 195 Probate courts 215 Productions 122 Providence settled 27 Punishment of Congress- men 136 Puritans, the 26 Q. Quakers, the 30 Quebec captured 46 Quebec settled 16 Queen Anne's War 42 R. Railroad building 93 Raleigh, Sir Walter 21 Recall 189 Receipt, form of 225 Reconstruction 91 Referendum 189 Religion 238-242 Religion in Colonial times, 36 Reserve Banks 72 Riboult, Jean 15 Review, final, of the Union Army 90 Revolutionary War, the, its causes 50 S. Salaries of President and Vice-President 149 Salaries of Congressmen.. 138 San Salvador 3 Santiago, battle of 98 Savings banks 223 School department 184 Secession of Southern States 75, 76 Senate of the United States 131 Separatists, the 25 Sherman's march to the sea 88 Sheriff 176 Slavery Introduced 35 Slavery question, the .... 71 Smith, John 23 Social customs of the col- onists 39 INDEX South Carolina settled Spanish War Stamp Act, the Starving Time, the 31 96 50 23 State, divisions of 168 State and Nation 163-165 States' rights 73 St. Augustine settled 20 Steel making 94 Sumpter, Fort, captured.. 75 T. Tariff, Underwood 188 Tea Party, the Boston 50 Territory, original of the United States 107 Texas annexed 110 Ticonderoga 46 Time belts 125 Toleration act, the 29 Town meeting 174 Travel in Colonial times.. 40 Treaty of 1763 48 Treaty of 1783 63 Treaty of 1898 98 Trenton, battle of 60 Trial of a criminal case.. 201-205, 210-213 Tutuila 117 U. Union of colonies attempt- ed 44 Useful facts 225 V. Vacancy, in the office of President 148 Venezuelan boundary dis- pute 105 Venice, and trade with In- dia 2 Verrazano 13 Veto, the President's 140-141 Vicksburg 86 Voters, who are 169 W. Wake Island 116 Washington, George 43, 67 Washington, George, under American biography which follows 196 W^hiskey Rebellion, the . . 70 Williams, Roger 27 Women Suffrage 169 T. Yeardley, Governor 23